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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:58:49 -0700 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/33074-0.txt b/33074-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4dc1d9d --- /dev/null +++ b/33074-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5861 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pig, by Sanders Spencer + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Pig + Breeding, Rearing, and Marketing + +Author: Sanders Spencer + +Release Date: July 4, 2010 [EBook #33074] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIG *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +This Plain Text version has been prepared using the UTF-8 character set +only. Italic typeface is indicated by _underscore_. Bold typeface, which +is used in the advertisements only, is indicated by =equals=. + +Where changes have been made to the text (of typographical errors etc.) +these are listed at the end of the book. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Frontispiece. Photo, Reid, Wishaw._ BREEDING SOWS OF THE +LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE BREEDS. + +The Middle White Sow in the forefront (the property of the Author) was +one of the best ever bred, "Holywell Countess Victoria."] + + +THE PIG + + + + THE PIG + BREEDING, REARING, AND MARKETING + + BY + + SANDERS SPENCER + + + London + C. Arthur Pearson Ltd. + Henrietta Street + 1919 + + +CONTENTS + + CHAPTER PAGE + + INTRODUCTION 13 + + I. NON-PEDIGREE PIGS 19 + + II. PURE BREEDS (with Standard Descriptions and + Scales of Points) 26 + + III. CROSS-BRED PIGS 39 + + IV. DENTITION AND AGE OF PIGS 49 + + V. SELECTION OF THE BOAR 54 + + VI. SELECTION OF THE SOW 63 + + VII. THE SOW'S UDDER 67 + + VIII. MATING THE YOUNG SOW 72 + + IX. THE FARROWING SOW 79 + + X. WEANING PIGS 91 + + XI. THE REARING OF YOUNG PIGS 97 + + XII. HOUSING OF PIGS 107 + + XIII. THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS 113 + + XIV. PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING 125 + + XV. PIG-FATTENING 131 + + XVI. A PIG CALENDAR 148 + + XVII. DISEASES OF THE PIG 157 + + XVIII. THE CURING OF PORK 171 + + INDEX 182 + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + BREEDING SOWS OF THE LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE + BREEDS _Frontispiece_ + + FACING PAGE + + LARGE BLACK BOAR, "DRAYTON KING" 16 + + PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, EXHIBITED AT SMITHFIELD SHOW 1914 17 + + A BERKSHIRE SOW 32 + + LARGE BLACK SOW, "SUDBOURNE SADIE" 33 + + THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS 48 + + A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR 49 + + TAMWORTH BOAR: BISHOP OF WEBTON 64 + + GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW 65 + + LARGE WHITE BOAR 80 + + TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES" 81 + + MIDDLE WHITE SOW 96 + + CUMBERLAND SOW 97 + + LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM" 112 + + LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR 113 + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +There are few points in the breeding of stock on which a greater +variation of opinion has been confidently expressed than on the origin +of the domesticated pig. It has been contended that our various types +had a common origin in the wild hog, and that the difference in form, +colour, and character amongst the local breeds is due, in the main, to +the requirements, imaginary or real, of the interested residents in the +particular districts. On the other hand, it is asserted with equal +confidence, and probably with the same amount of actual proof, that it +would be impossible so to improve the wild hog by selection as to render +it the equal of the domesticated hog. There must, therefore, have been +an infusion of blood of a cultivated breed of pigs to acquire even that +amount of success which was noticeable in the improved pig of a century, +or less, ago. Unfortunately, for this argument, it has not been possible +to obtain any information of value as to the alleged source of origin of +this cultivated breed of pigs. + +Again, those pigs which possess in a marked degree early maturity, fine +quality of flesh, and those other characteristics of the improved pig, +are so various in colour, that one cultivated breed only could not have +been utilised in the general improvement. + +All the ancient writers on pigs appear to have experienced the same +difficulty when endeavouring to discover the sources of origin of the +material which might have been used in the production of the pig which +in their time was looked upon as the domesticated and improved pig of +the period. This difficulty extends even to the present day. So far as +is known there exists no actual proof that the domesticated hog has been +evolved in any particular way other than by continued selection of those +animals for breeding purposes which possessed in the greatest degree +those particular qualities held in the highest estimation at the time. + +Of course, the soil, climate, etc., of the district in which pigs are +reared have a certain amount of influence, but this is noticeable to a +much lesser extent with pigs than with horses, cattle, or sheep, since +under the present system of pig-breeding the greater portion of the food +used in the different districts is of a very similar character--indeed, +much of it has a common origin--having been imported from abroad. + +As a rule, comparatively speaking very little difference is noticeable +in the development, form, and character of pigs bred in the various +parts of the country, whereas with some of the other domesticated +animals a very considerable change follows the removal of sheep of a +pure breed from one district to another. The quality and quantity of the +wool, flesh, and bone are all affected. An exactly similar effect is +noticeable when horses of a particular breed are moved from one district +to another. For instance, a Shire foal bred in the Fens may possess the +characteristic bone, flesh, and hair, yet if it be moved into portions +of the Eastern counties where the soil is of a totally different +character, it will when matured have lost, to a very considerable +extent, its peculiar characteristics of bone and hair. The changes +wrought may be due in small measure to climate, but the predominant +cause must be due to the variation in the food grown on soils of a +different character. + +This question of the original cause or causes of the varying colour of +the pigs in different localities appears to be equally difficult of +solution. As to the continuation in certain districts of pigs of one +colour, custom and even prejudice have a great effect. So strong is this +prejudice that some persons will even declare that the pork of pigs of +the fashionable colour in the neighbourhood is superior to that from +pigs of any other colour. As this weakness is common in districts where +black and where white pigs are kept it must be admitted that prejudice +alone must be the foundation of the belief. + +Probably the safest conclusion to arrive at with respect to the +variation in colour of the pigs noticeable in certain districts is that +in the long ago the native pig in the wild state was of the colour of +the soil and the herbage in which it sheltered, and was thus less +conspicuous to its enemies, whether human or animal. A marked instance +of this is to be found in the colour of the common or original pig found +in some parts of the country where the soil is of a decidedly red +colour. In the district referred to one actually hears some farms spoken +of as "red land farms." What more natural than to find in the districts +in which land of this hue predominates that the pigs should be a red +rusty hue such as was the original colour of that breed of pigs now +called the Tamworth breed. + +Some persons, who do not agree with this theory of the origin of the +various coloured pigs, cite as a proof of their belief the fact that in +so many districts the pigs are of a mixed colour, and that this peculiar +marking is equally as general in localities as is any particular or +special colour in the pigs. This is perfectly true, and it is probably +due to exactly the same causes, fancy, prejudice, or custom. The +residents in certain districts have grown accustomed to certain things +or certain forms, and are loth to change; the manufacturer of any +article must humour the actual or fancied requirements of his customers +if he is to secure success; and in a similar manner the breeder of pigs +has to consider and to produce pigs of the form, size, and colour which +are most in demand. Further if, as confidently alleged, there is a +preference in some districts for pork from pigs of a certain colour, +then the butcher naturally offers a higher price for pigs of that colour +which most fully satisfy the fancies of his customers, and thus we find +a similarity of form and colour in the pigs of various districts. + +As to the origin of these parti-coloured pigs, the explanation offered +is that even in pre-railway times there was a certain amount of +interchange of the different local breeds of stock. This would be +affected in various ways, which need not be specified. + +At the present time we have several defined and distinct breeds of pigs +which have secured recognition at our principal agricultural shows. +Indeed it may be claimed that the exhibitions of live stock which have +become so general in all parts of the country have been one of the chief +factors in fixing to a certain extent the type and character of certain +local breeds. Within the memory of the present writer the classification +of pigs at our principal shows was of a very simple character; it +consisted of classes for pigs of a white colour and for pigs of any +other colour. There was no attempt at any definition as to size, form, +and quality of the pigs. These points were left entirely to the judges, +who naturally were led to favour pigs of the type which they bred. There +was thus a greater amount of uncertainty as to the success of an +exhibitor's stock than at the present time. This uncertainty--save as to +the members of the Show Committees or their friends--was increased by +the unfair system of withholding from the knowledge of the average +exhibitor the names of those selected to judge. + +The necessity of some definition, if only of colour, quickly became +obvious. At first classes were established for pigs of certain colours; +then the prizes were offered for pigs of certain breeds, which were more +or less loosely defined. Now at the chief shows the pigs exhibited in +the various classes must be qualified for entry in the herd books of the +particular breeds. + +At the Royal Agricultural Shows there have been classes for pigs of the +Large White, Middle White, Berkshire, Tamworth, Large Black and +Lincolnshire Curly Coated breeds; whilst for the next show classes for +pigs of the so-called Gloucestershire Old Spots breed are to be +included. As showing the changes which are in progress it may be noted +that two breeds of pigs which had classes provided for them at the Royal +and some other Shows have become extinct. These were the Small White and +the Small Black breeds--the sole cause of their disappearance being the +unsuitability of the pigs of the breeds to supply the present +requirements of the consumer. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +LARGE BLACK BOAR, "DRAYTON KING." + +Owner, Terah F. Hooley. 1st Prize, Somerset County Agricultural Show, +1913. + +To face page 16.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Block kindly supplied by E. F. Casswell, Manor House, +Graby, Folkingham._ + +PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, Exhibited at SMITHFIELD SHOW 1914. 1st Prize. Age +8 months, 1 week, 5 days. Weight 7 cwts. + +To face page 17.] + + +THE PIG + + + + +CHAPTER I + +NON-PEDIGREE PIGS + + +Although the more general use of so-called pedigree pigs has tended to +modify the characteristics of the various local breeds of pigs, yet it +is possible to find a certain number of pig breeders who adhere to the +type of pig which has been in the past most generally found in their +district. This type was undoubtedly fixed by the wants or fancies of +those resident in the particular portions of the country. + +In the past it has been the practice when describing these local breeds +to write as though they were confined to certain counties. It may be +that pigs of a peculiar or characteristic type are more numerous within +the borders of various counties, but this is by no means always the +case. The habits and pursuits of the inhabitants rather than the soil +and climate--as with horses, cattle and sheep--have the greatest +influence on the form, size and quality of the local pigs, whilst use +and custom appear to determine the colour of the pig. We are of opinion +that it will be more instructive if we give a short description of some +of the more common types of these local breeds of pigs, and mention the +names of those counties in which they are more generally found. + +Amongst the most distinct of these local breeds is that which is +variously termed the sheeted or saddle-backed pig, which in the United +States has a society to look after its interests, and where it bears the +name of + +THE HAMPSHIRE + +Just why our American cousins should have decided to call these sheeted +pigs Hampshires is not on the surface, since the oldest writers on pigs +give to the county of Sussex the credit of being their original home. +The description given by Sidney of the Hampshire pig is that "it is a +coarse and useful black pig, inferior to the Berkshire, and not in the +same refined class as the Essex." Richardson writes "The Hampshire breed +is not infrequently confounded with the Berkshire; but its body is +longer and its sides flatter; the head is long and the snout sharp. The +colour of the breed is usually dark spotted; but it is sometimes black +altogether, and more frequently white." + +The sheeted pig has also been bred in the county of Essex for over a +century, but it is recorded that it was introduced into this county by a +Mr. Western who subsequently became Lord Western, and whose estate was +situated in Essex. + +In Sidney's book _The Pig_, we read, "West Sussex, Hampshire, Berkshire, +Dorset, Shropshire and Wales had indigenous black or red and black +breeds of swine; and between the whites, the blacks and the reds the +parti-colours were produced which have since in a great degree +disappeared under the influence of prizes, generally awarded to pure +breeds of single colours." + +Sidney also states "that Youatt and all the authors who have followed +him down to the latest work published on the subject, occupy space in +describing various county pigs which have long ceased to possess, if +they ever possessed, any merit worth the attention of the breeder." + +The Rudgwick, which is another name for the sheeted pig, is included in +the list. Richardson at a still earlier date describes the Sussex breed +as "black and white in colour, but not _spotted_; that is to say, these +colours are distributed in very large patches; one half--say, for +instance, the fore part of the body white and the hinder end black; or +sometimes both ends black and the middle white or _vice versâ_; these +pigs are in no way remarkable; they seldom feed to over twenty stone. +They are well made, of middle size, and their skin covered with scanty +bristles. The snout tapering and firm, the ears upright and pointed, the +jowl deep and the body compactly round. They arrive at early maturity, +fatten quickly, and the flesh is excellent." + +Richardson also writes, "There is another improved Essex breed, called +the Essex Half-Blacks, resembling that which I have described in colour, +said to be descended from the Berkshire. This breed was originally +introduced by Lord Western, and obtained much celebrity," etc. etc. + +He then quotes from _The Complete Grazier_, sixth edition, as follows: +"They are black and white, short haired, fine skinned with smaller heads +and ears than the Berkshire, but feathered with inside hair which is a +distinctive mark of both; have short snubby noses, very fine bone, broad +and deep in the belly, full in the hind quarters, but light in the bone +and offal. They feed remarkably fast and are of an excellent quality of +meat. The sows are good breeders, and bring litters of from eight to +twelve; but they have the character of being bad nurses." If this +allegation were true at the time it was written, it is not at the +present time as the Half-Blacks or sheeted sows are both prolific and +first-rate mothers. + +Malden describes the Sussex: "A large breed called the Rudgwick, was one +of the largest in England. There appears to be a doubt as to whether the +coloured pig was descended from the spotted Berkshire or the black and +white Essex. They were of medium size, of good quality generally, but of +somewhat heavy bone." The generally accepted view is that the Essex +sheeted pig was descended from importations from the county of Sussex. +These sheeted pigs are still occasionally met with in Essex, but the +system of crossing which is generally followed by pig breeders in the +county is gradually reducing its number, although even amongst the +cross-breeds the peculiar marking occasionally shows itself. At the time +of writing there is a movement on foot to form a society for the purpose +of reviving the breed. From the utility point of view the sheeted pig +has much to recommend it, but whether or not one or more of the breeds +of pigs whose pedigrees are already recorded do not possess at least +equal merits must be left for decision by others. + +SPOTTED PIGS + +In many districts are found other parti-coloured pigs, but in these the +black, the white, and the red colours show themselves in spots of +varying size and extent. Probably amongst the best types of these +spotted pigs is the one found over the greater part of the county of +Northampton, and portions of the counties of Leicester and Oxford +adjoining. In the former county the pigs have more of black than white +in their colouring, whilst in the two latter red spots are more often +seen. This is probably due to a stronger infusion of the blood of the +Staffordshire red pig which is now known as the Tamworth. The blood of +the Neapolitan pig through the Berkshire or the Small Black is credited +with being the origin of the darker coloured Northamptonshire spotted +pig. The qualities claimed for these spotted or "plum pudding" pigs as +they are locally termed, are prolificacy, quick growth, hardihood, and +the production of pork possessing a large proportion of lean to fat +meat. They are also good grazers, and grow to a size quite the equal of +the Berkshire. In form they are perhaps more suited for the fresh pork +trade than for the manufacture of bacon of the kind now so much in +demand. + +THE LARGE WHITE AND BLUE PIGS + +Those large, coarse-boned pigs with hair of a white colour and skins +more or less mottled with blue are gradually giving place to pigs with +finer hair, skin, bone, and quality of meat. The coarse lop ears are +being reduced in size and thickness, whilst the pig itself is becoming +less gaunt and its early maturity considerably increased by crossing +with the better quality Large White and the quickly maturing Middle +White. These coarse white with blue markings pigs were common in the +Fens of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, the Isle of Ely and Lincolnshire, and +in the counties of Bedford, Cheshire, etc. + +WHITE PIGS + +Within the memory of persons now living, white pigs of varying types +were found in various parts of this country. Many of these white pigs +found in Norfolk, Suffolk, Shropshire, and Wales had little to recommend +them as they were flat sided, long legged, hard feeders, and required to +be comparatively old before they could be turned into pork. A vast +improvement has of late years been effected in these unprofitable swine +by crossing them with compact and early maturing pigs of different +colours, but mainly white pigs until the last few years, when Large +Blacks and even a few Gloucestershire Old Spots boars have been +introduced in Norfolk. + +At one time white pigs of a small size were by no means uncommon in +Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, Yorkshire, and parts of Berkshire, and other +counties. The origin of these small, compact, and early maturing pigs +appears to have been a cross of the imported Chinese on the neater and +shorter country pigs of a white colour. For a period these handsome +pigs were quite fashionable amongst the well-to-do, but the general +public objected to the pork produced by them, owing to its excessive +fatness. The bacon curers still more strongly objected to the short +sides and the very small amount of lean meat in the cured carcases. +During the last thirty years comparatively few of these pretty, but +useless, pigs have been bred. + +BLACK PIGS + +The description given of the two main types of white pigs would apply +equally well to the Black pigs common in this country, save with respect +to colour. The long flat-sided black pig was found in Essex, Suffolk, +Cambridgeshire, Sussex, etc. These pigs were noted for their +prolificacy, hardihood, and quick growth, whilst the sows furnished a +full supply of milk to their youngsters, but they were such slow feeders +that it became necessary to cross them with pigs which matured more +quickly. A type of black pig similar in form to the Small White was also +found in Essex and Suffolk, whilst in Devonshire, Dorset, and one or two +other counties the colour of the pigs was blue rather than black, and of +a somewhat larger size, but possessing the same weakness, too large a +proportion of fat to lean meat. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +PURE BREEDS + + +The task of writing a description of the various breeds of swine has +been rendered less difficult by the formation during the past +half-century of societies for the registration of the pedigrees of the +pigs of the different breeds, and by the setting up of scales of those +points which pigs for entry in the particular herd books should possess. +The first of these societies was the National Pig Breeders Association, +of which the present writer was the honorary secretary for two years. At +the time of its formation the breeds of pigs most generally recognised +were the Berkshire, the Large, Middle, and Small Whites or Yorkshires, +and the Small Black breed. It was intended that the pedigrees of the +pure bred pigs of each of these breeds should be recorded by the +Association and published in one herd book. + +There is no doubt that this would have been an ideal plan, and would +have resulted in a saving of much labour and expense, and decidedly more +convenient for those connected with the export trade. For reasons into +which it is not now necessary to enter, the breeders of Berkshires +determined to have a separate herd book; therefore, they started a +society which they named the British Berkshire Society, to distinguish +it from the American Berkshire Record. + +Subsequently the Tamworth breed of pigs became recognised by the Royal +Agricultural Society, and the breeders of the red pig joined the +National Pig Breeders Association. Then the demand for Small White and +Small Black pigs ceased, so that eventually the pedigrees of Large +White, Middle White, and Tamworth pigs only were registered in the +N.P.A. Herd Book. + +Subsequently the breeders of Tamworth pigs formed themselves into a +society presumably for propaganda work, and to conserve the interests of +breeders of Tamworth pigs. Of late years other breeds of pigs have been +brought to public notice, and have had herd books, and societies +specially devoted to their particular interests. The Large Black, Large +White Ulster, the Lincolnshire Curly Coated pigs, the Gloucestershire +Old Spots, and the Cumberland pigs have their pedigrees recorded. An +attempt was made some years since to resuscitate the Oxfordshire Spotted +pig, but it was not a continued success. It is quite possible that other +local breeds of pigs may find sufficient admirers to form societies to +bring before the public the many good qualities possessed by the pigs of +these breeds, but apart from local interest it is at least doubtful if +any permanent benefit will supervene from this multiplication of herd +books--save that it may increase the interest in pig breeding, a result +devoutly to be prayed for. + +The issuing of the scales of points of those breeds of pigs whose +pedigrees are recorded in the various herd books has rendered it +unnecessary for us to endeavour to formulate the good qualities which +are presumably those which are more or less completely possessed by +these pedigreed animals, nor does the necessity exist for us to mention +those particular qualities which each breed is supposed by the admirers +of other breeds to lack. There is no doubt that each breed possesses +certain points which render it specially suitable for differing +localities and varying purposes. + +Some persons who look upon a pig solely as an animal, as a converter of +various substances into pork, are of opinion that the tendency of those +responsible for the running of these societies is towards fancy points +to the detriment of the practical points. There appears to have been +some grounds for this view. The Small White, the Small Black, the +Berkshire, and the Large White have all been affected by the acts of +faddists. The three first-named breeds suffered from the aims of certain +of the breeders to reduce the size and to increase the so-called quality +until the consumers of pork refused to follow the fashion; whilst the +craze which has seriously affected the utility of the Large White pigs +has been exactly the opposite, i.e. an endeavour to so vastly increase +the size that they ceased to supply the kind of pork and the size of +joints which the general public demanded. It may be natural for fanciers +to declare that a Small White or a Small Black pig must be a small +animal, but this is only on comparison with the large breeds of the same +colour and characteristics. The usefulness of the pig in the commercial +world must be studied if any breed of pig is to hold its own on the +market. + +The opposite extreme to that followed by the breeders of the small +breeds is that of the breeders of Large Whites, who look upon mere size +as the most important of the points to be studied. The mere increase in +bulk, in length of head and leg and weight of bone may appeal to the +mere fancier or faddist, but by paying undue attention to these fancy +points the actual object of the breeding and fattening of pigs is lost +sight of, and the consumer who is after all the one whose wants must +first receive study, is estranged and the commercial market is lost. + +In the following pages will be found full particulars together with the +scales of points, as issued by the various societies, of the chief +breeds and varieties. + + * * * * * + + +STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE + +LARGE WHITE + +COLOUR.--White, free from black hairs, and as free as possible from blue +spots on the skin. + +HEAD.--Moderately long, face slightly dished, snout broad, not too much +turned up, jowl not too heavy, wide between the ears. + +EARS.--Long, thin, slightly inclined forward, and fringed with fine +hair. + +NECK.--Long, and proportionately full to shoulders. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Level across the top, not too wide, free from coarseness. + +LEGS.--Straight and well set, level with the outside of the body with +flat bone. + +PASTERNS.--Short and springy. + +FEET.--Strong, even, and wide. + +BACK.--Long, level, and wide from neck to rump. + +LOIN.--Broad. + +TAIL.--Set high, stout and long, but not coarse, with tassel of fine +hair. + +SIDES.--Deep. + +RIBS.--Well sprung. + +BELLY.--Full, but not flabby, with straight under line. + +FLANK.--Thick, and well let down. + +QUARTERS.--Long and wide. + +HAMS.--Broad, full, and deep to hocks. + +COAT.--Long and moderately fine. + +ACTION.--Firm and free. + +SKIN.--Not too thick, quite free from wrinkles. + +Large bred pigs do not fully develop their points until some months old, +the pig at five months often proving at a year or 15 months a much +better animal than could be anticipated at the earlier age and _vice +versâ_; but size and quality are most important. + +OBJECTIONS.--Black hairs, black spots, a curly coat, a coarse mane, +short snout, inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders. + + * * * * * + + +MIDDLE WHITE + +COLOUR.--White, free from black hairs or blue spots on the skin. + +HEAD.--Moderately short, face dished, snout broad and turned up, jowl +full, wide between ears. + +EARS.--Fairly large, carried erect and fringed with fine hair. + +NECK.--Medium length, proportionately full to the shoulders. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Level across the top, moderately wide, free from coarseness. + +LEGS.--Straight and well set, level with the outside of body with fine +bone. + +PASTERNS.--Short and springy. + +FEET.--Strong, even, and wide. + +BACK.--Long, level, and wide from neck to rump. + +LOIN.--Broad. + +TAIL.--Set high, moderately long, but not coarse, with tassel of fine +hair. + +SIDES.--Deep. + +RIBS.--Well sprung. + +BELLY.--Full, but not flabby, with straight under line. + +FLANK.--Thick and well let down. + +QUARTERS.--Long and wide. + +HAMS.--Broad, full, and deep to hocks. + +COAT.--Long, fine, and silky. + +ACTION.--Firm and free. + +SKIN.--Fine, and quite free from wrinkles. + +OBJECTIONS.--Black hairs, black or blue spots, a coarse mane, inbent +knees, hollowness at back of shoulders, wrinkled skin. + + * * * * * + + +TAMWORTH + +COLOUR.--Golden red hair on a flesh coloured skin, free from black. + +HEAD.--Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite straight, face +slightly dished, wide between ears. + +EARS.--Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid and inclined +slightly forward. + +NECK.--Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Fine, slanting, and well set. + +LEGS.--Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone and set well outside +body. + +PASTERNS.--Strong and sloping. + +FEET.--Strong, and of fair size. + +BACK.--Long and straight. + +LOIN.--Strong and broad. + +TAIL.--Set on high and well tasselled. + +SIDES.--Long and deep. + +RIBS.--Well sprung and extending well up to flank. + +BELLY.--Deep, with straight under line. + +FLANK.--Full and well let down. + +QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail. + +HAMS.--Broad, and full, well let down to hocks. + +COAT.--Abundant, long, straight, and fine. + +ACTION.--Firm and free. + +OBJECTIONS.--Black hair, very light or ginger hair, curly coat, coarse +mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, short or turned up +snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled skin, inbent knees, hollowness at back +of shoulders. + + * * * * * + + +BERKSHIRE PIGS + +COLOUR.--Black, with white on face, feet and tip of tail. + +SKIN.--Fine, and free from wrinkles. + +HAIR.--Long, fine, and plentiful. + +HEAD.--Moderately short, face dished, snout broad; and wide between the +eyes and ears. + +EARS.--Fairly large, carried erect or slightly inclined forward, and +fringed with fine hair. + +NECK.--Medium length, evenly set on shoulders; jowl full and not heavy. + +SHOULDERS.--Fine and well sloped backwards; free from coarseness. + +BACK.--Long and straight, ribs well sprung, sides deep. + +HAMS.--Wide and deep to hocks. + +TAIL.--Set high, and fairly large. + +FLANK.--Deep and well let down, and making straight under line. + +LEGS AND FEET.--Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart, and hoofs +nearly erect. + +IMPERFECTIONS.--A perfectly black face, foot, or tail. A white ear. A +crooked jaw. White or sandy spots, or white skin on the body. A rose +back. A very coarse mane, and inbent knees. + + * * * * * + + +LARGE BLACK PIG + +SCALE OF POINTS + + HEAD.--Medium length and wide between the ears 5 + + EARS.--Thin, inclined well over the face, and not extending + beyond point of nose 4 + + JOWL.--Medium size 3 + + NECK.--Fairly long and muscular 3 + + CHEST.--Wide and deep 3 + + SHOULDERS.--Well developed, in line with the ribs 8 + + BACK.--Long and level 15 + + RIBS.--Well sprung 5 + + SIDES.--Very deep 8 + + LOIN.--Broad 5 + + BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well developed 7 + + QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping 8 + + HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks 10 + + TAIL.--Set high, of moderate size 3 + + LEGS.--Short, straight, flat, and strong 5 + + SKIN AND COAT.--Fine and soft, with moderate quantity + of straight, silky hair 8 + + --- + 100 + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead or dished nose. Ears--thick, coarse, +or pricked. Coat--curly or coarse, with rose, bristly mane. +Skin--wrinkled. + +DISQUALIFICATION.--Colour--any other than black. + + * * * * * + + +LARGE WHITE ULSTER + +SCALE OF POINTS + + HEAD.--Moderately long, wide between the ears 5 + + EARS.--Long, thin, and inclined well over the face 6 + + JOWL.--Light 5 + + NECK.--Fairly long and muscular 2 + + CHEST.--Wide and deep 3 + + SHOULDERS.--Not coarse, oblique, narrow plate 8 + + LEGS.--Short, straight, and well set, level with the outside + of the body, with flat bone, not coarse 5 + + PASTERNS.--Straight 5 + + BACK.--Long and level (rising a little to centre of back + not objected to) 12 + + SIDES.--Very deep 10 + + RIBS.--Well sprung 5 + + LOIN.--Broad 3 + + QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping 8 + + HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks 12 + + BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well filled 5 + + TAIL.--Well set and not coarse 1 + + SKIN.--Fine and soft 10 + + COAT.--Small quantity of fine silky hair 10 + + --- + Total 100 + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead. Ears--thick, coarse, or pricked. +Coat--coarse or curly; bristly mane. + +DISQUALIFICATION.--Colour--any other than white. + + * * * * * + + +LINCOLNSHIRE CURLY-COATED PIG + +SCALE OF POINTS + + COLOUR.--White + + FACE AND NECK.--Medium length and wide between the + eyes and ears 5 + + EARS.--Medium length, and not too much over face 10 + + JOWL.--Heavy 3 + + CHEST.--Wide and deep 3 + + SHOULDERS.--Wide 15 + + BACK.--Long and level 10 + + SIDES.--Very deep, and ribs well sprung 10 + + LOIN.--Broad 5 + + QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping 5 + + HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks 15 + + TAIL.--Set high and thick 3 + + LEGS.--Short and straight 5 + + BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well filled 3 + + COAT.--Fair quantity of curly or wavy hair 8 + + --- + 100 + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead. Ears--Thin. + +DISQUALIFICATIONS.--Ears--pricked. Nose--dished or long. Coat--coarse, +straight, or bristly. Colour of hair--any other than white. + + * * * * * + + +THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE OLD SPOTS + +HEAD.--Medium length and wide between the ears, nose wide and medium +length, slightly dished. + +EARS.--Rather long and drooping. + +JOWL.--Medium size. + +NECK.--Fairly long and muscular. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Well developed but not projecting and in line with ribs, +must not show any coarseness. + +BACK.--Long and level. + +RIBS.--Deep, well sprung. + +LOIN.--Very broad. + +SIDES.--Very deep and presenting straight bottom line. + +BELLY AND FLANK.--Full and thick. + +QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping. + +TAIL.--Set high, of moderate size, yet fairly strong and long and +carrying brush. + +HAMS.--Large, not too flat, and well filled to the hocks. + +LEGS.--Short, straight and strong. + +SKIN AND COAT.--Skin light or dark, must not show coloured splotches +otherwise than beneath the spots of the coat. The latter should be full +and fairly thick, hair long and silky but not curly, with an absence of +mane bristles. Colour: white spots on black ground, or black spots on +white ground. Such spots to be of medium size. + +TEATS.--Minimum number of teats to be considered. + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow, face and nose both dished. Ears--thick, +floppy, coarse, or elevated. Coat--Coarse or curly with rose; bristly +mane, or decidedly sandy colour; skewbald or saddleback markings. + + * * * * * + + +THE CUMBERLAND PIG + +HEAD.--Fairly short, wide snout, dished face, wide between ears. + +EARS.--Falling forward over face, long and thin. + +JOWL.--Heavy. + +NECK.--Fairly long and muscular. + +CHEST.--Deep and wide. + +SHOULDERS.--Deep and sloping into the back, blades not prominent, but in +line with ribs, not too wide on top. + +BACK.--Long and level or with a slight arch from head to tail. + +RIBS.--Deep and well sprung. + +LOINS.--Broad and strong. + +SIDES.--Deep. + +BELLY AND FLANK.--Full and thick. + +QUARTERS.--Long and level or with only very slight droop. + +TAIL.--Set high, not coarse. + +HAMS.--Very large and well filled to hocks. + +LEGS.--Short, straight, and strong. + +COLOUR.--White. + +SKIN AND COAT.--Smooth; hair straight, fine, and silky and not too much +of it. + +SIZE.--Large without coarseness. + +DISQUALIFICATIONS.--Black spots, black hair, prick ears. + +OBJECTIONS.--Blue spots. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _From a Painting by Wippell._ + +A BERKSHIRE SOW. + +To face page 32.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +LARGE BLACK SOW, "SUDBOURNE SADIE." + +Owner, K. M. Clark. 1st Prize and Champion, R. A. Show, Norwich. + +To face page 33.] + + + + +CHAPTER III + +CROSS-BRED PIGS + + +This term has a varying meaning to different persons. There are those +who term a pig a cross-bred unless it be bred from parents of recorded +pedigree, or those which possess pedigrees capable of registration. +Others claim that a cross-bred is any pig which is bred indiscriminately +from boar and sow of no particular type or breeding--in fact common pigs +of the country; whilst still others declare that the title of cross-bred +can be legitimately applied only to a pig whose parents were of two +different pure breeds in contradistinction to a pig sired by a pure bred +boar, and from a common sow, or the diverse way. + +It is not for us to determine the knotty point, but we may venture the +opinion that the two first definitions of a cross-bred are not +convincing to us, since in order to produce a cross-bred it is necessary +to have a sire, or a dam, or both of defined breeds. Probably the most +correct definition of a cross-bred animal is one bred from the mating of +sire and dam of two distinct breeds, but the term is now loosely applied +to an animal begotten by a sire or from a dam of pedigree breeding, the +other parent being of no particular breed. + +This system of breeding has become somewhat common owing to the +comparatively small outlay required in the purchase of a boar as +compared with the purchase of both boar and sows, and also to the belief +which is general that a greater improvement in the produce is noticeable +when the boar is pure bred and the sows of ordinary or no particular +breed, than if the sows are pure bred and the boar a common bred one. In +addition to this there is the important point that the pure bred boar +should be able to beget at least fifty litters in a year whereas the +pure bred sow will not produce more than two litters annually, so that +the advantage obtainable from the outlay on one pure bred boar is +twenty-five times as great as is possible from the purchase of a pure +bred sow. + +There is also another advantage to the owner of a boar who has only a +limited number of sows, he can allow his neighbours to make use of his +boar on payment of a liberal service fee, which combined will partially +pay for the prime cost of the boar. + +A considerable number of pig breeders are influenced in the purchase of +a pure bred boar rather than of a sow by the belief that pure bred sows +are neither so prolific nor such good mothers as are common bred sows. +This belief was even more common in years gone by than it is at the +present time, and it must be candidly confessed that there existed +substantial grounds for it. Some fifty years since it became +fashionable, particularly amongst those who had suddenly become rich by +trade or in other ways, to exhibit live-stock at the agricultural shows. +They may have been animated by the laudable desire of endeavouring to +assist farmers and stock breeders generally, or a desire to gain a place +in the sun may have had some slight influence. As the majority of these +exhibitors of stock had no special knowledge of stock, they were +compelled to place themselves entirely in the hands of their managers +and stockman, who generally received by arrangement a certain percentage +of the prize money won by the stock. It was then only natural that they +gave far more attention to the show points of the animals in their +charge than to the breeding qualities. + +The supply of pedigree animals was also very limited at about the period +mentioned so that it was much more difficult to avoid too close +breeding, nor was there the same care taken in the private record of the +pedigrees of the animals bred. These various causes combined led to a +loss of vitality amongst the so-called pedigree stock, and this +weakening of the constitution showed itself in a reduction in the number +of the offspring and in the power of the dam to furnish its young with a +full supply of well-balanced milk. + +There is little doubt that in the third quarter of the past century a +considerable proportion of the pedigree sows were not so prolific as +they ought to have been, nor did they produce and rear thoroughly well +so many pigs at each litter as the common sow of the country was capable +of doing. A more general study of stock breeding has tended to compel +attention to the practical apart from the show points of pedigree pigs, +but probably the strongest influence has been the formation of the +various breed societies, and the registration of the produce including +the number, sex, and sire of the pigs. These entries most clearly showed +those breeders of pigs who had paid most attention to the utility points +of their pigs, especially those particular points in which pedigree pigs +were generally believed to be deficient. The succeeding records of sows +of the same families afforded the best possible confirmation of the +belief which was becoming general that prolificacy like many other +qualities was most certainly hereditary. This recorded proof that pure +bred animals and especially pigs were not necessarily slow breeders, +helped vastly to increase the demand for pedigree animals for crossing +purposes in the breeding of commercial stock. + +The enormous benefit which has resulted from the use of pedigree sires +is most clearly proved in the Irish live stock. The so-called premium +bulls and boars are pedigree animals purchased by or with the sanction +of the Live Stock Commissioners and placed at the service of the general +public at a somewhat reduced fee, the Government paying to the owner an +annual premium of some £15 for each bull, and a certain sum for each +boar. + +It is alleged that the original improvement in the ordinary pig stock of +those parts of Ireland where pig-keeping on a considerable scale is +followed, was due to the purchase in England of numbers of Large White +boars, as after experiments carried out in Denmark, these boars were +found to effect the greatest improvement in the common country pigs and +to render them far more suitable for conversion into the kind of bacon +which was in most general demand, and of course realised the highest +price. For the beginning of the vast improvement in the Irish pig which +has followed the importation of these Large White boars, the Irish bacon +curers must receive the credit, as they joined together in the purchase +of these boars which were distributed in those districts from which the +various factories drew their supplies of fat pigs. + +A similar plan was adopted by Messrs. Harris of Calne who purchased some +hundreds of boars of the Large White breed, and at first lent them on +certain conditions to pig breeders, but later on resold the young boars +by auction for whatever they would fetch, their object being to secure +the use of these boars in order to render the farm pigs more suitable +for the purposes of their trade as bacon curers. + +There may or may not be any grounds for the belief that the sire has a +greater influence in the external form of the joint produce than does +the dam, but this belief has also had its influence in determining +breeders of cross breds to use the pure bred sire on the ordinary stock +of the country, rather than the reverse way. There is no doubt that +apart from the improvement in the general quality of the produce of the +pure bred sire there results a general uniformity of the young stock, +which is a great recommendation when they are placed on the market +either as stores, or when fattened for the butcher or bacon curer. This +uniformity of type and character in the young stock would be more +noticeable still if the buyers of the pure bred sires were to continue +their purchases from the same herds, providing that the owners of them +were sufficiently careful in avoiding incestuous breeding. + +So many people appear to be content with the knowledge that the sire +which they are purchasing has a recorded pedigree and is a pure bred +sire eligible for entry in the herd book of its breed, but they forget +that it is possible in the crossing of two pedigree animals of a similar +breed to obtain as great a mixture of blood and points as in the mating +of two cross-breds or two come-by-chances. Uniformity in a herd, stud, +or flock can only be rendered comparatively certain by the continued use +of sires of similar breeding. In making a compound, its character is +determined by the proportion of the various ingredients used in its +manufacture. So it is in the breeding of stock, those points which are +most predominant in proportion in the blood of the sire and dam will, on +the average, be represented in an equal degree in the joint produce. +This it is which renders so impressive a sire which is descended from +closely bred parents. Each of its forbears has handed down a proportion +of its own particular characteristics so that the larger the number of +animals amongst its forbears which possessed these particular points the +greater the certainty of their being possessed by the produce. The +meaning of this may be made more clear by pointing out that the result +of the mixing together of various mixtures will depend entirely on the +proportion of the substances used in the manufacture or compounding of +those mixtures. In each animal is embodied the characteristics of its +forbears. + +There exists generally an opinion that the produce of two parents of +distinct breeds, or as it is termed a first cross is commonly superior +to a pure bred of either of the two breeds represented by the parents. +It is difficult to discover the cause of this, if it be a fact. If one +of the parents were deficient in stamina the produce might conceivably +be more robust, and it might also occasionally happen that the mixture +of the qualities or properties possessed by the parents would result in +improvement, as happens when a distinct new breed is originated; but as +a rule the good and the bad qualities of the produce from the mating of +two animals of diverse breeds are in direct proportion to the qualities +possessed by the parents. + +The mere mixing of the blood of two animals differently bred cannot +increase the good or bad properties, but the combination might possibly +result in a blend more suitable for the purpose in hand. + +Another claim commonly made for the crossing of animals is that the risk +of that delicacy of constitution which they assert is far too common +amongst pure bred animals, and is due to close breeding, is hereby +avoided. It must be admitted that in times past there was a certain +amount of cause for this complaint of want of constitution amongst +pedigree animals, but the cause has been considerably if not entirely +removed by the more careful recording of the breeding, and by the more +drastic screening out of any animals suspected of delicacy of +constitution. + +The buyers of pure bred animals for crossing purposes have also become +more careful in their selection. They have ceased to imagine that +because the owner of certain animals most of which he has purchased is +successful in winning prizes at the chief agricultural shows, the whole +of the animals in his stud, herd, or flock must be of equal excellence +or at all events sufficiently good for the production of profitable +commercial stock. Action on this mistaken belief has led to much +disappointment in the past, since the home bred animals may have been of +totally different blood from those which have won prizes, and further +they may not be inbred for a sufficiently long time on distinct lines to +render them prepotent enough to impress their good qualities on their +produce. + +Amongst the objections made to cross-breeding is the heavy cost of +replacing the breeding stock, as to obtain a first cross, a succession +of sires and dams must be purchased. Many persons meet this difficulty +by merely buying sires of a breed similar to the first used, but then +the produce ceases to be cross-breds and become grades until such time +as by the use of a certain number of sires of a similar breed the +produce become eligible for entry in the herd book of the sires which +have been continuously used. This system of breeding insures a greater +uniformity in the produce providing that the sires selected are of +similar breeding, type, and character, than even by the system of +crossing sire and dam of two pure breeds. + +The risk attending too close breeding as in the breeding of pure breds +is also avoided provided that the herd from which the sires are bought +is sufficiently large to furnish a change of blood, yet of similar +breeding. + +No one possessing a knowledge of the ordinary farm stock of the country +will for one moment deny that there is still vast room for improvement +in our live stock, and particularly in our pigs, and it is equally the +fact that our Government has not shown a readiness equal to that of some +foreign Governments, and even of the authorities in some of our colonies +to assist farmers in obtaining the use of improved sires. Take Canada as +an instance. For years the Dominion Live Stock Branch has been +purchasing and delivering free into districts needing them, male animals +for the use of farmers and stock owners free, save stallions, for which +a covering fee has to be paid sufficient to cover the insurance of the +stallion. The other important condition which relates to all the sires +provided by the authorities is that the cost of maintenance shall be +paid by the Local Association which has the management of the sire and +the arrangement of its services. + +Another noticeable point is that all the sires allocated to the various +districts are Canadian bred, and so far as is possible are purchased in +the province in which they are to be located. The object is undoubtedly +to encourage in Canada the breeding of pure bred animals and may thus +far be considered satisfactory, but it is acting on an assumption which +may not be justified that there exists in the Dominion a sufficiency of +stock equal in quality and breeding to those which it may be possible to +import. + +Within the past three or four years our Board of Agriculture have taken +some steps to assist our farmers to improve their stock. The assistance +has taken the form of offering premiums of fixed amounts to private +persons or associations who hired or purchased approved stallions, +bulls, and boars which were placed at fixed fees at the service of the +stock of the public. Already great benefit has been derived from the use +of the stallions and bulls, and this to a far greater extent than in the +pigs, as owing to an unfortunate condition which was attempted to be +enforced as to the formation of pig clubs and impracticable conditions +the number of boars located in the country has been much smaller than +would have been had the conditions at present in force been adopted at +the initiation of the scheme. + +The boar conditions are now of a similar character to those in force +from the first with regard to stallions and bulls. In addition to the +supply of male animals at comparatively low fees an attempt has been +made to assist in the recording of the milk yield of cows, a matter of +the highest importance. If only this could be extended to sows there +would soon cease to be cause for the far too common complaint of the +owners of sows of certain breeds of pedigree pigs, as to the limited +quantity of milk which is provided by the sows for their litters of +pigs. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Francis Davis, Needingworth._ + +THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS. + +The Property of the Author. Also portion of 17 Sties at Holywell Manor, +near St. Ives. + +To face page 48.] + + * * * * * + + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR. + +From the Author's Pig Farm. + +To face page 49.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +DENTITION AND AGE OF PIGS + + +Although the majority of pig sellers may claim to be, and may be able to +substantiate the claim to be, equally as honest as the majority of +others in trade, yet there may be a small minority who are apt to +attempt to palm off pigs as being older than they really are. It is most +annoying when you are anxious to purchase pigs of say six or seven +months old which are quite ready to be quickly fattened, to have pigs of +four or five months old which continue to make growth instead of flesh, +so that they are not ready for killing until two or three months after +they are required for conversion into bacon. + +Although the object of the Council of the Smithfield Club is to prevent +fraud of a different character, i.e. the exhibition in classes limited +to certain ages of pigs of an age greater than that given on the entry +form, yet the following table showing the normal state of the dentition +of pigs at certain fixed ages will enable purchasers to discover whether +or not the seller has attempted to deceive him. It may at once be +admitted that there will be a limited number of cases in which the state +of dentition of pigs is abnormal, but after examining the teeth of some +thousands of pigs during the past sixty years, we have no hesitation in +asserting that more than half, at least, of the variations from the +normal are allayed dentition. It is claimed that a man of experience is +quite able to arrive at the approximate age of a pig by its development +and appearance; some few persons may have that instinctive knowledge +more or less fully developed, but this examination of the state of +dentition is of the greatest possible assistance in arriving at the +actual age of the pig, particularly desirable as it is in case of a +difference of opinion between buyer and seller. + +The following are the conditions of the state of dentition to which all +pigs have to conform ere they are allowed to compete for the prizes +offered by the Smithfield Club at their annual shows:-- + +"Pigs having their corner permanent incisors cut will be considered as +exceeding six months. + +"Pigs having their permanent tusks more than half up will be considered +as exceeding nine months. + +"Pigs having their central permanent incisors up, and any of the first +three permanent molars cut, will be considered as exceeding twelve +months. + +"Pigs having their lateral temporary incisors shed, and the permanents +appearing will be considered as exceeding fifteen months. + +"Pigs having their lateral permanent incisors fully up will be +considered as exceeding eighteen months." + +As the majority of the pigs bought of dealers by amateurs are young pigs +it may be advisable to state that a pig of the age of eight weeks old +should have its two central incisors fully grown. A pig three months +old should have all four temporary incisors cut, the two outside ones +being more than half as long as the two central incisors. + +As the first set of the teeth of a pig like that of a child are merely +temporary, and as these give place at fairly definite ages of the owner +to permanent ones, it may be well to endeavour to describe as clearly as +possible the position and appearance of the temporaries as compared with +the permanents. The pig is one of the few animals which is possessed of +teeth at its birth; these number eight, two on each side of the upper +and lower jaw. It has been suggested that these early teeth are provided +to assist the pigling to grasp firmly the sow's teat when in the act of +sucking. These eight teeth vary somewhat in length; those pigs which are +carried by the sow beyond the usual period of sixteen weeks frequently +have longer and even sharper teeth than those of pigs which are born at +the usual time. These longer teeth are also sometimes of a dark colour. +This is doubtless the origin of the remark commonly made by +old-fashioned pigmen that "pigs born with black teeth never do well." +This might have been so prior to the discovery that the breaking off the +sharp teeth of the newly born pigs frequently saved trouble, and often +the life of the little pigs. Pigs whose teeth are discoloured at birth +are usually more robust rather than the reverse, since the sow carrying +them beyond the allotted time is invariably in a vigorous state of +health, and her pigs consequently more fully developed. + +When the pig is about a month old, the two central incisors are cut in +each jaw, these are two of the four front teeth in each jaw of the pig +at a subsequent age. Two temporary molars are also cut on each side of +the jaw above and below, with the first temporary molar in each place +ready to come through the gum. + +At two months the temporary central incisors are fully developed, and +the two lateral temporary incisors can be seen in the gums, if they are +not already through. All three temporary molars are now about level. + +When the pig is about three months old its temporary teeth are all in +position, the temporary lateral incisors are through, and nearly as long +as the temporary central incisors. Owing to the lengthening of the jaws +the two temporary corner teeth which were present at birth will have +become further apart. When the pig is about five months, the fourth +molar in either jaw shows itself in the gums, then at six months the +wolf teeth show between the tusks and the premolars, and the fourth +molar is nearly level with the first premolar. The corner incisors and +the tusks usually disappear, and are replaced by permanents when the pig +is nine months old. The second permanent molar also shows itself. At +twelve months the two central temporary incisors give place to the +permanents; these last are more square in form than the temporaries, and +are thus easily distinguished. The three temporary molars will also be +ready for displacement by three permanents. These last will be level +with the other permanent molars when the pig is fifteen months. The two +lateral incisors will also have given place to permanents. At eighteen +months the third permanent molars will be coming through, and at the age +of twenty months the pig's teeth are fully developed. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +SELECTION OF THE BOAR + + +The hackneyed saying "The sire is half the herd" appears to have a +different meaning to varying persons. To some it conveys the idea that +the selection of the sire is of far more importance than the selection +of the dam because the influence of the sire is so much more powerful +than that of the dam on at least the external form and character of the +produce. The late Mr. James Howard, who took a particularly keen +interest in the breeding of pigs, used to declare that the appearance +and form of the young pigs far more generally followed those of the sire +than of the dam; whilst the influence of the latter was more shown in +the character and constitution of their joint produce; or in other +words, that the boar stamped his character to a greater extent on the +external points of the young, whilst the sow more strongly influenced +the internal parts of the youngsters. It is quite possible that this +idea has gained ground to a large extent from the fact that the use of a +pure bred sire on ordinary or grade females has been very much more +common than the crossing of pure bred females by the ordinary or +non-pedigree sire; as also from the far greater numbers of young which +each pure bred sire would improve, than would be improved by each pure +bred female which might be crossed. + +If only for this reason alone, we would always recommend buyers who are +desirous of grading up and improving their farm stock to attempt to do +this by the purchase or use of the pure bred or improved sire. The +original outlay is infinitely less, whilst the immediate results are +comparatively longer. + +It is scarcely desirable to go further into the question as to the +comparative influence on the young of the sire and the dam since our +actual knowledge of the subject is by no means large. Indeed, it is at +the least doubtful, if by the closest observation any definite opinion +on the subject is possible, so great is the difference which varying +parents have on the chief characteristics of their joint progeny, and +even in the separate specimens which they have procreated. Of course, it +is quite possible to breed animals especially well developed or endowed +with certain qualities, providing that the parents have been for +generations selected because of their possession in a marked degree of +those particular qualities sought. It is in this power of prepotency +that one of the chief benefits from the use of a pure bred sire or dam +arises. By the term pure bred is not meant merely that the names of a +certain number of the forbears of the animal shall have been recorded in +the register of the breed, but that the animal shall for a certain +number of generations have been bred on similar lines so that it shall +possess a considerable amount of concentrated blood. This is a point to +which sufficient care is not generally given by purchasers of so-called +pedigree sires to be used on the ordinary bred or graded stock. The far +too common practice is to purchase each boar required from a totally +different herd, or from one of quite dissimilar breeding, with the +result that there is not the slightest uniformity in the appearance or +character of the herd, or of the mature animals when ready for market. + +It is far too frequently forgotten that the chief value of a record of +the pedigree is that by it one can trace the breeding of the animal's +progenitors, and thus one is enabled to form some opinion of the +probable produce--providing it is possible to learn the chief +characteristics of the progenitors. Failing this, the only course open +is to note the names of the breeders of the more recent parents, as from +this a certain amount of information as to the probable qualities of the +parents may be obtained or surmised. + +Another point on which at least a diversity of opinion exists, is the +wisdom of giving so much consideration to the fact that the herd from +which the sire is purchased shall have been recently successful in the +show yard, or in extreme cases, that the sire itself shall have been a +prize winner. It is urged that the mere fact that a sire has succeeded +in winning one or more prizes is a proof that it possesses in a marked +degree those qualities which are most highly prized. This may be +conceded, yet there is no certainty that the mating of this winning sire +even with dams that have also been prize winners shall result in the +production of young the equal of the parents, since the winners at the +various shows may be of dissimilar types and breeding. + +But the case would be quite different if the winning sire and dam came +from the same old established herd in which the animals had been bred +for generations on similar lines. It is this concentration of certain +qualities in generation after generation which renders the pedigree +animal so intensely prepotent, particularly when mated with animals of +an ordinary character or not possessing concentrated breeding. Indeed, +it may be safely assumed that the power of a parent to impress its own +individuality and qualities on its produce, depends to a very large +extent, if not entirely, on the comparative hereditary extent of those +qualities in comparison with the other qualities possessed by itself, or +by the animal with which it may have been mated. + +In other words, it is contended that the sire or the dam has not the +power to impress certain of its characteristics on its young, merely +because of its sex, but that this power depends on the proportion in the +sire or dam of the blood of progenitors who possessed in a marked degree +certain qualities. + +It is with the breeding of animals as with the manufacture of a compound +article. The character and quality of that compound will vary according +to the proportion of the various ingredients used in its manufacture. It +is to this law or fact that the marked impressiveness of certain strains +of blood is attributable. + +Again, the marked and long continued success of the blood of the +animals bred by a few of our most successful breeders of live stock is +in the main due to the fact that the owners set up a standard and +persistently selected and bred together only animals possessing to a +greater or lesser extent the particular qualities which together +comprised that standard. There is not the slightest doubt that in +carrying out their system they were often compelled to mate animals +related in blood the one to the other, but in this there is little risk +providing that all those animals which show the slightest symptom of +delicacy of constitution are persistently draughted out. + +It will be inferred from the above remarks that we hold to the belief +that the breeding of the boar should receive attention as well as the +following points in its form and character. + +One of the most important of these points is good temper. This is a +quality not usually attributed to the pig in its wild state, and +consequently not natural to the domesticated pig, yet on the possession +of it depends to a very great extent the thrift and well doing of the +produce of the boar. The produce of an irritable boar are almost certain +to inherit this quality which is fatal to profitable fatting. In sows +this weakness is still more unfortunate, as a bad tempered sow is almost +invariably an indifferent mother. The rigid avoidance of this failing of +bad temper in a boar is advisable not only because this quality is +almost invariably hereditary, but a savage boar is a continual source of +danger to man and beast. It may be said that little trouble is likely if +the boar is kept in confinement, but there are times, such as when sows +are placed with him, when a certain amount of liberty must be given to +him, and it is generally on such occasions of excitement when the bad +temper is the most in evidence. The mere fact that irritability and +nervousness are natural to the pig should make us the more careful to +avoid any increase in the failing by using a boar which is the least +inclined to be bad tempered. + +Many persons hold that in the selection of a boar one of the principal +points is size. They contend that size, in pigs especially, is +imperative if a profitable return is to be made. This view may have +arisen to a greater or lesser extent from the want of method and +observation which is characteristic of so many stock owners. The one +point which to them is of the greatest importance is the selling price +of the fat or store animal sold being fully up to the average. Little or +no thought is given to the value of the food eaten by each animal. If it +had been, very frequently it would have been found that the smaller +animal of a lot had actually given the best return for the food it had +consumed. It is not the size alone of the animal which determines its +value as the producer of meat, but more than anything it is the feeding +qualities of the animal fattened. In addition to this there never was a +time when the consumer more strongly demanded small joints of meat, and +these of the best quality and with as little bone as possible. + +Apart from this a very large boar is a mistake as it is invariably +awkward when serving--it can be used only for large and strong sows, and +its average period of usefulness is decidedly shorter than that of a +medium sized and compact boar. A large boar generally possesses an undue +proportion of bone, its shoulders are heavy, and its ankles round, and +feet large and spreading. Now these are all objections. The bone of a +boar should be solid, not porous; the ankles compact and the feet small, +and the pasterns short. The head should be wide so that the brain can be +well developed, the head inclined to be short rather than long, since an +animal with an extremely long head is certain to be deficient in natural +flesh. + +On the question of the size and hang of the ears a variety of opinion +exists; pigs with long ears, and pigs with short ears are found +possessing good carcases. It is the quality of the ear rather than its +size and hang which seems to indicate the character most. A pig with a +thin and firm ear is usually of fine quality, whereas a pig which has a +thick, coarse ear is generally coarse in bone, skin, flesh, and hair. + +The neck of the boar should be muscular as indicating constitution and +natural vigour; the shoulders fine and obliquely laid, the ribs well +sprung, the loin wide, the quarters long and square, not drooping, the +hams full and extending quite down to the hocks, and without any of that +loose skin which is far too common amongst the largest of our breeds of +pigs, and which is a sure sign of coarseness. The flank should be thick +and well let down, as this indicates constitution and lean meat, the +legs should be fairly short and set well apart so that the heart, lungs, +and other organs have plenty of room to perform their share of the work +of the pig. The skin should be fine and the hair straight and silky, as +well as plenty of it. Sparsity of hair is generally an indication of +shortage of lean meat, whilst curliness and coarseness of hair are far +too frequently associated with excessive fat and coarseness of meat. + +With regard to the reproductive parts of the boar there are one or two +points which should receive special attention. A boar with excessively +small testicles should be avoided, as such a one is often barren. Again, +a boar with one testicle of normal size and the other smaller, +ordinarily suffers from the same disqualification to a lesser extent. A +ruptured boar should not on any account be used, as this weakness is +strongly hereditary. The weakness may not possibly show itself in the +first generation, but it is certain to appear sooner or later. Not only +is it a sure index of weakness of constitution, but pigs so affected +occasionally die suddenly, whilst there is always a certain amount of +risk from the operation of castration. + +Occasionally one or more of the boar pigs of a litter will be found to +be malformed, in that only one of the testicles is apparent. Generally +speaking, the other is found when the pig is killed to be attached to +the inside of the pig, and thus is unable to descend into the scrotum or +purse, so that the act of castration is only partially performed. A boar +pig with only one testicle down is commonly termed a rig. The removal of +one of the testicles does not deprive the rig of reproducing its +species, and it is thus a source of continual trouble when herded with a +lot of sow pigs now that the general custom is to allow the female pigs +of a litter to remain unspayed. It is, therefore, necessary to fatten a +rig either alone, or with male pigs which have been operated upon. In +addition to this extra trouble, the flesh of a rig pig if it be kept +fattening after it is some five or six months old is almost certain to +be strong in flavour, like unto that of a boar. It is, therefore, +advisable to fatten a rig quite early in life and convert it into a +porket or porker carcase of pork. + +It may appear strange to some readers to specially mention the teats of +the boar, but it is equally as necessary to avoid boars having small +teats, teats unevenly placed, and commencing any distance from the fore +legs, and blind teats, as it is in the case of the sow, since any +weaknesses of the kind are equally as hereditary from the boar as from +the sow. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +SELECTION OF THE SOW + + +It is impossible to agree with the view held by so many persons that the +necessity for the same care is non-existent in the selection of a sow as +in the choice of a boar. We hold that the desirability for studying the +forbears, especially the dam, of a young sow intended for breeding +purposes is fully as great as when selecting the young boar, since many, +if not most, of the qualities which we desire the brood sow to possess +are strongly hereditary. Take, for instance, the question of gentleness +or a quiet disposition, it follows from dam to produce with a regularity +equal to that of bad temper, and the latter is wellnigh a certainty. +Again, whoever found that the female produce of a sow deficient in the +maternal instincts proved, if saved for breeding purposes, to be a +really good mother? As a rule the daughters of a sow which gives but a +small quantity of milk, and that of an inferior quality, are also cursed +with the same grievous failings, but this does not appear to be +universally the case, since the milking qualities of the dam descend +through her sons, so that if the female progenitors of the boar have +been good milkers it is probable that the boar's daughters may be able +to rear their pigs successfully, even if their dam had not been in the +habit of suckling her pigs well. + +Still, it is quite safe to assert that with this one exception we may +fairly anticipate that the good qualities which we seek in a sow are far +more likely to be found in the sow pigs of a sow herself the possessor, +than from one which does not possess them. We are inclined to the belief +that the alleged failure of some pedigree yelts to make good brood sows +is in the main due to the continued selection for breeding purposes of +those pure-bred yelts which show early maturing and flesh-forming +qualities, rather than that motherly look which is almost invariably to +be found in a sow which is prolific, a free milker, and a really good +mother. There is a marked difference in the formation of a milk-giving +and a fat-producing sow--the latter is generally somewhat heavy in the +shoulders, has a muscular or fat neck, is rather short in the head and +heavy in the jowl, and is altogether more compactly built, whereas a +good brood sow has rather a long face, is wide between the eyes, has a +light muscular neck, is fine in the shoulders, possesses long and square +quarters and appears to be heavier in the hind than in the forequarters. +She is somewhat more loosely built and often shows less of quality. +Thickness of flank and length of side are desirable, the first as +indicating substance and flesh, whilst the second gives plenty of room +for her pigs to suck. The bone should be of good quality; the same +remarks apply to the skin and hair. + +About half a century since there existed a fancy, which almost amounted +to a craze for sows of small size; they could not be too neat, and +showing too much so-called feminine character. The almost certain result +of selecting the neatest of the female pigs followed, the fat pigs sent +to market were light in weight, deficient in lean meat and rightly named +"animated bladders of lard." Within about the same distance of time it +was the common practice of exhibitors of pigs at the Smithfield Club's +Shows to provide pillows in the form of round pieces of wood on which +the fat pigs rested their heads so that these were raised in order to +prevent the pigs becoming suffocated. In addition, the pigs were fed on +forcing foods until they were at least one and a half year old and +allowed to take, or were given little exercise, with the result that the +pork consisted mainly of soft fat or lard. To such an extent had this +craze for neatness been followed that the bacon curers and consumers of +pork wellnigh ceased to purchase or consume pork. + +At the present time we are afraid that the tendency is in the opposite +direction, and mere size is receiving far too much attention. At some of +our agricultural shows the judges select for honour great unwieldly sows +which could not possibly perform with any amount of success those +maternal duties which a brood sow is supposed to be kept solely to +perform. An extremely large sow is very frequently a poor milker, the +quantity of milk she gives is not large, nor does she continue to give +even this reduced supply for a period long enough to allow her young to +grow strong enough to make a good start in life on their own account. + +Another great objection to a sow of extreme size is that her produce +almost invariably take after her to such an extent that it is difficult, +if not wellnigh impossible, to make them fat until they are from nine to +twelve months old, and by that time they are too large and heavy for the +general demand which is at the present time, and likely to become still +more so in the future, for small joints of meat which carry a large +proportion of lean and a limited quantity of bone. The most successful +manufacturer is he who most nearly supplies the consumer with that which +he requires or fancies. We are not moved by the contention of breeders +of pedigree pigs that the most valuable pig is the one which possesses +in the greatest degree those special points which are characteristic of +the breed, as, for instance, size in the pigs of the Large White, the +Large Black, and the Lincolnshire Curly Coated pigs, therefore the +biggest pigs should be held in the highest esteem. In our opinion the +best, as it is in the long run the most profitable, is the pig which +furnishes to the greatest extent exactly the kind of meat in the most +general demand. + +In addition to these objections to an extremely large and ungainly sow +is the fact that such an one is invariably clumsy in the breeding pen, +she is almost certain to lay on some of her pigs. It is even alleged +that her period of usefulness as a breeder is shorter than that of a sow +of ordinary size. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +TAMWORTH BOAR: BISHOP OF WEBTON. Owner, C. L. Coxon. 1st and Champion, +Royal Show. + +To face page 64] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, G. H. Parsons, Rostrevor._ + +GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW. From the herd of Lord Sherbourne. + +To face page 65.] + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE SOW'S UDDER + + +One of the most important points in connection with the reproduction of +the species of our various domestic animals is the provision of a full +supply of milk for the young in the early portion of their existence. +Nature herself has set us a good example in a duplicated source of milk +supply even amongst animals which usually produce only one animal at a +birth. If this duplication be necessary under such conditions, it must +be imperative on us to select those sow pigs which are intended for +breeding pigs which possess a well-formed udder, having a full supply of +teats, and these of good shape and properly placed on the belly of the +sow. Not only is this necessary to ensure the rearing of a fairly +numerous litter of pigs in a satisfactory manner, but it is held that +the number of teats possessed by a sow indicates to a remarkable extent +the probable degree of prolificacy of the sow. One can readily +understand that nature would not be likely to endow a sow with the power +to produce a larger number of young at each birth than she would be able +to rear. Of course it may be said that the sow of the present day is not +as nature first made her, in that, by selection and by feeding, the +number of pigs produced at each birth is now so much larger than the +litters of the wild sows, which have some seven or eight teats and +farrow at each litter a similar number of pigs. On the other hand, +neither the number of teats nor of the young is fixed either in the +domesticated sow, or the sow in a wild state, so that by continued +selection we are able to permanently increase, within limits, the +production of larger litters and the increased supply of milk for their +sustenance when young. + +The provision of a suitable udder is even of more importance with the +domesticated than with the sow running wild, since the latter produces +each year one litter only, and that in the season of the year when the +young are less dependent on their dams; whereas the domesticated sow is +expected to rear at least two litters per year, and frequently owing to +want of care on the part of the owner the young pigs are farrowed at the +most unfavourable time of the year. + +Apart from the provision of a certain number of teats there is another +point to be considered, the power of the sow to produce milk enough to +satisfy the given number of pigs. This of course varies with each family +or tribe of pigs, and even with the various members in it, so that to +obtain the best results selection must be made of the produce of those +sows which give the largest quantity of the most nutritious milk. There +exists amongst pig keepers a difference of opinion as to the number of +pigs each sow should be allowed to rear, probably the average of this +number would be ten for a mature sow, and seven or eight for a first +litter. If so, the selected sow pig should possess twelve teats, as +frequently one of these may not give a full supply of milk from either +natural or accidental causes. The teats should be regular in size and +form. It is not uncommon to find one or more of the teats of a sow much +smaller in size than the others. These smaller teats will produce a +reduced quantity of milk, so that the pigling which is unfortunate +enough to decide on making this small teat its very own--and each +pigling is confined by the others to its own special teat--is certain to +be less well developed than its brothers and sisters, even if it should +succeed in surviving. + +The necessity for the teats being placed equidistant the one from the +other arises from the desirability of each pig having room to suck +comfortably. Should two of the teats be closely placed the two pigs will +probably fight, when not only will sores be caused on the cheeks of the +pigs, but the milk in the teats not properly drawn will gradually cease +to flow. + +Another point of great importance is that the teats should commence as +near as possible to the fore legs--this for two reasons: it gives more +room for the pigs to suck as they grow larger; the other and more +important one is that the teats most forward on the udder of the sow +produce the larger quantity of milk, or milk of a better quality. It +will be almost invariably found that the pigs sucking the foremost teats +thrive the best. + +It is advisable to avoid the selection of a female pig for breeding +purposes from a sow which has large and coarse teats, as these +invariably accompany coarseness of skin, bone, hair, and flesh, this in +turn affects the sale value of the carcase. It will also be found that +those sows with a neat and compact udder, with fine teats, will give +more milk and a better quality than sows possessing a coarse and flabby +udder. + +Another weakness to be avoided when selecting a sow pig for breeding +purposes is that which is commonly termed a blind teat, since it is +undoubtedly hereditary in addition to being useless for the purpose of +rearing pigs. The normal teat projects boldly from the udder, whereas +the blind teat is almost flat or on a level with the udder. In +appearance it resembles a ring of skin with a depressed nipple in its +centre. At the time of parturition the blind teat contains milk to the +same extent as do the other teats, but it promptly dries up since it is +impossible for the little pigs to extract the milk from it since the +nipple recedes as soon as the pigling attempts to clasp it with its lips +and tongue, instead of becoming more extended so that the little pig can +suck the milk from it. + +An ideal udder can be briefly described as one possessing at least +twelve fully developed teats, the more the better--these should commence +from a point as near the fore legs of the sow as possible, and be placed +as nearly as possible an equal distance the one from the other. + +Some persons hold that large teats and much loose skin are sure +indications that the sow has proved to be a good milker. This is a +mistaken view; it is with sows as with cows, the most prolific milkers +are those with well formed and soft udders which almost disappear when +the lactation period has passed. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +MATING THE YOUNG SOW + + +As in most other details in the management of our domesticated animals +there exists a variety of opinion as to the age at which the young sow, +or, as it is commonly locally termed, a gilt, yelt, yilt, hilt, elt, +etc., should be mated with the boar. Perhaps the most important point to +consider is the time of the year when the anticipated pigs should +arrive. If possible the period between the middle of the month of +September and the middle of December should be avoided. The long nights +and the short and dull days generally experienced during this period are +most unsuitable for young pigs. Many litters of pigs farrowed in October +are not any larger nor nearly as thrifty in the month of March as those +farrowed during the early portion of January in the following year, and +very frequently the loss amongst the October and November farrowed pigs +from lameness, or, as it is commonly termed, cramp, is very large. An +attempt should be made so that the two litters which should be bred each +year from the sow arrive so that they are weaned during the longer and +brighter days of the year; thus a sow which farrows in the beginning of +February may be expected to farrow again in July. The weather is +sometimes rather cold for little pigs early in the year, but it is +surprising how little they are affected by it providing the sow +furnishes a good supply of milk and the bedding is dry and plentiful. +The pigs farrowed in the months of January and February are generally +the most profitable, as they will be ready for the consumption of the +separated milk, butter milk, whey, etc., which is generally abundant in +the month of May in districts where dairying and cheese making are +followed. These pigs are also ready for turning out to grass in April or +May, or as soon as the weather is suitable, and the grass has grown +sufficiently. These young pigs will grow and thrive splendidly providing +that some additional food is fed to them and shelter provided. + +This natural system of pig raising is of great benefit to those pigs +which are intended for breeding purposes and was consistently followed +by the writer from the year 1863. It was by no means a new plan even at +that period, although strange claims have recently been made that the +system is a novel one and originated in the fertile brain of one or two +enthusiasts who have gone the whole hog in pig breeding. In the middle +of the last century it was quite a common practice in parts of the +counties of Cambridge, Essex, and Suffolk to graze the seeds which +comprised clovers, trefoils, etc., with pigs which received in addition +extra food, such as peas or beans in accordance with the amount of +vegetable food obtainable or the purpose for which the pigs were +required; those intended for pork receiving the larger supply. + +Although it may not be possible to allow the young boar pigs to have +their liberty after they become five months old, yet the sow pigs will +grow and develop far better in the field if properly fed than they will +in an inclosed sty; further, the young pigs which they produce will be +much more lusty than if the sows had been kept in close confinement. + +Although the sow pig will generally come in heat when she is about six +months old, it is advisable that she should not be mated until she is +some eight months old, so that her first litter of pigs is not farrowed +until she is about a year old, when she should be quite strong enough to +rear a fair litter of pigs and also to grow and develop into a fully +natured specimen of its breed. + +In some districts where the breeding pigs are generally kept in +confinement and high keeping is followed the sow pigs are mated with the +boar at an earlier age, but the system has its disadvantages which more +than outweigh the saving of the extra few weeks of the keep of the yelt +ere she is put to the boar. This early mating is especially harmful if +the number of the pigs in the first litter should be large. So few pig +keepers have the hardihood to knock a certain portion of the too +numerous litter on the head, and so reduce the number to say seven or +eight, which most young sows should be able to rear fairly well and +without any undue drain on the sow's system--but the whole of the large +litter are left on the sow, which becomes very much reduced in +condition, and checked in growth, whilst the too large litter of pigs +are badly reared and frequently become a source of trouble and +annoyance to the owner. + +On the other hand, there are many practical pig keepers who make it a +rule to delay the mating of their young sows beyond the eight months' +age. They contend that a sow pig at eight months is not sufficiently +matured to bear the strain of producing a litter of pigs when she is +about one year old, and then to furnish the pigs with a sufficiency of +milk to give them a good start in life. The plan which they adopt is to +mate the sow when she is about a year old so that she is some sixteen +months old before her family troubles commence. + +Another very curious reason has been recently made public by an +enthusiastic novice for delaying the mating of the yelt until she is at +least a year old. It is the following, that it is quite possible to +ensure that the produce of young sows which have reached the age of +sixteen or seventeen months ere they farrow their first litter shall +possess the desired characteristics of the breed, whereas this is by no +means certain if the young pigs arrive before the sow has reached that +age or is about a year old. Unfortunately, we have see no attempt made +to account for this alleged curious variation in the qualities inherited +from a parent of about one year old and the parent which had arrived at +the more matured age of about sixteen months, so that it is impossible +to discover a solution of the strange problem. + +Therefore, we should be unable to admit the correctness of the assertion +even though it was not directly in opposition to our belief which is +founded on experience of a most extensive character extending over some +sixty years. To aver that the power of a young sow to impress its +hereditary characteristics on its young are only fully developed by +deferring the arrival of the young pigs for four or five months, or +until the sow is sixteen instead of twelve months old when she farrows +must surely cause surprise, if not, disbelief. Perhaps the object of the +propounder of the theory was to create a discussion--it could not have +been to bring his name prominently before the public. + +Another advantage in mating the young sow so that her first litter +appears when she is about a year old, her daughters will in turn farrow +during the most suitable months of the year, providing of course that +she herself had been farrowed in early spring or about the month of +July. + +When the sow pig which is intended to be kept for breeding has been +farrowed in some other part of the year, it is advisable to defer beyond +the eight months the mating of her so that she farrows at the best +times, or perhaps even better than that, if the pigs are not intended +for breeding purposes, would it be to have the sow mated when she is +about eight months old, and then allow the pigs to remain on the sow a +few weeks beyond the usual period of eight weeks so that the pigs are +taken off the sow three or four days before it is desired to have her +again mated with the boar. The risk of the sow returning to the boar +will be minimised, as a sow which has been baulked is sometimes +difficult to settle. In addition, the sow will be stronger and more +vigorous and likely to produce a strong litter of pigs, whilst the +piglings will scarcely miss their mother's milk when they are weaned +from her. + +Those pig breeders who are in favour of withholding the boar from the +young sow until she is about a year old aver that early mating results +in the sow becoming worn out and useless for breeding at a much younger +age than if she be not mated until she is well matured. This is not in +accordance with the writer's experience, as many of his sows which +farrowed their first litter when they were about a year old continued to +breed regularly until they were six or seven years old--indeed, one +Middle White, Holywell Victoria Countess farrowed her last litter when +she was in her eleventh year. This sow also disproved the confident +assertion that the showing of sows renders them comparatively useless +for breeding purposes, since she not only continued to rear her pigs +well, but she produced a number of most successful prize winning boars +and sows, and also won many prizes herself from the age of five months +to five years. + +The principal cause of premature old age amongst sows is not due to +their being first mated when they are eight months old, but to the want +of care in the management and feeding of the sow during her pregnancy +and whilst she is suckling her litter of pigs. To a sow with a good +constitution the act of breeding and rearing a family of pigs is only +the most important act of nature which cannot be harmful to her, +providing that she received that amount of proper food and attention +which nature required. + +There may be very occasional instances of harm being done to the +breeding sow by over feeding, or rather by injudicious feeding, but in +comparison there are hundreds of instances where under feeding and +neglect are the cause of trouble and loss. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE FARROWING SOW + + +The pregnant sow usually carries her pigs about sixteen weeks. The +variations are neither great nor numerous, when they do occur it is +usually with sows with their first litters or aged sows which sometimes +farrow ere the full time has expired, or with robust sows in good +condition which occasionally carry their young beyond the one hundred +and twelve days which may be taken as the average period. + +We assume that each owner of a breeding sow keeps a record of the date +of service of the sow in order that the necessary preparation of the +sty, etc., can be made in readiness for the arrival of the expected +litter. Even when this wise precaution is neglected nature gives a +sufficient warning to the observant owner. Apart from the increasing +size of the body, the udder gradually becomes more prominent, and each +pap becomes more defined, the vulva becomes enlarged and the muscles on +either side of the tail fall away and lose their tenseness, whilst in +the vast majority of cases milk appears in the udder some twelve hours +before the arrival of the pigs. The teats shine and become more +prominent, the presence of milk is easily ascertained by gently +pressing the teat between the finger and thumb. + +Another certain indication of the early arrival of a family is the act +of the sow carrying straw about in her mouth wherewith to make her +farrowing bed. + +One of the chief causes of trouble with the farrowing sow arises from +the sow not having been allowed to take sufficient exercise. Of course, +the best of all systems is to allow the sow its complete freedom at all +seasons of the year save when she is within about a fortnight of her +time, and when she is rearing a litter of pigs. Even if there be no +grass field or paddock in which she is able to pick up a good portion of +her living, or a roadside where she can get a few blades of grass, an +open yard is infinitely better than the confinement of a sty, as apart +from the reduction in the cost of keep, the sow will produce stronger +pigs, and have a decidedly easier time of farrowing. + +In the case of a sow showing a disinclination to take a sufficiency of +exercise either owing to laziness, to high condition, or heaviness of +body, it is advisable to exercise her by walking her about quietly for a +short time each morning and evening before and after the heat of the day +has become excessive, or has passed off. + +There is a difference of opinion amongst pig breeders as to the +desirability or the reverse of having someone in attendance on the sow +during the time she is farrowing. Those who object to this procedure do +so on the ground that the presence of a man simply tends to irritate the +sow, and to frequently cause her to become restless, with the result +that the little pigs are trodden upon or become laid upon and killed. +This view is generally held by those who are not particularly fond of +animals, as evidenced by that occasional intercourse between pig and +owner which consists of rubbing the head of the pig, or scratching its +side, when in response to the pleasant sensation it rolls over on to its +side like Oliver and asks for more. The trouble if any, which arises +from the owner or pig man being in the sty with the farrowing sow almost +invariably arises from the absence of a sympathetic feeling between the +two. Sows, and indeed wellnigh all animals, pine for sympathy and +company, and no animal more so than a pig. Still there are very +occasional instances where the young sow becomes very excitable as she +commences to farrow even when she and her owner or attendant have +previously been on the best of terms. But there the cause is not the +presence of a human being, but the arrival of one of her own little +pigs. So long as the pigling remains quiet there is peace, but as soon +as the youngster endeavours to get to the teat and especially if in the +endeavour it utters a cry or a squeak, the young sow will jump up from +her nest and endeavour to seize the youngster in her mouth, when unless +prevented the sow quickly squeezes all life out of the pig; and in some +cases when the pressure has been so severe as to break the skin of the +piglet, and the sow tastes blood, she will proceed to eat the dead pig. +When affairs have arrived at this sad state, the chances of the +remaining pigs having a pleasant reception into the world are +comparatively slight. + +When there exists a good understanding between the sow and attendant, as +there invariably is when the latter is not rough and unkind, as only bad +tempered men can be, the trouble in a case such as just referred to is +greatly reduced, as the attendant runs no risk in entering the sty and +in removing the little pigs as they arrive, and placing them in a hamper +or box partially filled with straw until such time as the sow has +completed her farrowing, when the pigs can be placed against the sow's +udder, and providing they do not bite her, all will settle down in peace +and comfort. + +In order to avoid the slightest risk of trouble it is advisable when the +pigs are apart from the sow to break off with a pair of pliers the four +little teeth with which the pigs are endowed prior to their birth. Care +being taken to remove the pigs beyond the hearing of the sow each little +pig in turn is tucked under the left arm, the mouth is opened by the +left hand, and the teeth pressed hard with the pliers, or even a slight +turn of the wrist given, when necessary, and the brittle teeth are +crushed. + +As soon as the placenta or afterbirth is ejected this should be removed. +A little slop food should be fed to the sow, and whilst she is eating +it, the wettest part of the bedding should be replaced by a little short +and dry straw just enough to render the nest comfortable for the little +pigs. The nest should be disturbed as little as possible, as should the +whole of it be removed and fresh straw given, the sow will probably +spend a considerable time in remaking the nest, and in the meantime the +little pigs will be in danger from a chill, or in being mixed up in the +straw and being laid upon. The risk from delay in the sow laying down +and suckling her pigs is much greater in cold weather, as not only will +they become chilled, but they will persist in crowding round the sow and +so run the greater risk of being trodden upon, or rolled up in the +bedding in the effort of the sow to remake her comfortable nest. + +Some persons strongly recommend the giving of a strong dose of medicine +to the sow after she has farrowed. In ordinary cases this is not +necessary, the farrowing of a litter of pigs is a simple and natural +operation. In those occasional instances where manual assistance has to +be given to the sow owing to the unusual size of the pig, or wrong +presentation, or even of a pig which has been dead for a day or two and +has begun to decompose and consequently to increase in bulk, it is +advisable to give medicine to the sow, since there is every probability +of some amount of inflammation due to the insertion of the hand. As the +sow's bowels are likely to be somewhat constipated it is always +advisable to exercise her for a few minutes during the morning after she +has farrowed. In most cases the exercise will at once cause her to +relieve her bowels and her bladder, when she can be returned to her sty. + +We found sharps, or the finest portion of miller's offals (which usually +go by varying names in different parts of the country), the most +suitable food for newly farrowed sows, and until the pigs were at least +four weeks old. Some persons recommend that a portion of the food should +consist of bran, this on two grounds--the first that its use tends to +prevent constipation, and secondly on account of the food analysis which +it gives. Our experience has been that when sharps are fed to the sow no +trouble should arise from constipation, whilst as to the nutriment which +bran contains the claim may be good, but the pig is unable to extract +it; so large a proportion of the bran passes through the pig in an +undigested condition. As a rule the pig, unlike the horse, cow, or +sheep, does not masticate its food, nor does it, like the two last +named, chew its cud, but it usually bolts its food, and thus casts a +greater labour on its digestive organs which have neither the time nor +power to extract the whole of the nutriment from the bran. In addition +to this, bran tends to too great looseness of the bowels, which in the +case of young pigs tends to become diarrhÅ“a. + +There is a tendency on the part of some pigmen who are over anxious to +succeed to feed the sow too large a quantity of food during the first +ten days or so after she has farrowed. During this period the demand on +the sow is really not much greater than it was during the last two or +three weeks of carrying the pigs. As the pigs grow older an increased +supply of food is necessary, but for a week or two after the arrival of +the pigs twice feeding of the sow should suffice unless she is very low +in condition, or a very large litter of pigs is left on her. In such +cases it may be advisable to feed her three times per day just as much +as she will promptly clear up. It is a great mistake to give so much +food at one time that a portion is left over in the trough, +particularly is this so when the pigs are over three weeks old, as +nothing so quickly upsets the stomachs of the youngsters as sour food. +If in ordinary cases feeding the sow three times daily is persisted in, +the same quantity of food given should simply be distributed over the +three feedings, as an excess of food is only less a mistake than +underfeeding. + +Three of the most common troubles with young pigs are diarrhÅ“a, fits, +and loss of the tail. There is a belief amongst many old pigmen that +every litter of pigs is bound to have at least one attack of diarrhÅ“a +ere it is weaned. They look upon it as a fatality which is certain to +eventuate, no matter what steps may be taken. Of course, this is folly. +The liability of little pigs to an attack of what is commonly called +scouring is great as the causes are several, amongst them the greatest +is perhaps a chill which may arise from draughts owing to faulty +construction of the sty doors or ventilators neglected; insufficient, +unsuitable, or damp bedding; neglect of proper sanitation, or the +frequent cleaning out of the sty; and most frequently of all from +injudicious feeding of the sow. In fact, anything which affects the +health of the young pig to any great extent appears to result in +indigestion, which causes constipation, and this in turn nature +endeavours to remove by a special effort which softens the fæces +somewhat. On removal of the cause of the constipation, the bowels +perform their duty normally, but if this be not removed the result is +diarrhÅ“a, which again if continued for any length of time often +becomes dysentery, when the fever is acute; the pigling neglects its +mother's teat, and instead sucks up any moisture however foul which it +can find in the sty. This is almost invariably a precursor of death. + +From the above it will be gathered that prevention is better than cure. +In case of an attack, the first thing is to discover the cause, and the +second is to remove it, when, generally speaking, the trouble ceases. As +a help to this end, depriving the sow of one meal is recommended. Coal, +cinders, or even earth will be readily eaten by the young pigs and prove +of benefit. Medicine is not often required if the steps recommended are +promptly taken. + +In our earlier days hog's madder was the common medicine used with pigs +for most ailments, but of late years sulphur appears to have taken its +place. It is less violent than castor oil, which is apt to cause +constipation of the bowels after its first effect has passed off. + +The soreness of the tails, which if not attended to generally results in +the pig becoming bob-tailed, appears most generally in damp and cold +weather, and is the result of impaired circulation of the blood. The +cure is simple. The application of fat or oil as soon as the tail +becomes red and cold, twice per day, and continued for two or three days +will almost always result in a cure. For some years we used +boro-glyceride, a compound, we believe, of boracic acid and glycerine, +but we are not certain that it is now procurable. + +The third of the common troubles of the young pig is fits of an +apoplectic and epileptic character. As a rule the shortest, thickest, +and fattest pigs of the litter are those which are affected. This +points to the chief cause, too much food in the form of mother's milk. A +reduction in the quantity of the food fed to the sow will generally be +effectual, except when the pigs are old enough to eat. Then both the +quantity and the quality of the food given to them should be reduced. +Prompt removal of the cause is usually sufficient, but it may be +necessary to mix a little medicine in the food in persistent cases, or +when remedial measures are not promptly taken. The ordinary symptoms are +unmistakable, the pig falls on its side, struggles and gasps for breath, +then in a minute or two it rises and appears to be little the worse. +Unless continued over a period, fits are not usually fatal. + +Very occasionally young pigs suffer from the protrusion of the rectum, +or as it is commonly termed "shooting of the gut." This is due to +various causes which result in straining. Of these constipation and +diarrhÅ“a are the two most common. As soon as the protrusion of the +gut is noticeable, the enlargement should be carefully washed, then +oiled and gently pressed back into its natural position. Some pigmen +advise the dusting of flour on to the protruded portion before it is +returned, but there is a risk of increasing the amount of inflammation +which is generally present. If known the original cause of the trouble +should be removed, but in any case it is advisable not to give any solid +food to the pig for two or three days after the operation. + +Still another of the troubles to which pig flesh is heir is hernia, or +rupture. This is of two kinds, umbilical and scrotum. The former is +the escape of a portion of the bowels through an imperfectly closed +navel opening, whilst the latter shows itself in an enlargement of the +scrotum or purse due to an escape into it of a portion of the abdominal +contents. Both of these ailments are considered to be hereditary, but +the most common and the most troublesome is the latter, since there is +always a chance of strangulation of the escaped portions, which nearly +always results in death. + +At one time it was considered to be inadvisable to castrate the boar +pigs affected, but of late years the plan has been adopted of making +only one incision in the scrotum in place of two, and making that one as +high as possible. Then after the operation is performed, the aperture is +sown up. The pig should be fed lightly for a day or two in order to give +time for the healing of the wound. + +Umbilical hernia is not generally of much importance, the navel opening +gradually closes as the pig grows stronger and the enlargement +disappears. It is advisable not to breed from a sow pig which has been +affected, nor to continue to use a boar which has begotten ruptured +pigs, as both failings are hereditary. + +For a time at least, there is certain to be a difficulty in obtaining a +full supply of sharps, even of the greatly reduced feeding value of the +present quantity available. It may, therefore, be advisable to refer to +another system of feeding the suckling sow and the young pigs. It is now +perforce being generally adopted, but the result is not generally +considered to be equal to the old system recommended. It is that of +feeding pigs of the kind mentioned on vegetable food, and a mixture of +palm nut, cocoa nut, ground nut, or linseed cake. The proportions fed at +the Cambridge University Farm are mangolds 20 lbs.; a mixture of two +parts palm nut cake, and one part cocoa nut cake, 2 lbs.; linseed cake, +2 lbs.; and ground nut cake, 1 lb. The two former were fed in the +morning and evening, and the other two at midday. The various cakes seem +to have been fed in a dry condition, but other pig feeders have found it +beneficial to soak the cake in water for some twelve hours. This view +seems to have received support from the practice at Cambridge, which was +to mix the cake with the cut mangolds twenty-four hours before being fed +to the pigs so that at least a portion of the cake would become softened +by the mangold juice. Almost any kind of vegetable matter containing a +fair amount of nutrition would be equally as suitable as mangold, indeed +more so during the period from October to April. In the winter months +cooked potatoes; kohl rabi, swedes, parsnips, cabbages, artichokes, +etc., fed raw; and in the summer grass, lucerne, clover, vetches, rape, +or almost any kind of vegetable food will be readily eaten by the pigs. +Even where the wasteful practice of peeling the potatoes before being +cooked for the household is still followed (and just how wasteful this +old-fashioned plan is has been lately proved to be a loss of nearly one +quarter of the nutriment)--it is advisable to boil the parings and then +mix the whole with the pig's food. + +It cannot be too strongly impressed on pig keepers that a certain +proportion of vegetable food is most beneficial for pigs of all ages, as +not only is a saving in cost effected, but the pigs will continue in a +more healthy condition than when fed solely on meal or other +concentrated food. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: LARGE WHITE BOAR. The property of the Author. The Winner +of many Prizes. + +To face page 80.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES."] + + + + +CHAPTER X + +WEANING PIGS + + +There are few points in connection with the breeding and feeding of pigs +on which there is a greater diversity of opinion and practice than on +the question of the weaning of the young pigs. + +For instance, take the age at which it is most satisfactory to take the +pigs off the sow. This practice varies greatly in different districts, +and even in the same district where one would naturally suppose that the +determining influences would be similar weaning at five or six weeks +old. + +One pig breeder will declare that a little pig of five or six weeks old +should be and is able to support itself alone, and will act accordingly. +Should perchance a litter weaned thus early cease to grow the excuses +made will be various. + +The weather is at fault, it is either too hot or too cold, or the +sharps, etc., on which they have been fed were not good or sweet, that +the sow's milk was not sufficiently plentiful, or it was wanting in +nutriment. In fact, any excuse will be made rather than the actual cause +admitted. + +In far too many instances the real reason for the want of thrift on the +part of the young pigs taken from their mother when they are not more +than five or six weeks old is that their digestive organs are not +sufficiently developed as to enable them to digest enough food to +nourish them properly. + +Another excuse often made for what we consider to be undue haste in +weaning young pigs is the alleged desire of the owner not to waste the +time of the sow. He is anxious to have her served again and hasten the +arrival of the next litter. + +Occasionally it is found to be unnecessary to wean the pigs for this +purpose as the sow will come in heat and can be served by the boar, but +if she should become in pig the result will be much the same so far as +the pigs are concerned, since as soon as the sow has conceived the milk +will promptly cease or become very reduced in quantity and quality. + +On the other hand, if the sow does not stand to the boar time may be +wasted. It is most unlikely that the sow will again become in heat for +some three weeks, whereas this almost always occurs within a few days of +the weaning of the litter of pigs. + +Then another extreme, and one which is practised by some pig breeders, +is to allow the young pigs to remain on the sow until the former are +from ten to twelve weeks old. It is claimed for this practice that the +young pigs grow much faster when left on the sow than when weaned, and +that less food is consumed for a live weight increase from a given +quantity of food. Also, it is said that food of more inferior kind can +be fed to the sow than could be fed to the pigs if they were weaned, and +thus the sow and litter are kept at less expense, and that if the pigs +are not weaned until nearly three months, the milk of the sow will have +gradually ceased to flow, and the pigs will not miss the help from +their dam. Their digestive organs will then have become sufficiently +developed to enable them to make the best use of the food given to them, +and they will sustain no check in thrift or growth when they are weaned. + +In this question of weaning pigs the good old fashioned plan of +following the middle course will probably be found to be the best. +Anyway, it was the one which we followed for a great number of years and +found the results generally satisfactory for the following among other +reasons. + +As a breeder of pure bred pigs for sale as boars or yelts for breeding +purposes, we were naturally anxious to give the pigs a good start in +life so that we should be able to sell them as quickly as possible, and +that they should thrive when they came into the possession of their new +owners, and thus prove the best possible advertisement of our herds. As +a rule we found that if the pigs were allowed to remain on the sows +until they were some eight weeks old they were quite strong enough to +fend for themselves, that by gradually increasing the length of time +which the sow was allowed to remain from the pigs, the latter became +accustomed to exist without the mother's milk, and as the milk of the +sow naturally dried up when the pigs partially ceased to withdraw it, no +trouble was experienced with inflamed udders as is usually or commonly +the case when the pigs are suddenly weaned from a sow which is in full +milk. + +There is also another advantage apart from that to the sow and pigs, it +is that the sow will almost invariably come in heat within three or +four days of the weaning, and with the best possible chance of becoming +in pig. + +Some pig keepers are more inclined to wean their litter of pigs at an +early age, and then if the sow be low in condition to baulk her at the +first time of Å“strum. There are objections to this--one of them is +that there is frequently a difficulty in getting the sow to conceive +after she has been baulked. Why this should be so we have not been able +to ascertain. We only record what we know to be a fact. + +In our opinion this difficulty is one of the strongest points in favour +of the practice of allowing the young pigs of a sow with her first +litter, or of an old sow which has become low in condition (either from +having had too many pigs left on her, or from other natural cause), to +remain on the sow for a longer period than about eight weeks. Some +persons will keep the pigs on the sow until they are nearly three months +old in the belief that both sow and pigs are benefited, and that the +pigs can be kept quite as cheaply if not more so when unweaned than +weaned. They also claim that the sow is so much stronger and better +fitted to prepare for another litter. Experiments have been carried out +in the United States which go far to prove that the first of these two +claims is founded on fact; and it has further been demonstrated that +certain foods can be fed to the sow without affecting the thrift and +health of the pigs which could not with safety be fed to the latter +direct, yet when fed through the sow the pigs will thrive on the milk +produced therefrom. It is entirely a question of the cost of a rest for +the sow during the extra two or three weeks, and the benefit to the +sow and her pigs. + +One occasionally sees in the press a claim for what is considered to be +a great achievement in that some one has bred three litters of pigs from +one sow within the year. There really is something wonderful in this +since of the fifty-two weeks constituting a year, the sow would be +carrying her pigs some forty-eight weeks. This would allow only four +weeks for the two litters of pigs to be suckled, and this would also +include the few days between the pigs being weaned and the sow coming in +heat. Apart from the natural difficulty of successfully breeding three +litters of pigs from one sow within twelve months, there exists a far +greater possibility of loss rather than of gain from unduly hurrying on +the arrival of each litter of pigs from a sow, especially of the +profitable kind of sow. + +Some forty years since when Small Whites, Small Blacks, and short thick +Berkshires were fashionable, the number of pigs in each litter was few, +and the number reared still fewer, owing to the limited quantity of milk +furnished by the sow. Now, the Large Black, the Large White, the Middle +White, the Lincolnshire Curly Coat, the old Gloucester Spots, the +Tamworth, the Cumberland, and even the sows of most of the local breeds +of pigs are expected to rear nine or ten pigs each litter. Even if it +were possible for a sow to bring forth three litters within the year, +she could not possibly do justice to them either before or after the +piglings arrived in this world; and further, the life of such a sow +would of necessity be a short one. It must not be forgotten that in +the production of each litter of pigs the sow is compelled to +manufacture from 20 to 30 lbs. of flesh, skin, hair, etc., which +together constitute the newly farrowed pig, and very frequently this has +to be accomplished on a far too limited supply of suitable food. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _From a Painting by Wippell._ + +MIDDLE WHITE SOW. + +To face page 96.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Block kindly supplied by Cumberland Pig Breeders' +Association, Carlisle._ + +CUMBERLAND SOW. + +Owned by Mr. Carr, Kirkbride, Carlisle.] + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE REARING OF YOUNG PIGS + + +One of the most important points in the profitable raising of stock is +to give the animals a good start in their earliest days. There is an old +and true saying amongst shepherds that the best and most profitable +sheep are those which have never lost their lamb fat. It may with equal +truth be declared that the most profitable pig is the one which has a +good start when on its mother, and never afterwards lacks suitable food, +judiciously given. + +At frequent intervals, the question as to the number of pigs which a sow +should have left on her to rear is the subject of discussion in the +press. At each of these periods very similar arguments for and against +large litters are used with much the same inconclusive results. This +probably arises to a great extent from the varying conditions under +which the particular litter of pigs is to be reared. The time of year +has a vast influence, a sow farrowing in May will more successfully rear +a dozen pigs than she would bring up ten if they were farrowed in the +month of October. + +The age and condition of the sow should also be considered. A young sow +of about twelve months should not have more than seven or eight pigs +left on her to rear, whereas with her succeeding litters until she is at +least four years old she would rear at least ten pigs each litter. After +the sow has reached the age of about four years, if that time has been +fully employed in her maternal duties, she becomes gradually less able +to rear so large a number of pigs with an equal amount of success. It is +then advisable to vary the number according to the season, and to the +physical condition of the sow; generally speaking an aged sow will bring +up more pigs in the summer months than in the colder months. + +Reference is made elsewhere to the manner in which the young pigs should +be cared for until they are weaned from their dam, but no harm can arise +from a repetition of the advice that the young pigs should be so managed +and fed that only the very slightest difference will be noticed by the +youngsters when parted from their mother. Many pigs are permanently +checked in growth by being suddenly deprived of a full supply of +mother's milk if weaned when their digestive organs are insufficiently +developed as to treat a sufficiency of food to make growth and progress +without the assistance received from their mother's milk. + +Opinions differ as to the age at which little pigs are sufficiently +developed as to exist and thrive without their dam's help. Here again +the time of the year, not only as far as the weather is concerned, but +the desirability of prompt or deferred remating of the sow in order that +her succeeding litters should arrive during the most favourable portions +of the year, must be considered. The thrift and growth of each litter +of pigs varies greatly. The health of the sow, her condition before +farrowing, and other causes, some of which are not always on the +surface, have their influence, but it may be taken as a rule that young +pigs are fully able to fend for themselves by the time they are eight +weeks old. Should it be possible to allow the pigs to remain on the sow +for so long a time as twelve weeks without prejudicing the next litters +as to the time of year of their arrival, the pigs may benefit, and no +loss of food will be sustained, since it has been clearly proved that +pigs beyond the age of eight weeks can be fed quite as economically, if +not more so, on the sow than if weaned. It may also be possible to feed +the sow on somewhat coarser and less expensive food than could be +satisfactorily fed to the young pigs, as her digestive organs would be +better able to treat the coarser food. Another advantage generally +follows keeping the pigs for a longer time on the sow if the latter be +well fed is that she will be in a stronger and better condition to start +the building up of her next litter. + +As a rule young pigs will commence to eat when they are from three to +four weeks old. If the sow is fed in the sty in which the little pigs +are, these will endeavour to share in the food; at first they may +content themselves with licking any food which may be outside the +trough, but they quickly show a desire for more, and attempt to get into +the trough. When this is evident, it is advisable to feed the little +pigs apart from the sow; a low flat trough is best, as one with high +sides is said to cause "high backed" pigs, or pigs suffering from a +curvature of the spine. If a little milk can be obtained, the pigs will +promptly drink it, if the milk be whole they will thrive best, but even +if only skim or separated milk be obtainable, or butter milk, providing +that it be drawn off ere the salt is put into the churn, a small +quantity will be beneficial, but the pigs will not be able to digest so +large a quantity of the separated as of the whole milk. The former is +apt to have a constipating effect on the bowels of the youngsters. +Should an ample supply of separated milk be available it can be fed +through the sow, who will be better able to digest it, and whose yield +of milk will be increased, provided that sufficient separated milk to +affect her bowels be not given to her. A few kernels of wheat or white +peas will be readily eaten by the little pigs, which will benefit +therefrom. + +If no other food is available, sharps, or whatever the local term for +the finer miller's offals may be, mixed with a little warm water and fed +to the piglings, will prove beneficial, care being taken to give only so +much as the pigs will eat up readily, or that any surplus is taken away, +so that it does not become sour, as in this last condition it will cause +diarrhÅ“a in the young pigs. + +When the pigs are about six weeks old the sow can be allowed to remain +from them for a longer time, and the youngsters fed two or three times +each day. The sow's milk will then gradually dry up, and the pigs will +become accustomed to the food, so that when the latter are about eight +weeks old they will have become weaned naturally, and receive no check +from the loss of the sow's milk. This system, will also prevent any +trouble arising from the collection of milk in the sow's udder, and the +occasional attacks of inflammation or garget which follow a chill to the +sow when her udder is in an inflamed condition from being closely +impacted with milk. + +Assuming that the economical and beneficial practice of supplying the +suckling sow with vegetable food of some kind after the pigs are some +three or four weeks old has been adopted, the pigs will have become +accustomed to its consumption. It will be found to be advisable to +continue this whether it has taken the form of cooked potatoes, of +mangolds, swedes, kohl rabi, cabbages, artichokes, etc., as not only +will the food bill be reduced, as the pigs will make equal growth and +thrift on food containing say ten per cent of vegetable matter as they +will if fed wholly on sharps, but the vegetable food will have a +beneficial effect on the health of the pigs, and tend to prevent those +attacks of constipation and diarrhÅ“a which are so frequently the +result of food of too rich a character. + +Of the vegetable foods, cooked potatoes and raw artichokes are the most +nourishing and the most readily eaten, lucerne and clover in a green +state come next in food value and favouritism with the pigs; cabbages +are credited with causing constipation when fed to young pigs, whilst +mangolds are said to have the opposite effect, and in addition when +grown on light land by the aid of artificial manure mangolds are apt to +affect the kidneys and cause excessive urination. Kohl rabi are not so +much used in the feeding of pigs as would be advisable. They are easily +grown and will take the place of swedes on land on which swedes are +subject to mildew; they are very nutritious, and are readily eaten by +both old and young pigs. + +Coleseed is not used in the feeding of pigs in this country to anything +approaching the same extent as in Canada and the United States; its +value and results are of a very similar character to those of cabbages. +Tares or vetches contain too large a proportion of water for young pigs, +and they also have a tendency to cause looseness of the bowels. The +growth of maize for feeding to pigs in a green state has been +recommended by some writers, but in practice we found it most unsuitable +for young pigs, and of little value for aged pigs, owing to the small +proportion of nourishment contained in it in comparison with its bulk. +Further, pigs both old and young will refuse to eat it unless driven by +hunger. It is needless to remark that no pigs, especially young ones, +will thrive under such conditions. + +One of the most common mistakes made by pig feeders is allowing too long +a time to pass between feeding times. Twice or three times per day is +considered to be quite frequent enough, whereas prior to their being +weaned the pigs would have had a meal wellnigh each two hours both day +and night. Infrequent meals result in the pigs becoming so hungry that +they bolt their food, and a greater quantity than is desirable, and then +suffer from indigestion. + +It must also be remembered that the pig's capacity for storing food is +very small, especially as compared with some others of our domesticated +animals. Four or five meals per day at least should be given to newly +weaned pigs. That most troublesome of ailments commonly termed cramp +more generally results from injudicious feeding than from all other +causes combined. Even when the young pigs are properly fed on suitable +food there is a tendency in some little pigs to attacks of cramp. One of +the best preventatives and even remedies is to compel the pigs to leave +their nests late in the evening or prior to the pigman retiring for the +night, as they will then relieve the bowels and bladder. Otherwise, +particularly in cold weather, the pigs would remain quiescent in their +nests from feeding time in the afternoon until they were fed the +following morning, or in winter a period of some fifteen or sixteen +hours--far too long a time for the good health of the young pigs. + +Another point which requires attention is the provision of a dry bed. +Pigs are naturally clean animals, and will not as a rule foul their bed +when they are in a healthy state. Still the straw will in winter time +become damp solely from the moisture thrown off by the pigs when huddled +together in their nest. All damp litter should be carefully removed at +least once each day. + +The best of all materials for the bedding of pigs is wheat straw. This +will absorb a larger amount of moisture than any other kind of straw, +whilst the skin and hair of the pigs will remain of a brighter colour +than if bedded on oat or barley straw. Of these two, the former is more +suitable than the latter, which so readily becomes damp and foul. In +those parts of the country where comparatively little corn is grown, +sawdust and wood shavings are commonly used for litter for pigs. So far +as the comfort of the pigs is concerned there is little difference as +compared with straw with regard to pigs of all ages in the warmer +weather, but in the winter little pigs suffer, as they are unable to +make the warm nest which straw enables them to make and enjoy. + +When peat moss was first introduced it was strongly recommended for the +bedding of pigs. It was claimed for it that it was a far better +absorbent of moisture than sawdust, and that its manurial value was much +greater. It is probable that both claims are founded on fact, as sawdust +is of comparatively no value as a manure. But there exists one serious +objection to the use of peat moss as litter for young pigs. It is that +the pigs are given to eat it, that it causes severe attacks of +indigestion, and often the death of the pig eating it. + +Of late years the spaying of the sow pigs has ceased to be general. The +causes of this neglect may be several, amongst them the dislike of +trouble, but perhaps the main reason is that the so-called store period +of the pig's life is now so much shorter than in the olden days, and +consequently the loss of food, and the risk of the arrival of unexpected +litters of pigs are less, from the repeated periods of heat, indeed +under the present or recent conditions of pig keeping a large +proportion of the pigs are killed ere they have become sufficiently +developed to be troublesome in this respect. + +Still, there is little doubt that the castrating and spaying of young +pigs at about the age of six weeks, or before they have been weaned from +the sow is advisable and the cost of the operation is well repaid. An +unspayed sow pig becomes a nuisance in company with other pigs, and when +it is put up to fatten will make no progress on some three or four days +during each three weeks when she ordinarily becomes in heat. + +In addition to her own waste of time she will, if penned with others, be +continually worrying her mates and preventing them from resting and +thriving. + +Until recently another objection was taken to the unspayed sow pig, it +was that if she were killed during the period of Å“strum that great +difficulty would be experienced in curing the meat properly, and that +signs of her heated condition would be noticed in the mammary glands in +the form of dark globules of what was considered to be blood, but +investigation carried out at the University Farm at Cambridge by Messrs. +Russell and Kenneth Mackensie have proved that the discoloration and the +consequent loss in value of a certain portion of the belly of a side of +bacon is not due to the pig having been in a state of heat at the time +of its slaughter, but to an excess of pigment, noticeable only amongst +coloured pigs. Thus, the globules would be of a dark colour when the +bacon was from a pig of a black colour, and red from the pigs of the +Tamworth breed. This shows another cause of the marked preference of the +bacon curers for pigs of a white colour in the manufacture of the +highest priced bacon. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +HOUSING OF PIGS + + +In the general management of pigs there are many points on which +improvements might be effected without any very considerable amount of +trouble or expense. Far too frequently this neglect or want of care and +thought is observable in the housing of pigs. Many of the sties in the +country districts are neither wind nor water tight, and they are far too +often in a most unsanitary condition, indeed in such a disgraceful state +that some excuse was afforded for the drastic, if injudicious order of +the sanitary authorities which prohibited the erection of a pigsty +within from sixty to one hundred feet of a dwelling house. Undoubtedly +it would have been wiser to have permitted the keeping of pigs within a +much shorter distance of the house only so long as the necessary steps +were taken to prevent a nuisance or a risk of the residents in the house +suffering in health. The proximity of a pigsty to a house can be +rendered perfectly innocuous with ordinary care, and the cottager not be +deprived of very considerable advantages not only in making a profit, +but in the provision of manure for his allotment or garden which will +benefit greatly from its application. + +The mistakes or want of care in the erection of pigsties is by no means +confined to the owners of cottages or small holdings, as a considerable +proportion of the piggeries on which great outlay is expended are +equally as unsuitable if not so insanitary. Even in so-called model +buildings the piggery has often been the last thing thought of; the +stables, the cow house, etc., have been conveniently placed for feeding +the occupants, for air, light, and sun, and then the piggery has been +placed in whatever spot may have been left unoccupied, and as this +generally happens to be on the northern side of the buildings, the +unhappy pigs are deprived of the rays of the sun, which are to them +quite as necessary, if not more so, than to any others of our +domesticated animals. + +This same want of sun, and the exposure to cold is noticeable in only a +lesser degree in those buildings which comprise a double row of sties +with a passage down the centre, a store and a cooking and mixing house +at one end, and an exercise or feeding yard adjoining. It matters not +whether the building be placed north or south, or east or west, one half +of the sties have a wrong aspect; even if the sties facing the west can +be said to possess one. The trouble is still greater with the system of +having a yard attached to each sty. The north or east wind renders the +sties with such an aspect a most uncomfortable and unhealthy place for +young pigs during more than half the year, whilst older pigs cannot +thrive on the same amount of food as they would if their quarters were +comfortable. Apart from the waste of food which results from these +draughty and cold sties, the latter are the chief cause, with +injudicious feeding, of that most troublesome ailment amongst pigs, +rheumatic gout, or, as it is commonly termed, cramp. How very draughty +and uncomfortable these sties are which have an open yard attached, and +an inlet at all times usable, can be readily discovered in cold and +windy weather by noticing the position in which the occupant has made +its bed. This will be found not on the highest part of the sty, which +will be opposite to the opening into the yard, but in the corner next to +the opening, since in this position it is less exposed to the cold wind +which rushes into the sty through the opening. + +Apart from the unhealthiness to the pigs resulting from the exposure to +draughts it is not apparent to the writer that any advantage is gained +from the provision of these yards. In many instances they serve only for +an excuse to limit the height of the sties, as unless these are of a +fair height there is a considerable difficulty in cleaning them out. The +money expended on building the yard would easily cover the extra cost of +raising the side walls of the pigsty by two feet, and thus not only +render it free from draughts, but also make it far more healthy and less +subject to the extremes of heat and cold. + +The ordinary sty with a yard attached is unhealthy for a growing or +matured pig, but in the colder weather it is simply cruel for newly born +pigs, of which numbers are annually lost from exposure or are greatly +checked in their growth. + +One of the very best places in which to house pigs in the experience of +the writer was a large barn with a thatched roof. This was divided off +into sties by partitions some 4 ft. 6 in. high; owing to the height of +the building the temperature was not unduly high in the hottest weather +nor did the pigs suffer to any extent during severe weather. These +advantages arose mainly from the slight changes in temperature, and an +abundant supply of uncontaminated air. + +One of the greatest drawbacks to the majority of the pigsties is the +absence of ventilation without draught. This trouble is especially +noticeable where the side walls are not more than about 4 ft. high, +whilst the proximity of the roof to the pigs increases the sufferings of +the pigs from the heat when the weather is excessively hot. + +Some of our most successful pig feeders on a large scale have found it +profitable to erect cheap buildings very similar to small barns, the +side walls being at least 10 feet high. This will permit of thorough +ventilation, quite free from draughts, whilst the variations in the +temperature will be comparatively slight. The building being complete +within itself, and entirely used for the pigs, there is no disturbance +of the pigs between the feeding times, so that the pigs will rest and +grow fat. These houses are most suitable for a number of fattening pigs, +whereas for sows and for young sows smaller sties or houses are more +convenient. These should be at least 10 ft. square, the front 6 ft. 6 +in. high, the doors divided so that the upper half can be opened when +the weather is favourable; ventilation can be obtained by hanging or +sliding doors just under the eaves so that the pigs are not affected by +the draught; the floor should be laid with brick and gradually incline +to the front of the building so that the liquid can run through an +aperture in the lower part of the front wall into a cesspool placed +close to the building. A row of these houses, which should face to the +south, can be more cheaply erected than a single house, as the wooden +partitions between the houses need not be more than 4 ft. high, and one +of these would take the place of two gables or ends. Several of the +houses which the writer erected had brick foundations and feather-edged +boarded sides and ends; the roofs were of tiles unpointed, as in this +way the houses were much cooler in the summer, whilst in the winter the +upper portions of the houses were packed with straw which still +permitted of the escape of the foul air, yet greatly added to the warmth +and comfort of the building. + +The one thing of all others most needful in the sty or house for the +well doing of pigs is a sufficiency of pure air without draughts; pigs +of even a few days old will suffer less from cold than from moist and +foul hot air. It is not the most costly building in which pigs will +thrive best, but the one in which they are the most comfortable and free +from the extremes of heat and cold with a dry bed on which to rest and +be thankful. + +When making a tour of the Agricultural Experiment Stations and +Agricultural Schools in Denmark some few years since, the writer saw +near Aarhuss what was then a novelty in the form of a two decker pigsty, +i.e. a sty with a sleeping place above--one could scarcely term it an +upstairs room as access was gained not by stairs but by an inclined +board with struts of wood fastened across it to give a firm holding to +the pigs as they ascended to the upper story. The incline was very +steep, but the pigs seemed to have no difficulty in getting up and down. +The advantages claimed for it by the principal were that the sleeping +compartment was so much cleaner and sweeter; that less straw was +required for bedding, and that the pigs were far more comfortable and +rested better than when boxed up, especially in the summer season when +the heat in the lower portion was very oppressive. The feeding took +place in the lower portion. It was stated that nearly the whole of the +urine and dung was deposited below. This was a great advantage as the +moisture ran off at once into the drains, and the solids were easily +cleared out as there was no litter mixed with them, or the dung could be +readily washed into the drains by water from a hose, which was used in +the summer for the purpose of bathing or of washing the pigs. + +The chief objection to the plan would be its expense, as unless the +pigsties were in a barn or a shed already erected for some other purpose +the pigsty would have to be so much higher on the side walls and +consequently more strongly built. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM." + +To face page 112.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo kindly lent by Kenneth MacRae, R.U.A.S., Balmoral, +Belfast._ + +LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS + + +When the exhibition of live stock at our numerous shows became common, a +belief sprang up amongst non-exhibitors that the preparation for show +was most deleterious to the animals shown. It was also contended that +exhibitors were prone to pay attention, to a far greater extent, to the +fancy or show points of the animals which they bred than to those +utility points which are of infinitely more importance to the ordinary +stock breeder and the consumer. It was also believed that the feeding or +training which the show stock underwent seriously affected their +procreative powers, and especially so with the animals of the feminine +gender. + +It may at once be frankly admitted that there existed some ground for +the belief that a majority of the exhibitors did appear to give too +great attention to the claims of the judges who were, in too many cases, +chosen for reasons other than their knowledge of practical agriculture +or the requirements of the consumers of meat. For so acting, the +exhibitors were not beyond blame, as in the earlier days of showing, +their main object was to win prizes in order to advertise their stock +and so secure customers for their spare breeding animals. The actual +improvement of the various breeds of stock did not in those far-off days +appear to be of such vital importance as the world upheaval, of which +the present generation has been the witness, has proved it to be. + +It may also be fairly claimed that there has been some slight +improvement in the system of feeding and training followed by the pig +exhibitors of to-day. This is in part due to the fact that the cramming +on rich food and giving little exercise may result in rendering the show +pig in such a state of obesity as to secure the approval of the +non-practical judge, who is unable to appraise the points of a pig when +in its natural breeding condition, but that to be able to follow the +present system of exhibiting at several successive shows and even when +the bloated pig is intended to be returned to the breeding pen, this +excessive feeding proved to be a grievous mistake. It may not be +possible to claim that the over feeding of show animals is a thing of +the past, but there is little doubt that exhibitors of pigs have become +alive to the fact that it is not profitable. Not only is the expense +excessive, but the damage done to the breeding animals is so great as to +render it inadvisable for any ordinary farmer to follow. Again, there +has of late years been a very considerable improvement in the pig +classification at both the breeding and the fat stock shows. When the +writer began pig showing, on his own account, fifty years since, the +common classification at most of the shows was, boar any age, sows any +age, and pens of three breeding pigs, not exceeding nine or in some +cases even twelve months. There were no restrictions as to the age of +the boar or of the sow, no condition as to utility, of the sow having at +any time reared a litter of pigs or of being in pig, so that it was by +no means uncommon at even some of the chief shows to find both boars and +sows appear year after year, having been guiltless of any attempt to +procreate their species, but having been kept solely for the purpose of +winning prizes and adding to the renown of their owners, if not directly +adding much to their balances at the bank. The only way in which the +continued exhibition of these old stagers was made profitable was the +securing of customers for breeding stock from the exhibitors, who in far +too many cases were not the breeders of the winning animals. To so great +an extent had this purchase, frequently from middlemen or dealers of +exhibition pigs, become in the seventies of the last century, that some +of the live stock papers in the United States took up the cudgels on +behalf of the American breeders of pigs, who had been in the habit of +importing show winners from this country and plainly asked for the +English definition of a pure bred pig. It was pointed out at a recent +show of the Royal Agricultural Society several winners shown by one +exhibitor were entered as of certain defined breeds, yet neither age, +pedigree, nor name of breeder was given, the only particulars given in +the show catalogue being the name and address of the exhibitor, the name +of the pig, and the further statement age and breeder unknown. As our +American cousins asked, how could it be possible to ensure that a pig +was of a certain pure breed when it was admitted that no knowledge +existed of the breeding of the animal nor actually of the person who +bred it. This scandal, as it was termed, was one of the contributing +causes of the establishment of societies for the registration of the +pedigrees of the various types or breeds of pigs. + +Other changes which have been great improvements have been the +limitation of the ages of boars and sows shown, the requirement that the +sow has within a certain fixed time farrowed a litter of pigs and that +when entered as being in farrow a certificate of subsequent farrowing +shall be furnished ere the prize money is paid over. The age of the +young boars and sows has also been reduced at most shows to six months, +or the pigs must have been farrowed in the year of the show. In the good +old times the age of the pigs shown in the classes for pens of two or +three or five, varied from six to twelve months, and the asserted age +given by the exhibitor was accepted as correct. At many of the important +shows not only are some means of identification asked for, but the state +of the dentition are variously dealt with; at some shows they are +disqualified at once by the stewards on the certificate of the +veterinary surgeon. It may at once be admitted that this mode of +procedure is very hard on an honest exhibitor whose pig has for some +reason developed its temporary or permanent teeth abnormally--and such +cases are not unknown--- although as a rule the various stages in the +cutting of the permanent teeth are very regular, the majority of the +irregularities are also in favour of the exhibitor, since delayed rather +than precocious development of dentition is the most common. Just how +imperative it was that some steps should be taken to prevent mistakes +being made in the ages of young pigs exhibited, many cases could be +cited, but one may suffice where one of the sow pigs in a pen of five +entered in a class for pigs not exceeding six months actually farrowed a +litter of fully developed pigs in the show yard. + +During the last forty years, great improvements have been made in the +classification for pigs at our principal Fat Stock shows. The division +of breeds or types has been attended to and the ages of the pigs in the +various classes have been greatly reduced. For instance, when the writer +was judging pigs with two colleagues at the 1880 show of the Smithfield +Club, there were classes for Small White pigs, not exceeding nine +months; above nine months, and not exceeding twelve months, and above +twelve months and not exceeding eighteen months. A more ridiculous +classification could not possibly have been devised since no small white +pig would have paid for fattening after it had become nine months old. A +similar classification existed for pigs of the Large White breed, for +Black breeds, and for Berkshires. In addition there was a class for a +single pig of any age or breed. The condition of some of the exhibits in +the oldest classes was most pitiable, they had been stuffed to such an +extent that their life must have been a misery to them, they were unable +to walk any distance, and to prevent suffocation rollers were used on +which to raise their heads. The only way in which to describe these +unfortunate subjects of man's inhumanity was as animated bladders of +lard. + +At the recent shows of the Smithfield Club, not only has the age limit +been greatly reduced but classes for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live +weight have been instituted, in addition to classes for all the +recognised pure breeds of pigs and those of any cross. Even this great +reduction in age has not been enough to satisfy some of our reformers, +as an endeavour is being made to reduce the limit of twelve months to +nine months, so that in future the classes will be for pens of two pigs +not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, for pigs not exceeding six months +old and for pigs between six and nine months old, with certain classes +for single pigs under nine months. It is contended that fat pigs cannot +be profitably kept after they reach the age of nine months. Another +innovation of recent years at the Smithfield Show has been the +establishment of the so-called slaughter classes. This is probably by +far the greatest improvement of recent years in the pig section. Classes +are provided for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, pigs weighing +over 100 lbs. and not exceeding 220 lbs., and for pigs above 220 lbs. +and not exceeding 300 lbs. live weight. The pigs are first exhibited and +judged alive, then slaughtered and the carcases judged on their pork +merits. There is also one class for pigs above 160 lbs. and not +exceeding 240 lbs. live weight best suited for the manufacture of bacon. +These various classes have created great interest and have proved of the +greatest educational value. + +Another beneficial effect of the changed conditions is the elimination +from the summer show-yards of fat sows guiltless of milk and +accompanied in the pen by half a score of young boars and yelts of an +age varying from three months upwards, and which together were exhibited +in the class for breeding sows, or breeding sows and pigs. A fine fat +sow which would take kindly to an unlimited number of adopted youngsters +was in those days almost as valuable as a small gold mine. An old and +well-known pigman, Dick by name, assured the writer that no fewer than +sixty-three young boars and yelts were sold in one year off or when in +company of one well-known sow. At the present time the pigs shown with a +sow must be certified to be her produce and not to exceed the age of +eight weeks. + +It is at all times difficult to discover the motive power for certain +actions on the part of a human being. It has been declared that there is +an equal amount of doubt as to the cause of a breeder of stock wishing +to exhibit his animals. Surely this last assertion is at least of a +doubtful character. What greater proof could a stock breeder give of his +pride in his animals than a burning desire to expose their good +qualities to the public gaze. In addition to this, few men are entirely +free from the spirit of gambling and this enters into all competitions, +particularly in the show yards. The winning of prizes with stock may not +be quite so uncertain as the winning of horse races, still, there is +enough of uncertainty to render the judging ring a centre of great +excitement. Some persons will even contend that the showing of farm +stock is not desirable on the part of young farmers as it is likely to +assume so great a similarity with gambling, that attending the shows +means a neglect of business and leads to expensive habits. On the other +hand, it cannot be denied that the exhibition of our improved specimens +of stock has been of untold benefit to both home and foreign stock +breeders. Further, the exportation of our pedigree stock has actually +saved us from semi-starvation during this most fearful of all wars, as +without our improved stock the native stock of foreign countries could +not possibly have furnished the enormous quantities of meat which we +have had to import. + +It may be that a great many exhibitors of stock had little or no +intention of becoming one when they first purchased their stock, but on +these proving quite the equal of that possessed by their neighbour, the +desire grew to suggest how good they were, or in many instances the +original entries have been made in response to a request to support the +local show. + +This may be still another cause for a beginner in stock breeding +exercising extreme care in the selection of his original stock. Even if +the prime cost be higher than that of ordinary market stock the extra +outlay expended on animals from well-known breeders, and out of old +established herds, is certain to prove a good investment. There is just +as great difference in the different families or strains of our domestic +stock, as there is in the various human families and of animals, and it +may be probably more true that the vast majority of the best of them are +the descendants of a comparatively few ancestors. This is evident in +almost everyone of the breeds of our improved stock, it is so in +thoroughbred and shire horses, and so one might go through the whole +list of domesticated or farm animals. + +It is therefore desirable that anyone who thinks of exhibiting his pigs +should endeavour first to discover the particular tribes or families +which, in the past, have furnished a large proportion of the winners, +and then to obtain some of the specimens of those families which have +been successful in the show yards and in the breeding pen. This +combination is most important, as it does not necessarily follow that a +line of blood which produces prize winners shall also produce animals +which are not only good in type, character, and form, but possessed of +prolificacy, free milking properties, and ability to raise large +litters. The difficulty of finding in some of the mere exhibition herds +this most desirable combination is due, in the main, to the far too +frequent neglect of the utility points, the two aims of the herdsman are +in too many instances the winning of prizes for their employers and the +securing of a percentage of the prize money for themselves. + +Although there have been attempts made to impress on outsiders the claim +that there exists in the training of pigs for successful exhibition in +our show yards a large amount of mystery, yet, the practice is most +simple, it consists in the employment of the greatest possible +observation, care, and attention; without the continual use of these +qualities it is not possible to become a really successful pigman. In +very many instances just that little extra attention has turned the +scales. The one chief qualification on the part of a successful stock +man is the art of taking pains. Unlike most of the other exhibitors of +pigs who exhibited largely over many years the writer never employed a +professional pigman. The comparatively small number of pigmen who +assisted him to win thousands of prizes were merely ordinary farm +labourers, save in one case, and he was an old sailor, yet one of the +best feeders and trainers we ever employed. He was naturally fond of +animals and was never tired of waiting on them and of supplying their +needs. It was once jokingly said of him that, having no children, he +bestowed on the pigs in his care the love which some other people +bestowed on their children. There is much of truth in the assertion made +by a coloured preacher in the United States when discussing the want of +success of ordinary pig-keeping in the States, the chief cause he +declared was the absence of love. We would call it want of natural +fondness of animals and an insufficient determination to render the +conditions of life of the animals in our charge as pleasant and +satisfactory as circumstances will allow. With regard to the system of +rearing and feeding animals intended for exhibition, nothing more is +needed than the concentrated care and attention which is required in the +successful rearing and feeding of all commercial animals. A liberal +supply of suitable food, prepared in the most tempting form and +judiciously fed to the pigs in just the quantity required, as frequently +as the pig is able to thoroughly enjoy it. Little and often is a good +motto for the pig feeder. The more closely we adhere to nature, the +more successful shall we be. It is to this, perhaps, that exercise is so +specially necessary for pigs which are being prepared for the show yard. +It is impossible to render a pig perfectly fit for exhibition at a show, +and more particularly at several successive shows, without plenty of +exercise. Each morning and evening a walk of a distance varying with the +ages, etc., of the pigs is desirable. Another point to which some +professional pigmen give great prominence is the regular dosing of their +charges with secret medicines. This is not only unnecessary, but may +with breeding animals prove harmful. A sound healthy pig seldom requires +medicine if it is properly fed and exercised. It is the over feeding or +intense desire of the pigman which in the majority of cases renders +medicine necessary. + +A word of warning against this haste to get the pig into show condition. +This last can only be a work of time, and the commencement of the +process must be in the early stages of the life of the pig and be +steadily continued until within a few days of the show. This slight +reduction of the food may be necessary in the summer when the heat is +great and the pigs become restless when travelling boxed up in a crate +in an enclosed truck. Many of the pigs lost in travelling to or from the +shows or soon after arriving at the shows, have been fed just prior to +being loaded up, because of the difficulty in feeding them when on the +journey. This is an entire mistake; not only should the pigs not be fed, +but prior to being put into the crates they should be given just so much +exercise as will cause them to evacuate the bowels, or the bladder. Care +in this respect and non-exposure to the rays of the sun may not in +every case prevent trouble, but it will most certainly reduce to a +minimum the chance of it. Should a pig suffer from the heat, cold water +should be applied to the head by means of a sponge or a cloth, and +should some of the water percolate into the mouth of the pig so much the +better. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING + + +As it is impossible to foretell the effect which the present disastrous +war will have upon the pig-breeding industry, we have deemed it +expedient to refer as briefly as possible to the present conditions of +feeding, etc., which may or may not prove to be of a temporary character +or which may become permanent in a more or less modified manner. + +One of the results of the scarcity and high market value of the +different articles which have been commonly used in the feeding of pigs +is drawing greatly increased attention to the original conditions under +which pigs were kept, i.e. when they were in a wild state or when they +were allowed their partial freedom for the purpose of getting their own +living to a greater or lesser extent. + +We are aware that a claim has been made by an enthusiastic convert to +pig-keeping that in allowing his pigs their liberty to roam over grass +fields and in woods he is practising quite a novel course of procedure, +but the old hands merely smile and admire the enthusiasm which is more +nearly allied with youth than old age. The practice may not have been +generally followed of late years, but in the middle of the last century +it was to the writer's knowledge common in certain of the Eastern +Counties, particularly in Suffolk and portions of Essex and +Cambridgeshire, where a considerable acreage of grass and especially +clovers was grazed by pigs, having a greater or lesser quantity of other +food as the pigs were intended for breeding or fattening purposes. + +Generally speaking, some shelter of a temporary character was provided +failing that furnished by trees, and straw stacks, etc., but our +American cousins have gone one better in that they have introduced small +movable houses which can be transported on wheels and can be utilised +for a sow and her pigs, or for a number of stores. In the former course, +an enclosure sufficiently large for the sow to graze therein is fenced +in so that each sow can be kept separate until the pigs are old enough +to prevent others from robbing them of their birthright. The chief +difficulty attending this system is not experienced in the United States +to the extent it is in this country, since the general custom there is +to allow each sow to farrow a litter of pigs in the spring and then to +fatten off both sow and pigs, save those reserved for breeding purposes +next year. This plan, which appears to be wasteful, also handicaps the +owner who desires to improve his pig stock, since an opportunity is +denied him of discovering the best of his sows and so reserving them and +their produce to form the nucleus of a really good herd. The system is +not an entirely new one, as it is practised to a great extent in some +parts of Lincolnshire and other Northern counties, where there is not +the excuse made for it in the States that it avoids the trouble and +risk from the intense cold attending the farrowing of sows in the +winter. + +It may be that the severity of our winters is not usually great, but the +cold, damp and foggy weather commonly experienced in England during the +last two or three months of the year render it necessary to warmly house +young pigs, and this is difficult in wooden houses of limited size, as +these become hot and stuffy when entirely closed, or damp and cold when +unclosed. Again, the labour attending the feeding of a large herd housed +in isolated sties must be very considerable. Another objection raised +against this farrowing of sows in these small houses is that it is +difficult if not impossible at night to have the pigman in attendance on +the sow, further, that it is not advisable to allow the young pigs to +roam about with their dam until they are some weeks old, as when the +weather is cold or wet they become chilled and when the sun is hot they +quickly become blistered, both conditions materially interfering with +their well doing. + +It is claimed that both sow and pigs are able to secure a large portion +of their living, but a sow with a good litter of pigs on her requires a +considerable amount of food in addition to grass to enable her to do +justice to her young, whilst the younger pigs are unable to digest any +quantity of grass until they are some weeks old; besides this, the +youngsters thrive much better during their early life when confined in +quarters than when trailing about after the sow. Could we ensure fairly +fine weather, and an absence of cold nights and very changeable +weather, the little pigs' chances of thriving under outdoor conditions +would be considerably enhanced. + +Another alleged new discovery is the permitting of pigs to roam at large +in woods and plantations, wooden huts or open sheds being provided as +shelter. By this plan a considerable amount of pig food is obtained +where the trees are not closely planted, so that grass grows freely, or, +in the autumn, in the woods in which oaks, beech, hazel, or sweet +chestnut form a portion of the trees. In such woods strong store pigs +are able to obtain the major portion of their food, but where the trees +are of a kind which does not produce nuts or are closely planted, the +additional food must be more plentiful, whilst the manurial value of the +food is wasted to a considerable extent. + +Perhaps the most profitable form of outdoor pig-keeping is that of +running the pigs in orchards. This system has many advantages, the pigs +are able to live without much additional food for some months in the +year, they consume the insect-affected fallen fruit, and so act as +insecticides. The pigs also usually leave their droppings under the +trees, which are thus benefited therefrom, and especially is this the +case where the pigs are being fattened or fed on food which enables them +to make flesh. Many years since, the writer had several customers for +breeding pigs who kept numbers of pigs in their orchards. One fruit +grower in Kent declared that fattening pigs in his orchard resulted in +the growing of heavier crops of cherries of larger size, better colour, +and finer flavour. Another whose apple orchard was disappointing +followed my advice to fatten pigs in it, declared that the quantity of +apples grown was much greater, whilst both the size and quality of these +were infinitely better. + +Under the modern system of pig-keeping it is more profitable to give +some additional and concentrated food to the pigs having their liberty, +it is therefore wise to secure the full benefit arising from the richer +living by running the pigs where the manure can be utilised, and no +better place than an orchard can be found, since shelter from sun and +wind is furnished by the fruit trees, and the pigs deposit their urine +and excrement in exactly the place where it is most urgently required. + +The practice of growing considerable areas of rape or cole seed, +artichokes, peas of various kinds, beans, etc., to be fed off by pigs is +not followed extensively in this country, although pig-keepers in the +United States, Canada, Germany, Denmark, etc., have a partiality to it, +since it is declared to save labour and to bring the land into a good +manurial condition for the growth of corn crops; still some few of our +more advanced farmers have been in the habit of grazing off lucerne, +clovers, and even permanent and temporary grasses by the aid of pigs, +which have also received in addition a varying amount of roots, corn, or +meal. It is asserted, and evidence is available to prove the truth of +the statement, that land can be economically and quickly and vastly +improved by following the system referred to above. The scarcity and +high market value of miller's offals and of meals such as used in the +past to be utilised to a great extent in the feeding of pigs, has +caused pig-keepers to seek for other foods to take their place. The +residuum from the crushing of palm nuts, cocoa-nuts, and ground nuts has +been most successfully used in connection with various forms of +vegetable food; even sows have reared good litters of pigs on about 2 +lbs. of a mixture of the meals remaining from the extraction of the oil +from the nuts mentioned, with the addition of some form of vegetable +food. This last has comprised cooked potatoes, raw artichokes, mangolds, +kohl rabi, swedes, cabbages, etc., during the winter months, and grass, +lucerne, clover, vetches, cole seed, etc., during the summer months. +Fattening pigs will require a somewhat larger quantity of concentrated +food and a reduced amount of vegetable food. The pre-war belief that +sharps or middlings only was the most suitable food for sows with +litters and for newly weaned pigs has been somewhat modified. Whether or +not the quality and price of middlings will be restored after the war +and thus its use become general as of old, must be left, but it is +probable that in the future a certain proportion of the meals referred +to will continue to be used for both breeding and fattening pigs. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +PIG-FATTENING + + +If there be one task which is considered to be within the capacity of +any individual, it is that of feeding a pig. In the good old times, the +one thing needful was a good supply of barley meal, as much of this as +the pig could possibly eat was placed into its trough each day until the +pig was thought to be fat enough for slaughter. This was a very simple +and at the same time a very costly process and was looked upon as the +second of the two chief acts in the life of a pig. The first consisted +of building up a frame on which fat could be stored. Just why these two +processes were not combined has never been fully explained. One excuse +made for this uneconomical process is that our forbears must have +considered that there must be two distinct periods in the life of any +animal intended for the food of man, that in which the structure was +erected, and that in which the building was completely furnished with +the material--flesh--in a state which most nearly satisfied the +requirements or fancies of humanity. The system of first growing the +frame and then packing it with flesh was not alone followed by the +owners of pigs, as it was also adopted with cattle, which in the good +old times passed three or four years in a state of semi-starvation ere +they were placed on our best pastures to produce beef. Sheep, again, +spent two or three years in building up their frames and in the +production of a limited quantity of wool of inferior quality and +strength, before they were considered in a fit state to make mutton +economically. Another excuse which could have been offered by our +forbears, but which is not now available, is that the cattle, sheep, and +pigs of former times required age before it was possible to render them +sufficiently fat for slaughter. + +The very great improvement which has taken place during the past half +century, in wellnigh every breed of pig, has deprived our present day +pig-breeders of such an excuse, yet they persist in far too many +instances in following the old-fashioned and uneconomical system of +first growing the pig and then fatting it, whereas it is not only +possible but infinitely more profitable to combine the two operations. +So many persons have been in the habit of looking upon the pig as a mere +scavenger or an animal to put out of sight certain articles containing a +small amount of nutriment which, undisposed of, would become a nuisance +or offensive to one or other of our organs. Even the pig itself has been +considered by many farmers, especially those termed gentlemen farmers, +as a necessary nuisance, whereas the pig is really a machine for the +conversion of farm produce into meat, and like all machines, its output +will depend entirely on the quantity and quality of the raw material, +and the manner in which it is supplied. If the raw material be of +inferior quality and supplied irregularly, or in too limited +quantities, the article manufactured will be more costly and of an +inferior quality. An extension in the time of manufacture means +increased cost for fuel and for labour in attendance on the machinery. A +certain quantity of fuel is being continually used in the furnace +whether the engine is running at full power or at half power. It is +exactly the same with the meat making machine, the pig every day of its +existence consumes a certain quantity of food for which it gives one +return only, its life. It has been conclusively proved that each pig +weighing 100 lbs. requires 2 lbs. of food daily to enable it to sustain +life, i.e. to replace loss of tissue, to provide heat, progression, +etc., so that if a pig lives six months longer than is actually +necessary to enable it to manufacture a certain weight of meat, it will +have eaten to waste over 3 cwt. of good food. + +A pig is like unto any other machine, it will produce the manufactured +article most cheaply when it is fully supplied with the most suitable +raw material. There is not the slightest doubt that the least costly +pork is that which is produced by the pig which spends its whole time in +the object of its existence, the manufacture of pork. + +There is a further point of great importance. Wellnigh all those +materials which are used in the feeding of pigs contain the constituents +necessary for the building up of the frame and for the accumulation of +fat or, as it is commonly termed, the making of meat. Evidently nature +intended that the two operations should be carried on simultaneously. +Those constituents which are required in the building up of the frame +cannot be entirely used in the formation of fat, consequently if the +frame is first built up and then an attempt is made to lay on flesh, a +considerable portion of the building up constituents are simply wasted, +since the pig has no need for them and cannot make complete use of them. +They simply pass through the pig after taxing it to digest them, and are +wasted. + +Opinions and practices with regard to pig fatting have changed very much +during the past half century, and especially so since the full effect of +the fearful war has been felt. Rather before the first-mentioned period, +the late Sir John Lawes, whose researches and experiments have been of +lasting benefit to agriculturists, undertook to carry out experiments in +connection with pig-breeding, and the result which appears to have +impressed itself most upon the writers of the day was that barley meal +was the best single food for the fatting of pigs. At the time named, our +importations of maize and of many other materials now used in stock and +especially pig-breeding were not of anything the magnitude of the period +prior to the war, still, it seems to be strange to the enlightened +pig-breeder of to-day that more serious endeavours should not have been +made to determine the value of a mixed diet for pigs, since this had +been proved to be beneficial and necessary in the case of human beings +whose organs are so very similar to that of the despised pig. + +Fortunately for us, and indeed for the stock-keepers in all parts of the +world, experiments in the feeding of stock have been carried out in +various countries, Denmark, Sweden, the United States, Canada, +Germany, and indeed in nearly all countries, save to any great extent in +England. In connection with pigs, the practices of a few of our more +intelligent pig-keepers have been confirmed. Amongst these ideas which +the old-fashioned ones looked upon as fads, was that of feeding pigs of +all ages and especially fatting pigs on a certain proportion of +vegetable food. Experiments have conclusively proved that the +substitution of some 10 per cent of vegetable matter in place of an +equal amount of meal or concentrated food, does not result in the +slightest reduction in the live weight gain of the fatting pig, and +further that the old idea that a limited quantity of vegetable food fed +to a fatting pig tended to render the pork soft and to waste in the +cooking was not founded on fact. Another fact which has evolved from +these experiments is that the pig will make far greater progress on an +equal amount of a mixture of foods than if fed solely on one food. This +was clearly proved in many experiments as at the Wisconsin Agricultural +Station, where one lot of pigs was fed on middlings alone, a second lot +on corn meal alone, and a third lot on a mixture of corn meal and +middlings. To make an increase of 100 lbs. in their live weight, the +pigs in Lot 1 ate 522 lbs. of middlings, those in Lot 2 ate 537 lbs. of +corn meal to make an equal increase in weight, whilst Lot 3, which were +fed on a mixture of corn meal and middlings, required only 439 lbs., or +a saving of one-fifth in the weight of food. In experiments with regard +to the food value of corn meal and middlings carried out at the +Missouri College, middlings also gave the best returns, but +unfortunately the ages of the pigs used in the trials are omitted. This +is important as middlings are considered to be of more value in the +feeding of young than of older pigs, whilst the reverse holds good of +corn or maize meal. Other trials were carried out at Wisconsin with the +use of wheat meal alone as compared with a mixture of half wheat and +half corn meal. In these the average quantity of wheat meal required for +100 lbs. increased live weight was 500 lbs., whilst only 485 lbs. of the +mixture of wheat and corn meals was needed to obtain an equal increase +or a saving of some 5 per cent was obtained by mixing the meals. + +In the good old times it was considered to be the height of folly to +make a change in the food on which the pigs were being fattened, yet our +forbears would have been horrified had they been informed that it was +imperative that they themselves should have no variety of food, that day +after day the food at their various meals should be exactly similar; +surely what is good for one animal should be good for another animal +whose organs are of an exactly similar character. There is not the +slightest doubt that advantage is derived from the variation in the food +on which the pigs are being fattened. By this, it is not intended to +suggest that a complete change of food should be made at stated times in +the fatting pigs' food, as this would certainly result in a loss of time +and food, but that a slight variation in the proportions of the +different kinds of food is beneficial, or in the case where several +different kinds of food are being fed as a mixture, another kind of +food may be substituted so that the change made secures a variation +which has the effect of whetting or enticing the appetite. A long +continuance of the same kind of food has the effect of dulling the +appetite. In addition to this, it is considered that a variation in the +food tends to stimulate the digestive organs. + +It is a mistake to allow too long a time to pass between feeding times; +the pig is not endowed by nature with a capacious paunch which enables +it to stow away a large quantity of food. Even the old system of feeding +twice a day might be improved upon, and the fatting pig fed three times +per day would make greater thrift, even should the actual daily quantity +of food be not increased. + +Again, so many persons are apt to give to the fatting pig a greater +quantity of food than it requires or can eat with comfort to itself at +one meal. Should this be pointed out to them, their usual reply would be +that what the pig did not eat for their breakfast would be there in +readiness for the evening meal unless they ate it during the day, as +they frequently would do. This sounds plausible until the argument be +closely examined. What would the pigman think if he were treated in a +similar manner and an excessive quantity of food placed on his plate, +and then at the next meals the stale food be again placed before him +until it was finished? This certainly would not increase his appetite +nor aid his digestion. Yet the most successful pigman is he who succeeds +in so feeding his charges that they daily eat and thoroughly digest the +greatest amount of food possible. In pig fattening, as in many other +things, time is money. Further it is just as much a mistake for fatting +pigs as for human beings to be continually eating, or at irregular +intervals, small quantities of food. The two most certain indications +that a lot of fatting pigs are thriving is to find that they are asleep +and that their feeding troughs are empty. When pigs are fed a greater +quantity of food than they can eat at once they will be frequently +getting up to eat a little more of the surplus, and each time they rise +from their bed they will evacuate their bowels, and in most cases before +the major portion of the nutriment has been extracted. + +Still another of the fallacies of our forbears was that the fatting pig +made the greatest increase from a given quantity of food when it was at +least approaching maturity and ripeness, or complete fatness. It was +useless to argue with them, since anyone could see that it was so. If +you suggested the use of the scales, the idea was scouted, since a +person of any experience in pig fatting must be able to notice the +increase in bulk of the pig. It is true that apparently the pig would be +making a greater increase of weight as it approached the completion of +its fatting process, since the addition to its weight and bulk would be +almost entirely composed of fat which could only be deposited on the +outside of the carcase. All the vacant space in the interior of the pig +would have been occupied, the pig would have stored fat away in its +muscles, around its kidneys, on its stomach, its bowels, and wherever it +was possible to stow it away, but these additions to the weight of the +carcase which had been proceeding in the early stages of the fatting +could not be observed, nevertheless they were proceeding, and in this +was the pig enabled in its early stage of fatting to make a profitable +return for the food consumed. + +Fortunately we are not left on this point to mere conjecture; many +experiments have clearly proved that in the early stages of the life of +a pig it is enabled to manufacture pork at a far less cost than in its +later stages of life. The young pig also possesses over its older +companion the great advantage of being able to eat and utilise a greater +quantity of food in proportion to its weight or, in other words, the +young pig can convert a greater quantity of raw material into the +manufactured article than the more matured pig, in proportion to the +amount of food required for the mere upkeep of the machinery. +Experiments which most clearly prove this have been duplicated in +Denmark, in the United States, etc. At Copenhagen nearly seventy +different experiments were carried out with pigs of varying weights, +with the result that pigs weighing about 275 lbs. live weight were found +to require nearly twice as much food to make an increase in their live +weight as did pigs weighing from 35 to 75 lbs. That this was not an +exceptional case is clearly proved by the fact that the increase in the +amount of food required to enable them to make an increase in their live +weight was gradual, and shown in every stage; thus pigs of from 35 to 75 +lbs. consumed 376 lbs. of food for each 100 lbs. increase; pigs of 75 to +115 lbs., 435 lbs.; pigs of 115 to 155 lbs., 466 lbs.; pigs of 155 lbs. +to 195 lbs., 513 lbs.; pigs of 195 lbs. to 235 lbs., 540 lbs.; pigs of +235 lbs. to 275 lbs., 614 lbs.; and pigs of 275 lbs. to 315 lbs., 639 +lbs. + +Even if this series of experiments stood alone they surely would prove +most conclusively that the common belief in old and nearly fat pigs +giving the best return from the food consumed is founded on fiction, but +similar tests were made at many of the American Experiment Stations, +these tests together numbering some hundred. The results are given in +tabulated form in Henry's _Feeds and Feeding_, where the various points +are so clearly brought out that we have taken the liberty of lifting the +whole of the notes relating to "weight, gain, and feed consumed" by +pigs. "At many of our stations, records of weights and gains of pigs and +feed consumed by them have been so reported as to permit of studies +concerning the influence of increased size and weight of the animal on +the consumption of food. + +"All of the available data from trials of this character conducted in +this country" (the United States) "up to the time of going to press, +enter into the composition of the table given below. In compiling this +table, six pounds of skim milk or twelve pounds of whey are calculated +as equal to one pound of grain, according to the Danish valuation of +these articles. For convenience of study, the data are presented for +each period covering fifty pounds of growth, the actual average weight +of the pigs, however, being given for each division: + + DATA RELATIVE TO FEED, WEIGHT, AND GAIN OF PIGS-- + MANY AMERICAN STATIONS + + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + | | | | | + Weight of | Actual | No. of | Total | No. of | + pigs in | Average | stations | No. of | animals | + pounds. | weight. | reporting. | trials. | fed. | + | | | | | + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + | lbs. | | | | + 15 to 50 | 38 | 9 | 41 | 174 | + 50 " 100 | 78 | 13 | 100 | 417 | + 100 " 150 | 128 | 13 | 119 | 495 | + 150 " 200 | 174 | 11 | 107 | 489 | + 200 " 250 | 226 | 12 | 72 | 300 | + 250 " 300 | 271 | 8 | 46 | 223 | + 300 " 350 | 320 | 3 | 19 | 105 | + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + 350 " 400 | 378 | 1 | 5 | 36 | + 400 " 450 | 429 | 1 | 5 | 36 | + 450 " 500 | 471 | 1 | 2 | 18 | + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + | Average | Feed | | + Weight of | feed | eaten per | Average | Feed for + pigs in | eaten | 100 lbs. | gain per | 100 lbs. + pounds. | per day. | weight. | day. | gain. + | | | | + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. + 15 to 50 | 2.23 | 5.95 | .76 | 293 + 50 " 100 | 3.35 | 4.32 | .83 | 400 + 100 " 150 | 4.79 | 3.75 | 1.10 | 437 + 150 " 200 | 5.91 | 3.43 | 1.24 | 482 + 200 " 250 | 6.57 | 2.91 | 1.33 | 498 + 250 " 300 | 7.40 | 2.74 | 1.46 | 511 + 300 " 350 | 7.50 | 2.35 | 1.40 | 535 + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + 350 " 400 | 8.52 | 2.25 | 1.98 | 431 + 400 " 450 | 8.18 | 1.91 | 1.71 | 479 + 450 " 500 | 10.00 | 2.12 | 1.77 | 562 + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + +"In the above table the large number of trials reported for pigs +weighing up to 350 lbs. each furnishes reliable data. After this point +is reached the number of animals is too small to give reliable averages. +The heavy weight hogs reported in the last three lines of the table were +fed by the writer (Professor Henry). They were mature specimens, with +large frames and in lean flesh when feeding began, having been summered +on pasture without grain. The figures are introduced to show what may be +accomplished with mature hogs when they are in thin flesh at the +beginning of fattening. + +"We learn from the main portion of the table that from 105 to 435 pigs +were employed in calculating each line of data. The number of trials +furnishing the data varied from 19 to 119, and were conducted by from 3 +to 13 experiment stations. + +"Amount of food consumed daily by the pig. The sixth column of the table +shows the average amount of feed consumed daily by pigs of different +weights. From it we learn that pigs weighing less than 50 lbs. each, +averaging 38 lbs., consumed on the average 2.23 lbs. of grain or grain +equivalent, daily. As the animal increased in weight there was a gradual +increase in the amount of food consumed, until we find the 450 lbs. hog +eating 10 lbs. of grain daily, or more than four times as much as the 50 +lbs. pig. + +"Feed per 100 lbs. live weight: In the seventh column it is shown that +pigs weighing 38 lbs. consumed 5.95 lbs. of feed for each 100 lbs. of +live weight. This is about 6 per cent of their live weight. As the pigs +grew larger they consumed less feed for 100 lbs. of live weight, until +with the heaviest hogs the feed consumed was little more than 2 per cent +of their live weight. Here was a decrease of about two-thirds in the +feed consumption per 100 lbs. between early weight and maturity. + +"Average daily gain: In the next column are presented data concerning +the daily gain of the pig. It is shown that the 38 lb. pig gained .76 of +a lb., or 2 per cent of its own weight daily. As it increased in size +the pig made larger daily gains, the maximum being reached with those +weighing 271 lbs., which made a daily gain of 1.46 lb. With large thin +hogs the gain reached 1.98 lb., or practically 2 lbs. per day, but these +animals, because of their mature frames and thin flesh, were fed under +exceptional circumstances. + +"Feed for 100 lbs. of gain: The last column is of interest to all, +especially the practical feeder, for it teaches a most interesting and +important lesson concerning the feed requirements of pigs. Those which +average 38 lbs. each made 100 lbs. of gain from 293 lbs. of feed. This +exceedingly small allowance of feed for gain was probably due in part to +the fact that the young pigs used in these trials received much milk, +which was practically all digestible, the other feed being also more +highly digestible than that usually supplied older animals. With pigs +weighing 78 lbs., 400 lbs. of feed were required for 100 lbs. of gain. +There was a gradual increase of feed requirements for 100 lbs. of gain, +until the hog weighing 320 lbs. required 525 lbs. for each 100 lbs. of +gain. This is 135 lbs. or 33 per cent more feed than was required by the +78 lbs. pig." + +These tables prove most conclusively that the idea which is almost +universally prevalent that the fatting pig gives the greatest increase +for the food which it consumes when it becomes matured and nearly fat is +an entirely mistaken one, and that the young and growing pig, if well +kept, not only eats more in proportion to its weight, but gives a better +return for the food it consumes, besides requiring a smaller amount of +food to keep life within itself, and to replace the certain loss +sustained by movement, etc. There is still another point on which the +young pig scores: its carcase realises a higher price per lb. on a +majority of the markets. The fatting pig which pays best is one which +has a short life and a merry one, never having to seek or wait for its +food. + +Amongst the many other questions which have been compelled attention +owing to the shortage and the high value of pig food, is that of the +advisability or the reverse of cooking the food given to pigs. When the +practice of showing stock became fashionable every possible means of +forcing the exhibits was practised, since early maturity was of so great +importance, especially in the classes for the younger animals. The +cooking of the stronger kinds of food such as old beans for horses had +been found beneficial, as the risk of fever in the feet and other +ailments had been greatly reduced by this practice. The stock man +naturally concluded that the cooking or steaming of beans having proved +to be of advantage, similar good results would follow the steaming of +the other kinds of food. In this fanciful theory they would have been +able to find ample support in many of the books on stock feeding which +were published in the first half of the last century and even later. +Like many other novelties, the steaming or boiling of almost all kinds +of food for animals was followed in the establishments of well-to-do +persons where cost was studied less than success in the show yards. +Then, as now, the Germans took little for granted, they proceeded to +test the much belauded new plan by attempting to discover the fact as to +whether steaming rendered hay more digestible when fed to cattle, with +the result that it was clearly proved that when the hay was fed dry 46 +per cent of the protein was digested by the cattle while only 30 per +cent was digested from the steamed hay. But as our present business is +with pig-feeding, we will confine our remarks to the results of +experiments carried out to test the effects of cooking the food of pigs. +Perhaps the best summary of these is to be found in the most valuable +work, _Feeds and Feeding_, by Professor Henry, who wrote _Experiments +with Cooked Feed for Pigs_. + +These have been so numerous that all cannot be here presented. Those +given are selected because they are strictly representative, covering a +wide range of country foods and conditions. + +"At the Kansas Agricultural College, Shelton fed one lot of five pigs on +cooked shelled corn, while a second lot of four, similar in all +respects, was given uncooked shelled corn, the trial lasting ninety +days. In cooking, the corn was placed in a barrel and water poured over +it; into this mass a pipe carried steam, at a pressure ranging from 30 +to 60 lbs. The kernels were cooked until they were sufficiently soft +to be easily mashed between the thumb and finger. + +"At the Iowa Agricultural College, Stalker conducted trials for 120 days +in summer with cooked and uncooked shelled corn fed to Berkshire pigs. + +"At the Dominion (Canada) Station, Robertson fed grade Chester Whites, a +mixture of ground peas, barley, and rye, the trials beginning in +December and lasting 141 days. + +"At the Ohio Station, Devol fed pure bred Poland Chinas and Berkshires +for 112 days in winter. One lot of three pigs received the meal cooked, +while to the second lot it was given dry and uncooked. + +"At the Wisconsin Station, the writer (Henry) has conducted many trials +with cooked and uncooked feed for pigs. Only the later ones are here +reported. These trials lasted from 56 to 84 days each, the kinds of feed +experimented being given in the table. + +"The five trials reported from the Wisconsin Station, as will be seen by +consulting the table, are slightly in favour of cooked food, the +difference being very small, however. These are the only feeding trials +reported from any experiment station, so far as known to the writer, +where the results are favourable to cooking. Ten other trials by the +writer with cooked and uncooked feed for swine all gave results +unfavourable to cooking these, and a number of trials at other stations +with cooked and uncooked feed for swine are not included for want of +space." + +A table showing the stations at which the various experiments were +carried out, the numbers and weights of the pigs, the varieties of +foods, the duration of the different trials, the daily gain, the weights +of cooked and uncooked food consumed, the manner of cooking, the total +increases in weight and the quantities of cooked and uncooked food +required for increases of 100 lbs. in the live weights of the pigs are +given. Professor Henry sums these up and writes: "Including all the +trials then, so far as is known, that have been favourable to cooking +feed and omitting many for lack of space, that are unfavourable to that +operation, the average shows that 476 lbs. of uncooked meal or grain +were required for 100 lbs. of gain with pigs, while after it was cooked +505 lbs. were required. This shows a loss of 6 per cent of the feeding +value of these substances through cooking." + +Some thirty-five years since the present writer made some small +experiments in the feeding of cooked and uncooked whole maize; in each +case it was found that the pigs ate a greater quantity of uncooked than +cooked maize, and made a greater proportionate increase in weight from +the food consumed. Only one opinion appears to be possible, and this is +that the cooking of food for pigs, save potatoes, entails a loss of +time, an increase in cost, and a reduced return. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +A PIG CALENDAR + + +The pig-keeper, like the gardener, seldom has to seek for employment, +indeed his work may be said to be only occasionally completed. There are +always many little odd jobs to do, which if neglected may result in +loss, or a greatly increased amount of work at some later period. The +old proverb "A stitch in time saves nine" is equally as true in +connection with pig keeping as with any other form of work. + +In years gone by the month of January was considered to be quite a slack +time for pig-keepers, the sows and the store pigs usually found the +greater part of their living in the yards where the cattle were fed on +the straw which was continually being placed in the cribs as the +old-man-of-the-farm threshed the corn out of it with his flail. Many of +the cribs had slatted bottoms so that any kernels of corn which were +left in the straw would drop through and be picked up by the pigs which +found their way under the cribs. In most of the old-fashioned large +yards a corner would be railed off in which the pigs would be given a +few turnips, swedes, or small potatoes, and occasionally a handful or +two of beans or even a sheaf of beans. Those fatting pigs which had not +already been converted into bacon for consumption in the farm-house were +fed mainly on meal ground at the local wind or water mill from the tail +corn grown by the farmer. At the present time the most up-to-date +pig-keepers so arrange that many of the older sows farrow during this +month of January so that the sows have their second litter of the year +late in the month of June or early in July in order that both litters of +pigs obtain the greatest amount of benefit from the growing and hot +season, since pigs thrive best when the days are lengthening and when +the sun shines. + +Of late years we appear to have had somewhat severe weather in January. +This has rendered it the more necessary that care should be taken in +providing water and wind-tight sties, in which the sows farrow. Warmth +with free ventilation is needed. The latter is particularly necessary +after the pigs are a few days old, as these do not suffer so much from +cold as they do from damp and draughts. Of course whilst the sow is +farrowing warmth is imperative, as the moist little pigs when first +ejected very quickly become chilled in severe frost, unless they are +promptly wiped with a dry cloth, allowed a draught or two of new milk +from the sow, and then placed in a box or hamper three parts filled with +dry wheat straw. When once the pigs become thoroughly dry the cold does +not affect them very much, providing that the sow furnishes her family +with a full supply of milk. The cost of heating a little water so that +the sow and also the young pigs as soon as they begin to eat may have +warmed food, will be slight, as there is nearly always a fire required +in cottage and farm-house during the cold weather. Warm food makes a +vast difference in the thrift of pigs, especially of young ones. Very +slight observation will reveal the marked difference in the comfort of a +pig which has had a meal of warm or of cold food. In the former case the +pig will return to its nest and is soon lost in sleep, whilst the poor +beggar which has had its breakfast on cold and occasionally frozen food +will be the picture of misery and shaking with cold, much of its natural +heat produced from its last meal being required to warm up the food ere +its digestive organs can commence work. Coal and wood are at all times +less expensive to warm up food than the animal fat which is burned in +nature's lamp. + +Provision should have been made for the supply of some kind of vegetable +food which pigs require, particularly when in confinement. Kohl rabi, +swedes and cabbages, of which the first named is the best, are all +suitable, but the most nourishing are artichokes, which like the three +former should be fed raw, and potatoes which should be cooked ere they +are fed to the pigs. The difference in the feeding value between cooked +and uncooked potatoes is great. It is scarcely necessary to point out +that all vegetable food fed to pigs should have been protected from +frost. + +The operations connected with pig-keeping are very similar in February +to those of the preceding month. Towards the end of the month kohl rabis +will have lost much of their feeding value. On sunny days a run out for +a few minutes will be of great benefit to the young pigs over a month +old; as soon as they cease to gallop about they should be shut up again, +as if allowed to lie down they may contract a chill which might result +in "cramp" or rheumatism. Sows with litters two or three weeks old +should be allowed out of the sty each morning and afternoon for a short +time. + +The month of March brings with it an extra amount of work for the +pig-keeper, who will now think of selling the pigs born early in January +unless he purposes to keep them on and have them ready for sale as fat +pigs in harvest time, when there is always a good demand for medium +sized fat pigs. Anyway the sow pigs intended for breeding will have been +picked out and earmarked, this last should not be neglected after the +others have been spayed. + +This last operation has of late years been much neglected; this is a +great mistake, as experiments have clearly proved that on an average sow +pigs which have been spayed will make an equal gain in live weight on 5 +per cent less food than will an unspayed sow pig, when both have become +some five or six months old, and the periods of Å“strum have +commenced. + +The sows which farrowed in January should now be weaned from their pigs, +and should be ready to be mated within a few days. The sows should be +carefully watched for the signs of heat or restlessness. Some sows give +little indication of this unrest, which is almost certain to appear +within four or five days providing the sow is in a healthy and vigorous +condition. To miss the sow means a loss of three weeks of most valuable +time, besides the risk of trouble in getting the sow to conceive after +she had been baulked. With the passing of the month swedes and +artichokes will have lost much of their nourishment; mangolds can now +take their place. It is a good plan to expose the mangolds to the air +for a few days prior to feeding them to the pigs; this exposure hastens +their ripening and reduces the proportion of water. Of course care must +be taken to prevent them becoming frozen, as in March this might be the +case. + +In the Southern counties tares, lucerne, and grass are sufficiently +forward towards the end of April to be cut and fed to the pigs which are +confined in the buildings. The pigs both fat and store will fully repay +the cost of labour in the cutting and carting of these vegetable foods. +Brood sows both in pig and with litters dependent on them, should be +allowed their liberty in the grass fields. This will both greatly reduce +the cost of keep and tend to their thrift and well doing. Young pigs +over a month old should have a run out both morning and afternoon. Newly +weaned pigs which have been well done are always in keen request in the +months of April and May at prices higher than in any other portion of +the year, owing to the demand from the cheese-makers who have a +superabundance of whey, of which 12 lbs. when fed in proper combination +is considered to be equal in value to 1 lb. of meal. Unfortunately, so +many dairymen do not study the requirements of the pig, and imagine that +it will give a good return from an excess of liquid in the form of whey. +Without some concentrated food the pig will not thrive on whey. Numbers +of young pigs are also required in those districts where butter-making +is carried on to consume the butter milk, and in ordinary times much of +the separated or skim milk. In the feeding of this again the results are +not so good as they should be owing to neglect. Both foods have been +rendered unbalanced owing to the extraction of the butter fat, so that +although new milk may be fed alone, the others require additional food +which should contain some oil or fat to be fed with them, or they cause +indigestion and want of thrift, particularly in young and immature pigs. + +The roots of all kinds, save potatoes and mangolds, have ceased to be of +much value before April ends, vetches and lucerne will prove to be the +best of substitutes. Spring cabbages are generally of more value for +human consumption than can be obtained from their use as pig food. If +there be any grass land available the in-pig sows and the stores, should +there be such, should now find the major portion of their food out of +doors. + +As a rule far too little attention is paid to the growth of lucerne in +this country. It is undoubtedly one of the most nutritive of our +vegetable crops. It also produces a large weight of food extending over +several months, and continues fruitful for many years providing +attention is paid to the keeping it free from grasses. It has the +additional advantage of furnishing a full supply of food when the +weather is so dry that grass and some other foods produce little. It is +true that in the initial stage it requires time and care, but the +results from it amply repay both. One of the best seasons for sowing it +is the month of May. The operation is simple, the land having been +cleared the seed is sown in drills about 1 ft. apart, the quantity of +seed required being at the rate of 20 lbs. per acre, say 2 oz. per pole +or a drill 35 yards long. As soon as the plants are high enough the land +should be hand hoed, and if kept free of weeds a light crop can +generally be cut from it towards the end of August. In the following +years it will produce at least three cuttings annually. + +Some persons are of opinion that as lucerne is such a deep-rooted plant +manure is unnecessary. It is true that the roots penetrate several feet +into the soil, still an application of short manure or rotted vegetable +matter applied each autumn will give a good return. + +The chief point in the use of lucerne for pigs and in the production of +a maximum crop is to cut it when young. The pigs will thrive on it far +better in this state than when the stalks become hard and sticky. In the +latter stage it is likely to cause constipation. It is best not to graze +it with either horses, cattle, or pigs, but benefit to it results from +folding it in the autumn with ewes or other sheep which find most of +their other food on the stubbles, commons, heaths, etc. + +All the sows and the yelts intended for breeding should now spend their +whole time out of doors. It might be noted that lucerne will grow on +almost any kind of land providing it is well drained--stagnant water +destroys it. + +The duties of the pig-keeper are very similar in the month of June to +those of the previous month. Prior to the outbreak of war it was +becoming general amongst the most practical pigmen to continue to fatten +pigs all the year round. The old-fashioned idea that pork was not a +suitable food during any of the months in which there was not the letter +"r" had become exploded. Not only did the bacon curers require a supply +of fat pigs weighing from 200 to 220 lbs. alive, but there was a good +demand from the butchers for small fat pigs weighing from 80 to 140 lbs. +alive. + +It must not be forgotten that a smaller quantity of food is required to +produce a pound of pork during the summer than during the winter months. +This has been clearly proved in many experiments. The difference varies +according to the temperature. In the very cold weather experienced in +some portions of the United States it was found that some pigs actually +made no increase in weight when well fed, the whole of the nutriment +having to be utilised in keeping up the bodily warmth of the pigs. + +The months of July and August see little change in the duties of the +attendant on pigs. The old-fashioned plan of running the pigs on the +corn stubbles has almost gone out of fashion. The improved system of +harvesting the crops leaves less corn on the land, whilst the cost of +labour in keeping the pigs is almost prohibitive. At one time there used +to be a keen demand for young pigs in the month of August for so-called +"shacking" or running on the stubbles. Experience has proved that these +pigs pay less frequently under present conditions than they did under +the old ones. + +The scarcity of vegetable food which usually shows itself in August is +now, in September, met to a considerable extent by the plan of the early +digging of potatoes. Large quantities of chats, and sometimes of +slightly diseased ones are now cooked and fed to the pigs with a certain +proportion of meal. As a rule there is a keen demand for pork in the +month of September. Towards the end of the month all pigs should be +under shelter at night. + +During the last three months of the year there is little variation in +the management of pigs. One of the common mistakes made by farmers is to +neglect their pigs in the autumn, at the very season when a little extra +food is needed, and for which the pigs will give a better return than at +almost any time of the year. The early portion of October is one of the +best periods for mating the sows, the yelts may be left until the latter +part of the month so that their pigs do not arrive until the month of +February when the days are lengthening and the sun has more power. It is +advisable to have many of the fat pigs ready for market ere the month of +November ends, as the demand for pork is usually slack for two or three +weeks prior to and after Christmas. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +DISEASES OF THE PIG + + +Fortunately, the pig is subject to comparatively few serious +diseases--save swine fever, swine erysipelas, and very occasionally +anthrax, which are contagious or infectious, and all in the special +charts of the veterinary department of the Board of Agriculture, and +within the contagious Diseases Animals Acts. Prior to the stamping out +of Foot and Mouth Disease or apthous fever and rabies, pigs suffered +from these contagious and infectious diseases, particularly the former +of the two, which caused immense losses, especially of young pigs, +during the latter half of the past century. + +Of the other ailments to which pig flesh is heir, the majority and the +chief of them are mainly due to that want of knowledge or care in the +feeding and in the housing of the pigs which renders them more +susceptible to the sudden changes in the temperature or to the +inclemency of the season. In former chapters some, if not all, of these +ailments have been referred to, but it may be more convenient to our +readers to include in one chapter a brief description of the ailments +and the remedies and means of prevention. + + +SWINE FEVER + +Some thirty years since the losses from this disease were of so serious +a nature that the Board of Agriculture determined to attempt to stamp it +out, as they had succeeded in stamping out pleura pneumonia in cattle, +and foot and mouth disease. The success of their efforts was not at all +commensurate with the outlay. The failure was attributed to many causes; +amongst them the want of a complete knowledge of the disease, the +impossibility of diagnosing it during the life of the patient, the +absence of sympathy on the part of the local veterinary surgeons owing +to certain steps taken by the then Veterinary Adviser of the Board, to +which further reference is now inadvisable, and to the general +opposition of pig-keepers who had as little faith in many of the post +mortems and their results as in the power of the authorities to stamp +out the disease which under various names had been more or less common +in the country so long as they could remember. Doubts were also passed +on the infectivity or contagiousness of swine fever, or as it was +variously termed red soldier, spots, etc. + +This disbelief was probably due in part to the fact that some of the +external symptoms of swine fever, swine erysipelas, and heart disease, +such as discoloration of the skin were of a similar character. In some +instances this redness of the skin, which was looked upon as a sure sign +that the pig had died from swine fever, did not prove to be infectious, +as no other cases followed amongst the in-contact pigs. This led to the +general belief that swine fever was not necessarily infectious. +Dissatisfaction with the arbitrary manner in which the restrictions in +movement, etc., were carried out did not mend matters, nor help to +render the efforts of the Board more successful. + +At the present time it is imperative on the part of the owner of an ill +pig to report the fact to the nearest policeman. The owner then merely +carries out the instructions supplied to him by the police so that it is +almost unnecessary to state that the symptoms of swine fever are +several. At times the attack is of so virulent a nature that a pig may +take its food all right in the afternoon and be dead the next morning, +no discoloration of the skin or other external symptoms being visible +before or immediately after death. + +As a rule when the pig is attacked the first symptom is loss of +appetite, generally accompanied by a feverish condition of the skin +which shows more or fewer red spots behind the shoulder, and inside the +thighs, or in those portions of the body where the skin is the thinnest +and most free from hair. The great desire of the affected pig is to +burrow into the litter and to remain undisturbed, save when the feverish +thirst impels it to seek moisture of any sort or kind, even urine which +may have settled into any unevenness of the floor of the sty. + +Many of the ailing pigs suffer from a dry, husky cough, a gummy +discharge exudes from the eyes and forms a ring round them, the ankles +become affected, and the muscles of the back become weakened so that +the pig has difficulty in walking. The discoloration of the skin may or +may not increase, but the weakness gradually becomes greater so that +death may follow within a day or two from the first attack. Occasionally +the affected pig will continue to live for several days, and eventually +recover so much that it can be fatted, but there exists a great risk of +the recovered pig being what is termed a "carrier" of the disease, and +possessing the ability to infect other pigs with which it may come in +close contact, although the germs of the disease which it carries do not +affect its own health. Similar instances of human beings being +"carriers" of the disease have been recorded. So difficult is it at +times to discover the source of the infection of swine fever that +certain persons who are not amongst the strongest believers in the +practical knowledge of the members of the veterinary profession assert +that swine fever need not necessarily be the result of infection, but +that injudicious feeding or the neglect of sanitary arrangements will +sometimes cause an outbreak. There does not appear to be the slightest +ground for this belief, as there is a specific virus which when it +obtains ingress into the body of the pig, whether by the mouth, nose, or +in any other way, may result in an attack, more or less severe, of swine +fever, unless the virus has become so attenuated that it is unable to +affect the host sufficiently. This attenuation, which is due to causes +which are probably not completely known, is commonly the cause of the +absence of further cases of swine fever amongst one of a lot of pigs +which has had a very mild attack. This variation in the virulence of +most infectious diseases has been noticed and recorded. + +At the present time the Board of Agriculture have suspended the +slaughter order in cases where the owner of the pigs desires to +inoculate the in-contact pigs with serum which is supplied from the +Veterinary College. The experiment has not been in operation +sufficiently long enough to express a confident opinion upon its +results, but it is stated that in Denmark the inoculation of the pigs +which have been in contact with diseased pigs has proved to be a +success. The risks of carrying out the experiment are by no means +slight, but appear to be worth running if there be any great probability +of success. + + +SWINE ERYSIPELAS + +The symptoms of this disease, which fortunately is not so common as +swine fever, owing probably to its being more fatal and in a shorter +time, are very similar to those of swine fever, save that the husky +cough and the weakness of the muscles of the back are generally absent. +The post mortem shows distinctive differences from those of swine fever. +There appears to be far greater difficulty in thoroughly disinfecting +the sty in which pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed than +after swine fever cases; not only so, but the virus remains active for a +very long period, so that any accident which may expose the virus even +after many months may affect any pigs with which it comes in contact. + +In an outbreak of swine erysipelas it is advisable to have the +unaffected pigs inoculated as well as those housed in a sty or building +in which at any time pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed. A +certain limited number may die, and a few suffer for a time, but the +total loss will be considerably reduced. + + +ANTHRAX, FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE AND RABIES + +It may be unnecessary to describe these very infectious or contagious +diseases to which pigs are subject, as fortunately the steps taken to +stamp them out, and which were much decried when taken by the Board of +Agriculture, have proved so successful that the two latter are stamped +out, and the first named is so promptly and effectually dealt with that +a case of it amongst swine is seldom recorded. + + +CRAMP, DIARRHÅ’A AND EPILEPTIC FITS + +These diseases, which are more frequent amongst young pigs, have been +fully described in the chapters dealing with the rearing, weaning, and +growing of pigs, where it is pointed out that they are all mainly due to +faults in feeding, and the simple remedies applicable are there given. + +Hernia and Scrotal Hernia are also treated upon in the chapter on the +Farrowing Sow. + + +INVERSION OF THE VAGINA OR THE UTERUS + +These two troubles, of which the latter is a complete expulsion and the +former only a partial protrusion of the "breeding bag," are generally +the result of a difficult or a protracted farrowing. The second is +almost impossible of treatment, and indeed may be declared as fatal, so +that the loss may be reduced by prompt slaughter. + +The first varies in extent; a partial or limited inversion may at times +be noticeable during the latter stages of pregnancy, and then after +delivery may disappear without treatment until the pressure due to the +increasing size of the fÅ“tus again causes it. Even in serious cases +which attend the delivery and are due to excessive straining of the sow, +the attack is not necessarily fatal if extreme care in treatment is +applied. The first thing is to wash the protruding part with warm water, +to which some disinfectant has been added, in order that all dirt, short +straw, etc., shall be removed. The sow should then be made to rise, or +if she refuses, as is not uncommon, the hind quarters of the sow should +be raised and the protruding portion be gently but firmly forced back. +In order to prevent a re-expulsion stitches with strong cord or leather +lace should be inserted into the edges of the vulva--these need not be +very close together or otherwise the sow would be unable to make water. +For a few days the sow must be kept as quiet as possible and fed on a +little nourishing but laxative food, so that the pressure on the vagina +is slight until the muscles regain their normal strength. Should there +be the slightest symptom of constipation, salts or castor oil should be +given to the sow. No harm, but rather good, will attend the giving of a +gentle dose of salts at the first time of feeding after the operation as +there is certain to be an amount of inflammation present. + + +INVERSION OF THE RECTUM + +This expulsion of the gut as it is commonly termed is not often +experienced amongst mature pigs. Young pigs are not uncommonly affected +save when constipation is neglected, or when the food is of a heating +nature which causes continual difficulty on the part of the pig in +expelling the fæces. The effort of straining causes the gut to exude. +Similar treatment, save as to the stitching of the part, as with +inversion of the vagina, should be followed. + + +TENDER FEET + +This trouble is frequently mistaken for cramp or rheumatism, and is +generally due to the same causes, injudicious feeding, etc. In the +latter disease the ankles are mainly affected, in the case of fever in +the feet, the feet only are affected. A strong dose of Epsom salts +should be given and daily doses of nitre should be given in the food. +The object should be to reduce and remove the fever and then to cure or +remove that tenderness and soreness of the feet which follows the fever. +Poulticing the feet and applying diluted white oils by adding equal +quantities of water and vinegar around the coronets are both remedial +measures of great value. + + +CONSTIPATION + +This trouble is very common amongst pigs which are confined to the +sties, its avoidance is comparatively easy, when the want of exercise is +the sole cause. A run in an enclosure or even in the road will almost +always result in the pig evacuating dung and water. A dose of salts, +varying from 1/2 oz. to 1-1/2 oz. for each pig, according to age, in the +next supply of food is advisable. + +Constipation is usually the first indication of many of the troubles to +which the pig is heir. The little pig on its mother becomes constipated +when the food fed to the mother is unsuitable, and the pig suffers from +indigestion; fever caused by a chill is also foretold by constipation +which should be first removed by a gentle dose of salts or of castor +oil; the last only to be used in severe cases. Linseed oil is also +frequently used to relieve the constipation, but with this there is a +fear of billiousness following its use. If exercise and the above +remedies do not effect a cure, an enema of soap and water or even +glycerine may be necessary. Old-fashioned pigmen remove the hard and +knotty fæces by the aid of the finger. + + +ECZEMA + +This is sometimes called a skin disease, but it appears to be rather a +symptom of a severe attack of indigestion or of billiousness than a +disease in itself. It shows itself in the form of a bright red spot, +varying in size from that of a threepenny piece to that of a shilling, +these spots vary greatly in number. Small pimples appear on the spots +from which a sticky fluid exudes. As soon as the bowels are thoroughly +relieved by aperient medicine, the spots become dark in colour and peel +off the skin. The application of oil to the spots hastens the shedding +of them. A dose of sulphur of one to eight drachms in addition to the +salts will be beneficial. + +Frequently the pig will refuse to eat, it will then be necessary to dose +it. The pig must be caught, its head raised and the liquid gently poured +down its throat, the greatest care being taken not to pour the liquid +whilst the pig is squealing or the medicine will go into the lungs and +cause suffocation, or inflammation of the lungs which will generally +prove fatal. + + +MEASLES + +This is a trouble of a very similar character to eczema save that the +red spots are more numerous and of a more irritating character. The +patient is continually rubbing itself against the wall or any prominence +in an endeavour to relieve the itching. The pig is also more feverish. +The pig should be placed in a warm sty, with plenty of dry straw, into +which it will quickly burrow. A dose of Epsom salts to which is added a +small quantity of spirit of nitre should be given, as the pig affected +will almost invariably refuse food for a time. Neat's foot or sweet oil +applied to the spots will relieve the irritation. + + +RICKETS + +This is not by any means a common ailment amongst pigs, but it is very +hereditary. The most common cause is too close breeding. The bones and +joints appear to be unequal to the performance of their duties, the pig +staggers and stumbles when it attempts to move, whilst sometimes the +back is affected, when the pig is stated to be suffering from +"swayback." As a rule treatment is inadvisable as recovery is doubtful. +The first loss by knocking the pig on the head is generally the least. + + +TUBERCULOSIS + +Pigs, like unto human beings, are much subject to tuberculosis when they +are kept under conditions similar to those which result in human beings +becoming affected. The disease is highly infectious, pigs coming in +contact with or even being housed in sties where pigs affected have been +recently kept are very likely to become infected. Some persons declare +that tuberculosis, or, as it is more commonly called, consumption, is +hereditary. For this there does not appear to be any foundation. The +chief thing to prevent one's animals being affected is to keep them away +from contagion. Although many parts of the body may be attacked by +tuberculosis, the lungs are more frequently affected than any other of +the organs, owing probably to the ease with which infection by the +minute germ is conveyed to the lungs in the act of breathing. + +In the past a considerable number of pigs became infected through being +fed on skim milk which contained germs from the udder of a cow suffering +from a tuberculous udder. In these cases of the lungs and the bowels +becoming tubercular, the pigs become unthrifty and frequently waste away +and die. When the bones and other portions of the body are attacked the +development of the disease is not so rapid, but in any case the wisest +plan is to destroy the animal and thoroughly disinfect the place in +which it has been kept. Save when the disease is local and of very +limited duration the meat of a pig suffering from tuberculosis is unfit +for human consumption. + + +WORMS + +Pigs are subject to various kinds of worms. Of these the most serious by +far is the worm which causes the disease called Trichinosis in man. The +worms are transmitted to man in pork from a diseased pig. Thorough +cooking of meat appears to destroy the vitality of the worm, but in +foreign countries where the pork is eaten in an uncooked or an +undercooked condition the disease is not uncommon. Fortunately, +Trichinosis is almost unknown in this country, owing to our more +stringent sanitary conditions, the disease being due in the pig to the +eating of human excrement in which are thread worms. + +The most common kind of pig worm in this country is the round white +worm, pointed at both ends. Its length varies from one to several +inches. Its presence is often unsuspected until one or more of the worms +are noticed in the dung of the pig. It is readily got rid of by keeping +the pigs from food for at least twelve hours, and then giving them a +little tempting food in which a dose of santonine, varying from three to +ten grains for each pig, according to its age, has been added. Some two +hours later a dose of castor oil of from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz., or of one to +two ounces of Epsom salts, should be given in milk or some other +tempting food. Similar treatment will prove successful in the case of +pigs affected with the smaller kind of worms save that of the worm which +causes what is commonly known as "husk." This worm makes its home in the +windpipe and bronchial tubes. It is advisable to obtain from a chemist a +drench for the riddance of this worm, as the remedies will consist of +linseed oil, turpentine, spirits of camphor, and asafÅ“tida. + + +SORE TEATS + +Occasionally the teats of sows, especially sows with their first +litters, become chapped or sore. This trouble is frequently due to the +too vigorous sucking of the little pigs when the supply of milk is +short, to the biting of the teats when the sharp little teeth have not +been broken off, or even to cold winds. + +An application of boro-glyceride will usually effect a speedy cure. In +persistent cases it will be advisable to give the sow a dose or two of +opening medicine such as salts or sulphur. + + +SALT AND SODA POISONING + +Although these can scarcely be classed as diseases, the effects are +often more serious than those of some actual diseases to which swine are +more or less subject. + +In the majority of cases the cause is the neglect of the cook to keep +separate from the swill the water in which salted meat or other food has +been boiled, or the water to which soda has been added in the washing +of the plates, etc. An attack if at all severe is usually fatal. + +The symptoms are a discoloration of the skin, and a refusal of food. As +these are the usual symptoms of several other ailments, it is difficult +to determine the cause of death save by a post-mortem examination. It is +to be feared that this mixing of a solution of salt and soda with the +other swill will be one of the difficulties met with in the more general +utilisation of kitchen refuse in the keeping of pigs. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THE CURING OF PORK + + +In the good old times bacon curing was carried on in the large majority +of farm-houses as well as in many houses in the country districts, not +only where there were conveniences for the keeping of pigs, but many +householders were in the habit of buying carcases of pork from their +neighbours and curing the major portion for the following year's supply +of cured meats. Even the better class labourers would kill and cure it +so that as long as it lasted they had on hand a supply of most +nutritious and suitable food. Unfortunately a great change has taken +place of late years; this convenient and profitable plan has been +superseded. The causes may have been many; amongst them, the importation +of immense quantities of salt pork of very inferior quality at very low +prices from the United States; the change in the public taste which is +now for mild cured and lean bacon from young pigs, instead of the more +heavily salted meats from older and fatter pigs; the great decrease in +the number of pigs kept by cottagers and others in urban districts +through the operation of the so-called sanitary regulations; and +probably from the different style of living, which may or may not be an +improvement, amongst the residents in country districts. + +It may be that one of the many changes which have been brought about by, +and which will also follow, the war will be a return to the more simple +and less luxurious manner of living. It is certain that a more +economical system will have to be followed, and one of the means of +effecting this may be a return to the keeping of pigs during their +growing stage on the house and garden refuse, and then when the pigs +have been fattened, by the killing and curing of the carcase for home +consumption. + +Much has been written during recent years about the folly of allowing so +many millions of sovereigns to go out of the country in payment for the +vast weight of bacon, hams, and lard which we import from foreign +countries. Residents in the country have been blamed by town residents +and literary men for their alleged want of enterprise in not breeding +and fattening the few extra million pigs which would furnish an amount +of pig produce equal to that imported, and thus, as they declare, save +the country that outlay which is a dead loss to these islands. + +It may at once be frankly admitted that a very considerable increase in +the number of our pig population is possible without any very greatly +extended cost of food, but when it is contended that farmers and even +cottagers are grossly neglectful in not producing sufficient pork and +its products for the use of the whole of the population of these +islands, an injustice is done, as the breeding and feeding of pigs is a +business calling, not a philanthropical pursuit. Farmers and cottagers +are like other manufacturers of necessary articles; they produce in +order to live, and they cease to manufacture an article when its +production ceases to repay them for their outlay and trouble. They must +of necessity do so, or they come to grief and are unable to carry on +their farms or businesses. + +It matters not what the cause be for the ability of the foreigner to +produce and land on our markets articles cheaper than we can afford to +offer them at, the result is the same--the home production is +automatically reduced. There are many causes which have helped to render +it possible for foreigners to supply us with a certain proportion of the +pork and bacon which we require at a less cost than our home breeder and +feeders of pigs can supply it. These include help to the farmers from +the Governments of certain countries such as Denmark, where assistance +is given in the purchase of pure bred pigs for the improvement of the +native pigs, in the reduced railway and other rates on the transit of +pigs, foods, and bacon, in the provision of certain foods, and in +carrying out experiments in order to show how they may be utilised in +the best manner. Stud farms have also been established from which pure +bred boars are distributed, whilst the whole industry of pig breeding +and bacon curing is carried on under the supervision and with the advice +of many Government officials appointed for the purpose. The intrinsic +value of this assistance is perceptible, as in no other country are +pig-keeping and bacon curing carried on with greater monetary success +than in Denmark. + +It is also asserted that the general system of farming in Denmark has +also contributed very largely to the phenomenal prosperity of the pig +industry, in that a very large proportion of the land is owned and +farmed by comparatively small farmers, men who have a direct interest in +the improvement of the land, and who with their families perform the +major portion of the work on the land and in attendance on the stock. +The land is almost certain to be well managed and the stock to receive +the best possible attention with, comparatively speaking, little cost as +to labour. The animals on the farm are likely to be of a higher grade +and the returns from them of an increased character, than when strangers +and disinterested hired labour attend and feeds them. + +Another of the great advantages possessed by some of our foreign +competitors is the very much better supply of feeding stuffs and their +very considerably lower cost. Take the United States, for instance, the +enormous supply of maize alone enables American pigmen to manufacture +pork at a cost which enables the packers to land bacon, hams, and lard +on the British shores which our home pig producers cannot approach. +Although it cannot be said that the cost of labour is less in the States +than in England, yet there are some countries from which we import pork +products where the labour is far more plentiful and less costly. In the +future the allowance for labour will have to be on a more liberal scale +than hitherto when estimating the cost of producing pork, unless the +number of persons owning and occupying small holdings is greatly +increased. + +It has been stated that our home producers of pork and bacon will obtain +a considerable advantage in the future in that the freight on the +imported meats will be so much higher. It is most probable that this +will increase the expense of landing bacon, etc., on our markets; on the +other hand, as we import so large a proportion of the pig fattening +foods, the cost of food will most likely be increased to quite the same +if not to a greater extent. The only plan to reduce this extra expense +will be to lessen the outlay on imported foods by paying more attention +to the growth of various foods suitable for pigs, attending more +carefully to our pigs and feeding them on common-sense lines. In these +particulars there is room for much improvement in many piggeries. + +By reducing the cost of the production of pork and by the more general +adoption of the system of home curing we shall not only obtain our bacon +at less cost, but we shall have a far greater amount of the finest +quality of bacon and hams generally available. We imagine that the +reader of the earlier portion of this book will experience little +difficulty in producing fine quality pork at a minimum cost--it will +then remain to cure and dry it properly. + +The fattened pig should not be fed for some twenty-four hours before it +is killed; after slaughter the carcase should remain hanging until it +is thoroughly cooled. The manner of cutting up will depend on the +custom in the particular district. In some parts of the country the pig +is split down, the head, feet, and tail taken off, the leaf and kidneys +and the skirt taken out, the loin and the crop with a certain proportion +of the lean cut off, and in some cases the shoulder blade is drawn; +after the necessary trimming a Wiltshire side remains. + +In other districts the ham and the shoulder are cut off and the side is +converted into a middle, a ham and a shoulder or fore-ham. The jowls are +taken off the head and salted with the bacon and hams. The upper part of +the head, or, as it is commonly termed, the scorf, is usually used with +the feet in the manufacture of brawn, or, as it is sometimes called, +pork cheese--presumably from its being cooled in a form, and then turned +out on to the dish on which it is served at table. + +The first operation in curing is to distribute a small quantity of salt +all over the meat to be cured. If allowed to remain about forty-eight +hours the blood remaining in the meat will have become dissolved, and +will have exuded from the carcase. This liquid should be thrown away. A +mixture in the proportion of 4 lbs. salt, 1 lb. coarse brown sugar, 1 +oz. saltpetre, 1/4 oz. bay salt, and 1/4 oz. salt prunell should be +prepared, and a portion of it be applied to all parts of the meat and +particularly in the pocket hole, if the shoulder blade has been drawn. +This should be continued for from twenty to thirty days, according to +the thickness of the meat and the degree of saltness desired. In one or +two districts of a limited area it is usual to rub the meat somewhat +violently with a large pebble when applying the salt mixture, the +alleged object being to rub in the salt; but for this there is not the +slightest necessity as the result of the rubbing is nil, since the salt +will penetrate the meat equally as well without the manipulation as with +it. The principal point is to secure the distribution of the salt to +every part of the meat so that the salt can penetrate and preserve it. + +When sufficiently cured the meat should be hung up and dried. If it be +desired to have it smoked this is best done at the village bakery or +smoke drying house. Smoking of hams and bacon is possible on a small +scale with the aid of a smoke oven such as supplied by Messrs. Douglas +and Sons of Putney, but it is, as a rule, cheaper and less troublesome +to send the meat to the village smoking house. It will be advisable to +brand or otherwise mark each piece of cured meat sent to be smoked, as +the return of the same pieces is thus assured. + +Where the home curing of bacon and hams is followed, this is best +carried out from the middle of October to the end of March; if it be +attempted earlier or later a cold chamber is necessary. + +The manufacture of salt pork is carried on all the year through as the +meat is usually kept in the brine, where it will keep perfectly good for +a considerable time providing it is perfectly sweet when first placed in +the brine. To secure this it is advisable to have the pig killed in the +evening, covered over with a cloth to prevent the flies approaching it, +and hanging it in a cool place so that all the natural heat has escaped +ere it is cut up and placed in the pickle pot. It may be advisable to +note that the last is only possible with a small pig during the hot +weather. In the mere salting of pork it is usual to use only salt and +saltpetre. The use of sugar should be avoided in the summer, as its use +is likely to result in fermentation in hot weather. + +There are two other points in connection with bacon curing on which a +change of opinion has taken place, or is taking place. These are the +cause of what are called in the trade "seedy bellies," and the effect on +the bacon of the female fat pig being in a state of Å“strum when it is +slaughtered. Until quite recently the first of these troubles, and it is +a most serious one to the trade, was generally considered to be due to +the second. It was believed by curers that the slight inflammation +noticeable in the mammary glands of the female pig when she is in heat +resulted in these so-called "seedy bellies" if the pig was in that +condition when she was slaughtered. This belief may have been either the +cause or the result, or both, of the common saying that the meat of a +sow pig killed when it was in heat will not take the salt properly, and +that it is therefore advisable to wait until this natural condition has +passed away before the pig is slaughtered. This contention has been one +of the arguments used when the spaying of sow pigs has been advocated. +Of late years comparatively few sow pigs have been spayed, so that the +unspayed fat pigs have been nearly as numerous as those male pigs which +have been castrated, and as the sow pigs come in heat each three weeks, +and continue so for from three to five days, a very considerable +proportion of them must be in heat when they are slaughtered at the +large bacon-curing factories, without any loss resulting. We may, +therefore, assume that it matters little whether the pig be in heat or +not when it is slaughtered unless the seedy bellies result. + +On this point also the verdict is against the common belief, as Messrs. +Mackenzie and Marsh have carried out a series of investigations at +Cambridge which clearly proved that seedy bellies were equally as common +when the sow pigs were not in heat and when they were; but that the +discoloration which resembles numbers of small spots of colour varying +from dark blue to light red in the mammary glands is merely an excess of +pigment, the darker shade being common in pigs with dark coloured hair +and skin such as the Large Blacks, Berkshires, etc., and the lighter +shade in pigs of the Tamworth breed. In the bacon manufactured from pigs +with a white skin and white hair there is no discoloration or seedy +bellies. + +Although it has been generally considered by bacon curers that pigs of a +white colour were preferable for their trade, and this to such an extent +that some of the bacon curers in Ireland will pay a slightly higher +price for a pig with a white skin, the preference was generally +considered to be due to the more presentable appearance of a side of +bacon from a white than from a black pig; it would appear that in the +future a still greater preference will be observable when it becomes +generally known that the bacon made from white pigs is free from seedy +bellies. + + * * * * * + + +_To make money out of Pigs_ + +One must go on the NON-STOP PRINCIPLE, every little check to growth +means so much less profit. Now we know and there are thousands of other +pig feeders know that WILLSON'S CANADIAN PIG POWDERS are just the very +thing that is wanted, one or two powders a week to each Pig enables them +to digest their food and get the very utmost out of it. Nature does the +rest. You will find this so and the cost of powders is very small. + +[Illustration: Willson's Canadian Pig Powders] + + _are a Great Investment_ + +[Illustration: + + +--------------------------+ + | 7 for 6d., post free 7d.| + | 16 " 1/- " 1/2| + | 48 " 2/9 " 3/-| + |144 " 8/- " | + |and in bulk in tins | + |21/- post free. | + | | + | _We have agents almost | + | everywhere._ | + +--------------------------+ + +] + + _Sole + Manufacturer:_ + + STEPHEN WILLSON + Canadian Pig Powder Factory + PETERBOROUGH + (_Who also keeps a big experimental piggery_). + + + * * * * * + + Continuous Cropping and Tillage + Dairy Farming for Small Farmers. + + By T. WIBBERLEY, N.D.A., N.D.D. + + Third Edition. Price 3/6 net; postage 4d. + + +Here Mr. Wibberley describes specially for the benefit of the small man +his system of all-weather farming, capable of doubling or trebling the +profits of even the best regulated small dairy farms. In this book he +discloses for the first time the whole secret of his success and the +success of the many thousands of small dairy farmers who follow him. + + + _Of all Booksellers or from the Publishers_, + C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. + + * * * * * + + + + +INDEX + + + Anthrax, 162 + + Apthous fever, 15, 162 + + Arrival of little pigs, 82 + + Artichokes for pigs, 89 + + Attendance on farrowing sow, 80 + + + Bacon curing, 177 + + Bacon smoking, 177 + + Bacon from young pigs, 171 + + Barley meal as sole fatting food, 134 + + Barn for pigsty, 109 + + Baulked sows, 76 + + Baulking sows, 94 + + Berkshire breed, 33 + + Black pigs, 75 + + Blind teats, 70 + + Boar's teats, 62 + + Board of Agriculture's premiums, 47 + + Bob-tailed pigs, 86 + + Breeds of pigs at shows, 17 + + British Berkshire Society, 27 + + Butter milk, 153 + + + Cabbages for pigs, 101 + + Canadian system, 47 + + Carriers of swine fever, 158, 188 + + Castrating pigs, 105 + + Castrating ruptured pigs, 88 + + Cause of parti-coloured pigs, 15 + + Close breeding, 46 + + Clover for pigs, 89 + + Coleseed for pigs, 103 + + Constipation in pigs, 164 + + Consumption in pigs, 167 + + Cooked _v._ uncooked maize, 147 + + Cooked _v._ uncooked potatoes, 150 + + Cooking pig foods, 144 + + Cooking potatoes, 147 + + Cross-bred pigs, 39 + + Cross breds _v._ pure breds, 45 + + Cumberland pigs, 38 + + Cutting up the pig, 176 + + + Danish pig-keeping, 174 + + Dead pigs, 83 + + Delicacy of pure-bred pigs, 45 + + Dentition of pigs, 49 + + DiarrhÅ“a, 162 + + Difficulty in disinfecting sties, 161 + + Diseases of pigs, 157 + Anthrax + Apthous fever + Constipation + Cramp + DiarrhÅ“a + Eczema + Epileptic fits + Foot and mouth disease + Inversion of the rectum + " " " vagina + " " " uterus + Measles + Rabies + Rickets + Salt poisoning + Soda poisoning + Sore teats + Swine erysipelas + Swine fever + Tender feet + Tuberculosis + Worms + + Dorset pigs, 25 + + Dosing pigs, 166 + + Dry beds, 103 + + Dysentery, 85 + + + Eczema, 165 + + Effect of food and climate, 148 + + Epileptic fits, 162 + + Essex half-blacks, 21 + + Excited young sows, 81 + + Exhibition of pigs, 113 + + Exposure of mangolds, 152 + + Extra food in the autumn, 155 + + + Farmer owners, 174 + + Farrowing sow, 79 + + Fits, 86 + + Flabby udders, 70 + + Foot and mouth disease, 15 + + Foster mothers, 119 + + + Garget, 101 + + Gloucestershire Old Spots breed, 37 + + Government help, 47 + + Grade breeding pigs, 46 + + Grazing pigs, 73 + + + Ham curing, 171 + + Hampshire pigs, 20 + + Hernia, 162 + + High-backed pigs, 100 + + Holywell Victoria Countess, 77 + + Husk, 160 + + + Importation of bacon and lard, 172 + + Improved breeds, origin of, 13 + + Increased cost of freight, 175 + + Infectivity of swine fever, 158 + + Influence of sire, 43, 54 + " " dam, 54 + + Inoculation for erysipelas, 162 + " " swine fever, 162 + + Inversion of the rectum, 164 + " " " vagina, 164 + " " " uterus, 162 + + + Large boars, 59 + + Large Black breed, 30 + + Large blue and white pigs, 23 + + Large White breed, 30 + + Large White Ulster breed, 35 + + Lincolnshire Curly Coated breed, 36 + + Litter for pigs, 103 + + Lucerne for pigs, 89, 153 + + + Maize supply, 174 + + Mangolds for pigs, 101 + + Mating the young sow, 72 + " " suckling sow, 92 + + Measles, 166 + + Medicine for farrowing sow, 83 + + Mere size studied, 65 + + Messrs. Harris's scheme, 43 + + Middle White breed, 31 + + Milk for sucking pigs, 100 + + Mixture of food, 135 + + Model piggeries, 108 + + + Neat sows, 65 + + Non-infectious swine fever, 160 + + Norfolk pigs, 24 + + Northamptonshire pigs, 23 + + Number of pigs for a sow, 97 + + Number in a litter, 68 + + + Origin of improved breeds, 13 + + Oxfordshire pigs, 23, 27 + + + Parsnips for pigs, 89 + + Parti-coloured pigs, cause of, 115 + + Peat moss litter, 104 + + Persistence of erysipelas virus, 161 + + Pig calendar, 148 + + Pig fattening, 132 + + Pig keeping in orchards, 128 + " " " woods, 128 + + Pigment, excess of, 179 + + Pig pillows, 65 + + Pig shacking, 153 + + Pigs suffering from heat, 124 + + Plenty of teats, 67 + + Potatoes for pigs, 89 + + Poulticing pigs' feet, 164 + + Practical _v._ show points, 41 + + Prepotency of dam, 55 + " " sire, 55 + + Prolificacy, 42 + " indications of, 67 + " value of, 42 + + Pure breeds, 26 + + + Quality of bone, 60 + + + Rabies, 162 + + Rape for pigs, 89 + + Rearing of young pigs, 97 + + Recorded pedigree insufficient, 44 + + Rectum, inversion of, 164 + + Registering produce, 42 + + Remaking sow's bed, 83 + + Rickets in pigs, 166 + + Ring pigs, 61 + + Rollers for fat pigs, 117 + + Round white worms, 168 + + Rudgwick pigs, 21 + + Rupture in pigs hereditary, 88 + + Ruptured boar, 61 + + + Salt poisoning, 169 + + Santonine as a cure for worms, 168 + + Scrotal hernia, 162 + + Seedy bellies, 177 + + Selection of boar, 53 + " " sow, 63 + + Separated milk for little pigs, 100 + + Sheeted pigs, 22 + + Size in boars, 59 + " of pigs' ears, 60 + + Skim milk and tuberculosis, 167 + + Slaughter classes, 118 + + Small black breed, 18 + + Small joints wanted, 66 + + Small testicles, 61 + + Smoke ovens, 177 + + Smoking bacon, 177 + + Soft pork, 135 + + Sore-tailed pigs, 86 + + Sore teats, 169 + + Sow's udder, 67 + + Spaying sow pigs, 151 + + Sty facing east, 108 + " " north, 108 + " " south, 108 + " " west, 108 + + Sugar in pork curing, 177 + + Sussex pigs, 21 + + Swayback pigs, 166 + + Swine erysipelas, 161 + + Swine fever, 158 + " " virus, 160 + + + Tares for pigs, 152 + + Tender feet, 164 + + Trichinosis, 168 + + Tuberculosis in pigs, 167 + + Tuberculosis in pigs not hereditary, 167 + + Tuberculosis meat unhealthy, 167 + + + Udder, the sow's, 67 + + Undersized teats, 70 + + Uniformity in a herd, 44 + " " young pigs, 43 + + Unwieldly sows, 65 + + Utility points, 42 + + + Value of feeding qualities, 59 + + Value of whey, 152 + + Variation in virulence of infectious diseases, 161 + + Varying food, 136 + + Vegetable food for pigs, 89, 135, 150 + + + Weaning pigs, 89 + + Wheat meal, 136 + + White peas for little pigs, 100 + + White-skinned pigs for bacon, 106, 179 + + Worms, 168 + + * * * * * + + +DENNIS'S + +"LINCOLNSHIRE" PIG POWDERS + +ARE THE BEST MEDICINE for all DISEASES of PIGS. Used by most of the +leading BREEDERS and EXHIBITORS. + +It will pay you well to use them regularly. The cost is so small, 10d. +per doz., post free 1/-. 144 Powders post free 10/-. + +[Sidenote: HEALTHY PIGS PAY WELL] + +[Illustration: DENNIS's LINCOLNSHIRE PIG POWDERS PROPRIETOR J. W. DENNIS +LOUTH. ENGLAND] + +Trade Mark No. 14,839. + +[Sidenote: SOLD EVERYWHERE] + +DENNIS'S "SPECIAL" WORM POWDERS =are recognised as the surest means of +ridding pigs of these parasites.= + +Mr. W. L. PAYNE, of Tor Hole, Chewton Mendip, says:--"I found 63 worms +in my stye, after giving your Worm Powders." + +In packets, 6d. Post free 7-1/2d. 6 packets Post free 3/4. + +Sold by all Chemists, Boots Ltd., Taylor's Drug Co. Ltd., and +Co-operative Societies, at all Branches. + +Proprietor: + +=JOHN W. DENNIS, Veterinary Chemist LOUTH, LINCS.= + + +All practical Farmers who want to keep abreast of the times should get +at once a copy of + +FARMING ON FACTORY LINES + +OR + +Continuous Cropping for Large Farmers + +BY + +T. WIBBERLEY, N.D.A., N.D.D. + +(_Of Queen's University, Belfast_). + + * * * * * + +Second Edition =6/-= net (postage 4d.) + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: pointing finger] It forms the great authoritative test +book on the Wibberley Continuous Cropping System, and is a new and +frankly revolutionary guide to ALL-WEATHER Farming and to cheaper Milk, +Corn and Beef Production. + +"In times past the climate has often conquered the British Farmer, but +it has not conquered Wibberley. He has conquered it, turning what +otherwise would be adverse climatic conditions to advantage in tilling +the land. + +"It sounds impossible. It reads like a fairy tale--yet the whole of the +scheme of 'Wibberleyism' or 'Continuous Cropping,' 'Farming on Factory +Lines'--as the system is variously termed--is in reality beautifully +simple. It is so effective that one wonders what our highly paid +officials have been thinking about, when they have not hammered out some +such a tillage system as Wibberley's years before Wibberley was +born."--THE SMALLHOLDER. + + * * * * * + +=Read all about it in this new and valuable work.= + + * * * * * + +_Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free for =6/4= +from_ + +Messrs. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Limited, 18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. +2. + + +SOME USEFUL HANDBOOKS + +FOR SMALLHOLDERS AND OTHERS + +=The Hobby Gardener.= By A. C. MARSHALL, F.R.H.S. With 22 full-page +Illustrations showing clearly the various operations throughout a year's +work in the garden. In Stiff Three-coloured Cover. Price 1/6 net, post +free 1/9. + +=Small Gardens and How to make the Most of Them.= By V. P. BIDDLE. Cloth +Boards. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +A most useful Handbook for the Amateur. Full instructions are given for +laying out, bedding, arrangement of borders, vegetable culture, flowers +and fruit trees, room plants, window boxes, etc. + +=Greenhouses: How to Make and Manage Them.= By WILLIAM F. ROWLES. With +numerous Diagrams. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +=The Dog: In Health and Disease.= By F. M. ARCHER. With 12 Illustrations +by S. T. DADD. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +=Cage and Singing Birds.= By GEORGE GARDNER. With numerous +Illustrations. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +Some of the Contents are:--Birds for Song, for Exhibition and for +Breeding--Care of Young--Seeds: how and what to buy--Moulting for Song +and for Exhibition--Colour-feeding: how it is done--Diseases of Cage +Birds and how to treat them--Bird Fever--Parasites and how to destroy +them, etc. etc. + +=An Easy Poultry Guide.= By EDWARD BROWN, F.L.S. With 8 full-page +Illustrations and other Diagrams. Pocket size. Cloth. Price 1/-net, post +free 1/2. + +=War on Weeds.= By "FARMER GILES." Price 6d. net, post free 7d. + +This book gives a full description and illustrations of the thirteen +proscribed weeds, also a complete list of all other farm and garden +weeds, with sketches, full descriptions, and preventive measures. + +=War-Time Farming.= By T. WIBBERLEY. Price 6d. net, post free 7d. + +This small book tells how the man on the land can use it to the greatest +advantage. + + * * * * * + +_Any of these books may be ordered through your bookseller, or will be +sent post-paid on receipt of the price mentioned by_ + +=A. F. SOWTER, Publisher, "Smallholder and Small Owner" Offices, 16-18, +HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.= + + +FARMING + +MADE EASY + +By + +J. C. NEWSHAM, F.L.S. + +Principal of the Monmouthshire Agricultural and Horticultural +Institution, Usk. + +_Author of "The Potato Book," &c., Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 3/6 net._ + +This is an easy Guide to the most useful Elements of Agriculture. It has +been specially written by a thoroughly qualified agriculturist, with a +wide and successful practical knowledge of his subject, for the use of +the countless thousands of men and women who are now streaming +back--eager but half instructed--to work on the land. It covers +practically every department of farm labour and enterprise, and provides +the fullest and most reliable instruction for all who propose to take up +Agriculture in a serious and practical spirit, as a means of livelihood. + +_Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free for 3/10 +from_ + +MESSRS. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LIMITED, 18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. +2. + + + + +BOOKS FOR SMALLHOLDERS, ETC. + +A STANDARD BOOK BY AN EXPERT AUTHORITY. + + +DAIRY FARMING FOR SMALLHOLDERS + + +By JAMES LONG, formerly Professor of Dairy Farming, Royal Agricultural +College; Author of "The Book of the Pig," etc. + +Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 2/6 net, post free 2/9. + +THE CHAPTERS DEAL WITH:--Our Dairy Cows; The Cow and Her Management; +Foods and Feeding; Milk; Butter and Butter Making; Cheese Making, etc. + +"Professor Long has never been more happily inspired than in writing it. +The explanations are lucid and clear."--_Standard._ + +"The smallholder who has made dairying part of his system, or has +facilities for doing so, will be all the better for adding this book to +those already in his possession."--_Field._ + +"This is one of the best handbooks that can possibly find its way on the +dairy farmer's shelf."--_The Dairy._ + + * * * * * + +=POULTRY FOR PROFIT=. By E. T. BROWN. Author of "Profitable Poultry +Keeping" (Smallholders' Library), "Ducks, Geese and Turkeys," &c. Crown +8vo, cloth, with 15 full-page illustrations and many diagrams. A +thoroughly comprehensive guide for the poultry keeper. + +=ROSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.= By EDWIN BECKETT, V.M.H., F.R.H.S. Crown +8vo, cloth. With portrait frontispiece. Price 2/6 net (postage 3d. +extra). + +"A handy little book by Mr. E. Beckett, gardener at Aldenham House, and +famous as a grower of exhibition vegetables, as well as of plants +generally. He writes as a practical grower in a practical way, dealing +with soil and situation, planting, pruning, watering, propagation, the +cultivation of roses under glass and for exhibition in a way that is +satisfying."--_The Field._ + +=THE SMALLHOLDER'S YEAR BOOK.= Published annually in December. Price 1/6 +net, per post 1/9. + +The Smallholder's Year Book is now an institution. It is the recognised +court of appeal in all matters connected with the land, in gardening, +farming, poultry-keeping, goat, rabbit and bee-keeping circles. It +contains the cream of all the information that has ever appeared in THE +SMALLHOLDER. It solves at a glance every problem that is ever likely to +puzzle YOU. + + * * * * * + +_These Handbooks may be obtained through your Bookseller, or will be +forwarded post free, on receipt of the price mentioned, from_ + +=C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., 17 HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON W.C. 2.= + + + + +THE "SMALLHOLDER" CHARTS. + +ON CARD 11-1/2 in. BY 8-1/2 in. FOR HANGING UP. + + +(1) How to Make a Garden Frame + +(2) How and When to Sow Vegetable Seeds + +(3) The A.B.C. of Pig Keeping + +(4) The A.B.C. of Utility Rabbit Keeping + +(5) The A.B.C. of Poultry Keeping + +(6) Garden and Orchard Pests + +(7) How and When to Sow Flower Seeds + +(8) How to Cure Poultry Diseases + +(9) How to Cure Pig Diseases + +(10) Fruit Bottling + +(11) Manuring Made Easy + +(12) The Whole Art of Goat Keeping + +_Single Charts cost 4d. each, or any Six may be had for 1/8 post free._ + + * * * * * + +The "Smallholder" is issued in half-yearly volumes, March to August, and +September to February. Bound in Strong Cloth. Price 4/-net each; post +free 4/6. Cases for binding, including Title Page and Index, price 1/9 +each; post free 2/-. + +Write to the Editor + +The "SMALLHOLDER" Office, 16-18 Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2. + + + + +AN ATTRACTIVE NATURE BOOK FOR THE YOUNG. + +IN NATURE'S WAYS + +BY MARCUS WOODWARD. + + * * * * * + +A book for all young Lovers of Natural History. Being an Introduction to +Gilbert White's immortal "Natural History of Selborne." + +Illustrated by J. A. SHEPHERD. + +With Preface by WILFRID MARK WEBB, Secretary of the Selborne Society. + +This volume contains 8 full-page Illustrations on Art Paper in addition +to the Drawings in the Text. + +=Price in paper wrapper 1/-net, postage 3d. extra; or in cloth boards, +price 2/-net, postage 4d. extra.= + + * * * * * + +"This is a 'White's Selborne' for the young; giving passages from the +original under different headings and side by side, some talk about the +bird or beast referred to; with plenty of illustrations by Mr. J. A. +Shepherd, full of his usual vitality."--_Times._ + +"We think this volume cannot fail to interest and instruct the +young."--_Field._ + +"White's 'History of Selborne' is here amplified and explained for young +readers. Mr. Woodward has that gift of humour without which all writing +on nature is a weariness unto the flesh for young readers, and for many +readers who are no longer young. Mr. J. A. Shepherd's illustrations +catch the spirit of the letterpress, and are of a piece with the work +that has made his reputation as an artist."--_Literary World._ + + * * * * * + +_May be had of all Booksellers or will be sent direct on receipt of +published price and postage from_ + +C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LTD., Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2. + + * * * * * + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Changes to the text are listed as follows: + +page 168, "oze" changed to "oz.," (from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz.,) + +page 168, "b.," changed to "be" (should be given in milk) + +page 186, suspected typo "test" for "text" (the great authoritative +test book) + +page 187, "F.R.H.S" changed to "F.R.H.S." (A. C. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/33074-0.zip b/33074-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c49da38 --- /dev/null +++ b/33074-0.zip diff --git a/33074-8.txt b/33074-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..03bd8c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/33074-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5860 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pig, by Sanders Spencer + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Pig + Breeding, Rearing, and Marketing + +Author: Sanders Spencer + +Release Date: July 4, 2010 [EBook #33074] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIG *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +This Plain Text version has been prepared using the Latin-1 character +set only. Italic typeface is indicated by _underscore_. Bold typeface, +which is used in the advertisements only, is indicated by =equals=. The +oe ligature is indicated by the use of square brackets: [oe]. + +Where changes have been made to the text (of typographical errors etc.) +these are listed at the end of the book. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Frontispiece. Photo, Reid, Wishaw._ BREEDING SOWS OF THE +LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE BREEDS. + +The Middle White Sow in the forefront (the property of the Author) was +one of the best ever bred, "Holywell Countess Victoria."] + + +THE PIG + + + + THE PIG + BREEDING, REARING, AND MARKETING + + BY + + SANDERS SPENCER + + + London + C. Arthur Pearson Ltd. + Henrietta Street + 1919 + + +CONTENTS + + CHAPTER PAGE + + INTRODUCTION 13 + + I. NON-PEDIGREE PIGS 19 + + II. PURE BREEDS (with Standard Descriptions and + Scales of Points) 26 + + III. CROSS-BRED PIGS 39 + + IV. DENTITION AND AGE OF PIGS 49 + + V. SELECTION OF THE BOAR 54 + + VI. SELECTION OF THE SOW 63 + + VII. THE SOW'S UDDER 67 + + VIII. MATING THE YOUNG SOW 72 + + IX. THE FARROWING SOW 79 + + X. WEANING PIGS 91 + + XI. THE REARING OF YOUNG PIGS 97 + + XII. HOUSING OF PIGS 107 + + XIII. THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS 113 + + XIV. PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING 125 + + XV. PIG-FATTENING 131 + + XVI. A PIG CALENDAR 148 + + XVII. DISEASES OF THE PIG 157 + + XVIII. THE CURING OF PORK 171 + + INDEX 182 + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + BREEDING SOWS OF THE LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE + BREEDS _Frontispiece_ + + FACING PAGE + + LARGE BLACK BOAR, "DRAYTON KING" 16 + + PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, EXHIBITED AT SMITHFIELD SHOW 1914 17 + + A BERKSHIRE SOW 32 + + LARGE BLACK SOW, "SUDBOURNE SADIE" 33 + + THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS 48 + + A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR 49 + + TAMWORTH BOAR: BISHOP OF WEBTON 64 + + GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW 65 + + LARGE WHITE BOAR 80 + + TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES" 81 + + MIDDLE WHITE SOW 96 + + CUMBERLAND SOW 97 + + LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM" 112 + + LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR 113 + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +There are few points in the breeding of stock on which a greater +variation of opinion has been confidently expressed than on the origin +of the domesticated pig. It has been contended that our various types +had a common origin in the wild hog, and that the difference in form, +colour, and character amongst the local breeds is due, in the main, to +the requirements, imaginary or real, of the interested residents in the +particular districts. On the other hand, it is asserted with equal +confidence, and probably with the same amount of actual proof, that it +would be impossible so to improve the wild hog by selection as to render +it the equal of the domesticated hog. There must, therefore, have been +an infusion of blood of a cultivated breed of pigs to acquire even that +amount of success which was noticeable in the improved pig of a century, +or less, ago. Unfortunately, for this argument, it has not been possible +to obtain any information of value as to the alleged source of origin of +this cultivated breed of pigs. + +Again, those pigs which possess in a marked degree early maturity, fine +quality of flesh, and those other characteristics of the improved pig, +are so various in colour, that one cultivated breed only could not have +been utilised in the general improvement. + +All the ancient writers on pigs appear to have experienced the same +difficulty when endeavouring to discover the sources of origin of the +material which might have been used in the production of the pig which +in their time was looked upon as the domesticated and improved pig of +the period. This difficulty extends even to the present day. So far as +is known there exists no actual proof that the domesticated hog has been +evolved in any particular way other than by continued selection of those +animals for breeding purposes which possessed in the greatest degree +those particular qualities held in the highest estimation at the time. + +Of course, the soil, climate, etc., of the district in which pigs are +reared have a certain amount of influence, but this is noticeable to a +much lesser extent with pigs than with horses, cattle, or sheep, since +under the present system of pig-breeding the greater portion of the food +used in the different districts is of a very similar character--indeed, +much of it has a common origin--having been imported from abroad. + +As a rule, comparatively speaking very little difference is noticeable +in the development, form, and character of pigs bred in the various +parts of the country, whereas with some of the other domesticated +animals a very considerable change follows the removal of sheep of a +pure breed from one district to another. The quality and quantity of the +wool, flesh, and bone are all affected. An exactly similar effect is +noticeable when horses of a particular breed are moved from one district +to another. For instance, a Shire foal bred in the Fens may possess the +characteristic bone, flesh, and hair, yet if it be moved into portions +of the Eastern counties where the soil is of a totally different +character, it will when matured have lost, to a very considerable +extent, its peculiar characteristics of bone and hair. The changes +wrought may be due in small measure to climate, but the predominant +cause must be due to the variation in the food grown on soils of a +different character. + +This question of the original cause or causes of the varying colour of +the pigs in different localities appears to be equally difficult of +solution. As to the continuation in certain districts of pigs of one +colour, custom and even prejudice have a great effect. So strong is this +prejudice that some persons will even declare that the pork of pigs of +the fashionable colour in the neighbourhood is superior to that from +pigs of any other colour. As this weakness is common in districts where +black and where white pigs are kept it must be admitted that prejudice +alone must be the foundation of the belief. + +Probably the safest conclusion to arrive at with respect to the +variation in colour of the pigs noticeable in certain districts is that +in the long ago the native pig in the wild state was of the colour of +the soil and the herbage in which it sheltered, and was thus less +conspicuous to its enemies, whether human or animal. A marked instance +of this is to be found in the colour of the common or original pig found +in some parts of the country where the soil is of a decidedly red +colour. In the district referred to one actually hears some farms spoken +of as "red land farms." What more natural than to find in the districts +in which land of this hue predominates that the pigs should be a red +rusty hue such as was the original colour of that breed of pigs now +called the Tamworth breed. + +Some persons, who do not agree with this theory of the origin of the +various coloured pigs, cite as a proof of their belief the fact that in +so many districts the pigs are of a mixed colour, and that this peculiar +marking is equally as general in localities as is any particular or +special colour in the pigs. This is perfectly true, and it is probably +due to exactly the same causes, fancy, prejudice, or custom. The +residents in certain districts have grown accustomed to certain things +or certain forms, and are loth to change; the manufacturer of any +article must humour the actual or fancied requirements of his customers +if he is to secure success; and in a similar manner the breeder of pigs +has to consider and to produce pigs of the form, size, and colour which +are most in demand. Further if, as confidently alleged, there is a +preference in some districts for pork from pigs of a certain colour, +then the butcher naturally offers a higher price for pigs of that colour +which most fully satisfy the fancies of his customers, and thus we find +a similarity of form and colour in the pigs of various districts. + +As to the origin of these parti-coloured pigs, the explanation offered +is that even in pre-railway times there was a certain amount of +interchange of the different local breeds of stock. This would be +affected in various ways, which need not be specified. + +At the present time we have several defined and distinct breeds of pigs +which have secured recognition at our principal agricultural shows. +Indeed it may be claimed that the exhibitions of live stock which have +become so general in all parts of the country have been one of the chief +factors in fixing to a certain extent the type and character of certain +local breeds. Within the memory of the present writer the classification +of pigs at our principal shows was of a very simple character; it +consisted of classes for pigs of a white colour and for pigs of any +other colour. There was no attempt at any definition as to size, form, +and quality of the pigs. These points were left entirely to the judges, +who naturally were led to favour pigs of the type which they bred. There +was thus a greater amount of uncertainty as to the success of an +exhibitor's stock than at the present time. This uncertainty--save as to +the members of the Show Committees or their friends--was increased by +the unfair system of withholding from the knowledge of the average +exhibitor the names of those selected to judge. + +The necessity of some definition, if only of colour, quickly became +obvious. At first classes were established for pigs of certain colours; +then the prizes were offered for pigs of certain breeds, which were more +or less loosely defined. Now at the chief shows the pigs exhibited in +the various classes must be qualified for entry in the herd books of the +particular breeds. + +At the Royal Agricultural Shows there have been classes for pigs of the +Large White, Middle White, Berkshire, Tamworth, Large Black and +Lincolnshire Curly Coated breeds; whilst for the next show classes for +pigs of the so-called Gloucestershire Old Spots breed are to be +included. As showing the changes which are in progress it may be noted +that two breeds of pigs which had classes provided for them at the Royal +and some other Shows have become extinct. These were the Small White and +the Small Black breeds--the sole cause of their disappearance being the +unsuitability of the pigs of the breeds to supply the present +requirements of the consumer. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +LARGE BLACK BOAR, "DRAYTON KING." + +Owner, Terah F. Hooley. 1st Prize, Somerset County Agricultural Show, +1913. + +To face page 16.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Block kindly supplied by E. F. Casswell, Manor House, +Graby, Folkingham._ + +PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, Exhibited at SMITHFIELD SHOW 1914. 1st Prize. Age +8 months, 1 week, 5 days. Weight 7 cwts. + +To face page 17.] + + +THE PIG + + + + +CHAPTER I + +NON-PEDIGREE PIGS + + +Although the more general use of so-called pedigree pigs has tended to +modify the characteristics of the various local breeds of pigs, yet it +is possible to find a certain number of pig breeders who adhere to the +type of pig which has been in the past most generally found in their +district. This type was undoubtedly fixed by the wants or fancies of +those resident in the particular portions of the country. + +In the past it has been the practice when describing these local breeds +to write as though they were confined to certain counties. It may be +that pigs of a peculiar or characteristic type are more numerous within +the borders of various counties, but this is by no means always the +case. The habits and pursuits of the inhabitants rather than the soil +and climate--as with horses, cattle and sheep--have the greatest +influence on the form, size and quality of the local pigs, whilst use +and custom appear to determine the colour of the pig. We are of opinion +that it will be more instructive if we give a short description of some +of the more common types of these local breeds of pigs, and mention the +names of those counties in which they are more generally found. + +Amongst the most distinct of these local breeds is that which is +variously termed the sheeted or saddle-backed pig, which in the United +States has a society to look after its interests, and where it bears the +name of + +THE HAMPSHIRE + +Just why our American cousins should have decided to call these sheeted +pigs Hampshires is not on the surface, since the oldest writers on pigs +give to the county of Sussex the credit of being their original home. +The description given by Sidney of the Hampshire pig is that "it is a +coarse and useful black pig, inferior to the Berkshire, and not in the +same refined class as the Essex." Richardson writes "The Hampshire breed +is not infrequently confounded with the Berkshire; but its body is +longer and its sides flatter; the head is long and the snout sharp. The +colour of the breed is usually dark spotted; but it is sometimes black +altogether, and more frequently white." + +The sheeted pig has also been bred in the county of Essex for over a +century, but it is recorded that it was introduced into this county by a +Mr. Western who subsequently became Lord Western, and whose estate was +situated in Essex. + +In Sidney's book _The Pig_, we read, "West Sussex, Hampshire, Berkshire, +Dorset, Shropshire and Wales had indigenous black or red and black +breeds of swine; and between the whites, the blacks and the reds the +parti-colours were produced which have since in a great degree +disappeared under the influence of prizes, generally awarded to pure +breeds of single colours." + +Sidney also states "that Youatt and all the authors who have followed +him down to the latest work published on the subject, occupy space in +describing various county pigs which have long ceased to possess, if +they ever possessed, any merit worth the attention of the breeder." + +The Rudgwick, which is another name for the sheeted pig, is included in +the list. Richardson at a still earlier date describes the Sussex breed +as "black and white in colour, but not _spotted_; that is to say, these +colours are distributed in very large patches; one half--say, for +instance, the fore part of the body white and the hinder end black; or +sometimes both ends black and the middle white or _vice versâ_; these +pigs are in no way remarkable; they seldom feed to over twenty stone. +They are well made, of middle size, and their skin covered with scanty +bristles. The snout tapering and firm, the ears upright and pointed, the +jowl deep and the body compactly round. They arrive at early maturity, +fatten quickly, and the flesh is excellent." + +Richardson also writes, "There is another improved Essex breed, called +the Essex Half-Blacks, resembling that which I have described in colour, +said to be descended from the Berkshire. This breed was originally +introduced by Lord Western, and obtained much celebrity," etc. etc. + +He then quotes from _The Complete Grazier_, sixth edition, as follows: +"They are black and white, short haired, fine skinned with smaller heads +and ears than the Berkshire, but feathered with inside hair which is a +distinctive mark of both; have short snubby noses, very fine bone, broad +and deep in the belly, full in the hind quarters, but light in the bone +and offal. They feed remarkably fast and are of an excellent quality of +meat. The sows are good breeders, and bring litters of from eight to +twelve; but they have the character of being bad nurses." If this +allegation were true at the time it was written, it is not at the +present time as the Half-Blacks or sheeted sows are both prolific and +first-rate mothers. + +Malden describes the Sussex: "A large breed called the Rudgwick, was one +of the largest in England. There appears to be a doubt as to whether the +coloured pig was descended from the spotted Berkshire or the black and +white Essex. They were of medium size, of good quality generally, but of +somewhat heavy bone." The generally accepted view is that the Essex +sheeted pig was descended from importations from the county of Sussex. +These sheeted pigs are still occasionally met with in Essex, but the +system of crossing which is generally followed by pig breeders in the +county is gradually reducing its number, although even amongst the +cross-breeds the peculiar marking occasionally shows itself. At the time +of writing there is a movement on foot to form a society for the purpose +of reviving the breed. From the utility point of view the sheeted pig +has much to recommend it, but whether or not one or more of the breeds +of pigs whose pedigrees are already recorded do not possess at least +equal merits must be left for decision by others. + +SPOTTED PIGS + +In many districts are found other parti-coloured pigs, but in these the +black, the white, and the red colours show themselves in spots of +varying size and extent. Probably amongst the best types of these +spotted pigs is the one found over the greater part of the county of +Northampton, and portions of the counties of Leicester and Oxford +adjoining. In the former county the pigs have more of black than white +in their colouring, whilst in the two latter red spots are more often +seen. This is probably due to a stronger infusion of the blood of the +Staffordshire red pig which is now known as the Tamworth. The blood of +the Neapolitan pig through the Berkshire or the Small Black is credited +with being the origin of the darker coloured Northamptonshire spotted +pig. The qualities claimed for these spotted or "plum pudding" pigs as +they are locally termed, are prolificacy, quick growth, hardihood, and +the production of pork possessing a large proportion of lean to fat +meat. They are also good grazers, and grow to a size quite the equal of +the Berkshire. In form they are perhaps more suited for the fresh pork +trade than for the manufacture of bacon of the kind now so much in +demand. + +THE LARGE WHITE AND BLUE PIGS + +Those large, coarse-boned pigs with hair of a white colour and skins +more or less mottled with blue are gradually giving place to pigs with +finer hair, skin, bone, and quality of meat. The coarse lop ears are +being reduced in size and thickness, whilst the pig itself is becoming +less gaunt and its early maturity considerably increased by crossing +with the better quality Large White and the quickly maturing Middle +White. These coarse white with blue markings pigs were common in the +Fens of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, the Isle of Ely and Lincolnshire, and +in the counties of Bedford, Cheshire, etc. + +WHITE PIGS + +Within the memory of persons now living, white pigs of varying types +were found in various parts of this country. Many of these white pigs +found in Norfolk, Suffolk, Shropshire, and Wales had little to recommend +them as they were flat sided, long legged, hard feeders, and required to +be comparatively old before they could be turned into pork. A vast +improvement has of late years been effected in these unprofitable swine +by crossing them with compact and early maturing pigs of different +colours, but mainly white pigs until the last few years, when Large +Blacks and even a few Gloucestershire Old Spots boars have been +introduced in Norfolk. + +At one time white pigs of a small size were by no means uncommon in +Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, Yorkshire, and parts of Berkshire, and other +counties. The origin of these small, compact, and early maturing pigs +appears to have been a cross of the imported Chinese on the neater and +shorter country pigs of a white colour. For a period these handsome +pigs were quite fashionable amongst the well-to-do, but the general +public objected to the pork produced by them, owing to its excessive +fatness. The bacon curers still more strongly objected to the short +sides and the very small amount of lean meat in the cured carcases. +During the last thirty years comparatively few of these pretty, but +useless, pigs have been bred. + +BLACK PIGS + +The description given of the two main types of white pigs would apply +equally well to the Black pigs common in this country, save with respect +to colour. The long flat-sided black pig was found in Essex, Suffolk, +Cambridgeshire, Sussex, etc. These pigs were noted for their +prolificacy, hardihood, and quick growth, whilst the sows furnished a +full supply of milk to their youngsters, but they were such slow feeders +that it became necessary to cross them with pigs which matured more +quickly. A type of black pig similar in form to the Small White was also +found in Essex and Suffolk, whilst in Devonshire, Dorset, and one or two +other counties the colour of the pigs was blue rather than black, and of +a somewhat larger size, but possessing the same weakness, too large a +proportion of fat to lean meat. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +PURE BREEDS + + +The task of writing a description of the various breeds of swine has +been rendered less difficult by the formation during the past +half-century of societies for the registration of the pedigrees of the +pigs of the different breeds, and by the setting up of scales of those +points which pigs for entry in the particular herd books should possess. +The first of these societies was the National Pig Breeders Association, +of which the present writer was the honorary secretary for two years. At +the time of its formation the breeds of pigs most generally recognised +were the Berkshire, the Large, Middle, and Small Whites or Yorkshires, +and the Small Black breed. It was intended that the pedigrees of the +pure bred pigs of each of these breeds should be recorded by the +Association and published in one herd book. + +There is no doubt that this would have been an ideal plan, and would +have resulted in a saving of much labour and expense, and decidedly more +convenient for those connected with the export trade. For reasons into +which it is not now necessary to enter, the breeders of Berkshires +determined to have a separate herd book; therefore, they started a +society which they named the British Berkshire Society, to distinguish +it from the American Berkshire Record. + +Subsequently the Tamworth breed of pigs became recognised by the Royal +Agricultural Society, and the breeders of the red pig joined the +National Pig Breeders Association. Then the demand for Small White and +Small Black pigs ceased, so that eventually the pedigrees of Large +White, Middle White, and Tamworth pigs only were registered in the +N.P.A. Herd Book. + +Subsequently the breeders of Tamworth pigs formed themselves into a +society presumably for propaganda work, and to conserve the interests of +breeders of Tamworth pigs. Of late years other breeds of pigs have been +brought to public notice, and have had herd books, and societies +specially devoted to their particular interests. The Large Black, Large +White Ulster, the Lincolnshire Curly Coated pigs, the Gloucestershire +Old Spots, and the Cumberland pigs have their pedigrees recorded. An +attempt was made some years since to resuscitate the Oxfordshire Spotted +pig, but it was not a continued success. It is quite possible that other +local breeds of pigs may find sufficient admirers to form societies to +bring before the public the many good qualities possessed by the pigs of +these breeds, but apart from local interest it is at least doubtful if +any permanent benefit will supervene from this multiplication of herd +books--save that it may increase the interest in pig breeding, a result +devoutly to be prayed for. + +The issuing of the scales of points of those breeds of pigs whose +pedigrees are recorded in the various herd books has rendered it +unnecessary for us to endeavour to formulate the good qualities which +are presumably those which are more or less completely possessed by +these pedigreed animals, nor does the necessity exist for us to mention +those particular qualities which each breed is supposed by the admirers +of other breeds to lack. There is no doubt that each breed possesses +certain points which render it specially suitable for differing +localities and varying purposes. + +Some persons who look upon a pig solely as an animal, as a converter of +various substances into pork, are of opinion that the tendency of those +responsible for the running of these societies is towards fancy points +to the detriment of the practical points. There appears to have been +some grounds for this view. The Small White, the Small Black, the +Berkshire, and the Large White have all been affected by the acts of +faddists. The three first-named breeds suffered from the aims of certain +of the breeders to reduce the size and to increase the so-called quality +until the consumers of pork refused to follow the fashion; whilst the +craze which has seriously affected the utility of the Large White pigs +has been exactly the opposite, i.e. an endeavour to so vastly increase +the size that they ceased to supply the kind of pork and the size of +joints which the general public demanded. It may be natural for fanciers +to declare that a Small White or a Small Black pig must be a small +animal, but this is only on comparison with the large breeds of the same +colour and characteristics. The usefulness of the pig in the commercial +world must be studied if any breed of pig is to hold its own on the +market. + +The opposite extreme to that followed by the breeders of the small +breeds is that of the breeders of Large Whites, who look upon mere size +as the most important of the points to be studied. The mere increase in +bulk, in length of head and leg and weight of bone may appeal to the +mere fancier or faddist, but by paying undue attention to these fancy +points the actual object of the breeding and fattening of pigs is lost +sight of, and the consumer who is after all the one whose wants must +first receive study, is estranged and the commercial market is lost. + +In the following pages will be found full particulars together with the +scales of points, as issued by the various societies, of the chief +breeds and varieties. + + * * * * * + + +STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE + +LARGE WHITE + +COLOUR.--White, free from black hairs, and as free as possible from blue +spots on the skin. + +HEAD.--Moderately long, face slightly dished, snout broad, not too much +turned up, jowl not too heavy, wide between the ears. + +EARS.--Long, thin, slightly inclined forward, and fringed with fine +hair. + +NECK.--Long, and proportionately full to shoulders. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Level across the top, not too wide, free from coarseness. + +LEGS.--Straight and well set, level with the outside of the body with +flat bone. + +PASTERNS.--Short and springy. + +FEET.--Strong, even, and wide. + +BACK.--Long, level, and wide from neck to rump. + +LOIN.--Broad. + +TAIL.--Set high, stout and long, but not coarse, with tassel of fine +hair. + +SIDES.--Deep. + +RIBS.--Well sprung. + +BELLY.--Full, but not flabby, with straight under line. + +FLANK.--Thick, and well let down. + +QUARTERS.--Long and wide. + +HAMS.--Broad, full, and deep to hocks. + +COAT.--Long and moderately fine. + +ACTION.--Firm and free. + +SKIN.--Not too thick, quite free from wrinkles. + +Large bred pigs do not fully develop their points until some months old, +the pig at five months often proving at a year or 15 months a much +better animal than could be anticipated at the earlier age and _vice +versâ_; but size and quality are most important. + +OBJECTIONS.--Black hairs, black spots, a curly coat, a coarse mane, +short snout, inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders. + + * * * * * + + +MIDDLE WHITE + +COLOUR.--White, free from black hairs or blue spots on the skin. + +HEAD.--Moderately short, face dished, snout broad and turned up, jowl +full, wide between ears. + +EARS.--Fairly large, carried erect and fringed with fine hair. + +NECK.--Medium length, proportionately full to the shoulders. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Level across the top, moderately wide, free from coarseness. + +LEGS.--Straight and well set, level with the outside of body with fine +bone. + +PASTERNS.--Short and springy. + +FEET.--Strong, even, and wide. + +BACK.--Long, level, and wide from neck to rump. + +LOIN.--Broad. + +TAIL.--Set high, moderately long, but not coarse, with tassel of fine +hair. + +SIDES.--Deep. + +RIBS.--Well sprung. + +BELLY.--Full, but not flabby, with straight under line. + +FLANK.--Thick and well let down. + +QUARTERS.--Long and wide. + +HAMS.--Broad, full, and deep to hocks. + +COAT.--Long, fine, and silky. + +ACTION.--Firm and free. + +SKIN.--Fine, and quite free from wrinkles. + +OBJECTIONS.--Black hairs, black or blue spots, a coarse mane, inbent +knees, hollowness at back of shoulders, wrinkled skin. + + * * * * * + + +TAMWORTH + +COLOUR.--Golden red hair on a flesh coloured skin, free from black. + +HEAD.--Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite straight, face +slightly dished, wide between ears. + +EARS.--Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid and inclined +slightly forward. + +NECK.--Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Fine, slanting, and well set. + +LEGS.--Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone and set well outside +body. + +PASTERNS.--Strong and sloping. + +FEET.--Strong, and of fair size. + +BACK.--Long and straight. + +LOIN.--Strong and broad. + +TAIL.--Set on high and well tasselled. + +SIDES.--Long and deep. + +RIBS.--Well sprung and extending well up to flank. + +BELLY.--Deep, with straight under line. + +FLANK.--Full and well let down. + +QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail. + +HAMS.--Broad, and full, well let down to hocks. + +COAT.--Abundant, long, straight, and fine. + +ACTION.--Firm and free. + +OBJECTIONS.--Black hair, very light or ginger hair, curly coat, coarse +mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, short or turned up +snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled skin, inbent knees, hollowness at back +of shoulders. + + * * * * * + + +BERKSHIRE PIGS + +COLOUR.--Black, with white on face, feet and tip of tail. + +SKIN.--Fine, and free from wrinkles. + +HAIR.--Long, fine, and plentiful. + +HEAD.--Moderately short, face dished, snout broad; and wide between the +eyes and ears. + +EARS.--Fairly large, carried erect or slightly inclined forward, and +fringed with fine hair. + +NECK.--Medium length, evenly set on shoulders; jowl full and not heavy. + +SHOULDERS.--Fine and well sloped backwards; free from coarseness. + +BACK.--Long and straight, ribs well sprung, sides deep. + +HAMS.--Wide and deep to hocks. + +TAIL.--Set high, and fairly large. + +FLANK.--Deep and well let down, and making straight under line. + +LEGS AND FEET.--Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart, and hoofs +nearly erect. + +IMPERFECTIONS.--A perfectly black face, foot, or tail. A white ear. A +crooked jaw. White or sandy spots, or white skin on the body. A rose +back. A very coarse mane, and inbent knees. + + * * * * * + + +LARGE BLACK PIG + +SCALE OF POINTS + + HEAD.--Medium length and wide between the ears 5 + + EARS.--Thin, inclined well over the face, and not extending + beyond point of nose 4 + + JOWL.--Medium size 3 + + NECK.--Fairly long and muscular 3 + + CHEST.--Wide and deep 3 + + SHOULDERS.--Well developed, in line with the ribs 8 + + BACK.--Long and level 15 + + RIBS.--Well sprung 5 + + SIDES.--Very deep 8 + + LOIN.--Broad 5 + + BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well developed 7 + + QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping 8 + + HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks 10 + + TAIL.--Set high, of moderate size 3 + + LEGS.--Short, straight, flat, and strong 5 + + SKIN AND COAT.--Fine and soft, with moderate quantity + of straight, silky hair 8 + + --- + 100 + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead or dished nose. Ears--thick, coarse, +or pricked. Coat--curly or coarse, with rose, bristly mane. +Skin--wrinkled. + +DISQUALIFICATION.--Colour--any other than black. + + * * * * * + + +LARGE WHITE ULSTER + +SCALE OF POINTS + + HEAD.--Moderately long, wide between the ears 5 + + EARS.--Long, thin, and inclined well over the face 6 + + JOWL.--Light 5 + + NECK.--Fairly long and muscular 2 + + CHEST.--Wide and deep 3 + + SHOULDERS.--Not coarse, oblique, narrow plate 8 + + LEGS.--Short, straight, and well set, level with the outside + of the body, with flat bone, not coarse 5 + + PASTERNS.--Straight 5 + + BACK.--Long and level (rising a little to centre of back + not objected to) 12 + + SIDES.--Very deep 10 + + RIBS.--Well sprung 5 + + LOIN.--Broad 3 + + QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping 8 + + HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks 12 + + BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well filled 5 + + TAIL.--Well set and not coarse 1 + + SKIN.--Fine and soft 10 + + COAT.--Small quantity of fine silky hair 10 + + --- + Total 100 + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead. Ears--thick, coarse, or pricked. +Coat--coarse or curly; bristly mane. + +DISQUALIFICATION.--Colour--any other than white. + + * * * * * + + +LINCOLNSHIRE CURLY-COATED PIG + +SCALE OF POINTS + + COLOUR.--White + + FACE AND NECK.--Medium length and wide between the + eyes and ears 5 + + EARS.--Medium length, and not too much over face 10 + + JOWL.--Heavy 3 + + CHEST.--Wide and deep 3 + + SHOULDERS.--Wide 15 + + BACK.--Long and level 10 + + SIDES.--Very deep, and ribs well sprung 10 + + LOIN.--Broad 5 + + QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping 5 + + HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks 15 + + TAIL.--Set high and thick 3 + + LEGS.--Short and straight 5 + + BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well filled 3 + + COAT.--Fair quantity of curly or wavy hair 8 + + --- + 100 + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead. Ears--Thin. + +DISQUALIFICATIONS.--Ears--pricked. Nose--dished or long. Coat--coarse, +straight, or bristly. Colour of hair--any other than white. + + * * * * * + + +THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE OLD SPOTS + +HEAD.--Medium length and wide between the ears, nose wide and medium +length, slightly dished. + +EARS.--Rather long and drooping. + +JOWL.--Medium size. + +NECK.--Fairly long and muscular. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Well developed but not projecting and in line with ribs, +must not show any coarseness. + +BACK.--Long and level. + +RIBS.--Deep, well sprung. + +LOIN.--Very broad. + +SIDES.--Very deep and presenting straight bottom line. + +BELLY AND FLANK.--Full and thick. + +QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping. + +TAIL.--Set high, of moderate size, yet fairly strong and long and +carrying brush. + +HAMS.--Large, not too flat, and well filled to the hocks. + +LEGS.--Short, straight and strong. + +SKIN AND COAT.--Skin light or dark, must not show coloured splotches +otherwise than beneath the spots of the coat. The latter should be full +and fairly thick, hair long and silky but not curly, with an absence of +mane bristles. Colour: white spots on black ground, or black spots on +white ground. Such spots to be of medium size. + +TEATS.--Minimum number of teats to be considered. + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow, face and nose both dished. Ears--thick, +floppy, coarse, or elevated. Coat--Coarse or curly with rose; bristly +mane, or decidedly sandy colour; skewbald or saddleback markings. + + * * * * * + + +THE CUMBERLAND PIG + +HEAD.--Fairly short, wide snout, dished face, wide between ears. + +EARS.--Falling forward over face, long and thin. + +JOWL.--Heavy. + +NECK.--Fairly long and muscular. + +CHEST.--Deep and wide. + +SHOULDERS.--Deep and sloping into the back, blades not prominent, but in +line with ribs, not too wide on top. + +BACK.--Long and level or with a slight arch from head to tail. + +RIBS.--Deep and well sprung. + +LOINS.--Broad and strong. + +SIDES.--Deep. + +BELLY AND FLANK.--Full and thick. + +QUARTERS.--Long and level or with only very slight droop. + +TAIL.--Set high, not coarse. + +HAMS.--Very large and well filled to hocks. + +LEGS.--Short, straight, and strong. + +COLOUR.--White. + +SKIN AND COAT.--Smooth; hair straight, fine, and silky and not too much +of it. + +SIZE.--Large without coarseness. + +DISQUALIFICATIONS.--Black spots, black hair, prick ears. + +OBJECTIONS.--Blue spots. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _From a Painting by Wippell._ + +A BERKSHIRE SOW. + +To face page 32.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +LARGE BLACK SOW, "SUDBOURNE SADIE." + +Owner, K. M. Clark. 1st Prize and Champion, R. A. Show, Norwich. + +To face page 33.] + + + + +CHAPTER III + +CROSS-BRED PIGS + + +This term has a varying meaning to different persons. There are those +who term a pig a cross-bred unless it be bred from parents of recorded +pedigree, or those which possess pedigrees capable of registration. +Others claim that a cross-bred is any pig which is bred indiscriminately +from boar and sow of no particular type or breeding--in fact common pigs +of the country; whilst still others declare that the title of cross-bred +can be legitimately applied only to a pig whose parents were of two +different pure breeds in contradistinction to a pig sired by a pure bred +boar, and from a common sow, or the diverse way. + +It is not for us to determine the knotty point, but we may venture the +opinion that the two first definitions of a cross-bred are not +convincing to us, since in order to produce a cross-bred it is necessary +to have a sire, or a dam, or both of defined breeds. Probably the most +correct definition of a cross-bred animal is one bred from the mating of +sire and dam of two distinct breeds, but the term is now loosely applied +to an animal begotten by a sire or from a dam of pedigree breeding, the +other parent being of no particular breed. + +This system of breeding has become somewhat common owing to the +comparatively small outlay required in the purchase of a boar as +compared with the purchase of both boar and sows, and also to the belief +which is general that a greater improvement in the produce is noticeable +when the boar is pure bred and the sows of ordinary or no particular +breed, than if the sows are pure bred and the boar a common bred one. In +addition to this there is the important point that the pure bred boar +should be able to beget at least fifty litters in a year whereas the +pure bred sow will not produce more than two litters annually, so that +the advantage obtainable from the outlay on one pure bred boar is +twenty-five times as great as is possible from the purchase of a pure +bred sow. + +There is also another advantage to the owner of a boar who has only a +limited number of sows, he can allow his neighbours to make use of his +boar on payment of a liberal service fee, which combined will partially +pay for the prime cost of the boar. + +A considerable number of pig breeders are influenced in the purchase of +a pure bred boar rather than of a sow by the belief that pure bred sows +are neither so prolific nor such good mothers as are common bred sows. +This belief was even more common in years gone by than it is at the +present time, and it must be candidly confessed that there existed +substantial grounds for it. Some fifty years since it became +fashionable, particularly amongst those who had suddenly become rich by +trade or in other ways, to exhibit live-stock at the agricultural shows. +They may have been animated by the laudable desire of endeavouring to +assist farmers and stock breeders generally, or a desire to gain a place +in the sun may have had some slight influence. As the majority of these +exhibitors of stock had no special knowledge of stock, they were +compelled to place themselves entirely in the hands of their managers +and stockman, who generally received by arrangement a certain percentage +of the prize money won by the stock. It was then only natural that they +gave far more attention to the show points of the animals in their +charge than to the breeding qualities. + +The supply of pedigree animals was also very limited at about the period +mentioned so that it was much more difficult to avoid too close +breeding, nor was there the same care taken in the private record of the +pedigrees of the animals bred. These various causes combined led to a +loss of vitality amongst the so-called pedigree stock, and this +weakening of the constitution showed itself in a reduction in the number +of the offspring and in the power of the dam to furnish its young with a +full supply of well-balanced milk. + +There is little doubt that in the third quarter of the past century a +considerable proportion of the pedigree sows were not so prolific as +they ought to have been, nor did they produce and rear thoroughly well +so many pigs at each litter as the common sow of the country was capable +of doing. A more general study of stock breeding has tended to compel +attention to the practical apart from the show points of pedigree pigs, +but probably the strongest influence has been the formation of the +various breed societies, and the registration of the produce including +the number, sex, and sire of the pigs. These entries most clearly showed +those breeders of pigs who had paid most attention to the utility points +of their pigs, especially those particular points in which pedigree pigs +were generally believed to be deficient. The succeeding records of sows +of the same families afforded the best possible confirmation of the +belief which was becoming general that prolificacy like many other +qualities was most certainly hereditary. This recorded proof that pure +bred animals and especially pigs were not necessarily slow breeders, +helped vastly to increase the demand for pedigree animals for crossing +purposes in the breeding of commercial stock. + +The enormous benefit which has resulted from the use of pedigree sires +is most clearly proved in the Irish live stock. The so-called premium +bulls and boars are pedigree animals purchased by or with the sanction +of the Live Stock Commissioners and placed at the service of the general +public at a somewhat reduced fee, the Government paying to the owner an +annual premium of some £15 for each bull, and a certain sum for each +boar. + +It is alleged that the original improvement in the ordinary pig stock of +those parts of Ireland where pig-keeping on a considerable scale is +followed, was due to the purchase in England of numbers of Large White +boars, as after experiments carried out in Denmark, these boars were +found to effect the greatest improvement in the common country pigs and +to render them far more suitable for conversion into the kind of bacon +which was in most general demand, and of course realised the highest +price. For the beginning of the vast improvement in the Irish pig which +has followed the importation of these Large White boars, the Irish bacon +curers must receive the credit, as they joined together in the purchase +of these boars which were distributed in those districts from which the +various factories drew their supplies of fat pigs. + +A similar plan was adopted by Messrs. Harris of Calne who purchased some +hundreds of boars of the Large White breed, and at first lent them on +certain conditions to pig breeders, but later on resold the young boars +by auction for whatever they would fetch, their object being to secure +the use of these boars in order to render the farm pigs more suitable +for the purposes of their trade as bacon curers. + +There may or may not be any grounds for the belief that the sire has a +greater influence in the external form of the joint produce than does +the dam, but this belief has also had its influence in determining +breeders of cross breds to use the pure bred sire on the ordinary stock +of the country, rather than the reverse way. There is no doubt that +apart from the improvement in the general quality of the produce of the +pure bred sire there results a general uniformity of the young stock, +which is a great recommendation when they are placed on the market +either as stores, or when fattened for the butcher or bacon curer. This +uniformity of type and character in the young stock would be more +noticeable still if the buyers of the pure bred sires were to continue +their purchases from the same herds, providing that the owners of them +were sufficiently careful in avoiding incestuous breeding. + +So many people appear to be content with the knowledge that the sire +which they are purchasing has a recorded pedigree and is a pure bred +sire eligible for entry in the herd book of its breed, but they forget +that it is possible in the crossing of two pedigree animals of a similar +breed to obtain as great a mixture of blood and points as in the mating +of two cross-breds or two come-by-chances. Uniformity in a herd, stud, +or flock can only be rendered comparatively certain by the continued use +of sires of similar breeding. In making a compound, its character is +determined by the proportion of the various ingredients used in its +manufacture. So it is in the breeding of stock, those points which are +most predominant in proportion in the blood of the sire and dam will, on +the average, be represented in an equal degree in the joint produce. +This it is which renders so impressive a sire which is descended from +closely bred parents. Each of its forbears has handed down a proportion +of its own particular characteristics so that the larger the number of +animals amongst its forbears which possessed these particular points the +greater the certainty of their being possessed by the produce. The +meaning of this may be made more clear by pointing out that the result +of the mixing together of various mixtures will depend entirely on the +proportion of the substances used in the manufacture or compounding of +those mixtures. In each animal is embodied the characteristics of its +forbears. + +There exists generally an opinion that the produce of two parents of +distinct breeds, or as it is termed a first cross is commonly superior +to a pure bred of either of the two breeds represented by the parents. +It is difficult to discover the cause of this, if it be a fact. If one +of the parents were deficient in stamina the produce might conceivably +be more robust, and it might also occasionally happen that the mixture +of the qualities or properties possessed by the parents would result in +improvement, as happens when a distinct new breed is originated; but as +a rule the good and the bad qualities of the produce from the mating of +two animals of diverse breeds are in direct proportion to the qualities +possessed by the parents. + +The mere mixing of the blood of two animals differently bred cannot +increase the good or bad properties, but the combination might possibly +result in a blend more suitable for the purpose in hand. + +Another claim commonly made for the crossing of animals is that the risk +of that delicacy of constitution which they assert is far too common +amongst pure bred animals, and is due to close breeding, is hereby +avoided. It must be admitted that in times past there was a certain +amount of cause for this complaint of want of constitution amongst +pedigree animals, but the cause has been considerably if not entirely +removed by the more careful recording of the breeding, and by the more +drastic screening out of any animals suspected of delicacy of +constitution. + +The buyers of pure bred animals for crossing purposes have also become +more careful in their selection. They have ceased to imagine that +because the owner of certain animals most of which he has purchased is +successful in winning prizes at the chief agricultural shows, the whole +of the animals in his stud, herd, or flock must be of equal excellence +or at all events sufficiently good for the production of profitable +commercial stock. Action on this mistaken belief has led to much +disappointment in the past, since the home bred animals may have been of +totally different blood from those which have won prizes, and further +they may not be inbred for a sufficiently long time on distinct lines to +render them prepotent enough to impress their good qualities on their +produce. + +Amongst the objections made to cross-breeding is the heavy cost of +replacing the breeding stock, as to obtain a first cross, a succession +of sires and dams must be purchased. Many persons meet this difficulty +by merely buying sires of a breed similar to the first used, but then +the produce ceases to be cross-breds and become grades until such time +as by the use of a certain number of sires of a similar breed the +produce become eligible for entry in the herd book of the sires which +have been continuously used. This system of breeding insures a greater +uniformity in the produce providing that the sires selected are of +similar breeding, type, and character, than even by the system of +crossing sire and dam of two pure breeds. + +The risk attending too close breeding as in the breeding of pure breds +is also avoided provided that the herd from which the sires are bought +is sufficiently large to furnish a change of blood, yet of similar +breeding. + +No one possessing a knowledge of the ordinary farm stock of the country +will for one moment deny that there is still vast room for improvement +in our live stock, and particularly in our pigs, and it is equally the +fact that our Government has not shown a readiness equal to that of some +foreign Governments, and even of the authorities in some of our colonies +to assist farmers in obtaining the use of improved sires. Take Canada as +an instance. For years the Dominion Live Stock Branch has been +purchasing and delivering free into districts needing them, male animals +for the use of farmers and stock owners free, save stallions, for which +a covering fee has to be paid sufficient to cover the insurance of the +stallion. The other important condition which relates to all the sires +provided by the authorities is that the cost of maintenance shall be +paid by the Local Association which has the management of the sire and +the arrangement of its services. + +Another noticeable point is that all the sires allocated to the various +districts are Canadian bred, and so far as is possible are purchased in +the province in which they are to be located. The object is undoubtedly +to encourage in Canada the breeding of pure bred animals and may thus +far be considered satisfactory, but it is acting on an assumption which +may not be justified that there exists in the Dominion a sufficiency of +stock equal in quality and breeding to those which it may be possible to +import. + +Within the past three or four years our Board of Agriculture have taken +some steps to assist our farmers to improve their stock. The assistance +has taken the form of offering premiums of fixed amounts to private +persons or associations who hired or purchased approved stallions, +bulls, and boars which were placed at fixed fees at the service of the +stock of the public. Already great benefit has been derived from the use +of the stallions and bulls, and this to a far greater extent than in the +pigs, as owing to an unfortunate condition which was attempted to be +enforced as to the formation of pig clubs and impracticable conditions +the number of boars located in the country has been much smaller than +would have been had the conditions at present in force been adopted at +the initiation of the scheme. + +The boar conditions are now of a similar character to those in force +from the first with regard to stallions and bulls. In addition to the +supply of male animals at comparatively low fees an attempt has been +made to assist in the recording of the milk yield of cows, a matter of +the highest importance. If only this could be extended to sows there +would soon cease to be cause for the far too common complaint of the +owners of sows of certain breeds of pedigree pigs, as to the limited +quantity of milk which is provided by the sows for their litters of +pigs. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Francis Davis, Needingworth._ + +THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS. + +The Property of the Author. Also portion of 17 Sties at Holywell Manor, +near St. Ives. + +To face page 48.] + + * * * * * + + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR. + +From the Author's Pig Farm. + +To face page 49.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +DENTITION AND AGE OF PIGS + + +Although the majority of pig sellers may claim to be, and may be able to +substantiate the claim to be, equally as honest as the majority of +others in trade, yet there may be a small minority who are apt to +attempt to palm off pigs as being older than they really are. It is most +annoying when you are anxious to purchase pigs of say six or seven +months old which are quite ready to be quickly fattened, to have pigs of +four or five months old which continue to make growth instead of flesh, +so that they are not ready for killing until two or three months after +they are required for conversion into bacon. + +Although the object of the Council of the Smithfield Club is to prevent +fraud of a different character, i.e. the exhibition in classes limited +to certain ages of pigs of an age greater than that given on the entry +form, yet the following table showing the normal state of the dentition +of pigs at certain fixed ages will enable purchasers to discover whether +or not the seller has attempted to deceive him. It may at once be +admitted that there will be a limited number of cases in which the state +of dentition of pigs is abnormal, but after examining the teeth of some +thousands of pigs during the past sixty years, we have no hesitation in +asserting that more than half, at least, of the variations from the +normal are allayed dentition. It is claimed that a man of experience is +quite able to arrive at the approximate age of a pig by its development +and appearance; some few persons may have that instinctive knowledge +more or less fully developed, but this examination of the state of +dentition is of the greatest possible assistance in arriving at the +actual age of the pig, particularly desirable as it is in case of a +difference of opinion between buyer and seller. + +The following are the conditions of the state of dentition to which all +pigs have to conform ere they are allowed to compete for the prizes +offered by the Smithfield Club at their annual shows:-- + +"Pigs having their corner permanent incisors cut will be considered as +exceeding six months. + +"Pigs having their permanent tusks more than half up will be considered +as exceeding nine months. + +"Pigs having their central permanent incisors up, and any of the first +three permanent molars cut, will be considered as exceeding twelve +months. + +"Pigs having their lateral temporary incisors shed, and the permanents +appearing will be considered as exceeding fifteen months. + +"Pigs having their lateral permanent incisors fully up will be +considered as exceeding eighteen months." + +As the majority of the pigs bought of dealers by amateurs are young pigs +it may be advisable to state that a pig of the age of eight weeks old +should have its two central incisors fully grown. A pig three months +old should have all four temporary incisors cut, the two outside ones +being more than half as long as the two central incisors. + +As the first set of the teeth of a pig like that of a child are merely +temporary, and as these give place at fairly definite ages of the owner +to permanent ones, it may be well to endeavour to describe as clearly as +possible the position and appearance of the temporaries as compared with +the permanents. The pig is one of the few animals which is possessed of +teeth at its birth; these number eight, two on each side of the upper +and lower jaw. It has been suggested that these early teeth are provided +to assist the pigling to grasp firmly the sow's teat when in the act of +sucking. These eight teeth vary somewhat in length; those pigs which are +carried by the sow beyond the usual period of sixteen weeks frequently +have longer and even sharper teeth than those of pigs which are born at +the usual time. These longer teeth are also sometimes of a dark colour. +This is doubtless the origin of the remark commonly made by +old-fashioned pigmen that "pigs born with black teeth never do well." +This might have been so prior to the discovery that the breaking off the +sharp teeth of the newly born pigs frequently saved trouble, and often +the life of the little pigs. Pigs whose teeth are discoloured at birth +are usually more robust rather than the reverse, since the sow carrying +them beyond the allotted time is invariably in a vigorous state of +health, and her pigs consequently more fully developed. + +When the pig is about a month old, the two central incisors are cut in +each jaw, these are two of the four front teeth in each jaw of the pig +at a subsequent age. Two temporary molars are also cut on each side of +the jaw above and below, with the first temporary molar in each place +ready to come through the gum. + +At two months the temporary central incisors are fully developed, and +the two lateral temporary incisors can be seen in the gums, if they are +not already through. All three temporary molars are now about level. + +When the pig is about three months old its temporary teeth are all in +position, the temporary lateral incisors are through, and nearly as long +as the temporary central incisors. Owing to the lengthening of the jaws +the two temporary corner teeth which were present at birth will have +become further apart. When the pig is about five months, the fourth +molar in either jaw shows itself in the gums, then at six months the +wolf teeth show between the tusks and the premolars, and the fourth +molar is nearly level with the first premolar. The corner incisors and +the tusks usually disappear, and are replaced by permanents when the pig +is nine months old. The second permanent molar also shows itself. At +twelve months the two central temporary incisors give place to the +permanents; these last are more square in form than the temporaries, and +are thus easily distinguished. The three temporary molars will also be +ready for displacement by three permanents. These last will be level +with the other permanent molars when the pig is fifteen months. The two +lateral incisors will also have given place to permanents. At eighteen +months the third permanent molars will be coming through, and at the age +of twenty months the pig's teeth are fully developed. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +SELECTION OF THE BOAR + + +The hackneyed saying "The sire is half the herd" appears to have a +different meaning to varying persons. To some it conveys the idea that +the selection of the sire is of far more importance than the selection +of the dam because the influence of the sire is so much more powerful +than that of the dam on at least the external form and character of the +produce. The late Mr. James Howard, who took a particularly keen +interest in the breeding of pigs, used to declare that the appearance +and form of the young pigs far more generally followed those of the sire +than of the dam; whilst the influence of the latter was more shown in +the character and constitution of their joint produce; or in other +words, that the boar stamped his character to a greater extent on the +external points of the young, whilst the sow more strongly influenced +the internal parts of the youngsters. It is quite possible that this +idea has gained ground to a large extent from the fact that the use of a +pure bred sire on ordinary or grade females has been very much more +common than the crossing of pure bred females by the ordinary or +non-pedigree sire; as also from the far greater numbers of young which +each pure bred sire would improve, than would be improved by each pure +bred female which might be crossed. + +If only for this reason alone, we would always recommend buyers who are +desirous of grading up and improving their farm stock to attempt to do +this by the purchase or use of the pure bred or improved sire. The +original outlay is infinitely less, whilst the immediate results are +comparatively longer. + +It is scarcely desirable to go further into the question as to the +comparative influence on the young of the sire and the dam since our +actual knowledge of the subject is by no means large. Indeed, it is at +the least doubtful, if by the closest observation any definite opinion +on the subject is possible, so great is the difference which varying +parents have on the chief characteristics of their joint progeny, and +even in the separate specimens which they have procreated. Of course, it +is quite possible to breed animals especially well developed or endowed +with certain qualities, providing that the parents have been for +generations selected because of their possession in a marked degree of +those particular qualities sought. It is in this power of prepotency +that one of the chief benefits from the use of a pure bred sire or dam +arises. By the term pure bred is not meant merely that the names of a +certain number of the forbears of the animal shall have been recorded in +the register of the breed, but that the animal shall for a certain +number of generations have been bred on similar lines so that it shall +possess a considerable amount of concentrated blood. This is a point to +which sufficient care is not generally given by purchasers of so-called +pedigree sires to be used on the ordinary bred or graded stock. The far +too common practice is to purchase each boar required from a totally +different herd, or from one of quite dissimilar breeding, with the +result that there is not the slightest uniformity in the appearance or +character of the herd, or of the mature animals when ready for market. + +It is far too frequently forgotten that the chief value of a record of +the pedigree is that by it one can trace the breeding of the animal's +progenitors, and thus one is enabled to form some opinion of the +probable produce--providing it is possible to learn the chief +characteristics of the progenitors. Failing this, the only course open +is to note the names of the breeders of the more recent parents, as from +this a certain amount of information as to the probable qualities of the +parents may be obtained or surmised. + +Another point on which at least a diversity of opinion exists, is the +wisdom of giving so much consideration to the fact that the herd from +which the sire is purchased shall have been recently successful in the +show yard, or in extreme cases, that the sire itself shall have been a +prize winner. It is urged that the mere fact that a sire has succeeded +in winning one or more prizes is a proof that it possesses in a marked +degree those qualities which are most highly prized. This may be +conceded, yet there is no certainty that the mating of this winning sire +even with dams that have also been prize winners shall result in the +production of young the equal of the parents, since the winners at the +various shows may be of dissimilar types and breeding. + +But the case would be quite different if the winning sire and dam came +from the same old established herd in which the animals had been bred +for generations on similar lines. It is this concentration of certain +qualities in generation after generation which renders the pedigree +animal so intensely prepotent, particularly when mated with animals of +an ordinary character or not possessing concentrated breeding. Indeed, +it may be safely assumed that the power of a parent to impress its own +individuality and qualities on its produce, depends to a very large +extent, if not entirely, on the comparative hereditary extent of those +qualities in comparison with the other qualities possessed by itself, or +by the animal with which it may have been mated. + +In other words, it is contended that the sire or the dam has not the +power to impress certain of its characteristics on its young, merely +because of its sex, but that this power depends on the proportion in the +sire or dam of the blood of progenitors who possessed in a marked degree +certain qualities. + +It is with the breeding of animals as with the manufacture of a compound +article. The character and quality of that compound will vary according +to the proportion of the various ingredients used in its manufacture. It +is to this law or fact that the marked impressiveness of certain strains +of blood is attributable. + +Again, the marked and long continued success of the blood of the +animals bred by a few of our most successful breeders of live stock is +in the main due to the fact that the owners set up a standard and +persistently selected and bred together only animals possessing to a +greater or lesser extent the particular qualities which together +comprised that standard. There is not the slightest doubt that in +carrying out their system they were often compelled to mate animals +related in blood the one to the other, but in this there is little risk +providing that all those animals which show the slightest symptom of +delicacy of constitution are persistently draughted out. + +It will be inferred from the above remarks that we hold to the belief +that the breeding of the boar should receive attention as well as the +following points in its form and character. + +One of the most important of these points is good temper. This is a +quality not usually attributed to the pig in its wild state, and +consequently not natural to the domesticated pig, yet on the possession +of it depends to a very great extent the thrift and well doing of the +produce of the boar. The produce of an irritable boar are almost certain +to inherit this quality which is fatal to profitable fatting. In sows +this weakness is still more unfortunate, as a bad tempered sow is almost +invariably an indifferent mother. The rigid avoidance of this failing of +bad temper in a boar is advisable not only because this quality is +almost invariably hereditary, but a savage boar is a continual source of +danger to man and beast. It may be said that little trouble is likely if +the boar is kept in confinement, but there are times, such as when sows +are placed with him, when a certain amount of liberty must be given to +him, and it is generally on such occasions of excitement when the bad +temper is the most in evidence. The mere fact that irritability and +nervousness are natural to the pig should make us the more careful to +avoid any increase in the failing by using a boar which is the least +inclined to be bad tempered. + +Many persons hold that in the selection of a boar one of the principal +points is size. They contend that size, in pigs especially, is +imperative if a profitable return is to be made. This view may have +arisen to a greater or lesser extent from the want of method and +observation which is characteristic of so many stock owners. The one +point which to them is of the greatest importance is the selling price +of the fat or store animal sold being fully up to the average. Little or +no thought is given to the value of the food eaten by each animal. If it +had been, very frequently it would have been found that the smaller +animal of a lot had actually given the best return for the food it had +consumed. It is not the size alone of the animal which determines its +value as the producer of meat, but more than anything it is the feeding +qualities of the animal fattened. In addition to this there never was a +time when the consumer more strongly demanded small joints of meat, and +these of the best quality and with as little bone as possible. + +Apart from this a very large boar is a mistake as it is invariably +awkward when serving--it can be used only for large and strong sows, and +its average period of usefulness is decidedly shorter than that of a +medium sized and compact boar. A large boar generally possesses an undue +proportion of bone, its shoulders are heavy, and its ankles round, and +feet large and spreading. Now these are all objections. The bone of a +boar should be solid, not porous; the ankles compact and the feet small, +and the pasterns short. The head should be wide so that the brain can be +well developed, the head inclined to be short rather than long, since an +animal with an extremely long head is certain to be deficient in natural +flesh. + +On the question of the size and hang of the ears a variety of opinion +exists; pigs with long ears, and pigs with short ears are found +possessing good carcases. It is the quality of the ear rather than its +size and hang which seems to indicate the character most. A pig with a +thin and firm ear is usually of fine quality, whereas a pig which has a +thick, coarse ear is generally coarse in bone, skin, flesh, and hair. + +The neck of the boar should be muscular as indicating constitution and +natural vigour; the shoulders fine and obliquely laid, the ribs well +sprung, the loin wide, the quarters long and square, not drooping, the +hams full and extending quite down to the hocks, and without any of that +loose skin which is far too common amongst the largest of our breeds of +pigs, and which is a sure sign of coarseness. The flank should be thick +and well let down, as this indicates constitution and lean meat, the +legs should be fairly short and set well apart so that the heart, lungs, +and other organs have plenty of room to perform their share of the work +of the pig. The skin should be fine and the hair straight and silky, as +well as plenty of it. Sparsity of hair is generally an indication of +shortage of lean meat, whilst curliness and coarseness of hair are far +too frequently associated with excessive fat and coarseness of meat. + +With regard to the reproductive parts of the boar there are one or two +points which should receive special attention. A boar with excessively +small testicles should be avoided, as such a one is often barren. Again, +a boar with one testicle of normal size and the other smaller, +ordinarily suffers from the same disqualification to a lesser extent. A +ruptured boar should not on any account be used, as this weakness is +strongly hereditary. The weakness may not possibly show itself in the +first generation, but it is certain to appear sooner or later. Not only +is it a sure index of weakness of constitution, but pigs so affected +occasionally die suddenly, whilst there is always a certain amount of +risk from the operation of castration. + +Occasionally one or more of the boar pigs of a litter will be found to +be malformed, in that only one of the testicles is apparent. Generally +speaking, the other is found when the pig is killed to be attached to +the inside of the pig, and thus is unable to descend into the scrotum or +purse, so that the act of castration is only partially performed. A boar +pig with only one testicle down is commonly termed a rig. The removal of +one of the testicles does not deprive the rig of reproducing its +species, and it is thus a source of continual trouble when herded with a +lot of sow pigs now that the general custom is to allow the female pigs +of a litter to remain unspayed. It is, therefore, necessary to fatten a +rig either alone, or with male pigs which have been operated upon. In +addition to this extra trouble, the flesh of a rig pig if it be kept +fattening after it is some five or six months old is almost certain to +be strong in flavour, like unto that of a boar. It is, therefore, +advisable to fatten a rig quite early in life and convert it into a +porket or porker carcase of pork. + +It may appear strange to some readers to specially mention the teats of +the boar, but it is equally as necessary to avoid boars having small +teats, teats unevenly placed, and commencing any distance from the fore +legs, and blind teats, as it is in the case of the sow, since any +weaknesses of the kind are equally as hereditary from the boar as from +the sow. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +SELECTION OF THE SOW + + +It is impossible to agree with the view held by so many persons that the +necessity for the same care is non-existent in the selection of a sow as +in the choice of a boar. We hold that the desirability for studying the +forbears, especially the dam, of a young sow intended for breeding +purposes is fully as great as when selecting the young boar, since many, +if not most, of the qualities which we desire the brood sow to possess +are strongly hereditary. Take, for instance, the question of gentleness +or a quiet disposition, it follows from dam to produce with a regularity +equal to that of bad temper, and the latter is wellnigh a certainty. +Again, whoever found that the female produce of a sow deficient in the +maternal instincts proved, if saved for breeding purposes, to be a +really good mother? As a rule the daughters of a sow which gives but a +small quantity of milk, and that of an inferior quality, are also cursed +with the same grievous failings, but this does not appear to be +universally the case, since the milking qualities of the dam descend +through her sons, so that if the female progenitors of the boar have +been good milkers it is probable that the boar's daughters may be able +to rear their pigs successfully, even if their dam had not been in the +habit of suckling her pigs well. + +Still, it is quite safe to assert that with this one exception we may +fairly anticipate that the good qualities which we seek in a sow are far +more likely to be found in the sow pigs of a sow herself the possessor, +than from one which does not possess them. We are inclined to the belief +that the alleged failure of some pedigree yelts to make good brood sows +is in the main due to the continued selection for breeding purposes of +those pure-bred yelts which show early maturing and flesh-forming +qualities, rather than that motherly look which is almost invariably to +be found in a sow which is prolific, a free milker, and a really good +mother. There is a marked difference in the formation of a milk-giving +and a fat-producing sow--the latter is generally somewhat heavy in the +shoulders, has a muscular or fat neck, is rather short in the head and +heavy in the jowl, and is altogether more compactly built, whereas a +good brood sow has rather a long face, is wide between the eyes, has a +light muscular neck, is fine in the shoulders, possesses long and square +quarters and appears to be heavier in the hind than in the forequarters. +She is somewhat more loosely built and often shows less of quality. +Thickness of flank and length of side are desirable, the first as +indicating substance and flesh, whilst the second gives plenty of room +for her pigs to suck. The bone should be of good quality; the same +remarks apply to the skin and hair. + +About half a century since there existed a fancy, which almost amounted +to a craze for sows of small size; they could not be too neat, and +showing too much so-called feminine character. The almost certain result +of selecting the neatest of the female pigs followed, the fat pigs sent +to market were light in weight, deficient in lean meat and rightly named +"animated bladders of lard." Within about the same distance of time it +was the common practice of exhibitors of pigs at the Smithfield Club's +Shows to provide pillows in the form of round pieces of wood on which +the fat pigs rested their heads so that these were raised in order to +prevent the pigs becoming suffocated. In addition, the pigs were fed on +forcing foods until they were at least one and a half year old and +allowed to take, or were given little exercise, with the result that the +pork consisted mainly of soft fat or lard. To such an extent had this +craze for neatness been followed that the bacon curers and consumers of +pork wellnigh ceased to purchase or consume pork. + +At the present time we are afraid that the tendency is in the opposite +direction, and mere size is receiving far too much attention. At some of +our agricultural shows the judges select for honour great unwieldly sows +which could not possibly perform with any amount of success those +maternal duties which a brood sow is supposed to be kept solely to +perform. An extremely large sow is very frequently a poor milker, the +quantity of milk she gives is not large, nor does she continue to give +even this reduced supply for a period long enough to allow her young to +grow strong enough to make a good start in life on their own account. + +Another great objection to a sow of extreme size is that her produce +almost invariably take after her to such an extent that it is difficult, +if not wellnigh impossible, to make them fat until they are from nine to +twelve months old, and by that time they are too large and heavy for the +general demand which is at the present time, and likely to become still +more so in the future, for small joints of meat which carry a large +proportion of lean and a limited quantity of bone. The most successful +manufacturer is he who most nearly supplies the consumer with that which +he requires or fancies. We are not moved by the contention of breeders +of pedigree pigs that the most valuable pig is the one which possesses +in the greatest degree those special points which are characteristic of +the breed, as, for instance, size in the pigs of the Large White, the +Large Black, and the Lincolnshire Curly Coated pigs, therefore the +biggest pigs should be held in the highest esteem. In our opinion the +best, as it is in the long run the most profitable, is the pig which +furnishes to the greatest extent exactly the kind of meat in the most +general demand. + +In addition to these objections to an extremely large and ungainly sow +is the fact that such an one is invariably clumsy in the breeding pen, +she is almost certain to lay on some of her pigs. It is even alleged +that her period of usefulness as a breeder is shorter than that of a sow +of ordinary size. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +TAMWORTH BOAR: BISHOP OF WEBTON. Owner, C. L. Coxon. 1st and Champion, +Royal Show. + +To face page 64] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, G. H. Parsons, Rostrevor._ + +GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW. From the herd of Lord Sherbourne. + +To face page 65.] + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE SOW'S UDDER + + +One of the most important points in connection with the reproduction of +the species of our various domestic animals is the provision of a full +supply of milk for the young in the early portion of their existence. +Nature herself has set us a good example in a duplicated source of milk +supply even amongst animals which usually produce only one animal at a +birth. If this duplication be necessary under such conditions, it must +be imperative on us to select those sow pigs which are intended for +breeding pigs which possess a well-formed udder, having a full supply of +teats, and these of good shape and properly placed on the belly of the +sow. Not only is this necessary to ensure the rearing of a fairly +numerous litter of pigs in a satisfactory manner, but it is held that +the number of teats possessed by a sow indicates to a remarkable extent +the probable degree of prolificacy of the sow. One can readily +understand that nature would not be likely to endow a sow with the power +to produce a larger number of young at each birth than she would be able +to rear. Of course it may be said that the sow of the present day is not +as nature first made her, in that, by selection and by feeding, the +number of pigs produced at each birth is now so much larger than the +litters of the wild sows, which have some seven or eight teats and +farrow at each litter a similar number of pigs. On the other hand, +neither the number of teats nor of the young is fixed either in the +domesticated sow, or the sow in a wild state, so that by continued +selection we are able to permanently increase, within limits, the +production of larger litters and the increased supply of milk for their +sustenance when young. + +The provision of a suitable udder is even of more importance with the +domesticated than with the sow running wild, since the latter produces +each year one litter only, and that in the season of the year when the +young are less dependent on their dams; whereas the domesticated sow is +expected to rear at least two litters per year, and frequently owing to +want of care on the part of the owner the young pigs are farrowed at the +most unfavourable time of the year. + +Apart from the provision of a certain number of teats there is another +point to be considered, the power of the sow to produce milk enough to +satisfy the given number of pigs. This of course varies with each family +or tribe of pigs, and even with the various members in it, so that to +obtain the best results selection must be made of the produce of those +sows which give the largest quantity of the most nutritious milk. There +exists amongst pig keepers a difference of opinion as to the number of +pigs each sow should be allowed to rear, probably the average of this +number would be ten for a mature sow, and seven or eight for a first +litter. If so, the selected sow pig should possess twelve teats, as +frequently one of these may not give a full supply of milk from either +natural or accidental causes. The teats should be regular in size and +form. It is not uncommon to find one or more of the teats of a sow much +smaller in size than the others. These smaller teats will produce a +reduced quantity of milk, so that the pigling which is unfortunate +enough to decide on making this small teat its very own--and each +pigling is confined by the others to its own special teat--is certain to +be less well developed than its brothers and sisters, even if it should +succeed in surviving. + +The necessity for the teats being placed equidistant the one from the +other arises from the desirability of each pig having room to suck +comfortably. Should two of the teats be closely placed the two pigs will +probably fight, when not only will sores be caused on the cheeks of the +pigs, but the milk in the teats not properly drawn will gradually cease +to flow. + +Another point of great importance is that the teats should commence as +near as possible to the fore legs--this for two reasons: it gives more +room for the pigs to suck as they grow larger; the other and more +important one is that the teats most forward on the udder of the sow +produce the larger quantity of milk, or milk of a better quality. It +will be almost invariably found that the pigs sucking the foremost teats +thrive the best. + +It is advisable to avoid the selection of a female pig for breeding +purposes from a sow which has large and coarse teats, as these +invariably accompany coarseness of skin, bone, hair, and flesh, this in +turn affects the sale value of the carcase. It will also be found that +those sows with a neat and compact udder, with fine teats, will give +more milk and a better quality than sows possessing a coarse and flabby +udder. + +Another weakness to be avoided when selecting a sow pig for breeding +purposes is that which is commonly termed a blind teat, since it is +undoubtedly hereditary in addition to being useless for the purpose of +rearing pigs. The normal teat projects boldly from the udder, whereas +the blind teat is almost flat or on a level with the udder. In +appearance it resembles a ring of skin with a depressed nipple in its +centre. At the time of parturition the blind teat contains milk to the +same extent as do the other teats, but it promptly dries up since it is +impossible for the little pigs to extract the milk from it since the +nipple recedes as soon as the pigling attempts to clasp it with its lips +and tongue, instead of becoming more extended so that the little pig can +suck the milk from it. + +An ideal udder can be briefly described as one possessing at least +twelve fully developed teats, the more the better--these should commence +from a point as near the fore legs of the sow as possible, and be placed +as nearly as possible an equal distance the one from the other. + +Some persons hold that large teats and much loose skin are sure +indications that the sow has proved to be a good milker. This is a +mistaken view; it is with sows as with cows, the most prolific milkers +are those with well formed and soft udders which almost disappear when +the lactation period has passed. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +MATING THE YOUNG SOW + + +As in most other details in the management of our domesticated animals +there exists a variety of opinion as to the age at which the young sow, +or, as it is commonly locally termed, a gilt, yelt, yilt, hilt, elt, +etc., should be mated with the boar. Perhaps the most important point to +consider is the time of the year when the anticipated pigs should +arrive. If possible the period between the middle of the month of +September and the middle of December should be avoided. The long nights +and the short and dull days generally experienced during this period are +most unsuitable for young pigs. Many litters of pigs farrowed in October +are not any larger nor nearly as thrifty in the month of March as those +farrowed during the early portion of January in the following year, and +very frequently the loss amongst the October and November farrowed pigs +from lameness, or, as it is commonly termed, cramp, is very large. An +attempt should be made so that the two litters which should be bred each +year from the sow arrive so that they are weaned during the longer and +brighter days of the year; thus a sow which farrows in the beginning of +February may be expected to farrow again in July. The weather is +sometimes rather cold for little pigs early in the year, but it is +surprising how little they are affected by it providing the sow +furnishes a good supply of milk and the bedding is dry and plentiful. +The pigs farrowed in the months of January and February are generally +the most profitable, as they will be ready for the consumption of the +separated milk, butter milk, whey, etc., which is generally abundant in +the month of May in districts where dairying and cheese making are +followed. These pigs are also ready for turning out to grass in April or +May, or as soon as the weather is suitable, and the grass has grown +sufficiently. These young pigs will grow and thrive splendidly providing +that some additional food is fed to them and shelter provided. + +This natural system of pig raising is of great benefit to those pigs +which are intended for breeding purposes and was consistently followed +by the writer from the year 1863. It was by no means a new plan even at +that period, although strange claims have recently been made that the +system is a novel one and originated in the fertile brain of one or two +enthusiasts who have gone the whole hog in pig breeding. In the middle +of the last century it was quite a common practice in parts of the +counties of Cambridge, Essex, and Suffolk to graze the seeds which +comprised clovers, trefoils, etc., with pigs which received in addition +extra food, such as peas or beans in accordance with the amount of +vegetable food obtainable or the purpose for which the pigs were +required; those intended for pork receiving the larger supply. + +Although it may not be possible to allow the young boar pigs to have +their liberty after they become five months old, yet the sow pigs will +grow and develop far better in the field if properly fed than they will +in an inclosed sty; further, the young pigs which they produce will be +much more lusty than if the sows had been kept in close confinement. + +Although the sow pig will generally come in heat when she is about six +months old, it is advisable that she should not be mated until she is +some eight months old, so that her first litter of pigs is not farrowed +until she is about a year old, when she should be quite strong enough to +rear a fair litter of pigs and also to grow and develop into a fully +natured specimen of its breed. + +In some districts where the breeding pigs are generally kept in +confinement and high keeping is followed the sow pigs are mated with the +boar at an earlier age, but the system has its disadvantages which more +than outweigh the saving of the extra few weeks of the keep of the yelt +ere she is put to the boar. This early mating is especially harmful if +the number of the pigs in the first litter should be large. So few pig +keepers have the hardihood to knock a certain portion of the too +numerous litter on the head, and so reduce the number to say seven or +eight, which most young sows should be able to rear fairly well and +without any undue drain on the sow's system--but the whole of the large +litter are left on the sow, which becomes very much reduced in +condition, and checked in growth, whilst the too large litter of pigs +are badly reared and frequently become a source of trouble and +annoyance to the owner. + +On the other hand, there are many practical pig keepers who make it a +rule to delay the mating of their young sows beyond the eight months' +age. They contend that a sow pig at eight months is not sufficiently +matured to bear the strain of producing a litter of pigs when she is +about one year old, and then to furnish the pigs with a sufficiency of +milk to give them a good start in life. The plan which they adopt is to +mate the sow when she is about a year old so that she is some sixteen +months old before her family troubles commence. + +Another very curious reason has been recently made public by an +enthusiastic novice for delaying the mating of the yelt until she is at +least a year old. It is the following, that it is quite possible to +ensure that the produce of young sows which have reached the age of +sixteen or seventeen months ere they farrow their first litter shall +possess the desired characteristics of the breed, whereas this is by no +means certain if the young pigs arrive before the sow has reached that +age or is about a year old. Unfortunately, we have see no attempt made +to account for this alleged curious variation in the qualities inherited +from a parent of about one year old and the parent which had arrived at +the more matured age of about sixteen months, so that it is impossible +to discover a solution of the strange problem. + +Therefore, we should be unable to admit the correctness of the assertion +even though it was not directly in opposition to our belief which is +founded on experience of a most extensive character extending over some +sixty years. To aver that the power of a young sow to impress its +hereditary characteristics on its young are only fully developed by +deferring the arrival of the young pigs for four or five months, or +until the sow is sixteen instead of twelve months old when she farrows +must surely cause surprise, if not, disbelief. Perhaps the object of the +propounder of the theory was to create a discussion--it could not have +been to bring his name prominently before the public. + +Another advantage in mating the young sow so that her first litter +appears when she is about a year old, her daughters will in turn farrow +during the most suitable months of the year, providing of course that +she herself had been farrowed in early spring or about the month of +July. + +When the sow pig which is intended to be kept for breeding has been +farrowed in some other part of the year, it is advisable to defer beyond +the eight months the mating of her so that she farrows at the best +times, or perhaps even better than that, if the pigs are not intended +for breeding purposes, would it be to have the sow mated when she is +about eight months old, and then allow the pigs to remain on the sow a +few weeks beyond the usual period of eight weeks so that the pigs are +taken off the sow three or four days before it is desired to have her +again mated with the boar. The risk of the sow returning to the boar +will be minimised, as a sow which has been baulked is sometimes +difficult to settle. In addition, the sow will be stronger and more +vigorous and likely to produce a strong litter of pigs, whilst the +piglings will scarcely miss their mother's milk when they are weaned +from her. + +Those pig breeders who are in favour of withholding the boar from the +young sow until she is about a year old aver that early mating results +in the sow becoming worn out and useless for breeding at a much younger +age than if she be not mated until she is well matured. This is not in +accordance with the writer's experience, as many of his sows which +farrowed their first litter when they were about a year old continued to +breed regularly until they were six or seven years old--indeed, one +Middle White, Holywell Victoria Countess farrowed her last litter when +she was in her eleventh year. This sow also disproved the confident +assertion that the showing of sows renders them comparatively useless +for breeding purposes, since she not only continued to rear her pigs +well, but she produced a number of most successful prize winning boars +and sows, and also won many prizes herself from the age of five months +to five years. + +The principal cause of premature old age amongst sows is not due to +their being first mated when they are eight months old, but to the want +of care in the management and feeding of the sow during her pregnancy +and whilst she is suckling her litter of pigs. To a sow with a good +constitution the act of breeding and rearing a family of pigs is only +the most important act of nature which cannot be harmful to her, +providing that she received that amount of proper food and attention +which nature required. + +There may be very occasional instances of harm being done to the +breeding sow by over feeding, or rather by injudicious feeding, but in +comparison there are hundreds of instances where under feeding and +neglect are the cause of trouble and loss. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE FARROWING SOW + + +The pregnant sow usually carries her pigs about sixteen weeks. The +variations are neither great nor numerous, when they do occur it is +usually with sows with their first litters or aged sows which sometimes +farrow ere the full time has expired, or with robust sows in good +condition which occasionally carry their young beyond the one hundred +and twelve days which may be taken as the average period. + +We assume that each owner of a breeding sow keeps a record of the date +of service of the sow in order that the necessary preparation of the +sty, etc., can be made in readiness for the arrival of the expected +litter. Even when this wise precaution is neglected nature gives a +sufficient warning to the observant owner. Apart from the increasing +size of the body, the udder gradually becomes more prominent, and each +pap becomes more defined, the vulva becomes enlarged and the muscles on +either side of the tail fall away and lose their tenseness, whilst in +the vast majority of cases milk appears in the udder some twelve hours +before the arrival of the pigs. The teats shine and become more +prominent, the presence of milk is easily ascertained by gently +pressing the teat between the finger and thumb. + +Another certain indication of the early arrival of a family is the act +of the sow carrying straw about in her mouth wherewith to make her +farrowing bed. + +One of the chief causes of trouble with the farrowing sow arises from +the sow not having been allowed to take sufficient exercise. Of course, +the best of all systems is to allow the sow its complete freedom at all +seasons of the year save when she is within about a fortnight of her +time, and when she is rearing a litter of pigs. Even if there be no +grass field or paddock in which she is able to pick up a good portion of +her living, or a roadside where she can get a few blades of grass, an +open yard is infinitely better than the confinement of a sty, as apart +from the reduction in the cost of keep, the sow will produce stronger +pigs, and have a decidedly easier time of farrowing. + +In the case of a sow showing a disinclination to take a sufficiency of +exercise either owing to laziness, to high condition, or heaviness of +body, it is advisable to exercise her by walking her about quietly for a +short time each morning and evening before and after the heat of the day +has become excessive, or has passed off. + +There is a difference of opinion amongst pig breeders as to the +desirability or the reverse of having someone in attendance on the sow +during the time she is farrowing. Those who object to this procedure do +so on the ground that the presence of a man simply tends to irritate the +sow, and to frequently cause her to become restless, with the result +that the little pigs are trodden upon or become laid upon and killed. +This view is generally held by those who are not particularly fond of +animals, as evidenced by that occasional intercourse between pig and +owner which consists of rubbing the head of the pig, or scratching its +side, when in response to the pleasant sensation it rolls over on to its +side like Oliver and asks for more. The trouble if any, which arises +from the owner or pig man being in the sty with the farrowing sow almost +invariably arises from the absence of a sympathetic feeling between the +two. Sows, and indeed wellnigh all animals, pine for sympathy and +company, and no animal more so than a pig. Still there are very +occasional instances where the young sow becomes very excitable as she +commences to farrow even when she and her owner or attendant have +previously been on the best of terms. But there the cause is not the +presence of a human being, but the arrival of one of her own little +pigs. So long as the pigling remains quiet there is peace, but as soon +as the youngster endeavours to get to the teat and especially if in the +endeavour it utters a cry or a squeak, the young sow will jump up from +her nest and endeavour to seize the youngster in her mouth, when unless +prevented the sow quickly squeezes all life out of the pig; and in some +cases when the pressure has been so severe as to break the skin of the +piglet, and the sow tastes blood, she will proceed to eat the dead pig. +When affairs have arrived at this sad state, the chances of the +remaining pigs having a pleasant reception into the world are +comparatively slight. + +When there exists a good understanding between the sow and attendant, as +there invariably is when the latter is not rough and unkind, as only bad +tempered men can be, the trouble in a case such as just referred to is +greatly reduced, as the attendant runs no risk in entering the sty and +in removing the little pigs as they arrive, and placing them in a hamper +or box partially filled with straw until such time as the sow has +completed her farrowing, when the pigs can be placed against the sow's +udder, and providing they do not bite her, all will settle down in peace +and comfort. + +In order to avoid the slightest risk of trouble it is advisable when the +pigs are apart from the sow to break off with a pair of pliers the four +little teeth with which the pigs are endowed prior to their birth. Care +being taken to remove the pigs beyond the hearing of the sow each little +pig in turn is tucked under the left arm, the mouth is opened by the +left hand, and the teeth pressed hard with the pliers, or even a slight +turn of the wrist given, when necessary, and the brittle teeth are +crushed. + +As soon as the placenta or afterbirth is ejected this should be removed. +A little slop food should be fed to the sow, and whilst she is eating +it, the wettest part of the bedding should be replaced by a little short +and dry straw just enough to render the nest comfortable for the little +pigs. The nest should be disturbed as little as possible, as should the +whole of it be removed and fresh straw given, the sow will probably +spend a considerable time in remaking the nest, and in the meantime the +little pigs will be in danger from a chill, or in being mixed up in the +straw and being laid upon. The risk from delay in the sow laying down +and suckling her pigs is much greater in cold weather, as not only will +they become chilled, but they will persist in crowding round the sow and +so run the greater risk of being trodden upon, or rolled up in the +bedding in the effort of the sow to remake her comfortable nest. + +Some persons strongly recommend the giving of a strong dose of medicine +to the sow after she has farrowed. In ordinary cases this is not +necessary, the farrowing of a litter of pigs is a simple and natural +operation. In those occasional instances where manual assistance has to +be given to the sow owing to the unusual size of the pig, or wrong +presentation, or even of a pig which has been dead for a day or two and +has begun to decompose and consequently to increase in bulk, it is +advisable to give medicine to the sow, since there is every probability +of some amount of inflammation due to the insertion of the hand. As the +sow's bowels are likely to be somewhat constipated it is always +advisable to exercise her for a few minutes during the morning after she +has farrowed. In most cases the exercise will at once cause her to +relieve her bowels and her bladder, when she can be returned to her sty. + +We found sharps, or the finest portion of miller's offals (which usually +go by varying names in different parts of the country), the most +suitable food for newly farrowed sows, and until the pigs were at least +four weeks old. Some persons recommend that a portion of the food should +consist of bran, this on two grounds--the first that its use tends to +prevent constipation, and secondly on account of the food analysis which +it gives. Our experience has been that when sharps are fed to the sow no +trouble should arise from constipation, whilst as to the nutriment which +bran contains the claim may be good, but the pig is unable to extract +it; so large a proportion of the bran passes through the pig in an +undigested condition. As a rule the pig, unlike the horse, cow, or +sheep, does not masticate its food, nor does it, like the two last +named, chew its cud, but it usually bolts its food, and thus casts a +greater labour on its digestive organs which have neither the time nor +power to extract the whole of the nutriment from the bran. In addition +to this, bran tends to too great looseness of the bowels, which in the +case of young pigs tends to become diarrh[oe]a. + +There is a tendency on the part of some pigmen who are over anxious to +succeed to feed the sow too large a quantity of food during the first +ten days or so after she has farrowed. During this period the demand on +the sow is really not much greater than it was during the last two or +three weeks of carrying the pigs. As the pigs grow older an increased +supply of food is necessary, but for a week or two after the arrival of +the pigs twice feeding of the sow should suffice unless she is very low +in condition, or a very large litter of pigs is left on her. In such +cases it may be advisable to feed her three times per day just as much +as she will promptly clear up. It is a great mistake to give so much +food at one time that a portion is left over in the trough, +particularly is this so when the pigs are over three weeks old, as +nothing so quickly upsets the stomachs of the youngsters as sour food. +If in ordinary cases feeding the sow three times daily is persisted in, +the same quantity of food given should simply be distributed over the +three feedings, as an excess of food is only less a mistake than +underfeeding. + +Three of the most common troubles with young pigs are diarrh[oe]a, fits, +and loss of the tail. There is a belief amongst many old pigmen that +every litter of pigs is bound to have at least one attack of diarrh[oe]a +ere it is weaned. They look upon it as a fatality which is certain to +eventuate, no matter what steps may be taken. Of course, this is folly. +The liability of little pigs to an attack of what is commonly called +scouring is great as the causes are several, amongst them the greatest +is perhaps a chill which may arise from draughts owing to faulty +construction of the sty doors or ventilators neglected; insufficient, +unsuitable, or damp bedding; neglect of proper sanitation, or the +frequent cleaning out of the sty; and most frequently of all from +injudicious feeding of the sow. In fact, anything which affects the +health of the young pig to any great extent appears to result in +indigestion, which causes constipation, and this in turn nature +endeavours to remove by a special effort which softens the fæces +somewhat. On removal of the cause of the constipation, the bowels +perform their duty normally, but if this be not removed the result is +diarrh[oe]a, which again if continued for any length of time often +becomes dysentery, when the fever is acute; the pigling neglects its +mother's teat, and instead sucks up any moisture however foul which it +can find in the sty. This is almost invariably a precursor of death. + +From the above it will be gathered that prevention is better than cure. +In case of an attack, the first thing is to discover the cause, and the +second is to remove it, when, generally speaking, the trouble ceases. As +a help to this end, depriving the sow of one meal is recommended. Coal, +cinders, or even earth will be readily eaten by the young pigs and prove +of benefit. Medicine is not often required if the steps recommended are +promptly taken. + +In our earlier days hog's madder was the common medicine used with pigs +for most ailments, but of late years sulphur appears to have taken its +place. It is less violent than castor oil, which is apt to cause +constipation of the bowels after its first effect has passed off. + +The soreness of the tails, which if not attended to generally results in +the pig becoming bob-tailed, appears most generally in damp and cold +weather, and is the result of impaired circulation of the blood. The +cure is simple. The application of fat or oil as soon as the tail +becomes red and cold, twice per day, and continued for two or three days +will almost always result in a cure. For some years we used +boro-glyceride, a compound, we believe, of boracic acid and glycerine, +but we are not certain that it is now procurable. + +The third of the common troubles of the young pig is fits of an +apoplectic and epileptic character. As a rule the shortest, thickest, +and fattest pigs of the litter are those which are affected. This +points to the chief cause, too much food in the form of mother's milk. A +reduction in the quantity of the food fed to the sow will generally be +effectual, except when the pigs are old enough to eat. Then both the +quantity and the quality of the food given to them should be reduced. +Prompt removal of the cause is usually sufficient, but it may be +necessary to mix a little medicine in the food in persistent cases, or +when remedial measures are not promptly taken. The ordinary symptoms are +unmistakable, the pig falls on its side, struggles and gasps for breath, +then in a minute or two it rises and appears to be little the worse. +Unless continued over a period, fits are not usually fatal. + +Very occasionally young pigs suffer from the protrusion of the rectum, +or as it is commonly termed "shooting of the gut." This is due to +various causes which result in straining. Of these constipation and +diarrh[oe]a are the two most common. As soon as the protrusion of the +gut is noticeable, the enlargement should be carefully washed, then +oiled and gently pressed back into its natural position. Some pigmen +advise the dusting of flour on to the protruded portion before it is +returned, but there is a risk of increasing the amount of inflammation +which is generally present. If known the original cause of the trouble +should be removed, but in any case it is advisable not to give any solid +food to the pig for two or three days after the operation. + +Still another of the troubles to which pig flesh is heir is hernia, or +rupture. This is of two kinds, umbilical and scrotum. The former is +the escape of a portion of the bowels through an imperfectly closed +navel opening, whilst the latter shows itself in an enlargement of the +scrotum or purse due to an escape into it of a portion of the abdominal +contents. Both of these ailments are considered to be hereditary, but +the most common and the most troublesome is the latter, since there is +always a chance of strangulation of the escaped portions, which nearly +always results in death. + +At one time it was considered to be inadvisable to castrate the boar +pigs affected, but of late years the plan has been adopted of making +only one incision in the scrotum in place of two, and making that one as +high as possible. Then after the operation is performed, the aperture is +sown up. The pig should be fed lightly for a day or two in order to give +time for the healing of the wound. + +Umbilical hernia is not generally of much importance, the navel opening +gradually closes as the pig grows stronger and the enlargement +disappears. It is advisable not to breed from a sow pig which has been +affected, nor to continue to use a boar which has begotten ruptured +pigs, as both failings are hereditary. + +For a time at least, there is certain to be a difficulty in obtaining a +full supply of sharps, even of the greatly reduced feeding value of the +present quantity available. It may, therefore, be advisable to refer to +another system of feeding the suckling sow and the young pigs. It is now +perforce being generally adopted, but the result is not generally +considered to be equal to the old system recommended. It is that of +feeding pigs of the kind mentioned on vegetable food, and a mixture of +palm nut, cocoa nut, ground nut, or linseed cake. The proportions fed at +the Cambridge University Farm are mangolds 20 lbs.; a mixture of two +parts palm nut cake, and one part cocoa nut cake, 2 lbs.; linseed cake, +2 lbs.; and ground nut cake, 1 lb. The two former were fed in the +morning and evening, and the other two at midday. The various cakes seem +to have been fed in a dry condition, but other pig feeders have found it +beneficial to soak the cake in water for some twelve hours. This view +seems to have received support from the practice at Cambridge, which was +to mix the cake with the cut mangolds twenty-four hours before being fed +to the pigs so that at least a portion of the cake would become softened +by the mangold juice. Almost any kind of vegetable matter containing a +fair amount of nutrition would be equally as suitable as mangold, indeed +more so during the period from October to April. In the winter months +cooked potatoes; kohl rabi, swedes, parsnips, cabbages, artichokes, +etc., fed raw; and in the summer grass, lucerne, clover, vetches, rape, +or almost any kind of vegetable food will be readily eaten by the pigs. +Even where the wasteful practice of peeling the potatoes before being +cooked for the household is still followed (and just how wasteful this +old-fashioned plan is has been lately proved to be a loss of nearly one +quarter of the nutriment)--it is advisable to boil the parings and then +mix the whole with the pig's food. + +It cannot be too strongly impressed on pig keepers that a certain +proportion of vegetable food is most beneficial for pigs of all ages, as +not only is a saving in cost effected, but the pigs will continue in a +more healthy condition than when fed solely on meal or other +concentrated food. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: LARGE WHITE BOAR. The property of the Author. The Winner +of many Prizes. + +To face page 80.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES."] + + + + +CHAPTER X + +WEANING PIGS + + +There are few points in connection with the breeding and feeding of pigs +on which there is a greater diversity of opinion and practice than on +the question of the weaning of the young pigs. + +For instance, take the age at which it is most satisfactory to take the +pigs off the sow. This practice varies greatly in different districts, +and even in the same district where one would naturally suppose that the +determining influences would be similar weaning at five or six weeks +old. + +One pig breeder will declare that a little pig of five or six weeks old +should be and is able to support itself alone, and will act accordingly. +Should perchance a litter weaned thus early cease to grow the excuses +made will be various. + +The weather is at fault, it is either too hot or too cold, or the +sharps, etc., on which they have been fed were not good or sweet, that +the sow's milk was not sufficiently plentiful, or it was wanting in +nutriment. In fact, any excuse will be made rather than the actual cause +admitted. + +In far too many instances the real reason for the want of thrift on the +part of the young pigs taken from their mother when they are not more +than five or six weeks old is that their digestive organs are not +sufficiently developed as to enable them to digest enough food to +nourish them properly. + +Another excuse often made for what we consider to be undue haste in +weaning young pigs is the alleged desire of the owner not to waste the +time of the sow. He is anxious to have her served again and hasten the +arrival of the next litter. + +Occasionally it is found to be unnecessary to wean the pigs for this +purpose as the sow will come in heat and can be served by the boar, but +if she should become in pig the result will be much the same so far as +the pigs are concerned, since as soon as the sow has conceived the milk +will promptly cease or become very reduced in quantity and quality. + +On the other hand, if the sow does not stand to the boar time may be +wasted. It is most unlikely that the sow will again become in heat for +some three weeks, whereas this almost always occurs within a few days of +the weaning of the litter of pigs. + +Then another extreme, and one which is practised by some pig breeders, +is to allow the young pigs to remain on the sow until the former are +from ten to twelve weeks old. It is claimed for this practice that the +young pigs grow much faster when left on the sow than when weaned, and +that less food is consumed for a live weight increase from a given +quantity of food. Also, it is said that food of more inferior kind can +be fed to the sow than could be fed to the pigs if they were weaned, and +thus the sow and litter are kept at less expense, and that if the pigs +are not weaned until nearly three months, the milk of the sow will have +gradually ceased to flow, and the pigs will not miss the help from +their dam. Their digestive organs will then have become sufficiently +developed to enable them to make the best use of the food given to them, +and they will sustain no check in thrift or growth when they are weaned. + +In this question of weaning pigs the good old fashioned plan of +following the middle course will probably be found to be the best. +Anyway, it was the one which we followed for a great number of years and +found the results generally satisfactory for the following among other +reasons. + +As a breeder of pure bred pigs for sale as boars or yelts for breeding +purposes, we were naturally anxious to give the pigs a good start in +life so that we should be able to sell them as quickly as possible, and +that they should thrive when they came into the possession of their new +owners, and thus prove the best possible advertisement of our herds. As +a rule we found that if the pigs were allowed to remain on the sows +until they were some eight weeks old they were quite strong enough to +fend for themselves, that by gradually increasing the length of time +which the sow was allowed to remain from the pigs, the latter became +accustomed to exist without the mother's milk, and as the milk of the +sow naturally dried up when the pigs partially ceased to withdraw it, no +trouble was experienced with inflamed udders as is usually or commonly +the case when the pigs are suddenly weaned from a sow which is in full +milk. + +There is also another advantage apart from that to the sow and pigs, it +is that the sow will almost invariably come in heat within three or +four days of the weaning, and with the best possible chance of becoming +in pig. + +Some pig keepers are more inclined to wean their litter of pigs at an +early age, and then if the sow be low in condition to baulk her at the +first time of [oe]strum. There are objections to this--one of them is +that there is frequently a difficulty in getting the sow to conceive +after she has been baulked. Why this should be so we have not been able +to ascertain. We only record what we know to be a fact. + +In our opinion this difficulty is one of the strongest points in favour +of the practice of allowing the young pigs of a sow with her first +litter, or of an old sow which has become low in condition (either from +having had too many pigs left on her, or from other natural cause), to +remain on the sow for a longer period than about eight weeks. Some +persons will keep the pigs on the sow until they are nearly three months +old in the belief that both sow and pigs are benefited, and that the +pigs can be kept quite as cheaply if not more so when unweaned than +weaned. They also claim that the sow is so much stronger and better +fitted to prepare for another litter. Experiments have been carried out +in the United States which go far to prove that the first of these two +claims is founded on fact; and it has further been demonstrated that +certain foods can be fed to the sow without affecting the thrift and +health of the pigs which could not with safety be fed to the latter +direct, yet when fed through the sow the pigs will thrive on the milk +produced therefrom. It is entirely a question of the cost of a rest for +the sow during the extra two or three weeks, and the benefit to the +sow and her pigs. + +One occasionally sees in the press a claim for what is considered to be +a great achievement in that some one has bred three litters of pigs from +one sow within the year. There really is something wonderful in this +since of the fifty-two weeks constituting a year, the sow would be +carrying her pigs some forty-eight weeks. This would allow only four +weeks for the two litters of pigs to be suckled, and this would also +include the few days between the pigs being weaned and the sow coming in +heat. Apart from the natural difficulty of successfully breeding three +litters of pigs from one sow within twelve months, there exists a far +greater possibility of loss rather than of gain from unduly hurrying on +the arrival of each litter of pigs from a sow, especially of the +profitable kind of sow. + +Some forty years since when Small Whites, Small Blacks, and short thick +Berkshires were fashionable, the number of pigs in each litter was few, +and the number reared still fewer, owing to the limited quantity of milk +furnished by the sow. Now, the Large Black, the Large White, the Middle +White, the Lincolnshire Curly Coat, the old Gloucester Spots, the +Tamworth, the Cumberland, and even the sows of most of the local breeds +of pigs are expected to rear nine or ten pigs each litter. Even if it +were possible for a sow to bring forth three litters within the year, +she could not possibly do justice to them either before or after the +piglings arrived in this world; and further, the life of such a sow +would of necessity be a short one. It must not be forgotten that in +the production of each litter of pigs the sow is compelled to +manufacture from 20 to 30 lbs. of flesh, skin, hair, etc., which +together constitute the newly farrowed pig, and very frequently this has +to be accomplished on a far too limited supply of suitable food. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _From a Painting by Wippell._ + +MIDDLE WHITE SOW. + +To face page 96.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Block kindly supplied by Cumberland Pig Breeders' +Association, Carlisle._ + +CUMBERLAND SOW. + +Owned by Mr. Carr, Kirkbride, Carlisle.] + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE REARING OF YOUNG PIGS + + +One of the most important points in the profitable raising of stock is +to give the animals a good start in their earliest days. There is an old +and true saying amongst shepherds that the best and most profitable +sheep are those which have never lost their lamb fat. It may with equal +truth be declared that the most profitable pig is the one which has a +good start when on its mother, and never afterwards lacks suitable food, +judiciously given. + +At frequent intervals, the question as to the number of pigs which a sow +should have left on her to rear is the subject of discussion in the +press. At each of these periods very similar arguments for and against +large litters are used with much the same inconclusive results. This +probably arises to a great extent from the varying conditions under +which the particular litter of pigs is to be reared. The time of year +has a vast influence, a sow farrowing in May will more successfully rear +a dozen pigs than she would bring up ten if they were farrowed in the +month of October. + +The age and condition of the sow should also be considered. A young sow +of about twelve months should not have more than seven or eight pigs +left on her to rear, whereas with her succeeding litters until she is at +least four years old she would rear at least ten pigs each litter. After +the sow has reached the age of about four years, if that time has been +fully employed in her maternal duties, she becomes gradually less able +to rear so large a number of pigs with an equal amount of success. It is +then advisable to vary the number according to the season, and to the +physical condition of the sow; generally speaking an aged sow will bring +up more pigs in the summer months than in the colder months. + +Reference is made elsewhere to the manner in which the young pigs should +be cared for until they are weaned from their dam, but no harm can arise +from a repetition of the advice that the young pigs should be so managed +and fed that only the very slightest difference will be noticed by the +youngsters when parted from their mother. Many pigs are permanently +checked in growth by being suddenly deprived of a full supply of +mother's milk if weaned when their digestive organs are insufficiently +developed as to treat a sufficiency of food to make growth and progress +without the assistance received from their mother's milk. + +Opinions differ as to the age at which little pigs are sufficiently +developed as to exist and thrive without their dam's help. Here again +the time of the year, not only as far as the weather is concerned, but +the desirability of prompt or deferred remating of the sow in order that +her succeeding litters should arrive during the most favourable portions +of the year, must be considered. The thrift and growth of each litter +of pigs varies greatly. The health of the sow, her condition before +farrowing, and other causes, some of which are not always on the +surface, have their influence, but it may be taken as a rule that young +pigs are fully able to fend for themselves by the time they are eight +weeks old. Should it be possible to allow the pigs to remain on the sow +for so long a time as twelve weeks without prejudicing the next litters +as to the time of year of their arrival, the pigs may benefit, and no +loss of food will be sustained, since it has been clearly proved that +pigs beyond the age of eight weeks can be fed quite as economically, if +not more so, on the sow than if weaned. It may also be possible to feed +the sow on somewhat coarser and less expensive food than could be +satisfactorily fed to the young pigs, as her digestive organs would be +better able to treat the coarser food. Another advantage generally +follows keeping the pigs for a longer time on the sow if the latter be +well fed is that she will be in a stronger and better condition to start +the building up of her next litter. + +As a rule young pigs will commence to eat when they are from three to +four weeks old. If the sow is fed in the sty in which the little pigs +are, these will endeavour to share in the food; at first they may +content themselves with licking any food which may be outside the +trough, but they quickly show a desire for more, and attempt to get into +the trough. When this is evident, it is advisable to feed the little +pigs apart from the sow; a low flat trough is best, as one with high +sides is said to cause "high backed" pigs, or pigs suffering from a +curvature of the spine. If a little milk can be obtained, the pigs will +promptly drink it, if the milk be whole they will thrive best, but even +if only skim or separated milk be obtainable, or butter milk, providing +that it be drawn off ere the salt is put into the churn, a small +quantity will be beneficial, but the pigs will not be able to digest so +large a quantity of the separated as of the whole milk. The former is +apt to have a constipating effect on the bowels of the youngsters. +Should an ample supply of separated milk be available it can be fed +through the sow, who will be better able to digest it, and whose yield +of milk will be increased, provided that sufficient separated milk to +affect her bowels be not given to her. A few kernels of wheat or white +peas will be readily eaten by the little pigs, which will benefit +therefrom. + +If no other food is available, sharps, or whatever the local term for +the finer miller's offals may be, mixed with a little warm water and fed +to the piglings, will prove beneficial, care being taken to give only so +much as the pigs will eat up readily, or that any surplus is taken away, +so that it does not become sour, as in this last condition it will cause +diarrh[oe]a in the young pigs. + +When the pigs are about six weeks old the sow can be allowed to remain +from them for a longer time, and the youngsters fed two or three times +each day. The sow's milk will then gradually dry up, and the pigs will +become accustomed to the food, so that when the latter are about eight +weeks old they will have become weaned naturally, and receive no check +from the loss of the sow's milk. This system, will also prevent any +trouble arising from the collection of milk in the sow's udder, and the +occasional attacks of inflammation or garget which follow a chill to the +sow when her udder is in an inflamed condition from being closely +impacted with milk. + +Assuming that the economical and beneficial practice of supplying the +suckling sow with vegetable food of some kind after the pigs are some +three or four weeks old has been adopted, the pigs will have become +accustomed to its consumption. It will be found to be advisable to +continue this whether it has taken the form of cooked potatoes, of +mangolds, swedes, kohl rabi, cabbages, artichokes, etc., as not only +will the food bill be reduced, as the pigs will make equal growth and +thrift on food containing say ten per cent of vegetable matter as they +will if fed wholly on sharps, but the vegetable food will have a +beneficial effect on the health of the pigs, and tend to prevent those +attacks of constipation and diarrh[oe]a which are so frequently the +result of food of too rich a character. + +Of the vegetable foods, cooked potatoes and raw artichokes are the most +nourishing and the most readily eaten, lucerne and clover in a green +state come next in food value and favouritism with the pigs; cabbages +are credited with causing constipation when fed to young pigs, whilst +mangolds are said to have the opposite effect, and in addition when +grown on light land by the aid of artificial manure mangolds are apt to +affect the kidneys and cause excessive urination. Kohl rabi are not so +much used in the feeding of pigs as would be advisable. They are easily +grown and will take the place of swedes on land on which swedes are +subject to mildew; they are very nutritious, and are readily eaten by +both old and young pigs. + +Coleseed is not used in the feeding of pigs in this country to anything +approaching the same extent as in Canada and the United States; its +value and results are of a very similar character to those of cabbages. +Tares or vetches contain too large a proportion of water for young pigs, +and they also have a tendency to cause looseness of the bowels. The +growth of maize for feeding to pigs in a green state has been +recommended by some writers, but in practice we found it most unsuitable +for young pigs, and of little value for aged pigs, owing to the small +proportion of nourishment contained in it in comparison with its bulk. +Further, pigs both old and young will refuse to eat it unless driven by +hunger. It is needless to remark that no pigs, especially young ones, +will thrive under such conditions. + +One of the most common mistakes made by pig feeders is allowing too long +a time to pass between feeding times. Twice or three times per day is +considered to be quite frequent enough, whereas prior to their being +weaned the pigs would have had a meal wellnigh each two hours both day +and night. Infrequent meals result in the pigs becoming so hungry that +they bolt their food, and a greater quantity than is desirable, and then +suffer from indigestion. + +It must also be remembered that the pig's capacity for storing food is +very small, especially as compared with some others of our domesticated +animals. Four or five meals per day at least should be given to newly +weaned pigs. That most troublesome of ailments commonly termed cramp +more generally results from injudicious feeding than from all other +causes combined. Even when the young pigs are properly fed on suitable +food there is a tendency in some little pigs to attacks of cramp. One of +the best preventatives and even remedies is to compel the pigs to leave +their nests late in the evening or prior to the pigman retiring for the +night, as they will then relieve the bowels and bladder. Otherwise, +particularly in cold weather, the pigs would remain quiescent in their +nests from feeding time in the afternoon until they were fed the +following morning, or in winter a period of some fifteen or sixteen +hours--far too long a time for the good health of the young pigs. + +Another point which requires attention is the provision of a dry bed. +Pigs are naturally clean animals, and will not as a rule foul their bed +when they are in a healthy state. Still the straw will in winter time +become damp solely from the moisture thrown off by the pigs when huddled +together in their nest. All damp litter should be carefully removed at +least once each day. + +The best of all materials for the bedding of pigs is wheat straw. This +will absorb a larger amount of moisture than any other kind of straw, +whilst the skin and hair of the pigs will remain of a brighter colour +than if bedded on oat or barley straw. Of these two, the former is more +suitable than the latter, which so readily becomes damp and foul. In +those parts of the country where comparatively little corn is grown, +sawdust and wood shavings are commonly used for litter for pigs. So far +as the comfort of the pigs is concerned there is little difference as +compared with straw with regard to pigs of all ages in the warmer +weather, but in the winter little pigs suffer, as they are unable to +make the warm nest which straw enables them to make and enjoy. + +When peat moss was first introduced it was strongly recommended for the +bedding of pigs. It was claimed for it that it was a far better +absorbent of moisture than sawdust, and that its manurial value was much +greater. It is probable that both claims are founded on fact, as sawdust +is of comparatively no value as a manure. But there exists one serious +objection to the use of peat moss as litter for young pigs. It is that +the pigs are given to eat it, that it causes severe attacks of +indigestion, and often the death of the pig eating it. + +Of late years the spaying of the sow pigs has ceased to be general. The +causes of this neglect may be several, amongst them the dislike of +trouble, but perhaps the main reason is that the so-called store period +of the pig's life is now so much shorter than in the olden days, and +consequently the loss of food, and the risk of the arrival of unexpected +litters of pigs are less, from the repeated periods of heat, indeed +under the present or recent conditions of pig keeping a large +proportion of the pigs are killed ere they have become sufficiently +developed to be troublesome in this respect. + +Still, there is little doubt that the castrating and spaying of young +pigs at about the age of six weeks, or before they have been weaned from +the sow is advisable and the cost of the operation is well repaid. An +unspayed sow pig becomes a nuisance in company with other pigs, and when +it is put up to fatten will make no progress on some three or four days +during each three weeks when she ordinarily becomes in heat. + +In addition to her own waste of time she will, if penned with others, be +continually worrying her mates and preventing them from resting and +thriving. + +Until recently another objection was taken to the unspayed sow pig, it +was that if she were killed during the period of [oe]strum that great +difficulty would be experienced in curing the meat properly, and that +signs of her heated condition would be noticed in the mammary glands in +the form of dark globules of what was considered to be blood, but +investigation carried out at the University Farm at Cambridge by Messrs. +Russell and Kenneth Mackensie have proved that the discoloration and the +consequent loss in value of a certain portion of the belly of a side of +bacon is not due to the pig having been in a state of heat at the time +of its slaughter, but to an excess of pigment, noticeable only amongst +coloured pigs. Thus, the globules would be of a dark colour when the +bacon was from a pig of a black colour, and red from the pigs of the +Tamworth breed. This shows another cause of the marked preference of the +bacon curers for pigs of a white colour in the manufacture of the +highest priced bacon. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +HOUSING OF PIGS + + +In the general management of pigs there are many points on which +improvements might be effected without any very considerable amount of +trouble or expense. Far too frequently this neglect or want of care and +thought is observable in the housing of pigs. Many of the sties in the +country districts are neither wind nor water tight, and they are far too +often in a most unsanitary condition, indeed in such a disgraceful state +that some excuse was afforded for the drastic, if injudicious order of +the sanitary authorities which prohibited the erection of a pigsty +within from sixty to one hundred feet of a dwelling house. Undoubtedly +it would have been wiser to have permitted the keeping of pigs within a +much shorter distance of the house only so long as the necessary steps +were taken to prevent a nuisance or a risk of the residents in the house +suffering in health. The proximity of a pigsty to a house can be +rendered perfectly innocuous with ordinary care, and the cottager not be +deprived of very considerable advantages not only in making a profit, +but in the provision of manure for his allotment or garden which will +benefit greatly from its application. + +The mistakes or want of care in the erection of pigsties is by no means +confined to the owners of cottages or small holdings, as a considerable +proportion of the piggeries on which great outlay is expended are +equally as unsuitable if not so insanitary. Even in so-called model +buildings the piggery has often been the last thing thought of; the +stables, the cow house, etc., have been conveniently placed for feeding +the occupants, for air, light, and sun, and then the piggery has been +placed in whatever spot may have been left unoccupied, and as this +generally happens to be on the northern side of the buildings, the +unhappy pigs are deprived of the rays of the sun, which are to them +quite as necessary, if not more so, than to any others of our +domesticated animals. + +This same want of sun, and the exposure to cold is noticeable in only a +lesser degree in those buildings which comprise a double row of sties +with a passage down the centre, a store and a cooking and mixing house +at one end, and an exercise or feeding yard adjoining. It matters not +whether the building be placed north or south, or east or west, one half +of the sties have a wrong aspect; even if the sties facing the west can +be said to possess one. The trouble is still greater with the system of +having a yard attached to each sty. The north or east wind renders the +sties with such an aspect a most uncomfortable and unhealthy place for +young pigs during more than half the year, whilst older pigs cannot +thrive on the same amount of food as they would if their quarters were +comfortable. Apart from the waste of food which results from these +draughty and cold sties, the latter are the chief cause, with +injudicious feeding, of that most troublesome ailment amongst pigs, +rheumatic gout, or, as it is commonly termed, cramp. How very draughty +and uncomfortable these sties are which have an open yard attached, and +an inlet at all times usable, can be readily discovered in cold and +windy weather by noticing the position in which the occupant has made +its bed. This will be found not on the highest part of the sty, which +will be opposite to the opening into the yard, but in the corner next to +the opening, since in this position it is less exposed to the cold wind +which rushes into the sty through the opening. + +Apart from the unhealthiness to the pigs resulting from the exposure to +draughts it is not apparent to the writer that any advantage is gained +from the provision of these yards. In many instances they serve only for +an excuse to limit the height of the sties, as unless these are of a +fair height there is a considerable difficulty in cleaning them out. The +money expended on building the yard would easily cover the extra cost of +raising the side walls of the pigsty by two feet, and thus not only +render it free from draughts, but also make it far more healthy and less +subject to the extremes of heat and cold. + +The ordinary sty with a yard attached is unhealthy for a growing or +matured pig, but in the colder weather it is simply cruel for newly born +pigs, of which numbers are annually lost from exposure or are greatly +checked in their growth. + +One of the very best places in which to house pigs in the experience of +the writer was a large barn with a thatched roof. This was divided off +into sties by partitions some 4 ft. 6 in. high; owing to the height of +the building the temperature was not unduly high in the hottest weather +nor did the pigs suffer to any extent during severe weather. These +advantages arose mainly from the slight changes in temperature, and an +abundant supply of uncontaminated air. + +One of the greatest drawbacks to the majority of the pigsties is the +absence of ventilation without draught. This trouble is especially +noticeable where the side walls are not more than about 4 ft. high, +whilst the proximity of the roof to the pigs increases the sufferings of +the pigs from the heat when the weather is excessively hot. + +Some of our most successful pig feeders on a large scale have found it +profitable to erect cheap buildings very similar to small barns, the +side walls being at least 10 feet high. This will permit of thorough +ventilation, quite free from draughts, whilst the variations in the +temperature will be comparatively slight. The building being complete +within itself, and entirely used for the pigs, there is no disturbance +of the pigs between the feeding times, so that the pigs will rest and +grow fat. These houses are most suitable for a number of fattening pigs, +whereas for sows and for young sows smaller sties or houses are more +convenient. These should be at least 10 ft. square, the front 6 ft. 6 +in. high, the doors divided so that the upper half can be opened when +the weather is favourable; ventilation can be obtained by hanging or +sliding doors just under the eaves so that the pigs are not affected by +the draught; the floor should be laid with brick and gradually incline +to the front of the building so that the liquid can run through an +aperture in the lower part of the front wall into a cesspool placed +close to the building. A row of these houses, which should face to the +south, can be more cheaply erected than a single house, as the wooden +partitions between the houses need not be more than 4 ft. high, and one +of these would take the place of two gables or ends. Several of the +houses which the writer erected had brick foundations and feather-edged +boarded sides and ends; the roofs were of tiles unpointed, as in this +way the houses were much cooler in the summer, whilst in the winter the +upper portions of the houses were packed with straw which still +permitted of the escape of the foul air, yet greatly added to the warmth +and comfort of the building. + +The one thing of all others most needful in the sty or house for the +well doing of pigs is a sufficiency of pure air without draughts; pigs +of even a few days old will suffer less from cold than from moist and +foul hot air. It is not the most costly building in which pigs will +thrive best, but the one in which they are the most comfortable and free +from the extremes of heat and cold with a dry bed on which to rest and +be thankful. + +When making a tour of the Agricultural Experiment Stations and +Agricultural Schools in Denmark some few years since, the writer saw +near Aarhuss what was then a novelty in the form of a two decker pigsty, +i.e. a sty with a sleeping place above--one could scarcely term it an +upstairs room as access was gained not by stairs but by an inclined +board with struts of wood fastened across it to give a firm holding to +the pigs as they ascended to the upper story. The incline was very +steep, but the pigs seemed to have no difficulty in getting up and down. +The advantages claimed for it by the principal were that the sleeping +compartment was so much cleaner and sweeter; that less straw was +required for bedding, and that the pigs were far more comfortable and +rested better than when boxed up, especially in the summer season when +the heat in the lower portion was very oppressive. The feeding took +place in the lower portion. It was stated that nearly the whole of the +urine and dung was deposited below. This was a great advantage as the +moisture ran off at once into the drains, and the solids were easily +cleared out as there was no litter mixed with them, or the dung could be +readily washed into the drains by water from a hose, which was used in +the summer for the purpose of bathing or of washing the pigs. + +The chief objection to the plan would be its expense, as unless the +pigsties were in a barn or a shed already erected for some other purpose +the pigsty would have to be so much higher on the side walls and +consequently more strongly built. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM." + +To face page 112.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo kindly lent by Kenneth MacRae, R.U.A.S., Balmoral, +Belfast._ + +LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS + + +When the exhibition of live stock at our numerous shows became common, a +belief sprang up amongst non-exhibitors that the preparation for show +was most deleterious to the animals shown. It was also contended that +exhibitors were prone to pay attention, to a far greater extent, to the +fancy or show points of the animals which they bred than to those +utility points which are of infinitely more importance to the ordinary +stock breeder and the consumer. It was also believed that the feeding or +training which the show stock underwent seriously affected their +procreative powers, and especially so with the animals of the feminine +gender. + +It may at once be frankly admitted that there existed some ground for +the belief that a majority of the exhibitors did appear to give too +great attention to the claims of the judges who were, in too many cases, +chosen for reasons other than their knowledge of practical agriculture +or the requirements of the consumers of meat. For so acting, the +exhibitors were not beyond blame, as in the earlier days of showing, +their main object was to win prizes in order to advertise their stock +and so secure customers for their spare breeding animals. The actual +improvement of the various breeds of stock did not in those far-off days +appear to be of such vital importance as the world upheaval, of which +the present generation has been the witness, has proved it to be. + +It may also be fairly claimed that there has been some slight +improvement in the system of feeding and training followed by the pig +exhibitors of to-day. This is in part due to the fact that the cramming +on rich food and giving little exercise may result in rendering the show +pig in such a state of obesity as to secure the approval of the +non-practical judge, who is unable to appraise the points of a pig when +in its natural breeding condition, but that to be able to follow the +present system of exhibiting at several successive shows and even when +the bloated pig is intended to be returned to the breeding pen, this +excessive feeding proved to be a grievous mistake. It may not be +possible to claim that the over feeding of show animals is a thing of +the past, but there is little doubt that exhibitors of pigs have become +alive to the fact that it is not profitable. Not only is the expense +excessive, but the damage done to the breeding animals is so great as to +render it inadvisable for any ordinary farmer to follow. Again, there +has of late years been a very considerable improvement in the pig +classification at both the breeding and the fat stock shows. When the +writer began pig showing, on his own account, fifty years since, the +common classification at most of the shows was, boar any age, sows any +age, and pens of three breeding pigs, not exceeding nine or in some +cases even twelve months. There were no restrictions as to the age of +the boar or of the sow, no condition as to utility, of the sow having at +any time reared a litter of pigs or of being in pig, so that it was by +no means uncommon at even some of the chief shows to find both boars and +sows appear year after year, having been guiltless of any attempt to +procreate their species, but having been kept solely for the purpose of +winning prizes and adding to the renown of their owners, if not directly +adding much to their balances at the bank. The only way in which the +continued exhibition of these old stagers was made profitable was the +securing of customers for breeding stock from the exhibitors, who in far +too many cases were not the breeders of the winning animals. To so great +an extent had this purchase, frequently from middlemen or dealers of +exhibition pigs, become in the seventies of the last century, that some +of the live stock papers in the United States took up the cudgels on +behalf of the American breeders of pigs, who had been in the habit of +importing show winners from this country and plainly asked for the +English definition of a pure bred pig. It was pointed out at a recent +show of the Royal Agricultural Society several winners shown by one +exhibitor were entered as of certain defined breeds, yet neither age, +pedigree, nor name of breeder was given, the only particulars given in +the show catalogue being the name and address of the exhibitor, the name +of the pig, and the further statement age and breeder unknown. As our +American cousins asked, how could it be possible to ensure that a pig +was of a certain pure breed when it was admitted that no knowledge +existed of the breeding of the animal nor actually of the person who +bred it. This scandal, as it was termed, was one of the contributing +causes of the establishment of societies for the registration of the +pedigrees of the various types or breeds of pigs. + +Other changes which have been great improvements have been the +limitation of the ages of boars and sows shown, the requirement that the +sow has within a certain fixed time farrowed a litter of pigs and that +when entered as being in farrow a certificate of subsequent farrowing +shall be furnished ere the prize money is paid over. The age of the +young boars and sows has also been reduced at most shows to six months, +or the pigs must have been farrowed in the year of the show. In the good +old times the age of the pigs shown in the classes for pens of two or +three or five, varied from six to twelve months, and the asserted age +given by the exhibitor was accepted as correct. At many of the important +shows not only are some means of identification asked for, but the state +of the dentition are variously dealt with; at some shows they are +disqualified at once by the stewards on the certificate of the +veterinary surgeon. It may at once be admitted that this mode of +procedure is very hard on an honest exhibitor whose pig has for some +reason developed its temporary or permanent teeth abnormally--and such +cases are not unknown--- although as a rule the various stages in the +cutting of the permanent teeth are very regular, the majority of the +irregularities are also in favour of the exhibitor, since delayed rather +than precocious development of dentition is the most common. Just how +imperative it was that some steps should be taken to prevent mistakes +being made in the ages of young pigs exhibited, many cases could be +cited, but one may suffice where one of the sow pigs in a pen of five +entered in a class for pigs not exceeding six months actually farrowed a +litter of fully developed pigs in the show yard. + +During the last forty years, great improvements have been made in the +classification for pigs at our principal Fat Stock shows. The division +of breeds or types has been attended to and the ages of the pigs in the +various classes have been greatly reduced. For instance, when the writer +was judging pigs with two colleagues at the 1880 show of the Smithfield +Club, there were classes for Small White pigs, not exceeding nine +months; above nine months, and not exceeding twelve months, and above +twelve months and not exceeding eighteen months. A more ridiculous +classification could not possibly have been devised since no small white +pig would have paid for fattening after it had become nine months old. A +similar classification existed for pigs of the Large White breed, for +Black breeds, and for Berkshires. In addition there was a class for a +single pig of any age or breed. The condition of some of the exhibits in +the oldest classes was most pitiable, they had been stuffed to such an +extent that their life must have been a misery to them, they were unable +to walk any distance, and to prevent suffocation rollers were used on +which to raise their heads. The only way in which to describe these +unfortunate subjects of man's inhumanity was as animated bladders of +lard. + +At the recent shows of the Smithfield Club, not only has the age limit +been greatly reduced but classes for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live +weight have been instituted, in addition to classes for all the +recognised pure breeds of pigs and those of any cross. Even this great +reduction in age has not been enough to satisfy some of our reformers, +as an endeavour is being made to reduce the limit of twelve months to +nine months, so that in future the classes will be for pens of two pigs +not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, for pigs not exceeding six months +old and for pigs between six and nine months old, with certain classes +for single pigs under nine months. It is contended that fat pigs cannot +be profitably kept after they reach the age of nine months. Another +innovation of recent years at the Smithfield Show has been the +establishment of the so-called slaughter classes. This is probably by +far the greatest improvement of recent years in the pig section. Classes +are provided for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, pigs weighing +over 100 lbs. and not exceeding 220 lbs., and for pigs above 220 lbs. +and not exceeding 300 lbs. live weight. The pigs are first exhibited and +judged alive, then slaughtered and the carcases judged on their pork +merits. There is also one class for pigs above 160 lbs. and not +exceeding 240 lbs. live weight best suited for the manufacture of bacon. +These various classes have created great interest and have proved of the +greatest educational value. + +Another beneficial effect of the changed conditions is the elimination +from the summer show-yards of fat sows guiltless of milk and +accompanied in the pen by half a score of young boars and yelts of an +age varying from three months upwards, and which together were exhibited +in the class for breeding sows, or breeding sows and pigs. A fine fat +sow which would take kindly to an unlimited number of adopted youngsters +was in those days almost as valuable as a small gold mine. An old and +well-known pigman, Dick by name, assured the writer that no fewer than +sixty-three young boars and yelts were sold in one year off or when in +company of one well-known sow. At the present time the pigs shown with a +sow must be certified to be her produce and not to exceed the age of +eight weeks. + +It is at all times difficult to discover the motive power for certain +actions on the part of a human being. It has been declared that there is +an equal amount of doubt as to the cause of a breeder of stock wishing +to exhibit his animals. Surely this last assertion is at least of a +doubtful character. What greater proof could a stock breeder give of his +pride in his animals than a burning desire to expose their good +qualities to the public gaze. In addition to this, few men are entirely +free from the spirit of gambling and this enters into all competitions, +particularly in the show yards. The winning of prizes with stock may not +be quite so uncertain as the winning of horse races, still, there is +enough of uncertainty to render the judging ring a centre of great +excitement. Some persons will even contend that the showing of farm +stock is not desirable on the part of young farmers as it is likely to +assume so great a similarity with gambling, that attending the shows +means a neglect of business and leads to expensive habits. On the other +hand, it cannot be denied that the exhibition of our improved specimens +of stock has been of untold benefit to both home and foreign stock +breeders. Further, the exportation of our pedigree stock has actually +saved us from semi-starvation during this most fearful of all wars, as +without our improved stock the native stock of foreign countries could +not possibly have furnished the enormous quantities of meat which we +have had to import. + +It may be that a great many exhibitors of stock had little or no +intention of becoming one when they first purchased their stock, but on +these proving quite the equal of that possessed by their neighbour, the +desire grew to suggest how good they were, or in many instances the +original entries have been made in response to a request to support the +local show. + +This may be still another cause for a beginner in stock breeding +exercising extreme care in the selection of his original stock. Even if +the prime cost be higher than that of ordinary market stock the extra +outlay expended on animals from well-known breeders, and out of old +established herds, is certain to prove a good investment. There is just +as great difference in the different families or strains of our domestic +stock, as there is in the various human families and of animals, and it +may be probably more true that the vast majority of the best of them are +the descendants of a comparatively few ancestors. This is evident in +almost everyone of the breeds of our improved stock, it is so in +thoroughbred and shire horses, and so one might go through the whole +list of domesticated or farm animals. + +It is therefore desirable that anyone who thinks of exhibiting his pigs +should endeavour first to discover the particular tribes or families +which, in the past, have furnished a large proportion of the winners, +and then to obtain some of the specimens of those families which have +been successful in the show yards and in the breeding pen. This +combination is most important, as it does not necessarily follow that a +line of blood which produces prize winners shall also produce animals +which are not only good in type, character, and form, but possessed of +prolificacy, free milking properties, and ability to raise large +litters. The difficulty of finding in some of the mere exhibition herds +this most desirable combination is due, in the main, to the far too +frequent neglect of the utility points, the two aims of the herdsman are +in too many instances the winning of prizes for their employers and the +securing of a percentage of the prize money for themselves. + +Although there have been attempts made to impress on outsiders the claim +that there exists in the training of pigs for successful exhibition in +our show yards a large amount of mystery, yet, the practice is most +simple, it consists in the employment of the greatest possible +observation, care, and attention; without the continual use of these +qualities it is not possible to become a really successful pigman. In +very many instances just that little extra attention has turned the +scales. The one chief qualification on the part of a successful stock +man is the art of taking pains. Unlike most of the other exhibitors of +pigs who exhibited largely over many years the writer never employed a +professional pigman. The comparatively small number of pigmen who +assisted him to win thousands of prizes were merely ordinary farm +labourers, save in one case, and he was an old sailor, yet one of the +best feeders and trainers we ever employed. He was naturally fond of +animals and was never tired of waiting on them and of supplying their +needs. It was once jokingly said of him that, having no children, he +bestowed on the pigs in his care the love which some other people +bestowed on their children. There is much of truth in the assertion made +by a coloured preacher in the United States when discussing the want of +success of ordinary pig-keeping in the States, the chief cause he +declared was the absence of love. We would call it want of natural +fondness of animals and an insufficient determination to render the +conditions of life of the animals in our charge as pleasant and +satisfactory as circumstances will allow. With regard to the system of +rearing and feeding animals intended for exhibition, nothing more is +needed than the concentrated care and attention which is required in the +successful rearing and feeding of all commercial animals. A liberal +supply of suitable food, prepared in the most tempting form and +judiciously fed to the pigs in just the quantity required, as frequently +as the pig is able to thoroughly enjoy it. Little and often is a good +motto for the pig feeder. The more closely we adhere to nature, the +more successful shall we be. It is to this, perhaps, that exercise is so +specially necessary for pigs which are being prepared for the show yard. +It is impossible to render a pig perfectly fit for exhibition at a show, +and more particularly at several successive shows, without plenty of +exercise. Each morning and evening a walk of a distance varying with the +ages, etc., of the pigs is desirable. Another point to which some +professional pigmen give great prominence is the regular dosing of their +charges with secret medicines. This is not only unnecessary, but may +with breeding animals prove harmful. A sound healthy pig seldom requires +medicine if it is properly fed and exercised. It is the over feeding or +intense desire of the pigman which in the majority of cases renders +medicine necessary. + +A word of warning against this haste to get the pig into show condition. +This last can only be a work of time, and the commencement of the +process must be in the early stages of the life of the pig and be +steadily continued until within a few days of the show. This slight +reduction of the food may be necessary in the summer when the heat is +great and the pigs become restless when travelling boxed up in a crate +in an enclosed truck. Many of the pigs lost in travelling to or from the +shows or soon after arriving at the shows, have been fed just prior to +being loaded up, because of the difficulty in feeding them when on the +journey. This is an entire mistake; not only should the pigs not be fed, +but prior to being put into the crates they should be given just so much +exercise as will cause them to evacuate the bowels, or the bladder. Care +in this respect and non-exposure to the rays of the sun may not in +every case prevent trouble, but it will most certainly reduce to a +minimum the chance of it. Should a pig suffer from the heat, cold water +should be applied to the head by means of a sponge or a cloth, and +should some of the water percolate into the mouth of the pig so much the +better. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING + + +As it is impossible to foretell the effect which the present disastrous +war will have upon the pig-breeding industry, we have deemed it +expedient to refer as briefly as possible to the present conditions of +feeding, etc., which may or may not prove to be of a temporary character +or which may become permanent in a more or less modified manner. + +One of the results of the scarcity and high market value of the +different articles which have been commonly used in the feeding of pigs +is drawing greatly increased attention to the original conditions under +which pigs were kept, i.e. when they were in a wild state or when they +were allowed their partial freedom for the purpose of getting their own +living to a greater or lesser extent. + +We are aware that a claim has been made by an enthusiastic convert to +pig-keeping that in allowing his pigs their liberty to roam over grass +fields and in woods he is practising quite a novel course of procedure, +but the old hands merely smile and admire the enthusiasm which is more +nearly allied with youth than old age. The practice may not have been +generally followed of late years, but in the middle of the last century +it was to the writer's knowledge common in certain of the Eastern +Counties, particularly in Suffolk and portions of Essex and +Cambridgeshire, where a considerable acreage of grass and especially +clovers was grazed by pigs, having a greater or lesser quantity of other +food as the pigs were intended for breeding or fattening purposes. + +Generally speaking, some shelter of a temporary character was provided +failing that furnished by trees, and straw stacks, etc., but our +American cousins have gone one better in that they have introduced small +movable houses which can be transported on wheels and can be utilised +for a sow and her pigs, or for a number of stores. In the former course, +an enclosure sufficiently large for the sow to graze therein is fenced +in so that each sow can be kept separate until the pigs are old enough +to prevent others from robbing them of their birthright. The chief +difficulty attending this system is not experienced in the United States +to the extent it is in this country, since the general custom there is +to allow each sow to farrow a litter of pigs in the spring and then to +fatten off both sow and pigs, save those reserved for breeding purposes +next year. This plan, which appears to be wasteful, also handicaps the +owner who desires to improve his pig stock, since an opportunity is +denied him of discovering the best of his sows and so reserving them and +their produce to form the nucleus of a really good herd. The system is +not an entirely new one, as it is practised to a great extent in some +parts of Lincolnshire and other Northern counties, where there is not +the excuse made for it in the States that it avoids the trouble and +risk from the intense cold attending the farrowing of sows in the +winter. + +It may be that the severity of our winters is not usually great, but the +cold, damp and foggy weather commonly experienced in England during the +last two or three months of the year render it necessary to warmly house +young pigs, and this is difficult in wooden houses of limited size, as +these become hot and stuffy when entirely closed, or damp and cold when +unclosed. Again, the labour attending the feeding of a large herd housed +in isolated sties must be very considerable. Another objection raised +against this farrowing of sows in these small houses is that it is +difficult if not impossible at night to have the pigman in attendance on +the sow, further, that it is not advisable to allow the young pigs to +roam about with their dam until they are some weeks old, as when the +weather is cold or wet they become chilled and when the sun is hot they +quickly become blistered, both conditions materially interfering with +their well doing. + +It is claimed that both sow and pigs are able to secure a large portion +of their living, but a sow with a good litter of pigs on her requires a +considerable amount of food in addition to grass to enable her to do +justice to her young, whilst the younger pigs are unable to digest any +quantity of grass until they are some weeks old; besides this, the +youngsters thrive much better during their early life when confined in +quarters than when trailing about after the sow. Could we ensure fairly +fine weather, and an absence of cold nights and very changeable +weather, the little pigs' chances of thriving under outdoor conditions +would be considerably enhanced. + +Another alleged new discovery is the permitting of pigs to roam at large +in woods and plantations, wooden huts or open sheds being provided as +shelter. By this plan a considerable amount of pig food is obtained +where the trees are not closely planted, so that grass grows freely, or, +in the autumn, in the woods in which oaks, beech, hazel, or sweet +chestnut form a portion of the trees. In such woods strong store pigs +are able to obtain the major portion of their food, but where the trees +are of a kind which does not produce nuts or are closely planted, the +additional food must be more plentiful, whilst the manurial value of the +food is wasted to a considerable extent. + +Perhaps the most profitable form of outdoor pig-keeping is that of +running the pigs in orchards. This system has many advantages, the pigs +are able to live without much additional food for some months in the +year, they consume the insect-affected fallen fruit, and so act as +insecticides. The pigs also usually leave their droppings under the +trees, which are thus benefited therefrom, and especially is this the +case where the pigs are being fattened or fed on food which enables them +to make flesh. Many years since, the writer had several customers for +breeding pigs who kept numbers of pigs in their orchards. One fruit +grower in Kent declared that fattening pigs in his orchard resulted in +the growing of heavier crops of cherries of larger size, better colour, +and finer flavour. Another whose apple orchard was disappointing +followed my advice to fatten pigs in it, declared that the quantity of +apples grown was much greater, whilst both the size and quality of these +were infinitely better. + +Under the modern system of pig-keeping it is more profitable to give +some additional and concentrated food to the pigs having their liberty, +it is therefore wise to secure the full benefit arising from the richer +living by running the pigs where the manure can be utilised, and no +better place than an orchard can be found, since shelter from sun and +wind is furnished by the fruit trees, and the pigs deposit their urine +and excrement in exactly the place where it is most urgently required. + +The practice of growing considerable areas of rape or cole seed, +artichokes, peas of various kinds, beans, etc., to be fed off by pigs is +not followed extensively in this country, although pig-keepers in the +United States, Canada, Germany, Denmark, etc., have a partiality to it, +since it is declared to save labour and to bring the land into a good +manurial condition for the growth of corn crops; still some few of our +more advanced farmers have been in the habit of grazing off lucerne, +clovers, and even permanent and temporary grasses by the aid of pigs, +which have also received in addition a varying amount of roots, corn, or +meal. It is asserted, and evidence is available to prove the truth of +the statement, that land can be economically and quickly and vastly +improved by following the system referred to above. The scarcity and +high market value of miller's offals and of meals such as used in the +past to be utilised to a great extent in the feeding of pigs, has +caused pig-keepers to seek for other foods to take their place. The +residuum from the crushing of palm nuts, cocoa-nuts, and ground nuts has +been most successfully used in connection with various forms of +vegetable food; even sows have reared good litters of pigs on about 2 +lbs. of a mixture of the meals remaining from the extraction of the oil +from the nuts mentioned, with the addition of some form of vegetable +food. This last has comprised cooked potatoes, raw artichokes, mangolds, +kohl rabi, swedes, cabbages, etc., during the winter months, and grass, +lucerne, clover, vetches, cole seed, etc., during the summer months. +Fattening pigs will require a somewhat larger quantity of concentrated +food and a reduced amount of vegetable food. The pre-war belief that +sharps or middlings only was the most suitable food for sows with +litters and for newly weaned pigs has been somewhat modified. Whether or +not the quality and price of middlings will be restored after the war +and thus its use become general as of old, must be left, but it is +probable that in the future a certain proportion of the meals referred +to will continue to be used for both breeding and fattening pigs. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +PIG-FATTENING + + +If there be one task which is considered to be within the capacity of +any individual, it is that of feeding a pig. In the good old times, the +one thing needful was a good supply of barley meal, as much of this as +the pig could possibly eat was placed into its trough each day until the +pig was thought to be fat enough for slaughter. This was a very simple +and at the same time a very costly process and was looked upon as the +second of the two chief acts in the life of a pig. The first consisted +of building up a frame on which fat could be stored. Just why these two +processes were not combined has never been fully explained. One excuse +made for this uneconomical process is that our forbears must have +considered that there must be two distinct periods in the life of any +animal intended for the food of man, that in which the structure was +erected, and that in which the building was completely furnished with +the material--flesh--in a state which most nearly satisfied the +requirements or fancies of humanity. The system of first growing the +frame and then packing it with flesh was not alone followed by the +owners of pigs, as it was also adopted with cattle, which in the good +old times passed three or four years in a state of semi-starvation ere +they were placed on our best pastures to produce beef. Sheep, again, +spent two or three years in building up their frames and in the +production of a limited quantity of wool of inferior quality and +strength, before they were considered in a fit state to make mutton +economically. Another excuse which could have been offered by our +forbears, but which is not now available, is that the cattle, sheep, and +pigs of former times required age before it was possible to render them +sufficiently fat for slaughter. + +The very great improvement which has taken place during the past half +century, in wellnigh every breed of pig, has deprived our present day +pig-breeders of such an excuse, yet they persist in far too many +instances in following the old-fashioned and uneconomical system of +first growing the pig and then fatting it, whereas it is not only +possible but infinitely more profitable to combine the two operations. +So many persons have been in the habit of looking upon the pig as a mere +scavenger or an animal to put out of sight certain articles containing a +small amount of nutriment which, undisposed of, would become a nuisance +or offensive to one or other of our organs. Even the pig itself has been +considered by many farmers, especially those termed gentlemen farmers, +as a necessary nuisance, whereas the pig is really a machine for the +conversion of farm produce into meat, and like all machines, its output +will depend entirely on the quantity and quality of the raw material, +and the manner in which it is supplied. If the raw material be of +inferior quality and supplied irregularly, or in too limited +quantities, the article manufactured will be more costly and of an +inferior quality. An extension in the time of manufacture means +increased cost for fuel and for labour in attendance on the machinery. A +certain quantity of fuel is being continually used in the furnace +whether the engine is running at full power or at half power. It is +exactly the same with the meat making machine, the pig every day of its +existence consumes a certain quantity of food for which it gives one +return only, its life. It has been conclusively proved that each pig +weighing 100 lbs. requires 2 lbs. of food daily to enable it to sustain +life, i.e. to replace loss of tissue, to provide heat, progression, +etc., so that if a pig lives six months longer than is actually +necessary to enable it to manufacture a certain weight of meat, it will +have eaten to waste over 3 cwt. of good food. + +A pig is like unto any other machine, it will produce the manufactured +article most cheaply when it is fully supplied with the most suitable +raw material. There is not the slightest doubt that the least costly +pork is that which is produced by the pig which spends its whole time in +the object of its existence, the manufacture of pork. + +There is a further point of great importance. Wellnigh all those +materials which are used in the feeding of pigs contain the constituents +necessary for the building up of the frame and for the accumulation of +fat or, as it is commonly termed, the making of meat. Evidently nature +intended that the two operations should be carried on simultaneously. +Those constituents which are required in the building up of the frame +cannot be entirely used in the formation of fat, consequently if the +frame is first built up and then an attempt is made to lay on flesh, a +considerable portion of the building up constituents are simply wasted, +since the pig has no need for them and cannot make complete use of them. +They simply pass through the pig after taxing it to digest them, and are +wasted. + +Opinions and practices with regard to pig fatting have changed very much +during the past half century, and especially so since the full effect of +the fearful war has been felt. Rather before the first-mentioned period, +the late Sir John Lawes, whose researches and experiments have been of +lasting benefit to agriculturists, undertook to carry out experiments in +connection with pig-breeding, and the result which appears to have +impressed itself most upon the writers of the day was that barley meal +was the best single food for the fatting of pigs. At the time named, our +importations of maize and of many other materials now used in stock and +especially pig-breeding were not of anything the magnitude of the period +prior to the war, still, it seems to be strange to the enlightened +pig-breeder of to-day that more serious endeavours should not have been +made to determine the value of a mixed diet for pigs, since this had +been proved to be beneficial and necessary in the case of human beings +whose organs are so very similar to that of the despised pig. + +Fortunately for us, and indeed for the stock-keepers in all parts of the +world, experiments in the feeding of stock have been carried out in +various countries, Denmark, Sweden, the United States, Canada, +Germany, and indeed in nearly all countries, save to any great extent in +England. In connection with pigs, the practices of a few of our more +intelligent pig-keepers have been confirmed. Amongst these ideas which +the old-fashioned ones looked upon as fads, was that of feeding pigs of +all ages and especially fatting pigs on a certain proportion of +vegetable food. Experiments have conclusively proved that the +substitution of some 10 per cent of vegetable matter in place of an +equal amount of meal or concentrated food, does not result in the +slightest reduction in the live weight gain of the fatting pig, and +further that the old idea that a limited quantity of vegetable food fed +to a fatting pig tended to render the pork soft and to waste in the +cooking was not founded on fact. Another fact which has evolved from +these experiments is that the pig will make far greater progress on an +equal amount of a mixture of foods than if fed solely on one food. This +was clearly proved in many experiments as at the Wisconsin Agricultural +Station, where one lot of pigs was fed on middlings alone, a second lot +on corn meal alone, and a third lot on a mixture of corn meal and +middlings. To make an increase of 100 lbs. in their live weight, the +pigs in Lot 1 ate 522 lbs. of middlings, those in Lot 2 ate 537 lbs. of +corn meal to make an equal increase in weight, whilst Lot 3, which were +fed on a mixture of corn meal and middlings, required only 439 lbs., or +a saving of one-fifth in the weight of food. In experiments with regard +to the food value of corn meal and middlings carried out at the +Missouri College, middlings also gave the best returns, but +unfortunately the ages of the pigs used in the trials are omitted. This +is important as middlings are considered to be of more value in the +feeding of young than of older pigs, whilst the reverse holds good of +corn or maize meal. Other trials were carried out at Wisconsin with the +use of wheat meal alone as compared with a mixture of half wheat and +half corn meal. In these the average quantity of wheat meal required for +100 lbs. increased live weight was 500 lbs., whilst only 485 lbs. of the +mixture of wheat and corn meals was needed to obtain an equal increase +or a saving of some 5 per cent was obtained by mixing the meals. + +In the good old times it was considered to be the height of folly to +make a change in the food on which the pigs were being fattened, yet our +forbears would have been horrified had they been informed that it was +imperative that they themselves should have no variety of food, that day +after day the food at their various meals should be exactly similar; +surely what is good for one animal should be good for another animal +whose organs are of an exactly similar character. There is not the +slightest doubt that advantage is derived from the variation in the food +on which the pigs are being fattened. By this, it is not intended to +suggest that a complete change of food should be made at stated times in +the fatting pigs' food, as this would certainly result in a loss of time +and food, but that a slight variation in the proportions of the +different kinds of food is beneficial, or in the case where several +different kinds of food are being fed as a mixture, another kind of +food may be substituted so that the change made secures a variation +which has the effect of whetting or enticing the appetite. A long +continuance of the same kind of food has the effect of dulling the +appetite. In addition to this, it is considered that a variation in the +food tends to stimulate the digestive organs. + +It is a mistake to allow too long a time to pass between feeding times; +the pig is not endowed by nature with a capacious paunch which enables +it to stow away a large quantity of food. Even the old system of feeding +twice a day might be improved upon, and the fatting pig fed three times +per day would make greater thrift, even should the actual daily quantity +of food be not increased. + +Again, so many persons are apt to give to the fatting pig a greater +quantity of food than it requires or can eat with comfort to itself at +one meal. Should this be pointed out to them, their usual reply would be +that what the pig did not eat for their breakfast would be there in +readiness for the evening meal unless they ate it during the day, as +they frequently would do. This sounds plausible until the argument be +closely examined. What would the pigman think if he were treated in a +similar manner and an excessive quantity of food placed on his plate, +and then at the next meals the stale food be again placed before him +until it was finished? This certainly would not increase his appetite +nor aid his digestion. Yet the most successful pigman is he who succeeds +in so feeding his charges that they daily eat and thoroughly digest the +greatest amount of food possible. In pig fattening, as in many other +things, time is money. Further it is just as much a mistake for fatting +pigs as for human beings to be continually eating, or at irregular +intervals, small quantities of food. The two most certain indications +that a lot of fatting pigs are thriving is to find that they are asleep +and that their feeding troughs are empty. When pigs are fed a greater +quantity of food than they can eat at once they will be frequently +getting up to eat a little more of the surplus, and each time they rise +from their bed they will evacuate their bowels, and in most cases before +the major portion of the nutriment has been extracted. + +Still another of the fallacies of our forbears was that the fatting pig +made the greatest increase from a given quantity of food when it was at +least approaching maturity and ripeness, or complete fatness. It was +useless to argue with them, since anyone could see that it was so. If +you suggested the use of the scales, the idea was scouted, since a +person of any experience in pig fatting must be able to notice the +increase in bulk of the pig. It is true that apparently the pig would be +making a greater increase of weight as it approached the completion of +its fatting process, since the addition to its weight and bulk would be +almost entirely composed of fat which could only be deposited on the +outside of the carcase. All the vacant space in the interior of the pig +would have been occupied, the pig would have stored fat away in its +muscles, around its kidneys, on its stomach, its bowels, and wherever it +was possible to stow it away, but these additions to the weight of the +carcase which had been proceeding in the early stages of the fatting +could not be observed, nevertheless they were proceeding, and in this +was the pig enabled in its early stage of fatting to make a profitable +return for the food consumed. + +Fortunately we are not left on this point to mere conjecture; many +experiments have clearly proved that in the early stages of the life of +a pig it is enabled to manufacture pork at a far less cost than in its +later stages of life. The young pig also possesses over its older +companion the great advantage of being able to eat and utilise a greater +quantity of food in proportion to its weight or, in other words, the +young pig can convert a greater quantity of raw material into the +manufactured article than the more matured pig, in proportion to the +amount of food required for the mere upkeep of the machinery. +Experiments which most clearly prove this have been duplicated in +Denmark, in the United States, etc. At Copenhagen nearly seventy +different experiments were carried out with pigs of varying weights, +with the result that pigs weighing about 275 lbs. live weight were found +to require nearly twice as much food to make an increase in their live +weight as did pigs weighing from 35 to 75 lbs. That this was not an +exceptional case is clearly proved by the fact that the increase in the +amount of food required to enable them to make an increase in their live +weight was gradual, and shown in every stage; thus pigs of from 35 to 75 +lbs. consumed 376 lbs. of food for each 100 lbs. increase; pigs of 75 to +115 lbs., 435 lbs.; pigs of 115 to 155 lbs., 466 lbs.; pigs of 155 lbs. +to 195 lbs., 513 lbs.; pigs of 195 lbs. to 235 lbs., 540 lbs.; pigs of +235 lbs. to 275 lbs., 614 lbs.; and pigs of 275 lbs. to 315 lbs., 639 +lbs. + +Even if this series of experiments stood alone they surely would prove +most conclusively that the common belief in old and nearly fat pigs +giving the best return from the food consumed is founded on fiction, but +similar tests were made at many of the American Experiment Stations, +these tests together numbering some hundred. The results are given in +tabulated form in Henry's _Feeds and Feeding_, where the various points +are so clearly brought out that we have taken the liberty of lifting the +whole of the notes relating to "weight, gain, and feed consumed" by +pigs. "At many of our stations, records of weights and gains of pigs and +feed consumed by them have been so reported as to permit of studies +concerning the influence of increased size and weight of the animal on +the consumption of food. + +"All of the available data from trials of this character conducted in +this country" (the United States) "up to the time of going to press, +enter into the composition of the table given below. In compiling this +table, six pounds of skim milk or twelve pounds of whey are calculated +as equal to one pound of grain, according to the Danish valuation of +these articles. For convenience of study, the data are presented for +each period covering fifty pounds of growth, the actual average weight +of the pigs, however, being given for each division: + + DATA RELATIVE TO FEED, WEIGHT, AND GAIN OF PIGS-- + MANY AMERICAN STATIONS + + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + | | | | | + Weight of | Actual | No. of | Total | No. of | + pigs in | Average | stations | No. of | animals | + pounds. | weight. | reporting. | trials. | fed. | + | | | | | + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + | lbs. | | | | + 15 to 50 | 38 | 9 | 41 | 174 | + 50 " 100 | 78 | 13 | 100 | 417 | + 100 " 150 | 128 | 13 | 119 | 495 | + 150 " 200 | 174 | 11 | 107 | 489 | + 200 " 250 | 226 | 12 | 72 | 300 | + 250 " 300 | 271 | 8 | 46 | 223 | + 300 " 350 | 320 | 3 | 19 | 105 | + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + 350 " 400 | 378 | 1 | 5 | 36 | + 400 " 450 | 429 | 1 | 5 | 36 | + 450 " 500 | 471 | 1 | 2 | 18 | + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + | Average | Feed | | + Weight of | feed | eaten per | Average | Feed for + pigs in | eaten | 100 lbs. | gain per | 100 lbs. + pounds. | per day. | weight. | day. | gain. + | | | | + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. + 15 to 50 | 2.23 | 5.95 | .76 | 293 + 50 " 100 | 3.35 | 4.32 | .83 | 400 + 100 " 150 | 4.79 | 3.75 | 1.10 | 437 + 150 " 200 | 5.91 | 3.43 | 1.24 | 482 + 200 " 250 | 6.57 | 2.91 | 1.33 | 498 + 250 " 300 | 7.40 | 2.74 | 1.46 | 511 + 300 " 350 | 7.50 | 2.35 | 1.40 | 535 + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + 350 " 400 | 8.52 | 2.25 | 1.98 | 431 + 400 " 450 | 8.18 | 1.91 | 1.71 | 479 + 450 " 500 | 10.00 | 2.12 | 1.77 | 562 + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + +"In the above table the large number of trials reported for pigs +weighing up to 350 lbs. each furnishes reliable data. After this point +is reached the number of animals is too small to give reliable averages. +The heavy weight hogs reported in the last three lines of the table were +fed by the writer (Professor Henry). They were mature specimens, with +large frames and in lean flesh when feeding began, having been summered +on pasture without grain. The figures are introduced to show what may be +accomplished with mature hogs when they are in thin flesh at the +beginning of fattening. + +"We learn from the main portion of the table that from 105 to 435 pigs +were employed in calculating each line of data. The number of trials +furnishing the data varied from 19 to 119, and were conducted by from 3 +to 13 experiment stations. + +"Amount of food consumed daily by the pig. The sixth column of the table +shows the average amount of feed consumed daily by pigs of different +weights. From it we learn that pigs weighing less than 50 lbs. each, +averaging 38 lbs., consumed on the average 2.23 lbs. of grain or grain +equivalent, daily. As the animal increased in weight there was a gradual +increase in the amount of food consumed, until we find the 450 lbs. hog +eating 10 lbs. of grain daily, or more than four times as much as the 50 +lbs. pig. + +"Feed per 100 lbs. live weight: In the seventh column it is shown that +pigs weighing 38 lbs. consumed 5.95 lbs. of feed for each 100 lbs. of +live weight. This is about 6 per cent of their live weight. As the pigs +grew larger they consumed less feed for 100 lbs. of live weight, until +with the heaviest hogs the feed consumed was little more than 2 per cent +of their live weight. Here was a decrease of about two-thirds in the +feed consumption per 100 lbs. between early weight and maturity. + +"Average daily gain: In the next column are presented data concerning +the daily gain of the pig. It is shown that the 38 lb. pig gained .76 of +a lb., or 2 per cent of its own weight daily. As it increased in size +the pig made larger daily gains, the maximum being reached with those +weighing 271 lbs., which made a daily gain of 1.46 lb. With large thin +hogs the gain reached 1.98 lb., or practically 2 lbs. per day, but these +animals, because of their mature frames and thin flesh, were fed under +exceptional circumstances. + +"Feed for 100 lbs. of gain: The last column is of interest to all, +especially the practical feeder, for it teaches a most interesting and +important lesson concerning the feed requirements of pigs. Those which +average 38 lbs. each made 100 lbs. of gain from 293 lbs. of feed. This +exceedingly small allowance of feed for gain was probably due in part to +the fact that the young pigs used in these trials received much milk, +which was practically all digestible, the other feed being also more +highly digestible than that usually supplied older animals. With pigs +weighing 78 lbs., 400 lbs. of feed were required for 100 lbs. of gain. +There was a gradual increase of feed requirements for 100 lbs. of gain, +until the hog weighing 320 lbs. required 525 lbs. for each 100 lbs. of +gain. This is 135 lbs. or 33 per cent more feed than was required by the +78 lbs. pig." + +These tables prove most conclusively that the idea which is almost +universally prevalent that the fatting pig gives the greatest increase +for the food which it consumes when it becomes matured and nearly fat is +an entirely mistaken one, and that the young and growing pig, if well +kept, not only eats more in proportion to its weight, but gives a better +return for the food it consumes, besides requiring a smaller amount of +food to keep life within itself, and to replace the certain loss +sustained by movement, etc. There is still another point on which the +young pig scores: its carcase realises a higher price per lb. on a +majority of the markets. The fatting pig which pays best is one which +has a short life and a merry one, never having to seek or wait for its +food. + +Amongst the many other questions which have been compelled attention +owing to the shortage and the high value of pig food, is that of the +advisability or the reverse of cooking the food given to pigs. When the +practice of showing stock became fashionable every possible means of +forcing the exhibits was practised, since early maturity was of so great +importance, especially in the classes for the younger animals. The +cooking of the stronger kinds of food such as old beans for horses had +been found beneficial, as the risk of fever in the feet and other +ailments had been greatly reduced by this practice. The stock man +naturally concluded that the cooking or steaming of beans having proved +to be of advantage, similar good results would follow the steaming of +the other kinds of food. In this fanciful theory they would have been +able to find ample support in many of the books on stock feeding which +were published in the first half of the last century and even later. +Like many other novelties, the steaming or boiling of almost all kinds +of food for animals was followed in the establishments of well-to-do +persons where cost was studied less than success in the show yards. +Then, as now, the Germans took little for granted, they proceeded to +test the much belauded new plan by attempting to discover the fact as to +whether steaming rendered hay more digestible when fed to cattle, with +the result that it was clearly proved that when the hay was fed dry 46 +per cent of the protein was digested by the cattle while only 30 per +cent was digested from the steamed hay. But as our present business is +with pig-feeding, we will confine our remarks to the results of +experiments carried out to test the effects of cooking the food of pigs. +Perhaps the best summary of these is to be found in the most valuable +work, _Feeds and Feeding_, by Professor Henry, who wrote _Experiments +with Cooked Feed for Pigs_. + +These have been so numerous that all cannot be here presented. Those +given are selected because they are strictly representative, covering a +wide range of country foods and conditions. + +"At the Kansas Agricultural College, Shelton fed one lot of five pigs on +cooked shelled corn, while a second lot of four, similar in all +respects, was given uncooked shelled corn, the trial lasting ninety +days. In cooking, the corn was placed in a barrel and water poured over +it; into this mass a pipe carried steam, at a pressure ranging from 30 +to 60 lbs. The kernels were cooked until they were sufficiently soft +to be easily mashed between the thumb and finger. + +"At the Iowa Agricultural College, Stalker conducted trials for 120 days +in summer with cooked and uncooked shelled corn fed to Berkshire pigs. + +"At the Dominion (Canada) Station, Robertson fed grade Chester Whites, a +mixture of ground peas, barley, and rye, the trials beginning in +December and lasting 141 days. + +"At the Ohio Station, Devol fed pure bred Poland Chinas and Berkshires +for 112 days in winter. One lot of three pigs received the meal cooked, +while to the second lot it was given dry and uncooked. + +"At the Wisconsin Station, the writer (Henry) has conducted many trials +with cooked and uncooked feed for pigs. Only the later ones are here +reported. These trials lasted from 56 to 84 days each, the kinds of feed +experimented being given in the table. + +"The five trials reported from the Wisconsin Station, as will be seen by +consulting the table, are slightly in favour of cooked food, the +difference being very small, however. These are the only feeding trials +reported from any experiment station, so far as known to the writer, +where the results are favourable to cooking. Ten other trials by the +writer with cooked and uncooked feed for swine all gave results +unfavourable to cooking these, and a number of trials at other stations +with cooked and uncooked feed for swine are not included for want of +space." + +A table showing the stations at which the various experiments were +carried out, the numbers and weights of the pigs, the varieties of +foods, the duration of the different trials, the daily gain, the weights +of cooked and uncooked food consumed, the manner of cooking, the total +increases in weight and the quantities of cooked and uncooked food +required for increases of 100 lbs. in the live weights of the pigs are +given. Professor Henry sums these up and writes: "Including all the +trials then, so far as is known, that have been favourable to cooking +feed and omitting many for lack of space, that are unfavourable to that +operation, the average shows that 476 lbs. of uncooked meal or grain +were required for 100 lbs. of gain with pigs, while after it was cooked +505 lbs. were required. This shows a loss of 6 per cent of the feeding +value of these substances through cooking." + +Some thirty-five years since the present writer made some small +experiments in the feeding of cooked and uncooked whole maize; in each +case it was found that the pigs ate a greater quantity of uncooked than +cooked maize, and made a greater proportionate increase in weight from +the food consumed. Only one opinion appears to be possible, and this is +that the cooking of food for pigs, save potatoes, entails a loss of +time, an increase in cost, and a reduced return. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +A PIG CALENDAR + + +The pig-keeper, like the gardener, seldom has to seek for employment, +indeed his work may be said to be only occasionally completed. There are +always many little odd jobs to do, which if neglected may result in +loss, or a greatly increased amount of work at some later period. The +old proverb "A stitch in time saves nine" is equally as true in +connection with pig keeping as with any other form of work. + +In years gone by the month of January was considered to be quite a slack +time for pig-keepers, the sows and the store pigs usually found the +greater part of their living in the yards where the cattle were fed on +the straw which was continually being placed in the cribs as the +old-man-of-the-farm threshed the corn out of it with his flail. Many of +the cribs had slatted bottoms so that any kernels of corn which were +left in the straw would drop through and be picked up by the pigs which +found their way under the cribs. In most of the old-fashioned large +yards a corner would be railed off in which the pigs would be given a +few turnips, swedes, or small potatoes, and occasionally a handful or +two of beans or even a sheaf of beans. Those fatting pigs which had not +already been converted into bacon for consumption in the farm-house were +fed mainly on meal ground at the local wind or water mill from the tail +corn grown by the farmer. At the present time the most up-to-date +pig-keepers so arrange that many of the older sows farrow during this +month of January so that the sows have their second litter of the year +late in the month of June or early in July in order that both litters of +pigs obtain the greatest amount of benefit from the growing and hot +season, since pigs thrive best when the days are lengthening and when +the sun shines. + +Of late years we appear to have had somewhat severe weather in January. +This has rendered it the more necessary that care should be taken in +providing water and wind-tight sties, in which the sows farrow. Warmth +with free ventilation is needed. The latter is particularly necessary +after the pigs are a few days old, as these do not suffer so much from +cold as they do from damp and draughts. Of course whilst the sow is +farrowing warmth is imperative, as the moist little pigs when first +ejected very quickly become chilled in severe frost, unless they are +promptly wiped with a dry cloth, allowed a draught or two of new milk +from the sow, and then placed in a box or hamper three parts filled with +dry wheat straw. When once the pigs become thoroughly dry the cold does +not affect them very much, providing that the sow furnishes her family +with a full supply of milk. The cost of heating a little water so that +the sow and also the young pigs as soon as they begin to eat may have +warmed food, will be slight, as there is nearly always a fire required +in cottage and farm-house during the cold weather. Warm food makes a +vast difference in the thrift of pigs, especially of young ones. Very +slight observation will reveal the marked difference in the comfort of a +pig which has had a meal of warm or of cold food. In the former case the +pig will return to its nest and is soon lost in sleep, whilst the poor +beggar which has had its breakfast on cold and occasionally frozen food +will be the picture of misery and shaking with cold, much of its natural +heat produced from its last meal being required to warm up the food ere +its digestive organs can commence work. Coal and wood are at all times +less expensive to warm up food than the animal fat which is burned in +nature's lamp. + +Provision should have been made for the supply of some kind of vegetable +food which pigs require, particularly when in confinement. Kohl rabi, +swedes and cabbages, of which the first named is the best, are all +suitable, but the most nourishing are artichokes, which like the three +former should be fed raw, and potatoes which should be cooked ere they +are fed to the pigs. The difference in the feeding value between cooked +and uncooked potatoes is great. It is scarcely necessary to point out +that all vegetable food fed to pigs should have been protected from +frost. + +The operations connected with pig-keeping are very similar in February +to those of the preceding month. Towards the end of the month kohl rabis +will have lost much of their feeding value. On sunny days a run out for +a few minutes will be of great benefit to the young pigs over a month +old; as soon as they cease to gallop about they should be shut up again, +as if allowed to lie down they may contract a chill which might result +in "cramp" or rheumatism. Sows with litters two or three weeks old +should be allowed out of the sty each morning and afternoon for a short +time. + +The month of March brings with it an extra amount of work for the +pig-keeper, who will now think of selling the pigs born early in January +unless he purposes to keep them on and have them ready for sale as fat +pigs in harvest time, when there is always a good demand for medium +sized fat pigs. Anyway the sow pigs intended for breeding will have been +picked out and earmarked, this last should not be neglected after the +others have been spayed. + +This last operation has of late years been much neglected; this is a +great mistake, as experiments have clearly proved that on an average sow +pigs which have been spayed will make an equal gain in live weight on 5 +per cent less food than will an unspayed sow pig, when both have become +some five or six months old, and the periods of [oe]strum have +commenced. + +The sows which farrowed in January should now be weaned from their pigs, +and should be ready to be mated within a few days. The sows should be +carefully watched for the signs of heat or restlessness. Some sows give +little indication of this unrest, which is almost certain to appear +within four or five days providing the sow is in a healthy and vigorous +condition. To miss the sow means a loss of three weeks of most valuable +time, besides the risk of trouble in getting the sow to conceive after +she had been baulked. With the passing of the month swedes and +artichokes will have lost much of their nourishment; mangolds can now +take their place. It is a good plan to expose the mangolds to the air +for a few days prior to feeding them to the pigs; this exposure hastens +their ripening and reduces the proportion of water. Of course care must +be taken to prevent them becoming frozen, as in March this might be the +case. + +In the Southern counties tares, lucerne, and grass are sufficiently +forward towards the end of April to be cut and fed to the pigs which are +confined in the buildings. The pigs both fat and store will fully repay +the cost of labour in the cutting and carting of these vegetable foods. +Brood sows both in pig and with litters dependent on them, should be +allowed their liberty in the grass fields. This will both greatly reduce +the cost of keep and tend to their thrift and well doing. Young pigs +over a month old should have a run out both morning and afternoon. Newly +weaned pigs which have been well done are always in keen request in the +months of April and May at prices higher than in any other portion of +the year, owing to the demand from the cheese-makers who have a +superabundance of whey, of which 12 lbs. when fed in proper combination +is considered to be equal in value to 1 lb. of meal. Unfortunately, so +many dairymen do not study the requirements of the pig, and imagine that +it will give a good return from an excess of liquid in the form of whey. +Without some concentrated food the pig will not thrive on whey. Numbers +of young pigs are also required in those districts where butter-making +is carried on to consume the butter milk, and in ordinary times much of +the separated or skim milk. In the feeding of this again the results are +not so good as they should be owing to neglect. Both foods have been +rendered unbalanced owing to the extraction of the butter fat, so that +although new milk may be fed alone, the others require additional food +which should contain some oil or fat to be fed with them, or they cause +indigestion and want of thrift, particularly in young and immature pigs. + +The roots of all kinds, save potatoes and mangolds, have ceased to be of +much value before April ends, vetches and lucerne will prove to be the +best of substitutes. Spring cabbages are generally of more value for +human consumption than can be obtained from their use as pig food. If +there be any grass land available the in-pig sows and the stores, should +there be such, should now find the major portion of their food out of +doors. + +As a rule far too little attention is paid to the growth of lucerne in +this country. It is undoubtedly one of the most nutritive of our +vegetable crops. It also produces a large weight of food extending over +several months, and continues fruitful for many years providing +attention is paid to the keeping it free from grasses. It has the +additional advantage of furnishing a full supply of food when the +weather is so dry that grass and some other foods produce little. It is +true that in the initial stage it requires time and care, but the +results from it amply repay both. One of the best seasons for sowing it +is the month of May. The operation is simple, the land having been +cleared the seed is sown in drills about 1 ft. apart, the quantity of +seed required being at the rate of 20 lbs. per acre, say 2 oz. per pole +or a drill 35 yards long. As soon as the plants are high enough the land +should be hand hoed, and if kept free of weeds a light crop can +generally be cut from it towards the end of August. In the following +years it will produce at least three cuttings annually. + +Some persons are of opinion that as lucerne is such a deep-rooted plant +manure is unnecessary. It is true that the roots penetrate several feet +into the soil, still an application of short manure or rotted vegetable +matter applied each autumn will give a good return. + +The chief point in the use of lucerne for pigs and in the production of +a maximum crop is to cut it when young. The pigs will thrive on it far +better in this state than when the stalks become hard and sticky. In the +latter stage it is likely to cause constipation. It is best not to graze +it with either horses, cattle, or pigs, but benefit to it results from +folding it in the autumn with ewes or other sheep which find most of +their other food on the stubbles, commons, heaths, etc. + +All the sows and the yelts intended for breeding should now spend their +whole time out of doors. It might be noted that lucerne will grow on +almost any kind of land providing it is well drained--stagnant water +destroys it. + +The duties of the pig-keeper are very similar in the month of June to +those of the previous month. Prior to the outbreak of war it was +becoming general amongst the most practical pigmen to continue to fatten +pigs all the year round. The old-fashioned idea that pork was not a +suitable food during any of the months in which there was not the letter +"r" had become exploded. Not only did the bacon curers require a supply +of fat pigs weighing from 200 to 220 lbs. alive, but there was a good +demand from the butchers for small fat pigs weighing from 80 to 140 lbs. +alive. + +It must not be forgotten that a smaller quantity of food is required to +produce a pound of pork during the summer than during the winter months. +This has been clearly proved in many experiments. The difference varies +according to the temperature. In the very cold weather experienced in +some portions of the United States it was found that some pigs actually +made no increase in weight when well fed, the whole of the nutriment +having to be utilised in keeping up the bodily warmth of the pigs. + +The months of July and August see little change in the duties of the +attendant on pigs. The old-fashioned plan of running the pigs on the +corn stubbles has almost gone out of fashion. The improved system of +harvesting the crops leaves less corn on the land, whilst the cost of +labour in keeping the pigs is almost prohibitive. At one time there used +to be a keen demand for young pigs in the month of August for so-called +"shacking" or running on the stubbles. Experience has proved that these +pigs pay less frequently under present conditions than they did under +the old ones. + +The scarcity of vegetable food which usually shows itself in August is +now, in September, met to a considerable extent by the plan of the early +digging of potatoes. Large quantities of chats, and sometimes of +slightly diseased ones are now cooked and fed to the pigs with a certain +proportion of meal. As a rule there is a keen demand for pork in the +month of September. Towards the end of the month all pigs should be +under shelter at night. + +During the last three months of the year there is little variation in +the management of pigs. One of the common mistakes made by farmers is to +neglect their pigs in the autumn, at the very season when a little extra +food is needed, and for which the pigs will give a better return than at +almost any time of the year. The early portion of October is one of the +best periods for mating the sows, the yelts may be left until the latter +part of the month so that their pigs do not arrive until the month of +February when the days are lengthening and the sun has more power. It is +advisable to have many of the fat pigs ready for market ere the month of +November ends, as the demand for pork is usually slack for two or three +weeks prior to and after Christmas. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +DISEASES OF THE PIG + + +Fortunately, the pig is subject to comparatively few serious +diseases--save swine fever, swine erysipelas, and very occasionally +anthrax, which are contagious or infectious, and all in the special +charts of the veterinary department of the Board of Agriculture, and +within the contagious Diseases Animals Acts. Prior to the stamping out +of Foot and Mouth Disease or apthous fever and rabies, pigs suffered +from these contagious and infectious diseases, particularly the former +of the two, which caused immense losses, especially of young pigs, +during the latter half of the past century. + +Of the other ailments to which pig flesh is heir, the majority and the +chief of them are mainly due to that want of knowledge or care in the +feeding and in the housing of the pigs which renders them more +susceptible to the sudden changes in the temperature or to the +inclemency of the season. In former chapters some, if not all, of these +ailments have been referred to, but it may be more convenient to our +readers to include in one chapter a brief description of the ailments +and the remedies and means of prevention. + + +SWINE FEVER + +Some thirty years since the losses from this disease were of so serious +a nature that the Board of Agriculture determined to attempt to stamp it +out, as they had succeeded in stamping out pleura pneumonia in cattle, +and foot and mouth disease. The success of their efforts was not at all +commensurate with the outlay. The failure was attributed to many causes; +amongst them the want of a complete knowledge of the disease, the +impossibility of diagnosing it during the life of the patient, the +absence of sympathy on the part of the local veterinary surgeons owing +to certain steps taken by the then Veterinary Adviser of the Board, to +which further reference is now inadvisable, and to the general +opposition of pig-keepers who had as little faith in many of the post +mortems and their results as in the power of the authorities to stamp +out the disease which under various names had been more or less common +in the country so long as they could remember. Doubts were also passed +on the infectivity or contagiousness of swine fever, or as it was +variously termed red soldier, spots, etc. + +This disbelief was probably due in part to the fact that some of the +external symptoms of swine fever, swine erysipelas, and heart disease, +such as discoloration of the skin were of a similar character. In some +instances this redness of the skin, which was looked upon as a sure sign +that the pig had died from swine fever, did not prove to be infectious, +as no other cases followed amongst the in-contact pigs. This led to the +general belief that swine fever was not necessarily infectious. +Dissatisfaction with the arbitrary manner in which the restrictions in +movement, etc., were carried out did not mend matters, nor help to +render the efforts of the Board more successful. + +At the present time it is imperative on the part of the owner of an ill +pig to report the fact to the nearest policeman. The owner then merely +carries out the instructions supplied to him by the police so that it is +almost unnecessary to state that the symptoms of swine fever are +several. At times the attack is of so virulent a nature that a pig may +take its food all right in the afternoon and be dead the next morning, +no discoloration of the skin or other external symptoms being visible +before or immediately after death. + +As a rule when the pig is attacked the first symptom is loss of +appetite, generally accompanied by a feverish condition of the skin +which shows more or fewer red spots behind the shoulder, and inside the +thighs, or in those portions of the body where the skin is the thinnest +and most free from hair. The great desire of the affected pig is to +burrow into the litter and to remain undisturbed, save when the feverish +thirst impels it to seek moisture of any sort or kind, even urine which +may have settled into any unevenness of the floor of the sty. + +Many of the ailing pigs suffer from a dry, husky cough, a gummy +discharge exudes from the eyes and forms a ring round them, the ankles +become affected, and the muscles of the back become weakened so that +the pig has difficulty in walking. The discoloration of the skin may or +may not increase, but the weakness gradually becomes greater so that +death may follow within a day or two from the first attack. Occasionally +the affected pig will continue to live for several days, and eventually +recover so much that it can be fatted, but there exists a great risk of +the recovered pig being what is termed a "carrier" of the disease, and +possessing the ability to infect other pigs with which it may come in +close contact, although the germs of the disease which it carries do not +affect its own health. Similar instances of human beings being +"carriers" of the disease have been recorded. So difficult is it at +times to discover the source of the infection of swine fever that +certain persons who are not amongst the strongest believers in the +practical knowledge of the members of the veterinary profession assert +that swine fever need not necessarily be the result of infection, but +that injudicious feeding or the neglect of sanitary arrangements will +sometimes cause an outbreak. There does not appear to be the slightest +ground for this belief, as there is a specific virus which when it +obtains ingress into the body of the pig, whether by the mouth, nose, or +in any other way, may result in an attack, more or less severe, of swine +fever, unless the virus has become so attenuated that it is unable to +affect the host sufficiently. This attenuation, which is due to causes +which are probably not completely known, is commonly the cause of the +absence of further cases of swine fever amongst one of a lot of pigs +which has had a very mild attack. This variation in the virulence of +most infectious diseases has been noticed and recorded. + +At the present time the Board of Agriculture have suspended the +slaughter order in cases where the owner of the pigs desires to +inoculate the in-contact pigs with serum which is supplied from the +Veterinary College. The experiment has not been in operation +sufficiently long enough to express a confident opinion upon its +results, but it is stated that in Denmark the inoculation of the pigs +which have been in contact with diseased pigs has proved to be a +success. The risks of carrying out the experiment are by no means +slight, but appear to be worth running if there be any great probability +of success. + + +SWINE ERYSIPELAS + +The symptoms of this disease, which fortunately is not so common as +swine fever, owing probably to its being more fatal and in a shorter +time, are very similar to those of swine fever, save that the husky +cough and the weakness of the muscles of the back are generally absent. +The post mortem shows distinctive differences from those of swine fever. +There appears to be far greater difficulty in thoroughly disinfecting +the sty in which pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed than +after swine fever cases; not only so, but the virus remains active for a +very long period, so that any accident which may expose the virus even +after many months may affect any pigs with which it comes in contact. + +In an outbreak of swine erysipelas it is advisable to have the +unaffected pigs inoculated as well as those housed in a sty or building +in which at any time pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed. A +certain limited number may die, and a few suffer for a time, but the +total loss will be considerably reduced. + + +ANTHRAX, FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE AND RABIES + +It may be unnecessary to describe these very infectious or contagious +diseases to which pigs are subject, as fortunately the steps taken to +stamp them out, and which were much decried when taken by the Board of +Agriculture, have proved so successful that the two latter are stamped +out, and the first named is so promptly and effectually dealt with that +a case of it amongst swine is seldom recorded. + + +CRAMP, DIARRH[OE]A AND EPILEPTIC FITS + +These diseases, which are more frequent amongst young pigs, have been +fully described in the chapters dealing with the rearing, weaning, and +growing of pigs, where it is pointed out that they are all mainly due to +faults in feeding, and the simple remedies applicable are there given. + +Hernia and Scrotal Hernia are also treated upon in the chapter on the +Farrowing Sow. + + +INVERSION OF THE VAGINA OR THE UTERUS + +These two troubles, of which the latter is a complete expulsion and the +former only a partial protrusion of the "breeding bag," are generally +the result of a difficult or a protracted farrowing. The second is +almost impossible of treatment, and indeed may be declared as fatal, so +that the loss may be reduced by prompt slaughter. + +The first varies in extent; a partial or limited inversion may at times +be noticeable during the latter stages of pregnancy, and then after +delivery may disappear without treatment until the pressure due to the +increasing size of the f[oe]tus again causes it. Even in serious cases +which attend the delivery and are due to excessive straining of the sow, +the attack is not necessarily fatal if extreme care in treatment is +applied. The first thing is to wash the protruding part with warm water, +to which some disinfectant has been added, in order that all dirt, short +straw, etc., shall be removed. The sow should then be made to rise, or +if she refuses, as is not uncommon, the hind quarters of the sow should +be raised and the protruding portion be gently but firmly forced back. +In order to prevent a re-expulsion stitches with strong cord or leather +lace should be inserted into the edges of the vulva--these need not be +very close together or otherwise the sow would be unable to make water. +For a few days the sow must be kept as quiet as possible and fed on a +little nourishing but laxative food, so that the pressure on the vagina +is slight until the muscles regain their normal strength. Should there +be the slightest symptom of constipation, salts or castor oil should be +given to the sow. No harm, but rather good, will attend the giving of a +gentle dose of salts at the first time of feeding after the operation as +there is certain to be an amount of inflammation present. + + +INVERSION OF THE RECTUM + +This expulsion of the gut as it is commonly termed is not often +experienced amongst mature pigs. Young pigs are not uncommonly affected +save when constipation is neglected, or when the food is of a heating +nature which causes continual difficulty on the part of the pig in +expelling the fæces. The effort of straining causes the gut to exude. +Similar treatment, save as to the stitching of the part, as with +inversion of the vagina, should be followed. + + +TENDER FEET + +This trouble is frequently mistaken for cramp or rheumatism, and is +generally due to the same causes, injudicious feeding, etc. In the +latter disease the ankles are mainly affected, in the case of fever in +the feet, the feet only are affected. A strong dose of Epsom salts +should be given and daily doses of nitre should be given in the food. +The object should be to reduce and remove the fever and then to cure or +remove that tenderness and soreness of the feet which follows the fever. +Poulticing the feet and applying diluted white oils by adding equal +quantities of water and vinegar around the coronets are both remedial +measures of great value. + + +CONSTIPATION + +This trouble is very common amongst pigs which are confined to the +sties, its avoidance is comparatively easy, when the want of exercise is +the sole cause. A run in an enclosure or even in the road will almost +always result in the pig evacuating dung and water. A dose of salts, +varying from 1/2 oz. to 1-1/2 oz. for each pig, according to age, in the +next supply of food is advisable. + +Constipation is usually the first indication of many of the troubles to +which the pig is heir. The little pig on its mother becomes constipated +when the food fed to the mother is unsuitable, and the pig suffers from +indigestion; fever caused by a chill is also foretold by constipation +which should be first removed by a gentle dose of salts or of castor +oil; the last only to be used in severe cases. Linseed oil is also +frequently used to relieve the constipation, but with this there is a +fear of billiousness following its use. If exercise and the above +remedies do not effect a cure, an enema of soap and water or even +glycerine may be necessary. Old-fashioned pigmen remove the hard and +knotty fæces by the aid of the finger. + + +ECZEMA + +This is sometimes called a skin disease, but it appears to be rather a +symptom of a severe attack of indigestion or of billiousness than a +disease in itself. It shows itself in the form of a bright red spot, +varying in size from that of a threepenny piece to that of a shilling, +these spots vary greatly in number. Small pimples appear on the spots +from which a sticky fluid exudes. As soon as the bowels are thoroughly +relieved by aperient medicine, the spots become dark in colour and peel +off the skin. The application of oil to the spots hastens the shedding +of them. A dose of sulphur of one to eight drachms in addition to the +salts will be beneficial. + +Frequently the pig will refuse to eat, it will then be necessary to dose +it. The pig must be caught, its head raised and the liquid gently poured +down its throat, the greatest care being taken not to pour the liquid +whilst the pig is squealing or the medicine will go into the lungs and +cause suffocation, or inflammation of the lungs which will generally +prove fatal. + + +MEASLES + +This is a trouble of a very similar character to eczema save that the +red spots are more numerous and of a more irritating character. The +patient is continually rubbing itself against the wall or any prominence +in an endeavour to relieve the itching. The pig is also more feverish. +The pig should be placed in a warm sty, with plenty of dry straw, into +which it will quickly burrow. A dose of Epsom salts to which is added a +small quantity of spirit of nitre should be given, as the pig affected +will almost invariably refuse food for a time. Neat's foot or sweet oil +applied to the spots will relieve the irritation. + + +RICKETS + +This is not by any means a common ailment amongst pigs, but it is very +hereditary. The most common cause is too close breeding. The bones and +joints appear to be unequal to the performance of their duties, the pig +staggers and stumbles when it attempts to move, whilst sometimes the +back is affected, when the pig is stated to be suffering from +"swayback." As a rule treatment is inadvisable as recovery is doubtful. +The first loss by knocking the pig on the head is generally the least. + + +TUBERCULOSIS + +Pigs, like unto human beings, are much subject to tuberculosis when they +are kept under conditions similar to those which result in human beings +becoming affected. The disease is highly infectious, pigs coming in +contact with or even being housed in sties where pigs affected have been +recently kept are very likely to become infected. Some persons declare +that tuberculosis, or, as it is more commonly called, consumption, is +hereditary. For this there does not appear to be any foundation. The +chief thing to prevent one's animals being affected is to keep them away +from contagion. Although many parts of the body may be attacked by +tuberculosis, the lungs are more frequently affected than any other of +the organs, owing probably to the ease with which infection by the +minute germ is conveyed to the lungs in the act of breathing. + +In the past a considerable number of pigs became infected through being +fed on skim milk which contained germs from the udder of a cow suffering +from a tuberculous udder. In these cases of the lungs and the bowels +becoming tubercular, the pigs become unthrifty and frequently waste away +and die. When the bones and other portions of the body are attacked the +development of the disease is not so rapid, but in any case the wisest +plan is to destroy the animal and thoroughly disinfect the place in +which it has been kept. Save when the disease is local and of very +limited duration the meat of a pig suffering from tuberculosis is unfit +for human consumption. + + +WORMS + +Pigs are subject to various kinds of worms. Of these the most serious by +far is the worm which causes the disease called Trichinosis in man. The +worms are transmitted to man in pork from a diseased pig. Thorough +cooking of meat appears to destroy the vitality of the worm, but in +foreign countries where the pork is eaten in an uncooked or an +undercooked condition the disease is not uncommon. Fortunately, +Trichinosis is almost unknown in this country, owing to our more +stringent sanitary conditions, the disease being due in the pig to the +eating of human excrement in which are thread worms. + +The most common kind of pig worm in this country is the round white +worm, pointed at both ends. Its length varies from one to several +inches. Its presence is often unsuspected until one or more of the worms +are noticed in the dung of the pig. It is readily got rid of by keeping +the pigs from food for at least twelve hours, and then giving them a +little tempting food in which a dose of santonine, varying from three to +ten grains for each pig, according to its age, has been added. Some two +hours later a dose of castor oil of from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz., or of one to +two ounces of Epsom salts, should be given in milk or some other +tempting food. Similar treatment will prove successful in the case of +pigs affected with the smaller kind of worms save that of the worm which +causes what is commonly known as "husk." This worm makes its home in the +windpipe and bronchial tubes. It is advisable to obtain from a chemist a +drench for the riddance of this worm, as the remedies will consist of +linseed oil, turpentine, spirits of camphor, and asaf[oe]tida. + + +SORE TEATS + +Occasionally the teats of sows, especially sows with their first +litters, become chapped or sore. This trouble is frequently due to the +too vigorous sucking of the little pigs when the supply of milk is +short, to the biting of the teats when the sharp little teeth have not +been broken off, or even to cold winds. + +An application of boro-glyceride will usually effect a speedy cure. In +persistent cases it will be advisable to give the sow a dose or two of +opening medicine such as salts or sulphur. + + +SALT AND SODA POISONING + +Although these can scarcely be classed as diseases, the effects are +often more serious than those of some actual diseases to which swine are +more or less subject. + +In the majority of cases the cause is the neglect of the cook to keep +separate from the swill the water in which salted meat or other food has +been boiled, or the water to which soda has been added in the washing +of the plates, etc. An attack if at all severe is usually fatal. + +The symptoms are a discoloration of the skin, and a refusal of food. As +these are the usual symptoms of several other ailments, it is difficult +to determine the cause of death save by a post-mortem examination. It is +to be feared that this mixing of a solution of salt and soda with the +other swill will be one of the difficulties met with in the more general +utilisation of kitchen refuse in the keeping of pigs. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THE CURING OF PORK + + +In the good old times bacon curing was carried on in the large majority +of farm-houses as well as in many houses in the country districts, not +only where there were conveniences for the keeping of pigs, but many +householders were in the habit of buying carcases of pork from their +neighbours and curing the major portion for the following year's supply +of cured meats. Even the better class labourers would kill and cure it +so that as long as it lasted they had on hand a supply of most +nutritious and suitable food. Unfortunately a great change has taken +place of late years; this convenient and profitable plan has been +superseded. The causes may have been many; amongst them, the importation +of immense quantities of salt pork of very inferior quality at very low +prices from the United States; the change in the public taste which is +now for mild cured and lean bacon from young pigs, instead of the more +heavily salted meats from older and fatter pigs; the great decrease in +the number of pigs kept by cottagers and others in urban districts +through the operation of the so-called sanitary regulations; and +probably from the different style of living, which may or may not be an +improvement, amongst the residents in country districts. + +It may be that one of the many changes which have been brought about by, +and which will also follow, the war will be a return to the more simple +and less luxurious manner of living. It is certain that a more +economical system will have to be followed, and one of the means of +effecting this may be a return to the keeping of pigs during their +growing stage on the house and garden refuse, and then when the pigs +have been fattened, by the killing and curing of the carcase for home +consumption. + +Much has been written during recent years about the folly of allowing so +many millions of sovereigns to go out of the country in payment for the +vast weight of bacon, hams, and lard which we import from foreign +countries. Residents in the country have been blamed by town residents +and literary men for their alleged want of enterprise in not breeding +and fattening the few extra million pigs which would furnish an amount +of pig produce equal to that imported, and thus, as they declare, save +the country that outlay which is a dead loss to these islands. + +It may at once be frankly admitted that a very considerable increase in +the number of our pig population is possible without any very greatly +extended cost of food, but when it is contended that farmers and even +cottagers are grossly neglectful in not producing sufficient pork and +its products for the use of the whole of the population of these +islands, an injustice is done, as the breeding and feeding of pigs is a +business calling, not a philanthropical pursuit. Farmers and cottagers +are like other manufacturers of necessary articles; they produce in +order to live, and they cease to manufacture an article when its +production ceases to repay them for their outlay and trouble. They must +of necessity do so, or they come to grief and are unable to carry on +their farms or businesses. + +It matters not what the cause be for the ability of the foreigner to +produce and land on our markets articles cheaper than we can afford to +offer them at, the result is the same--the home production is +automatically reduced. There are many causes which have helped to render +it possible for foreigners to supply us with a certain proportion of the +pork and bacon which we require at a less cost than our home breeder and +feeders of pigs can supply it. These include help to the farmers from +the Governments of certain countries such as Denmark, where assistance +is given in the purchase of pure bred pigs for the improvement of the +native pigs, in the reduced railway and other rates on the transit of +pigs, foods, and bacon, in the provision of certain foods, and in +carrying out experiments in order to show how they may be utilised in +the best manner. Stud farms have also been established from which pure +bred boars are distributed, whilst the whole industry of pig breeding +and bacon curing is carried on under the supervision and with the advice +of many Government officials appointed for the purpose. The intrinsic +value of this assistance is perceptible, as in no other country are +pig-keeping and bacon curing carried on with greater monetary success +than in Denmark. + +It is also asserted that the general system of farming in Denmark has +also contributed very largely to the phenomenal prosperity of the pig +industry, in that a very large proportion of the land is owned and +farmed by comparatively small farmers, men who have a direct interest in +the improvement of the land, and who with their families perform the +major portion of the work on the land and in attendance on the stock. +The land is almost certain to be well managed and the stock to receive +the best possible attention with, comparatively speaking, little cost as +to labour. The animals on the farm are likely to be of a higher grade +and the returns from them of an increased character, than when strangers +and disinterested hired labour attend and feeds them. + +Another of the great advantages possessed by some of our foreign +competitors is the very much better supply of feeding stuffs and their +very considerably lower cost. Take the United States, for instance, the +enormous supply of maize alone enables American pigmen to manufacture +pork at a cost which enables the packers to land bacon, hams, and lard +on the British shores which our home pig producers cannot approach. +Although it cannot be said that the cost of labour is less in the States +than in England, yet there are some countries from which we import pork +products where the labour is far more plentiful and less costly. In the +future the allowance for labour will have to be on a more liberal scale +than hitherto when estimating the cost of producing pork, unless the +number of persons owning and occupying small holdings is greatly +increased. + +It has been stated that our home producers of pork and bacon will obtain +a considerable advantage in the future in that the freight on the +imported meats will be so much higher. It is most probable that this +will increase the expense of landing bacon, etc., on our markets; on the +other hand, as we import so large a proportion of the pig fattening +foods, the cost of food will most likely be increased to quite the same +if not to a greater extent. The only plan to reduce this extra expense +will be to lessen the outlay on imported foods by paying more attention +to the growth of various foods suitable for pigs, attending more +carefully to our pigs and feeding them on common-sense lines. In these +particulars there is room for much improvement in many piggeries. + +By reducing the cost of the production of pork and by the more general +adoption of the system of home curing we shall not only obtain our bacon +at less cost, but we shall have a far greater amount of the finest +quality of bacon and hams generally available. We imagine that the +reader of the earlier portion of this book will experience little +difficulty in producing fine quality pork at a minimum cost--it will +then remain to cure and dry it properly. + +The fattened pig should not be fed for some twenty-four hours before it +is killed; after slaughter the carcase should remain hanging until it +is thoroughly cooled. The manner of cutting up will depend on the +custom in the particular district. In some parts of the country the pig +is split down, the head, feet, and tail taken off, the leaf and kidneys +and the skirt taken out, the loin and the crop with a certain proportion +of the lean cut off, and in some cases the shoulder blade is drawn; +after the necessary trimming a Wiltshire side remains. + +In other districts the ham and the shoulder are cut off and the side is +converted into a middle, a ham and a shoulder or fore-ham. The jowls are +taken off the head and salted with the bacon and hams. The upper part of +the head, or, as it is commonly termed, the scorf, is usually used with +the feet in the manufacture of brawn, or, as it is sometimes called, +pork cheese--presumably from its being cooled in a form, and then turned +out on to the dish on which it is served at table. + +The first operation in curing is to distribute a small quantity of salt +all over the meat to be cured. If allowed to remain about forty-eight +hours the blood remaining in the meat will have become dissolved, and +will have exuded from the carcase. This liquid should be thrown away. A +mixture in the proportion of 4 lbs. salt, 1 lb. coarse brown sugar, 1 +oz. saltpetre, 1/4 oz. bay salt, and 1/4 oz. salt prunell should be +prepared, and a portion of it be applied to all parts of the meat and +particularly in the pocket hole, if the shoulder blade has been drawn. +This should be continued for from twenty to thirty days, according to +the thickness of the meat and the degree of saltness desired. In one or +two districts of a limited area it is usual to rub the meat somewhat +violently with a large pebble when applying the salt mixture, the +alleged object being to rub in the salt; but for this there is not the +slightest necessity as the result of the rubbing is nil, since the salt +will penetrate the meat equally as well without the manipulation as with +it. The principal point is to secure the distribution of the salt to +every part of the meat so that the salt can penetrate and preserve it. + +When sufficiently cured the meat should be hung up and dried. If it be +desired to have it smoked this is best done at the village bakery or +smoke drying house. Smoking of hams and bacon is possible on a small +scale with the aid of a smoke oven such as supplied by Messrs. Douglas +and Sons of Putney, but it is, as a rule, cheaper and less troublesome +to send the meat to the village smoking house. It will be advisable to +brand or otherwise mark each piece of cured meat sent to be smoked, as +the return of the same pieces is thus assured. + +Where the home curing of bacon and hams is followed, this is best +carried out from the middle of October to the end of March; if it be +attempted earlier or later a cold chamber is necessary. + +The manufacture of salt pork is carried on all the year through as the +meat is usually kept in the brine, where it will keep perfectly good for +a considerable time providing it is perfectly sweet when first placed in +the brine. To secure this it is advisable to have the pig killed in the +evening, covered over with a cloth to prevent the flies approaching it, +and hanging it in a cool place so that all the natural heat has escaped +ere it is cut up and placed in the pickle pot. It may be advisable to +note that the last is only possible with a small pig during the hot +weather. In the mere salting of pork it is usual to use only salt and +saltpetre. The use of sugar should be avoided in the summer, as its use +is likely to result in fermentation in hot weather. + +There are two other points in connection with bacon curing on which a +change of opinion has taken place, or is taking place. These are the +cause of what are called in the trade "seedy bellies," and the effect on +the bacon of the female fat pig being in a state of [oe]strum when it is +slaughtered. Until quite recently the first of these troubles, and it is +a most serious one to the trade, was generally considered to be due to +the second. It was believed by curers that the slight inflammation +noticeable in the mammary glands of the female pig when she is in heat +resulted in these so-called "seedy bellies" if the pig was in that +condition when she was slaughtered. This belief may have been either the +cause or the result, or both, of the common saying that the meat of a +sow pig killed when it was in heat will not take the salt properly, and +that it is therefore advisable to wait until this natural condition has +passed away before the pig is slaughtered. This contention has been one +of the arguments used when the spaying of sow pigs has been advocated. +Of late years comparatively few sow pigs have been spayed, so that the +unspayed fat pigs have been nearly as numerous as those male pigs which +have been castrated, and as the sow pigs come in heat each three weeks, +and continue so for from three to five days, a very considerable +proportion of them must be in heat when they are slaughtered at the +large bacon-curing factories, without any loss resulting. We may, +therefore, assume that it matters little whether the pig be in heat or +not when it is slaughtered unless the seedy bellies result. + +On this point also the verdict is against the common belief, as Messrs. +Mackenzie and Marsh have carried out a series of investigations at +Cambridge which clearly proved that seedy bellies were equally as common +when the sow pigs were not in heat and when they were; but that the +discoloration which resembles numbers of small spots of colour varying +from dark blue to light red in the mammary glands is merely an excess of +pigment, the darker shade being common in pigs with dark coloured hair +and skin such as the Large Blacks, Berkshires, etc., and the lighter +shade in pigs of the Tamworth breed. In the bacon manufactured from pigs +with a white skin and white hair there is no discoloration or seedy +bellies. + +Although it has been generally considered by bacon curers that pigs of a +white colour were preferable for their trade, and this to such an extent +that some of the bacon curers in Ireland will pay a slightly higher +price for a pig with a white skin, the preference was generally +considered to be due to the more presentable appearance of a side of +bacon from a white than from a black pig; it would appear that in the +future a still greater preference will be observable when it becomes +generally known that the bacon made from white pigs is free from seedy +bellies. + + * * * * * + + +_To make money out of Pigs_ + +One must go on the NON-STOP PRINCIPLE, every little check to growth +means so much less profit. Now we know and there are thousands of other +pig feeders know that WILLSON'S CANADIAN PIG POWDERS are just the very +thing that is wanted, one or two powders a week to each Pig enables them +to digest their food and get the very utmost out of it. Nature does the +rest. You will find this so and the cost of powders is very small. + +[Illustration: Willson's Canadian Pig Powders] + + _are a Great Investment_ + +[Illustration: + + +--------------------------+ + | 7 for 6d., post free 7d.| + | 16 " 1/- " 1/2| + | 48 " 2/9 " 3/-| + |144 " 8/- " | + |and in bulk in tins | + |21/- post free. | + | | + | _We have agents almost | + | everywhere._ | + +--------------------------+ + +] + + _Sole Manufacturer:_ + + STEPHEN WILLSON + Canadian Pig Powder Factory + PETERBOROUGH + (_Who also keeps a big experimental piggery_). + + + * * * * * + + Continuous Cropping and Tillage + Dairy Farming for Small Farmers. + + By T. WIBBERLEY, N.D.A., N.D.D. + + Third Edition. Price 3/6 net; postage 4d. + + +Here Mr. Wibberley describes specially for the benefit of the small man +his system of all-weather farming, capable of doubling or trebling the +profits of even the best regulated small dairy farms. In this book he +discloses for the first time the whole secret of his success and the +success of the many thousands of small dairy farmers who follow him. + + + _Of all Booksellers or from the Publishers_, + C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. + + * * * * * + + + + +INDEX + + + Anthrax, 162 + + Apthous fever, 15, 162 + + Arrival of little pigs, 82 + + Artichokes for pigs, 89 + + Attendance on farrowing sow, 80 + + + Bacon curing, 177 + + Bacon smoking, 177 + + Bacon from young pigs, 171 + + Barley meal as sole fatting food, 134 + + Barn for pigsty, 109 + + Baulked sows, 76 + + Baulking sows, 94 + + Berkshire breed, 33 + + Black pigs, 75 + + Blind teats, 70 + + Boar's teats, 62 + + Board of Agriculture's premiums, 47 + + Bob-tailed pigs, 86 + + Breeds of pigs at shows, 17 + + British Berkshire Society, 27 + + Butter milk, 153 + + + Cabbages for pigs, 101 + + Canadian system, 47 + + Carriers of swine fever, 158, 188 + + Castrating pigs, 105 + + Castrating ruptured pigs, 88 + + Cause of parti-coloured pigs, 15 + + Close breeding, 46 + + Clover for pigs, 89 + + Coleseed for pigs, 103 + + Constipation in pigs, 164 + + Consumption in pigs, 167 + + Cooked _v._ uncooked maize, 147 + + Cooked _v._ uncooked potatoes, 150 + + Cooking pig foods, 144 + + Cooking potatoes, 147 + + Cross-bred pigs, 39 + + Cross breds _v._ pure breds, 45 + + Cumberland pigs, 38 + + Cutting up the pig, 176 + + + Danish pig-keeping, 174 + + Dead pigs, 83 + + Delicacy of pure-bred pigs, 45 + + Dentition of pigs, 49 + + Diarrh[oe]a, 162 + + Difficulty in disinfecting sties, 161 + + Diseases of pigs, 157 + Anthrax + Apthous fever + Constipation + Cramp + Diarrh[oe]a + Eczema + Epileptic fits + Foot and mouth disease + Inversion of the rectum + " " " vagina + " " " uterus + Measles + Rabies + Rickets + Salt poisoning + Soda poisoning + Sore teats + Swine erysipelas + Swine fever + Tender feet + Tuberculosis + Worms + + Dorset pigs, 25 + + Dosing pigs, 166 + + Dry beds, 103 + + Dysentery, 85 + + + Eczema, 165 + + Effect of food and climate, 148 + + Epileptic fits, 162 + + Essex half-blacks, 21 + + Excited young sows, 81 + + Exhibition of pigs, 113 + + Exposure of mangolds, 152 + + Extra food in the autumn, 155 + + + Farmer owners, 174 + + Farrowing sow, 79 + + Fits, 86 + + Flabby udders, 70 + + Foot and mouth disease, 15 + + Foster mothers, 119 + + + Garget, 101 + + Gloucestershire Old Spots breed, 37 + + Government help, 47 + + Grade breeding pigs, 46 + + Grazing pigs, 73 + + + Ham curing, 171 + + Hampshire pigs, 20 + + Hernia, 162 + + High-backed pigs, 100 + + Holywell Victoria Countess, 77 + + Husk, 160 + + + Importation of bacon and lard, 172 + + Improved breeds, origin of, 13 + + Increased cost of freight, 175 + + Infectivity of swine fever, 158 + + Influence of sire, 43, 54 + " " dam, 54 + + Inoculation for erysipelas, 162 + " " swine fever, 162 + + Inversion of the rectum, 164 + " " " vagina, 164 + " " " uterus, 162 + + + Large boars, 59 + + Large Black breed, 30 + + Large blue and white pigs, 23 + + Large White breed, 30 + + Large White Ulster breed, 35 + + Lincolnshire Curly Coated breed, 36 + + Litter for pigs, 103 + + Lucerne for pigs, 89, 153 + + + Maize supply, 174 + + Mangolds for pigs, 101 + + Mating the young sow, 72 + " " suckling sow, 92 + + Measles, 166 + + Medicine for farrowing sow, 83 + + Mere size studied, 65 + + Messrs. Harris's scheme, 43 + + Middle White breed, 31 + + Milk for sucking pigs, 100 + + Mixture of food, 135 + + Model piggeries, 108 + + + Neat sows, 65 + + Non-infectious swine fever, 160 + + Norfolk pigs, 24 + + Northamptonshire pigs, 23 + + Number of pigs for a sow, 97 + + Number in a litter, 68 + + + Origin of improved breeds, 13 + + Oxfordshire pigs, 23, 27 + + + Parsnips for pigs, 89 + + Parti-coloured pigs, cause of, 115 + + Peat moss litter, 104 + + Persistence of erysipelas virus, 161 + + Pig calendar, 148 + + Pig fattening, 132 + + Pig keeping in orchards, 128 + " " " woods, 128 + + Pigment, excess of, 179 + + Pig pillows, 65 + + Pig shacking, 153 + + Pigs suffering from heat, 124 + + Plenty of teats, 67 + + Potatoes for pigs, 89 + + Poulticing pigs' feet, 164 + + Practical _v._ show points, 41 + + Prepotency of dam, 55 + " " sire, 55 + + Prolificacy, 42 + " indications of, 67 + " value of, 42 + + Pure breeds, 26 + + + Quality of bone, 60 + + + Rabies, 162 + + Rape for pigs, 89 + + Rearing of young pigs, 97 + + Recorded pedigree insufficient, 44 + + Rectum, inversion of, 164 + + Registering produce, 42 + + Remaking sow's bed, 83 + + Rickets in pigs, 166 + + Ring pigs, 61 + + Rollers for fat pigs, 117 + + Round white worms, 168 + + Rudgwick pigs, 21 + + Rupture in pigs hereditary, 88 + + Ruptured boar, 61 + + + Salt poisoning, 169 + + Santonine as a cure for worms, 168 + + Scrotal hernia, 162 + + Seedy bellies, 177 + + Selection of boar, 53 + " " sow, 63 + + Separated milk for little pigs, 100 + + Sheeted pigs, 22 + + Size in boars, 59 + " of pigs' ears, 60 + + Skim milk and tuberculosis, 167 + + Slaughter classes, 118 + + Small black breed, 18 + + Small joints wanted, 66 + + Small testicles, 61 + + Smoke ovens, 177 + + Smoking bacon, 177 + + Soft pork, 135 + + Sore-tailed pigs, 86 + + Sore teats, 169 + + Sow's udder, 67 + + Spaying sow pigs, 151 + + Sty facing east, 108 + " " north, 108 + " " south, 108 + " " west, 108 + + Sugar in pork curing, 177 + + Sussex pigs, 21 + + Swayback pigs, 166 + + Swine erysipelas, 161 + + Swine fever, 158 + " " virus, 160 + + + Tares for pigs, 152 + + Tender feet, 164 + + Trichinosis, 168 + + Tuberculosis in pigs, 167 + + Tuberculosis in pigs not hereditary, 167 + + Tuberculosis meat unhealthy, 167 + + + Udder, the sow's, 67 + + Undersized teats, 70 + + Uniformity in a herd, 44 + " " young pigs, 43 + + Unwieldly sows, 65 + + Utility points, 42 + + + Value of feeding qualities, 59 + + Value of whey, 152 + + Variation in virulence of infectious diseases, 161 + + Varying food, 136 + + Vegetable food for pigs, 89, 135, 150 + + + Weaning pigs, 89 + + Wheat meal, 136 + + White peas for little pigs, 100 + + White-skinned pigs for bacon, 106, 179 + + Worms, 168 + + * * * * * + + +DENNIS'S + +"LINCOLNSHIRE" PIG POWDERS + +ARE THE BEST MEDICINE for all DISEASES of PIGS. Used by most of the +leading BREEDERS and EXHIBITORS. + +It will pay you well to use them regularly. The cost is so small, 10d. +per doz., post free 1/-. 144 Powders post free 10/-. + +[Sidenote: HEALTHY PIGS PAY WELL] + +[Illustration: DENNIS's LINCOLNSHIRE PIG POWDERS PROPRIETOR J. W. DENNIS +LOUTH. ENGLAND] + +Trade Mark No. 14,839. + +[Sidenote: SOLD EVERYWHERE] + +DENNIS'S "SPECIAL" WORM POWDERS =are recognised as the surest means of +ridding pigs of these parasites.= + +Mr. W. L. PAYNE, of Tor Hole, Chewton Mendip, says:--"I found 63 worms +in my stye, after giving your Worm Powders." + +In packets, 6d. Post free 7-1/2d. 6 packets Post free 3/4. + +Sold by all Chemists, Boots Ltd., Taylor's Drug Co. Ltd., and +Co-operative Societies, at all Branches. + +Proprietor: + +=JOHN W. DENNIS, Veterinary Chemist LOUTH, LINCS.= + + +All practical Farmers who want to keep abreast of the times should get +at once a copy of + +FARMING ON FACTORY LINES + +OR + +Continuous Cropping for Large Farmers + +BY + +T. WIBBERLEY, N.D.A., N.D.D. + +(_Of Queen's University, Belfast_). + + * * * * * + +Second Edition =6/-= net (postage 4d.) + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: pointing finger] It forms the great authoritative test +book on the Wibberley Continuous Cropping System, and is a new and +frankly revolutionary guide to ALL-WEATHER Farming and to cheaper Milk, +Corn and Beef Production. + +"In times past the climate has often conquered the British Farmer, but +it has not conquered Wibberley. He has conquered it, turning what +otherwise would be adverse climatic conditions to advantage in tilling +the land. + +"It sounds impossible. It reads like a fairy tale--yet the whole of the +scheme of 'Wibberleyism' or 'Continuous Cropping,' 'Farming on Factory +Lines'--as the system is variously termed--is in reality beautifully +simple. It is so effective that one wonders what our highly paid +officials have been thinking about, when they have not hammered out some +such a tillage system as Wibberley's years before Wibberley was +born."--THE SMALLHOLDER. + + * * * * * + +=Read all about it in this new and valuable work.= + + * * * * * + +_Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free for =6/4= +from_ + +Messrs. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Limited, 18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. +2. + + +SOME USEFUL HANDBOOKS + +FOR SMALLHOLDERS AND OTHERS + +=The Hobby Gardener.= By A. C. MARSHALL, F.R.H.S. With 22 full-page +Illustrations showing clearly the various operations throughout a year's +work in the garden. In Stiff Three-coloured Cover. Price 1/6 net, post +free 1/9. + +=Small Gardens and How to make the Most of Them.= By V. P. BIDDLE. Cloth +Boards. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +A most useful Handbook for the Amateur. Full instructions are given for +laying out, bedding, arrangement of borders, vegetable culture, flowers +and fruit trees, room plants, window boxes, etc. + +=Greenhouses: How to Make and Manage Them.= By WILLIAM F. ROWLES. With +numerous Diagrams. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +=The Dog: In Health and Disease.= By F. M. ARCHER. With 12 Illustrations +by S. T. DADD. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +=Cage and Singing Birds.= By GEORGE GARDNER. With numerous +Illustrations. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +Some of the Contents are:--Birds for Song, for Exhibition and for +Breeding--Care of Young--Seeds: how and what to buy--Moulting for Song +and for Exhibition--Colour-feeding: how it is done--Diseases of Cage +Birds and how to treat them--Bird Fever--Parasites and how to destroy +them, etc. etc. + +=An Easy Poultry Guide.= By EDWARD BROWN, F.L.S. With 8 full-page +Illustrations and other Diagrams. Pocket size. Cloth. Price 1/-net, post +free 1/2. + +=War on Weeds.= By "FARMER GILES." Price 6d. net, post free 7d. + +This book gives a full description and illustrations of the thirteen +proscribed weeds, also a complete list of all other farm and garden +weeds, with sketches, full descriptions, and preventive measures. + +=War-Time Farming.= By T. WIBBERLEY. Price 6d. net, post free 7d. + +This small book tells how the man on the land can use it to the greatest +advantage. + + * * * * * + +_Any of these books may be ordered through your bookseller, or will be +sent post-paid on receipt of the price mentioned by_ + +=A. F. SOWTER, Publisher, "Smallholder and Small Owner" Offices, 16-18, +HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.= + + +FARMING + +MADE EASY + +By + +J. C. NEWSHAM, F.L.S. + +Principal of the Monmouthshire Agricultural and Horticultural +Institution, Usk. + +_Author of "The Potato Book," &c., Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 3/6 net._ + +This is an easy Guide to the most useful Elements of Agriculture. It has +been specially written by a thoroughly qualified agriculturist, with a +wide and successful practical knowledge of his subject, for the use of +the countless thousands of men and women who are now streaming +back--eager but half instructed--to work on the land. It covers +practically every department of farm labour and enterprise, and provides +the fullest and most reliable instruction for all who propose to take up +Agriculture in a serious and practical spirit, as a means of livelihood. + +_Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free for 3/10 +from_ + +MESSRS. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LIMITED, 18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. +2. + + + + +BOOKS FOR SMALLHOLDERS, ETC. + +A STANDARD BOOK BY AN EXPERT AUTHORITY. + + +DAIRY FARMING FOR SMALLHOLDERS + + +By JAMES LONG, formerly Professor of Dairy Farming, Royal Agricultural +College; Author of "The Book of the Pig," etc. + +Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 2/6 net, post free 2/9. + +THE CHAPTERS DEAL WITH:--Our Dairy Cows; The Cow and Her Management; +Foods and Feeding; Milk; Butter and Butter Making; Cheese Making, etc. + +"Professor Long has never been more happily inspired than in writing it. +The explanations are lucid and clear."--_Standard._ + +"The smallholder who has made dairying part of his system, or has +facilities for doing so, will be all the better for adding this book to +those already in his possession."--_Field._ + +"This is one of the best handbooks that can possibly find its way on the +dairy farmer's shelf."--_The Dairy._ + + * * * * * + +=POULTRY FOR PROFIT=. By E. T. BROWN. Author of "Profitable Poultry +Keeping" (Smallholders' Library), "Ducks, Geese and Turkeys," &c. Crown +8vo, cloth, with 15 full-page illustrations and many diagrams. A +thoroughly comprehensive guide for the poultry keeper. + +=ROSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.= By EDWIN BECKETT, V.M.H., F.R.H.S. Crown +8vo, cloth. With portrait frontispiece. Price 2/6 net (postage 3d. +extra). + +"A handy little book by Mr. E. Beckett, gardener at Aldenham House, and +famous as a grower of exhibition vegetables, as well as of plants +generally. He writes as a practical grower in a practical way, dealing +with soil and situation, planting, pruning, watering, propagation, the +cultivation of roses under glass and for exhibition in a way that is +satisfying."--_The Field._ + +=THE SMALLHOLDER'S YEAR BOOK.= Published annually in December. Price 1/6 +net, per post 1/9. + +The Smallholder's Year Book is now an institution. It is the recognised +court of appeal in all matters connected with the land, in gardening, +farming, poultry-keeping, goat, rabbit and bee-keeping circles. It +contains the cream of all the information that has ever appeared in THE +SMALLHOLDER. It solves at a glance every problem that is ever likely to +puzzle YOU. + + * * * * * + +_These Handbooks may be obtained through your Bookseller, or will be +forwarded post free, on receipt of the price mentioned, from_ + +=C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., 17 HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON W.C. 2.= + + + + +THE "SMALLHOLDER" CHARTS. + +ON CARD 11-1/2 in. BY 8-1/2 in. FOR HANGING UP. + + +(1) How to Make a Garden Frame + +(2) How and When to Sow Vegetable Seeds + +(3) The A.B.C. of Pig Keeping + +(4) The A.B.C. of Utility Rabbit Keeping + +(5) The A.B.C. of Poultry Keeping + +(6) Garden and Orchard Pests + +(7) How and When to Sow Flower Seeds + +(8) How to Cure Poultry Diseases + +(9) How to Cure Pig Diseases + +(10) Fruit Bottling + +(11) Manuring Made Easy + +(12) The Whole Art of Goat Keeping + +_Single Charts cost 4d. each, or any Six may be had for 1/8 post free._ + + * * * * * + +The "Smallholder" is issued in half-yearly volumes, March to August, and +September to February. Bound in Strong Cloth. Price 4/-net each; post +free 4/6. Cases for binding, including Title Page and Index, price 1/9 +each; post free 2/-. + +Write to the Editor + +The "SMALLHOLDER" Office, 16-18 Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2. + + + + +AN ATTRACTIVE NATURE BOOK FOR THE YOUNG. + +IN NATURE'S WAYS + +BY MARCUS WOODWARD. + + * * * * * + +A book for all young Lovers of Natural History. Being an Introduction to +Gilbert White's immortal "Natural History of Selborne." + +Illustrated by J. A. SHEPHERD. + +With Preface by WILFRID MARK WEBB, Secretary of the Selborne Society. + +This volume contains 8 full-page Illustrations on Art Paper in addition +to the Drawings in the Text. + +=Price in paper wrapper 1/-net, postage 3d. extra; or in cloth boards, +price 2/-net, postage 4d. extra.= + + * * * * * + +"This is a 'White's Selborne' for the young; giving passages from the +original under different headings and side by side, some talk about the +bird or beast referred to; with plenty of illustrations by Mr. J. A. +Shepherd, full of his usual vitality."--_Times._ + +"We think this volume cannot fail to interest and instruct the +young."--_Field._ + +"White's 'History of Selborne' is here amplified and explained for young +readers. Mr. Woodward has that gift of humour without which all writing +on nature is a weariness unto the flesh for young readers, and for many +readers who are no longer young. Mr. J. A. Shepherd's illustrations +catch the spirit of the letterpress, and are of a piece with the work +that has made his reputation as an artist."--_Literary World._ + + * * * * * + +_May be had of all Booksellers or will be sent direct on receipt of +published price and postage from_ + +C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LTD., Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2. + + * * * * * + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Changes to the text are listed as follows: + +page 168, "oze" changed to "oz.," (from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz.,) + +page 168, "b.," changed to "be" (should be given in milk) + +page 186, suspected typo "test" for "text" (the great authoritative +test book) + +page 187, "F.R.H.S" changed to "F.R.H.S." (A. C. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Pig + Breeding, Rearing, and Marketing + +Author: Sanders Spencer + +Release Date: July 4, 2010 [EBook #33074] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIG *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_Front" id="Figure_Front"></a> +<a href="images/frontis_0001.jpg"> +<img src="images/frontis_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="296" alt="Frontispiece." title="BREEDING SOWS OF THE LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE BREEDS." /> +</a> +<span class="caption"> +<i>Frontispiece.</i> <br /> +<i>Photo, Reid, Wishaw.</i><br /> +BREEDING SOWS OF THE LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE BREEDS.<br /> +The Middle White Sow in the forefront (the property of the Author) was one of the best ever bred, "Holywell +Countess Victoria." +</span> +</div> + + + + +<h1>THE PIG +<br /> +<span style="font-size:large">BREEDING, REARING, AND MARKETING</span></h1> + +<p class="center">BY</p> + +<p class="center" style="font-size:large">SANDERS SPENCER</p> + +<p class="center"> +London +<br /> +C. Arthur Pearson Ltd. +<br /> +Henrietta Street +<br /> +1919 +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>CONTENTS</h3> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><th align="left">CHAPTER</th><th align="right"> </th><th align="right">PAGE</th></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> </td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">I.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Non-Pedigree Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">II.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pure Breeds</span> (with Standard Descriptions and Scales of Points)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">III.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Cross-bred Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">IV.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Dentition and Age of Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">V.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Selection of the Boar</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">VI.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Selection of the Sow</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">VII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Sow's Udder</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">VIII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mating the Young Sow</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">IX.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Farrowing Sow</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">X.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Weaning Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XI.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Rearing of Young Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Housing of Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XIII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Exhibition of Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XIV.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Present and Future Pig-keeping</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XV.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pig-fattening</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XVI.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Pig Calendar</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XVII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Diseases of the Pig</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XVIII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Curing of Pork</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> </td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> + +<h3>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h3> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_Front"><span class="smcap">Breeding Sows of the Large and Middle White Breeds</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right"><i>Frontispiece</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><th align="right">FACING PAGE</th></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F16"><span class="smcap">Large Black Boar, "Drayton King"</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">16</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F17"><span class="smcap">Pair of L.C.C. Gilts, Exhibited at Smithfield Show 1914</span></a> +</td><td align="right">17</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F32"><span class="smcap">A Berkshire Sow</span></a> +</td><td align="right">32</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F33"><span class="smcap">Large Black Sow, "Sudbourne Sadie"</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">33</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F48"><span class="smcap">Three Middle White Breeding Sows</span></a> +</td><td align="right">48</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F49"><span class="smcap">A Middle White Boar</span></a></td> +<td align="right">49</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F64"><span class="smcap">Tamworth Boar: Bishop of Webton</span></a> +</td><td align="right">64</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F65"><span class="smcap">Gloucester Old Spot Sow</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">65</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F80"><span class="smcap">Large White Boar</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">80</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F81"><span class="smcap">Tamworth Sow, "Queen of the Fairies"</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">81</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F96"><span class="smcap">Middle White Sow</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">96</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F97"><span class="smcap">Cumberland Sow</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">97</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F112"><span class="smcap">Large White Sow, "Worsley Sunbeam"</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">112</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F113"><span class="smcap">Large White Ulster Boar</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">113</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h3>INTRODUCTION</h3> + + +<p>There are few points in the breeding of stock on +which a greater variation of opinion has been confidently +expressed than on the origin of the domesticated +pig. It has been contended that our various +types had a common origin in the wild hog, and that +the difference in form, colour, and character amongst +the local breeds is due, in the main, to the requirements, +imaginary or real, of the interested residents +in the particular districts. On the other hand, it is +asserted with equal confidence, and probably with +the same amount of actual proof, that it would be +impossible so to improve the wild hog by selection +as to render it the equal of the domesticated hog. +There must, therefore, have been an infusion of +blood of a cultivated breed of pigs to acquire even +that amount of success which was noticeable in the +improved pig of a century, or less, ago. Unfortunately, +for this argument, it has not been possible +to obtain any information of value as to the alleged +source of origin of this cultivated breed of pigs.</p> + +<p>Again, those pigs which possess in a marked +degree early maturity, fine quality of flesh, and +those other characteristics of the improved pig, are +so various in colour, that one cultivated breed only +could not have been utilised in the general improvement.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p> + +<p>All the ancient writers on pigs appear to have +experienced the same difficulty when endeavouring +to discover the sources of origin of the material +which might have been used in the production of +the pig which in their time was looked upon as the +domesticated and improved pig of the period. This +difficulty extends even to the present day. So far +as is known there exists no actual proof that the +domesticated hog has been evolved in any particular +way other than by continued selection of those +animals for breeding purposes which possessed in +the greatest degree those particular qualities held +in the highest estimation at the time.</p> + +<p>Of course, the soil, climate, etc., of the district in +which pigs are reared have a certain amount of +influence, but this is noticeable to a much lesser +extent with pigs than with horses, cattle, or sheep, +since under the present system of pig-breeding the +greater portion of the food used in the different +districts is of a very similar character—indeed, +much of it has a common origin—having been imported +from abroad.</p> + +<p>As a rule, comparatively speaking very little +difference is noticeable in the development, form, +and character of pigs bred in the various parts of +the country, whereas with some of the other domesticated +animals a very considerable change follows +the removal of sheep of a pure breed from one +district to another. The quality and quantity of +the wool, flesh, and bone are all affected. An +exactly similar effect is noticeable when horses of a +particular breed are moved from one district to +another. For instance, a Shire foal bred in the Fens<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +may possess the characteristic bone, flesh, and hair, +yet if it be moved into portions of the Eastern +counties where the soil is of a totally different +character, it will when matured have lost, to a very +considerable extent, its peculiar characteristics of +bone and hair. The changes wrought may be due +in small measure to climate, but the predominant +cause must be due to the variation in the food +grown on soils of a different character.</p> + +<p>This question of the original cause or causes of +the varying colour of the pigs in different localities +appears to be equally difficult of solution. As to +the continuation in certain districts of pigs of one +colour, custom and even prejudice have a great +effect. So strong is this prejudice that some +persons will even declare that the pork of pigs of +the fashionable colour in the neighbourhood is +superior to that from pigs of any other colour. As +this weakness is common in districts where black +and where white pigs are kept it must be admitted +that prejudice alone must be the foundation of the +belief.</p> + +<p>Probably the safest conclusion to arrive at with +respect to the variation in colour of the pigs noticeable +in certain districts is that in the long ago the +native pig in the wild state was of the colour of the +soil and the herbage in which it sheltered, and was +thus less conspicuous to its enemies, whether human +or animal. A marked instance of this is to be found +in the colour of the common or original pig found in +some parts of the country where the soil is of a +decidedly red colour. In the district referred to one +actually hears some farms spoken of as "red land<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +farms." What more natural than to find in the +districts in which land of this hue predominates +that the pigs should be a red rusty hue such as was +the original colour of that breed of pigs now called +the Tamworth breed.</p> + +<p>Some persons, who do not agree with this theory +of the origin of the various coloured pigs, cite as a +proof of their belief the fact that in so many districts +the pigs are of a mixed colour, and that this +peculiar marking is equally as general in localities +as is any particular or special colour in the pigs. +This is perfectly true, and it is probably due to +exactly the same causes, fancy, prejudice, or custom. +The residents in certain districts have grown accustomed +to certain things or certain forms, and are +loth to change; the manufacturer of any article +must humour the actual or fancied requirements of +his customers if he is to secure success; and in a +similar manner the breeder of pigs has to consider +and to produce pigs of the form, size, and colour +which are most in demand. Further if, as confidently +alleged, there is a preference in some districts +for pork from pigs of a certain colour, then the +butcher naturally offers a higher price for pigs of +that colour which most fully satisfy the fancies of +his customers, and thus we find a similarity of form +and colour in the pigs of various districts.</p> + +<p>As to the origin of these parti-coloured pigs, the +explanation offered is that even in pre-railway times +there was a certain amount of interchange of the +different local breeds of stock. This would be +affected in various ways, which need not be specified.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p> + +<p>At the present time we have several defined and +distinct breeds of pigs which have secured recognition +at our principal agricultural shows. Indeed +it may be claimed that the exhibitions of live stock +which have become so general in all parts of the +country have been one of the chief factors in fixing +to a certain extent the type and character of certain +local breeds. Within the memory of the present +writer the classification of pigs at our principal +shows was of a very simple character; it consisted +of classes for pigs of a white colour and for pigs of +any other colour. There was no attempt at any +definition as to size, form, and quality of the pigs. +These points were left entirely to the judges, who +naturally were led to favour pigs of the type which +they bred. There was thus a greater amount of +uncertainty as to the success of an exhibitor's stock +than at the present time. This uncertainty—save +as to the members of the Show Committees or their +friends—was increased by the unfair system of +withholding from the knowledge of the average +exhibitor the names of those selected to judge.</p> + +<p>The necessity of some definition, if only of colour, +quickly became obvious. At first classes were established +for pigs of certain colours; then the prizes +were offered for pigs of certain breeds, which were +more or less loosely defined. Now at the chief shows +the pigs exhibited in the various classes must be +qualified for entry in the herd books of the particular +breeds.</p> + +<p>At the Royal Agricultural Shows there have been +classes for pigs of the Large White, Middle White, +Berkshire, Tamworth, Large Black and Lincolnshire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +Curly Coated breeds; whilst for the next +show classes for pigs of the so-called Gloucestershire +Old Spots breed are to be included. As showing +the changes which are in progress it may be +noted that two breeds of pigs which had classes +provided for them at the Royal and some other +Shows have become extinct. These were the Small +White and the Small Black breeds—the sole cause +of their disappearance being the unsuitability of +the pigs of the breeds to supply the present requirements +of the consumer.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F16" id="Figure_F16"></a> +<a href="images/imagep016_0001.jpg"> +<img src="images/imagep016_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="320" alt="LARGE BLACK BOAR" +title="LARGE BLACK BOAR" /> +</a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i> +<br /> +LARGE BLACK BOAR, "DRAYTON KING." +<br /> +Owner, Terah F. Hooley. 1st Prize, Somerset County Agricultural Show, 1913. +<br /> +To face page 16.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F17" id="Figure_F17"></a> +<a href="images/imagep017_0001.jpg"> +<img src="images/imagep017_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="288" alt="PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS" +title="PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, Exhibited at Smithfield Show 1914." /> +</a> +<span class="caption"><i>Block kindly supplied by E. F. Casswell, Manor House, Graby, Folkingham.</i> +<br /> +PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, Exhibited at Smithfield Show 1914. +<br /> +1st Prize. Age 8 months, 1 week, 5 days. Weight 7 cwts. +<br /> +To face page 17.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h2>THE PIG</h2> + + + + +<h3>CHAPTER I +<br /> +NON-PEDIGREE PIGS</h3> + + +<p>Although the more general use of so-called pedigree +pigs has tended to modify the characteristics of the +various local breeds of pigs, yet it is possible to find +a certain number of pig breeders who adhere to the +type of pig which has been in the past most generally +found in their district. This type was undoubtedly +fixed by the wants or fancies of those resident in the +particular portions of the country.</p> + +<p>In the past it has been the practice when describing +these local breeds to write as though they were +confined to certain counties. It may be that +pigs of a peculiar or characteristic type are more +numerous within the borders of various counties, +but this is by no means always the case. The +habits and pursuits of the inhabitants rather than +the soil and climate—as with horses, cattle and +sheep—have the greatest influence on the form, +size and quality of the local pigs, whilst use and +custom appear to determine the colour of the pig. +We are of opinion that it will be more instructive +if we give a short description of some of the more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +common types of these local breeds of pigs, and +mention the names of those counties in which they +are more generally found.</p> + +<p>Amongst the most distinct of these local breeds +is that which is variously termed the sheeted or +saddle-backed pig, which in the United States has +a society to look after its interests, and where it +bears the name of</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">The Hampshire</span></h4> + +<p>Just why our American cousins should have +decided to call these sheeted pigs Hampshires is +not on the surface, since the oldest writers on pigs +give to the county of Sussex the credit of being +their original home. The description given by +Sidney of the Hampshire pig is that "it is a coarse +and useful black pig, inferior to the Berkshire, and +not in the same refined class as the Essex." Richardson +writes "The Hampshire breed is not infrequently +confounded with the Berkshire; but its body is +longer and its sides flatter; the head is long and +the snout sharp. The colour of the breed is usually +dark spotted; but it is sometimes black altogether, +and more frequently white."</p> + +<p>The sheeted pig has also been bred in the county +of Essex for over a century, but it is recorded that +it was introduced into this county by a Mr. Western +who subsequently became Lord Western, and whose +estate was situated in Essex.</p> + +<p>In Sidney's book <i>The Pig</i>, we read, "West Sussex, +Hampshire, Berkshire, Dorset, Shropshire and Wales +had indigenous black or red and black breeds of +swine; and between the whites, the blacks and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +the reds the parti-colours were produced which have +since in a great degree disappeared under the +influence of prizes, generally awarded to pure +breeds of single colours."</p> + +<p>Sidney also states "that Youatt and all the +authors who have followed him down to the latest +work published on the subject, occupy space in +describing various county pigs which have long +ceased to possess, if they ever possessed, any merit +worth the attention of the breeder."</p> + +<p>The Rudgwick, which is another name for the +sheeted pig, is included in the list. Richardson at a +still earlier date describes the Sussex breed as +"black and white in colour, but not <i>spotted</i>; that +is to say, these colours are distributed in very large +patches; one half—say, for instance, the fore part +of the body white and the hinder end black; or +sometimes both ends black and the middle white or +<i>vice versâ</i>; these pigs are in no way remarkable; +they seldom feed to over twenty stone. They are +well made, of middle size, and their skin covered +with scanty bristles. The snout tapering and firm, +the ears upright and pointed, the jowl deep and the +body compactly round. They arrive at early +maturity, fatten quickly, and the flesh is excellent."</p> + +<p>Richardson also writes, "There is another improved +Essex breed, called the Essex Half-Blacks, +resembling that which I have described in colour, +said to be descended from the Berkshire. This +breed was originally introduced by Lord Western, +and obtained much celebrity," etc. etc.</p> + +<p>He then quotes from <i>The Complete Grazier</i>, sixth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +edition, as follows: "They are black and white, +short haired, fine skinned with smaller heads and +ears than the Berkshire, but feathered with inside +hair which is a distinctive mark of both; have +short snubby noses, very fine bone, broad and deep +in the belly, full in the hind quarters, but light in +the bone and offal. They feed remarkably fast and +are of an excellent quality of meat. The sows are +good breeders, and bring litters of from eight to +twelve; but they have the character of being bad +nurses." If this allegation were true at the time it +was written, it is not at the present time as the Half-Blacks +or sheeted sows are both prolific and first-rate +mothers.</p> + +<p>Malden describes the Sussex: "A large breed called +the Rudgwick, was one of the largest in England. +There appears to be a doubt as to whether the +coloured pig was descended from the spotted Berkshire +or the black and white Essex. They were of +medium size, of good quality generally, but of +somewhat heavy bone." The generally accepted +view is that the Essex sheeted pig was descended +from importations from the county of Sussex. These +sheeted pigs are still occasionally met with in Essex, +but the system of crossing which is generally followed +by pig breeders in the county is gradually reducing +its number, although even amongst the cross-breeds +the peculiar marking occasionally shows itself. At +the time of writing there is a movement on foot to +form a society for the purpose of reviving the breed. +From the utility point of view the sheeted pig has +much to recommend it, but whether or not one or +more of the breeds of pigs whose pedigrees are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +already recorded do not possess at least equal merits +must be left for decision by others.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Spotted Pigs</span></h4> + +<p>In many districts are found other parti-coloured +pigs, but in these the black, the white, and the red +colours show themselves in spots of varying size and +extent. Probably amongst the best types of these +spotted pigs is the one found over the greater part of +the county of Northampton, and portions of the +counties of Leicester and Oxford adjoining. In the +former county the pigs have more of black than +white in their colouring, whilst in the two latter red +spots are more often seen. This is probably due to +a stronger infusion of the blood of the Staffordshire +red pig which is now known as the Tamworth. The +blood of the Neapolitan pig through the Berkshire +or the Small Black is credited with being the origin +of the darker coloured Northamptonshire spotted +pig. The qualities claimed for these spotted or +"plum pudding" pigs as they are locally termed, +are prolificacy, quick growth, hardihood, and the +production of pork possessing a large proportion of +lean to fat meat. They are also good grazers, and +grow to a size quite the equal of the Berkshire. In +form they are perhaps more suited for the fresh +pork trade than for the manufacture of bacon of +the kind now so much in demand.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">The Large White and Blue Pigs</span></h4> + +<p>Those large, coarse-boned pigs with hair of a +white colour and skins more or less mottled with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +blue are gradually giving place to pigs with finer +hair, skin, bone, and quality of meat. The coarse +lop ears are being reduced in size and thickness, +whilst the pig itself is becoming less gaunt and its +early maturity considerably increased by crossing +with the better quality Large White and the +quickly maturing Middle White. These coarse +white with blue markings pigs were common in the +Fens of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, the Isle of Ely +and Lincolnshire, and in the counties of Bedford, +Cheshire, etc.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">White Pigs</span></h4> + +<p>Within the memory of persons now living, white +pigs of varying types were found in various parts of +this country. Many of these white pigs found in +Norfolk, Suffolk, Shropshire, and Wales had little +to recommend them as they were flat sided, long +legged, hard feeders, and required to be comparatively +old before they could be turned into pork. +A vast improvement has of late years been effected +in these unprofitable swine by crossing them with +compact and early maturing pigs of different colours, +but mainly white pigs until the last few years, when +Large Blacks and even a few Gloucestershire Old +Spots boars have been introduced in Norfolk.</p> + +<p>At one time white pigs of a small size were by no +means uncommon in Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, +Yorkshire, and parts of Berkshire, and other counties. +The origin of these small, compact, and early +maturing pigs appears to have been a cross of the +imported Chinese on the neater and shorter country +pigs of a white colour. For a period these handsome<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +pigs were quite fashionable amongst the well-to-do, +but the general public objected to the pork produced +by them, owing to its excessive fatness. The +bacon curers still more strongly objected to the short +sides and the very small amount of lean meat in the +cured carcases. During the last thirty years comparatively +few of these pretty, but useless, pigs +have been bred.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Black Pigs</span></h4> + +<p>The description given of the two main types of +white pigs would apply equally well to the Black +pigs common in this country, save with respect to +colour. The long flat-sided black pig was found in +Essex, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Sussex, etc. These +pigs were noted for their prolificacy, hardihood, and +quick growth, whilst the sows furnished a full supply +of milk to their youngsters, but they were such slow +feeders that it became necessary to cross them with +pigs which matured more quickly. A type of black +pig similar in form to the Small White was also +found in Essex and Suffolk, whilst in Devonshire, +Dorset, and one or two other counties the colour of +the pigs was blue rather than black, and of a somewhat +larger size, but possessing the same weakness, +too large a proportion of fat to lean meat.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + + +<h3>CHAPTER II +<br /> +PURE BREEDS</h3> + + +<p>The task of writing a description of the various +breeds of swine has been rendered less difficult by +the formation during the past half-century of +societies for the registration of the pedigrees of the +pigs of the different breeds, and by the setting up +of scales of those points which pigs for entry in the +particular herd books should possess. The first of +these societies was the National Pig Breeders +Association, of which the present writer was the +honorary secretary for two years. At the time of +its formation the breeds of pigs most generally +recognised were the Berkshire, the Large, Middle, +and Small Whites or Yorkshires, and the Small +Black breed. It was intended that the pedigrees of +the pure bred pigs of each of these breeds should be +recorded by the Association and published in one +herd book.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that this would have been an +ideal plan, and would have resulted in a saving of +much labour and expense, and decidedly more convenient +for those connected with the export trade. +For reasons into which it is not now necessary to +enter, the breeders of Berkshires determined to have +a separate herd book; therefore, they started a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +society which they named the British Berkshire +Society, to distinguish it from the American Berkshire +Record.</p> + +<p>Subsequently the Tamworth breed of pigs became +recognised by the Royal Agricultural Society, and +the breeders of the red pig joined the National Pig +Breeders Association. Then the demand for Small +White and Small Black pigs ceased, so that eventually +the pedigrees of Large White, Middle White, +and Tamworth pigs only were registered in the +N.P.A. Herd Book.</p> + +<p>Subsequently the breeders of Tamworth pigs +formed themselves into a society presumably for +propaganda work, and to conserve the interests of +breeders of Tamworth pigs. Of late years other +breeds of pigs have been brought to public notice, +and have had herd books, and societies specially +devoted to their particular interests. The Large +Black, Large White Ulster, the Lincolnshire Curly +Coated pigs, the Gloucestershire Old Spots, and the +Cumberland pigs have their pedigrees recorded. +An attempt was made some years since to resuscitate +the Oxfordshire Spotted pig, but it was not a +continued success. It is quite possible that other +local breeds of pigs may find sufficient admirers to +form societies to bring before the public the many +good qualities possessed by the pigs of these breeds, +but apart from local interest it is at least doubtful if +any permanent benefit will supervene from this +multiplication of herd books—save that it may increase +the interest in pig breeding, a result devoutly +to be prayed for.</p> + +<p>The issuing of the scales of points of those breeds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +of pigs whose pedigrees are recorded in the various +herd books has rendered it unnecessary for us to +endeavour to formulate the good qualities which +are presumably those which are more or less completely +possessed by these pedigreed animals, nor +does the necessity exist for us to mention those +particular qualities which each breed is supposed +by the admirers of other breeds to lack. There is +no doubt that each breed possesses certain points +which render it specially suitable for differing +localities and varying purposes.</p> + +<p>Some persons who look upon a pig solely as an +animal, as a converter of various substances into +pork, are of opinion that the tendency of those +responsible for the running of these societies is +towards fancy points to the detriment of the practical +points. There appears to have been some +grounds for this view. The Small White, the Small +Black, the Berkshire, and the Large White have all +been affected by the acts of faddists. The three +first-named breeds suffered from the aims of certain +of the breeders to reduce the size and to increase +the so-called quality until the consumers of pork +refused to follow the fashion; whilst the craze +which has seriously affected the utility of the Large +White pigs has been exactly the opposite, i.e. an +endeavour to so vastly increase the size that they +ceased to supply the kind of pork and the size of +joints which the general public demanded. It may +be natural for fanciers to declare that a Small White +or a Small Black pig must be a small animal, but +this is only on comparison with the large breeds of +the same colour and characteristics. The usefulness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +of the pig in the commercial world must be +studied if any breed of pig is to hold its own on the +market.</p> + +<p>The opposite extreme to that followed by the +breeders of the small breeds is that of the breeders +of Large Whites, who look upon mere size as the +most important of the points to be studied. The +mere increase in bulk, in length of head and leg and +weight of bone may appeal to the mere fancier or +faddist, but by paying undue attention to these +fancy points the actual object of the breeding and +fattening of pigs is lost sight of, and the consumer +who is after all the one whose wants must first +receive study, is estranged and the commercial +market is lost.</p> + +<p>In the following pages will be found full particulars +together with the scales of points, as issued +by the various societies, of the chief breeds and +varieties.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE</h3> + +<h4>LARGE WHITE</h4> +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Colour.</span>—White, free from black hairs, and as free as possible +from blue spots on the skin.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Head.</span>—Moderately long, face slightly dished, snout broad, not +too much turned up, jowl not too heavy, wide between the +ears.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ears.</span>—Long, thin, slightly inclined forward, and fringed with +fine hair.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Neck.</span>—Long, and proportionately full to shoulders.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Chest.</span>—Wide and deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders.</span>—Level across the top, not too wide, free from +coarseness.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Legs.</span>—Straight and well set, level with the outside of the body +with flat bone.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Pasterns.</span>—Short and springy.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Feet.</span>—Strong, even, and wide.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Back.</span>—Long, level, and wide from neck to rump.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Loin.</span>—Broad.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tail.</span>—Set high, stout and long, but not coarse, with tassel of +fine hair.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Sides.</span>—Deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ribs.</span>—Well sprung.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Belly.</span>—Full, but not flabby, with straight under line.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Flank.</span>—Thick, and well let down.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Quarters.</span>—Long and wide.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hams.</span>—Broad, full, and deep to hocks.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Coat.</span>—Long and moderately fine.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Action.</span>—Firm and free.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Skin.</span>—Not too thick, quite free from wrinkles. + +<br />Large bred pigs do not fully develop their points until +some months old, the pig at five months often proving at a +year or 15 months a much better animal than could be anticipated +at the earlier age and <i>vice versâ</i>; but size and quality +are most important.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Objections.</span>—Black hairs, black spots, a curly coat, a coarse +mane, short snout, inbent knees, hollowness at back of +shoulders.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<h4>MIDDLE WHITE</h4> +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Colour.</span>—White, free from black hairs or blue spots on the +skin.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Head.</span>—Moderately short, face dished, snout broad and turned +up, jowl full, wide between ears.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ears.</span>—Fairly large, carried erect and fringed with fine hair.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Neck.</span>—Medium length, proportionately full to the shoulders.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Chest.</span>—Wide and deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders.</span>—Level across the top, moderately wide, free from +coarseness.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Legs.</span>—Straight and well set, level with the outside of body +with fine bone.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Pasterns.</span>—Short and springy.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Feet.</span>—Strong, even, and wide.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Back.</span>—Long, level, and wide from neck to rump.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Loin.</span>—Broad.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tail.</span>—Set high, moderately long, but not coarse, with tassel of +fine hair.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Sides.</span>—Deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ribs.</span>—Well sprung.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Belly.</span>—Full, but not flabby, with straight under line.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Flank.</span>—Thick and well let down.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Quarters.</span>—Long and wide.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hams.</span>—Broad, full, and deep to hocks.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Coat.</span>—Long, fine, and silky.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Action.</span>—Firm and free.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Skin.</span>—Fine, and quite free from wrinkles.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Objections.</span>—Black hairs, black or blue spots, a coarse mane, +inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders, wrinkled +skin.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<h4>TAMWORTH</h4> +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Colour.</span>—Golden red hair on a flesh coloured skin, free from +black.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Head.</span>—Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite straight, +face slightly dished, wide between ears.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ears.</span>—Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid and inclined +slightly forward.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Neck.</span>—Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Chest.</span>—Wide and deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders.</span>—Fine, slanting, and well set.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Legs.</span>—Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone and set well +outside body.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Pasterns.</span>—Strong and sloping.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Feet.</span>—Strong, and of fair size.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Back.</span>—Long and straight.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Loin.</span>—Strong and broad.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tail.</span>—Set on high and well tasselled.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Sides.</span>—Long and deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ribs.</span>—Well sprung and extending well up to flank.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Belly.</span>—Deep, with straight under line.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Flank.</span>—Full and well let down.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Quarters.</span>—Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hams.</span>—Broad, and full, well let down to hocks.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Coat.</span>—Abundant, long, straight, and fine.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Action.</span>—Firm and free.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Objections.</span>—Black hair, very light or ginger hair, curly coat, +coarse mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, +short or turned up snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled skin, +inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<h4>BERKSHIRE PIGS</h4> +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Colour</span>.—Black, with white on face, feet and tip of tail.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Skin</span>.—Fine, and free from wrinkles.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hair</span>.—Long, fine, and plentiful.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Head</span>.—Moderately short, face dished, snout broad; and wide +between the eyes and ears.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.—Fairly large, carried erect or slightly inclined forward, +and fringed with fine hair.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Neck</span>.—Medium length, evenly set on shoulders; jowl full and +not heavy.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.—Fine and well sloped backwards; free from coarseness.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Back</span>.—Long and straight, ribs well sprung, sides deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.—Wide and deep to hocks.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.—Set high, and fairly large.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Flank</span>.—Deep and well let down, and making straight under +line.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Legs and Feet</span>.—Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart, +and hoofs nearly erect.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Imperfections</span>.—A perfectly black face, foot, or tail. A white +ear. A crooked jaw. White or sandy spots, or white skin +on the body. A rose back. A very coarse mane, and inbent +knees.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<h4>LARGE BLACK PIG</h4> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Scale of Points</span></h5> + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Head</span>.—Medium length and wide between the ears</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.—Thin, inclined well over the face, and not extendingbeyond point of nose</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Neck</span>.—Fairly long and muscular</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chest</span>.—Wide and deep</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.—Well developed, in line with the ribs</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Back</span>.—Long and level</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ribs</span>.—Well sprung</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sides</span>.—Very deep</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Loin</span>.—Broad</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank</span>.—Thick and well developed</td><td align="right">7</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Quarters</span>.—Long, wide, and not drooping</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.—Large and well filled to hocks</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.—Set high, of moderate size</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Legs</span>.—Short, straight, flat, and strong</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Skin and Coat</span>.—Fine and soft, with moderate quantity of straight, silky hair</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right" class="bt">100</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Objections</span>.—Head—narrow forehead or dished nose. Ears—thick, +coarse, or pricked. Coat—curly or coarse, with rose, +bristly mane. Skin—wrinkled.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Disqualification</span>.—Colour—any other than black.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<h4>LARGE WHITE ULSTER</h4> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Scale of Points</span></h5> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Head.</span>—Moderately long, wide between the ears</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ears.</span>—Long, thin, and inclined well over the face</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jowl.</span>—Light</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Neck.</span>—Fairly long and muscular</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chest.</span>—Wide and deep</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Shoulders.</span>—Not coarse, oblique, narrow plate</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Legs.</span>—Short, straight, and well set, level with the outside of the body, with flat bone, not coarse</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pasterns.</span>—Straight</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Back.</span>—Long and level (rising a little to centre of back not objected to)</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sides.</span>—Very deep</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ribs.</span>—Well sprung</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Loin.</span>—Broad</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Quarters.</span>—Long, wide, and not drooping</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hams.</span>—Large and well filled to hocks</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank.</span>—Thick and well filled</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tail.</span>—Well set and not coarse</td><td align="right">1</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Skin.</span>—Fine and soft</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Coat.</span>—Small quantity of fine silky hair</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="right" class="bt">100</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Objections.</span>—Head—narrow forehead. Ears—thick, coarse, +or pricked. Coat—coarse or curly; bristly mane.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Disqualification.</span>—Colour—any other than white.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<h4>LINCOLNSHIRE CURLY-COATED PIG</h4> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Scale of Points</span></h5> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Colour</span>.—White</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Face and Neck</span>.—Medium length and wide between the eyes and ears</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.—Medium length, and not too much over face</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jowl</span>.—Heavy</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chest</span>.—Wide and deep</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.—Wide</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Back</span>.—Long and level</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sides</span>.—Very deep, and ribs well sprung</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Loin</span>.—Broad</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Quarters</span>.—Long, wide, and not drooping</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.—Large and well filled to hocks</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.—Set high and thick</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Legs</span>.—Short and straight</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank</span>.—Thick and well filled</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Coat</span>.—Fair quantity of curly or wavy hair</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right" class="bt">100</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Objections</span>.—Head—narrow forehead. Ears—Thin.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Disqualifications</span>.—Ears—pricked. Nose—dished or long. +Coat—coarse, straight, or bristly. Colour of hair—any +other than white.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<h4>THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE OLD SPOTS</h4> +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Head</span>.—Medium length and wide between the ears, nose wide +and medium length, slightly dished.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.—Rather long and drooping.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Jowl</span>.—Medium size.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Neck</span>.—Fairly long and muscular.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Chest</span>.—Wide and deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.—Well developed but not projecting and in line +with ribs, must not show any coarseness.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Back</span>.—Long and level.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ribs</span>.—Deep, well sprung.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Loin</span>.—Very broad.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Sides</span>.—Very deep and presenting straight bottom line.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank</span>.—Full and thick.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Quarters</span>.—Long, wide, and not drooping.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.—Set high, of moderate size, yet fairly strong and long +and carrying brush.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.—Large, not too flat, and well filled to the hocks.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Legs</span>.—Short, straight and strong.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Skin and Coat</span>.—Skin light or dark, must not show coloured +splotches otherwise than beneath the spots of the coat. +The latter should be full and fairly thick, hair long and +silky but not curly, with an absence of mane bristles. +Colour: white spots on black ground, or black spots on +white ground. Such spots to be of medium size.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Teats</span>.—Minimum number of teats to be considered.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Objections</span>.—Head—narrow, face and nose both dished. +Ears—thick, floppy, coarse, or elevated. Coat—Coarse +or curly with rose; bristly mane, or decidedly sandy +colour; skewbald or saddleback markings.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<h4>THE CUMBERLAND PIG</h4> +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Head</span>.—Fairly short, wide snout, dished face, wide between +ears.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.—Falling forward over face, long and thin.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Jowl</span>.—Heavy.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Neck</span>.—Fairly long and muscular.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Chest</span>.—Deep and wide.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.—Deep and sloping into the back, blades not +prominent, but in line with ribs, not too wide on top.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Back</span>.—Long and level or with a slight arch from head to tail.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ribs</span>.—Deep and well sprung.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Loins</span>.—Broad and strong.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Sides</span>.—Deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank</span>.—Full and thick.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Quarters</span>.—Long and level or with only very slight droop.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.—Set high, not coarse.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.—Very large and well filled to hocks.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Legs</span>.—Short, straight, and strong.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Colour</span>.—White.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Skin and Coat</span>.—Smooth; hair straight, fine, and silky and +not too much of it.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Size</span>.—Large without coarseness.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Disqualifications</span>.—Black spots, black hair, prick ears.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Objections</span>.—Blue spots.</li> +</ul> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F32" id="Figure_F32"></a> +<a href="images/imagep032_0001.jpg"> +<img src="images/imagep032_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="298" alt="A BERKSHIRE SOW." +title="A BERKSHIRE SOW." /> +</a> +<span class="caption"><i>From a Painting by Wippell.</i> +<br /> +A BERKSHIRE SOW. +<br /> +To face page 32.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> +<a name="Figure_F33" id="Figure_F33"></a> +<a href="images/imagep033.jpg"><img src="images/imagep033_tn.jpg" width="350" height="263" alt="Large Black Sow" +title="Large Black Sow" /></a> +<span class="caption">LARGE BLACK SOW, "Sudbourne Sadie." +<br /> Owner, K. M. Clark. 1st Prize and Champion, R. A. Show, Norwich. +<br /> To face page 33.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER III +<br /> +CROSS-BRED PIGS</h3> + + +<p>This term has a varying meaning to different +persons. There are those who term a pig a cross-bred +unless it be bred from parents of recorded +pedigree, or those which possess pedigrees capable +of registration. Others claim that a cross-bred is +any pig which is bred indiscriminately from boar +and sow of no particular type or breeding—in fact +common pigs of the country; whilst still others +declare that the title of cross-bred can be legitimately +applied only to a pig whose parents were of +two different pure breeds in contradistinction to a +pig sired by a pure bred boar, and from a common +sow, or the diverse way.</p> + +<p>It is not for us to determine the knotty point, +but we may venture the opinion that the two first +definitions of a cross-bred are not convincing to us, +since in order to produce a cross-bred it is necessary +to have a sire, or a dam, or both of defined breeds. +Probably the most correct definition of a cross-bred +animal is one bred from the mating of sire and dam +of two distinct breeds, but the term is now loosely +applied to an animal begotten by a sire or from a +dam of pedigree breeding, the other parent being of +no particular breed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> + +<p>This system of breeding has become somewhat +common owing to the comparatively small outlay +required in the purchase of a boar as compared +with the purchase of both boar and sows, and also +to the belief which is general that a greater improvement +in the produce is noticeable when the boar is +pure bred and the sows of ordinary or no particular +breed, than if the sows are pure bred and the boar +a common bred one. In addition to this there is the +important point that the pure bred boar should be +able to beget at least fifty litters in a year whereas +the pure bred sow will not produce more than two +litters annually, so that the advantage obtainable +from the outlay on one pure bred boar is twenty-five +times as great as is possible from the purchase +of a pure bred sow.</p> + +<p>There is also another advantage to the owner of +a boar who has only a limited number of sows, he +can allow his neighbours to make use of his boar on +payment of a liberal service fee, which combined +will partially pay for the prime cost of the boar.</p> + +<p>A considerable number of pig breeders are influenced +in the purchase of a pure bred boar rather +than of a sow by the belief that pure bred sows are +neither so prolific nor such good mothers as are +common bred sows. This belief was even more +common in years gone by than it is at the present +time, and it must be candidly confessed that there +existed substantial grounds for it. Some fifty years +since it became fashionable, particularly amongst +those who had suddenly become rich by trade or +in other ways, to exhibit live-stock at the agricultural +shows. They may have been animated by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +the laudable desire of endeavouring to assist farmers +and stock breeders generally, or a desire to gain a +place in the sun may have had some slight influence. +As the majority of these exhibitors of stock had no +special knowledge of stock, they were compelled to +place themselves entirely in the hands of their +managers and stockman, who generally received by +arrangement a certain percentage of the prize +money won by the stock. It was then only natural +that they gave far more attention to the show points +of the animals in their charge than to the breeding +qualities.</p> + +<p>The supply of pedigree animals was also very +limited at about the period mentioned so that it +was much more difficult to avoid too close breeding, +nor was there the same care taken in the private +record of the pedigrees of the animals bred. These +various causes combined led to a loss of vitality +amongst the so-called pedigree stock, and this +weakening of the constitution showed itself in a +reduction in the number of the offspring and in the +power of the dam to furnish its young with a full +supply of well-balanced milk.</p> + +<p>There is little doubt that in the third quarter of +the past century a considerable proportion of the +pedigree sows were not so prolific as they ought to +have been, nor did they produce and rear thoroughly +well so many pigs at each litter as the common sow +of the country was capable of doing. A more +general study of stock breeding has tended to compel +attention to the practical apart from the show +points of pedigree pigs, but probably the strongest +influence has been the formation of the various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +breed societies, and the registration of the produce +including the number, sex, and sire of the pigs. +These entries most clearly showed those breeders +of pigs who had paid most attention to the utility +points of their pigs, especially those particular +points in which pedigree pigs were generally believed +to be deficient. The succeeding records of sows of +the same families afforded the best possible confirmation +of the belief which was becoming general that +prolificacy like many other qualities was most +certainly hereditary. This recorded proof that pure +bred animals and especially pigs were not necessarily +slow breeders, helped vastly to increase the +demand for pedigree animals for crossing purposes +in the breeding of commercial stock.</p> + +<p>The enormous benefit which has resulted from the +use of pedigree sires is most clearly proved in the +Irish live stock. The so-called premium bulls and +boars are pedigree animals purchased by or with +the sanction of the Live Stock Commissioners and +placed at the service of the general public at a +somewhat reduced fee, the Government paying to +the owner an annual premium of some £15 for each +bull, and a certain sum for each boar.</p> + +<p>It is alleged that the original improvement in the +ordinary pig stock of those parts of Ireland where +pig-keeping on a considerable scale is followed, was +due to the purchase in England of numbers of Large +White boars, as after experiments carried out in +Denmark, these boars were found to effect the +greatest improvement in the common country pigs +and to render them far more suitable for conversion +into the kind of bacon which was in most general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +demand, and of course realised the highest price. +For the beginning of the vast improvement in the +Irish pig which has followed the importation of +these Large White boars, the Irish bacon curers +must receive the credit, as they joined together in +the purchase of these boars which were distributed +in those districts from which the various factories +drew their supplies of fat pigs.</p> + +<p>A similar plan was adopted by Messrs. Harris of +Calne who purchased some hundreds of boars of the +Large White breed, and at first lent them on certain +conditions to pig breeders, but later on resold the +young boars by auction for whatever they would +fetch, their object being to secure the use of these +boars in order to render the farm pigs more suitable +for the purposes of their trade as bacon curers.</p> + +<p>There may or may not be any grounds for the +belief that the sire has a greater influence in the +external form of the joint produce than does the +dam, but this belief has also had its influence in +determining breeders of cross breds to use the pure +bred sire on the ordinary stock of the country, +rather than the reverse way. There is no doubt +that apart from the improvement in the general +quality of the produce of the pure bred sire there +results a general uniformity of the young stock, +which is a great recommendation when they are +placed on the market either as stores, or when +fattened for the butcher or bacon curer. This +uniformity of type and character in the young +stock would be more noticeable still if the buyers of +the pure bred sires were to continue their purchases +from the same herds, providing that the owners of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +them were sufficiently careful in avoiding incestuous +breeding.</p> + +<p>So many people appear to be content with the +knowledge that the sire which they are purchasing +has a recorded pedigree and is a pure bred sire +eligible for entry in the herd book of its breed, but +they forget that it is possible in the crossing of two +pedigree animals of a similar breed to obtain as +great a mixture of blood and points as in the mating +of two cross-breds or two come-by-chances. Uniformity +in a herd, stud, or flock can only be rendered +comparatively certain by the continued use of sires +of similar breeding. In making a compound, its +character is determined by the proportion of the +various ingredients used in its manufacture. So it +is in the breeding of stock, those points which are +most predominant in proportion in the blood of the +sire and dam will, on the average, be represented in +an equal degree in the joint produce. This it is +which renders so impressive a sire which is descended +from closely bred parents. Each of its forbears has +handed down a proportion of its own particular +characteristics so that the larger the number of +animals amongst its forbears which possessed these +particular points the greater the certainty of their +being possessed by the produce. The meaning of +this may be made more clear by pointing out that +the result of the mixing together of various mixtures +will depend entirely on the proportion of the substances +used in the manufacture or compounding +of those mixtures. In each animal is embodied the +characteristics of its forbears.</p> + +<p>There exists generally an opinion that the produce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +of two parents of distinct breeds, or as it is +termed a first cross is commonly superior to a pure +bred of either of the two breeds represented by the +parents. It is difficult to discover the cause of this, +if it be a fact. If one of the parents were deficient +in stamina the produce might conceivably be more +robust, and it might also occasionally happen that +the mixture of the qualities or properties possessed +by the parents would result in improvement, as +happens when a distinct new breed is originated; +but as a rule the good and the bad qualities of the +produce from the mating of two animals of diverse +breeds are in direct proportion to the qualities +possessed by the parents.</p> + +<p>The mere mixing of the blood of two animals +differently bred cannot increase the good or bad +properties, but the combination might possibly result +in a blend more suitable for the purpose in hand.</p> + +<p>Another claim commonly made for the crossing +of animals is that the risk of that delicacy of constitution +which they assert is far too common +amongst pure bred animals, and is due to close +breeding, is hereby avoided. It must be admitted +that in times past there was a certain amount of +cause for this complaint of want of constitution +amongst pedigree animals, but the cause has been +considerably if not entirely removed by the more +careful recording of the breeding, and by the more +drastic screening out of any animals suspected of +delicacy of constitution.</p> + +<p>The buyers of pure bred animals for crossing +purposes have also become more careful in their +selection. They have ceased to imagine that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +because the owner of certain animals most of which +he has purchased is successful in winning prizes at +the chief agricultural shows, the whole of the +animals in his stud, herd, or flock must be of equal +excellence or at all events sufficiently good for the +production of profitable commercial stock. Action +on this mistaken belief has led to much disappointment +in the past, since the home bred animals may +have been of totally different blood from those which +have won prizes, and further they may not be inbred +for a sufficiently long time on distinct lines to +render them prepotent enough to impress their +good qualities on their produce.</p> + +<p>Amongst the objections made to cross-breeding +is the heavy cost of replacing the breeding stock, as +to obtain a first cross, a succession of sires and dams +must be purchased. Many persons meet this difficulty +by merely buying sires of a breed similar to +the first used, but then the produce ceases to be +cross-breds and become grades until such time as +by the use of a certain number of sires of a similar +breed the produce become eligible for entry in the +herd book of the sires which have been continuously +used. This system of breeding insures a greater +uniformity in the produce providing that the sires +selected are of similar breeding, type, and character, +than even by the system of crossing sire and dam of +two pure breeds.</p> + +<p>The risk attending too close breeding as in the +breeding of pure breds is also avoided provided +that the herd from which the sires are bought is +sufficiently large to furnish a change of blood, yet +of similar breeding.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> + +<p>No one possessing a knowledge of the ordinary +farm stock of the country will for one moment deny +that there is still vast room for improvement in our +live stock, and particularly in our pigs, and it is +equally the fact that our Government has not +shown a readiness equal to that of some foreign +Governments, and even of the authorities in some +of our colonies to assist farmers in obtaining the use +of improved sires. Take Canada as an instance. +For years the Dominion Live Stock Branch has been +purchasing and delivering free into districts needing +them, male animals for the use of farmers and +stock owners free, save stallions, for which a covering +fee has to be paid sufficient to cover the insurance +of the stallion. The other important condition +which relates to all the sires provided by the +authorities is that the cost of maintenance shall be +paid by the Local Association which has the management +of the sire and the arrangement of its services.</p> + +<p>Another noticeable point is that all the sires +allocated to the various districts are Canadian bred, +and so far as is possible are purchased in the province +in which they are to be located. The object is undoubtedly +to encourage in Canada the breeding of +pure bred animals and may thus far be considered +satisfactory, but it is acting on an assumption +which may not be justified that there exists in the +Dominion a sufficiency of stock equal in quality +and breeding to those which it may be possible to +import.</p> + +<p>Within the past three or four years our Board of +Agriculture have taken some steps to assist our +farmers to improve their stock. The assistance has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +taken the form of offering premiums of fixed +amounts to private persons or associations who +hired or purchased approved stallions, bulls, and +boars which were placed at fixed fees at the service +of the stock of the public. Already great benefit +has been derived from the use of the stallions and +bulls, and this to a far greater extent than in the +pigs, as owing to an unfortunate condition which was +attempted to be enforced as to the formation of pig +clubs and impracticable conditions the number of +boars located in the country has been much smaller +than would have been had the conditions at present +in force been adopted at the initiation of the +scheme.</p> + +<p>The boar conditions are now of a similar character +to those in force from the first with regard to +stallions and bulls. In addition to the supply of +male animals at comparatively low fees an attempt +has been made to assist in the recording of the milk +yield of cows, a matter of the highest importance. +If only this could be extended to sows there would +soon cease to be cause for the far too common complaint +of the owners of sows of certain breeds of +pedigree pigs, as to the limited quantity of milk +which is provided by the sows for their litters of +pigs.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F48" id="Figure_F48"></a> +<a href="images/imagep048_0001.jpg"> +<img src="images/imagep048_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="321" alt="THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS." +title="THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS." /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Francis Davis, Needingworth.</i> +<br /> +THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS. +<br /> +The Property of the Author. Also portion of 17 Sties at Holywell Manor, near St. Ives. +<br /> +To face page 48.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F49" id="Figure_F49"></a> +<a href="images/imagep049_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep049_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="322" alt="A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR." +title="A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR." /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i> +<br /> +A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR. +<br /> +From the Author's Pig Farm. +<br /> +To face page 49.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER IV +<br /> +DENTITION AND AGE OF PIGS</h3> + + +<p>Although the majority of pig sellers may claim to +be, and may be able to substantiate the claim to be, +equally as honest as the majority of others in trade, +yet there may be a small minority who are apt to +attempt to palm off pigs as being older than they +really are. It is most annoying when you are +anxious to purchase pigs of say six or seven months +old which are quite ready to be quickly fattened, to +have pigs of four or five months old which continue +to make growth instead of flesh, so that they are +not ready for killing until two or three months after +they are required for conversion into bacon.</p> + +<p>Although the object of the Council of the Smithfield +Club is to prevent fraud of a different character, +i.e. the exhibition in classes limited to certain ages +of pigs of an age greater than that given on the entry +form, yet the following table showing the normal +state of the dentition of pigs at certain fixed ages +will enable purchasers to discover whether or not +the seller has attempted to deceive him. It may at +once be admitted that there will be a limited number +of cases in which the state of dentition of pigs is +abnormal, but after examining the teeth of some +thousands of pigs during the past sixty years, we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +have no hesitation in asserting that more than half, +at least, of the variations from the normal are +allayed dentition. It is claimed that a man of +experience is quite able to arrive at the approximate +age of a pig by its development and appearance; +some few persons may have that instinctive knowledge +more or less fully developed, but this examination +of the state of dentition is of the greatest +possible assistance in arriving at the actual age +of the pig, particularly desirable as it is in case +of a difference of opinion between buyer and +seller.</p> + +<p>The following are the conditions of the state of +dentition to which all pigs have to conform ere they +are allowed to compete for the prizes offered by the +Smithfield Club at their annual shows:—</p> + +<p>"Pigs having their corner permanent incisors cut +will be considered as exceeding six months.</p> + +<p>"Pigs having their permanent tusks more than +half up will be considered as exceeding nine +months.</p> + +<p>"Pigs having their central permanent incisors up, +and any of the first three permanent molars cut, will +be considered as exceeding twelve months.</p> + +<p>"Pigs having their lateral temporary incisors +shed, and the permanents appearing will be considered +as exceeding fifteen months.</p> + +<p>"Pigs having their lateral permanent incisors +fully up will be considered as exceeding eighteen +months."</p> + +<p>As the majority of the pigs bought of dealers by +amateurs are young pigs it may be advisable to +state that a pig of the age of eight weeks old should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +have its two central incisors fully grown. A pig +three months old should have all four temporary +incisors cut, the two outside ones being more than +half as long as the two central incisors.</p> + +<p>As the first set of the teeth of a pig like that of a +child are merely temporary, and as these give place +at fairly definite ages of the owner to permanent +ones, it may be well to endeavour to describe as +clearly as possible the position and appearance of +the temporaries as compared with the permanents. +The pig is one of the few animals which is possessed +of teeth at its birth; these number eight, two on +each side of the upper and lower jaw. It has been +suggested that these early teeth are provided to +assist the pigling to grasp firmly the sow's teat when +in the act of sucking. These eight teeth vary somewhat +in length; those pigs which are carried by the +sow beyond the usual period of sixteen weeks frequently +have longer and even sharper teeth than +those of pigs which are born at the usual time. +These longer teeth are also sometimes of a dark +colour. This is doubtless the origin of the remark +commonly made by old-fashioned pigmen that +"pigs born with black teeth never do well." This +might have been so prior to the discovery that the +breaking off the sharp teeth of the newly born pigs +frequently saved trouble, and often the life of the +little pigs. Pigs whose teeth are discoloured at +birth are usually more robust rather than the +reverse, since the sow carrying them beyond the +allotted time is invariably in a vigorous state of +health, and her pigs consequently more fully +developed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p> + +<p>When the pig is about a month old, the two +central incisors are cut in each jaw, these are two +of the four front teeth in each jaw of the pig at a +subsequent age. Two temporary molars are also +cut on each side of the jaw above and below, with +the first temporary molar in each place ready to +come through the gum.</p> + +<p>At two months the temporary central incisors +are fully developed, and the two lateral temporary +incisors can be seen in the gums, if they are not +already through. All three temporary molars are +now about level.</p> + +<p>When the pig is about three months old its +temporary teeth are all in position, the temporary +lateral incisors are through, and nearly as long as +the temporary central incisors. Owing to the +lengthening of the jaws the two temporary corner +teeth which were present at birth will have become +further apart. When the pig is about five months, +the fourth molar in either jaw shows itself in the +gums, then at six months the wolf teeth show +between the tusks and the premolars, and the fourth +molar is nearly level with the first premolar. The +corner incisors and the tusks usually disappear, and +are replaced by permanents when the pig is nine +months old. The second permanent molar also +shows itself. At twelve months the two central +temporary incisors give place to the permanents; +these last are more square in form than the temporaries, +and are thus easily distinguished. The +three temporary molars will also be ready for displacement +by three permanents. These last will be +level with the other permanent molars when the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +pig is fifteen months. The two lateral incisors will +also have given place to permanents. At eighteen +months the third permanent molars will be coming +through, and at the age of twenty months the pig's +teeth are fully developed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER V +<br /> +SELECTION OF THE BOAR</h3> + + +<p>The hackneyed saying "The sire is half the herd" +appears to have a different meaning to varying +persons. To some it conveys the idea that the +selection of the sire is of far more importance than +the selection of the dam because the influence of +the sire is so much more powerful than that of the +dam on at least the external form and character of +the produce. The late Mr. James Howard, who took +a particularly keen interest in the breeding of pigs, +used to declare that the appearance and form of the +young pigs far more generally followed those of the +sire than of the dam; whilst the influence of the +latter was more shown in the character and constitution +of their joint produce; or in other words, +that the boar stamped his character to a greater +extent on the external points of the young, whilst +the sow more strongly influenced the internal parts +of the youngsters. It is quite possible that this +idea has gained ground to a large extent from the +fact that the use of a pure bred sire on ordinary or +grade females has been very much more common +than the crossing of pure bred females by the +ordinary or non-pedigree sire; as also from the far +greater numbers of young which each pure bred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +sire would improve, than would be improved by +each pure bred female which might be crossed.</p> + +<p>If only for this reason alone, we would always +recommend buyers who are desirous of grading up +and improving their farm stock to attempt to do +this by the purchase or use of the pure bred or improved +sire. The original outlay is infinitely less, +whilst the immediate results are comparatively +longer.</p> + +<p>It is scarcely desirable to go further into the +question as to the comparative influence on the +young of the sire and the dam since our actual +knowledge of the subject is by no means large. +Indeed, it is at the least doubtful, if by the closest +observation any definite opinion on the subject is +possible, so great is the difference which varying +parents have on the chief characteristics of their +joint progeny, and even in the separate specimens +which they have procreated. Of course, it is quite +possible to breed animals especially well developed +or endowed with certain qualities, providing that +the parents have been for generations selected because +of their possession in a marked degree of +those particular qualities sought. It is in this +power of prepotency that one of the chief benefits +from the use of a pure bred sire or dam arises. By +the term pure bred is not meant merely that the +names of a certain number of the forbears of the +animal shall have been recorded in the register of +the breed, but that the animal shall for a certain +number of generations have been bred on similar +lines so that it shall possess a considerable amount +of concentrated blood. This is a point to which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +sufficient care is not generally given by purchasers +of so-called pedigree sires to be used on the ordinary +bred or graded stock. The far too common practice +is to purchase each boar required from a totally +different herd, or from one of quite dissimilar +breeding, with the result that there is not the +slightest uniformity in the appearance or character +of the herd, or of the mature animals when ready +for market.</p> + +<p>It is far too frequently forgotten that the chief +value of a record of the pedigree is that by it one +can trace the breeding of the animal's progenitors, +and thus one is enabled to form some opinion of +the probable produce—providing it is possible to +learn the chief characteristics of the progenitors. +Failing this, the only course open is to note the +names of the breeders of the more recent parents, +as from this a certain amount of information as to +the probable qualities of the parents may be obtained +or surmised.</p> + +<p>Another point on which at least a diversity of +opinion exists, is the wisdom of giving so much +consideration to the fact that the herd from which +the sire is purchased shall have been recently +successful in the show yard, or in extreme cases, +that the sire itself shall have been a prize winner. +It is urged that the mere fact that a sire has succeeded +in winning one or more prizes is a proof that +it possesses in a marked degree those qualities +which are most highly prized. This may be conceded, +yet there is no certainty that the mating of this +winning sire even with dams that have also been +prize winners shall result in the production of young<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +the equal of the parents, since the winners at the +various shows may be of dissimilar types and breeding.</p> + +<p>But the case would be quite different if the +winning sire and dam came from the same old +established herd in which the animals had been +bred for generations on similar lines. It is this +concentration of certain qualities in generation +after generation which renders the pedigree animal +so intensely prepotent, particularly when mated +with animals of an ordinary character or not possessing +concentrated breeding. Indeed, it may be safely +assumed that the power of a parent to impress its +own individuality and qualities on its produce, +depends to a very large extent, if not entirely, on +the comparative hereditary extent of those qualities +in comparison with the other qualities possessed by +itself, or by the animal with which it may have +been mated.</p> + +<p>In other words, it is contended that the sire or +the dam has not the power to impress certain of its +characteristics on its young, merely because of its +sex, but that this power depends on the proportion +in the sire or dam of the blood of progenitors who +possessed in a marked degree certain qualities.</p> + +<p>It is with the breeding of animals as with the +manufacture of a compound article. The character +and quality of that compound will vary according +to the proportion of the various ingredients used in +its manufacture. It is to this law or fact that the +marked impressiveness of certain strains of blood +is attributable.</p> + +<p>Again, the marked and long continued success of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +the blood of the animals bred by a few of our most +successful breeders of live stock is in the main due +to the fact that the owners set up a standard and +persistently selected and bred together only animals +possessing to a greater or lesser extent the particular +qualities which together comprised that standard. +There is not the slightest doubt that in carrying out +their system they were often compelled to mate +animals related in blood the one to the other, but in +this there is little risk providing that all those +animals which show the slightest symptom of +delicacy of constitution are persistently draughted +out.</p> + +<p>It will be inferred from the above remarks that +we hold to the belief that the breeding of the boar +should receive attention as well as the following +points in its form and character.</p> + +<p>One of the most important of these points is good +temper. This is a quality not usually attributed to +the pig in its wild state, and consequently not natural +to the domesticated pig, yet on the possession of it +depends to a very great extent the thrift and well +doing of the produce of the boar. The produce of an +irritable boar are almost certain to inherit this +quality which is fatal to profitable fatting. In sows +this weakness is still more unfortunate, as a bad +tempered sow is almost invariably an indifferent +mother. The rigid avoidance of this failing of bad +temper in a boar is advisable not only because this +quality is almost invariably hereditary, but a savage +boar is a continual source of danger to man and +beast. It may be said that little trouble is likely if +the boar is kept in confinement, but there are times,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +such as when sows are placed with him, when a +certain amount of liberty must be given to him, and +it is generally on such occasions of excitement when +the bad temper is the most in evidence. The mere +fact that irritability and nervousness are natural to +the pig should make us the more careful to avoid +any increase in the failing by using a boar which is +the least inclined to be bad tempered.</p> + +<p>Many persons hold that in the selection of a boar +one of the principal points is size. They contend +that size, in pigs especially, is imperative if a profitable +return is to be made. This view may have +arisen to a greater or lesser extent from the want of +method and observation which is characteristic of +so many stock owners. The one point which to +them is of the greatest importance is the selling +price of the fat or store animal sold being fully up +to the average. Little or no thought is given to the +value of the food eaten by each animal. If it had +been, very frequently it would have been found +that the smaller animal of a lot had actually given +the best return for the food it had consumed. It is +not the size alone of the animal which determines +its value as the producer of meat, but more than +anything it is the feeding qualities of the animal +fattened. In addition to this there never was a +time when the consumer more strongly demanded +small joints of meat, and these of the best quality +and with as little bone as possible.</p> + +<p>Apart from this a very large boar is a mistake as +it is invariably awkward when serving—it can be +used only for large and strong sows, and its average +period of usefulness is decidedly shorter than that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +of a medium sized and compact boar. A large boar +generally possesses an undue proportion of bone, +its shoulders are heavy, and its ankles round, and +feet large and spreading. Now these are all objections. +The bone of a boar should be solid, not +porous; the ankles compact and the feet small, +and the pasterns short. The head should be wide +so that the brain can be well developed, the head +inclined to be short rather than long, since an +animal with an extremely long head is certain to be +deficient in natural flesh.</p> + +<p>On the question of the size and hang of the ears +a variety of opinion exists; pigs with long ears, and +pigs with short ears are found possessing good +carcases. It is the quality of the ear rather than its +size and hang which seems to indicate the character +most. A pig with a thin and firm ear is usually of +fine quality, whereas a pig which has a thick, +coarse ear is generally coarse in bone, skin, flesh, +and hair.</p> + +<p>The neck of the boar should be muscular as +indicating constitution and natural vigour; the +shoulders fine and obliquely laid, the ribs well +sprung, the loin wide, the quarters long and square, +not drooping, the hams full and extending quite +down to the hocks, and without any of that loose +skin which is far too common amongst the largest +of our breeds of pigs, and which is a sure sign of +coarseness. The flank should be thick and well let +down, as this indicates constitution and lean meat, +the legs should be fairly short and set well apart so +that the heart, lungs, and other organs have plenty +of room to perform their share of the work of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +pig. The skin should be fine and the hair straight +and silky, as well as plenty of it. Sparsity of hair is +generally an indication of shortage of lean meat, +whilst curliness and coarseness of hair are far too +frequently associated with excessive fat and coarseness +of meat.</p> + +<p>With regard to the reproductive parts of the boar +there are one or two points which should receive +special attention. A boar with excessively small +testicles should be avoided, as such a one is often +barren. Again, a boar with one testicle of normal +size and the other smaller, ordinarily suffers +from the same disqualification to a lesser extent. +A ruptured boar should not on any account +be used, as this weakness is strongly hereditary. +The weakness may not possibly show itself in the +first generation, but it is certain to appear sooner +or later. Not only is it a sure index of weakness of +constitution, but pigs so affected occasionally die +suddenly, whilst there is always a certain amount +of risk from the operation of castration.</p> + +<p>Occasionally one or more of the boar pigs of a +litter will be found to be malformed, in that only +one of the testicles is apparent. Generally speaking, +the other is found when the pig is killed to be attached +to the inside of the pig, and thus is unable +to descend into the scrotum or purse, so that the act +of castration is only partially performed. A boar +pig with only one testicle down is commonly +termed a rig. The removal of one of the testicles +does not deprive the rig of reproducing its species, +and it is thus a source of continual trouble when +herded with a lot of sow pigs now that the general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +custom is to allow the female pigs of a litter to remain +unspayed. It is, therefore, necessary to fatten +a rig either alone, or with male pigs which have +been operated upon. In addition to this extra +trouble, the flesh of a rig pig if it be kept fattening +after it is some five or six months old is almost +certain to be strong in flavour, like unto that of a +boar. It is, therefore, advisable to fatten a rig +quite early in life and convert it into a porket or +porker carcase of pork.</p> + +<p>It may appear strange to some readers to specially +mention the teats of the boar, but it is equally as +necessary to avoid boars having small teats, teats +unevenly placed, and commencing any distance +from the fore legs, and blind teats, as it is in the +case of the sow, since any weaknesses of the kind +are equally as hereditary from the boar as from the +sow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER VI +<br /> +SELECTION OF THE SOW</h3> + + +<p>It is impossible to agree with the view held by so +many persons that the necessity for the same care +is non-existent in the selection of a sow as in the +choice of a boar. We hold that the desirability for +studying the forbears, especially the dam, of a +young sow intended for breeding purposes is fully +as great as when selecting the young boar, since +many, if not most, of the qualities which we desire +the brood sow to possess are strongly hereditary. +Take, for instance, the question of gentleness or a +quiet disposition, it follows from dam to produce +with a regularity equal to that of bad temper, and +the latter is wellnigh a certainty. Again, whoever +found that the female produce of a sow deficient in +the maternal instincts proved, if saved for breeding +purposes, to be a really good mother? As a rule the +daughters of a sow which gives but a small quantity +of milk, and that of an inferior quality, are also +cursed with the same grievous failings, but this +does not appear to be universally the case, since the +milking qualities of the dam descend through her +sons, so that if the female progenitors of the boar +have been good milkers it is probable that the +boar's daughters may be able to rear their pigs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +successfully, even if their dam had not been in the +habit of suckling her pigs well.</p> + +<p>Still, it is quite safe to assert that with this one +exception we may fairly anticipate that the good +qualities which we seek in a sow are far more likely +to be found in the sow pigs of a sow herself the +possessor, than from one which does not possess +them. We are inclined to the belief that the alleged +failure of some pedigree yelts to make good brood +sows is in the main due to the continued selection +for breeding purposes of those pure-bred yelts which +show early maturing and flesh-forming qualities, +rather than that motherly look which is almost invariably +to be found in a sow which is prolific, a +free milker, and a really good mother. There is a +marked difference in the formation of a milk-giving +and a fat-producing sow—the latter is +generally somewhat heavy in the shoulders, has a +muscular or fat neck, is rather short in the head +and heavy in the jowl, and is altogether more compactly +built, whereas a good brood sow has rather +a long face, is wide between the eyes, has a light +muscular neck, is fine in the shoulders, possesses +long and square quarters and appears to be heavier +in the hind than in the forequarters. She is somewhat +more loosely built and often shows less of +quality. Thickness of flank and length of side are +desirable, the first as indicating substance and flesh, +whilst the second gives plenty of room for her pigs +to suck. The bone should be of good quality; the +same remarks apply to the skin and hair.</p> + +<p>About half a century since there existed a fancy, +which almost amounted to a craze for sows of small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +size; they could not be too neat, and showing too +much so-called feminine character. The almost +certain result of selecting the neatest of the female +pigs followed, the fat pigs sent to market were light +in weight, deficient in lean meat and rightly named +"animated bladders of lard." Within about the +same distance of time it was the common practice +of exhibitors of pigs at the Smithfield Club's Shows +to provide pillows in the form of round pieces of +wood on which the fat pigs rested their heads so +that these were raised in order to prevent the pigs +becoming suffocated. In addition, the pigs were +fed on forcing foods until they were at least one +and a half year old and allowed to take, or were +given little exercise, with the result that the pork +consisted mainly of soft fat or lard. To such an +extent had this craze for neatness been followed +that the bacon curers and consumers of pork wellnigh +ceased to purchase or consume pork.</p> + +<p>At the present time we are afraid that the tendency +is in the opposite direction, and mere size is +receiving far too much attention. At some of our +agricultural shows the judges select for honour +great unwieldly sows which could not possibly +perform with any amount of success those maternal +duties which a brood sow is supposed to be kept +solely to perform. An extremely large sow is +very frequently a poor milker, the quantity of +milk she gives is not large, nor does she continue +to give even this reduced supply for a period +long enough to allow her young to grow strong +enough to make a good start in life on their own +account.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p> + +<p>Another great objection to a sow of extreme size +is that her produce almost invariably take after her +to such an extent that it is difficult, if not wellnigh +impossible, to make them fat until they are from +nine to twelve months old, and by that time they +are too large and heavy for the general demand +which is at the present time, and likely to become +still more so in the future, for small joints of meat +which carry a large proportion of lean and a limited +quantity of bone. The most successful manufacturer +is he who most nearly supplies the consumer +with that which he requires or fancies. We are not +moved by the contention of breeders of pedigree +pigs that the most valuable pig is the one which +possesses in the greatest degree those special points +which are characteristic of the breed, as, for instance, +size in the pigs of the Large White, the Large Black, +and the Lincolnshire Curly Coated pigs, therefore +the biggest pigs should be held in the highest esteem. +In our opinion the best, as it is in the long run the +most profitable, is the pig which furnishes to the +greatest extent exactly the kind of meat in the +most general demand.</p> + +<p>In addition to these objections to an extremely +large and ungainly sow is the fact that such an one +is invariably clumsy in the breeding pen, she is +almost certain to lay on some of her pigs. It is +even alleged that her period of usefulness as a +breeder is shorter than that of a sow of ordinary +size.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F64" id="Figure_F64"></a> +<a href="images/imagep064_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep064_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="324" alt="TAMWORTH BOAR: Bishop of Webton." +title="TAMWORTH BOAR" /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i> +<br /> +TAMWORTH BOAR: Bishop of Webton. +<br /> +Owner, C. L. Coxon. 1st and Champion, Royal Show. +<br /> +To face page 64</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F65" id="Figure_F65"></a> +<a href="images/imagep065_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep065_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="310" alt="Photo, G. H. Parsons, Rostrevor." +title="GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW." /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, G. H. Parsons, Rostrevor.</i> +<br /> +GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW. +<br /> +From the herd of Lord Sherbourne. +<br /> +To face page 65.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER VII +<br /> +THE SOW'S UDDER</h3> + + +<p>One of the most important points in connection +with the reproduction of the species of our various +domestic animals is the provision of a full supply of +milk for the young in the early portion of their +existence. Nature herself has set us a good example +in a duplicated source of milk supply even amongst +animals which usually produce only one animal at +a birth. If this duplication be necessary under +such conditions, it must be imperative on us to +select those sow pigs which are intended for breeding +pigs which possess a well-formed udder, having a +full supply of teats, and these of good shape and +properly placed on the belly of the sow. Not only +is this necessary to ensure the rearing of a fairly +numerous litter of pigs in a satisfactory manner, +but it is held that the number of teats possessed by +a sow indicates to a remarkable extent the probable +degree of prolificacy of the sow. One can readily +understand that nature would not be likely to endow +a sow with the power to produce a larger number of +young at each birth than she would be able to rear. +Of course it may be said that the sow of the present +day is not as nature first made her, in that, by +selection and by feeding, the number of pigs produced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +at each birth is now so much larger than the +litters of the wild sows, which have some seven or +eight teats and farrow at each litter a similar +number of pigs. On the other hand, neither the +number of teats nor of the young is fixed either in +the domesticated sow, or the sow in a wild state, so +that by continued selection we are able to permanently +increase, within limits, the production of +larger litters and the increased supply of milk for +their sustenance when young.</p> + +<p>The provision of a suitable udder is even of more +importance with the domesticated than with the +sow running wild, since the latter produces each +year one litter only, and that in the season of the +year when the young are less dependent on their +dams; whereas the domesticated sow is expected +to rear at least two litters per year, and frequently +owing to want of care on the part of the owner the +young pigs are farrowed at the most unfavourable +time of the year.</p> + +<p>Apart from the provision of a certain number of +teats there is another point to be considered, the +power of the sow to produce milk enough to satisfy +the given number of pigs. This of course varies +with each family or tribe of pigs, and even with the +various members in it, so that to obtain the best +results selection must be made of the produce of +those sows which give the largest quantity of the +most nutritious milk. There exists amongst pig +keepers a difference of opinion as to the number of +pigs each sow should be allowed to rear, probably +the average of this number would be ten for a +mature sow, and seven or eight for a first litter.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +If so, the selected sow pig should possess twelve +teats, as frequently one of these may not give a full +supply of milk from either natural or accidental +causes. The teats should be regular in size and +form. It is not uncommon to find one or more of +the teats of a sow much smaller in size than the +others. These smaller teats will produce a reduced +quantity of milk, so that the pigling which +is unfortunate enough to decide on making this +small teat its very own—and each pigling is confined +by the others to its own special teat—is +certain to be less well developed than its +brothers and sisters, even if it should succeed in +surviving.</p> + +<p>The necessity for the teats being placed equidistant +the one from the other arises from the +desirability of each pig having room to suck comfortably. +Should two of the teats be closely placed +the two pigs will probably fight, when not only will +sores be caused on the cheeks of the pigs, but the +milk in the teats not properly drawn will gradually +cease to flow.</p> + +<p>Another point of great importance is that the +teats should commence as near as possible to the +fore legs—this for two reasons: it gives more room +for the pigs to suck as they grow larger; the other +and more important one is that the teats most +forward on the udder of the sow produce the +larger quantity of milk, or milk of a better +quality. It will be almost invariably found that +the pigs sucking the foremost teats thrive the +best.</p> + +<p>It is advisable to avoid the selection of a female<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +pig for breeding purposes from a sow which has +large and coarse teats, as these invariably accompany +coarseness of skin, bone, hair, and flesh, this +in turn affects the sale value of the carcase. It will +also be found that those sows with a neat and compact +udder, with fine teats, will give more milk and +a better quality than sows possessing a coarse and +flabby udder.</p> + +<p>Another weakness to be avoided when selecting a +sow pig for breeding purposes is that which is commonly +termed a blind teat, since it is undoubtedly +hereditary in addition to being useless for the purpose +of rearing pigs. The normal teat projects +boldly from the udder, whereas the blind teat is +almost flat or on a level with the udder. In appearance +it resembles a ring of skin with a depressed +nipple in its centre. At the time of parturition +the blind teat contains milk to the same extent +as do the other teats, but it promptly dries up +since it is impossible for the little pigs to extract +the milk from it since the nipple recedes +as soon as the pigling attempts to clasp it +with its lips and tongue, instead of becoming +more extended so that the little pig can suck the +milk from it.</p> + +<p>An ideal udder can be briefly described as one +possessing at least twelve fully developed teats, the +more the better—these should commence from a +point as near the fore legs of the sow as possible, +and be placed as nearly as possible an equal distance +the one from the other.</p> + +<p>Some persons hold that large teats and much +loose skin are sure indications that the sow has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +proved to be a good milker. This is a mistaken +view; it is with sows as with cows, the most prolific +milkers are those with well formed and soft udders +which almost disappear when the lactation period +has passed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII +<br /> +MATING THE YOUNG SOW</h3> + + +<p>As in most other details in the management of our +domesticated animals there exists a variety of +opinion as to the age at which the young sow, or, as +it is commonly locally termed, a gilt, yelt, yilt, +hilt, elt, etc., should be mated with the boar. Perhaps +the most important point to consider is the +time of the year when the anticipated pigs should +arrive. If possible the period between the middle +of the month of September and the middle of +December should be avoided. The long nights and +the short and dull days generally experienced +during this period are most unsuitable for young +pigs. Many litters of pigs farrowed in October are +not any larger nor nearly as thrifty in the month +of March as those farrowed during the early portion +of January in the following year, and very frequently +the loss amongst the October and November +farrowed pigs from lameness, or, as it is commonly +termed, cramp, is very large. An attempt should +be made so that the two litters which should be +bred each year from the sow arrive so that they are +weaned during the longer and brighter days of the +year; thus a sow which farrows in the beginning +of February may be expected to farrow again in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +July. The weather is sometimes rather cold for +little pigs early in the year, but it is surprising how +little they are affected by it providing the sow +furnishes a good supply of milk and the bedding is +dry and plentiful. The pigs farrowed in the months +of January and February are generally the most +profitable, as they will be ready for the consumption +of the separated milk, butter milk, whey, etc., +which is generally abundant in the month of May +in districts where dairying and cheese making are +followed. These pigs are also ready for turning +out to grass in April or May, or as soon as the weather +is suitable, and the grass has grown sufficiently. +These young pigs will grow and thrive splendidly +providing that some additional food is fed to them +and shelter provided.</p> + +<p>This natural system of pig raising is of great +benefit to those pigs which are intended for breeding +purposes and was consistently followed by the +writer from the year 1863. It was by no means a +new plan even at that period, although strange +claims have recently been made that the system is a +novel one and originated in the fertile brain of one +or two enthusiasts who have gone the whole hog in +pig breeding. In the middle of the last century it +was quite a common practice in parts of the counties +of Cambridge, Essex, and Suffolk to graze the seeds +which comprised clovers, trefoils, etc., with pigs +which received in addition extra food, such as peas +or beans in accordance with the amount of vegetable +food obtainable or the purpose for which the pigs +were required; those intended for pork receiving +the larger supply.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p> + +<p>Although it may not be possible to allow the +young boar pigs to have their liberty after they +become five months old, yet the sow pigs will grow +and develop far better in the field if properly fed +than they will in an inclosed sty; further, the young +pigs which they produce will be much more lusty +than if the sows had been kept in close confinement.</p> + +<p>Although the sow pig will generally come in heat +when she is about six months old, it is advisable +that she should not be mated until she is some +eight months old, so that her first litter of pigs is +not farrowed until she is about a year old, when she +should be quite strong enough to rear a fair litter +of pigs and also to grow and develop into a fully +natured specimen of its breed.</p> + +<p>In some districts where the breeding pigs are +generally kept in confinement and high keeping is +followed the sow pigs are mated with the boar at +an earlier age, but the system has its disadvantages +which more than outweigh the saving of the extra +few weeks of the keep of the yelt ere she is put to +the boar. This early mating is especially harmful if +the number of the pigs in the first litter should be +large. So few pig keepers have the hardihood to +knock a certain portion of the too numerous litter +on the head, and so reduce the number to say seven +or eight, which most young sows should be able to +rear fairly well and without any undue drain on +the sow's system—but the whole of the large litter +are left on the sow, which becomes very much +reduced in condition, and checked in growth, whilst +the too large litter of pigs are badly reared and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +frequently become a source of trouble and annoyance +to the owner.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, there are many practical pig +keepers who make it a rule to delay the mating of +their young sows beyond the eight months' age. +They contend that a sow pig at eight months is not +sufficiently matured to bear the strain of producing +a litter of pigs when she is about one year old, and +then to furnish the pigs with a sufficiency of milk to +give them a good start in life. The plan which they +adopt is to mate the sow when she is about a year +old so that she is some sixteen months old before +her family troubles commence.</p> + +<p>Another very curious reason has been recently +made public by an enthusiastic novice for delaying +the mating of the yelt until she is at least a year +old. It is the following, that it is quite possible to +ensure that the produce of young sows which have +reached the age of sixteen or seventeen months ere +they farrow their first litter shall possess the desired +characteristics of the breed, whereas this is by no +means certain if the young pigs arrive before the +sow has reached that age or is about a year old. +Unfortunately, we have see no attempt made to +account for this alleged curious variation in the +qualities inherited from a parent of about one year +old and the parent which had arrived at the more +matured age of about sixteen months, so that it is +impossible to discover a solution of the strange +problem.</p> + +<p>Therefore, we should be unable to admit the +correctness of the assertion even though it was not +directly in opposition to our belief which is founded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +on experience of a most extensive character extending +over some sixty years. To aver that the power +of a young sow to impress its hereditary characteristics +on its young are only fully developed by +deferring the arrival of the young pigs for four or +five months, or until the sow is sixteen instead of +twelve months old when she farrows must surely +cause surprise, if not, disbelief. Perhaps the object +of the propounder of the theory was to create a discussion—it +could not have been to bring his name +prominently before the public.</p> + +<p>Another advantage in mating the young sow so +that her first litter appears when she is about a year +old, her daughters will in turn farrow during the +most suitable months of the year, providing of +course that she herself had been farrowed in early +spring or about the month of July.</p> + +<p>When the sow pig which is intended to be kept +for breeding has been farrowed in some other part +of the year, it is advisable to defer beyond the eight +months the mating of her so that she farrows at the +best times, or perhaps even better than that, if the +pigs are not intended for breeding purposes, would +it be to have the sow mated when she is about +eight months old, and then allow the pigs to remain +on the sow a few weeks beyond the usual period of +eight weeks so that the pigs are taken off the sow +three or four days before it is desired to have her +again mated with the boar. The risk of the sow +returning to the boar will be minimised, as a sow +which has been baulked is sometimes difficult to +settle. In addition, the sow will be stronger and +more vigorous and likely to produce a strong<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +litter of pigs, whilst the piglings will scarcely miss +their mother's milk when they are weaned from +her.</p> + +<p>Those pig breeders who are in favour of withholding +the boar from the young sow until she is +about a year old aver that early mating results in +the sow becoming worn out and useless for breeding +at a much younger age than if she be not mated +until she is well matured. This is not in accordance +with the writer's experience, as many of his sows +which farrowed their first litter when they were +about a year old continued to breed regularly until +they were six or seven years old—indeed, one +Middle White, Holywell Victoria Countess farrowed +her last litter when she was in her eleventh year. +This sow also disproved the confident assertion that +the showing of sows renders them comparatively +useless for breeding purposes, since she not only +continued to rear her pigs well, but she produced a +number of most successful prize winning boars and +sows, and also won many prizes herself from the +age of five months to five years.</p> + +<p>The principal cause of premature old age amongst +sows is not due to their being first mated when they +are eight months old, but to the want of care in the +management and feeding of the sow during her +pregnancy and whilst she is suckling her litter of +pigs. To a sow with a good constitution the act of +breeding and rearing a family of pigs is only the +most important act of nature which cannot be +harmful to her, providing that she received that +amount of proper food and attention which nature +required.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p> + +<p>There may be very occasional instances of harm +being done to the breeding sow by over feeding, or +rather by injudicious feeding, but in comparison +there are hundreds of instances where under feeding +and neglect are the cause of trouble and loss.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER IX +<br /> +THE FARROWING SOW</h3> + + +<p>The pregnant sow usually carries her pigs about +sixteen weeks. The variations are neither great nor +numerous, when they do occur it is usually with +sows with their first litters or aged sows which +sometimes farrow ere the full time has expired, or +with robust sows in good condition which occasionally +carry their young beyond the one hundred and +twelve days which may be taken as the average +period.</p> + +<p>We assume that each owner of a breeding sow +keeps a record of the date of service of the sow in +order that the necessary preparation of the sty, +etc., can be made in readiness for the arrival of the +expected litter. Even when this wise precaution is +neglected nature gives a sufficient warning to the +observant owner. Apart from the increasing size +of the body, the udder gradually becomes more +prominent, and each pap becomes more defined, +the vulva becomes enlarged and the muscles on +either side of the tail fall away and lose their tenseness, +whilst in the vast majority of cases milk appears +in the udder some twelve hours before the arrival +of the pigs. The teats shine and become more prominent, +the presence of milk is easily ascertained by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +gently pressing the teat between the finger and +thumb.</p> + +<p>Another certain indication of the early arrival of +a family is the act of the sow carrying straw about +in her mouth wherewith to make her farrowing bed.</p> + +<p>One of the chief causes of trouble with the farrowing +sow arises from the sow not having been allowed +to take sufficient exercise. Of course, the best of all +systems is to allow the sow its complete freedom at +all seasons of the year save when she is within about +a fortnight of her time, and when she is rearing a +litter of pigs. Even if there be no grass field or +paddock in which she is able to pick up a good +portion of her living, or a roadside where she can +get a few blades of grass, an open yard is infinitely +better than the confinement of a sty, as apart from +the reduction in the cost of keep, the sow will produce +stronger pigs, and have a decidedly easier time of +farrowing.</p> + +<p>In the case of a sow showing a disinclination to +take a sufficiency of exercise either owing to laziness, +to high condition, or heaviness of body, it is +advisable to exercise her by walking her about +quietly for a short time each morning and evening +before and after the heat of the day has become +excessive, or has passed off.</p> + +<p>There is a difference of opinion amongst pig +breeders as to the desirability or the reverse of +having someone in attendance on the sow during +the time she is farrowing. Those who object to this +procedure do so on the ground that the presence of +a man simply tends to irritate the sow, and to frequently +cause her to become restless, with the result<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +that the little pigs are trodden upon or become +laid upon and killed. This view is generally held +by those who are not particularly fond of animals, +as evidenced by that occasional intercourse between +pig and owner which consists of rubbing the head +of the pig, or scratching its side, when in response +to the pleasant sensation it rolls over on to its side +like Oliver and asks for more. The trouble if any, +which arises from the owner or pig man being in +the sty with the farrowing sow almost invariably +arises from the absence of a sympathetic feeling +between the two. Sows, and indeed wellnigh all +animals, pine for sympathy and company, and no +animal more so than a pig. Still there are very +occasional instances where the young sow becomes +very excitable as she commences to farrow even when +she and her owner or attendant have previously +been on the best of terms. But there the cause is +not the presence of a human being, but the arrival +of one of her own little pigs. So long as the pigling +remains quiet there is peace, but as soon as the +youngster endeavours to get to the teat and especially +if in the endeavour it utters a cry or a squeak, +the young sow will jump up from her nest and +endeavour to seize the youngster in her mouth, +when unless prevented the sow quickly squeezes all +life out of the pig; and in some cases when the +pressure has been so severe as to break the skin of +the piglet, and the sow tastes blood, she will proceed +to eat the dead pig. When affairs have arrived +at this sad state, the chances of the remaining pigs +having a pleasant reception into the world are comparatively +slight.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p> + +<p>When there exists a good understanding between +the sow and attendant, as there invariably is when +the latter is not rough and unkind, as only bad +tempered men can be, the trouble in a case such as +just referred to is greatly reduced, as the attendant +runs no risk in entering the sty and in removing the +little pigs as they arrive, and placing them in a +hamper or box partially filled with straw until such +time as the sow has completed her farrowing, when +the pigs can be placed against the sow's udder, and +providing they do not bite her, all will settle down in +peace and comfort.</p> + +<p>In order to avoid the slightest risk of trouble it is +advisable when the pigs are apart from the sow to +break off with a pair of pliers the four little teeth +with which the pigs are endowed prior to their +birth. Care being taken to remove the pigs beyond +the hearing of the sow each little pig in turn is tucked +under the left arm, the mouth is opened by the left +hand, and the teeth pressed hard with the pliers, or +even a slight turn of the wrist given, when necessary, +and the brittle teeth are crushed.</p> + +<p>As soon as the placenta or afterbirth is ejected +this should be removed. A little slop food should +be fed to the sow, and whilst she is eating it, the +wettest part of the bedding should be replaced by a +little short and dry straw just enough to render the +nest comfortable for the little pigs. The nest should +be disturbed as little as possible, as should the whole +of it be removed and fresh straw given, the sow will +probably spend a considerable time in remaking the +nest, and in the meantime the little pigs will be in +danger from a chill, or in being mixed up in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +straw and being laid upon. The risk from delay in +the sow laying down and suckling her pigs is much +greater in cold weather, as not only will they become +chilled, but they will persist in crowding +round the sow and so run the greater risk of +being trodden upon, or rolled up in the bedding +in the effort of the sow to remake her comfortable +nest.</p> + +<p>Some persons strongly recommend the giving of +a strong dose of medicine to the sow after she has +farrowed. In ordinary cases this is not necessary, +the farrowing of a litter of pigs is a simple and +natural operation. In those occasional instances +where manual assistance has to be given to the sow +owing to the unusual size of the pig, or wrong +presentation, or even of a pig which has been dead +for a day or two and has begun to decompose and +consequently to increase in bulk, it is advisable to +give medicine to the sow, since there is every probability +of some amount of inflammation due to the +insertion of the hand. As the sow's bowels are +likely to be somewhat constipated it is always advisable +to exercise her for a few minutes during the +morning after she has farrowed. In most cases the +exercise will at once cause her to relieve her bowels +and her bladder, when she can be returned to her +sty.</p> + +<p>We found sharps, or the finest portion of miller's +offals (which usually go by varying names in +different parts of the country), the most suitable +food for newly farrowed sows, and until the pigs +were at least four weeks old. Some persons recommend +that a portion of the food should consist of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +bran, this on two grounds—the first that its use +tends to prevent constipation, and secondly on +account of the food analysis which it gives. Our +experience has been that when sharps are fed to the +sow no trouble should arise from constipation, +whilst as to the nutriment which bran contains the +claim may be good, but the pig is unable to extract +it; so large a proportion of the bran passes through +the pig in an undigested condition. As a rule the +pig, unlike the horse, cow, or sheep, does not masticate +its food, nor does it, like the two last named, +chew its cud, but it usually bolts its food, and thus +casts a greater labour on its digestive organs which +have neither the time nor power to extract the +whole of the nutriment from the bran. In addition +to this, bran tends to too great looseness of the +bowels, which in the case of young pigs tends to +become diarrhÅ“a.</p> + +<p>There is a tendency on the part of some pigmen +who are over anxious to succeed to feed the sow too +large a quantity of food during the first ten days or +so after she has farrowed. During this period the +demand on the sow is really not much greater than +it was during the last two or three weeks of carrying +the pigs. As the pigs grow older an increased +supply of food is necessary, but for a week or two +after the arrival of the pigs twice feeding of the sow +should suffice unless she is very low in condition, +or a very large litter of pigs is left on her. In such +cases it may be advisable to feed her three times +per day just as much as she will promptly clear up. +It is a great mistake to give so much food at one +time that a portion is left over in the trough, particularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +is this so when the pigs are over three +weeks old, as nothing so quickly upsets the stomachs +of the youngsters as sour food. If in ordinary cases +feeding the sow three times daily is persisted in, the +same quantity of food given should simply be distributed +over the three feedings, as an excess of +food is only less a mistake than underfeeding.</p> + +<p>Three of the most common troubles with young +pigs are diarrhÅ“a, fits, and loss of the tail. There is +a belief amongst many old pigmen that every litter +of pigs is bound to have at least one attack of +diarrhÅ“a ere it is weaned. They look upon it as a +fatality which is certain to eventuate, no matter +what steps may be taken. Of course, this is folly. +The liability of little pigs to an attack of what is +commonly called scouring is great as the causes are +several, amongst them the greatest is perhaps a +chill which may arise from draughts owing to faulty +construction of the sty doors or ventilators neglected; +insufficient, unsuitable, or damp bedding; +neglect of proper sanitation, or the frequent cleaning +out of the sty; and most frequently of all from +injudicious feeding of the sow. In fact, anything +which affects the health of the young pig to any +great extent appears to result in indigestion, which +causes constipation, and this in turn nature endeavours +to remove by a special effort which softens +the fæces somewhat. On removal of the cause of +the constipation, the bowels perform their duty +normally, but if this be not removed the result is +diarrhÅ“a, which again if continued for any length of +time often becomes dysentery, when the fever is +acute; the pigling neglects its mother's teat, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +instead sucks up any moisture however foul which +it can find in the sty. This is almost invariably a +precursor of death.</p> + +<p>From the above it will be gathered that prevention +is better than cure. In case of an attack, +the first thing is to discover the cause, and the +second is to remove it, when, generally speaking, the +trouble ceases. As a help to this end, depriving the +sow of one meal is recommended. Coal, cinders, or +even earth will be readily eaten by the young +pigs and prove of benefit. Medicine is not often +required if the steps recommended are promptly +taken.</p> + +<p>In our earlier days hog's madder was the common +medicine used with pigs for most ailments, but of +late years sulphur appears to have taken its place. +It is less violent than castor oil, which is apt to +cause constipation of the bowels after its first effect +has passed off.</p> + +<p>The soreness of the tails, which if not attended +to generally results in the pig becoming bob-tailed, +appears most generally in damp and cold +weather, and is the result of impaired circulation of +the blood. The cure is simple. The application of +fat or oil as soon as the tail becomes red and cold, +twice per day, and continued for two or three days +will almost always result in a cure. For some years +we used boro-glyceride, a compound, we believe, of +boracic acid and glycerine, but we are not certain +that it is now procurable.</p> + +<p>The third of the common troubles of the young +pig is fits of an apoplectic and epileptic character. +As a rule the shortest, thickest, and fattest pigs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +the litter are those which are affected. This points +to the chief cause, too much food in the form of +mother's milk. A reduction in the quantity of the +food fed to the sow will generally be effectual, +except when the pigs are old enough to eat. Then +both the quantity and the quality of the food given +to them should be reduced. Prompt removal of +the cause is usually sufficient, but it may be necessary +to mix a little medicine in the food in persistent +cases, or when remedial measures are not promptly +taken. The ordinary symptoms are unmistakable, +the pig falls on its side, struggles and gasps for +breath, then in a minute or two it rises and appears +to be little the worse. Unless continued over a +period, fits are not usually fatal.</p> + +<p>Very occasionally young pigs suffer from the protrusion +of the rectum, or as it is commonly termed +"shooting of the gut." This is due to various +causes which result in straining. Of these constipation +and diarrhÅ“a are the two most common. As +soon as the protrusion of the gut is noticeable, the +enlargement should be carefully washed, then oiled +and gently pressed back into its natural position. +Some pigmen advise the dusting of flour on to the +protruded portion before it is returned, but there is +a risk of increasing the amount of inflammation +which is generally present. If known the original +cause of the trouble should be removed, but in +any case it is advisable not to give any solid +food to the pig for two or three days after the +operation.</p> + +<p>Still another of the troubles to which pig flesh is +heir is hernia, or rupture. This is of two kinds,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +umbilical and scrotum. The former is the escape of +a portion of the bowels through an imperfectly +closed navel opening, whilst the latter shows itself +in an enlargement of the scrotum or purse due to +an escape into it of a portion of the abdominal +contents. Both of these ailments are considered to +be hereditary, but the most common and the most +troublesome is the latter, since there is always a +chance of strangulation of the escaped portions, +which nearly always results in death.</p> + +<p>At one time it was considered to be inadvisable +to castrate the boar pigs affected, but of late years +the plan has been adopted of making only one incision +in the scrotum in place of two, and making +that one as high as possible. Then after the operation +is performed, the aperture is sown up. The pig +should be fed lightly for a day or two in order to +give time for the healing of the wound.</p> + +<p>Umbilical hernia is not generally of much importance, +the navel opening gradually closes as the +pig grows stronger and the enlargement disappears. +It is advisable not to breed from a sow pig which +has been affected, nor to continue to use a boar +which has begotten ruptured pigs, as both failings +are hereditary.</p> + +<p>For a time at least, there is certain to be a difficulty +in obtaining a full supply of sharps, even of +the greatly reduced feeding value of the present +quantity available. It may, therefore, be advisable +to refer to another system of feeding the suckling +sow and the young pigs. It is now perforce being +generally adopted, but the result is not generally +considered to be equal to the old system recommended.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +It is that of feeding pigs of the kind +mentioned on vegetable food, and a mixture of +palm nut, cocoa nut, ground nut, or linseed cake. +The proportions fed at the Cambridge University +Farm are mangolds 20 lbs.; a mixture of two parts +palm nut cake, and one part cocoa nut cake, 2 lbs.; +linseed cake, 2 lbs.; and ground nut cake, 1 lb. +The two former were fed in the morning and evening, +and the other two at midday. The various +cakes seem to have been fed in a dry condition, but +other pig feeders have found it beneficial to soak +the cake in water for some twelve hours. This view +seems to have received support from the practice +at Cambridge, which was to mix the cake with the +cut mangolds twenty-four hours before being fed +to the pigs so that at least a portion of the cake +would become softened by the mangold juice. +Almost any kind of vegetable matter containing a +fair amount of nutrition would be equally as suitable +as mangold, indeed more so during the period +from October to April. In the winter months +cooked potatoes; kohl rabi, swedes, parsnips, +cabbages, artichokes, etc., fed raw; and in the +summer grass, lucerne, clover, vetches, rape, or +almost any kind of vegetable food will be readily +eaten by the pigs. Even where the wasteful practice +of peeling the potatoes before being cooked for +the household is still followed (and just how wasteful +this old-fashioned plan is has been lately proved +to be a loss of nearly one quarter of the nutriment)—it +is advisable to boil the parings and then mix +the whole with the pig's food.</p> + +<p>It cannot be too strongly impressed on pig<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +keepers that a certain proportion of vegetable food +is most beneficial for pigs of all ages, as not only is +a saving in cost effected, but the pigs will continue +in a more healthy condition than when fed solely +on meal or other concentrated food.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F80" id="Figure_F80"></a> +<a href="images/imagep080_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep080_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="358" alt="LARGE WHITE BOAR." +title="LARGE WHITE BOAR." /></a> +<span class="caption">LARGE WHITE BOAR. +<br /> +The property of the Author. The Winner of many Prizes. +<br /> +To face page 80.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F81" id="Figure_F81"></a> +<a href="images/imagep081_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep081_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="326" alt="TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES."" +title="TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES."" /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i> +<br /> +TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES."</span> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER X +<br /> +WEANING PIGS</h3> + + +<p>There are few points in connection with the breeding +and feeding of pigs on which there is a greater +diversity of opinion and practice than on the question +of the weaning of the young pigs.</p> + +<p>For instance, take the age at which it is most +satisfactory to take the pigs off the sow. This +practice varies greatly in different districts, and +even in the same district where one would naturally +suppose that the determining influences would be +similar weaning at five or six weeks old.</p> + +<p>One pig breeder will declare that a little pig of +five or six weeks old should be and is able to support +itself alone, and will act accordingly. Should perchance +a litter weaned thus early cease to grow the +excuses made will be various.</p> + +<p>The weather is at fault, it is either too hot or too +cold, or the sharps, etc., on which they have been +fed were not good or sweet, that the sow's milk was +not sufficiently plentiful, or it was wanting in +nutriment. In fact, any excuse will be made rather +than the actual cause admitted.</p> + +<p>In far too many instances the real reason for the +want of thrift on the part of the young pigs taken +from their mother when they are not more than five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +or six weeks old is that their digestive organs are +not sufficiently developed as to enable them to +digest enough food to nourish them properly.</p> + +<p>Another excuse often made for what we consider +to be undue haste in weaning young pigs is the alleged +desire of the owner not to waste the time of the sow. +He is anxious to have her served again and hasten +the arrival of the next litter.</p> + +<p>Occasionally it is found to be unnecessary to wean +the pigs for this purpose as the sow will come in +heat and can be served by the boar, but if she should +become in pig the result will be much the same so +far as the pigs are concerned, since as soon as the +sow has conceived the milk will promptly cease or +become very reduced in quantity and quality.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, if the sow does not stand to +the boar time may be wasted. It is most unlikely +that the sow will again become in heat for some three +weeks, whereas this almost always occurs within a +few days of the weaning of the litter of pigs.</p> + +<p>Then another extreme, and one which is practised +by some pig breeders, is to allow the young pigs to +remain on the sow until the former are from ten to +twelve weeks old. It is claimed for this practice +that the young pigs grow much faster when left on +the sow than when weaned, and that less food is +consumed for a live weight increase from a given +quantity of food. Also, it is said that food of more +inferior kind can be fed to the sow than could be +fed to the pigs if they were weaned, and thus the +sow and litter are kept at less expense, and that if +the pigs are not weaned until nearly three months, +the milk of the sow will have gradually ceased to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +flow, and the pigs will not miss the help from their +dam. Their digestive organs will then have become +sufficiently developed to enable them to make the +best use of the food given to them, and they will +sustain no check in thrift or growth when they are +weaned.</p> + +<p>In this question of weaning pigs the good old +fashioned plan of following the middle course will +probably be found to be the best. Anyway, it was +the one which we followed for a great number of +years and found the results generally satisfactory +for the following among other reasons.</p> + +<p>As a breeder of pure bred pigs for sale as boars or +yelts for breeding purposes, we were naturally +anxious to give the pigs a good start in life so that +we should be able to sell them as quickly as possible, +and that they should thrive when they came into +the possession of their new owners, and thus prove +the best possible advertisement of our herds. As a +rule we found that if the pigs were allowed to remain +on the sows until they were some eight weeks +old they were quite strong enough to fend for +themselves, that by gradually increasing the length +of time which the sow was allowed to remain from +the pigs, the latter became accustomed to exist +without the mother's milk, and as the milk of the +sow naturally dried up when the pigs partially +ceased to withdraw it, no trouble was experienced +with inflamed udders as is usually or commonly the +case when the pigs are suddenly weaned from a sow +which is in full milk.</p> + +<p>There is also another advantage apart from that +to the sow and pigs, it is that the sow will almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +invariably come in heat within three or four days +of the weaning, and with the best possible chance +of becoming in pig.</p> + +<p>Some pig keepers are more inclined to wean their +litter of pigs at an early age, and then if the sow be +low in condition to baulk her at the first time of +Å“strum. There are objections to this—one of them +is that there is frequently a difficulty in getting the +sow to conceive after she has been baulked. Why +this should be so we have not been able to ascertain. +We only record what we know to be a fact.</p> + +<p>In our opinion this difficulty is one of the strongest +points in favour of the practice of allowing the +young pigs of a sow with her first litter, or of an old +sow which has become low in condition (either from +having had too many pigs left on her, or from other +natural cause), to remain on the sow for a longer +period than about eight weeks. Some persons will +keep the pigs on the sow until they are nearly three +months old in the belief that both sow and pigs are +benefited, and that the pigs can be kept quite as +cheaply if not more so when unweaned than weaned. +They also claim that the sow is so much stronger +and better fitted to prepare for another litter. +Experiments have been carried out in the United +States which go far to prove that the first of these +two claims is founded on fact; and it has further +been demonstrated that certain foods can be fed to +the sow without affecting the thrift and health of +the pigs which could not with safety be fed to the +latter direct, yet when fed through the sow the +pigs will thrive on the milk produced therefrom. It +is entirely a question of the cost of a rest for the sow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +during the extra two or three weeks, and the benefit +to the sow and her pigs.</p> + +<p>One occasionally sees in the press a claim for +what is considered to be a great achievement in that +some one has bred three litters of pigs from one sow +within the year. There really is something wonderful +in this since of the fifty-two weeks constituting +a year, the sow would be carrying her pigs some +forty-eight weeks. This would allow only four +weeks for the two litters of pigs to be suckled, and +this would also include the few days between the +pigs being weaned and the sow coming in heat. +Apart from the natural difficulty of successfully +breeding three litters of pigs from one sow within +twelve months, there exists a far greater possibility +of loss rather than of gain from unduly hurrying +on the arrival of each litter of pigs from a sow, +especially of the profitable kind of sow.</p> + +<p>Some forty years since when Small Whites, Small +Blacks, and short thick Berkshires were fashionable, +the number of pigs in each litter was few, and the +number reared still fewer, owing to the limited +quantity of milk furnished by the sow. Now, the +Large Black, the Large White, the Middle White, the +Lincolnshire Curly Coat, the old Gloucester Spots, +the Tamworth, the Cumberland, and even the sows +of most of the local breeds of pigs are expected to +rear nine or ten pigs each litter. Even if it were +possible for a sow to bring forth three litters within +the year, she could not possibly do justice to them +either before or after the piglings arrived in this +world; and further, the life of such a sow would of +necessity be a short one. It must not be forgotten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +that in the production of each litter of pigs the sow +is compelled to manufacture from 20 to 30 lbs. of +flesh, skin, hair, etc., which together constitute the +newly farrowed pig, and very frequently this has +to be accomplished on a far too limited supply of +suitable food.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F96" id="Figure_F96"></a> +<a href="images/imagep096_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep096_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="302" alt="MIDDLE WHITE SOW." +title="MIDDLE WHITE SOW." /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>From a Painting by Wippell.</i> +<br /> +MIDDLE WHITE SOW. +<br /> +To face page 96.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F97" id="Figure_F97"></a> +<a href="images/imagep097_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep097_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="320" alt="CUMBERLAND SOW." +title="CUMBERLAND SOW." /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Block kindly supplied by Cumberland Pig Breeders' Association, Carlisle.</i> +<br /> +CUMBERLAND SOW. +<br /> +Owned by Mr. Carr, Kirkbride, Carlisle.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XI +<br /> +THE REARING OF YOUNG PIGS</h3> + + +<p>One of the most important points in the profitable +raising of stock is to give the animals a good start +in their earliest days. There is an old and true +saying amongst shepherds that the best and most +profitable sheep are those which have never lost +their lamb fat. It may with equal truth be +declared that the most profitable pig is the one +which has a good start when on its mother, +and never afterwards lacks suitable food, judiciously +given.</p> + +<p>At frequent intervals, the question as to the +number of pigs which a sow should have left on her +to rear is the subject of discussion in the press. At +each of these periods very similar arguments for and +against large litters are used with much the same +inconclusive results. This probably arises to a great +extent from the varying conditions under which the +particular litter of pigs is to be reared. The time of +year has a vast influence, a sow farrowing in May +will more successfully rear a dozen pigs than she +would bring up ten if they were farrowed in the +month of October.</p> + +<p>The age and condition of the sow should also be +considered. A young sow of about twelve months<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +should not have more than seven or eight pigs left +on her to rear, whereas with her succeeding litters +until she is at least four years old she would rear at +least ten pigs each litter. After the sow has reached +the age of about four years, if that time has been +fully employed in her maternal duties, she becomes +gradually less able to rear so large a number of pigs +with an equal amount of success. It is then advisable +to vary the number according to the season, +and to the physical condition of the sow; generally +speaking an aged sow will bring up more +pigs in the summer months than in the colder +months.</p> + +<p>Reference is made elsewhere to the manner in +which the young pigs should be cared for until they +are weaned from their dam, but no harm can arise +from a repetition of the advice that the young pigs +should be so managed and fed that only the very +slightest difference will be noticed by the youngsters +when parted from their mother. Many pigs are +permanently checked in growth by being suddenly +deprived of a full supply of mother's milk if weaned +when their digestive organs are insufficiently developed +as to treat a sufficiency of food to make +growth and progress without the assistance received +from their mother's milk.</p> + +<p>Opinions differ as to the age at which little pigs +are sufficiently developed as to exist and thrive +without their dam's help. Here again the time of +the year, not only as far as the weather is concerned, +but the desirability of prompt or deferred remating +of the sow in order that her succeeding litters should +arrive during the most favourable portions of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +year, must be considered. The thrift and growth of +each litter of pigs varies greatly. The health of the +sow, her condition before farrowing, and other +causes, some of which are not always on the surface, +have their influence, but it may be taken as a rule +that young pigs are fully able to fend for themselves +by the time they are eight weeks old. Should it be +possible to allow the pigs to remain on the sow for +so long a time as twelve weeks without prejudicing +the next litters as to the time of year of their arrival, +the pigs may benefit, and no loss of food will be +sustained, since it has been clearly proved that pigs +beyond the age of eight weeks can be fed quite as +economically, if not more so, on the sow than if +weaned. It may also be possible to feed the sow on +somewhat coarser and less expensive food than +could be satisfactorily fed to the young pigs, as her +digestive organs would be better able to treat the +coarser food. Another advantage generally follows +keeping the pigs for a longer time on the sow if the +latter be well fed is that she will be in a stronger +and better condition to start the building up of her +next litter.</p> + +<p>As a rule young pigs will commence to eat when +they are from three to four weeks old. If the sow is +fed in the sty in which the little pigs are, these will +endeavour to share in the food; at first they may +content themselves with licking any food which +may be outside the trough, but they quickly show a +desire for more, and attempt to get into the trough. +When this is evident, it is advisable to feed the +little pigs apart from the sow; a low flat trough is +best, as one with high sides is said to cause "high<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +backed" pigs, or pigs suffering from a curvature of +the spine. If a little milk can be obtained, the pigs +will promptly drink it, if the milk be whole they will +thrive best, but even if only skim or separated milk +be obtainable, or butter milk, providing that it be +drawn off ere the salt is put into the churn, a small +quantity will be beneficial, but the pigs will not be +able to digest so large a quantity of the separated +as of the whole milk. The former is apt to have a +constipating effect on the bowels of the youngsters. +Should an ample supply of separated milk be available +it can be fed through the sow, who will be +better able to digest it, and whose yield of milk will +be increased, provided that sufficient separated +milk to affect her bowels be not given to her. A +few kernels of wheat or white peas will be readily +eaten by the little pigs, which will benefit therefrom.</p> + +<p>If no other food is available, sharps, or whatever +the local term for the finer miller's offals may be, +mixed with a little warm water and fed to the piglings, +will prove beneficial, care being taken to give +only so much as the pigs will eat up readily, or that +any surplus is taken away, so that it does not become +sour, as in this last condition it will cause +diarrhÅ“a in the young pigs.</p> + +<p>When the pigs are about six weeks old the sow +can be allowed to remain from them for a longer +time, and the youngsters fed two or three times each +day. The sow's milk will then gradually dry up, +and the pigs will become accustomed to the food, +so that when the latter are about eight weeks old +they will have become weaned naturally, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +receive no check from the loss of the sow's milk. +This system, will also prevent any trouble arising +from the collection of milk in the sow's udder, and +the occasional attacks of inflammation or garget +which follow a chill to the sow when her udder is in +an inflamed condition from being closely impacted +with milk.</p> + +<p>Assuming that the economical and beneficial +practice of supplying the suckling sow with vegetable +food of some kind after the pigs are some three or +four weeks old has been adopted, the pigs will have +become accustomed to its consumption. It will be +found to be advisable to continue this whether it +has taken the form of cooked potatoes, of mangolds, +swedes, kohl rabi, cabbages, artichokes, etc., as +not only will the food bill be reduced, as the pigs +will make equal growth and thrift on food containing +say ten per cent of vegetable matter as they will if +fed wholly on sharps, but the vegetable food will +have a beneficial effect on the health of the pigs, and +tend to prevent those attacks of constipation and +diarrhÅ“a which are so frequently the result of food +of too rich a character.</p> + +<p>Of the vegetable foods, cooked potatoes and raw +artichokes are the most nourishing and the most +readily eaten, lucerne and clover in a green state +come next in food value and favouritism with the +pigs; cabbages are credited with causing constipation +when fed to young pigs, whilst mangolds are +said to have the opposite effect, and in addition +when grown on light land by the aid of artificial +manure mangolds are apt to affect the kidneys and +cause excessive urination. Kohl rabi are not so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +much used in the feeding of pigs as would +be advisable. They are easily grown and will +take the place of swedes on land on which swedes +are subject to mildew; they are very nutritious, +and are readily eaten by both old and young +pigs.</p> + +<p>Coleseed is not used in the feeding of pigs in this +country to anything approaching the same extent as +in Canada and the United States; its value and +results are of a very similar character to those of +cabbages. Tares or vetches contain too large a +proportion of water for young pigs, and they also +have a tendency to cause looseness of the bowels. +The growth of maize for feeding to pigs in a green +state has been recommended by some writers, but +in practice we found it most unsuitable for young +pigs, and of little value for aged pigs, owing to the +small proportion of nourishment contained in it in +comparison with its bulk. Further, pigs both old +and young will refuse to eat it unless driven by +hunger. It is needless to remark that no pigs, +especially young ones, will thrive under such conditions.</p> + +<p>One of the most common mistakes made by pig +feeders is allowing too long a time to pass between +feeding times. Twice or three times per day is considered +to be quite frequent enough, whereas prior +to their being weaned the pigs would have had a +meal wellnigh each two hours both day and night. +Infrequent meals result in the pigs becoming so +hungry that they bolt their food, and a greater +quantity than is desirable, and then suffer from +indigestion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p> + +<p>It must also be remembered that the pig's capacity +for storing food is very small, especially as compared +with some others of our domesticated animals. +Four or five meals per day at least should be given +to newly weaned pigs. That most troublesome of +ailments commonly termed cramp more generally +results from injudicious feeding than from all other +causes combined. Even when the young pigs are +properly fed on suitable food there is a tendency in +some little pigs to attacks of cramp. One of the +best preventatives and even remedies is to compel +the pigs to leave their nests late in the evening or +prior to the pigman retiring for the night, as they +will then relieve the bowels and bladder. Otherwise, +particularly in cold weather, the pigs would +remain quiescent in their nests from feeding time +in the afternoon until they were fed the following +morning, or in winter a period of some fifteen or +sixteen hours—far too long a time for the good +health of the young pigs.</p> + +<p>Another point which requires attention is the +provision of a dry bed. Pigs are naturally +clean animals, and will not as a rule foul their +bed when they are in a healthy state. Still +the straw will in winter time become damp solely +from the moisture thrown off by the pigs when +huddled together in their nest. All damp litter +should be carefully removed at least once each +day.</p> + +<p>The best of all materials for the bedding of pigs +is wheat straw. This will absorb a larger amount +of moisture than any other kind of straw, whilst the +skin and hair of the pigs will remain of a brighter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +colour than if bedded on oat or barley straw. Of +these two, the former is more suitable than the latter, +which so readily becomes damp and foul. In those +parts of the country where comparatively little +corn is grown, sawdust and wood shavings are +commonly used for litter for pigs. So far as the comfort +of the pigs is concerned there is little difference +as compared with straw with regard to pigs of all +ages in the warmer weather, but in the winter little +pigs suffer, as they are unable to make the warm +nest which straw enables them to make and +enjoy.</p> + +<p>When peat moss was first introduced it was +strongly recommended for the bedding of pigs. It +was claimed for it that it was a far better absorbent +of moisture than sawdust, and that its manurial +value was much greater. It is probable that both +claims are founded on fact, as sawdust is of comparatively +no value as a manure. But there exists +one serious objection to the use of peat moss as +litter for young pigs. It is that the pigs are +given to eat it, that it causes severe attacks of +indigestion, and often the death of the pig eating +it.</p> + +<p>Of late years the spaying of the sow pigs has +ceased to be general. The causes of this neglect +may be several, amongst them the dislike of trouble, +but perhaps the main reason is that the so-called +store period of the pig's life is now so much shorter +than in the olden days, and consequently the +loss of food, and the risk of the arrival of +unexpected litters of pigs are less, from the repeated +periods of heat, indeed under the present<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +or recent conditions of pig keeping a large proportion +of the pigs are killed ere they have +become sufficiently developed to be troublesome in +this respect.</p> + +<p>Still, there is little doubt that the castrating and +spaying of young pigs at about the age of six weeks, +or before they have been weaned from the sow is +advisable and the cost of the operation is well repaid. +An unspayed sow pig becomes a nuisance in +company with other pigs, and when it is put up to +fatten will make no progress on some three or four +days during each three weeks when she ordinarily +becomes in heat.</p> + +<p>In addition to her own waste of time she will, if +penned with others, be continually worrying her +mates and preventing them from resting and thriving.</p> + +<p>Until recently another objection was taken to the +unspayed sow pig, it was that if she were killed +during the period of Å“strum that great difficulty +would be experienced in curing the meat properly, +and that signs of her heated condition would be +noticed in the mammary glands in the form of +dark globules of what was considered to be blood, +but investigation carried out at the University Farm +at Cambridge by Messrs. Russell and Kenneth +Mackensie have proved that the discoloration and +the consequent loss in value of a certain portion of +the belly of a side of bacon is not due to the pig +having been in a state of heat at the time of its +slaughter, but to an excess of pigment, noticeable +only amongst coloured pigs. Thus, the globules +would be of a dark colour when the bacon was from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +a pig of a black colour, and red from the pigs of the +Tamworth breed. This shows another cause of the +marked preference of the bacon curers for pigs of a +white colour in the manufacture of the highest +priced bacon.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XII +<br /> +HOUSING OF PIGS</h3> + + +<p>In the general management of pigs there are many +points on which improvements might be effected +without any very considerable amount of trouble +or expense. Far too frequently this neglect or want +of care and thought is observable in the housing of +pigs. Many of the sties in the country districts are +neither wind nor water tight, and they are far too +often in a most unsanitary condition, indeed in +such a disgraceful state that some excuse was +afforded for the drastic, if injudicious order of the +sanitary authorities which prohibited the erection +of a pigsty within from sixty to one hundred feet +of a dwelling house. Undoubtedly it would have +been wiser to have permitted the keeping of pigs +within a much shorter distance of the house only so +long as the necessary steps were taken to prevent a +nuisance or a risk of the residents in the house +suffering in health. The proximity of a pigsty to a +house can be rendered perfectly innocuous with +ordinary care, and the cottager not be deprived of +very considerable advantages not only in making a +profit, but in the provision of manure for his allotment +or garden which will benefit greatly from its +application.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> + +<p>The mistakes or want of care in the erection of +pigsties is by no means confined to the owners of +cottages or small holdings, as a considerable proportion +of the piggeries on which great outlay is +expended are equally as unsuitable if not so insanitary. +Even in so-called model buildings the +piggery has often been the last thing thought of; +the stables, the cow house, etc., have been conveniently +placed for feeding the occupants, for air, +light, and sun, and then the piggery has been placed +in whatever spot may have been left unoccupied, +and as this generally happens to be on the northern +side of the buildings, the unhappy pigs are deprived +of the rays of the sun, which are to them +quite as necessary, if not more so, than to any others +of our domesticated animals.</p> + +<p>This same want of sun, and the exposure to cold +is noticeable in only a lesser degree in those buildings +which comprise a double row of sties with a +passage down the centre, a store and a cooking and +mixing house at one end, and an exercise or feeding +yard adjoining. It matters not whether the building +be placed north or south, or east or west, one +half of the sties have a wrong aspect; even if the +sties facing the west can be said to possess one. +The trouble is still greater with the system of +having a yard attached to each sty. The north or +east wind renders the sties with such an aspect a +most uncomfortable and unhealthy place for young +pigs during more than half the year, whilst older +pigs cannot thrive on the same amount of food as +they would if their quarters were comfortable. +Apart from the waste of food which results from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +these draughty and cold sties, the latter are the +chief cause, with injudicious feeding, of that most +troublesome ailment amongst pigs, rheumatic gout, +or, as it is commonly termed, cramp. How very +draughty and uncomfortable these sties are which +have an open yard attached, and an inlet at all +times usable, can be readily discovered in cold and +windy weather by noticing the position in which +the occupant has made its bed. This will be found +not on the highest part of the sty, which will be +opposite to the opening into the yard, but in the +corner next to the opening, since in this position it +is less exposed to the cold wind which rushes into +the sty through the opening.</p> + +<p>Apart from the unhealthiness to the pigs resulting +from the exposure to draughts it is not apparent +to the writer that any advantage is gained from the +provision of these yards. In many instances they +serve only for an excuse to limit the height of the +sties, as unless these are of a fair height there is a +considerable difficulty in cleaning them out. The +money expended on building the yard would easily +cover the extra cost of raising the side walls of the +pigsty by two feet, and thus not only render it free +from draughts, but also make it far more healthy +and less subject to the extremes of heat and cold.</p> + +<p>The ordinary sty with a yard attached is unhealthy +for a growing or matured pig, but in the +colder weather it is simply cruel for newly born pigs, +of which numbers are annually lost from exposure +or are greatly checked in their growth.</p> + +<p>One of the very best places in which to house +pigs in the experience of the writer was a large barn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +with a thatched roof. This was divided off into +sties by partitions some 4 ft. 6 in. high; owing to +the height of the building the temperature was not +unduly high in the hottest weather nor did the pigs +suffer to any extent during severe weather. These +advantages arose mainly from the slight changes in +temperature, and an abundant supply of uncontaminated +air.</p> + +<p>One of the greatest drawbacks to the majority of +the pigsties is the absence of ventilation without +draught. This trouble is especially noticeable +where the side walls are not more than about 4 ft. +high, whilst the proximity of the roof to the pigs +increases the sufferings of the pigs from the heat +when the weather is excessively hot.</p> + +<p>Some of our most successful pig feeders on a large +scale have found it profitable to erect cheap buildings +very similar to small barns, the side walls +being at least 10 feet high. This will permit of +thorough ventilation, quite free from draughts, +whilst the variations in the temperature will be +comparatively slight. The building being complete +within itself, and entirely used for the pigs, there is +no disturbance of the pigs between the feeding times, +so that the pigs will rest and grow fat. These houses +are most suitable for a number of fattening pigs, +whereas for sows and for young sows smaller sties +or houses are more convenient. These should be at +least 10 ft. square, the front 6 ft. 6 in. high, the +doors divided so that the upper half can be opened +when the weather is favourable; ventilation can +be obtained by hanging or sliding doors just under +the eaves so that the pigs are not affected by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +draught; the floor should be laid with brick and +gradually incline to the front of the building so +that the liquid can run through an aperture in the +lower part of the front wall into a cesspool placed +close to the building. A row of these houses, which +should face to the south, can be more cheaply erected +than a single house, as the wooden partitions between +the houses need not be more than 4 ft. high, +and one of these would take the place of two gables +or ends. Several of the houses which the writer +erected had brick foundations and feather-edged +boarded sides and ends; the roofs were of tiles unpointed, +as in this way the houses were much cooler +in the summer, whilst in the winter the upper +portions of the houses were packed with straw +which still permitted of the escape of the foul air, +yet greatly added to the warmth and comfort of the +building.</p> + +<p>The one thing of all others most needful in the +sty or house for the well doing of pigs is a sufficiency +of pure air without draughts; pigs of even a few +days old will suffer less from cold than from moist +and foul hot air. It is not the most costly building +in which pigs will thrive best, but the one in which +they are the most comfortable and free from the +extremes of heat and cold with a dry bed on which +to rest and be thankful.</p> + +<p>When making a tour of the Agricultural Experiment +Stations and Agricultural Schools in Denmark +some few years since, the writer saw near Aarhuss +what was then a novelty in the form of a two +decker pigsty, i.e. a sty with a sleeping place above—one +could scarcely term it an upstairs room as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +access was gained not by stairs but by an inclined +board with struts of wood fastened across it to give +a firm holding to the pigs as they ascended to the +upper story. The incline was very steep, but the +pigs seemed to have no difficulty in getting up and +down. The advantages claimed for it by the +principal were that the sleeping compartment was +so much cleaner and sweeter; that less straw was +required for bedding, and that the pigs were far +more comfortable and rested better than when +boxed up, especially in the summer season when the +heat in the lower portion was very oppressive. The +feeding took place in the lower portion. It was +stated that nearly the whole of the urine and dung +was deposited below. This was a great advantage +as the moisture ran off at once into the drains, and +the solids were easily cleared out as there was no +litter mixed with them, or the dung could be readily +washed into the drains by water from a hose, which +was used in the summer for the purpose of bathing +or of washing the pigs.</p> + +<p>The chief objection to the plan would be its expense, +as unless the pigsties were in a barn or a +shed already erected for some other purpose the +pigsty would have to be so much higher on the side +walls and consequently more strongly built.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F112" id="Figure_F112"></a> +<a href="images/imagep112_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep112_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="324" alt="LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM."" +title="LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM."" /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i> +<br /> +LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM." +<br /> +To face page 112.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F113" id="Figure_F113"></a> +<a href="images/imagep113_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep113_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="322" alt="LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR." +title="LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR." /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo kindly lent by Kenneth MacRae, R.U.A.S., Balmoral, Belfast.</i> +<br /> +LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XIII +<br /> +THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS</h3> + + +<p>When the exhibition of live stock at our numerous +shows became common, a belief sprang up amongst +non-exhibitors that the preparation for show was +most deleterious to the animals shown. It was +also contended that exhibitors were prone to pay +attention, to a far greater extent, to the fancy or +show points of the animals which they bred than +to those utility points which are of infinitely more +importance to the ordinary stock breeder and the +consumer. It was also believed that the feeding or +training which the show stock underwent seriously +affected their procreative powers, and especially so +with the animals of the feminine gender.</p> + +<p>It may at once be frankly admitted that there +existed some ground for the belief that a majority +of the exhibitors did appear to give too great attention +to the claims of the judges who were, in too +many cases, chosen for reasons other than their +knowledge of practical agriculture or the requirements +of the consumers of meat. For so acting, the +exhibitors were not beyond blame, as in the earlier +days of showing, their main object was to win +prizes in order to advertise their stock and so secure +customers for their spare breeding animals. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +actual improvement of the various breeds of stock +did not in those far-off days appear to be of such +vital importance as the world upheaval, of which +the present generation has been the witness, has +proved it to be.</p> + +<p>It may also be fairly claimed that there has been +some slight improvement in the system of feeding +and training followed by the pig exhibitors of to-day. +This is in part due to the fact that the cramming +on rich food and giving little exercise may result in +rendering the show pig in such a state of obesity as +to secure the approval of the non-practical judge, +who is unable to appraise the points of a pig when +in its natural breeding condition, but that to be +able to follow the present system of exhibiting at +several successive shows and even when the bloated +pig is intended to be returned to the breeding pen, +this excessive feeding proved to be a grievous +mistake. It may not be possible to claim that the +over feeding of show animals is a thing of the past, +but there is little doubt that exhibitors of pigs have +become alive to the fact that it is not profitable. +Not only is the expense excessive, but the damage +done to the breeding animals is so great as to render +it inadvisable for any ordinary farmer to follow. +Again, there has of late years been a very considerable +improvement in the pig classification at both +the breeding and the fat stock shows. When the +writer began pig showing, on his own account, fifty +years since, the common classification at most of +the shows was, boar any age, sows any age, and +pens of three breeding pigs, not exceeding nine or in +some cases even twelve months. There were no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +restrictions as to the age of the boar or of the sow, +no condition as to utility, of the sow having at any +time reared a litter of pigs or of being in pig, so +that it was by no means uncommon at even some +of the chief shows to find both boars and sows +appear year after year, having been guiltless of any +attempt to procreate their species, but having been +kept solely for the purpose of winning prizes and +adding to the renown of their owners, if not directly +adding much to their balances at the bank. The +only way in which the continued exhibition of these +old stagers was made profitable was the securing of +customers for breeding stock from the exhibitors, +who in far too many cases were not the breeders of +the winning animals. To so great an extent had +this purchase, frequently from middlemen or dealers +of exhibition pigs, become in the seventies of the +last century, that some of the live stock papers in +the United States took up the cudgels on behalf of +the American breeders of pigs, who had been in the +habit of importing show winners from this country +and plainly asked for the English definition of a +pure bred pig. It was pointed out at a recent show +of the Royal Agricultural Society several winners +shown by one exhibitor were entered as of certain +defined breeds, yet neither age, pedigree, nor name +of breeder was given, the only particulars given in +the show catalogue being the name and address of +the exhibitor, the name of the pig, and the further +statement age and breeder unknown. As our +American cousins asked, how could it be possible +to ensure that a pig was of a certain pure breed +when it was admitted that no knowledge existed of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +the breeding of the animal nor actually of the person +who bred it. This scandal, as it was termed, was +one of the contributing causes of the establishment +of societies for the registration of the pedigrees of +the various types or breeds of pigs.</p> + +<p>Other changes which have been great improvements +have been the limitation of the ages of boars +and sows shown, the requirement that the sow has +within a certain fixed time farrowed a litter of pigs +and that when entered as being in farrow a certificate +of subsequent farrowing shall be furnished ere +the prize money is paid over. The age of the young +boars and sows has also been reduced at most shows +to six months, or the pigs must have been farrowed +in the year of the show. In the good old times the +age of the pigs shown in the classes for pens of two +or three or five, varied from six to twelve months, +and the asserted age given by the exhibitor was +accepted as correct. At many of the important +shows not only are some means of identification +asked for, but the state of the dentition are variously +dealt with; at some shows they are disqualified at +once by the stewards on the certificate of the +veterinary surgeon. It may at once be admitted +that this mode of procedure is very hard on an +honest exhibitor whose pig has for some reason +developed its temporary or permanent teeth abnormally—and +such cases are not unknown—- although +as a rule the various stages in the cutting +of the permanent teeth are very regular, the +majority of the irregularities are also in favour of +the exhibitor, since delayed rather than precocious +development of dentition is the most common.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +Just how imperative it was that some steps should +be taken to prevent mistakes being made in the +ages of young pigs exhibited, many cases could be +cited, but one may suffice where one of the sow pigs +in a pen of five entered in a class for pigs not exceeding +six months actually farrowed a litter of fully +developed pigs in the show yard.</p> + +<p>During the last forty years, great improvements +have been made in the classification for pigs at our +principal Fat Stock shows. The division of breeds +or types has been attended to and the ages of the +pigs in the various classes have been greatly reduced. +For instance, when the writer was judging pigs with +two colleagues at the 1880 show of the Smithfield +Club, there were classes for Small White pigs, not +exceeding nine months; above nine months, and +not exceeding twelve months, and above twelve +months and not exceeding eighteen months. A +more ridiculous classification could not possibly +have been devised since no small white pig would +have paid for fattening after it had become nine +months old. A similar classification existed for +pigs of the Large White breed, for Black breeds, +and for Berkshires. In addition there was a class +for a single pig of any age or breed. The condition +of some of the exhibits in the oldest classes was +most pitiable, they had been stuffed to such an +extent that their life must have been a misery to +them, they were unable to walk any distance, and +to prevent suffocation rollers were used on which to +raise their heads. The only way in which to describe +these unfortunate subjects of man's inhumanity was +as animated bladders of lard.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p> + +<p>At the recent shows of the Smithfield Club, not +only has the age limit been greatly reduced but +classes for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight +have been instituted, in addition to classes for all +the recognised pure breeds of pigs and those of any +cross. Even this great reduction in age has not +been enough to satisfy some of our reformers, as an +endeavour is being made to reduce the limit of +twelve months to nine months, so that in future the +classes will be for pens of two pigs not exceeding +100 lbs. live weight, for pigs not exceeding six +months old and for pigs between six and nine months +old, with certain classes for single pigs under nine +months. It is contended that fat pigs cannot be +profitably kept after they reach the age of nine +months. Another innovation of recent years at the +Smithfield Show has been the establishment of the +so-called slaughter classes. This is probably by +far the greatest improvement of recent years in the +pig section. Classes are provided for pigs not +exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, pigs weighing over +100 lbs. and not exceeding 220 lbs., and for pigs +above 220 lbs. and not exceeding 300 lbs. live +weight. The pigs are first exhibited and judged +alive, then slaughtered and the carcases judged on +their pork merits. There is also one class for pigs +above 160 lbs. and not exceeding 240 lbs. live weight +best suited for the manufacture of bacon. These +various classes have created great interest and have +proved of the greatest educational value.</p> + +<p>Another beneficial effect of the changed conditions +is the elimination from the summer show-yards +of fat sows guiltless of milk and accompanied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +in the pen by half a score of young boars and yelts +of an age varying from three months upwards, and +which together were exhibited in the class for +breeding sows, or breeding sows and pigs. A fine +fat sow which would take kindly to an unlimited +number of adopted youngsters was in those days +almost as valuable as a small gold mine. An old +and well-known pigman, Dick by name, assured +the writer that no fewer than sixty-three young +boars and yelts were sold in one year off or when in +company of one well-known sow. At the present +time the pigs shown with a sow must be certified to +be her produce and not to exceed the age of eight +weeks.</p> + +<p>It is at all times difficult to discover the motive +power for certain actions on the part of a human +being. It has been declared that there is an equal +amount of doubt as to the cause of a breeder of +stock wishing to exhibit his animals. Surely this +last assertion is at least of a doubtful character. +What greater proof could a stock breeder give of +his pride in his animals than a burning desire to +expose their good qualities to the public gaze. In +addition to this, few men are entirely free from the +spirit of gambling and this enters into all competitions, +particularly in the show yards. The +winning of prizes with stock may not be quite so +uncertain as the winning of horse races, still, there +is enough of uncertainty to render the judging ring +a centre of great excitement. Some persons will +even contend that the showing of farm stock is not +desirable on the part of young farmers as it is likely +to assume so great a similarity with gambling, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +attending the shows means a neglect of business +and leads to expensive habits. On the other hand, +it cannot be denied that the exhibition of our improved +specimens of stock has been of untold benefit +to both home and foreign stock breeders. Further, +the exportation of our pedigree stock has actually +saved us from semi-starvation during this most +fearful of all wars, as without our improved stock +the native stock of foreign countries could not +possibly have furnished the enormous quantities of +meat which we have had to import.</p> + +<p>It may be that a great many exhibitors of stock +had little or no intention of becoming one when +they first purchased their stock, but on these +proving quite the equal of that possessed by their +neighbour, the desire grew to suggest how good +they were, or in many instances the original entries +have been made in response to a request to support +the local show.</p> + +<p>This may be still another cause for a beginner in +stock breeding exercising extreme care in the +selection of his original stock. Even if the prime +cost be higher than that of ordinary market stock +the extra outlay expended on animals from well-known +breeders, and out of old established herds, +is certain to prove a good investment. There is just +as great difference in the different families or strains +of our domestic stock, as there is in the various +human families and of animals, and it may be +probably more true that the vast majority of the +best of them are the descendants of a comparatively +few ancestors. This is evident in almost everyone +of the breeds of our improved stock, it is so in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +thoroughbred and shire horses, and so one might +go through the whole list of domesticated or farm +animals.</p> + +<p>It is therefore desirable that anyone who thinks +of exhibiting his pigs should endeavour first to +discover the particular tribes or families which, in +the past, have furnished a large proportion of the +winners, and then to obtain some of the specimens +of those families which have been successful in the +show yards and in the breeding pen. This combination +is most important, as it does not necessarily +follow that a line of blood which produces +prize winners shall also produce animals which are +not only good in type, character, and form, but +possessed of prolificacy, free milking properties, +and ability to raise large litters. The difficulty of +finding in some of the mere exhibition herds this +most desirable combination is due, in the main, to +the far too frequent neglect of the utility points, +the two aims of the herdsman are in too many +instances the winning of prizes for their employers +and the securing of a percentage of the prize money +for themselves.</p> + +<p>Although there have been attempts made to +impress on outsiders the claim that there exists in +the training of pigs for successful exhibition in our +show yards a large amount of mystery, yet, the +practice is most simple, it consists in the employment +of the greatest possible observation, care, and +attention; without the continual use of these qualities +it is not possible to become a really successful +pigman. In very many instances just that little +extra attention has turned the scales. The one chief<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +qualification on the part of a successful stock man +is the art of taking pains. Unlike most of the other +exhibitors of pigs who exhibited largely over many +years the writer never employed a professional +pigman. The comparatively small number of +pigmen who assisted him to win thousands of prizes +were merely ordinary farm labourers, save in one +case, and he was an old sailor, yet one of the best +feeders and trainers we ever employed. He was +naturally fond of animals and was never tired of +waiting on them and of supplying their needs. It +was once jokingly said of him that, having no +children, he bestowed on the pigs in his care the +love which some other people bestowed on their +children. There is much of truth in the assertion +made by a coloured preacher in the United +States when discussing the want of success of +ordinary pig-keeping in the States, the chief cause +he declared was the absence of love. We would call +it want of natural fondness of animals and an insufficient +determination to render the conditions of +life of the animals in our charge as pleasant and +satisfactory as circumstances will allow. With +regard to the system of rearing and feeding animals +intended for exhibition, nothing more is needed than +the concentrated care and attention which is required +in the successful rearing and feeding of all +commercial animals. A liberal supply of suitable +food, prepared in the most tempting form and +judiciously fed to the pigs in just the quantity +required, as frequently as the pig is able to +thoroughly enjoy it. Little and often is a good +motto for the pig feeder. The more closely we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +adhere to nature, the more successful shall we be. +It is to this, perhaps, that exercise is so specially +necessary for pigs which are being prepared for the +show yard. It is impossible to render a pig perfectly +fit for exhibition at a show, and more particularly at +several successive shows, without plenty of exercise. +Each morning and evening a walk of a distance +varying with the ages, etc., of the pigs is desirable. +Another point to which some professional pigmen +give great prominence is the regular dosing of their +charges with secret medicines. This is not only +unnecessary, but may with breeding animals prove +harmful. A sound healthy pig seldom requires +medicine if it is properly fed and exercised. It is +the over feeding or intense desire of the pigman which +in the majority of cases renders medicine necessary.</p> + +<p>A word of warning against this haste to get the +pig into show condition. This last can only be a +work of time, and the commencement of the process +must be in the early stages of the life of the pig and +be steadily continued until within a few days of the +show. This slight reduction of the food may be +necessary in the summer when the heat is great and +the pigs become restless when travelling boxed up +in a crate in an enclosed truck. Many of the pigs +lost in travelling to or from the shows or soon after +arriving at the shows, have been fed just prior to +being loaded up, because of the difficulty in feeding +them when on the journey. This is an entire mistake; +not only should the pigs not be fed, but prior +to being put into the crates they should be given +just so much exercise as will cause them to evacuate +the bowels, or the bladder. Care in this respect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +and non-exposure to the rays of the sun may not in +every case prevent trouble, but it will most certainly +reduce to a minimum the chance of it. +Should a pig suffer from the heat, cold water should +be applied to the head by means of a sponge or a +cloth, and should some of the water percolate into +the mouth of the pig so much the better.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XIV +<br /> +PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING</h3> + + +<p>As it is impossible to foretell the effect which the +present disastrous war will have upon the pig-breeding +industry, we have deemed it expedient to +refer as briefly as possible to the present conditions +of feeding, etc., which may or may not prove to be +of a temporary character or which may become +permanent in a more or less modified manner.</p> + +<p>One of the results of the scarcity and high market +value of the different articles which have been +commonly used in the feeding of pigs is drawing +greatly increased attention to the original conditions +under which pigs were kept, i.e. when they +were in a wild state or when they were allowed their +partial freedom for the purpose of getting their +own living to a greater or lesser extent.</p> + +<p>We are aware that a claim has been made by +an enthusiastic convert to pig-keeping that in +allowing his pigs their liberty to roam over grass +fields and in woods he is practising quite a novel +course of procedure, but the old hands merely smile +and admire the enthusiasm which is more nearly +allied with youth than old age. The practice may +not have been generally followed of late years, but +in the middle of the last century it was to the writer's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +knowledge common in certain of the Eastern +Counties, particularly in Suffolk and portions of +Essex and Cambridgeshire, where a considerable +acreage of grass and especially clovers was grazed +by pigs, having a greater or lesser quantity of other +food as the pigs were intended for breeding or +fattening purposes.</p> + +<p>Generally speaking, some shelter of a temporary +character was provided failing that furnished by +trees, and straw stacks, etc., but our American +cousins have gone one better in that they have +introduced small movable houses which can be +transported on wheels and can be utilised for a sow +and her pigs, or for a number of stores. In the +former course, an enclosure sufficiently large for the +sow to graze therein is fenced in so that each sow +can be kept separate until the pigs are old enough +to prevent others from robbing them of their birthright. +The chief difficulty attending this system is +not experienced in the United States to the extent +it is in this country, since the general custom there +is to allow each sow to farrow a litter of pigs in the +spring and then to fatten off both sow and pigs, +save those reserved for breeding purposes next +year. This plan, which appears to be wasteful, +also handicaps the owner who desires to improve +his pig stock, since an opportunity is denied him of +discovering the best of his sows and so reserving +them and their produce to form the nucleus of a +really good herd. The system is not an entirely +new one, as it is practised to a great extent in some +parts of Lincolnshire and other Northern counties, +where there is not the excuse made for it in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +States that it avoids the trouble and risk from the +intense cold attending the farrowing of sows in the +winter.</p> + +<p>It may be that the severity of our winters is not +usually great, but the cold, damp and foggy weather +commonly experienced in England during the last +two or three months of the year render it necessary +to warmly house young pigs, and this is difficult in +wooden houses of limited size, as these become hot +and stuffy when entirely closed, or damp and cold +when unclosed. Again, the labour attending the +feeding of a large herd housed in isolated sties must +be very considerable. Another objection raised +against this farrowing of sows in these small houses +is that it is difficult if not impossible at night to +have the pigman in attendance on the sow, further, +that it is not advisable to allow the young pigs to +roam about with their dam until they are some +weeks old, as when the weather is cold or wet they +become chilled and when the sun is hot they quickly +become blistered, both conditions materially interfering +with their well doing.</p> + +<p>It is claimed that both sow and pigs are able to +secure a large portion of their living, but a sow with +a good litter of pigs on her requires a considerable +amount of food in addition to grass to enable her +to do justice to her young, whilst the younger pigs +are unable to digest any quantity of grass until +they are some weeks old; besides this, the youngsters +thrive much better during their early life when +confined in quarters than when trailing about after +the sow. Could we ensure fairly fine weather, and +an absence of cold nights and very changeable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +weather, the little pigs' chances of thriving under +outdoor conditions would be considerably enhanced.</p> + +<p>Another alleged new discovery is the permitting +of pigs to roam at large in woods and plantations, +wooden huts or open sheds being provided as +shelter. By this plan a considerable amount of pig +food is obtained where the trees are not closely +planted, so that grass grows freely, or, in the autumn, +in the woods in which oaks, beech, hazel, or sweet +chestnut form a portion of the trees. In such +woods strong store pigs are able to obtain the major +portion of their food, but where the trees are of a +kind which does not produce nuts or are closely +planted, the additional food must be more plentiful, +whilst the manurial value of the food is wasted to a +considerable extent.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most profitable form of outdoor pig-keeping +is that of running the pigs in orchards. +This system has many advantages, the pigs are able +to live without much additional food for some +months in the year, they consume the insect-affected +fallen fruit, and so act as insecticides. The +pigs also usually leave their droppings under the +trees, which are thus benefited therefrom, and +especially is this the case where the pigs are being +fattened or fed on food which enables them to make +flesh. Many years since, the writer had several +customers for breeding pigs who kept numbers of +pigs in their orchards. One fruit grower in Kent +declared that fattening pigs in his orchard resulted +in the growing of heavier crops of cherries of larger +size, better colour, and finer flavour. Another whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +apple orchard was disappointing followed my +advice to fatten pigs in it, declared that the quantity +of apples grown was much greater, whilst both the +size and quality of these were infinitely better.</p> + +<p>Under the modern system of pig-keeping it is +more profitable to give some additional and concentrated +food to the pigs having their liberty, it is +therefore wise to secure the full benefit arising from +the richer living by running the pigs where the +manure can be utilised, and no better place than an +orchard can be found, since shelter from sun and +wind is furnished by the fruit trees, and the pigs +deposit their urine and excrement in exactly the +place where it is most urgently required.</p> + +<p>The practice of growing considerable areas of +rape or cole seed, artichokes, peas of various kinds, +beans, etc., to be fed off by pigs is not followed +extensively in this country, although pig-keepers in +the United States, Canada, Germany, Denmark, +etc., have a partiality to it, since it is declared to +save labour and to bring the land into a good manurial +condition for the growth of corn crops; still some +few of our more advanced farmers have been in the +habit of grazing off lucerne, clovers, and even permanent +and temporary grasses by the aid of pigs, +which have also received in addition a varying +amount of roots, corn, or meal. It is asserted, and +evidence is available to prove the truth of the statement, +that land can be economically and quickly +and vastly improved by following the system referred +to above. The scarcity and high market +value of miller's offals and of meals such as used in +the past to be utilised to a great extent in the feeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +of pigs, has caused pig-keepers to seek for other +foods to take their place. The residuum from the +crushing of palm nuts, cocoa-nuts, and ground nuts +has been most successfully used in connection with +various forms of vegetable food; even sows have +reared good litters of pigs on about 2 lbs. of a mixture +of the meals remaining from the extraction of the +oil from the nuts mentioned, with the addition of +some form of vegetable food. This last has comprised +cooked potatoes, raw artichokes, mangolds, +kohl rabi, swedes, cabbages, etc., during the winter +months, and grass, lucerne, clover, vetches, cole +seed, etc., during the summer months. Fattening +pigs will require a somewhat larger quantity of +concentrated food and a reduced amount of vegetable +food. The pre-war belief that sharps or middlings +only was the most suitable food for sows with litters +and for newly weaned pigs has been somewhat +modified. Whether or not the quality and price of +middlings will be restored after the war and thus its +use become general as of old, must be left, but it is +probable that in the future a certain proportion of +the meals referred to will continue to be used for +both breeding and fattening pigs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XV +<br /> +PIG-FATTENING</h3> + + +<p>If there be one task which is considered to be within +the capacity of any individual, it is that of feeding a +pig. In the good old times, the one thing needful +was a good supply of barley meal, as much of this +as the pig could possibly eat was placed into its +trough each day until the pig was thought to be fat +enough for slaughter. This was a very simple and +at the same time a very costly process and was +looked upon as the second of the two chief acts in +the life of a pig. The first consisted of building up a +frame on which fat could be stored. Just why +these two processes were not combined has never +been fully explained. One excuse made for this uneconomical +process is that our forbears must have +considered that there must be two distinct periods +in the life of any animal intended for the food of +man, that in which the structure was erected, and +that in which the building was completely furnished +with the material—flesh—in a state which most +nearly satisfied the requirements or fancies of +humanity. The system of first growing the frame +and then packing it with flesh was not alone followed +by the owners of pigs, as it was also adopted with +cattle, which in the good old times passed three or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +four years in a state of semi-starvation ere they +were placed on our best pastures to produce beef. +Sheep, again, spent two or three years in building +up their frames and in the production of a limited +quantity of wool of inferior quality and strength, +before they were considered in a fit state to make +mutton economically. Another excuse which could +have been offered by our forbears, but which is not +now available, is that the cattle, sheep, and pigs of +former times required age before it was possible to +render them sufficiently fat for slaughter.</p> + +<p>The very great improvement which has taken +place during the past half century, in wellnigh every +breed of pig, has deprived our present day pig-breeders +of such an excuse, yet they persist in far +too many instances in following the old-fashioned +and uneconomical system of first growing the pig +and then fatting it, whereas it is not only possible +but infinitely more profitable to combine the two +operations. So many persons have been in the +habit of looking upon the pig as a mere scavenger +or an animal to put out of sight certain articles +containing a small amount of nutriment which, undisposed +of, would become a nuisance or offensive +to one or other of our organs. Even the pig itself +has been considered by many farmers, especially +those termed gentlemen farmers, as a necessary +nuisance, whereas the pig is really a machine for the +conversion of farm produce into meat, and like all +machines, its output will depend entirely on the +quantity and quality of the raw material, and the +manner in which it is supplied. If the raw material +be of inferior quality and supplied irregularly, or in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +too limited quantities, the article manufactured +will be more costly and of an inferior quality. An +extension in the time of manufacture means increased +cost for fuel and for labour in attendance +on the machinery. A certain quantity of fuel is +being continually used in the furnace whether the +engine is running at full power or at half power. It +is exactly the same with the meat making machine, +the pig every day of its existence consumes a certain +quantity of food for which it gives one return only, +its life. It has been conclusively proved that each +pig weighing 100 lbs. requires 2 lbs. of food daily to +enable it to sustain life, i.e. to replace loss of tissue, +to provide heat, progression, etc., so that if a pig +lives six months longer than is actually necessary +to enable it to manufacture a certain weight of +meat, it will have eaten to waste over 3 cwt. of +good food.</p> + +<p>A pig is like unto any other machine, it will produce +the manufactured article most cheaply when +it is fully supplied with the most suitable raw +material. There is not the slightest doubt that the +least costly pork is that which is produced by the +pig which spends its whole time in the object of its +existence, the manufacture of pork.</p> + +<p>There is a further point of great importance. +Wellnigh all those materials which are used in the +feeding of pigs contain the constituents necessary +for the building up of the frame and for the accumulation +of fat or, as it is commonly termed, the making +of meat. Evidently nature intended that the two +operations should be carried on simultaneously. +Those constituents which are required in the building<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +up of the frame cannot be entirely used in the +formation of fat, consequently if the frame is first +built up and then an attempt is made to lay on +flesh, a considerable portion of the building up +constituents are simply wasted, since the pig has +no need for them and cannot make complete use of +them. They simply pass through the pig after +taxing it to digest them, and are wasted.</p> + +<p>Opinions and practices with regard to pig fatting +have changed very much during the past half +century, and especially so since the full effect of the +fearful war has been felt. Rather before the first-mentioned +period, the late Sir John Lawes, whose +researches and experiments have been of lasting +benefit to agriculturists, undertook to carry out +experiments in connection with pig-breeding, and +the result which appears to have impressed itself +most upon the writers of the day was that barley +meal was the best single food for the fatting of pigs. +At the time named, our importations of maize and +of many other materials now used in stock and +especially pig-breeding were not of anything the +magnitude of the period prior to the war, still, it +seems to be strange to the enlightened pig-breeder +of to-day that more serious endeavours should not +have been made to determine the value of a mixed +diet for pigs, since this had been proved to be +beneficial and necessary in the case of human +beings whose organs are so very similar to that of +the despised pig.</p> + +<p>Fortunately for us, and indeed for the stock-keepers +in all parts of the world, experiments in the +feeding of stock have been carried out in various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +countries, Denmark, Sweden, the United States, +Canada, Germany, and indeed in nearly all countries, +save to any great extent in England. In connection +with pigs, the practices of a few of our more intelligent +pig-keepers have been confirmed. Amongst +these ideas which the old-fashioned ones looked upon +as fads, was that of feeding pigs of all ages and +especially fatting pigs on a certain proportion of +vegetable food. Experiments have conclusively +proved that the substitution of some 10 per cent of +vegetable matter in place of an equal amount of +meal or concentrated food, does not result in the +slightest reduction in the live weight gain of the +fatting pig, and further that the old idea that a +limited quantity of vegetable food fed to a fatting +pig tended to render the pork soft and to waste in +the cooking was not founded on fact. Another +fact which has evolved from these experiments is +that the pig will make far greater progress on an +equal amount of a mixture of foods than if fed +solely on one food. This was clearly proved in +many experiments as at the Wisconsin Agricultural +Station, where one lot of pigs was fed on middlings +alone, a second lot on corn meal alone, and a third +lot on a mixture of corn meal and middlings. To +make an increase of 100 lbs. in their live weight, the +pigs in Lot 1 ate 522 lbs. of middlings, those in +Lot 2 ate 537 lbs. of corn meal to make an equal +increase in weight, whilst Lot 3, which were fed on a +mixture of corn meal and middlings, required only +439 lbs., or a saving of one-fifth in the weight of +food. In experiments with regard to the food value +of corn meal and middlings carried out at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +Missouri College, middlings also gave the best +returns, but unfortunately the ages of the pigs used +in the trials are omitted. This is important as middlings +are considered to be of more value in the +feeding of young than of older pigs, whilst the +reverse holds good of corn or maize meal. Other +trials were carried out at Wisconsin with the use of +wheat meal alone as compared with a mixture of +half wheat and half corn meal. In these the average +quantity of wheat meal required for 100 lbs. increased +live weight was 500 lbs., whilst only 485 +lbs. of the mixture of wheat and corn meals was +needed to obtain an equal increase or a saving of +some 5 per cent was obtained by mixing the meals.</p> + +<p>In the good old times it was considered to be the +height of folly to make a change in the food on +which the pigs were being fattened, yet our forbears +would have been horrified had they been informed +that it was imperative that they themselves +should have no variety of food, that day after day +the food at their various meals should be exactly +similar; surely what is good for one animal should +be good for another animal whose organs are of an +exactly similar character. There is not the slightest +doubt that advantage is derived from the variation +in the food on which the pigs are being fattened. +By this, it is not intended to suggest that a complete +change of food should be made at stated times in +the fatting pigs' food, as this would certainly result +in a loss of time and food, but that a slight variation +in the proportions of the different kinds of food is +beneficial, or in the case where several different +kinds of food are being fed as a mixture, another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +kind of food may be substituted so that the change +made secures a variation which has the effect of +whetting or enticing the appetite. A long continuance +of the same kind of food has the effect of +dulling the appetite. In addition to this, it is considered +that a variation in the food tends to stimulate +the digestive organs.</p> + +<p>It is a mistake to allow too long a time to pass +between feeding times; the pig is not endowed by +nature with a capacious paunch which enables it to +stow away a large quantity of food. Even the old +system of feeding twice a day might be improved +upon, and the fatting pig fed three times per day +would make greater thrift, even should the actual +daily quantity of food be not increased.</p> + +<p>Again, so many persons are apt to give to the +fatting pig a greater quantity of food than it requires +or can eat with comfort to itself at one meal. +Should this be pointed out to them, their usual +reply would be that what the pig did not eat for +their breakfast would be there in readiness for the +evening meal unless they ate it during the day, as +they frequently would do. This sounds plausible +until the argument be closely examined. What +would the pigman think if he were treated in a +similar manner and an excessive quantity of food +placed on his plate, and then at the next meals the +stale food be again placed before him until it was +finished? This certainly would not increase his +appetite nor aid his digestion. Yet the most successful +pigman is he who succeeds in so feeding his +charges that they daily eat and thoroughly digest +the greatest amount of food possible. In pig fattening,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +as in many other things, time is money. Further it +is just as much a mistake for fatting pigs as for +human beings to be continually eating, or at irregular +intervals, small quantities of food. The two most +certain indications that a lot of fatting pigs are +thriving is to find that they are asleep and that +their feeding troughs are empty. When pigs are +fed a greater quantity of food than they can eat at +once they will be frequently getting up to eat a +little more of the surplus, and each time they rise +from their bed they will evacuate their bowels, and +in most cases before the major portion of the nutriment +has been extracted.</p> + +<p>Still another of the fallacies of our forbears was +that the fatting pig made the greatest increase +from a given quantity of food when it was at least +approaching maturity and ripeness, or complete +fatness. It was useless to argue with them, since +anyone could see that it was so. If you suggested +the use of the scales, the idea was scouted, since a +person of any experience in pig fatting must be able +to notice the increase in bulk of the pig. It is true +that apparently the pig would be making a greater +increase of weight as it approached the completion +of its fatting process, since the addition to its weight +and bulk would be almost entirely composed of fat +which could only be deposited on the outside of the +carcase. All the vacant space in the interior of the +pig would have been occupied, the pig would have +stored fat away in its muscles, around its kidneys, +on its stomach, its bowels, and wherever it was +possible to stow it away, but these additions to the +weight of the carcase which had been proceeding in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +the early stages of the fatting could not be observed, +nevertheless they were proceeding, and in this was +the pig enabled in its early stage of fatting to make +a profitable return for the food consumed.</p> + +<p>Fortunately we are not left on this point to mere +conjecture; many experiments have clearly proved +that in the early stages of the life of a pig it is +enabled to manufacture pork at a far less cost than +in its later stages of life. The young pig also possesses +over its older companion the great advantage +of being able to eat and utilise a greater quantity of +food in proportion to its weight or, in other words, +the young pig can convert a greater quantity of +raw material into the manufactured article than the +more matured pig, in proportion to the amount of +food required for the mere upkeep of the machinery. +Experiments which most clearly prove this have +been duplicated in Denmark, in the United States, +etc. At Copenhagen nearly seventy different experiments +were carried out with pigs of varying weights, +with the result that pigs weighing about 275 lbs. +live weight were found to require nearly twice as +much food to make an increase in their live weight +as did pigs weighing from 35 to 75 lbs. That this +was not an exceptional case is clearly proved by the +fact that the increase in the amount of food required +to enable them to make an increase in their +live weight was gradual, and shown in every stage; +thus pigs of from 35 to 75 lbs. consumed 376 lbs. +of food for each 100 lbs. increase; pigs of 75 to +115 lbs., 435 lbs.; pigs of 115 to 155 lbs., 466 +lbs.; pigs of 155 lbs. to 195 lbs., 513 lbs.; pigs +of 195 lbs. to 235 lbs., 540 lbs.; pigs of 235 lbs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +to 275 lbs., 614 lbs.; and pigs of 275 lbs. to 315 +lbs., 639 lbs.</p> + +<p>Even if this series of experiments stood alone +they surely would prove most conclusively that the +common belief in old and nearly fat pigs giving the +best return from the food consumed is founded on +fiction, but similar tests were made at many of the +American Experiment Stations, these tests together +numbering some hundred. The results are given in +tabulated form in Henry's <i>Feeds and Feeding</i>, +where the various points are so clearly brought out +that we have taken the liberty of lifting the whole +of the notes relating to "weight, gain, and feed +consumed" by pigs. "At many of our stations, +records of weights and gains of pigs and feed consumed +by them have been so reported as to permit +of studies concerning the influence of increased size +and weight of the animal on the consumption of +food.</p> + +<p>"All of the available data from trials of this character +conducted in this country" (the United +States) "up to the time of going to press, enter +into the composition of the table given below. In +compiling this table, six pounds of skim milk or +twelve pounds of whey are calculated as equal to +one pound of grain, according to the Danish valuation +of these articles. For convenience of study, +the data are presented for each period covering +fifty pounds of growth, the actual average weight +of the pigs, however, being given for each division.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="center">DATA RELATIVE TO FEED, WEIGHT, AND GAIN OF PIGS—MANY AMERICAN STATIONS</p> + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><th align="right">Weight of pigs in pounds.</th><th align="right">Actual Average weight.</th><th align="right">No. of stations reporting.</th><th align="right">Total No. of trials.</th><th align="right">No. of animals fed.</th><th align="right">Average feed eaten per day.</th><th align="right">Feed eaten per 100 lbs. weight.</th><th align="right">Average gain per day.</th><th align="right">Feed for 100 lbs. gain.</th></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">lbs.</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">lbs.</td><td align="right">lbs.</td><td align="right">lbs.</td><td align="right">lbs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 15 to 50</td><td align="right">38</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">41</td><td align="right">174</td><td align="right">2.23</td><td align="right">5.95</td><td align="right">.76</td><td align="right">293</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 50 to 100</td><td align="right">78</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">100</td><td align="right">417</td><td align="right">3.35</td><td align="right">4.32</td><td align="right">.83</td><td align="right">400</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 100 to 150</td><td align="right">128</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">119</td><td align="right">495</td><td align="right">4.79</td><td align="right">3.75</td><td align="right">1.10</td><td align="right">437</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 150 to 200</td><td align="right">174</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">107</td><td align="right">489</td><td align="right">5.91</td><td align="right">3.43</td><td align="right">1.24</td><td align="right">482</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 200 to 250</td><td align="right">226</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">72</td><td align="right">300</td><td align="right">6.57</td><td align="right">2.91</td><td align="right">1.33</td><td align="right">498</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 250 to 300</td><td align="right">271</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">46</td><td align="right">223</td><td align="right">7.40</td><td align="right">2.74</td><td align="right">1.46</td><td align="right">511</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 300 to 350</td><td align="right">320</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">105</td><td align="right">7.50</td><td align="right">2.35</td><td align="right">1.40</td><td align="right">535</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 350 to 400</td><td align="right">378</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">36</td><td align="right">8.52</td><td align="right">2.25</td><td align="right">1.98</td><td align="right">431</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 400 to 450</td><td align="right">429</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">36</td><td align="right">8.18</td><td align="right">1.91</td><td align="right">1.71</td><td align="right">479</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 450 to 500</td><td align="right">471</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">10.00</td><td align="right">2.12</td><td align="right">1.77</td><td align="right">562</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p> + +<p>"In the above table the large number of trials +reported for pigs weighing up to 350 lbs. each +furnishes reliable data. After this point is reached +the number of animals is too small to give reliable +averages. The heavy weight hogs reported in the +last three lines of the table were fed by the writer +(Professor Henry). They were mature specimens, +with large frames and in lean flesh when feeding +began, having been summered on pasture without +grain. The figures are introduced to show what +may be accomplished with mature hogs when they +are in thin flesh at the beginning of fattening.</p> + +<p>"We learn from the main portion of the table +that from 105 to 435 pigs were employed in calculating +each line of data. The number of trials +furnishing the data varied from 19 to 119, and were +conducted by from 3 to 13 experiment stations.</p> + +<p>"Amount of food consumed daily by the pig. +The sixth column of the table shows the average +amount of feed consumed daily by pigs of different +weights. From it we learn that pigs weighing less +than 50 lbs. each, averaging 38 lbs., consumed on +the average 2.23 lbs. of grain or grain equivalent, +daily. As the animal increased in weight there was +a gradual increase in the amount of food consumed, +until we find the 450 lbs. hog eating 10 lbs. of grain +daily, or more than four times as much as the 50 lbs. +pig.</p> + +<p>"Feed per 100 lbs. live weight: In the seventh +column it is shown that pigs weighing 38 lbs. consumed +5.95 lbs. of feed for each 100 lbs. of live +weight. This is about 6 per cent of their live +weight. As the pigs grew larger they consumed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +less feed for 100 lbs. of live weight, until with the +heaviest hogs the feed consumed was little more +than 2 per cent of their live weight. Here was a +decrease of about two-thirds in the feed consumption +per 100 lbs. between early weight and maturity.</p> + +<p>"Average daily gain: In the next column are +presented data concerning the daily gain of the pig. +It is shown that the 38 lb. pig gained .76 of a lb., +or 2 per cent of its own weight daily. As it increased +in size the pig made larger daily gains, the +maximum being reached with those weighing 271 lbs., +which made a daily gain of 1.46 lb. With large +thin hogs the gain reached 1.98 lb., or practically +2 lbs. per day, but these animals, because of their +mature frames and thin flesh, were fed under exceptional +circumstances.</p> + +<p>"Feed for 100 lbs. of gain: The last column is +of interest to all, especially the practical feeder, for +it teaches a most interesting and important lesson +concerning the feed requirements of pigs. Those +which average 38 lbs. each made 100 lbs. of gain from +293 lbs. of feed. This exceedingly small allowance +of feed for gain was probably due in part to the fact +that the young pigs used in these trials received +much milk, which was practically all digestible, the +other feed being also more highly digestible than +that usually supplied older animals. With pigs +weighing 78 lbs., 400 lbs. of feed were required for +100 lbs. of gain. There was a gradual increase of +feed requirements for 100 lbs. of gain, until the hog +weighing 320 lbs. required 525 lbs. for each 100 lbs. +of gain. This is 135 lbs. or 33 per cent more feed +than was required by the 78 lbs. pig."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p> + +<p>These tables prove most conclusively that the +idea which is almost universally prevalent that the +fatting pig gives the greatest increase for the food +which it consumes when it becomes matured and +nearly fat is an entirely mistaken one, and that the +young and growing pig, if well kept, not only eats +more in proportion to its weight, but gives a better +return for the food it consumes, besides requiring a +smaller amount of food to keep life within itself, +and to replace the certain loss sustained by movement, +etc. There is still another point on which the +young pig scores: its carcase realises a higher price +per lb. on a majority of the markets. The fatting +pig which pays best is one which has a short life +and a merry one, never having to seek or wait for +its food.</p> + +<p>Amongst the many other questions which have +been compelled attention owing to the shortage and +the high value of pig food, is that of the advisability +or the reverse of cooking the food given to pigs. +When the practice of showing stock became fashionable +every possible means of forcing the exhibits +was practised, since early maturity was of so great +importance, especially in the classes for the younger +animals. The cooking of the stronger kinds of food +such as old beans for horses had been found beneficial, +as the risk of fever in the feet and other ailments +had been greatly reduced by this practice. +The stock man naturally concluded that the cooking +or steaming of beans having proved to be of +advantage, similar good results would follow the +steaming of the other kinds of food. In this fanciful +theory they would have been able to find ample<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +support in many of the books on stock feeding +which were published in the first half of the last +century and even later. Like many other novelties, +the steaming or boiling of almost all kinds of food +for animals was followed in the establishments of +well-to-do persons where cost was studied less than +success in the show yards. Then, as now, the +Germans took little for granted, they proceeded to +test the much belauded new plan by attempting to +discover the fact as to whether steaming rendered +hay more digestible when fed to cattle, with the +result that it was clearly proved that when the hay +was fed dry 46 per cent of the protein was digested +by the cattle while only 30 per cent was digested +from the steamed hay. But as our present business +is with pig-feeding, we will confine our remarks to +the results of experiments carried out to test the +effects of cooking the food of pigs. Perhaps the best +summary of these is to be found in the most valuable +work, <i>Feeds and Feeding</i>, by Professor Henry, who +wrote <i>Experiments with Cooked Feed for Pigs</i>.</p> + +<p>These have been so numerous that all cannot be +here presented. Those given are selected because +they are strictly representative, covering a wide +range of country foods and conditions.</p> + +<p>"At the Kansas Agricultural College, Shelton fed +one lot of five pigs on cooked shelled corn, while a +second lot of four, similar in all respects, was given +uncooked shelled corn, the trial lasting ninety days. +In cooking, the corn was placed in a barrel and +water poured over it; into this mass a pipe carried +steam, at a pressure ranging from 30 to 60 lbs. The +kernels were cooked until they were sufficiently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +soft to be easily mashed between the thumb and +finger.</p> + +<p>"At the Iowa Agricultural College, Stalker conducted +trials for 120 days in summer with cooked +and uncooked shelled corn fed to Berkshire pigs.</p> + +<p>"At the Dominion (Canada) Station, Robertson +fed grade Chester Whites, a mixture of ground peas, +barley, and rye, the trials beginning in December +and lasting 141 days.</p> + +<p>"At the Ohio Station, Devol fed pure bred Poland +Chinas and Berkshires for 112 days in winter. One +lot of three pigs received the meal cooked, while to +the second lot it was given dry and uncooked.</p> + +<p>"At the Wisconsin Station, the writer (Henry) +has conducted many trials with cooked and uncooked +feed for pigs. Only the later ones are here +reported. These trials lasted from 56 to 84 days +each, the kinds of feed experimented being given +in the table.</p> + +<p>"The five trials reported from the Wisconsin +Station, as will be seen by consulting the table, are +slightly in favour of cooked food, the difference +being very small, however. These are the only +feeding trials reported from any experiment station, +so far as known to the writer, where the results are +favourable to cooking. Ten other trials by the +writer with cooked and uncooked feed for swine all +gave results unfavourable to cooking these, and a +number of trials at other stations with cooked and +uncooked feed for swine are not included for want +of space."</p> + +<p>A table showing the stations at which the various +experiments were carried out, the numbers and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +weights of the pigs, the varieties of foods, the duration +of the different trials, the daily gain, the weights +of cooked and uncooked food consumed, the manner +of cooking, the total increases in weight and the +quantities of cooked and uncooked food required +for increases of 100 lbs. in the live weights of the +pigs are given. Professor Henry sums these up and +writes: "Including all the trials then, so far as is +known, that have been favourable to cooking feed +and omitting many for lack of space, that are unfavourable +to that operation, the average shows that +476 lbs. of uncooked meal or grain were required +for 100 lbs. of gain with pigs, while after it was +cooked 505 lbs. were required. This shows a loss of +6 per cent of the feeding value of these substances +through cooking."</p> + +<p>Some thirty-five years since the present writer +made some small experiments in the feeding of +cooked and uncooked whole maize; in each case it +was found that the pigs ate a greater quantity of +uncooked than cooked maize, and made a greater +proportionate increase in weight from the food consumed. +Only one opinion appears to be possible, +and this is that the cooking of food for pigs, save +potatoes, entails a loss of time, an increase in cost, +and a reduced return.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XVI +<br /> +A PIG CALENDAR</h3> + + +<p>The pig-keeper, like the gardener, seldom has to +seek for employment, indeed his work may be said +to be only occasionally completed. There are always +many little odd jobs to do, which if neglected may +result in loss, or a greatly increased amount of work +at some later period. The old proverb "A stitch +in time saves nine" is equally as true in connection +with pig keeping as with any other form of +work.</p> + +<p>In years gone by the month of January was considered +to be quite a slack time for pig-keepers, the +sows and the store pigs usually found the greater +part of their living in the yards where the cattle +were fed on the straw which was continually being +placed in the cribs as the old-man-of-the-farm +threshed the corn out of it with his flail. Many of +the cribs had slatted bottoms so that any kernels +of corn which were left in the straw would drop +through and be picked up by the pigs which found +their way under the cribs. In most of the old-fashioned +large yards a corner would be railed off +in which the pigs would be given a few turnips, +swedes, or small potatoes, and occasionally a handful +or two of beans or even a sheaf of beans. Those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +fatting pigs which had not already been converted +into bacon for consumption in the farm-house were +fed mainly on meal ground at the local wind or +water mill from the tail corn grown by the +farmer. At the present time the most up-to-date +pig-keepers so arrange that many of the older sows +farrow during this month of January so that the +sows have their second litter of the year late in the +month of June or early in July in order that both +litters of pigs obtain the greatest amount of benefit +from the growing and hot season, since pigs thrive +best when the days are lengthening and when the +sun shines.</p> + +<p>Of late years we appear to have had somewhat +severe weather in January. This has rendered it +the more necessary that care should be taken in +providing water and wind-tight sties, in which the +sows farrow. Warmth with free ventilation is +needed. The latter is particularly necessary after +the pigs are a few days old, as these do not suffer so +much from cold as they do from damp and draughts. +Of course whilst the sow is farrowing warmth is +imperative, as the moist little pigs when first ejected +very quickly become chilled in severe frost, unless +they are promptly wiped with a dry cloth, allowed a +draught or two of new milk from the sow, and then +placed in a box or hamper three parts filled with +dry wheat straw. When once the pigs become +thoroughly dry the cold does not affect them very +much, providing that the sow furnishes her family +with a full supply of milk. The cost of heating a +little water so that the sow and also the young pigs +as soon as they begin to eat may have warmed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +food, will be slight, as there is nearly always a fire +required in cottage and farm-house during the cold +weather. Warm food makes a vast difference in +the thrift of pigs, especially of young ones. Very +slight observation will reveal the marked difference +in the comfort of a pig which has had a meal of +warm or of cold food. In the former case the pig +will return to its nest and is soon lost in sleep, +whilst the poor beggar which has had its breakfast +on cold and occasionally frozen food will be the +picture of misery and shaking with cold, much of +its natural heat produced from its last meal being +required to warm up the food ere its digestive organs +can commence work. Coal and wood are at all times +less expensive to warm up food than the animal +fat which is burned in nature's lamp.</p> + +<p>Provision should have been made for the supply +of some kind of vegetable food which pigs require, +particularly when in confinement. Kohl rabi, swedes +and cabbages, of which the first named is the best, +are all suitable, but the most nourishing are artichokes, +which like the three former should be fed +raw, and potatoes which should be cooked ere they +are fed to the pigs. The difference in the feeding +value between cooked and uncooked potatoes is +great. It is scarcely necessary to point out that all +vegetable food fed to pigs should have been protected +from frost.</p> + +<p>The operations connected with pig-keeping are +very similar in February to those of the preceding +month. Towards the end of the month kohl rabis +will have lost much of their feeding value. On +sunny days a run out for a few minutes will be of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +great benefit to the young pigs over a month old; +as soon as they cease to gallop about they should +be shut up again, as if allowed to lie down they may +contract a chill which might result in "cramp" or +rheumatism. Sows with litters two or three weeks +old should be allowed out of the sty each morning +and afternoon for a short time.</p> + +<p>The month of March brings with it an extra +amount of work for the pig-keeper, who will now +think of selling the pigs born early in January +unless he purposes to keep them on and have them +ready for sale as fat pigs in harvest time, when +there is always a good demand for medium sized +fat pigs. Anyway the sow pigs intended for breeding +will have been picked out and earmarked, this +last should not be neglected after the others have +been spayed.</p> + +<p>This last operation has of late years been much +neglected; this is a great mistake, as experiments +have clearly proved that on an average sow pigs +which have been spayed will make an equal gain in +live weight on 5 per cent less food than will an +unspayed sow pig, when both have become some +five or six months old, and the periods of Å“strum +have commenced.</p> + +<p>The sows which farrowed in January should now +be weaned from their pigs, and should be ready to +be mated within a few days. The sows should be +carefully watched for the signs of heat or restlessness. +Some sows give little indication of this unrest, +which is almost certain to appear within four or +five days providing the sow is in a healthy and +vigorous condition. To miss the sow means a loss of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +three weeks of most valuable time, besides the risk +of trouble in getting the sow to conceive after she +had been baulked. With the passing of the month +swedes and artichokes will have lost much of their +nourishment; mangolds can now take their place. +It is a good plan to expose the mangolds to the air +for a few days prior to feeding them to the pigs; +this exposure hastens their ripening and reduces +the proportion of water. Of course care must be +taken to prevent them becoming frozen, as in March +this might be the case.</p> + +<p>In the Southern counties tares, lucerne, and grass +are sufficiently forward towards the end of April to +be cut and fed to the pigs which are confined in the +buildings. The pigs both fat and store will fully +repay the cost of labour in the cutting and carting +of these vegetable foods. Brood sows both in pig +and with litters dependent on them, should be allowed +their liberty in the grass fields. This will both +greatly reduce the cost of keep and tend to their +thrift and well doing. Young pigs over a month old +should have a run out both morning and afternoon. +Newly weaned pigs which have been well done are +always in keen request in the months of April and +May at prices higher than in any other portion of +the year, owing to the demand from the cheese-makers +who have a superabundance of whey, of +which 12 lbs. when fed in proper combination is +considered to be equal in value to 1 lb. of meal. +Unfortunately, so many dairymen do not study the +requirements of the pig, and imagine that it will +give a good return from an excess of liquid in the +form of whey. Without some concentrated food<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +the pig will not thrive on whey. Numbers of young +pigs are also required in those districts where +butter-making is carried on to consume the butter +milk, and in ordinary times much of the separated +or skim milk. In the feeding of this again the results +are not so good as they should be owing to neglect. +Both foods have been rendered unbalanced owing +to the extraction of the butter fat, so that although +new milk may be fed alone, the others require +additional food which should contain some oil or +fat to be fed with them, or they cause indigestion +and want of thrift, particularly in young and immature +pigs.</p> + +<p>The roots of all kinds, save potatoes and mangolds, +have ceased to be of much value before April +ends, vetches and lucerne will prove to be the best +of substitutes. Spring cabbages are generally of +more value for human consumption than can be +obtained from their use as pig food. If there be any +grass land available the in-pig sows and the stores, +should there be such, should now find the major +portion of their food out of doors.</p> + +<p>As a rule far too little attention is paid to the +growth of lucerne in this country. It is undoubtedly +one of the most nutritive of our vegetable crops. It +also produces a large weight of food extending over +several months, and continues fruitful for many +years providing attention is paid to the keeping it +free from grasses. It has the additional advantage +of furnishing a full supply of food when the weather +is so dry that grass and some other foods produce +little. It is true that in the initial stage it requires +time and care, but the results from it amply repay<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +both. One of the best seasons for sowing it is the +month of May. The operation is simple, the land +having been cleared the seed is sown in drills about +1 ft. apart, the quantity of seed required being at +the rate of 20 lbs. per acre, say 2 oz. per pole or a +drill 35 yards long. As soon as the plants are high +enough the land should be hand hoed, and if kept free +of weeds a light crop can generally be cut from it +towards the end of August. In the following years +it will produce at least three cuttings annually.</p> + +<p>Some persons are of opinion that as lucerne is +such a deep-rooted plant manure is unnecessary. +It is true that the roots penetrate several feet into +the soil, still an application of short manure or rotted +vegetable matter applied each autumn will give a +good return.</p> + +<p>The chief point in the use of lucerne for pigs and +in the production of a maximum crop is to cut it +when young. The pigs will thrive on it far better in +this state than when the stalks become hard and +sticky. In the latter stage it is likely to cause constipation. +It is best not to graze it with either +horses, cattle, or pigs, but benefit to it results from +folding it in the autumn with ewes or other sheep +which find most of their other food on the stubbles, +commons, heaths, etc.</p> + +<p>All the sows and the yelts intended for breeding +should now spend their whole time out of doors. It +might be noted that lucerne will grow on almost +any kind of land providing it is well drained—stagnant +water destroys it.</p> + +<p>The duties of the pig-keeper are very similar in +the month of June to those of the previous month.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +Prior to the outbreak of war it was becoming general +amongst the most practical pigmen to continue to +fatten pigs all the year round. The old-fashioned +idea that pork was not a suitable food during any +of the months in which there was not the letter "r" +had become exploded. Not only did the bacon +curers require a supply of fat pigs weighing from +200 to 220 lbs. alive, but there was a good demand +from the butchers for small fat pigs weighing from +80 to 140 lbs. alive.</p> + +<p>It must not be forgotten that a smaller quantity +of food is required to produce a pound of pork +during the summer than during the winter months. +This has been clearly proved in many experiments. +The difference varies according to the temperature. +In the very cold weather experienced in some +portions of the United States it was found that +some pigs actually made no increase in weight when +well fed, the whole of the nutriment having to be +utilised in keeping up the bodily warmth of the pigs.</p> + +<p>The months of July and August see little change +in the duties of the attendant on pigs. The old-fashioned +plan of running the pigs on the corn +stubbles has almost gone out of fashion. The improved +system of harvesting the crops leaves less +corn on the land, whilst the cost of labour in keeping +the pigs is almost prohibitive. At one time there +used to be a keen demand for young pigs in the +month of August for so-called "shacking" or running +on the stubbles. Experience has proved that +these pigs pay less frequently under present conditions +than they did under the old ones.</p> + +<p>The scarcity of vegetable food which usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +shows itself in August is now, in September, met to +a considerable extent by the plan of the early +digging of potatoes. Large quantities of chats, and +sometimes of slightly diseased ones are now cooked +and fed to the pigs with a certain proportion of +meal. As a rule there is a keen demand for pork in +the month of September. Towards the end of the +month all pigs should be under shelter at night.</p> + +<p>During the last three months of the year there is +little variation in the management of pigs. One of +the common mistakes made by farmers is to neglect +their pigs in the autumn, at the very season when a +little extra food is needed, and for which the pigs +will give a better return than at almost any time of +the year. The early portion of October is one of the +best periods for mating the sows, the yelts may be +left until the latter part of the month so that their +pigs do not arrive until the month of February +when the days are lengthening and the sun has +more power. It is advisable to have many of +the fat pigs ready for market ere the month of +November ends, as the demand for pork is usually +slack for two or three weeks prior to and after +Christmas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XVII +<br /> +DISEASES OF THE PIG</h3> + + +<p>Fortunately, the pig is subject to comparatively +few serious diseases—save swine fever, swine +erysipelas, and very occasionally anthrax, which +are contagious or infectious, and all in the special +charts of the veterinary department of the Board +of Agriculture, and within the contagious Diseases +Animals Acts. Prior to the stamping out of +Foot and Mouth Disease or apthous fever and +rabies, pigs suffered from these contagious and +infectious diseases, particularly the former of the +two, which caused immense losses, especially of +young pigs, during the latter half of the past +century.</p> + +<p>Of the other ailments to which pig flesh is heir, +the majority and the chief of them are mainly due +to that want of knowledge or care in the feeding +and in the housing of the pigs which renders them +more susceptible to the sudden changes in the +temperature or to the inclemency of the season. +In former chapters some, if not all, of these ailments +have been referred to, but it may be more convenient +to our readers to include in one chapter a +brief description of the ailments and the remedies +and means of prevention.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Swine Fever</span></h4> + +<p>Some thirty years since the losses from this +disease were of so serious a nature that the Board +of Agriculture determined to attempt to stamp it +out, as they had succeeded in stamping out pleura +pneumonia in cattle, and foot and mouth disease. +The success of their efforts was not at all commensurate +with the outlay. The failure was attributed +to many causes; amongst them the want of +a complete knowledge of the disease, the impossibility +of diagnosing it during the life of the patient, +the absence of sympathy on the part of the local +veterinary surgeons owing to certain steps taken +by the then Veterinary Adviser of the Board, to +which further reference is now inadvisable, and to +the general opposition of pig-keepers who had as +little faith in many of the post mortems and their +results as in the power of the authorities to stamp +out the disease which under various names had +been more or less common in the country so long as +they could remember. Doubts were also passed on +the infectivity or contagiousness of swine fever, +or as it was variously termed red soldier, spots, +etc.</p> + +<p>This disbelief was probably due in part to the +fact that some of the external symptoms of swine +fever, swine erysipelas, and heart disease, such as +discoloration of the skin were of a similar character. +In some instances this redness of the skin, +which was looked upon as a sure sign that the pig +had died from swine fever, did not prove to be infectious, +as no other cases followed amongst the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +in-contact pigs. This led to the general belief that +swine fever was not necessarily infectious. Dissatisfaction +with the arbitrary manner in which the +restrictions in movement, etc., were carried out did +not mend matters, nor help to render the efforts of +the Board more successful.</p> + +<p>At the present time it is imperative on the part +of the owner of an ill pig to report the fact to the +nearest policeman. The owner then merely carries +out the instructions supplied to him by the police +so that it is almost unnecessary to state that the +symptoms of swine fever are several. At times the +attack is of so virulent a nature that a pig may +take its food all right in the afternoon and be dead +the next morning, no discoloration of the skin or +other external symptoms being visible before or +immediately after death.</p> + +<p>As a rule when the pig is attacked the first +symptom is loss of appetite, generally accompanied +by a feverish condition of the skin which shows +more or fewer red spots behind the shoulder, and +inside the thighs, or in those portions of the body +where the skin is the thinnest and most free from +hair. The great desire of the affected pig is to +burrow into the litter and to remain undisturbed, +save when the feverish thirst impels it to seek +moisture of any sort or kind, even urine which may +have settled into any unevenness of the floor of the +sty.</p> + +<p>Many of the ailing pigs suffer from a dry, husky +cough, a gummy discharge exudes from the eyes +and forms a ring round them, the ankles become +affected, and the muscles of the back become<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +weakened so that the pig has difficulty in walking. +The discoloration of the skin may or may +not increase, but the weakness gradually becomes +greater so that death may follow within a day or +two from the first attack. Occasionally the affected +pig will continue to live for several days, and +eventually recover so much that it can be fatted, +but there exists a great risk of the recovered pig +being what is termed a "carrier" of the disease, +and possessing the ability to infect other pigs with +which it may come in close contact, although the +germs of the disease which it carries do not affect +its own health. Similar instances of human beings +being "carriers" of the disease have been recorded. +So difficult is it at times to discover the source of +the infection of swine fever that certain persons +who are not amongst the strongest believers in the +practical knowledge of the members of the veterinary +profession assert that swine fever need not necessarily +be the result of infection, but that injudicious +feeding or the neglect of sanitary arrangements will +sometimes cause an outbreak. There does not +appear to be the slightest ground for this belief, as +there is a specific virus which when it obtains ingress +into the body of the pig, whether by the mouth, +nose, or in any other way, may result in an attack, +more or less severe, of swine fever, unless the virus +has become so attenuated that it is unable to +affect the host sufficiently. This attenuation, which +is due to causes which are probably not completely +known, is commonly the cause of the absence of +further cases of swine fever amongst one of a lot of +pigs which has had a very mild attack. This variation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +in the virulence of most infectious diseases has +been noticed and recorded.</p> + +<p>At the present time the Board of Agriculture have +suspended the slaughter order in cases where the +owner of the pigs desires to inoculate the in-contact +pigs with serum which is supplied from the +Veterinary College. The experiment has not been +in operation sufficiently long enough to express a +confident opinion upon its results, but it is stated +that in Denmark the inoculation of the pigs which +have been in contact with diseased pigs has proved +to be a success. The risks of carrying out the +experiment are by no means slight, but appear to +be worth running if there be any great probability +of success.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Swine Erysipelas</span></h4> + +<p>The symptoms of this disease, which fortunately +is not so common as swine fever, owing probably to +its being more fatal and in a shorter time, are very +similar to those of swine fever, save that the husky +cough and the weakness of the muscles of the back +are generally absent. The post mortem shows distinctive +differences from those of swine fever. +There appears to be far greater difficulty in +thoroughly disinfecting the sty in which pigs +suffering from erysipelas have been housed than +after swine fever cases; not only so, but the virus +remains active for a very long period, so that any +accident which may expose the virus even after +many months may affect any pigs with which it +comes in contact.</p> + +<p>In an outbreak of swine erysipelas it is advisable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +to have the unaffected pigs inoculated as well as +those housed in a sty or building in which at any +time pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed. +A certain limited number may die, and a few suffer +for a time, but the total loss will be considerably +reduced.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Anthrax, Foot and Mouth Disease and Rabies</span></h4> + +<p>It may be unnecessary to describe these very +infectious or contagious diseases to which pigs are +subject, as fortunately the steps taken to stamp +them out, and which were much decried when taken +by the Board of Agriculture, have proved so successful +that the two latter are stamped out, and the +first named is so promptly and effectually dealt +with that a case of it amongst swine is seldom recorded.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Cramp, DiarrhÅ“a and Epileptic Fits</span></h4> + +<p>These diseases, which are more frequent amongst +young pigs, have been fully described in the chapters +dealing with the rearing, weaning, and growing of +pigs, where it is pointed out that they are all mainly +due to faults in feeding, and the simple remedies +applicable are there given.</p> + +<p>Hernia and Scrotal Hernia are also treated upon +in the chapter on the Farrowing Sow.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Inversion of the Vagina or the Uterus</span></h4> + +<p>These two troubles, of which the latter is a complete +expulsion and the former only a partial protrusion +of the "breeding bag," are generally the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +result of a difficult or a protracted farrowing. The +second is almost impossible of treatment, and indeed +may be declared as fatal, so that the loss may be +reduced by prompt slaughter.</p> + +<p>The first varies in extent; a partial or limited inversion +may at times be noticeable during the latter +stages of pregnancy, and then after delivery may +disappear without treatment until the pressure due +to the increasing size of the fÅ“tus again causes it. +Even in serious cases which attend the delivery and +are due to excessive straining of the sow, the attack +is not necessarily fatal if extreme care in treatment +is applied. The first thing is to wash the protruding +part with warm water, to which some disinfectant +has been added, in order that all dirt, short straw, +etc., shall be removed. The sow should then be +made to rise, or if she refuses, as is not uncommon, +the hind quarters of the sow should be raised and +the protruding portion be gently but firmly forced +back. In order to prevent a re-expulsion stitches +with strong cord or leather lace should be inserted +into the edges of the vulva—these need not be very +close together or otherwise the sow would be unable +to make water. For a few days the sow must be +kept as quiet as possible and fed on a little nourishing +but laxative food, so that the pressure on the +vagina is slight until the muscles regain their +normal strength. Should there be the slightest +symptom of constipation, salts or castor oil should +be given to the sow. No harm, but rather good, +will attend the giving of a gentle dose of salts at the +first time of feeding after the operation as there is +certain to be an amount of inflammation present.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Inversion of the Rectum</span></h4> + +<p>This expulsion of the gut as it is commonly termed +is not often experienced amongst mature pigs. +Young pigs are not uncommonly affected save when +constipation is neglected, or when the food is of a +heating nature which causes continual difficulty on +the part of the pig in expelling the fæces. The +effort of straining causes the gut to exude. Similar +treatment, save as to the stitching of the part, as +with inversion of the vagina, should be followed.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Tender Feet</span></h4> + +<p>This trouble is frequently mistaken for cramp or +rheumatism, and is generally due to the same causes, +injudicious feeding, etc. In the latter disease the +ankles are mainly affected, in the case of fever in the +feet, the feet only are affected. A strong dose of +Epsom salts should be given and daily doses of +nitre should be given in the food. The object should +be to reduce and remove the fever and then to cure +or remove that tenderness and soreness of the feet +which follows the fever. Poulticing the feet and +applying diluted white oils by adding equal quantities +of water and vinegar around the coronets are +both remedial measures of great value.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Constipation</span></h4> + +<p>This trouble is very common amongst pigs which +are confined to the sties, its avoidance is comparatively +easy, when the want of exercise is the sole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +cause. A run in an enclosure or even in the road +will almost always result in the pig evacuating dung +and water. A dose of salts, varying from 1/2 oz. to +1-1/2 oz. for each pig, according to age, in the next +supply of food is advisable.</p> + +<p>Constipation is usually the first indication of +many of the troubles to which the pig is heir. The +little pig on its mother becomes constipated when +the food fed to the mother is unsuitable, and the +pig suffers from indigestion; fever caused by a +chill is also foretold by constipation which should +be first removed by a gentle dose of salts or of castor +oil; the last only to be used in severe cases. Linseed +oil is also frequently used to relieve the constipation, +but with this there is a fear of billiousness following +its use. If exercise and the above remedies do not +effect a cure, an enema of soap and water or even +glycerine may be necessary. Old-fashioned pigmen +remove the hard and knotty fæces by the aid of the +finger.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Eczema</span></h4> + +<p>This is sometimes called a skin disease, but it +appears to be rather a symptom of a severe attack +of indigestion or of billiousness than a disease in +itself. It shows itself in the form of a bright red +spot, varying in size from that of a threepenny piece +to that of a shilling, these spots vary greatly in +number. Small pimples appear on the spots from +which a sticky fluid exudes. As soon as the bowels +are thoroughly relieved by aperient medicine, the +spots become dark in colour and peel off the skin. +The application of oil to the spots hastens the shedding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +of them. A dose of sulphur of one to eight +drachms in addition to the salts will be beneficial.</p> + +<p>Frequently the pig will refuse to eat, it will then +be necessary to dose it. The pig must be caught, +its head raised and the liquid gently poured down its +throat, the greatest care being taken not to pour +the liquid whilst the pig is squealing or the medicine +will go into the lungs and cause suffocation, or +inflammation of the lungs which will generally prove +fatal.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Measles</span></h4> + +<p>This is a trouble of a very similar character to +eczema save that the red spots are more numerous +and of a more irritating character. The patient is +continually rubbing itself against the wall or any +prominence in an endeavour to relieve the itching. +The pig is also more feverish. The pig should be +placed in a warm sty, with plenty of dry straw, into +which it will quickly burrow. A dose of Epsom +salts to which is added a small quantity of spirit of +nitre should be given, as the pig affected will almost +invariably refuse food for a time. Neat's foot or +sweet oil applied to the spots will relieve the irritation.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Rickets</span></h4> + +<p>This is not by any means a common ailment +amongst pigs, but it is very hereditary. The most +common cause is too close breeding. The bones and +joints appear to be unequal to the performance of +their duties, the pig staggers and stumbles when it +attempts to move, whilst sometimes the back is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +affected, when the pig is stated to be suffering from +"swayback." As a rule treatment is inadvisable +as recovery is doubtful. The first loss by knocking +the pig on the head is generally the least.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Tuberculosis</span></h4> + +<p>Pigs, like unto human beings, are much subject to +tuberculosis when they are kept under conditions +similar to those which result in human beings becoming +affected. The disease is highly infectious, +pigs coming in contact with or even being housed in +sties where pigs affected have been recently kept +are very likely to become infected. Some persons +declare that tuberculosis, or, as it is more commonly +called, consumption, is hereditary. For this there +does not appear to be any foundation. The chief +thing to prevent one's animals being affected is to +keep them away from contagion. Although many +parts of the body may be attacked by tuberculosis, +the lungs are more frequently affected than any +other of the organs, owing probably to the ease +with which infection by the minute germ is conveyed +to the lungs in the act of breathing.</p> + +<p>In the past a considerable number of pigs became +infected through being fed on skim milk which +contained germs from the udder of a cow suffering +from a tuberculous udder. In these cases of the +lungs and the bowels becoming tubercular, the pigs +become unthrifty and frequently waste away and +die. When the bones and other portions of the body +are attacked the development of the disease is not +so rapid, but in any case the wisest plan is to destroy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +the animal and thoroughly disinfect the place in +which it has been kept. Save when the disease is +local and of very limited duration the meat of a pig +suffering from tuberculosis is unfit for human consumption.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Worms</span></h4> + +<p>Pigs are subject to various kinds of worms. Of +these the most serious by far is the worm which +causes the disease called Trichinosis in man. The +worms are transmitted to man in pork from a +diseased pig. Thorough cooking of meat appears to +destroy the vitality of the worm, but in foreign +countries where the pork is eaten in an uncooked or +an undercooked condition the disease is not uncommon. +Fortunately, Trichinosis is almost unknown +in this country, owing to our more stringent +sanitary conditions, the disease being due in the +pig to the eating of human excrement in which are +thread worms.</p> + +<p>The most common kind of pig worm in this +country is the round white worm, pointed at both +ends. Its length varies from one to several inches. +Its presence is often unsuspected until one or more +of the worms are noticed in the dung of the pig. It +is readily got rid of by keeping the pigs from food +for at least twelve hours, and then giving them a +little tempting food in which a dose of santonine, +varying from three to ten grains for each pig, +according to its age, has been added. Some two +hours later a dose of castor oil of from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz., +or of one to two ounces of Epsom salts, should be +given in milk or some other tempting food. Similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +treatment will prove successful in the case of pigs +affected with the smaller kind of worms save that +of the worm which causes what is commonly known +as "husk." This worm makes its home in the windpipe +and bronchial tubes. It is advisable to obtain +from a chemist a drench for the riddance of this +worm, as the remedies will consist of linseed oil, +turpentine, spirits of camphor, and asafÅ“tida.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Sore Teats</span></h4> + +<p>Occasionally the teats of sows, especially sows +with their first litters, become chapped or sore. +This trouble is frequently due to the too vigorous +sucking of the little pigs when the supply of milk is +short, to the biting of the teats when the sharp +little teeth have not been broken off, or even to +cold winds.</p> + +<p>An application of boro-glyceride will usually +effect a speedy cure. In persistent cases it will be +advisable to give the sow a dose or two of opening +medicine such as salts or sulphur.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Salt and Soda Poisoning</span></h4> + +<p>Although these can scarcely be classed as diseases, +the effects are often more serious than those of some +actual diseases to which swine are more or less subject.</p> + +<p>In the majority of cases the cause is the neglect +of the cook to keep separate from the swill the +water in which salted meat or other food has been +boiled, or the water to which soda has been added<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +in the washing of the plates, etc. An attack if at +all severe is usually fatal.</p> + +<p>The symptoms are a discoloration of the skin, and +a refusal of food. As these are the usual symptoms +of several other ailments, it is difficult to determine +the cause of death save by a post-mortem examination. +It is to be feared that this mixing of a solution +of salt and soda with the other swill will be one +of the difficulties met with in the more general +utilisation of kitchen refuse in the keeping of pigs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XVIII +<br /> +THE CURING OF PORK</h3> + + +<p>In the good old times bacon curing was carried on +in the large majority of farm-houses as well as in +many houses in the country districts, not only +where there were conveniences for the keeping of +pigs, but many householders were in the habit of +buying carcases of pork from their neighbours and +curing the major portion for the following year's +supply of cured meats. Even the better class +labourers would kill and cure it so that as long as it +lasted they had on hand a supply of most nutritious +and suitable food. Unfortunately a great change +has taken place of late years; this convenient and +profitable plan has been superseded. The causes +may have been many; amongst them, the importation +of immense quantities of salt pork of +very inferior quality at very low prices from the +United States; the change in the public taste which +is now for mild cured and lean bacon from young +pigs, instead of the more heavily salted meats from +older and fatter pigs; the great decrease in the +number of pigs kept by cottagers and others in +urban districts through the operation of the so-called +sanitary regulations; and probably from the +different style of living, which may or may not be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +an improvement, amongst the residents in country +districts.</p> + +<p>It may be that one of the many changes which +have been brought about by, and which will also +follow, the war will be a return to the more simple +and less luxurious manner of living. It is certain +that a more economical system will have to be +followed, and one of the means of effecting this may +be a return to the keeping of pigs during their +growing stage on the house and garden refuse, and +then when the pigs have been fattened, by the +killing and curing of the carcase for home consumption.</p> + +<p>Much has been written during recent years about +the folly of allowing so many millions of sovereigns +to go out of the country in payment for the vast +weight of bacon, hams, and lard which we import +from foreign countries. Residents in the country +have been blamed by town residents and literary +men for their alleged want of enterprise in not +breeding and fattening the few extra million pigs +which would furnish an amount of pig produce +equal to that imported, and thus, as they declare, +save the country that outlay which is a dead loss +to these islands.</p> + +<p>It may at once be frankly admitted that a very +considerable increase in the number of our pig +population is possible without any very greatly +extended cost of food, but when it is contended that +farmers and even cottagers are grossly neglectful in +not producing sufficient pork and its products for +the use of the whole of the population of these +islands, an injustice is done, as the breeding and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +feeding of pigs is a business calling, not a philanthropical +pursuit. Farmers and cottagers are like +other manufacturers of necessary articles; they +produce in order to live, and they cease to manufacture +an article when its production ceases to +repay them for their outlay and trouble. They +must of necessity do so, or they come to grief +and are unable to carry on their farms or businesses.</p> + +<p>It matters not what the cause be for the ability +of the foreigner to produce and land on our markets +articles cheaper than we can afford to offer them at, +the result is the same—the home production is automatically +reduced. There are many causes which +have helped to render it possible for foreigners to +supply us with a certain proportion of the pork and +bacon which we require at a less cost than our +home breeder and feeders of pigs can supply it. +These include help to the farmers from the Governments +of certain countries such as Denmark, where +assistance is given in the purchase of pure bred pigs +for the improvement of the native pigs, in the reduced +railway and other rates on the transit of +pigs, foods, and bacon, in the provision of certain +foods, and in carrying out experiments in order to +show how they may be utilised in the best manner. +Stud farms have also been established from which +pure bred boars are distributed, whilst the whole +industry of pig breeding and bacon curing is +carried on under the supervision and with the +advice of many Government officials appointed for +the purpose. The intrinsic value of this assistance +is perceptible, as in no other country are pig-keeping<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +and bacon curing carried on with greater monetary +success than in Denmark.</p> + +<p>It is also asserted that the general system of +farming in Denmark has also contributed very +largely to the phenomenal prosperity of the pig +industry, in that a very large proportion of the land +is owned and farmed by comparatively small +farmers, men who have a direct interest in the +improvement of the land, and who with their +families perform the major portion of the work +on the land and in attendance on the stock. The +land is almost certain to be well managed and the +stock to receive the best possible attention with, +comparatively speaking, little cost as to labour. +The animals on the farm are likely to be +of a higher grade and the returns from them +of an increased character, than when strangers +and disinterested hired labour attend and feeds +them.</p> + +<p>Another of the great advantages possessed by +some of our foreign competitors is the very much +better supply of feeding stuffs and their very considerably +lower cost. Take the United States, for +instance, the enormous supply of maize alone +enables American pigmen to manufacture pork at +a cost which enables the packers to land bacon, +hams, and lard on the British shores which our +home pig producers cannot approach. Although it +cannot be said that the cost of labour is less in the +States than in England, yet there are some countries +from which we import pork products where the +labour is far more plentiful and less costly. In the +future the allowance for labour will have to be on a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +more liberal scale than hitherto when estimating +the cost of producing pork, unless the number of +persons owning and occupying small holdings is +greatly increased.</p> + +<p>It has been stated that our home producers of +pork and bacon will obtain a considerable advantage +in the future in that the freight on the imported +meats will be so much higher. It is most +probable that this will increase the expense of landing +bacon, etc., on our markets; on the other hand, +as we import so large a proportion of the pig fattening +foods, the cost of food will most likely be increased +to quite the same if not to a greater extent. +The only plan to reduce this extra expense will be +to lessen the outlay on imported foods by paying +more attention to the growth of various foods suitable +for pigs, attending more carefully to our pigs +and feeding them on common-sense lines. In these +particulars there is room for much improvement in +many piggeries.</p> + +<p>By reducing the cost of the production of pork +and by the more general adoption of the system of +home curing we shall not only obtain our bacon at +less cost, but we shall have a far greater amount of +the finest quality of bacon and hams generally +available. We imagine that the reader of the +earlier portion of this book will experience little +difficulty in producing fine quality pork at a +minimum cost—it will then remain to cure and dry +it properly.</p> + +<p>The fattened pig should not be fed for some +twenty-four hours before it is killed; after slaughter +the carcase should remain hanging until it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +thoroughly cooled. The manner of cutting up will +depend on the custom in the particular district. +In some parts of the country the pig is split down, +the head, feet, and tail taken off, the leaf and +kidneys and the skirt taken out, the loin and the +crop with a certain proportion of the lean cut off, +and in some cases the shoulder blade is drawn; +after the necessary trimming a Wiltshire side remains.</p> + +<p>In other districts the ham and the shoulder are +cut off and the side is converted into a middle, a +ham and a shoulder or fore-ham. The jowls are +taken off the head and salted with the bacon and +hams. The upper part of the head, or, as it is commonly +termed, the scorf, is usually used with the +feet in the manufacture of brawn, or, as it +is sometimes called, pork cheese—presumably +from its being cooled in a form, and then +turned out on to the dish on which it is served +at table.</p> + +<p>The first operation in curing is to distribute a +small quantity of salt all over the meat to be cured. +If allowed to remain about forty-eight hours the +blood remaining in the meat will have become dissolved, +and will have exuded from the carcase. +This liquid should be thrown away. A mixture in +the proportion of 4 lbs. salt, 1 lb. coarse brown sugar, +1 oz. saltpetre, 1/4 oz. bay salt, and 1/4 oz. salt prunell +should be prepared, and a portion of it be applied +to all parts of the meat and particularly in the pocket +hole, if the shoulder blade has been drawn. This +should be continued for from twenty to thirty days, +according to the thickness of the meat and the degree<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> +of saltness desired. In one or two districts of a +limited area it is usual to rub the meat somewhat +violently with a large pebble when applying the +salt mixture, the alleged object being to rub in the +salt; but for this there is not the slightest necessity +as the result of the rubbing is nil, since the salt will +penetrate the meat equally as well without the +manipulation as with it. The principal point is to +secure the distribution of the salt to every part of +the meat so that the salt can penetrate and preserve +it.</p> + +<p>When sufficiently cured the meat should be hung +up and dried. If it be desired to have it smoked +this is best done at the village bakery or smoke +drying house. Smoking of hams and bacon is +possible on a small scale with the aid of a smoke +oven such as supplied by Messrs. Douglas and Sons +of Putney, but it is, as a rule, cheaper and less +troublesome to send the meat to the village smoking +house. It will be advisable to brand or otherwise +mark each piece of cured meat sent to be +smoked, as the return of the same pieces is thus +assured.</p> + +<p>Where the home curing of bacon and hams +is followed, this is best carried out from the +middle of October to the end of March; if it +be attempted earlier or later a cold chamber is +necessary.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of salt pork is carried on all the +year through as the meat is usually kept in the brine, +where it will keep perfectly good for a considerable +time providing it is perfectly sweet when first placed +in the brine. To secure this it is advisable to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +the pig killed in the evening, covered over with a +cloth to prevent the flies approaching it, and hanging +it in a cool place so that all the natural heat has +escaped ere it is cut up and placed in the pickle pot. +It may be advisable to note that the last is only +possible with a small pig during the hot weather. +In the mere salting of pork it is usual to use only +salt and saltpetre. The use of sugar should be +avoided in the summer, as its use is likely to result +in fermentation in hot weather.</p> + +<p>There are two other points in connection with +bacon curing on which a change of opinion has +taken place, or is taking place. These are the cause +of what are called in the trade "seedy bellies," and +the effect on the bacon of the female fat pig being +in a state of Å“strum when it is slaughtered. Until +quite recently the first of these troubles, and it is a +most serious one to the trade, was generally considered +to be due to the second. It was believed by +curers that the slight inflammation noticeable in +the mammary glands of the female pig when she is +in heat resulted in these so-called "seedy bellies" +if the pig was in that condition when she was +slaughtered. This belief may have been either the +cause or the result, or both, of the common saying +that the meat of a sow pig killed when it was in +heat will not take the salt properly, and that it is +therefore advisable to wait until this natural condition +has passed away before the pig is slaughtered. +This contention has been one of the arguments used +when the spaying of sow pigs has been advocated. +Of late years comparatively few sow pigs have been +spayed, so that the unspayed fat pigs have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +nearly as numerous as those male pigs which have +been castrated, and as the sow pigs come in heat +each three weeks, and continue so for from three to +five days, a very considerable proportion of them +must be in heat when they are slaughtered at the +large bacon-curing factories, without any loss +resulting. We may, therefore, assume that it +matters little whether the pig be in heat or not +when it is slaughtered unless the seedy bellies +result.</p> + +<p>On this point also the verdict is against the +common belief, as Messrs. Mackenzie and Marsh +have carried out a series of investigations at Cambridge +which clearly proved that seedy bellies were +equally as common when the sow pigs were not in +heat and when they were; but that the discoloration +which resembles numbers of small spots +of colour varying from dark blue to light red +in the mammary glands is merely an excess of +pigment, the darker shade being common in +pigs with dark coloured hair and skin such as +the Large Blacks, Berkshires, etc., and the lighter +shade in pigs of the Tamworth breed. In the +bacon manufactured from pigs with a white +skin and white hair there is no discoloration or +seedy bellies.</p> + +<p>Although it has been generally considered by +bacon curers that pigs of a white colour were preferable +for their trade, and this to such an extent that +some of the bacon curers in Ireland will pay a slightly +higher price for a pig with a white skin, the preference +was generally considered to be due to the more +presentable appearance of a side of bacon from a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +white than from a black pig; it would appear that +in the future a still greater preference will be +observable when it becomes generally known that +the bacon made from white pigs is free from seedy +bellies.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/imagep181.jpg" width="600" height="482" alt="Advertisement for Willson's Canadian Pig Powders." +title="Willson's Canadian Pig Powders." /> +</div> + +<div class="advert"> +<p style="font-size:large; font-style:italic">To make money out of Pigs</p> + +<p>One must go on the NON-STOP PRINCIPLE, every little check to growth +means so much less profit. Now we know and there are thousands of other +pig feeders know that WILLSON'S CANADIAN PIG POWDERS are just the very +thing that is wanted, one or two powders a week to each Pig enables them +to digest their food and get the very utmost out of it. Nature does the +rest. You will find this so and the cost of powders is very small.</p> + +<p><span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">Willson's Canadian Pig Powders</span> +<br /> +<span style="font-size:large; font-style:italic">are a +Great +Investment</span></p> + +</div> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Scale of prices advertised for Willson's Canadian Pig Powders."> +<tr><td align="right">7</td><td align="center">for</td><td align="left">6d.,</td><td align="center">post free</td><td align="left">7d.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">16</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">1/-</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">1/2</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">48</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">2/9</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">3/-</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">144</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">8/-</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5">and in bulk in tins +21/- post free.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="advert"> + +<p class="center"><i>We have agents almost +everywhere.</i></p> + + +<p class="center"> <i>Sole<br /> + Manufacturer:</i><br /> +<br /> + STEPHEN WILLSON<br /> + Canadian Pig Powder Factory<br /> + PETERBOROUGH<br /> + (<i>Who also keeps a big experimental piggery</i>).</p> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center"> <span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">Continuous Cropping and Tillage<br /> + Dairy Farming for Small Farmers.</span></p> + +<p class="center"> By T. WIBBERLEY, N.D.A., N.D.D.</p> + +<p class="center"> Third Edition. Price 3/6 net; postage 4d.</p> + + +<p>Here Mr. Wibberley describes specially for the benefit of the small man +his system of all-weather farming, capable of doubling or trebling the +profits of even the best regulated small dairy farms. In this book he +discloses for the first time the whole secret of his success and the +success of the many thousands of small dairy farmers who follow him.</p> + + +<p class="center"> <i>Of all Booksellers or from the Publishers</i>,<br /> + C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.2.</p> +</div> +<hr /> + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> + +<h3>INDEX</h3> + +<ul> +<li>Anthrax, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Apthous fever, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Arrival of little pigs, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li>Artichokes for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Attendance on farrowing sow, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Bacon curing, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Bacon smoking, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Bacon from young pigs, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> +<li>Barley meal as sole fatting food, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li>Barn for pigsty, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li>Baulked sows, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li>Baulking sows, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> +<li>Berkshire breed, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li>Black pigs, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Blind teats, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Boar's teats, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li>Board of Agriculture's premiums, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Bob-tailed pigs, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>Breeds of pigs at shows, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> +<li>British Berkshire Society, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Butter milk, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Cabbages for pigs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li>Canadian system, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Carriers of swine fever, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li>Castrating pigs, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li>Castrating ruptured pigs, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li>Cause of parti-coloured pigs, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li>Close breeding, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Clover for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Coleseed for pigs, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li>Constipation in pigs, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li>Consumption in pigs, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +<li>Cooked <i>v.</i> uncooked maize, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li>Cooked <i>v.</i> uncooked potatoes, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> +<li>Cooking pig foods, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> +<li>Cooking potatoes, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li>Cross-bred pigs, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li>Cross breds <i>v.</i> pure breds, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Cumberland pigs, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Cutting up the pig, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Danish pig-keeping, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +<li>Dead pigs, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>Delicacy of pure-bred pigs, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Dentition of pigs, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>Diarrh[oe]a, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Difficulty in disinfecting sties, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +<li>Diseases of pigs, <a href="#Page_157">157</a> + <ul class="nest"> + <li>Anthrax</li> + <li>Apthous fever</li> + <li>Constipation</li> + <li>Cramp</li> + <li>Diarrh[oe]a</li> + <li>Eczema</li> + <li>Epileptic fits</li> + <li>Foot and mouth disease</li> + <li>Inversion of the rectum</li> + <li><span class="ditto">" " "</span> vagina</li> + <li><span class="ditto">" " "</span> uterus</li> + <li>Measles</li> + <li>Rabies</li> + <li>Rickets</li> + <li>Salt poisoning</li> + <li>Soda poisoning</li> + <li>Sore teats</li> + <li>Swine erysipelas</li> + <li>Swine fever</li> + <li>Tender feet</li> + <li>Tuberculosis</li> + <li>Worms</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dorset pigs, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +<li>Dosing pigs, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Dry beds, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li>Dysentery, <a href="#Page_85">85</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Eczema, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> +<li>Effect of food and climate, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>Epileptic fits, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Essex half-blacks, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Excited young sows, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li>Exhibition of pigs, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> +<li>Exposure of mangolds, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li>Extra food in the autumn, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Farmer owners, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +<li>Farrowing sow, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li>Fits, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>Flabby udders, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Foot and mouth disease, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li>Foster mothers, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Garget, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li>Gloucestershire Old Spots breed, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +<li>Government help, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Grade breeding pigs, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Grazing pigs, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Ham curing, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> +<li>Hampshire pigs, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li>Hernia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>High-backed pigs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>Holywell Victoria Countess, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li>Husk, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Importation of bacon and lard, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> +<li>Improved breeds, origin of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Increased cost of freight, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> +<li>Infectivity of swine fever, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> +<li>Influence of sire, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> dam, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li>Inoculation for erysipelas, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> swine fever, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Inversion of the rectum, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" " "</span> vagina, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" " "</span> uterus, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Large boars, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li>Large Black breed, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li>Large blue and white pigs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>Large White breed, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li>Large White Ulster breed, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> +<li>Lincolnshire Curly Coated breed, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li>Litter for pigs, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li>Lucerne for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Maize supply, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +<li>Mangolds for pigs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li>Mating the young sow, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> suckling sow, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li>Measles, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Medicine for farrowing sow, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>Mere size studied, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li>Messrs. Harris's scheme, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>Middle White breed, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li>Milk for sucking pigs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>Mixture of food, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> +<li>Model piggeries, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Neat sows, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li>Non-infectious swine fever, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> +<li>Norfolk pigs, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Northamptonshire pigs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>Number of pigs for a sow, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li>Number in a litter, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Origin of improved breeds, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Oxfordshire pigs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Parsnips for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Parti-coloured pigs, cause of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> +<li>Peat moss litter, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li>Persistence of erysipelas virus, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +<li>Pig calendar, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>Pig fattening, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> +<li>Pig keeping in orchards, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" " "</span> woods, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li>Pigment, excess of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> +<li>Pig pillows, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li>Pig shacking, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li>Pigs suffering from heat, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li>Plenty of teats, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Potatoes for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Poulticing pigs' feet, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li>Practical <i>v.</i> show points, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li>Prepotency of dam, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> sire, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> +<li>Prolificacy, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">"</span> indications of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">"</span> value of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +<li>Pure breeds, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Quality of bone, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Rabies, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Rape for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Rearing of young pigs, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></li> +<li>Recorded pedigree insufficient, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li>Rectum, inversion of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li>Registering produce, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +<li>Remaking sow's bed, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>Rickets in pigs, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Ring pigs, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li>Rollers for fat pigs, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li>Round white worms, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +<li>Rudgwick pigs, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Rupture in pigs hereditary, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li>Ruptured boar, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Salt poisoning, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> +<li>Santonine as a cure for worms, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +<li>Scrotal hernia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Seedy bellies, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Selection of boar, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> sow, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> +<li>Separated milk for little pigs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>Sheeted pigs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> +<li>Size in boars, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">"</span> of pigs' ears, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li>Skim milk and tuberculosis, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +<li>Slaughter classes, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li>Small black breed, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li>Small joints wanted, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Small testicles, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li>Smoke ovens, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Smoking bacon, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Soft pork, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> +<li>Sore-tailed pigs, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>Sore teats, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> +<li>Sow's udder, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Spaying sow pigs, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> +<li>Sty facing east, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> north, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> south, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> west, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li>Sugar in pork curing, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Sussex pigs, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Swayback pigs, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Swine erysipelas, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +<li>Swine fever, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> virus, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Tares for pigs, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li>Tender feet, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li>Trichinosis, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +<li>Tuberculosis in pigs, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +<li>Tuberculosis in pigs not hereditary, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +<li>Tuberculosis meat unhealthy, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Udder, the sow's, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Undersized teats, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Uniformity in a herd, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> young pigs, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>Unwieldly sows, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li>Utility points, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Value of feeding qualities, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li>Value of whey, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li>Variation in virulence of infectious diseases, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +<li>Varying food, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li>Vegetable food for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Weaning pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Wheat meal, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li>White peas for little pigs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>White-skinned pigs for bacon, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> +<li>Worms, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></li> +</ul> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center"><span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">DENNIS'S</span> +<br /> +<span style="font-size:large">"LINCOLNSHIRE" PIG POWDERS</span> +<br /> +ARE THE BEST MEDICINE for all DISEASES of PIGS. +<br /> +Used by most of the leading BREEDERS and EXHIBITORS.</p> + +<p class="center">It will pay you well to use them regularly. +<br /> +The cost is so small, 10d. per doz., post free 1/-. +<br /> +144 Powders post free 10/-.</p> +</div> + +<div class="sideleft">HEALTHY PIGS PAY WELL</div> +<div class="sideright">SOLD EVERYWHERE</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 621px;"> +<img src="images/image195.png" width="621" height="313" alt="Advertisement for Dennis's Pig Powders" +title="Advertisement for Dennis's Pig Powders" /> +<span class="caption">DENNIS's<br /> +LINCOLNSHIRE PIG POWDERS<br /> +PROPRIETOR J. W. DENNIS<br /> +LOUTH.<br /> +ENGLAND</span> +</div> +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center">Trade Mark No. 14,839.</p> + + + +<p class="center"><span style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">DENNIS'S "SPECIAL" WORM POWDERS</span> +<br /> +<b>are recognised as the surest means +<br /> +of ridding pigs of these parasites.</b></p> + +<p>Mr. W. L. PAYNE, of Tor Hole, Chewton Mendip, says:—"I +found 63 worms in my stye, after giving your Worm Powders."</p> + +<p class="center">In packets, 6d. Post free 7-1/2d. 6 packets Post free 3/4.</p> + +<p class="center">Sold by all Chemists, Boots Ltd., Taylor's Drug Co. Ltd., +and Co-operative Societies, at all Branches.</p> + +<p class="center">Proprietor:</p> + +<p class="center"><b>JOHN W. DENNIS, Veterinary Chemist +<br /> +LOUTH, LINCS.</b><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center">All practical Farmers who want to keep abreast of the times should +get at once a copy of</p> + +<p class="center"><span style="font-size:x-large"><b>FARMING ON FACTORY LINES</b></span> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">OR</span> +<br /> +<b>Continuous Cropping for Large Farmers</b> +</p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">BY</span> +<br /> +<b>T. WIBBERLEY, <span class="smcap">N.D.A.</span>, <span class="smcap">N.D.D.</span></b> +<br /> +(<i>Of Queen's University, Belfast</i>).</p> + +<p class="center">Second Edition <b>6/-</b> net (postage 4d.)</p> + + +<p><b>[Illustration: pointing finger] It forms the great authoritative test book on the +Wibberley Continuous Cropping System, and is a +new and frankly revolutionary guide to ALL-WEATHER +Farming and to cheaper Milk, Corn and Beef Production.</b></p> + +<p>"In times past the climate has often conquered the British Farmer, +but it has not conquered Wibberley. He has conquered it, turning +what otherwise would be adverse climatic conditions to advantage in +tilling the land.</p> + +<p>"It sounds impossible. It reads like a fairy tale—yet the whole of +the scheme of 'Wibberleyism' or 'Continuous Cropping,' 'Farming +on Factory Lines'—as the system is variously termed—is in reality +beautifully simple. It is so effective that one wonders what our highly +paid officials have been thinking about, when they have not hammered +out some such a tillage system as Wibberley's years before Wibberley +was born."—<span class="smcap">The Smallholder</span>.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>Read all about it in this new and valuable work.</b></p> + +<p class="center"><i>Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free +for <b>6/4</b> from</i></p> + +<p class="center">Messrs. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Limited, +<br /> +18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. 2.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center"><span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">SOME USEFUL HANDBOOKS</span> +<br /> +<span style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">FOR SMALLHOLDERS AND OTHERS</span></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>The Hobby Gardener.</b> By <span class="smcap">A. C. Marshall</span>, F.R.H.S. +With 22 full-page Illustrations showing clearly the various operations +throughout a year's work in the garden. In Stiff Three-coloured +Cover. Price 1/6 net, post free 1/9.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>Small Gardens and How to make the Most of +Them.</b> By <span class="smcap">V. P. Biddle</span>. Cloth Boards. Price 1/6, post +free 1/9.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">A most useful Handbook for the Amateur. Full instructions are given +for laying out, bedding, arrangement of borders, vegetable culture, flowers and +fruit trees, room plants, window boxes, etc.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>Greenhouses: How to Make and Manage Them.</b> +By <span class="smcap">William F. Rowles</span>. With numerous Diagrams. Cloth. +Price 1/6, post free 1/9.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>The Dog: In Health and Disease.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. M. +ARCHER</span>. With 12 Illustrations by <span class="smcap">S. T. Dadd</span>. Cloth. Price 1/6, +post free 1/9.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>Cage and Singing Birds.</b> By <span class="smcap">George Gardner</span>. With +numerous Illustrations. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">Some of the Contents are:—Birds for Song, for Exhibition and for Breeding—Care +of Young—Seeds: how and what to buy—Moulting for Song and for +Exhibition—Colour-feeding: how it is done—Diseases of Cage Birds and how +to treat them—Bird Fever—Parasites and how to destroy them, etc. etc.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>An Easy Poultry Guide.</b> By <span class="smcap">Edward Brown</span>, F.L.S. +With 8 full-page Illustrations and other Diagrams. Pocket size. +Cloth. Price 1/-net, post free 1/2.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>War on Weeds.</b> By "<span class="smcap">Farmer Giles</span>." Price 6d. net, post +free 7d.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">This book gives a full description and illustrations of the thirteen proscribed +weeds, also a complete list of all other farm and garden weeds, with sketches, +full descriptions, and preventive measures.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>War-Time Farming.</b> By <span class="smcap">T. Wibberley</span>. Price 6d. net, +post free 7d.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">This small book tells how the man on the land can use it to the greatest +advantage.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Any of these books may be ordered through your bookseller, or will be sent post-paid +on receipt of the price mentioned by</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>A. F. SOWTER, Publisher, "Smallholder and Small Owner" Offices,<br /> +16-18, HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.</b><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center"><span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">FARMING</span> +<br /> +<span style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">MADE EASY</span></p> + +<p class="center">By +<br /> +<span style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">J. C. NEWSHAM, F.L.S.</span> +<br /> +Principal of the Monmouthshire Agricultural and Horticultural +Institution, Usk.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Author of "The Potato Book," &c., Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 3/6 net.</i></p> + +<p>This is an easy Guide to the +most useful Elements of Agriculture. +It has been specially +written by a thoroughly qualified +agriculturist, with a wide and +successful practical knowledge +of his subject, for the use of the +countless thousands of men and +women who are now streaming +back—eager but half instructed—to +work on the land. It covers +practically every department of +farm labour and enterprise, and +provides the fullest and most +reliable instruction for all who +propose to take up Agriculture +in a serious and practical spirit, +as a means of livelihood.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free +for 3/10 from</i></p> + +<p class="center">MESSRS. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LIMITED,<br /> +18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. 2.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center"><span style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">BOOKS FOR SMALLHOLDERS, ETC.</span></p> + +<p class="center">A STANDARD BOOK BY AN EXPERT AUTHORITY.</p> + + +<p class="center"><b><span style="font-size:large;">DAIRY FARMING</span><br /> +FOR<br /> +<span style="font-size:large;">SMALLHOLDERS</span></b></p> + + +<p>By <span class="smcap">James Long</span>, formerly Professor of Dairy Farming, Royal Agricultural College; +Author of "The Book of the Pig," etc.</p> + +<p class="center">Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 2/6 net, post free 2/9.</p> + +<p>THE CHAPTERS DEAL WITH:—Our Dairy Cows; The Cow and Her Management; Foods +and Feeding; Milk; Butter and Butter Making; Cheese Making, etc.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">"Professor Long has never been more happily inspired than in writing it. The explanations +are lucid and clear."—<i>Standard.</i></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">"The smallholder who has made dairying part of his system, or has facilities for doing so, +will be all the better for adding this book to those already in his possession."—<i>Field.</i></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">"This is one of the best handbooks that can possibly find its way on the dairy farmer's +shelf."—<i>The Dairy.</i></p> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 30%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>POULTRY FOR PROFIT</b>. By <span class="smcap">E. T. Brown</span>. Author of "Profitable +Poultry Keeping" (Smallholders' Library), "Ducks, Geese and Turkeys," &c. +Crown 8vo, cloth, with 15 full-page illustrations and many diagrams. A +thoroughly comprehensive guide for the poultry keeper.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>ROSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.</b> By <span class="smcap">Edwin Beckett</span>, V.M.H., +F.R.H.S. Crown 8vo, cloth. With portrait frontispiece. Price 2/6 net +(postage 3d. extra).</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">"A handy little book by Mr. E. Beckett, gardener at Aldenham House, and famous as a grower of +exhibition vegetables, as well as of plants generally. He writes as a practical grower in a practical +way, dealing with soil and situation, planting, pruning, watering, propagation, the cultivation of +roses under glass and for exhibition in a way that is satisfying."—<i>The Field.</i></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>THE SMALLHOLDER'S YEAR BOOK.</b> Published annually in December. +Price 1/6 net, per post 1/9.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">The Smallholder's Year Book is now an institution. It is the recognised court of appeal in all +matters connected with the land, in gardening, farming, poultry-keeping, goat, rabbit and bee-keeping +circles. It contains the cream of all the information that has ever appeared in THE +SMALLHOLDER. It solves at a glance every problem that is ever likely to puzzle YOU.</p> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 30%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center"><i>These Handbooks may be obtained through your Bookseller, or will be forwarded +post free, on receipt of the price mentioned, from</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., 17 HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON W.C. 2.</b><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p class="center" style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">THE<br /> +"SMALLHOLDER"<br /> +CHARTS.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">On Card</span> 11-1/2 in. <span class="smcap">by</span> 8-1/2 in. <span class="smcap">for Hanging Up.</span></p> + +<ol style="margin-left:20%; margin-right:20%"> +<li>How to Make a Garden Frame</li> + +<li>How and When to Sow Vegetable Seeds</li> + +<li>The A.B.C. of Pig Keeping</li> + +<li>The A.B.C. of Utility Rabbit Keeping</li> + +<li>The A.B.C. of Poultry Keeping</li> + +<li>Garden and Orchard Pests</li> + +<li>How and When to Sow Flower Seeds</li> + +<li>How to Cure Poultry Diseases</li> + +<li>How to Cure Pig Diseases</li> + +<li>Fruit Bottling</li> + +<li>Manuring Made Easy</li> + +<li>The Whole Art of Goat Keeping</li> +</ol> +<p class="center"><i>Single Charts cost 4d. each, or any Six may be had for 1/8 post free.</i></p> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 30%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center">The "Smallholder" is issued in half-yearly volumes, March to +August, and September to February. Bound in Strong Cloth. +Price 4/-net each; post free 4/6. Cases for binding, including +Title Page and Index, price 1/9 each; post free 2/-.</p> + +<p class="center">Write to the Editor<br /> + +The "SMALLHOLDER" Office, 16-18 Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p> + +</div> +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center">AN ATTRACTIVE NATURE BOOK +FOR THE YOUNG.</p> + +<p class="center" style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">IN NATURE'S WAYS</p> + +<p class="center">BY MARCUS WOODWARD.</p> + +<hr style="width: 30%;" /> + +<p class="center">A book for all young Lovers of Natural History. Being an +Introduction to Gilbert White's immortal "Natural History +of Selborne."</p> + +<p class="center">Illustrated by <span class="smcap">J. A. Shepherd</span>.</p> + +<p class="center">With Preface by <span class="smcap">Wilfrid Mark Webb</span>, Secretary of the Selborne +Society.</p> + +<p class="center">This volume contains 8 full-page Illustrations on Art Paper in +addition to the Drawings in the Text.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>Price in paper wrapper 1/-net, postage 3d. extra; or in cloth +boards, price 2/-net, postage 4d. extra.</b></p> + +<hr style="width: 30%;" /> + +<p>"This is a 'White's Selborne' for the young; giving passages from the +original under different headings and side by side, some talk about the bird or +beast referred to; with plenty of illustrations by Mr. J. A. Shepherd, full of his +usual vitality."—<i>Times.</i></p> + +<p>"We think this volume cannot fail to interest and instruct the young."—<i>Field.</i></p> + +<p>"White's 'History of Selborne' is here amplified and explained for young +readers. Mr. Woodward has that gift of humour without which all writing on +nature is a weariness unto the flesh for young readers, and for many readers +who are no longer young. Mr. J. A. Shepherd's illustrations catch the spirit of +the letterpress, and are of a piece with the work that has made his reputation +as an artist."—<i>Literary World.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 30%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>May be had of all Booksellers or will be sent direct on receipt of published price +and postage from</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LTD., Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2.</b></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<div class="trans-note"> +<p>Transcriber's Notes:</p> + + +<p>page <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, "oze" changed to "oz.," (from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz.,)</p> +<p>page<a href="#Page_168"> 168</a>, "b.," changed to "be" (should be given in milk)</p> +<p>page <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, suspected typo "test" for "text" (the great authoritative test book)</p> +<p>page <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, "F.R.H.S" changed to "F.R.H.S." (A. C. Marshall, F.R.H.S.)</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pig, by Sanders Spencer + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIG *** + +***** This file should be named 33074-h.htm or 33074-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/0/7/33074/ + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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--git a/33074.txt b/33074.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fb8ecc6 --- /dev/null +++ b/33074.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5861 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pig, by Sanders Spencer + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Pig + Breeding, Rearing, and Marketing + +Author: Sanders Spencer + +Release Date: July 4, 2010 [EBook #33074] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIG *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +This Plain Text version has been prepared using the ASCII character set +only. Italic typeface is indicated by _underscore_. Bold typeface, which +is used in the advertisements only, is indicated by =equals=. The oe +ligature is indicated by the use of square brackets: [oe]. The symbol +for pound Sterling (currency) is indicated by [L]. + +Where changes have been made to the text (of typographical errors etc.) +these are listed at the end of the book. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Frontispiece. Photo, Reid, Wishaw._ BREEDING SOWS OF THE +LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE BREEDS. + +The Middle White Sow in the forefront (the property of the Author) was +one of the best ever bred, "Holywell Countess Victoria."] + + +THE PIG + + + + THE PIG + BREEDING, REARING, AND MARKETING + + BY + + SANDERS SPENCER + + + London + C. Arthur Pearson Ltd. + Henrietta Street + 1919 + + +CONTENTS + + CHAPTER PAGE + + INTRODUCTION 13 + + I. NON-PEDIGREE PIGS 19 + + II. PURE BREEDS (with Standard Descriptions and + Scales of Points) 26 + + III. CROSS-BRED PIGS 39 + + IV. DENTITION AND AGE OF PIGS 49 + + V. SELECTION OF THE BOAR 54 + + VI. SELECTION OF THE SOW 63 + + VII. THE SOW'S UDDER 67 + + VIII. MATING THE YOUNG SOW 72 + + IX. THE FARROWING SOW 79 + + X. WEANING PIGS 91 + + XI. THE REARING OF YOUNG PIGS 97 + + XII. HOUSING OF PIGS 107 + + XIII. THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS 113 + + XIV. PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING 125 + + XV. PIG-FATTENING 131 + + XVI. A PIG CALENDAR 148 + + XVII. DISEASES OF THE PIG 157 + + XVIII. THE CURING OF PORK 171 + + INDEX 182 + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + BREEDING SOWS OF THE LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE + BREEDS _Frontispiece_ + + FACING PAGE + + LARGE BLACK BOAR, "DRAYTON KING" 16 + + PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, EXHIBITED AT SMITHFIELD SHOW 1914 17 + + A BERKSHIRE SOW 32 + + LARGE BLACK SOW, "SUDBOURNE SADIE" 33 + + THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS 48 + + A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR 49 + + TAMWORTH BOAR: BISHOP OF WEBTON 64 + + GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW 65 + + LARGE WHITE BOAR 80 + + TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES" 81 + + MIDDLE WHITE SOW 96 + + CUMBERLAND SOW 97 + + LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM" 112 + + LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR 113 + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +There are few points in the breeding of stock on which a greater +variation of opinion has been confidently expressed than on the origin +of the domesticated pig. It has been contended that our various types +had a common origin in the wild hog, and that the difference in form, +colour, and character amongst the local breeds is due, in the main, to +the requirements, imaginary or real, of the interested residents in the +particular districts. On the other hand, it is asserted with equal +confidence, and probably with the same amount of actual proof, that it +would be impossible so to improve the wild hog by selection as to render +it the equal of the domesticated hog. There must, therefore, have been +an infusion of blood of a cultivated breed of pigs to acquire even that +amount of success which was noticeable in the improved pig of a century, +or less, ago. Unfortunately, for this argument, it has not been possible +to obtain any information of value as to the alleged source of origin of +this cultivated breed of pigs. + +Again, those pigs which possess in a marked degree early maturity, fine +quality of flesh, and those other characteristics of the improved pig, +are so various in colour, that one cultivated breed only could not have +been utilised in the general improvement. + +All the ancient writers on pigs appear to have experienced the same +difficulty when endeavouring to discover the sources of origin of the +material which might have been used in the production of the pig which +in their time was looked upon as the domesticated and improved pig of +the period. This difficulty extends even to the present day. So far as +is known there exists no actual proof that the domesticated hog has been +evolved in any particular way other than by continued selection of those +animals for breeding purposes which possessed in the greatest degree +those particular qualities held in the highest estimation at the time. + +Of course, the soil, climate, etc., of the district in which pigs are +reared have a certain amount of influence, but this is noticeable to a +much lesser extent with pigs than with horses, cattle, or sheep, since +under the present system of pig-breeding the greater portion of the food +used in the different districts is of a very similar character--indeed, +much of it has a common origin--having been imported from abroad. + +As a rule, comparatively speaking very little difference is noticeable +in the development, form, and character of pigs bred in the various +parts of the country, whereas with some of the other domesticated +animals a very considerable change follows the removal of sheep of a +pure breed from one district to another. The quality and quantity of the +wool, flesh, and bone are all affected. An exactly similar effect is +noticeable when horses of a particular breed are moved from one district +to another. For instance, a Shire foal bred in the Fens may possess the +characteristic bone, flesh, and hair, yet if it be moved into portions +of the Eastern counties where the soil is of a totally different +character, it will when matured have lost, to a very considerable +extent, its peculiar characteristics of bone and hair. The changes +wrought may be due in small measure to climate, but the predominant +cause must be due to the variation in the food grown on soils of a +different character. + +This question of the original cause or causes of the varying colour of +the pigs in different localities appears to be equally difficult of +solution. As to the continuation in certain districts of pigs of one +colour, custom and even prejudice have a great effect. So strong is this +prejudice that some persons will even declare that the pork of pigs of +the fashionable colour in the neighbourhood is superior to that from +pigs of any other colour. As this weakness is common in districts where +black and where white pigs are kept it must be admitted that prejudice +alone must be the foundation of the belief. + +Probably the safest conclusion to arrive at with respect to the +variation in colour of the pigs noticeable in certain districts is that +in the long ago the native pig in the wild state was of the colour of +the soil and the herbage in which it sheltered, and was thus less +conspicuous to its enemies, whether human or animal. A marked instance +of this is to be found in the colour of the common or original pig found +in some parts of the country where the soil is of a decidedly red +colour. In the district referred to one actually hears some farms spoken +of as "red land farms." What more natural than to find in the districts +in which land of this hue predominates that the pigs should be a red +rusty hue such as was the original colour of that breed of pigs now +called the Tamworth breed. + +Some persons, who do not agree with this theory of the origin of the +various coloured pigs, cite as a proof of their belief the fact that in +so many districts the pigs are of a mixed colour, and that this peculiar +marking is equally as general in localities as is any particular or +special colour in the pigs. This is perfectly true, and it is probably +due to exactly the same causes, fancy, prejudice, or custom. The +residents in certain districts have grown accustomed to certain things +or certain forms, and are loth to change; the manufacturer of any +article must humour the actual or fancied requirements of his customers +if he is to secure success; and in a similar manner the breeder of pigs +has to consider and to produce pigs of the form, size, and colour which +are most in demand. Further if, as confidently alleged, there is a +preference in some districts for pork from pigs of a certain colour, +then the butcher naturally offers a higher price for pigs of that colour +which most fully satisfy the fancies of his customers, and thus we find +a similarity of form and colour in the pigs of various districts. + +As to the origin of these parti-coloured pigs, the explanation offered +is that even in pre-railway times there was a certain amount of +interchange of the different local breeds of stock. This would be +affected in various ways, which need not be specified. + +At the present time we have several defined and distinct breeds of pigs +which have secured recognition at our principal agricultural shows. +Indeed it may be claimed that the exhibitions of live stock which have +become so general in all parts of the country have been one of the chief +factors in fixing to a certain extent the type and character of certain +local breeds. Within the memory of the present writer the classification +of pigs at our principal shows was of a very simple character; it +consisted of classes for pigs of a white colour and for pigs of any +other colour. There was no attempt at any definition as to size, form, +and quality of the pigs. These points were left entirely to the judges, +who naturally were led to favour pigs of the type which they bred. There +was thus a greater amount of uncertainty as to the success of an +exhibitor's stock than at the present time. This uncertainty--save as to +the members of the Show Committees or their friends--was increased by +the unfair system of withholding from the knowledge of the average +exhibitor the names of those selected to judge. + +The necessity of some definition, if only of colour, quickly became +obvious. At first classes were established for pigs of certain colours; +then the prizes were offered for pigs of certain breeds, which were more +or less loosely defined. Now at the chief shows the pigs exhibited in +the various classes must be qualified for entry in the herd books of the +particular breeds. + +At the Royal Agricultural Shows there have been classes for pigs of the +Large White, Middle White, Berkshire, Tamworth, Large Black and +Lincolnshire Curly Coated breeds; whilst for the next show classes for +pigs of the so-called Gloucestershire Old Spots breed are to be +included. As showing the changes which are in progress it may be noted +that two breeds of pigs which had classes provided for them at the Royal +and some other Shows have become extinct. These were the Small White and +the Small Black breeds--the sole cause of their disappearance being the +unsuitability of the pigs of the breeds to supply the present +requirements of the consumer. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +LARGE BLACK BOAR, "DRAYTON KING." + +Owner, Terah F. Hooley. 1st Prize, Somerset County Agricultural Show, +1913. + +To face page 16.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Block kindly supplied by E. F. Casswell, Manor House, +Graby, Folkingham._ + +PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, Exhibited at SMITHFIELD SHOW 1914. 1st Prize. Age +8 months, 1 week, 5 days. Weight 7 cwts. + +To face page 17.] + + +THE PIG + + + + +CHAPTER I + +NON-PEDIGREE PIGS + + +Although the more general use of so-called pedigree pigs has tended to +modify the characteristics of the various local breeds of pigs, yet it +is possible to find a certain number of pig breeders who adhere to the +type of pig which has been in the past most generally found in their +district. This type was undoubtedly fixed by the wants or fancies of +those resident in the particular portions of the country. + +In the past it has been the practice when describing these local breeds +to write as though they were confined to certain counties. It may be +that pigs of a peculiar or characteristic type are more numerous within +the borders of various counties, but this is by no means always the +case. The habits and pursuits of the inhabitants rather than the soil +and climate--as with horses, cattle and sheep--have the greatest +influence on the form, size and quality of the local pigs, whilst use +and custom appear to determine the colour of the pig. We are of opinion +that it will be more instructive if we give a short description of some +of the more common types of these local breeds of pigs, and mention the +names of those counties in which they are more generally found. + +Amongst the most distinct of these local breeds is that which is +variously termed the sheeted or saddle-backed pig, which in the United +States has a society to look after its interests, and where it bears the +name of + +THE HAMPSHIRE + +Just why our American cousins should have decided to call these sheeted +pigs Hampshires is not on the surface, since the oldest writers on pigs +give to the county of Sussex the credit of being their original home. +The description given by Sidney of the Hampshire pig is that "it is a +coarse and useful black pig, inferior to the Berkshire, and not in the +same refined class as the Essex." Richardson writes "The Hampshire breed +is not infrequently confounded with the Berkshire; but its body is +longer and its sides flatter; the head is long and the snout sharp. The +colour of the breed is usually dark spotted; but it is sometimes black +altogether, and more frequently white." + +The sheeted pig has also been bred in the county of Essex for over a +century, but it is recorded that it was introduced into this county by a +Mr. Western who subsequently became Lord Western, and whose estate was +situated in Essex. + +In Sidney's book _The Pig_, we read, "West Sussex, Hampshire, Berkshire, +Dorset, Shropshire and Wales had indigenous black or red and black +breeds of swine; and between the whites, the blacks and the reds the +parti-colours were produced which have since in a great degree +disappeared under the influence of prizes, generally awarded to pure +breeds of single colours." + +Sidney also states "that Youatt and all the authors who have followed +him down to the latest work published on the subject, occupy space in +describing various county pigs which have long ceased to possess, if +they ever possessed, any merit worth the attention of the breeder." + +The Rudgwick, which is another name for the sheeted pig, is included in +the list. Richardson at a still earlier date describes the Sussex breed +as "black and white in colour, but not _spotted_; that is to say, these +colours are distributed in very large patches; one half--say, for +instance, the fore part of the body white and the hinder end black; or +sometimes both ends black and the middle white or _vice versa_; these +pigs are in no way remarkable; they seldom feed to over twenty stone. +They are well made, of middle size, and their skin covered with scanty +bristles. The snout tapering and firm, the ears upright and pointed, the +jowl deep and the body compactly round. They arrive at early maturity, +fatten quickly, and the flesh is excellent." + +Richardson also writes, "There is another improved Essex breed, called +the Essex Half-Blacks, resembling that which I have described in colour, +said to be descended from the Berkshire. This breed was originally +introduced by Lord Western, and obtained much celebrity," etc. etc. + +He then quotes from _The Complete Grazier_, sixth edition, as follows: +"They are black and white, short haired, fine skinned with smaller heads +and ears than the Berkshire, but feathered with inside hair which is a +distinctive mark of both; have short snubby noses, very fine bone, broad +and deep in the belly, full in the hind quarters, but light in the bone +and offal. They feed remarkably fast and are of an excellent quality of +meat. The sows are good breeders, and bring litters of from eight to +twelve; but they have the character of being bad nurses." If this +allegation were true at the time it was written, it is not at the +present time as the Half-Blacks or sheeted sows are both prolific and +first-rate mothers. + +Malden describes the Sussex: "A large breed called the Rudgwick, was one +of the largest in England. There appears to be a doubt as to whether the +coloured pig was descended from the spotted Berkshire or the black and +white Essex. They were of medium size, of good quality generally, but of +somewhat heavy bone." The generally accepted view is that the Essex +sheeted pig was descended from importations from the county of Sussex. +These sheeted pigs are still occasionally met with in Essex, but the +system of crossing which is generally followed by pig breeders in the +county is gradually reducing its number, although even amongst the +cross-breeds the peculiar marking occasionally shows itself. At the time +of writing there is a movement on foot to form a society for the purpose +of reviving the breed. From the utility point of view the sheeted pig +has much to recommend it, but whether or not one or more of the breeds +of pigs whose pedigrees are already recorded do not possess at least +equal merits must be left for decision by others. + +SPOTTED PIGS + +In many districts are found other parti-coloured pigs, but in these the +black, the white, and the red colours show themselves in spots of +varying size and extent. Probably amongst the best types of these +spotted pigs is the one found over the greater part of the county of +Northampton, and portions of the counties of Leicester and Oxford +adjoining. In the former county the pigs have more of black than white +in their colouring, whilst in the two latter red spots are more often +seen. This is probably due to a stronger infusion of the blood of the +Staffordshire red pig which is now known as the Tamworth. The blood of +the Neapolitan pig through the Berkshire or the Small Black is credited +with being the origin of the darker coloured Northamptonshire spotted +pig. The qualities claimed for these spotted or "plum pudding" pigs as +they are locally termed, are prolificacy, quick growth, hardihood, and +the production of pork possessing a large proportion of lean to fat +meat. They are also good grazers, and grow to a size quite the equal of +the Berkshire. In form they are perhaps more suited for the fresh pork +trade than for the manufacture of bacon of the kind now so much in +demand. + +THE LARGE WHITE AND BLUE PIGS + +Those large, coarse-boned pigs with hair of a white colour and skins +more or less mottled with blue are gradually giving place to pigs with +finer hair, skin, bone, and quality of meat. The coarse lop ears are +being reduced in size and thickness, whilst the pig itself is becoming +less gaunt and its early maturity considerably increased by crossing +with the better quality Large White and the quickly maturing Middle +White. These coarse white with blue markings pigs were common in the +Fens of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, the Isle of Ely and Lincolnshire, and +in the counties of Bedford, Cheshire, etc. + +WHITE PIGS + +Within the memory of persons now living, white pigs of varying types +were found in various parts of this country. Many of these white pigs +found in Norfolk, Suffolk, Shropshire, and Wales had little to recommend +them as they were flat sided, long legged, hard feeders, and required to +be comparatively old before they could be turned into pork. A vast +improvement has of late years been effected in these unprofitable swine +by crossing them with compact and early maturing pigs of different +colours, but mainly white pigs until the last few years, when Large +Blacks and even a few Gloucestershire Old Spots boars have been +introduced in Norfolk. + +At one time white pigs of a small size were by no means uncommon in +Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, Yorkshire, and parts of Berkshire, and other +counties. The origin of these small, compact, and early maturing pigs +appears to have been a cross of the imported Chinese on the neater and +shorter country pigs of a white colour. For a period these handsome +pigs were quite fashionable amongst the well-to-do, but the general +public objected to the pork produced by them, owing to its excessive +fatness. The bacon curers still more strongly objected to the short +sides and the very small amount of lean meat in the cured carcases. +During the last thirty years comparatively few of these pretty, but +useless, pigs have been bred. + +BLACK PIGS + +The description given of the two main types of white pigs would apply +equally well to the Black pigs common in this country, save with respect +to colour. The long flat-sided black pig was found in Essex, Suffolk, +Cambridgeshire, Sussex, etc. These pigs were noted for their +prolificacy, hardihood, and quick growth, whilst the sows furnished a +full supply of milk to their youngsters, but they were such slow feeders +that it became necessary to cross them with pigs which matured more +quickly. A type of black pig similar in form to the Small White was also +found in Essex and Suffolk, whilst in Devonshire, Dorset, and one or two +other counties the colour of the pigs was blue rather than black, and of +a somewhat larger size, but possessing the same weakness, too large a +proportion of fat to lean meat. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +PURE BREEDS + + +The task of writing a description of the various breeds of swine has +been rendered less difficult by the formation during the past +half-century of societies for the registration of the pedigrees of the +pigs of the different breeds, and by the setting up of scales of those +points which pigs for entry in the particular herd books should possess. +The first of these societies was the National Pig Breeders Association, +of which the present writer was the honorary secretary for two years. At +the time of its formation the breeds of pigs most generally recognised +were the Berkshire, the Large, Middle, and Small Whites or Yorkshires, +and the Small Black breed. It was intended that the pedigrees of the +pure bred pigs of each of these breeds should be recorded by the +Association and published in one herd book. + +There is no doubt that this would have been an ideal plan, and would +have resulted in a saving of much labour and expense, and decidedly more +convenient for those connected with the export trade. For reasons into +which it is not now necessary to enter, the breeders of Berkshires +determined to have a separate herd book; therefore, they started a +society which they named the British Berkshire Society, to distinguish +it from the American Berkshire Record. + +Subsequently the Tamworth breed of pigs became recognised by the Royal +Agricultural Society, and the breeders of the red pig joined the +National Pig Breeders Association. Then the demand for Small White and +Small Black pigs ceased, so that eventually the pedigrees of Large +White, Middle White, and Tamworth pigs only were registered in the +N.P.A. Herd Book. + +Subsequently the breeders of Tamworth pigs formed themselves into a +society presumably for propaganda work, and to conserve the interests of +breeders of Tamworth pigs. Of late years other breeds of pigs have been +brought to public notice, and have had herd books, and societies +specially devoted to their particular interests. The Large Black, Large +White Ulster, the Lincolnshire Curly Coated pigs, the Gloucestershire +Old Spots, and the Cumberland pigs have their pedigrees recorded. An +attempt was made some years since to resuscitate the Oxfordshire Spotted +pig, but it was not a continued success. It is quite possible that other +local breeds of pigs may find sufficient admirers to form societies to +bring before the public the many good qualities possessed by the pigs of +these breeds, but apart from local interest it is at least doubtful if +any permanent benefit will supervene from this multiplication of herd +books--save that it may increase the interest in pig breeding, a result +devoutly to be prayed for. + +The issuing of the scales of points of those breeds of pigs whose +pedigrees are recorded in the various herd books has rendered it +unnecessary for us to endeavour to formulate the good qualities which +are presumably those which are more or less completely possessed by +these pedigreed animals, nor does the necessity exist for us to mention +those particular qualities which each breed is supposed by the admirers +of other breeds to lack. There is no doubt that each breed possesses +certain points which render it specially suitable for differing +localities and varying purposes. + +Some persons who look upon a pig solely as an animal, as a converter of +various substances into pork, are of opinion that the tendency of those +responsible for the running of these societies is towards fancy points +to the detriment of the practical points. There appears to have been +some grounds for this view. The Small White, the Small Black, the +Berkshire, and the Large White have all been affected by the acts of +faddists. The three first-named breeds suffered from the aims of certain +of the breeders to reduce the size and to increase the so-called quality +until the consumers of pork refused to follow the fashion; whilst the +craze which has seriously affected the utility of the Large White pigs +has been exactly the opposite, i.e. an endeavour to so vastly increase +the size that they ceased to supply the kind of pork and the size of +joints which the general public demanded. It may be natural for fanciers +to declare that a Small White or a Small Black pig must be a small +animal, but this is only on comparison with the large breeds of the same +colour and characteristics. The usefulness of the pig in the commercial +world must be studied if any breed of pig is to hold its own on the +market. + +The opposite extreme to that followed by the breeders of the small +breeds is that of the breeders of Large Whites, who look upon mere size +as the most important of the points to be studied. The mere increase in +bulk, in length of head and leg and weight of bone may appeal to the +mere fancier or faddist, but by paying undue attention to these fancy +points the actual object of the breeding and fattening of pigs is lost +sight of, and the consumer who is after all the one whose wants must +first receive study, is estranged and the commercial market is lost. + +In the following pages will be found full particulars together with the +scales of points, as issued by the various societies, of the chief +breeds and varieties. + + * * * * * + + +STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE + +LARGE WHITE + +COLOUR.--White, free from black hairs, and as free as possible from blue +spots on the skin. + +HEAD.--Moderately long, face slightly dished, snout broad, not too much +turned up, jowl not too heavy, wide between the ears. + +EARS.--Long, thin, slightly inclined forward, and fringed with fine +hair. + +NECK.--Long, and proportionately full to shoulders. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Level across the top, not too wide, free from coarseness. + +LEGS.--Straight and well set, level with the outside of the body with +flat bone. + +PASTERNS.--Short and springy. + +FEET.--Strong, even, and wide. + +BACK.--Long, level, and wide from neck to rump. + +LOIN.--Broad. + +TAIL.--Set high, stout and long, but not coarse, with tassel of fine +hair. + +SIDES.--Deep. + +RIBS.--Well sprung. + +BELLY.--Full, but not flabby, with straight under line. + +FLANK.--Thick, and well let down. + +QUARTERS.--Long and wide. + +HAMS.--Broad, full, and deep to hocks. + +COAT.--Long and moderately fine. + +ACTION.--Firm and free. + +SKIN.--Not too thick, quite free from wrinkles. + +Large bred pigs do not fully develop their points until some months old, +the pig at five months often proving at a year or 15 months a much +better animal than could be anticipated at the earlier age and _vice +versa_; but size and quality are most important. + +OBJECTIONS.--Black hairs, black spots, a curly coat, a coarse mane, +short snout, inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders. + + * * * * * + + +MIDDLE WHITE + +COLOUR.--White, free from black hairs or blue spots on the skin. + +HEAD.--Moderately short, face dished, snout broad and turned up, jowl +full, wide between ears. + +EARS.--Fairly large, carried erect and fringed with fine hair. + +NECK.--Medium length, proportionately full to the shoulders. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Level across the top, moderately wide, free from coarseness. + +LEGS.--Straight and well set, level with the outside of body with fine +bone. + +PASTERNS.--Short and springy. + +FEET.--Strong, even, and wide. + +BACK.--Long, level, and wide from neck to rump. + +LOIN.--Broad. + +TAIL.--Set high, moderately long, but not coarse, with tassel of fine +hair. + +SIDES.--Deep. + +RIBS.--Well sprung. + +BELLY.--Full, but not flabby, with straight under line. + +FLANK.--Thick and well let down. + +QUARTERS.--Long and wide. + +HAMS.--Broad, full, and deep to hocks. + +COAT.--Long, fine, and silky. + +ACTION.--Firm and free. + +SKIN.--Fine, and quite free from wrinkles. + +OBJECTIONS.--Black hairs, black or blue spots, a coarse mane, inbent +knees, hollowness at back of shoulders, wrinkled skin. + + * * * * * + + +TAMWORTH + +COLOUR.--Golden red hair on a flesh coloured skin, free from black. + +HEAD.--Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite straight, face +slightly dished, wide between ears. + +EARS.--Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid and inclined +slightly forward. + +NECK.--Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Fine, slanting, and well set. + +LEGS.--Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone and set well outside +body. + +PASTERNS.--Strong and sloping. + +FEET.--Strong, and of fair size. + +BACK.--Long and straight. + +LOIN.--Strong and broad. + +TAIL.--Set on high and well tasselled. + +SIDES.--Long and deep. + +RIBS.--Well sprung and extending well up to flank. + +BELLY.--Deep, with straight under line. + +FLANK.--Full and well let down. + +QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail. + +HAMS.--Broad, and full, well let down to hocks. + +COAT.--Abundant, long, straight, and fine. + +ACTION.--Firm and free. + +OBJECTIONS.--Black hair, very light or ginger hair, curly coat, coarse +mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, short or turned up +snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled skin, inbent knees, hollowness at back +of shoulders. + + * * * * * + + +BERKSHIRE PIGS + +COLOUR.--Black, with white on face, feet and tip of tail. + +SKIN.--Fine, and free from wrinkles. + +HAIR.--Long, fine, and plentiful. + +HEAD.--Moderately short, face dished, snout broad; and wide between the +eyes and ears. + +EARS.--Fairly large, carried erect or slightly inclined forward, and +fringed with fine hair. + +NECK.--Medium length, evenly set on shoulders; jowl full and not heavy. + +SHOULDERS.--Fine and well sloped backwards; free from coarseness. + +BACK.--Long and straight, ribs well sprung, sides deep. + +HAMS.--Wide and deep to hocks. + +TAIL.--Set high, and fairly large. + +FLANK.--Deep and well let down, and making straight under line. + +LEGS AND FEET.--Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart, and hoofs +nearly erect. + +IMPERFECTIONS.--A perfectly black face, foot, or tail. A white ear. A +crooked jaw. White or sandy spots, or white skin on the body. A rose +back. A very coarse mane, and inbent knees. + + * * * * * + + +LARGE BLACK PIG + +SCALE OF POINTS + + HEAD.--Medium length and wide between the ears 5 + + EARS.--Thin, inclined well over the face, and not extending + beyond point of nose 4 + + JOWL.--Medium size 3 + + NECK.--Fairly long and muscular 3 + + CHEST.--Wide and deep 3 + + SHOULDERS.--Well developed, in line with the ribs 8 + + BACK.--Long and level 15 + + RIBS.--Well sprung 5 + + SIDES.--Very deep 8 + + LOIN.--Broad 5 + + BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well developed 7 + + QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping 8 + + HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks 10 + + TAIL.--Set high, of moderate size 3 + + LEGS.--Short, straight, flat, and strong 5 + + SKIN AND COAT.--Fine and soft, with moderate quantity + of straight, silky hair 8 + + --- + 100 + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead or dished nose. Ears--thick, coarse, +or pricked. Coat--curly or coarse, with rose, bristly mane. +Skin--wrinkled. + +DISQUALIFICATION.--Colour--any other than black. + + * * * * * + + +LARGE WHITE ULSTER + +SCALE OF POINTS + + HEAD.--Moderately long, wide between the ears 5 + + EARS.--Long, thin, and inclined well over the face 6 + + JOWL.--Light 5 + + NECK.--Fairly long and muscular 2 + + CHEST.--Wide and deep 3 + + SHOULDERS.--Not coarse, oblique, narrow plate 8 + + LEGS.--Short, straight, and well set, level with the outside + of the body, with flat bone, not coarse 5 + + PASTERNS.--Straight 5 + + BACK.--Long and level (rising a little to centre of back + not objected to) 12 + + SIDES.--Very deep 10 + + RIBS.--Well sprung 5 + + LOIN.--Broad 3 + + QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping 8 + + HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks 12 + + BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well filled 5 + + TAIL.--Well set and not coarse 1 + + SKIN.--Fine and soft 10 + + COAT.--Small quantity of fine silky hair 10 + + --- + Total 100 + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead. Ears--thick, coarse, or pricked. +Coat--coarse or curly; bristly mane. + +DISQUALIFICATION.--Colour--any other than white. + + * * * * * + + +LINCOLNSHIRE CURLY-COATED PIG + +SCALE OF POINTS + + COLOUR.--White + + FACE AND NECK.--Medium length and wide between the + eyes and ears 5 + + EARS.--Medium length, and not too much over face 10 + + JOWL.--Heavy 3 + + CHEST.--Wide and deep 3 + + SHOULDERS.--Wide 15 + + BACK.--Long and level 10 + + SIDES.--Very deep, and ribs well sprung 10 + + LOIN.--Broad 5 + + QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping 5 + + HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks 15 + + TAIL.--Set high and thick 3 + + LEGS.--Short and straight 5 + + BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well filled 3 + + COAT.--Fair quantity of curly or wavy hair 8 + + --- + 100 + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead. Ears--Thin. + +DISQUALIFICATIONS.--Ears--pricked. Nose--dished or long. Coat--coarse, +straight, or bristly. Colour of hair--any other than white. + + * * * * * + + +THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE OLD SPOTS + +HEAD.--Medium length and wide between the ears, nose wide and medium +length, slightly dished. + +EARS.--Rather long and drooping. + +JOWL.--Medium size. + +NECK.--Fairly long and muscular. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Well developed but not projecting and in line with ribs, +must not show any coarseness. + +BACK.--Long and level. + +RIBS.--Deep, well sprung. + +LOIN.--Very broad. + +SIDES.--Very deep and presenting straight bottom line. + +BELLY AND FLANK.--Full and thick. + +QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping. + +TAIL.--Set high, of moderate size, yet fairly strong and long and +carrying brush. + +HAMS.--Large, not too flat, and well filled to the hocks. + +LEGS.--Short, straight and strong. + +SKIN AND COAT.--Skin light or dark, must not show coloured splotches +otherwise than beneath the spots of the coat. The latter should be full +and fairly thick, hair long and silky but not curly, with an absence of +mane bristles. Colour: white spots on black ground, or black spots on +white ground. Such spots to be of medium size. + +TEATS.--Minimum number of teats to be considered. + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow, face and nose both dished. Ears--thick, +floppy, coarse, or elevated. Coat--Coarse or curly with rose; bristly +mane, or decidedly sandy colour; skewbald or saddleback markings. + + * * * * * + + +THE CUMBERLAND PIG + +HEAD.--Fairly short, wide snout, dished face, wide between ears. + +EARS.--Falling forward over face, long and thin. + +JOWL.--Heavy. + +NECK.--Fairly long and muscular. + +CHEST.--Deep and wide. + +SHOULDERS.--Deep and sloping into the back, blades not prominent, but in +line with ribs, not too wide on top. + +BACK.--Long and level or with a slight arch from head to tail. + +RIBS.--Deep and well sprung. + +LOINS.--Broad and strong. + +SIDES.--Deep. + +BELLY AND FLANK.--Full and thick. + +QUARTERS.--Long and level or with only very slight droop. + +TAIL.--Set high, not coarse. + +HAMS.--Very large and well filled to hocks. + +LEGS.--Short, straight, and strong. + +COLOUR.--White. + +SKIN AND COAT.--Smooth; hair straight, fine, and silky and not too much +of it. + +SIZE.--Large without coarseness. + +DISQUALIFICATIONS.--Black spots, black hair, prick ears. + +OBJECTIONS.--Blue spots. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _From a Painting by Wippell._ + +A BERKSHIRE SOW. + +To face page 32.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +LARGE BLACK SOW, "SUDBOURNE SADIE." + +Owner, K. M. Clark. 1st Prize and Champion, R. A. Show, Norwich. + +To face page 33.] + + + + +CHAPTER III + +CROSS-BRED PIGS + + +This term has a varying meaning to different persons. There are those +who term a pig a cross-bred unless it be bred from parents of recorded +pedigree, or those which possess pedigrees capable of registration. +Others claim that a cross-bred is any pig which is bred indiscriminately +from boar and sow of no particular type or breeding--in fact common pigs +of the country; whilst still others declare that the title of cross-bred +can be legitimately applied only to a pig whose parents were of two +different pure breeds in contradistinction to a pig sired by a pure bred +boar, and from a common sow, or the diverse way. + +It is not for us to determine the knotty point, but we may venture the +opinion that the two first definitions of a cross-bred are not +convincing to us, since in order to produce a cross-bred it is necessary +to have a sire, or a dam, or both of defined breeds. Probably the most +correct definition of a cross-bred animal is one bred from the mating of +sire and dam of two distinct breeds, but the term is now loosely applied +to an animal begotten by a sire or from a dam of pedigree breeding, the +other parent being of no particular breed. + +This system of breeding has become somewhat common owing to the +comparatively small outlay required in the purchase of a boar as +compared with the purchase of both boar and sows, and also to the belief +which is general that a greater improvement in the produce is noticeable +when the boar is pure bred and the sows of ordinary or no particular +breed, than if the sows are pure bred and the boar a common bred one. In +addition to this there is the important point that the pure bred boar +should be able to beget at least fifty litters in a year whereas the +pure bred sow will not produce more than two litters annually, so that +the advantage obtainable from the outlay on one pure bred boar is +twenty-five times as great as is possible from the purchase of a pure +bred sow. + +There is also another advantage to the owner of a boar who has only a +limited number of sows, he can allow his neighbours to make use of his +boar on payment of a liberal service fee, which combined will partially +pay for the prime cost of the boar. + +A considerable number of pig breeders are influenced in the purchase of +a pure bred boar rather than of a sow by the belief that pure bred sows +are neither so prolific nor such good mothers as are common bred sows. +This belief was even more common in years gone by than it is at the +present time, and it must be candidly confessed that there existed +substantial grounds for it. Some fifty years since it became +fashionable, particularly amongst those who had suddenly become rich by +trade or in other ways, to exhibit live-stock at the agricultural shows. +They may have been animated by the laudable desire of endeavouring to +assist farmers and stock breeders generally, or a desire to gain a place +in the sun may have had some slight influence. As the majority of these +exhibitors of stock had no special knowledge of stock, they were +compelled to place themselves entirely in the hands of their managers +and stockman, who generally received by arrangement a certain percentage +of the prize money won by the stock. It was then only natural that they +gave far more attention to the show points of the animals in their +charge than to the breeding qualities. + +The supply of pedigree animals was also very limited at about the period +mentioned so that it was much more difficult to avoid too close +breeding, nor was there the same care taken in the private record of the +pedigrees of the animals bred. These various causes combined led to a +loss of vitality amongst the so-called pedigree stock, and this +weakening of the constitution showed itself in a reduction in the number +of the offspring and in the power of the dam to furnish its young with a +full supply of well-balanced milk. + +There is little doubt that in the third quarter of the past century a +considerable proportion of the pedigree sows were not so prolific as +they ought to have been, nor did they produce and rear thoroughly well +so many pigs at each litter as the common sow of the country was capable +of doing. A more general study of stock breeding has tended to compel +attention to the practical apart from the show points of pedigree pigs, +but probably the strongest influence has been the formation of the +various breed societies, and the registration of the produce including +the number, sex, and sire of the pigs. These entries most clearly showed +those breeders of pigs who had paid most attention to the utility points +of their pigs, especially those particular points in which pedigree pigs +were generally believed to be deficient. The succeeding records of sows +of the same families afforded the best possible confirmation of the +belief which was becoming general that prolificacy like many other +qualities was most certainly hereditary. This recorded proof that pure +bred animals and especially pigs were not necessarily slow breeders, +helped vastly to increase the demand for pedigree animals for crossing +purposes in the breeding of commercial stock. + +The enormous benefit which has resulted from the use of pedigree sires +is most clearly proved in the Irish live stock. The so-called premium +bulls and boars are pedigree animals purchased by or with the sanction +of the Live Stock Commissioners and placed at the service of the general +public at a somewhat reduced fee, the Government paying to the owner an +annual premium of some [L]15 for each bull, and a certain sum for each +boar. + +It is alleged that the original improvement in the ordinary pig stock of +those parts of Ireland where pig-keeping on a considerable scale is +followed, was due to the purchase in England of numbers of Large White +boars, as after experiments carried out in Denmark, these boars were +found to effect the greatest improvement in the common country pigs and +to render them far more suitable for conversion into the kind of bacon +which was in most general demand, and of course realised the highest +price. For the beginning of the vast improvement in the Irish pig which +has followed the importation of these Large White boars, the Irish bacon +curers must receive the credit, as they joined together in the purchase +of these boars which were distributed in those districts from which the +various factories drew their supplies of fat pigs. + +A similar plan was adopted by Messrs. Harris of Calne who purchased some +hundreds of boars of the Large White breed, and at first lent them on +certain conditions to pig breeders, but later on resold the young boars +by auction for whatever they would fetch, their object being to secure +the use of these boars in order to render the farm pigs more suitable +for the purposes of their trade as bacon curers. + +There may or may not be any grounds for the belief that the sire has a +greater influence in the external form of the joint produce than does +the dam, but this belief has also had its influence in determining +breeders of cross breds to use the pure bred sire on the ordinary stock +of the country, rather than the reverse way. There is no doubt that +apart from the improvement in the general quality of the produce of the +pure bred sire there results a general uniformity of the young stock, +which is a great recommendation when they are placed on the market +either as stores, or when fattened for the butcher or bacon curer. This +uniformity of type and character in the young stock would be more +noticeable still if the buyers of the pure bred sires were to continue +their purchases from the same herds, providing that the owners of them +were sufficiently careful in avoiding incestuous breeding. + +So many people appear to be content with the knowledge that the sire +which they are purchasing has a recorded pedigree and is a pure bred +sire eligible for entry in the herd book of its breed, but they forget +that it is possible in the crossing of two pedigree animals of a similar +breed to obtain as great a mixture of blood and points as in the mating +of two cross-breds or two come-by-chances. Uniformity in a herd, stud, +or flock can only be rendered comparatively certain by the continued use +of sires of similar breeding. In making a compound, its character is +determined by the proportion of the various ingredients used in its +manufacture. So it is in the breeding of stock, those points which are +most predominant in proportion in the blood of the sire and dam will, on +the average, be represented in an equal degree in the joint produce. +This it is which renders so impressive a sire which is descended from +closely bred parents. Each of its forbears has handed down a proportion +of its own particular characteristics so that the larger the number of +animals amongst its forbears which possessed these particular points the +greater the certainty of their being possessed by the produce. The +meaning of this may be made more clear by pointing out that the result +of the mixing together of various mixtures will depend entirely on the +proportion of the substances used in the manufacture or compounding of +those mixtures. In each animal is embodied the characteristics of its +forbears. + +There exists generally an opinion that the produce of two parents of +distinct breeds, or as it is termed a first cross is commonly superior +to a pure bred of either of the two breeds represented by the parents. +It is difficult to discover the cause of this, if it be a fact. If one +of the parents were deficient in stamina the produce might conceivably +be more robust, and it might also occasionally happen that the mixture +of the qualities or properties possessed by the parents would result in +improvement, as happens when a distinct new breed is originated; but as +a rule the good and the bad qualities of the produce from the mating of +two animals of diverse breeds are in direct proportion to the qualities +possessed by the parents. + +The mere mixing of the blood of two animals differently bred cannot +increase the good or bad properties, but the combination might possibly +result in a blend more suitable for the purpose in hand. + +Another claim commonly made for the crossing of animals is that the risk +of that delicacy of constitution which they assert is far too common +amongst pure bred animals, and is due to close breeding, is hereby +avoided. It must be admitted that in times past there was a certain +amount of cause for this complaint of want of constitution amongst +pedigree animals, but the cause has been considerably if not entirely +removed by the more careful recording of the breeding, and by the more +drastic screening out of any animals suspected of delicacy of +constitution. + +The buyers of pure bred animals for crossing purposes have also become +more careful in their selection. They have ceased to imagine that +because the owner of certain animals most of which he has purchased is +successful in winning prizes at the chief agricultural shows, the whole +of the animals in his stud, herd, or flock must be of equal excellence +or at all events sufficiently good for the production of profitable +commercial stock. Action on this mistaken belief has led to much +disappointment in the past, since the home bred animals may have been of +totally different blood from those which have won prizes, and further +they may not be inbred for a sufficiently long time on distinct lines to +render them prepotent enough to impress their good qualities on their +produce. + +Amongst the objections made to cross-breeding is the heavy cost of +replacing the breeding stock, as to obtain a first cross, a succession +of sires and dams must be purchased. Many persons meet this difficulty +by merely buying sires of a breed similar to the first used, but then +the produce ceases to be cross-breds and become grades until such time +as by the use of a certain number of sires of a similar breed the +produce become eligible for entry in the herd book of the sires which +have been continuously used. This system of breeding insures a greater +uniformity in the produce providing that the sires selected are of +similar breeding, type, and character, than even by the system of +crossing sire and dam of two pure breeds. + +The risk attending too close breeding as in the breeding of pure breds +is also avoided provided that the herd from which the sires are bought +is sufficiently large to furnish a change of blood, yet of similar +breeding. + +No one possessing a knowledge of the ordinary farm stock of the country +will for one moment deny that there is still vast room for improvement +in our live stock, and particularly in our pigs, and it is equally the +fact that our Government has not shown a readiness equal to that of some +foreign Governments, and even of the authorities in some of our colonies +to assist farmers in obtaining the use of improved sires. Take Canada as +an instance. For years the Dominion Live Stock Branch has been +purchasing and delivering free into districts needing them, male animals +for the use of farmers and stock owners free, save stallions, for which +a covering fee has to be paid sufficient to cover the insurance of the +stallion. The other important condition which relates to all the sires +provided by the authorities is that the cost of maintenance shall be +paid by the Local Association which has the management of the sire and +the arrangement of its services. + +Another noticeable point is that all the sires allocated to the various +districts are Canadian bred, and so far as is possible are purchased in +the province in which they are to be located. The object is undoubtedly +to encourage in Canada the breeding of pure bred animals and may thus +far be considered satisfactory, but it is acting on an assumption which +may not be justified that there exists in the Dominion a sufficiency of +stock equal in quality and breeding to those which it may be possible to +import. + +Within the past three or four years our Board of Agriculture have taken +some steps to assist our farmers to improve their stock. The assistance +has taken the form of offering premiums of fixed amounts to private +persons or associations who hired or purchased approved stallions, +bulls, and boars which were placed at fixed fees at the service of the +stock of the public. Already great benefit has been derived from the use +of the stallions and bulls, and this to a far greater extent than in the +pigs, as owing to an unfortunate condition which was attempted to be +enforced as to the formation of pig clubs and impracticable conditions +the number of boars located in the country has been much smaller than +would have been had the conditions at present in force been adopted at +the initiation of the scheme. + +The boar conditions are now of a similar character to those in force +from the first with regard to stallions and bulls. In addition to the +supply of male animals at comparatively low fees an attempt has been +made to assist in the recording of the milk yield of cows, a matter of +the highest importance. If only this could be extended to sows there +would soon cease to be cause for the far too common complaint of the +owners of sows of certain breeds of pedigree pigs, as to the limited +quantity of milk which is provided by the sows for their litters of +pigs. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Francis Davis, Needingworth._ + +THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS. + +The Property of the Author. Also portion of 17 Sties at Holywell Manor, +near St. Ives. + +To face page 48.] + + * * * * * + + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR. + +From the Author's Pig Farm. + +To face page 49.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +DENTITION AND AGE OF PIGS + + +Although the majority of pig sellers may claim to be, and may be able to +substantiate the claim to be, equally as honest as the majority of +others in trade, yet there may be a small minority who are apt to +attempt to palm off pigs as being older than they really are. It is most +annoying when you are anxious to purchase pigs of say six or seven +months old which are quite ready to be quickly fattened, to have pigs of +four or five months old which continue to make growth instead of flesh, +so that they are not ready for killing until two or three months after +they are required for conversion into bacon. + +Although the object of the Council of the Smithfield Club is to prevent +fraud of a different character, i.e. the exhibition in classes limited +to certain ages of pigs of an age greater than that given on the entry +form, yet the following table showing the normal state of the dentition +of pigs at certain fixed ages will enable purchasers to discover whether +or not the seller has attempted to deceive him. It may at once be +admitted that there will be a limited number of cases in which the state +of dentition of pigs is abnormal, but after examining the teeth of some +thousands of pigs during the past sixty years, we have no hesitation in +asserting that more than half, at least, of the variations from the +normal are allayed dentition. It is claimed that a man of experience is +quite able to arrive at the approximate age of a pig by its development +and appearance; some few persons may have that instinctive knowledge +more or less fully developed, but this examination of the state of +dentition is of the greatest possible assistance in arriving at the +actual age of the pig, particularly desirable as it is in case of a +difference of opinion between buyer and seller. + +The following are the conditions of the state of dentition to which all +pigs have to conform ere they are allowed to compete for the prizes +offered by the Smithfield Club at their annual shows:-- + +"Pigs having their corner permanent incisors cut will be considered as +exceeding six months. + +"Pigs having their permanent tusks more than half up will be considered +as exceeding nine months. + +"Pigs having their central permanent incisors up, and any of the first +three permanent molars cut, will be considered as exceeding twelve +months. + +"Pigs having their lateral temporary incisors shed, and the permanents +appearing will be considered as exceeding fifteen months. + +"Pigs having their lateral permanent incisors fully up will be +considered as exceeding eighteen months." + +As the majority of the pigs bought of dealers by amateurs are young pigs +it may be advisable to state that a pig of the age of eight weeks old +should have its two central incisors fully grown. A pig three months +old should have all four temporary incisors cut, the two outside ones +being more than half as long as the two central incisors. + +As the first set of the teeth of a pig like that of a child are merely +temporary, and as these give place at fairly definite ages of the owner +to permanent ones, it may be well to endeavour to describe as clearly as +possible the position and appearance of the temporaries as compared with +the permanents. The pig is one of the few animals which is possessed of +teeth at its birth; these number eight, two on each side of the upper +and lower jaw. It has been suggested that these early teeth are provided +to assist the pigling to grasp firmly the sow's teat when in the act of +sucking. These eight teeth vary somewhat in length; those pigs which are +carried by the sow beyond the usual period of sixteen weeks frequently +have longer and even sharper teeth than those of pigs which are born at +the usual time. These longer teeth are also sometimes of a dark colour. +This is doubtless the origin of the remark commonly made by +old-fashioned pigmen that "pigs born with black teeth never do well." +This might have been so prior to the discovery that the breaking off the +sharp teeth of the newly born pigs frequently saved trouble, and often +the life of the little pigs. Pigs whose teeth are discoloured at birth +are usually more robust rather than the reverse, since the sow carrying +them beyond the allotted time is invariably in a vigorous state of +health, and her pigs consequently more fully developed. + +When the pig is about a month old, the two central incisors are cut in +each jaw, these are two of the four front teeth in each jaw of the pig +at a subsequent age. Two temporary molars are also cut on each side of +the jaw above and below, with the first temporary molar in each place +ready to come through the gum. + +At two months the temporary central incisors are fully developed, and +the two lateral temporary incisors can be seen in the gums, if they are +not already through. All three temporary molars are now about level. + +When the pig is about three months old its temporary teeth are all in +position, the temporary lateral incisors are through, and nearly as long +as the temporary central incisors. Owing to the lengthening of the jaws +the two temporary corner teeth which were present at birth will have +become further apart. When the pig is about five months, the fourth +molar in either jaw shows itself in the gums, then at six months the +wolf teeth show between the tusks and the premolars, and the fourth +molar is nearly level with the first premolar. The corner incisors and +the tusks usually disappear, and are replaced by permanents when the pig +is nine months old. The second permanent molar also shows itself. At +twelve months the two central temporary incisors give place to the +permanents; these last are more square in form than the temporaries, and +are thus easily distinguished. The three temporary molars will also be +ready for displacement by three permanents. These last will be level +with the other permanent molars when the pig is fifteen months. The two +lateral incisors will also have given place to permanents. At eighteen +months the third permanent molars will be coming through, and at the age +of twenty months the pig's teeth are fully developed. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +SELECTION OF THE BOAR + + +The hackneyed saying "The sire is half the herd" appears to have a +different meaning to varying persons. To some it conveys the idea that +the selection of the sire is of far more importance than the selection +of the dam because the influence of the sire is so much more powerful +than that of the dam on at least the external form and character of the +produce. The late Mr. James Howard, who took a particularly keen +interest in the breeding of pigs, used to declare that the appearance +and form of the young pigs far more generally followed those of the sire +than of the dam; whilst the influence of the latter was more shown in +the character and constitution of their joint produce; or in other +words, that the boar stamped his character to a greater extent on the +external points of the young, whilst the sow more strongly influenced +the internal parts of the youngsters. It is quite possible that this +idea has gained ground to a large extent from the fact that the use of a +pure bred sire on ordinary or grade females has been very much more +common than the crossing of pure bred females by the ordinary or +non-pedigree sire; as also from the far greater numbers of young which +each pure bred sire would improve, than would be improved by each pure +bred female which might be crossed. + +If only for this reason alone, we would always recommend buyers who are +desirous of grading up and improving their farm stock to attempt to do +this by the purchase or use of the pure bred or improved sire. The +original outlay is infinitely less, whilst the immediate results are +comparatively longer. + +It is scarcely desirable to go further into the question as to the +comparative influence on the young of the sire and the dam since our +actual knowledge of the subject is by no means large. Indeed, it is at +the least doubtful, if by the closest observation any definite opinion +on the subject is possible, so great is the difference which varying +parents have on the chief characteristics of their joint progeny, and +even in the separate specimens which they have procreated. Of course, it +is quite possible to breed animals especially well developed or endowed +with certain qualities, providing that the parents have been for +generations selected because of their possession in a marked degree of +those particular qualities sought. It is in this power of prepotency +that one of the chief benefits from the use of a pure bred sire or dam +arises. By the term pure bred is not meant merely that the names of a +certain number of the forbears of the animal shall have been recorded in +the register of the breed, but that the animal shall for a certain +number of generations have been bred on similar lines so that it shall +possess a considerable amount of concentrated blood. This is a point to +which sufficient care is not generally given by purchasers of so-called +pedigree sires to be used on the ordinary bred or graded stock. The far +too common practice is to purchase each boar required from a totally +different herd, or from one of quite dissimilar breeding, with the +result that there is not the slightest uniformity in the appearance or +character of the herd, or of the mature animals when ready for market. + +It is far too frequently forgotten that the chief value of a record of +the pedigree is that by it one can trace the breeding of the animal's +progenitors, and thus one is enabled to form some opinion of the +probable produce--providing it is possible to learn the chief +characteristics of the progenitors. Failing this, the only course open +is to note the names of the breeders of the more recent parents, as from +this a certain amount of information as to the probable qualities of the +parents may be obtained or surmised. + +Another point on which at least a diversity of opinion exists, is the +wisdom of giving so much consideration to the fact that the herd from +which the sire is purchased shall have been recently successful in the +show yard, or in extreme cases, that the sire itself shall have been a +prize winner. It is urged that the mere fact that a sire has succeeded +in winning one or more prizes is a proof that it possesses in a marked +degree those qualities which are most highly prized. This may be +conceded, yet there is no certainty that the mating of this winning sire +even with dams that have also been prize winners shall result in the +production of young the equal of the parents, since the winners at the +various shows may be of dissimilar types and breeding. + +But the case would be quite different if the winning sire and dam came +from the same old established herd in which the animals had been bred +for generations on similar lines. It is this concentration of certain +qualities in generation after generation which renders the pedigree +animal so intensely prepotent, particularly when mated with animals of +an ordinary character or not possessing concentrated breeding. Indeed, +it may be safely assumed that the power of a parent to impress its own +individuality and qualities on its produce, depends to a very large +extent, if not entirely, on the comparative hereditary extent of those +qualities in comparison with the other qualities possessed by itself, or +by the animal with which it may have been mated. + +In other words, it is contended that the sire or the dam has not the +power to impress certain of its characteristics on its young, merely +because of its sex, but that this power depends on the proportion in the +sire or dam of the blood of progenitors who possessed in a marked degree +certain qualities. + +It is with the breeding of animals as with the manufacture of a compound +article. The character and quality of that compound will vary according +to the proportion of the various ingredients used in its manufacture. It +is to this law or fact that the marked impressiveness of certain strains +of blood is attributable. + +Again, the marked and long continued success of the blood of the +animals bred by a few of our most successful breeders of live stock is +in the main due to the fact that the owners set up a standard and +persistently selected and bred together only animals possessing to a +greater or lesser extent the particular qualities which together +comprised that standard. There is not the slightest doubt that in +carrying out their system they were often compelled to mate animals +related in blood the one to the other, but in this there is little risk +providing that all those animals which show the slightest symptom of +delicacy of constitution are persistently draughted out. + +It will be inferred from the above remarks that we hold to the belief +that the breeding of the boar should receive attention as well as the +following points in its form and character. + +One of the most important of these points is good temper. This is a +quality not usually attributed to the pig in its wild state, and +consequently not natural to the domesticated pig, yet on the possession +of it depends to a very great extent the thrift and well doing of the +produce of the boar. The produce of an irritable boar are almost certain +to inherit this quality which is fatal to profitable fatting. In sows +this weakness is still more unfortunate, as a bad tempered sow is almost +invariably an indifferent mother. The rigid avoidance of this failing of +bad temper in a boar is advisable not only because this quality is +almost invariably hereditary, but a savage boar is a continual source of +danger to man and beast. It may be said that little trouble is likely if +the boar is kept in confinement, but there are times, such as when sows +are placed with him, when a certain amount of liberty must be given to +him, and it is generally on such occasions of excitement when the bad +temper is the most in evidence. The mere fact that irritability and +nervousness are natural to the pig should make us the more careful to +avoid any increase in the failing by using a boar which is the least +inclined to be bad tempered. + +Many persons hold that in the selection of a boar one of the principal +points is size. They contend that size, in pigs especially, is +imperative if a profitable return is to be made. This view may have +arisen to a greater or lesser extent from the want of method and +observation which is characteristic of so many stock owners. The one +point which to them is of the greatest importance is the selling price +of the fat or store animal sold being fully up to the average. Little or +no thought is given to the value of the food eaten by each animal. If it +had been, very frequently it would have been found that the smaller +animal of a lot had actually given the best return for the food it had +consumed. It is not the size alone of the animal which determines its +value as the producer of meat, but more than anything it is the feeding +qualities of the animal fattened. In addition to this there never was a +time when the consumer more strongly demanded small joints of meat, and +these of the best quality and with as little bone as possible. + +Apart from this a very large boar is a mistake as it is invariably +awkward when serving--it can be used only for large and strong sows, and +its average period of usefulness is decidedly shorter than that of a +medium sized and compact boar. A large boar generally possesses an undue +proportion of bone, its shoulders are heavy, and its ankles round, and +feet large and spreading. Now these are all objections. The bone of a +boar should be solid, not porous; the ankles compact and the feet small, +and the pasterns short. The head should be wide so that the brain can be +well developed, the head inclined to be short rather than long, since an +animal with an extremely long head is certain to be deficient in natural +flesh. + +On the question of the size and hang of the ears a variety of opinion +exists; pigs with long ears, and pigs with short ears are found +possessing good carcases. It is the quality of the ear rather than its +size and hang which seems to indicate the character most. A pig with a +thin and firm ear is usually of fine quality, whereas a pig which has a +thick, coarse ear is generally coarse in bone, skin, flesh, and hair. + +The neck of the boar should be muscular as indicating constitution and +natural vigour; the shoulders fine and obliquely laid, the ribs well +sprung, the loin wide, the quarters long and square, not drooping, the +hams full and extending quite down to the hocks, and without any of that +loose skin which is far too common amongst the largest of our breeds of +pigs, and which is a sure sign of coarseness. The flank should be thick +and well let down, as this indicates constitution and lean meat, the +legs should be fairly short and set well apart so that the heart, lungs, +and other organs have plenty of room to perform their share of the work +of the pig. The skin should be fine and the hair straight and silky, as +well as plenty of it. Sparsity of hair is generally an indication of +shortage of lean meat, whilst curliness and coarseness of hair are far +too frequently associated with excessive fat and coarseness of meat. + +With regard to the reproductive parts of the boar there are one or two +points which should receive special attention. A boar with excessively +small testicles should be avoided, as such a one is often barren. Again, +a boar with one testicle of normal size and the other smaller, +ordinarily suffers from the same disqualification to a lesser extent. A +ruptured boar should not on any account be used, as this weakness is +strongly hereditary. The weakness may not possibly show itself in the +first generation, but it is certain to appear sooner or later. Not only +is it a sure index of weakness of constitution, but pigs so affected +occasionally die suddenly, whilst there is always a certain amount of +risk from the operation of castration. + +Occasionally one or more of the boar pigs of a litter will be found to +be malformed, in that only one of the testicles is apparent. Generally +speaking, the other is found when the pig is killed to be attached to +the inside of the pig, and thus is unable to descend into the scrotum or +purse, so that the act of castration is only partially performed. A boar +pig with only one testicle down is commonly termed a rig. The removal of +one of the testicles does not deprive the rig of reproducing its +species, and it is thus a source of continual trouble when herded with a +lot of sow pigs now that the general custom is to allow the female pigs +of a litter to remain unspayed. It is, therefore, necessary to fatten a +rig either alone, or with male pigs which have been operated upon. In +addition to this extra trouble, the flesh of a rig pig if it be kept +fattening after it is some five or six months old is almost certain to +be strong in flavour, like unto that of a boar. It is, therefore, +advisable to fatten a rig quite early in life and convert it into a +porket or porker carcase of pork. + +It may appear strange to some readers to specially mention the teats of +the boar, but it is equally as necessary to avoid boars having small +teats, teats unevenly placed, and commencing any distance from the fore +legs, and blind teats, as it is in the case of the sow, since any +weaknesses of the kind are equally as hereditary from the boar as from +the sow. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +SELECTION OF THE SOW + + +It is impossible to agree with the view held by so many persons that the +necessity for the same care is non-existent in the selection of a sow as +in the choice of a boar. We hold that the desirability for studying the +forbears, especially the dam, of a young sow intended for breeding +purposes is fully as great as when selecting the young boar, since many, +if not most, of the qualities which we desire the brood sow to possess +are strongly hereditary. Take, for instance, the question of gentleness +or a quiet disposition, it follows from dam to produce with a regularity +equal to that of bad temper, and the latter is wellnigh a certainty. +Again, whoever found that the female produce of a sow deficient in the +maternal instincts proved, if saved for breeding purposes, to be a +really good mother? As a rule the daughters of a sow which gives but a +small quantity of milk, and that of an inferior quality, are also cursed +with the same grievous failings, but this does not appear to be +universally the case, since the milking qualities of the dam descend +through her sons, so that if the female progenitors of the boar have +been good milkers it is probable that the boar's daughters may be able +to rear their pigs successfully, even if their dam had not been in the +habit of suckling her pigs well. + +Still, it is quite safe to assert that with this one exception we may +fairly anticipate that the good qualities which we seek in a sow are far +more likely to be found in the sow pigs of a sow herself the possessor, +than from one which does not possess them. We are inclined to the belief +that the alleged failure of some pedigree yelts to make good brood sows +is in the main due to the continued selection for breeding purposes of +those pure-bred yelts which show early maturing and flesh-forming +qualities, rather than that motherly look which is almost invariably to +be found in a sow which is prolific, a free milker, and a really good +mother. There is a marked difference in the formation of a milk-giving +and a fat-producing sow--the latter is generally somewhat heavy in the +shoulders, has a muscular or fat neck, is rather short in the head and +heavy in the jowl, and is altogether more compactly built, whereas a +good brood sow has rather a long face, is wide between the eyes, has a +light muscular neck, is fine in the shoulders, possesses long and square +quarters and appears to be heavier in the hind than in the forequarters. +She is somewhat more loosely built and often shows less of quality. +Thickness of flank and length of side are desirable, the first as +indicating substance and flesh, whilst the second gives plenty of room +for her pigs to suck. The bone should be of good quality; the same +remarks apply to the skin and hair. + +About half a century since there existed a fancy, which almost amounted +to a craze for sows of small size; they could not be too neat, and +showing too much so-called feminine character. The almost certain result +of selecting the neatest of the female pigs followed, the fat pigs sent +to market were light in weight, deficient in lean meat and rightly named +"animated bladders of lard." Within about the same distance of time it +was the common practice of exhibitors of pigs at the Smithfield Club's +Shows to provide pillows in the form of round pieces of wood on which +the fat pigs rested their heads so that these were raised in order to +prevent the pigs becoming suffocated. In addition, the pigs were fed on +forcing foods until they were at least one and a half year old and +allowed to take, or were given little exercise, with the result that the +pork consisted mainly of soft fat or lard. To such an extent had this +craze for neatness been followed that the bacon curers and consumers of +pork wellnigh ceased to purchase or consume pork. + +At the present time we are afraid that the tendency is in the opposite +direction, and mere size is receiving far too much attention. At some of +our agricultural shows the judges select for honour great unwieldly sows +which could not possibly perform with any amount of success those +maternal duties which a brood sow is supposed to be kept solely to +perform. An extremely large sow is very frequently a poor milker, the +quantity of milk she gives is not large, nor does she continue to give +even this reduced supply for a period long enough to allow her young to +grow strong enough to make a good start in life on their own account. + +Another great objection to a sow of extreme size is that her produce +almost invariably take after her to such an extent that it is difficult, +if not wellnigh impossible, to make them fat until they are from nine to +twelve months old, and by that time they are too large and heavy for the +general demand which is at the present time, and likely to become still +more so in the future, for small joints of meat which carry a large +proportion of lean and a limited quantity of bone. The most successful +manufacturer is he who most nearly supplies the consumer with that which +he requires or fancies. We are not moved by the contention of breeders +of pedigree pigs that the most valuable pig is the one which possesses +in the greatest degree those special points which are characteristic of +the breed, as, for instance, size in the pigs of the Large White, the +Large Black, and the Lincolnshire Curly Coated pigs, therefore the +biggest pigs should be held in the highest esteem. In our opinion the +best, as it is in the long run the most profitable, is the pig which +furnishes to the greatest extent exactly the kind of meat in the most +general demand. + +In addition to these objections to an extremely large and ungainly sow +is the fact that such an one is invariably clumsy in the breeding pen, +she is almost certain to lay on some of her pigs. It is even alleged +that her period of usefulness as a breeder is shorter than that of a sow +of ordinary size. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +TAMWORTH BOAR: BISHOP OF WEBTON. Owner, C. L. Coxon. 1st and Champion, +Royal Show. + +To face page 64] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, G. H. Parsons, Rostrevor._ + +GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW. From the herd of Lord Sherbourne. + +To face page 65.] + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE SOW'S UDDER + + +One of the most important points in connection with the reproduction of +the species of our various domestic animals is the provision of a full +supply of milk for the young in the early portion of their existence. +Nature herself has set us a good example in a duplicated source of milk +supply even amongst animals which usually produce only one animal at a +birth. If this duplication be necessary under such conditions, it must +be imperative on us to select those sow pigs which are intended for +breeding pigs which possess a well-formed udder, having a full supply of +teats, and these of good shape and properly placed on the belly of the +sow. Not only is this necessary to ensure the rearing of a fairly +numerous litter of pigs in a satisfactory manner, but it is held that +the number of teats possessed by a sow indicates to a remarkable extent +the probable degree of prolificacy of the sow. One can readily +understand that nature would not be likely to endow a sow with the power +to produce a larger number of young at each birth than she would be able +to rear. Of course it may be said that the sow of the present day is not +as nature first made her, in that, by selection and by feeding, the +number of pigs produced at each birth is now so much larger than the +litters of the wild sows, which have some seven or eight teats and +farrow at each litter a similar number of pigs. On the other hand, +neither the number of teats nor of the young is fixed either in the +domesticated sow, or the sow in a wild state, so that by continued +selection we are able to permanently increase, within limits, the +production of larger litters and the increased supply of milk for their +sustenance when young. + +The provision of a suitable udder is even of more importance with the +domesticated than with the sow running wild, since the latter produces +each year one litter only, and that in the season of the year when the +young are less dependent on their dams; whereas the domesticated sow is +expected to rear at least two litters per year, and frequently owing to +want of care on the part of the owner the young pigs are farrowed at the +most unfavourable time of the year. + +Apart from the provision of a certain number of teats there is another +point to be considered, the power of the sow to produce milk enough to +satisfy the given number of pigs. This of course varies with each family +or tribe of pigs, and even with the various members in it, so that to +obtain the best results selection must be made of the produce of those +sows which give the largest quantity of the most nutritious milk. There +exists amongst pig keepers a difference of opinion as to the number of +pigs each sow should be allowed to rear, probably the average of this +number would be ten for a mature sow, and seven or eight for a first +litter. If so, the selected sow pig should possess twelve teats, as +frequently one of these may not give a full supply of milk from either +natural or accidental causes. The teats should be regular in size and +form. It is not uncommon to find one or more of the teats of a sow much +smaller in size than the others. These smaller teats will produce a +reduced quantity of milk, so that the pigling which is unfortunate +enough to decide on making this small teat its very own--and each +pigling is confined by the others to its own special teat--is certain to +be less well developed than its brothers and sisters, even if it should +succeed in surviving. + +The necessity for the teats being placed equidistant the one from the +other arises from the desirability of each pig having room to suck +comfortably. Should two of the teats be closely placed the two pigs will +probably fight, when not only will sores be caused on the cheeks of the +pigs, but the milk in the teats not properly drawn will gradually cease +to flow. + +Another point of great importance is that the teats should commence as +near as possible to the fore legs--this for two reasons: it gives more +room for the pigs to suck as they grow larger; the other and more +important one is that the teats most forward on the udder of the sow +produce the larger quantity of milk, or milk of a better quality. It +will be almost invariably found that the pigs sucking the foremost teats +thrive the best. + +It is advisable to avoid the selection of a female pig for breeding +purposes from a sow which has large and coarse teats, as these +invariably accompany coarseness of skin, bone, hair, and flesh, this in +turn affects the sale value of the carcase. It will also be found that +those sows with a neat and compact udder, with fine teats, will give +more milk and a better quality than sows possessing a coarse and flabby +udder. + +Another weakness to be avoided when selecting a sow pig for breeding +purposes is that which is commonly termed a blind teat, since it is +undoubtedly hereditary in addition to being useless for the purpose of +rearing pigs. The normal teat projects boldly from the udder, whereas +the blind teat is almost flat or on a level with the udder. In +appearance it resembles a ring of skin with a depressed nipple in its +centre. At the time of parturition the blind teat contains milk to the +same extent as do the other teats, but it promptly dries up since it is +impossible for the little pigs to extract the milk from it since the +nipple recedes as soon as the pigling attempts to clasp it with its lips +and tongue, instead of becoming more extended so that the little pig can +suck the milk from it. + +An ideal udder can be briefly described as one possessing at least +twelve fully developed teats, the more the better--these should commence +from a point as near the fore legs of the sow as possible, and be placed +as nearly as possible an equal distance the one from the other. + +Some persons hold that large teats and much loose skin are sure +indications that the sow has proved to be a good milker. This is a +mistaken view; it is with sows as with cows, the most prolific milkers +are those with well formed and soft udders which almost disappear when +the lactation period has passed. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +MATING THE YOUNG SOW + + +As in most other details in the management of our domesticated animals +there exists a variety of opinion as to the age at which the young sow, +or, as it is commonly locally termed, a gilt, yelt, yilt, hilt, elt, +etc., should be mated with the boar. Perhaps the most important point to +consider is the time of the year when the anticipated pigs should +arrive. If possible the period between the middle of the month of +September and the middle of December should be avoided. The long nights +and the short and dull days generally experienced during this period are +most unsuitable for young pigs. Many litters of pigs farrowed in October +are not any larger nor nearly as thrifty in the month of March as those +farrowed during the early portion of January in the following year, and +very frequently the loss amongst the October and November farrowed pigs +from lameness, or, as it is commonly termed, cramp, is very large. An +attempt should be made so that the two litters which should be bred each +year from the sow arrive so that they are weaned during the longer and +brighter days of the year; thus a sow which farrows in the beginning of +February may be expected to farrow again in July. The weather is +sometimes rather cold for little pigs early in the year, but it is +surprising how little they are affected by it providing the sow +furnishes a good supply of milk and the bedding is dry and plentiful. +The pigs farrowed in the months of January and February are generally +the most profitable, as they will be ready for the consumption of the +separated milk, butter milk, whey, etc., which is generally abundant in +the month of May in districts where dairying and cheese making are +followed. These pigs are also ready for turning out to grass in April or +May, or as soon as the weather is suitable, and the grass has grown +sufficiently. These young pigs will grow and thrive splendidly providing +that some additional food is fed to them and shelter provided. + +This natural system of pig raising is of great benefit to those pigs +which are intended for breeding purposes and was consistently followed +by the writer from the year 1863. It was by no means a new plan even at +that period, although strange claims have recently been made that the +system is a novel one and originated in the fertile brain of one or two +enthusiasts who have gone the whole hog in pig breeding. In the middle +of the last century it was quite a common practice in parts of the +counties of Cambridge, Essex, and Suffolk to graze the seeds which +comprised clovers, trefoils, etc., with pigs which received in addition +extra food, such as peas or beans in accordance with the amount of +vegetable food obtainable or the purpose for which the pigs were +required; those intended for pork receiving the larger supply. + +Although it may not be possible to allow the young boar pigs to have +their liberty after they become five months old, yet the sow pigs will +grow and develop far better in the field if properly fed than they will +in an inclosed sty; further, the young pigs which they produce will be +much more lusty than if the sows had been kept in close confinement. + +Although the sow pig will generally come in heat when she is about six +months old, it is advisable that she should not be mated until she is +some eight months old, so that her first litter of pigs is not farrowed +until she is about a year old, when she should be quite strong enough to +rear a fair litter of pigs and also to grow and develop into a fully +natured specimen of its breed. + +In some districts where the breeding pigs are generally kept in +confinement and high keeping is followed the sow pigs are mated with the +boar at an earlier age, but the system has its disadvantages which more +than outweigh the saving of the extra few weeks of the keep of the yelt +ere she is put to the boar. This early mating is especially harmful if +the number of the pigs in the first litter should be large. So few pig +keepers have the hardihood to knock a certain portion of the too +numerous litter on the head, and so reduce the number to say seven or +eight, which most young sows should be able to rear fairly well and +without any undue drain on the sow's system--but the whole of the large +litter are left on the sow, which becomes very much reduced in +condition, and checked in growth, whilst the too large litter of pigs +are badly reared and frequently become a source of trouble and +annoyance to the owner. + +On the other hand, there are many practical pig keepers who make it a +rule to delay the mating of their young sows beyond the eight months' +age. They contend that a sow pig at eight months is not sufficiently +matured to bear the strain of producing a litter of pigs when she is +about one year old, and then to furnish the pigs with a sufficiency of +milk to give them a good start in life. The plan which they adopt is to +mate the sow when she is about a year old so that she is some sixteen +months old before her family troubles commence. + +Another very curious reason has been recently made public by an +enthusiastic novice for delaying the mating of the yelt until she is at +least a year old. It is the following, that it is quite possible to +ensure that the produce of young sows which have reached the age of +sixteen or seventeen months ere they farrow their first litter shall +possess the desired characteristics of the breed, whereas this is by no +means certain if the young pigs arrive before the sow has reached that +age or is about a year old. Unfortunately, we have see no attempt made +to account for this alleged curious variation in the qualities inherited +from a parent of about one year old and the parent which had arrived at +the more matured age of about sixteen months, so that it is impossible +to discover a solution of the strange problem. + +Therefore, we should be unable to admit the correctness of the assertion +even though it was not directly in opposition to our belief which is +founded on experience of a most extensive character extending over some +sixty years. To aver that the power of a young sow to impress its +hereditary characteristics on its young are only fully developed by +deferring the arrival of the young pigs for four or five months, or +until the sow is sixteen instead of twelve months old when she farrows +must surely cause surprise, if not, disbelief. Perhaps the object of the +propounder of the theory was to create a discussion--it could not have +been to bring his name prominently before the public. + +Another advantage in mating the young sow so that her first litter +appears when she is about a year old, her daughters will in turn farrow +during the most suitable months of the year, providing of course that +she herself had been farrowed in early spring or about the month of +July. + +When the sow pig which is intended to be kept for breeding has been +farrowed in some other part of the year, it is advisable to defer beyond +the eight months the mating of her so that she farrows at the best +times, or perhaps even better than that, if the pigs are not intended +for breeding purposes, would it be to have the sow mated when she is +about eight months old, and then allow the pigs to remain on the sow a +few weeks beyond the usual period of eight weeks so that the pigs are +taken off the sow three or four days before it is desired to have her +again mated with the boar. The risk of the sow returning to the boar +will be minimised, as a sow which has been baulked is sometimes +difficult to settle. In addition, the sow will be stronger and more +vigorous and likely to produce a strong litter of pigs, whilst the +piglings will scarcely miss their mother's milk when they are weaned +from her. + +Those pig breeders who are in favour of withholding the boar from the +young sow until she is about a year old aver that early mating results +in the sow becoming worn out and useless for breeding at a much younger +age than if she be not mated until she is well matured. This is not in +accordance with the writer's experience, as many of his sows which +farrowed their first litter when they were about a year old continued to +breed regularly until they were six or seven years old--indeed, one +Middle White, Holywell Victoria Countess farrowed her last litter when +she was in her eleventh year. This sow also disproved the confident +assertion that the showing of sows renders them comparatively useless +for breeding purposes, since she not only continued to rear her pigs +well, but she produced a number of most successful prize winning boars +and sows, and also won many prizes herself from the age of five months +to five years. + +The principal cause of premature old age amongst sows is not due to +their being first mated when they are eight months old, but to the want +of care in the management and feeding of the sow during her pregnancy +and whilst she is suckling her litter of pigs. To a sow with a good +constitution the act of breeding and rearing a family of pigs is only +the most important act of nature which cannot be harmful to her, +providing that she received that amount of proper food and attention +which nature required. + +There may be very occasional instances of harm being done to the +breeding sow by over feeding, or rather by injudicious feeding, but in +comparison there are hundreds of instances where under feeding and +neglect are the cause of trouble and loss. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE FARROWING SOW + + +The pregnant sow usually carries her pigs about sixteen weeks. The +variations are neither great nor numerous, when they do occur it is +usually with sows with their first litters or aged sows which sometimes +farrow ere the full time has expired, or with robust sows in good +condition which occasionally carry their young beyond the one hundred +and twelve days which may be taken as the average period. + +We assume that each owner of a breeding sow keeps a record of the date +of service of the sow in order that the necessary preparation of the +sty, etc., can be made in readiness for the arrival of the expected +litter. Even when this wise precaution is neglected nature gives a +sufficient warning to the observant owner. Apart from the increasing +size of the body, the udder gradually becomes more prominent, and each +pap becomes more defined, the vulva becomes enlarged and the muscles on +either side of the tail fall away and lose their tenseness, whilst in +the vast majority of cases milk appears in the udder some twelve hours +before the arrival of the pigs. The teats shine and become more +prominent, the presence of milk is easily ascertained by gently +pressing the teat between the finger and thumb. + +Another certain indication of the early arrival of a family is the act +of the sow carrying straw about in her mouth wherewith to make her +farrowing bed. + +One of the chief causes of trouble with the farrowing sow arises from +the sow not having been allowed to take sufficient exercise. Of course, +the best of all systems is to allow the sow its complete freedom at all +seasons of the year save when she is within about a fortnight of her +time, and when she is rearing a litter of pigs. Even if there be no +grass field or paddock in which she is able to pick up a good portion of +her living, or a roadside where she can get a few blades of grass, an +open yard is infinitely better than the confinement of a sty, as apart +from the reduction in the cost of keep, the sow will produce stronger +pigs, and have a decidedly easier time of farrowing. + +In the case of a sow showing a disinclination to take a sufficiency of +exercise either owing to laziness, to high condition, or heaviness of +body, it is advisable to exercise her by walking her about quietly for a +short time each morning and evening before and after the heat of the day +has become excessive, or has passed off. + +There is a difference of opinion amongst pig breeders as to the +desirability or the reverse of having someone in attendance on the sow +during the time she is farrowing. Those who object to this procedure do +so on the ground that the presence of a man simply tends to irritate the +sow, and to frequently cause her to become restless, with the result +that the little pigs are trodden upon or become laid upon and killed. +This view is generally held by those who are not particularly fond of +animals, as evidenced by that occasional intercourse between pig and +owner which consists of rubbing the head of the pig, or scratching its +side, when in response to the pleasant sensation it rolls over on to its +side like Oliver and asks for more. The trouble if any, which arises +from the owner or pig man being in the sty with the farrowing sow almost +invariably arises from the absence of a sympathetic feeling between the +two. Sows, and indeed wellnigh all animals, pine for sympathy and +company, and no animal more so than a pig. Still there are very +occasional instances where the young sow becomes very excitable as she +commences to farrow even when she and her owner or attendant have +previously been on the best of terms. But there the cause is not the +presence of a human being, but the arrival of one of her own little +pigs. So long as the pigling remains quiet there is peace, but as soon +as the youngster endeavours to get to the teat and especially if in the +endeavour it utters a cry or a squeak, the young sow will jump up from +her nest and endeavour to seize the youngster in her mouth, when unless +prevented the sow quickly squeezes all life out of the pig; and in some +cases when the pressure has been so severe as to break the skin of the +piglet, and the sow tastes blood, she will proceed to eat the dead pig. +When affairs have arrived at this sad state, the chances of the +remaining pigs having a pleasant reception into the world are +comparatively slight. + +When there exists a good understanding between the sow and attendant, as +there invariably is when the latter is not rough and unkind, as only bad +tempered men can be, the trouble in a case such as just referred to is +greatly reduced, as the attendant runs no risk in entering the sty and +in removing the little pigs as they arrive, and placing them in a hamper +or box partially filled with straw until such time as the sow has +completed her farrowing, when the pigs can be placed against the sow's +udder, and providing they do not bite her, all will settle down in peace +and comfort. + +In order to avoid the slightest risk of trouble it is advisable when the +pigs are apart from the sow to break off with a pair of pliers the four +little teeth with which the pigs are endowed prior to their birth. Care +being taken to remove the pigs beyond the hearing of the sow each little +pig in turn is tucked under the left arm, the mouth is opened by the +left hand, and the teeth pressed hard with the pliers, or even a slight +turn of the wrist given, when necessary, and the brittle teeth are +crushed. + +As soon as the placenta or afterbirth is ejected this should be removed. +A little slop food should be fed to the sow, and whilst she is eating +it, the wettest part of the bedding should be replaced by a little short +and dry straw just enough to render the nest comfortable for the little +pigs. The nest should be disturbed as little as possible, as should the +whole of it be removed and fresh straw given, the sow will probably +spend a considerable time in remaking the nest, and in the meantime the +little pigs will be in danger from a chill, or in being mixed up in the +straw and being laid upon. The risk from delay in the sow laying down +and suckling her pigs is much greater in cold weather, as not only will +they become chilled, but they will persist in crowding round the sow and +so run the greater risk of being trodden upon, or rolled up in the +bedding in the effort of the sow to remake her comfortable nest. + +Some persons strongly recommend the giving of a strong dose of medicine +to the sow after she has farrowed. In ordinary cases this is not +necessary, the farrowing of a litter of pigs is a simple and natural +operation. In those occasional instances where manual assistance has to +be given to the sow owing to the unusual size of the pig, or wrong +presentation, or even of a pig which has been dead for a day or two and +has begun to decompose and consequently to increase in bulk, it is +advisable to give medicine to the sow, since there is every probability +of some amount of inflammation due to the insertion of the hand. As the +sow's bowels are likely to be somewhat constipated it is always +advisable to exercise her for a few minutes during the morning after she +has farrowed. In most cases the exercise will at once cause her to +relieve her bowels and her bladder, when she can be returned to her sty. + +We found sharps, or the finest portion of miller's offals (which usually +go by varying names in different parts of the country), the most +suitable food for newly farrowed sows, and until the pigs were at least +four weeks old. Some persons recommend that a portion of the food should +consist of bran, this on two grounds--the first that its use tends to +prevent constipation, and secondly on account of the food analysis which +it gives. Our experience has been that when sharps are fed to the sow no +trouble should arise from constipation, whilst as to the nutriment which +bran contains the claim may be good, but the pig is unable to extract +it; so large a proportion of the bran passes through the pig in an +undigested condition. As a rule the pig, unlike the horse, cow, or +sheep, does not masticate its food, nor does it, like the two last +named, chew its cud, but it usually bolts its food, and thus casts a +greater labour on its digestive organs which have neither the time nor +power to extract the whole of the nutriment from the bran. In addition +to this, bran tends to too great looseness of the bowels, which in the +case of young pigs tends to become diarrh[oe]a. + +There is a tendency on the part of some pigmen who are over anxious to +succeed to feed the sow too large a quantity of food during the first +ten days or so after she has farrowed. During this period the demand on +the sow is really not much greater than it was during the last two or +three weeks of carrying the pigs. As the pigs grow older an increased +supply of food is necessary, but for a week or two after the arrival of +the pigs twice feeding of the sow should suffice unless she is very low +in condition, or a very large litter of pigs is left on her. In such +cases it may be advisable to feed her three times per day just as much +as she will promptly clear up. It is a great mistake to give so much +food at one time that a portion is left over in the trough, +particularly is this so when the pigs are over three weeks old, as +nothing so quickly upsets the stomachs of the youngsters as sour food. +If in ordinary cases feeding the sow three times daily is persisted in, +the same quantity of food given should simply be distributed over the +three feedings, as an excess of food is only less a mistake than +underfeeding. + +Three of the most common troubles with young pigs are diarrh[oe]a, fits, +and loss of the tail. There is a belief amongst many old pigmen that +every litter of pigs is bound to have at least one attack of diarrh[oe]a +ere it is weaned. They look upon it as a fatality which is certain to +eventuate, no matter what steps may be taken. Of course, this is folly. +The liability of little pigs to an attack of what is commonly called +scouring is great as the causes are several, amongst them the greatest +is perhaps a chill which may arise from draughts owing to faulty +construction of the sty doors or ventilators neglected; insufficient, +unsuitable, or damp bedding; neglect of proper sanitation, or the +frequent cleaning out of the sty; and most frequently of all from +injudicious feeding of the sow. In fact, anything which affects the +health of the young pig to any great extent appears to result in +indigestion, which causes constipation, and this in turn nature +endeavours to remove by a special effort which softens the faeces +somewhat. On removal of the cause of the constipation, the bowels +perform their duty normally, but if this be not removed the result is +diarrh[oe]a, which again if continued for any length of time often +becomes dysentery, when the fever is acute; the pigling neglects its +mother's teat, and instead sucks up any moisture however foul which it +can find in the sty. This is almost invariably a precursor of death. + +From the above it will be gathered that prevention is better than cure. +In case of an attack, the first thing is to discover the cause, and the +second is to remove it, when, generally speaking, the trouble ceases. As +a help to this end, depriving the sow of one meal is recommended. Coal, +cinders, or even earth will be readily eaten by the young pigs and prove +of benefit. Medicine is not often required if the steps recommended are +promptly taken. + +In our earlier days hog's madder was the common medicine used with pigs +for most ailments, but of late years sulphur appears to have taken its +place. It is less violent than castor oil, which is apt to cause +constipation of the bowels after its first effect has passed off. + +The soreness of the tails, which if not attended to generally results in +the pig becoming bob-tailed, appears most generally in damp and cold +weather, and is the result of impaired circulation of the blood. The +cure is simple. The application of fat or oil as soon as the tail +becomes red and cold, twice per day, and continued for two or three days +will almost always result in a cure. For some years we used +boro-glyceride, a compound, we believe, of boracic acid and glycerine, +but we are not certain that it is now procurable. + +The third of the common troubles of the young pig is fits of an +apoplectic and epileptic character. As a rule the shortest, thickest, +and fattest pigs of the litter are those which are affected. This +points to the chief cause, too much food in the form of mother's milk. A +reduction in the quantity of the food fed to the sow will generally be +effectual, except when the pigs are old enough to eat. Then both the +quantity and the quality of the food given to them should be reduced. +Prompt removal of the cause is usually sufficient, but it may be +necessary to mix a little medicine in the food in persistent cases, or +when remedial measures are not promptly taken. The ordinary symptoms are +unmistakable, the pig falls on its side, struggles and gasps for breath, +then in a minute or two it rises and appears to be little the worse. +Unless continued over a period, fits are not usually fatal. + +Very occasionally young pigs suffer from the protrusion of the rectum, +or as it is commonly termed "shooting of the gut." This is due to +various causes which result in straining. Of these constipation and +diarrh[oe]a are the two most common. As soon as the protrusion of the +gut is noticeable, the enlargement should be carefully washed, then +oiled and gently pressed back into its natural position. Some pigmen +advise the dusting of flour on to the protruded portion before it is +returned, but there is a risk of increasing the amount of inflammation +which is generally present. If known the original cause of the trouble +should be removed, but in any case it is advisable not to give any solid +food to the pig for two or three days after the operation. + +Still another of the troubles to which pig flesh is heir is hernia, or +rupture. This is of two kinds, umbilical and scrotum. The former is +the escape of a portion of the bowels through an imperfectly closed +navel opening, whilst the latter shows itself in an enlargement of the +scrotum or purse due to an escape into it of a portion of the abdominal +contents. Both of these ailments are considered to be hereditary, but +the most common and the most troublesome is the latter, since there is +always a chance of strangulation of the escaped portions, which nearly +always results in death. + +At one time it was considered to be inadvisable to castrate the boar +pigs affected, but of late years the plan has been adopted of making +only one incision in the scrotum in place of two, and making that one as +high as possible. Then after the operation is performed, the aperture is +sown up. The pig should be fed lightly for a day or two in order to give +time for the healing of the wound. + +Umbilical hernia is not generally of much importance, the navel opening +gradually closes as the pig grows stronger and the enlargement +disappears. It is advisable not to breed from a sow pig which has been +affected, nor to continue to use a boar which has begotten ruptured +pigs, as both failings are hereditary. + +For a time at least, there is certain to be a difficulty in obtaining a +full supply of sharps, even of the greatly reduced feeding value of the +present quantity available. It may, therefore, be advisable to refer to +another system of feeding the suckling sow and the young pigs. It is now +perforce being generally adopted, but the result is not generally +considered to be equal to the old system recommended. It is that of +feeding pigs of the kind mentioned on vegetable food, and a mixture of +palm nut, cocoa nut, ground nut, or linseed cake. The proportions fed at +the Cambridge University Farm are mangolds 20 lbs.; a mixture of two +parts palm nut cake, and one part cocoa nut cake, 2 lbs.; linseed cake, +2 lbs.; and ground nut cake, 1 lb. The two former were fed in the +morning and evening, and the other two at midday. The various cakes seem +to have been fed in a dry condition, but other pig feeders have found it +beneficial to soak the cake in water for some twelve hours. This view +seems to have received support from the practice at Cambridge, which was +to mix the cake with the cut mangolds twenty-four hours before being fed +to the pigs so that at least a portion of the cake would become softened +by the mangold juice. Almost any kind of vegetable matter containing a +fair amount of nutrition would be equally as suitable as mangold, indeed +more so during the period from October to April. In the winter months +cooked potatoes; kohl rabi, swedes, parsnips, cabbages, artichokes, +etc., fed raw; and in the summer grass, lucerne, clover, vetches, rape, +or almost any kind of vegetable food will be readily eaten by the pigs. +Even where the wasteful practice of peeling the potatoes before being +cooked for the household is still followed (and just how wasteful this +old-fashioned plan is has been lately proved to be a loss of nearly one +quarter of the nutriment)--it is advisable to boil the parings and then +mix the whole with the pig's food. + +It cannot be too strongly impressed on pig keepers that a certain +proportion of vegetable food is most beneficial for pigs of all ages, as +not only is a saving in cost effected, but the pigs will continue in a +more healthy condition than when fed solely on meal or other +concentrated food. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: LARGE WHITE BOAR. The property of the Author. The Winner +of many Prizes. + +To face page 80.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES."] + + + + +CHAPTER X + +WEANING PIGS + + +There are few points in connection with the breeding and feeding of pigs +on which there is a greater diversity of opinion and practice than on +the question of the weaning of the young pigs. + +For instance, take the age at which it is most satisfactory to take the +pigs off the sow. This practice varies greatly in different districts, +and even in the same district where one would naturally suppose that the +determining influences would be similar weaning at five or six weeks +old. + +One pig breeder will declare that a little pig of five or six weeks old +should be and is able to support itself alone, and will act accordingly. +Should perchance a litter weaned thus early cease to grow the excuses +made will be various. + +The weather is at fault, it is either too hot or too cold, or the +sharps, etc., on which they have been fed were not good or sweet, that +the sow's milk was not sufficiently plentiful, or it was wanting in +nutriment. In fact, any excuse will be made rather than the actual cause +admitted. + +In far too many instances the real reason for the want of thrift on the +part of the young pigs taken from their mother when they are not more +than five or six weeks old is that their digestive organs are not +sufficiently developed as to enable them to digest enough food to +nourish them properly. + +Another excuse often made for what we consider to be undue haste in +weaning young pigs is the alleged desire of the owner not to waste the +time of the sow. He is anxious to have her served again and hasten the +arrival of the next litter. + +Occasionally it is found to be unnecessary to wean the pigs for this +purpose as the sow will come in heat and can be served by the boar, but +if she should become in pig the result will be much the same so far as +the pigs are concerned, since as soon as the sow has conceived the milk +will promptly cease or become very reduced in quantity and quality. + +On the other hand, if the sow does not stand to the boar time may be +wasted. It is most unlikely that the sow will again become in heat for +some three weeks, whereas this almost always occurs within a few days of +the weaning of the litter of pigs. + +Then another extreme, and one which is practised by some pig breeders, +is to allow the young pigs to remain on the sow until the former are +from ten to twelve weeks old. It is claimed for this practice that the +young pigs grow much faster when left on the sow than when weaned, and +that less food is consumed for a live weight increase from a given +quantity of food. Also, it is said that food of more inferior kind can +be fed to the sow than could be fed to the pigs if they were weaned, and +thus the sow and litter are kept at less expense, and that if the pigs +are not weaned until nearly three months, the milk of the sow will have +gradually ceased to flow, and the pigs will not miss the help from +their dam. Their digestive organs will then have become sufficiently +developed to enable them to make the best use of the food given to them, +and they will sustain no check in thrift or growth when they are weaned. + +In this question of weaning pigs the good old fashioned plan of +following the middle course will probably be found to be the best. +Anyway, it was the one which we followed for a great number of years and +found the results generally satisfactory for the following among other +reasons. + +As a breeder of pure bred pigs for sale as boars or yelts for breeding +purposes, we were naturally anxious to give the pigs a good start in +life so that we should be able to sell them as quickly as possible, and +that they should thrive when they came into the possession of their new +owners, and thus prove the best possible advertisement of our herds. As +a rule we found that if the pigs were allowed to remain on the sows +until they were some eight weeks old they were quite strong enough to +fend for themselves, that by gradually increasing the length of time +which the sow was allowed to remain from the pigs, the latter became +accustomed to exist without the mother's milk, and as the milk of the +sow naturally dried up when the pigs partially ceased to withdraw it, no +trouble was experienced with inflamed udders as is usually or commonly +the case when the pigs are suddenly weaned from a sow which is in full +milk. + +There is also another advantage apart from that to the sow and pigs, it +is that the sow will almost invariably come in heat within three or +four days of the weaning, and with the best possible chance of becoming +in pig. + +Some pig keepers are more inclined to wean their litter of pigs at an +early age, and then if the sow be low in condition to baulk her at the +first time of [oe]strum. There are objections to this--one of them is +that there is frequently a difficulty in getting the sow to conceive +after she has been baulked. Why this should be so we have not been able +to ascertain. We only record what we know to be a fact. + +In our opinion this difficulty is one of the strongest points in favour +of the practice of allowing the young pigs of a sow with her first +litter, or of an old sow which has become low in condition (either from +having had too many pigs left on her, or from other natural cause), to +remain on the sow for a longer period than about eight weeks. Some +persons will keep the pigs on the sow until they are nearly three months +old in the belief that both sow and pigs are benefited, and that the +pigs can be kept quite as cheaply if not more so when unweaned than +weaned. They also claim that the sow is so much stronger and better +fitted to prepare for another litter. Experiments have been carried out +in the United States which go far to prove that the first of these two +claims is founded on fact; and it has further been demonstrated that +certain foods can be fed to the sow without affecting the thrift and +health of the pigs which could not with safety be fed to the latter +direct, yet when fed through the sow the pigs will thrive on the milk +produced therefrom. It is entirely a question of the cost of a rest for +the sow during the extra two or three weeks, and the benefit to the +sow and her pigs. + +One occasionally sees in the press a claim for what is considered to be +a great achievement in that some one has bred three litters of pigs from +one sow within the year. There really is something wonderful in this +since of the fifty-two weeks constituting a year, the sow would be +carrying her pigs some forty-eight weeks. This would allow only four +weeks for the two litters of pigs to be suckled, and this would also +include the few days between the pigs being weaned and the sow coming in +heat. Apart from the natural difficulty of successfully breeding three +litters of pigs from one sow within twelve months, there exists a far +greater possibility of loss rather than of gain from unduly hurrying on +the arrival of each litter of pigs from a sow, especially of the +profitable kind of sow. + +Some forty years since when Small Whites, Small Blacks, and short thick +Berkshires were fashionable, the number of pigs in each litter was few, +and the number reared still fewer, owing to the limited quantity of milk +furnished by the sow. Now, the Large Black, the Large White, the Middle +White, the Lincolnshire Curly Coat, the old Gloucester Spots, the +Tamworth, the Cumberland, and even the sows of most of the local breeds +of pigs are expected to rear nine or ten pigs each litter. Even if it +were possible for a sow to bring forth three litters within the year, +she could not possibly do justice to them either before or after the +piglings arrived in this world; and further, the life of such a sow +would of necessity be a short one. It must not be forgotten that in +the production of each litter of pigs the sow is compelled to +manufacture from 20 to 30 lbs. of flesh, skin, hair, etc., which +together constitute the newly farrowed pig, and very frequently this has +to be accomplished on a far too limited supply of suitable food. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _From a Painting by Wippell._ + +MIDDLE WHITE SOW. + +To face page 96.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Block kindly supplied by Cumberland Pig Breeders' +Association, Carlisle._ + +CUMBERLAND SOW. + +Owned by Mr. Carr, Kirkbride, Carlisle.] + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE REARING OF YOUNG PIGS + + +One of the most important points in the profitable raising of stock is +to give the animals a good start in their earliest days. There is an old +and true saying amongst shepherds that the best and most profitable +sheep are those which have never lost their lamb fat. It may with equal +truth be declared that the most profitable pig is the one which has a +good start when on its mother, and never afterwards lacks suitable food, +judiciously given. + +At frequent intervals, the question as to the number of pigs which a sow +should have left on her to rear is the subject of discussion in the +press. At each of these periods very similar arguments for and against +large litters are used with much the same inconclusive results. This +probably arises to a great extent from the varying conditions under +which the particular litter of pigs is to be reared. The time of year +has a vast influence, a sow farrowing in May will more successfully rear +a dozen pigs than she would bring up ten if they were farrowed in the +month of October. + +The age and condition of the sow should also be considered. A young sow +of about twelve months should not have more than seven or eight pigs +left on her to rear, whereas with her succeeding litters until she is at +least four years old she would rear at least ten pigs each litter. After +the sow has reached the age of about four years, if that time has been +fully employed in her maternal duties, she becomes gradually less able +to rear so large a number of pigs with an equal amount of success. It is +then advisable to vary the number according to the season, and to the +physical condition of the sow; generally speaking an aged sow will bring +up more pigs in the summer months than in the colder months. + +Reference is made elsewhere to the manner in which the young pigs should +be cared for until they are weaned from their dam, but no harm can arise +from a repetition of the advice that the young pigs should be so managed +and fed that only the very slightest difference will be noticed by the +youngsters when parted from their mother. Many pigs are permanently +checked in growth by being suddenly deprived of a full supply of +mother's milk if weaned when their digestive organs are insufficiently +developed as to treat a sufficiency of food to make growth and progress +without the assistance received from their mother's milk. + +Opinions differ as to the age at which little pigs are sufficiently +developed as to exist and thrive without their dam's help. Here again +the time of the year, not only as far as the weather is concerned, but +the desirability of prompt or deferred remating of the sow in order that +her succeeding litters should arrive during the most favourable portions +of the year, must be considered. The thrift and growth of each litter +of pigs varies greatly. The health of the sow, her condition before +farrowing, and other causes, some of which are not always on the +surface, have their influence, but it may be taken as a rule that young +pigs are fully able to fend for themselves by the time they are eight +weeks old. Should it be possible to allow the pigs to remain on the sow +for so long a time as twelve weeks without prejudicing the next litters +as to the time of year of their arrival, the pigs may benefit, and no +loss of food will be sustained, since it has been clearly proved that +pigs beyond the age of eight weeks can be fed quite as economically, if +not more so, on the sow than if weaned. It may also be possible to feed +the sow on somewhat coarser and less expensive food than could be +satisfactorily fed to the young pigs, as her digestive organs would be +better able to treat the coarser food. Another advantage generally +follows keeping the pigs for a longer time on the sow if the latter be +well fed is that she will be in a stronger and better condition to start +the building up of her next litter. + +As a rule young pigs will commence to eat when they are from three to +four weeks old. If the sow is fed in the sty in which the little pigs +are, these will endeavour to share in the food; at first they may +content themselves with licking any food which may be outside the +trough, but they quickly show a desire for more, and attempt to get into +the trough. When this is evident, it is advisable to feed the little +pigs apart from the sow; a low flat trough is best, as one with high +sides is said to cause "high backed" pigs, or pigs suffering from a +curvature of the spine. If a little milk can be obtained, the pigs will +promptly drink it, if the milk be whole they will thrive best, but even +if only skim or separated milk be obtainable, or butter milk, providing +that it be drawn off ere the salt is put into the churn, a small +quantity will be beneficial, but the pigs will not be able to digest so +large a quantity of the separated as of the whole milk. The former is +apt to have a constipating effect on the bowels of the youngsters. +Should an ample supply of separated milk be available it can be fed +through the sow, who will be better able to digest it, and whose yield +of milk will be increased, provided that sufficient separated milk to +affect her bowels be not given to her. A few kernels of wheat or white +peas will be readily eaten by the little pigs, which will benefit +therefrom. + +If no other food is available, sharps, or whatever the local term for +the finer miller's offals may be, mixed with a little warm water and fed +to the piglings, will prove beneficial, care being taken to give only so +much as the pigs will eat up readily, or that any surplus is taken away, +so that it does not become sour, as in this last condition it will cause +diarrh[oe]a in the young pigs. + +When the pigs are about six weeks old the sow can be allowed to remain +from them for a longer time, and the youngsters fed two or three times +each day. The sow's milk will then gradually dry up, and the pigs will +become accustomed to the food, so that when the latter are about eight +weeks old they will have become weaned naturally, and receive no check +from the loss of the sow's milk. This system, will also prevent any +trouble arising from the collection of milk in the sow's udder, and the +occasional attacks of inflammation or garget which follow a chill to the +sow when her udder is in an inflamed condition from being closely +impacted with milk. + +Assuming that the economical and beneficial practice of supplying the +suckling sow with vegetable food of some kind after the pigs are some +three or four weeks old has been adopted, the pigs will have become +accustomed to its consumption. It will be found to be advisable to +continue this whether it has taken the form of cooked potatoes, of +mangolds, swedes, kohl rabi, cabbages, artichokes, etc., as not only +will the food bill be reduced, as the pigs will make equal growth and +thrift on food containing say ten per cent of vegetable matter as they +will if fed wholly on sharps, but the vegetable food will have a +beneficial effect on the health of the pigs, and tend to prevent those +attacks of constipation and diarrh[oe]a which are so frequently the +result of food of too rich a character. + +Of the vegetable foods, cooked potatoes and raw artichokes are the most +nourishing and the most readily eaten, lucerne and clover in a green +state come next in food value and favouritism with the pigs; cabbages +are credited with causing constipation when fed to young pigs, whilst +mangolds are said to have the opposite effect, and in addition when +grown on light land by the aid of artificial manure mangolds are apt to +affect the kidneys and cause excessive urination. Kohl rabi are not so +much used in the feeding of pigs as would be advisable. They are easily +grown and will take the place of swedes on land on which swedes are +subject to mildew; they are very nutritious, and are readily eaten by +both old and young pigs. + +Coleseed is not used in the feeding of pigs in this country to anything +approaching the same extent as in Canada and the United States; its +value and results are of a very similar character to those of cabbages. +Tares or vetches contain too large a proportion of water for young pigs, +and they also have a tendency to cause looseness of the bowels. The +growth of maize for feeding to pigs in a green state has been +recommended by some writers, but in practice we found it most unsuitable +for young pigs, and of little value for aged pigs, owing to the small +proportion of nourishment contained in it in comparison with its bulk. +Further, pigs both old and young will refuse to eat it unless driven by +hunger. It is needless to remark that no pigs, especially young ones, +will thrive under such conditions. + +One of the most common mistakes made by pig feeders is allowing too long +a time to pass between feeding times. Twice or three times per day is +considered to be quite frequent enough, whereas prior to their being +weaned the pigs would have had a meal wellnigh each two hours both day +and night. Infrequent meals result in the pigs becoming so hungry that +they bolt their food, and a greater quantity than is desirable, and then +suffer from indigestion. + +It must also be remembered that the pig's capacity for storing food is +very small, especially as compared with some others of our domesticated +animals. Four or five meals per day at least should be given to newly +weaned pigs. That most troublesome of ailments commonly termed cramp +more generally results from injudicious feeding than from all other +causes combined. Even when the young pigs are properly fed on suitable +food there is a tendency in some little pigs to attacks of cramp. One of +the best preventatives and even remedies is to compel the pigs to leave +their nests late in the evening or prior to the pigman retiring for the +night, as they will then relieve the bowels and bladder. Otherwise, +particularly in cold weather, the pigs would remain quiescent in their +nests from feeding time in the afternoon until they were fed the +following morning, or in winter a period of some fifteen or sixteen +hours--far too long a time for the good health of the young pigs. + +Another point which requires attention is the provision of a dry bed. +Pigs are naturally clean animals, and will not as a rule foul their bed +when they are in a healthy state. Still the straw will in winter time +become damp solely from the moisture thrown off by the pigs when huddled +together in their nest. All damp litter should be carefully removed at +least once each day. + +The best of all materials for the bedding of pigs is wheat straw. This +will absorb a larger amount of moisture than any other kind of straw, +whilst the skin and hair of the pigs will remain of a brighter colour +than if bedded on oat or barley straw. Of these two, the former is more +suitable than the latter, which so readily becomes damp and foul. In +those parts of the country where comparatively little corn is grown, +sawdust and wood shavings are commonly used for litter for pigs. So far +as the comfort of the pigs is concerned there is little difference as +compared with straw with regard to pigs of all ages in the warmer +weather, but in the winter little pigs suffer, as they are unable to +make the warm nest which straw enables them to make and enjoy. + +When peat moss was first introduced it was strongly recommended for the +bedding of pigs. It was claimed for it that it was a far better +absorbent of moisture than sawdust, and that its manurial value was much +greater. It is probable that both claims are founded on fact, as sawdust +is of comparatively no value as a manure. But there exists one serious +objection to the use of peat moss as litter for young pigs. It is that +the pigs are given to eat it, that it causes severe attacks of +indigestion, and often the death of the pig eating it. + +Of late years the spaying of the sow pigs has ceased to be general. The +causes of this neglect may be several, amongst them the dislike of +trouble, but perhaps the main reason is that the so-called store period +of the pig's life is now so much shorter than in the olden days, and +consequently the loss of food, and the risk of the arrival of unexpected +litters of pigs are less, from the repeated periods of heat, indeed +under the present or recent conditions of pig keeping a large +proportion of the pigs are killed ere they have become sufficiently +developed to be troublesome in this respect. + +Still, there is little doubt that the castrating and spaying of young +pigs at about the age of six weeks, or before they have been weaned from +the sow is advisable and the cost of the operation is well repaid. An +unspayed sow pig becomes a nuisance in company with other pigs, and when +it is put up to fatten will make no progress on some three or four days +during each three weeks when she ordinarily becomes in heat. + +In addition to her own waste of time she will, if penned with others, be +continually worrying her mates and preventing them from resting and +thriving. + +Until recently another objection was taken to the unspayed sow pig, it +was that if she were killed during the period of [oe]strum that great +difficulty would be experienced in curing the meat properly, and that +signs of her heated condition would be noticed in the mammary glands in +the form of dark globules of what was considered to be blood, but +investigation carried out at the University Farm at Cambridge by Messrs. +Russell and Kenneth Mackensie have proved that the discoloration and the +consequent loss in value of a certain portion of the belly of a side of +bacon is not due to the pig having been in a state of heat at the time +of its slaughter, but to an excess of pigment, noticeable only amongst +coloured pigs. Thus, the globules would be of a dark colour when the +bacon was from a pig of a black colour, and red from the pigs of the +Tamworth breed. This shows another cause of the marked preference of the +bacon curers for pigs of a white colour in the manufacture of the +highest priced bacon. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +HOUSING OF PIGS + + +In the general management of pigs there are many points on which +improvements might be effected without any very considerable amount of +trouble or expense. Far too frequently this neglect or want of care and +thought is observable in the housing of pigs. Many of the sties in the +country districts are neither wind nor water tight, and they are far too +often in a most unsanitary condition, indeed in such a disgraceful state +that some excuse was afforded for the drastic, if injudicious order of +the sanitary authorities which prohibited the erection of a pigsty +within from sixty to one hundred feet of a dwelling house. Undoubtedly +it would have been wiser to have permitted the keeping of pigs within a +much shorter distance of the house only so long as the necessary steps +were taken to prevent a nuisance or a risk of the residents in the house +suffering in health. The proximity of a pigsty to a house can be +rendered perfectly innocuous with ordinary care, and the cottager not be +deprived of very considerable advantages not only in making a profit, +but in the provision of manure for his allotment or garden which will +benefit greatly from its application. + +The mistakes or want of care in the erection of pigsties is by no means +confined to the owners of cottages or small holdings, as a considerable +proportion of the piggeries on which great outlay is expended are +equally as unsuitable if not so insanitary. Even in so-called model +buildings the piggery has often been the last thing thought of; the +stables, the cow house, etc., have been conveniently placed for feeding +the occupants, for air, light, and sun, and then the piggery has been +placed in whatever spot may have been left unoccupied, and as this +generally happens to be on the northern side of the buildings, the +unhappy pigs are deprived of the rays of the sun, which are to them +quite as necessary, if not more so, than to any others of our +domesticated animals. + +This same want of sun, and the exposure to cold is noticeable in only a +lesser degree in those buildings which comprise a double row of sties +with a passage down the centre, a store and a cooking and mixing house +at one end, and an exercise or feeding yard adjoining. It matters not +whether the building be placed north or south, or east or west, one half +of the sties have a wrong aspect; even if the sties facing the west can +be said to possess one. The trouble is still greater with the system of +having a yard attached to each sty. The north or east wind renders the +sties with such an aspect a most uncomfortable and unhealthy place for +young pigs during more than half the year, whilst older pigs cannot +thrive on the same amount of food as they would if their quarters were +comfortable. Apart from the waste of food which results from these +draughty and cold sties, the latter are the chief cause, with +injudicious feeding, of that most troublesome ailment amongst pigs, +rheumatic gout, or, as it is commonly termed, cramp. How very draughty +and uncomfortable these sties are which have an open yard attached, and +an inlet at all times usable, can be readily discovered in cold and +windy weather by noticing the position in which the occupant has made +its bed. This will be found not on the highest part of the sty, which +will be opposite to the opening into the yard, but in the corner next to +the opening, since in this position it is less exposed to the cold wind +which rushes into the sty through the opening. + +Apart from the unhealthiness to the pigs resulting from the exposure to +draughts it is not apparent to the writer that any advantage is gained +from the provision of these yards. In many instances they serve only for +an excuse to limit the height of the sties, as unless these are of a +fair height there is a considerable difficulty in cleaning them out. The +money expended on building the yard would easily cover the extra cost of +raising the side walls of the pigsty by two feet, and thus not only +render it free from draughts, but also make it far more healthy and less +subject to the extremes of heat and cold. + +The ordinary sty with a yard attached is unhealthy for a growing or +matured pig, but in the colder weather it is simply cruel for newly born +pigs, of which numbers are annually lost from exposure or are greatly +checked in their growth. + +One of the very best places in which to house pigs in the experience of +the writer was a large barn with a thatched roof. This was divided off +into sties by partitions some 4 ft. 6 in. high; owing to the height of +the building the temperature was not unduly high in the hottest weather +nor did the pigs suffer to any extent during severe weather. These +advantages arose mainly from the slight changes in temperature, and an +abundant supply of uncontaminated air. + +One of the greatest drawbacks to the majority of the pigsties is the +absence of ventilation without draught. This trouble is especially +noticeable where the side walls are not more than about 4 ft. high, +whilst the proximity of the roof to the pigs increases the sufferings of +the pigs from the heat when the weather is excessively hot. + +Some of our most successful pig feeders on a large scale have found it +profitable to erect cheap buildings very similar to small barns, the +side walls being at least 10 feet high. This will permit of thorough +ventilation, quite free from draughts, whilst the variations in the +temperature will be comparatively slight. The building being complete +within itself, and entirely used for the pigs, there is no disturbance +of the pigs between the feeding times, so that the pigs will rest and +grow fat. These houses are most suitable for a number of fattening pigs, +whereas for sows and for young sows smaller sties or houses are more +convenient. These should be at least 10 ft. square, the front 6 ft. 6 +in. high, the doors divided so that the upper half can be opened when +the weather is favourable; ventilation can be obtained by hanging or +sliding doors just under the eaves so that the pigs are not affected by +the draught; the floor should be laid with brick and gradually incline +to the front of the building so that the liquid can run through an +aperture in the lower part of the front wall into a cesspool placed +close to the building. A row of these houses, which should face to the +south, can be more cheaply erected than a single house, as the wooden +partitions between the houses need not be more than 4 ft. high, and one +of these would take the place of two gables or ends. Several of the +houses which the writer erected had brick foundations and feather-edged +boarded sides and ends; the roofs were of tiles unpointed, as in this +way the houses were much cooler in the summer, whilst in the winter the +upper portions of the houses were packed with straw which still +permitted of the escape of the foul air, yet greatly added to the warmth +and comfort of the building. + +The one thing of all others most needful in the sty or house for the +well doing of pigs is a sufficiency of pure air without draughts; pigs +of even a few days old will suffer less from cold than from moist and +foul hot air. It is not the most costly building in which pigs will +thrive best, but the one in which they are the most comfortable and free +from the extremes of heat and cold with a dry bed on which to rest and +be thankful. + +When making a tour of the Agricultural Experiment Stations and +Agricultural Schools in Denmark some few years since, the writer saw +near Aarhuss what was then a novelty in the form of a two decker pigsty, +i.e. a sty with a sleeping place above--one could scarcely term it an +upstairs room as access was gained not by stairs but by an inclined +board with struts of wood fastened across it to give a firm holding to +the pigs as they ascended to the upper story. The incline was very +steep, but the pigs seemed to have no difficulty in getting up and down. +The advantages claimed for it by the principal were that the sleeping +compartment was so much cleaner and sweeter; that less straw was +required for bedding, and that the pigs were far more comfortable and +rested better than when boxed up, especially in the summer season when +the heat in the lower portion was very oppressive. The feeding took +place in the lower portion. It was stated that nearly the whole of the +urine and dung was deposited below. This was a great advantage as the +moisture ran off at once into the drains, and the solids were easily +cleared out as there was no litter mixed with them, or the dung could be +readily washed into the drains by water from a hose, which was used in +the summer for the purpose of bathing or of washing the pigs. + +The chief objection to the plan would be its expense, as unless the +pigsties were in a barn or a shed already erected for some other purpose +the pigsty would have to be so much higher on the side walls and +consequently more strongly built. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM." + +To face page 112.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo kindly lent by Kenneth MacRae, R.U.A.S., Balmoral, +Belfast._ + +LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS + + +When the exhibition of live stock at our numerous shows became common, a +belief sprang up amongst non-exhibitors that the preparation for show +was most deleterious to the animals shown. It was also contended that +exhibitors were prone to pay attention, to a far greater extent, to the +fancy or show points of the animals which they bred than to those +utility points which are of infinitely more importance to the ordinary +stock breeder and the consumer. It was also believed that the feeding or +training which the show stock underwent seriously affected their +procreative powers, and especially so with the animals of the feminine +gender. + +It may at once be frankly admitted that there existed some ground for +the belief that a majority of the exhibitors did appear to give too +great attention to the claims of the judges who were, in too many cases, +chosen for reasons other than their knowledge of practical agriculture +or the requirements of the consumers of meat. For so acting, the +exhibitors were not beyond blame, as in the earlier days of showing, +their main object was to win prizes in order to advertise their stock +and so secure customers for their spare breeding animals. The actual +improvement of the various breeds of stock did not in those far-off days +appear to be of such vital importance as the world upheaval, of which +the present generation has been the witness, has proved it to be. + +It may also be fairly claimed that there has been some slight +improvement in the system of feeding and training followed by the pig +exhibitors of to-day. This is in part due to the fact that the cramming +on rich food and giving little exercise may result in rendering the show +pig in such a state of obesity as to secure the approval of the +non-practical judge, who is unable to appraise the points of a pig when +in its natural breeding condition, but that to be able to follow the +present system of exhibiting at several successive shows and even when +the bloated pig is intended to be returned to the breeding pen, this +excessive feeding proved to be a grievous mistake. It may not be +possible to claim that the over feeding of show animals is a thing of +the past, but there is little doubt that exhibitors of pigs have become +alive to the fact that it is not profitable. Not only is the expense +excessive, but the damage done to the breeding animals is so great as to +render it inadvisable for any ordinary farmer to follow. Again, there +has of late years been a very considerable improvement in the pig +classification at both the breeding and the fat stock shows. When the +writer began pig showing, on his own account, fifty years since, the +common classification at most of the shows was, boar any age, sows any +age, and pens of three breeding pigs, not exceeding nine or in some +cases even twelve months. There were no restrictions as to the age of +the boar or of the sow, no condition as to utility, of the sow having at +any time reared a litter of pigs or of being in pig, so that it was by +no means uncommon at even some of the chief shows to find both boars and +sows appear year after year, having been guiltless of any attempt to +procreate their species, but having been kept solely for the purpose of +winning prizes and adding to the renown of their owners, if not directly +adding much to their balances at the bank. The only way in which the +continued exhibition of these old stagers was made profitable was the +securing of customers for breeding stock from the exhibitors, who in far +too many cases were not the breeders of the winning animals. To so great +an extent had this purchase, frequently from middlemen or dealers of +exhibition pigs, become in the seventies of the last century, that some +of the live stock papers in the United States took up the cudgels on +behalf of the American breeders of pigs, who had been in the habit of +importing show winners from this country and plainly asked for the +English definition of a pure bred pig. It was pointed out at a recent +show of the Royal Agricultural Society several winners shown by one +exhibitor were entered as of certain defined breeds, yet neither age, +pedigree, nor name of breeder was given, the only particulars given in +the show catalogue being the name and address of the exhibitor, the name +of the pig, and the further statement age and breeder unknown. As our +American cousins asked, how could it be possible to ensure that a pig +was of a certain pure breed when it was admitted that no knowledge +existed of the breeding of the animal nor actually of the person who +bred it. This scandal, as it was termed, was one of the contributing +causes of the establishment of societies for the registration of the +pedigrees of the various types or breeds of pigs. + +Other changes which have been great improvements have been the +limitation of the ages of boars and sows shown, the requirement that the +sow has within a certain fixed time farrowed a litter of pigs and that +when entered as being in farrow a certificate of subsequent farrowing +shall be furnished ere the prize money is paid over. The age of the +young boars and sows has also been reduced at most shows to six months, +or the pigs must have been farrowed in the year of the show. In the good +old times the age of the pigs shown in the classes for pens of two or +three or five, varied from six to twelve months, and the asserted age +given by the exhibitor was accepted as correct. At many of the important +shows not only are some means of identification asked for, but the state +of the dentition are variously dealt with; at some shows they are +disqualified at once by the stewards on the certificate of the +veterinary surgeon. It may at once be admitted that this mode of +procedure is very hard on an honest exhibitor whose pig has for some +reason developed its temporary or permanent teeth abnormally--and such +cases are not unknown--- although as a rule the various stages in the +cutting of the permanent teeth are very regular, the majority of the +irregularities are also in favour of the exhibitor, since delayed rather +than precocious development of dentition is the most common. Just how +imperative it was that some steps should be taken to prevent mistakes +being made in the ages of young pigs exhibited, many cases could be +cited, but one may suffice where one of the sow pigs in a pen of five +entered in a class for pigs not exceeding six months actually farrowed a +litter of fully developed pigs in the show yard. + +During the last forty years, great improvements have been made in the +classification for pigs at our principal Fat Stock shows. The division +of breeds or types has been attended to and the ages of the pigs in the +various classes have been greatly reduced. For instance, when the writer +was judging pigs with two colleagues at the 1880 show of the Smithfield +Club, there were classes for Small White pigs, not exceeding nine +months; above nine months, and not exceeding twelve months, and above +twelve months and not exceeding eighteen months. A more ridiculous +classification could not possibly have been devised since no small white +pig would have paid for fattening after it had become nine months old. A +similar classification existed for pigs of the Large White breed, for +Black breeds, and for Berkshires. In addition there was a class for a +single pig of any age or breed. The condition of some of the exhibits in +the oldest classes was most pitiable, they had been stuffed to such an +extent that their life must have been a misery to them, they were unable +to walk any distance, and to prevent suffocation rollers were used on +which to raise their heads. The only way in which to describe these +unfortunate subjects of man's inhumanity was as animated bladders of +lard. + +At the recent shows of the Smithfield Club, not only has the age limit +been greatly reduced but classes for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live +weight have been instituted, in addition to classes for all the +recognised pure breeds of pigs and those of any cross. Even this great +reduction in age has not been enough to satisfy some of our reformers, +as an endeavour is being made to reduce the limit of twelve months to +nine months, so that in future the classes will be for pens of two pigs +not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, for pigs not exceeding six months +old and for pigs between six and nine months old, with certain classes +for single pigs under nine months. It is contended that fat pigs cannot +be profitably kept after they reach the age of nine months. Another +innovation of recent years at the Smithfield Show has been the +establishment of the so-called slaughter classes. This is probably by +far the greatest improvement of recent years in the pig section. Classes +are provided for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, pigs weighing +over 100 lbs. and not exceeding 220 lbs., and for pigs above 220 lbs. +and not exceeding 300 lbs. live weight. The pigs are first exhibited and +judged alive, then slaughtered and the carcases judged on their pork +merits. There is also one class for pigs above 160 lbs. and not +exceeding 240 lbs. live weight best suited for the manufacture of bacon. +These various classes have created great interest and have proved of the +greatest educational value. + +Another beneficial effect of the changed conditions is the elimination +from the summer show-yards of fat sows guiltless of milk and +accompanied in the pen by half a score of young boars and yelts of an +age varying from three months upwards, and which together were exhibited +in the class for breeding sows, or breeding sows and pigs. A fine fat +sow which would take kindly to an unlimited number of adopted youngsters +was in those days almost as valuable as a small gold mine. An old and +well-known pigman, Dick by name, assured the writer that no fewer than +sixty-three young boars and yelts were sold in one year off or when in +company of one well-known sow. At the present time the pigs shown with a +sow must be certified to be her produce and not to exceed the age of +eight weeks. + +It is at all times difficult to discover the motive power for certain +actions on the part of a human being. It has been declared that there is +an equal amount of doubt as to the cause of a breeder of stock wishing +to exhibit his animals. Surely this last assertion is at least of a +doubtful character. What greater proof could a stock breeder give of his +pride in his animals than a burning desire to expose their good +qualities to the public gaze. In addition to this, few men are entirely +free from the spirit of gambling and this enters into all competitions, +particularly in the show yards. The winning of prizes with stock may not +be quite so uncertain as the winning of horse races, still, there is +enough of uncertainty to render the judging ring a centre of great +excitement. Some persons will even contend that the showing of farm +stock is not desirable on the part of young farmers as it is likely to +assume so great a similarity with gambling, that attending the shows +means a neglect of business and leads to expensive habits. On the other +hand, it cannot be denied that the exhibition of our improved specimens +of stock has been of untold benefit to both home and foreign stock +breeders. Further, the exportation of our pedigree stock has actually +saved us from semi-starvation during this most fearful of all wars, as +without our improved stock the native stock of foreign countries could +not possibly have furnished the enormous quantities of meat which we +have had to import. + +It may be that a great many exhibitors of stock had little or no +intention of becoming one when they first purchased their stock, but on +these proving quite the equal of that possessed by their neighbour, the +desire grew to suggest how good they were, or in many instances the +original entries have been made in response to a request to support the +local show. + +This may be still another cause for a beginner in stock breeding +exercising extreme care in the selection of his original stock. Even if +the prime cost be higher than that of ordinary market stock the extra +outlay expended on animals from well-known breeders, and out of old +established herds, is certain to prove a good investment. There is just +as great difference in the different families or strains of our domestic +stock, as there is in the various human families and of animals, and it +may be probably more true that the vast majority of the best of them are +the descendants of a comparatively few ancestors. This is evident in +almost everyone of the breeds of our improved stock, it is so in +thoroughbred and shire horses, and so one might go through the whole +list of domesticated or farm animals. + +It is therefore desirable that anyone who thinks of exhibiting his pigs +should endeavour first to discover the particular tribes or families +which, in the past, have furnished a large proportion of the winners, +and then to obtain some of the specimens of those families which have +been successful in the show yards and in the breeding pen. This +combination is most important, as it does not necessarily follow that a +line of blood which produces prize winners shall also produce animals +which are not only good in type, character, and form, but possessed of +prolificacy, free milking properties, and ability to raise large +litters. The difficulty of finding in some of the mere exhibition herds +this most desirable combination is due, in the main, to the far too +frequent neglect of the utility points, the two aims of the herdsman are +in too many instances the winning of prizes for their employers and the +securing of a percentage of the prize money for themselves. + +Although there have been attempts made to impress on outsiders the claim +that there exists in the training of pigs for successful exhibition in +our show yards a large amount of mystery, yet, the practice is most +simple, it consists in the employment of the greatest possible +observation, care, and attention; without the continual use of these +qualities it is not possible to become a really successful pigman. In +very many instances just that little extra attention has turned the +scales. The one chief qualification on the part of a successful stock +man is the art of taking pains. Unlike most of the other exhibitors of +pigs who exhibited largely over many years the writer never employed a +professional pigman. The comparatively small number of pigmen who +assisted him to win thousands of prizes were merely ordinary farm +labourers, save in one case, and he was an old sailor, yet one of the +best feeders and trainers we ever employed. He was naturally fond of +animals and was never tired of waiting on them and of supplying their +needs. It was once jokingly said of him that, having no children, he +bestowed on the pigs in his care the love which some other people +bestowed on their children. There is much of truth in the assertion made +by a coloured preacher in the United States when discussing the want of +success of ordinary pig-keeping in the States, the chief cause he +declared was the absence of love. We would call it want of natural +fondness of animals and an insufficient determination to render the +conditions of life of the animals in our charge as pleasant and +satisfactory as circumstances will allow. With regard to the system of +rearing and feeding animals intended for exhibition, nothing more is +needed than the concentrated care and attention which is required in the +successful rearing and feeding of all commercial animals. A liberal +supply of suitable food, prepared in the most tempting form and +judiciously fed to the pigs in just the quantity required, as frequently +as the pig is able to thoroughly enjoy it. Little and often is a good +motto for the pig feeder. The more closely we adhere to nature, the +more successful shall we be. It is to this, perhaps, that exercise is so +specially necessary for pigs which are being prepared for the show yard. +It is impossible to render a pig perfectly fit for exhibition at a show, +and more particularly at several successive shows, without plenty of +exercise. Each morning and evening a walk of a distance varying with the +ages, etc., of the pigs is desirable. Another point to which some +professional pigmen give great prominence is the regular dosing of their +charges with secret medicines. This is not only unnecessary, but may +with breeding animals prove harmful. A sound healthy pig seldom requires +medicine if it is properly fed and exercised. It is the over feeding or +intense desire of the pigman which in the majority of cases renders +medicine necessary. + +A word of warning against this haste to get the pig into show condition. +This last can only be a work of time, and the commencement of the +process must be in the early stages of the life of the pig and be +steadily continued until within a few days of the show. This slight +reduction of the food may be necessary in the summer when the heat is +great and the pigs become restless when travelling boxed up in a crate +in an enclosed truck. Many of the pigs lost in travelling to or from the +shows or soon after arriving at the shows, have been fed just prior to +being loaded up, because of the difficulty in feeding them when on the +journey. This is an entire mistake; not only should the pigs not be fed, +but prior to being put into the crates they should be given just so much +exercise as will cause them to evacuate the bowels, or the bladder. Care +in this respect and non-exposure to the rays of the sun may not in +every case prevent trouble, but it will most certainly reduce to a +minimum the chance of it. Should a pig suffer from the heat, cold water +should be applied to the head by means of a sponge or a cloth, and +should some of the water percolate into the mouth of the pig so much the +better. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING + + +As it is impossible to foretell the effect which the present disastrous +war will have upon the pig-breeding industry, we have deemed it +expedient to refer as briefly as possible to the present conditions of +feeding, etc., which may or may not prove to be of a temporary character +or which may become permanent in a more or less modified manner. + +One of the results of the scarcity and high market value of the +different articles which have been commonly used in the feeding of pigs +is drawing greatly increased attention to the original conditions under +which pigs were kept, i.e. when they were in a wild state or when they +were allowed their partial freedom for the purpose of getting their own +living to a greater or lesser extent. + +We are aware that a claim has been made by an enthusiastic convert to +pig-keeping that in allowing his pigs their liberty to roam over grass +fields and in woods he is practising quite a novel course of procedure, +but the old hands merely smile and admire the enthusiasm which is more +nearly allied with youth than old age. The practice may not have been +generally followed of late years, but in the middle of the last century +it was to the writer's knowledge common in certain of the Eastern +Counties, particularly in Suffolk and portions of Essex and +Cambridgeshire, where a considerable acreage of grass and especially +clovers was grazed by pigs, having a greater or lesser quantity of other +food as the pigs were intended for breeding or fattening purposes. + +Generally speaking, some shelter of a temporary character was provided +failing that furnished by trees, and straw stacks, etc., but our +American cousins have gone one better in that they have introduced small +movable houses which can be transported on wheels and can be utilised +for a sow and her pigs, or for a number of stores. In the former course, +an enclosure sufficiently large for the sow to graze therein is fenced +in so that each sow can be kept separate until the pigs are old enough +to prevent others from robbing them of their birthright. The chief +difficulty attending this system is not experienced in the United States +to the extent it is in this country, since the general custom there is +to allow each sow to farrow a litter of pigs in the spring and then to +fatten off both sow and pigs, save those reserved for breeding purposes +next year. This plan, which appears to be wasteful, also handicaps the +owner who desires to improve his pig stock, since an opportunity is +denied him of discovering the best of his sows and so reserving them and +their produce to form the nucleus of a really good herd. The system is +not an entirely new one, as it is practised to a great extent in some +parts of Lincolnshire and other Northern counties, where there is not +the excuse made for it in the States that it avoids the trouble and +risk from the intense cold attending the farrowing of sows in the +winter. + +It may be that the severity of our winters is not usually great, but the +cold, damp and foggy weather commonly experienced in England during the +last two or three months of the year render it necessary to warmly house +young pigs, and this is difficult in wooden houses of limited size, as +these become hot and stuffy when entirely closed, or damp and cold when +unclosed. Again, the labour attending the feeding of a large herd housed +in isolated sties must be very considerable. Another objection raised +against this farrowing of sows in these small houses is that it is +difficult if not impossible at night to have the pigman in attendance on +the sow, further, that it is not advisable to allow the young pigs to +roam about with their dam until they are some weeks old, as when the +weather is cold or wet they become chilled and when the sun is hot they +quickly become blistered, both conditions materially interfering with +their well doing. + +It is claimed that both sow and pigs are able to secure a large portion +of their living, but a sow with a good litter of pigs on her requires a +considerable amount of food in addition to grass to enable her to do +justice to her young, whilst the younger pigs are unable to digest any +quantity of grass until they are some weeks old; besides this, the +youngsters thrive much better during their early life when confined in +quarters than when trailing about after the sow. Could we ensure fairly +fine weather, and an absence of cold nights and very changeable +weather, the little pigs' chances of thriving under outdoor conditions +would be considerably enhanced. + +Another alleged new discovery is the permitting of pigs to roam at large +in woods and plantations, wooden huts or open sheds being provided as +shelter. By this plan a considerable amount of pig food is obtained +where the trees are not closely planted, so that grass grows freely, or, +in the autumn, in the woods in which oaks, beech, hazel, or sweet +chestnut form a portion of the trees. In such woods strong store pigs +are able to obtain the major portion of their food, but where the trees +are of a kind which does not produce nuts or are closely planted, the +additional food must be more plentiful, whilst the manurial value of the +food is wasted to a considerable extent. + +Perhaps the most profitable form of outdoor pig-keeping is that of +running the pigs in orchards. This system has many advantages, the pigs +are able to live without much additional food for some months in the +year, they consume the insect-affected fallen fruit, and so act as +insecticides. The pigs also usually leave their droppings under the +trees, which are thus benefited therefrom, and especially is this the +case where the pigs are being fattened or fed on food which enables them +to make flesh. Many years since, the writer had several customers for +breeding pigs who kept numbers of pigs in their orchards. One fruit +grower in Kent declared that fattening pigs in his orchard resulted in +the growing of heavier crops of cherries of larger size, better colour, +and finer flavour. Another whose apple orchard was disappointing +followed my advice to fatten pigs in it, declared that the quantity of +apples grown was much greater, whilst both the size and quality of these +were infinitely better. + +Under the modern system of pig-keeping it is more profitable to give +some additional and concentrated food to the pigs having their liberty, +it is therefore wise to secure the full benefit arising from the richer +living by running the pigs where the manure can be utilised, and no +better place than an orchard can be found, since shelter from sun and +wind is furnished by the fruit trees, and the pigs deposit their urine +and excrement in exactly the place where it is most urgently required. + +The practice of growing considerable areas of rape or cole seed, +artichokes, peas of various kinds, beans, etc., to be fed off by pigs is +not followed extensively in this country, although pig-keepers in the +United States, Canada, Germany, Denmark, etc., have a partiality to it, +since it is declared to save labour and to bring the land into a good +manurial condition for the growth of corn crops; still some few of our +more advanced farmers have been in the habit of grazing off lucerne, +clovers, and even permanent and temporary grasses by the aid of pigs, +which have also received in addition a varying amount of roots, corn, or +meal. It is asserted, and evidence is available to prove the truth of +the statement, that land can be economically and quickly and vastly +improved by following the system referred to above. The scarcity and +high market value of miller's offals and of meals such as used in the +past to be utilised to a great extent in the feeding of pigs, has +caused pig-keepers to seek for other foods to take their place. The +residuum from the crushing of palm nuts, cocoa-nuts, and ground nuts has +been most successfully used in connection with various forms of +vegetable food; even sows have reared good litters of pigs on about 2 +lbs. of a mixture of the meals remaining from the extraction of the oil +from the nuts mentioned, with the addition of some form of vegetable +food. This last has comprised cooked potatoes, raw artichokes, mangolds, +kohl rabi, swedes, cabbages, etc., during the winter months, and grass, +lucerne, clover, vetches, cole seed, etc., during the summer months. +Fattening pigs will require a somewhat larger quantity of concentrated +food and a reduced amount of vegetable food. The pre-war belief that +sharps or middlings only was the most suitable food for sows with +litters and for newly weaned pigs has been somewhat modified. Whether or +not the quality and price of middlings will be restored after the war +and thus its use become general as of old, must be left, but it is +probable that in the future a certain proportion of the meals referred +to will continue to be used for both breeding and fattening pigs. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +PIG-FATTENING + + +If there be one task which is considered to be within the capacity of +any individual, it is that of feeding a pig. In the good old times, the +one thing needful was a good supply of barley meal, as much of this as +the pig could possibly eat was placed into its trough each day until the +pig was thought to be fat enough for slaughter. This was a very simple +and at the same time a very costly process and was looked upon as the +second of the two chief acts in the life of a pig. The first consisted +of building up a frame on which fat could be stored. Just why these two +processes were not combined has never been fully explained. One excuse +made for this uneconomical process is that our forbears must have +considered that there must be two distinct periods in the life of any +animal intended for the food of man, that in which the structure was +erected, and that in which the building was completely furnished with +the material--flesh--in a state which most nearly satisfied the +requirements or fancies of humanity. The system of first growing the +frame and then packing it with flesh was not alone followed by the +owners of pigs, as it was also adopted with cattle, which in the good +old times passed three or four years in a state of semi-starvation ere +they were placed on our best pastures to produce beef. Sheep, again, +spent two or three years in building up their frames and in the +production of a limited quantity of wool of inferior quality and +strength, before they were considered in a fit state to make mutton +economically. Another excuse which could have been offered by our +forbears, but which is not now available, is that the cattle, sheep, and +pigs of former times required age before it was possible to render them +sufficiently fat for slaughter. + +The very great improvement which has taken place during the past half +century, in wellnigh every breed of pig, has deprived our present day +pig-breeders of such an excuse, yet they persist in far too many +instances in following the old-fashioned and uneconomical system of +first growing the pig and then fatting it, whereas it is not only +possible but infinitely more profitable to combine the two operations. +So many persons have been in the habit of looking upon the pig as a mere +scavenger or an animal to put out of sight certain articles containing a +small amount of nutriment which, undisposed of, would become a nuisance +or offensive to one or other of our organs. Even the pig itself has been +considered by many farmers, especially those termed gentlemen farmers, +as a necessary nuisance, whereas the pig is really a machine for the +conversion of farm produce into meat, and like all machines, its output +will depend entirely on the quantity and quality of the raw material, +and the manner in which it is supplied. If the raw material be of +inferior quality and supplied irregularly, or in too limited +quantities, the article manufactured will be more costly and of an +inferior quality. An extension in the time of manufacture means +increased cost for fuel and for labour in attendance on the machinery. A +certain quantity of fuel is being continually used in the furnace +whether the engine is running at full power or at half power. It is +exactly the same with the meat making machine, the pig every day of its +existence consumes a certain quantity of food for which it gives one +return only, its life. It has been conclusively proved that each pig +weighing 100 lbs. requires 2 lbs. of food daily to enable it to sustain +life, i.e. to replace loss of tissue, to provide heat, progression, +etc., so that if a pig lives six months longer than is actually +necessary to enable it to manufacture a certain weight of meat, it will +have eaten to waste over 3 cwt. of good food. + +A pig is like unto any other machine, it will produce the manufactured +article most cheaply when it is fully supplied with the most suitable +raw material. There is not the slightest doubt that the least costly +pork is that which is produced by the pig which spends its whole time in +the object of its existence, the manufacture of pork. + +There is a further point of great importance. Wellnigh all those +materials which are used in the feeding of pigs contain the constituents +necessary for the building up of the frame and for the accumulation of +fat or, as it is commonly termed, the making of meat. Evidently nature +intended that the two operations should be carried on simultaneously. +Those constituents which are required in the building up of the frame +cannot be entirely used in the formation of fat, consequently if the +frame is first built up and then an attempt is made to lay on flesh, a +considerable portion of the building up constituents are simply wasted, +since the pig has no need for them and cannot make complete use of them. +They simply pass through the pig after taxing it to digest them, and are +wasted. + +Opinions and practices with regard to pig fatting have changed very much +during the past half century, and especially so since the full effect of +the fearful war has been felt. Rather before the first-mentioned period, +the late Sir John Lawes, whose researches and experiments have been of +lasting benefit to agriculturists, undertook to carry out experiments in +connection with pig-breeding, and the result which appears to have +impressed itself most upon the writers of the day was that barley meal +was the best single food for the fatting of pigs. At the time named, our +importations of maize and of many other materials now used in stock and +especially pig-breeding were not of anything the magnitude of the period +prior to the war, still, it seems to be strange to the enlightened +pig-breeder of to-day that more serious endeavours should not have been +made to determine the value of a mixed diet for pigs, since this had +been proved to be beneficial and necessary in the case of human beings +whose organs are so very similar to that of the despised pig. + +Fortunately for us, and indeed for the stock-keepers in all parts of the +world, experiments in the feeding of stock have been carried out in +various countries, Denmark, Sweden, the United States, Canada, +Germany, and indeed in nearly all countries, save to any great extent in +England. In connection with pigs, the practices of a few of our more +intelligent pig-keepers have been confirmed. Amongst these ideas which +the old-fashioned ones looked upon as fads, was that of feeding pigs of +all ages and especially fatting pigs on a certain proportion of +vegetable food. Experiments have conclusively proved that the +substitution of some 10 per cent of vegetable matter in place of an +equal amount of meal or concentrated food, does not result in the +slightest reduction in the live weight gain of the fatting pig, and +further that the old idea that a limited quantity of vegetable food fed +to a fatting pig tended to render the pork soft and to waste in the +cooking was not founded on fact. Another fact which has evolved from +these experiments is that the pig will make far greater progress on an +equal amount of a mixture of foods than if fed solely on one food. This +was clearly proved in many experiments as at the Wisconsin Agricultural +Station, where one lot of pigs was fed on middlings alone, a second lot +on corn meal alone, and a third lot on a mixture of corn meal and +middlings. To make an increase of 100 lbs. in their live weight, the +pigs in Lot 1 ate 522 lbs. of middlings, those in Lot 2 ate 537 lbs. of +corn meal to make an equal increase in weight, whilst Lot 3, which were +fed on a mixture of corn meal and middlings, required only 439 lbs., or +a saving of one-fifth in the weight of food. In experiments with regard +to the food value of corn meal and middlings carried out at the +Missouri College, middlings also gave the best returns, but +unfortunately the ages of the pigs used in the trials are omitted. This +is important as middlings are considered to be of more value in the +feeding of young than of older pigs, whilst the reverse holds good of +corn or maize meal. Other trials were carried out at Wisconsin with the +use of wheat meal alone as compared with a mixture of half wheat and +half corn meal. In these the average quantity of wheat meal required for +100 lbs. increased live weight was 500 lbs., whilst only 485 lbs. of the +mixture of wheat and corn meals was needed to obtain an equal increase +or a saving of some 5 per cent was obtained by mixing the meals. + +In the good old times it was considered to be the height of folly to +make a change in the food on which the pigs were being fattened, yet our +forbears would have been horrified had they been informed that it was +imperative that they themselves should have no variety of food, that day +after day the food at their various meals should be exactly similar; +surely what is good for one animal should be good for another animal +whose organs are of an exactly similar character. There is not the +slightest doubt that advantage is derived from the variation in the food +on which the pigs are being fattened. By this, it is not intended to +suggest that a complete change of food should be made at stated times in +the fatting pigs' food, as this would certainly result in a loss of time +and food, but that a slight variation in the proportions of the +different kinds of food is beneficial, or in the case where several +different kinds of food are being fed as a mixture, another kind of +food may be substituted so that the change made secures a variation +which has the effect of whetting or enticing the appetite. A long +continuance of the same kind of food has the effect of dulling the +appetite. In addition to this, it is considered that a variation in the +food tends to stimulate the digestive organs. + +It is a mistake to allow too long a time to pass between feeding times; +the pig is not endowed by nature with a capacious paunch which enables +it to stow away a large quantity of food. Even the old system of feeding +twice a day might be improved upon, and the fatting pig fed three times +per day would make greater thrift, even should the actual daily quantity +of food be not increased. + +Again, so many persons are apt to give to the fatting pig a greater +quantity of food than it requires or can eat with comfort to itself at +one meal. Should this be pointed out to them, their usual reply would be +that what the pig did not eat for their breakfast would be there in +readiness for the evening meal unless they ate it during the day, as +they frequently would do. This sounds plausible until the argument be +closely examined. What would the pigman think if he were treated in a +similar manner and an excessive quantity of food placed on his plate, +and then at the next meals the stale food be again placed before him +until it was finished? This certainly would not increase his appetite +nor aid his digestion. Yet the most successful pigman is he who succeeds +in so feeding his charges that they daily eat and thoroughly digest the +greatest amount of food possible. In pig fattening, as in many other +things, time is money. Further it is just as much a mistake for fatting +pigs as for human beings to be continually eating, or at irregular +intervals, small quantities of food. The two most certain indications +that a lot of fatting pigs are thriving is to find that they are asleep +and that their feeding troughs are empty. When pigs are fed a greater +quantity of food than they can eat at once they will be frequently +getting up to eat a little more of the surplus, and each time they rise +from their bed they will evacuate their bowels, and in most cases before +the major portion of the nutriment has been extracted. + +Still another of the fallacies of our forbears was that the fatting pig +made the greatest increase from a given quantity of food when it was at +least approaching maturity and ripeness, or complete fatness. It was +useless to argue with them, since anyone could see that it was so. If +you suggested the use of the scales, the idea was scouted, since a +person of any experience in pig fatting must be able to notice the +increase in bulk of the pig. It is true that apparently the pig would be +making a greater increase of weight as it approached the completion of +its fatting process, since the addition to its weight and bulk would be +almost entirely composed of fat which could only be deposited on the +outside of the carcase. All the vacant space in the interior of the pig +would have been occupied, the pig would have stored fat away in its +muscles, around its kidneys, on its stomach, its bowels, and wherever it +was possible to stow it away, but these additions to the weight of the +carcase which had been proceeding in the early stages of the fatting +could not be observed, nevertheless they were proceeding, and in this +was the pig enabled in its early stage of fatting to make a profitable +return for the food consumed. + +Fortunately we are not left on this point to mere conjecture; many +experiments have clearly proved that in the early stages of the life of +a pig it is enabled to manufacture pork at a far less cost than in its +later stages of life. The young pig also possesses over its older +companion the great advantage of being able to eat and utilise a greater +quantity of food in proportion to its weight or, in other words, the +young pig can convert a greater quantity of raw material into the +manufactured article than the more matured pig, in proportion to the +amount of food required for the mere upkeep of the machinery. +Experiments which most clearly prove this have been duplicated in +Denmark, in the United States, etc. At Copenhagen nearly seventy +different experiments were carried out with pigs of varying weights, +with the result that pigs weighing about 275 lbs. live weight were found +to require nearly twice as much food to make an increase in their live +weight as did pigs weighing from 35 to 75 lbs. That this was not an +exceptional case is clearly proved by the fact that the increase in the +amount of food required to enable them to make an increase in their live +weight was gradual, and shown in every stage; thus pigs of from 35 to 75 +lbs. consumed 376 lbs. of food for each 100 lbs. increase; pigs of 75 to +115 lbs., 435 lbs.; pigs of 115 to 155 lbs., 466 lbs.; pigs of 155 lbs. +to 195 lbs., 513 lbs.; pigs of 195 lbs. to 235 lbs., 540 lbs.; pigs of +235 lbs. to 275 lbs., 614 lbs.; and pigs of 275 lbs. to 315 lbs., 639 +lbs. + +Even if this series of experiments stood alone they surely would prove +most conclusively that the common belief in old and nearly fat pigs +giving the best return from the food consumed is founded on fiction, but +similar tests were made at many of the American Experiment Stations, +these tests together numbering some hundred. The results are given in +tabulated form in Henry's _Feeds and Feeding_, where the various points +are so clearly brought out that we have taken the liberty of lifting the +whole of the notes relating to "weight, gain, and feed consumed" by +pigs. "At many of our stations, records of weights and gains of pigs and +feed consumed by them have been so reported as to permit of studies +concerning the influence of increased size and weight of the animal on +the consumption of food. + +"All of the available data from trials of this character conducted in +this country" (the United States) "up to the time of going to press, +enter into the composition of the table given below. In compiling this +table, six pounds of skim milk or twelve pounds of whey are calculated +as equal to one pound of grain, according to the Danish valuation of +these articles. For convenience of study, the data are presented for +each period covering fifty pounds of growth, the actual average weight +of the pigs, however, being given for each division: + + DATA RELATIVE TO FEED, WEIGHT, AND GAIN OF PIGS-- + MANY AMERICAN STATIONS + + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + | | | | | + Weight of | Actual | No. of | Total | No. of | + pigs in | Average | stations | No. of | animals | + pounds. | weight. | reporting. | trials. | fed. | + | | | | | + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + | lbs. | | | | + 15 to 50 | 38 | 9 | 41 | 174 | + 50 " 100 | 78 | 13 | 100 | 417 | + 100 " 150 | 128 | 13 | 119 | 495 | + 150 " 200 | 174 | 11 | 107 | 489 | + 200 " 250 | 226 | 12 | 72 | 300 | + 250 " 300 | 271 | 8 | 46 | 223 | + 300 " 350 | 320 | 3 | 19 | 105 | + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + 350 " 400 | 378 | 1 | 5 | 36 | + 400 " 450 | 429 | 1 | 5 | 36 | + 450 " 500 | 471 | 1 | 2 | 18 | + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + | Average | Feed | | + Weight of | feed | eaten per | Average | Feed for + pigs in | eaten | 100 lbs. | gain per | 100 lbs. + pounds. | per day. | weight. | day. | gain. + | | | | + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. + 15 to 50 | 2.23 | 5.95 | .76 | 293 + 50 " 100 | 3.35 | 4.32 | .83 | 400 + 100 " 150 | 4.79 | 3.75 | 1.10 | 437 + 150 " 200 | 5.91 | 3.43 | 1.24 | 482 + 200 " 250 | 6.57 | 2.91 | 1.33 | 498 + 250 " 300 | 7.40 | 2.74 | 1.46 | 511 + 300 " 350 | 7.50 | 2.35 | 1.40 | 535 + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + 350 " 400 | 8.52 | 2.25 | 1.98 | 431 + 400 " 450 | 8.18 | 1.91 | 1.71 | 479 + 450 " 500 | 10.00 | 2.12 | 1.77 | 562 + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + +"In the above table the large number of trials reported for pigs +weighing up to 350 lbs. each furnishes reliable data. After this point +is reached the number of animals is too small to give reliable averages. +The heavy weight hogs reported in the last three lines of the table were +fed by the writer (Professor Henry). They were mature specimens, with +large frames and in lean flesh when feeding began, having been summered +on pasture without grain. The figures are introduced to show what may be +accomplished with mature hogs when they are in thin flesh at the +beginning of fattening. + +"We learn from the main portion of the table that from 105 to 435 pigs +were employed in calculating each line of data. The number of trials +furnishing the data varied from 19 to 119, and were conducted by from 3 +to 13 experiment stations. + +"Amount of food consumed daily by the pig. The sixth column of the table +shows the average amount of feed consumed daily by pigs of different +weights. From it we learn that pigs weighing less than 50 lbs. each, +averaging 38 lbs., consumed on the average 2.23 lbs. of grain or grain +equivalent, daily. As the animal increased in weight there was a gradual +increase in the amount of food consumed, until we find the 450 lbs. hog +eating 10 lbs. of grain daily, or more than four times as much as the 50 +lbs. pig. + +"Feed per 100 lbs. live weight: In the seventh column it is shown that +pigs weighing 38 lbs. consumed 5.95 lbs. of feed for each 100 lbs. of +live weight. This is about 6 per cent of their live weight. As the pigs +grew larger they consumed less feed for 100 lbs. of live weight, until +with the heaviest hogs the feed consumed was little more than 2 per cent +of their live weight. Here was a decrease of about two-thirds in the +feed consumption per 100 lbs. between early weight and maturity. + +"Average daily gain: In the next column are presented data concerning +the daily gain of the pig. It is shown that the 38 lb. pig gained .76 of +a lb., or 2 per cent of its own weight daily. As it increased in size +the pig made larger daily gains, the maximum being reached with those +weighing 271 lbs., which made a daily gain of 1.46 lb. With large thin +hogs the gain reached 1.98 lb., or practically 2 lbs. per day, but these +animals, because of their mature frames and thin flesh, were fed under +exceptional circumstances. + +"Feed for 100 lbs. of gain: The last column is of interest to all, +especially the practical feeder, for it teaches a most interesting and +important lesson concerning the feed requirements of pigs. Those which +average 38 lbs. each made 100 lbs. of gain from 293 lbs. of feed. This +exceedingly small allowance of feed for gain was probably due in part to +the fact that the young pigs used in these trials received much milk, +which was practically all digestible, the other feed being also more +highly digestible than that usually supplied older animals. With pigs +weighing 78 lbs., 400 lbs. of feed were required for 100 lbs. of gain. +There was a gradual increase of feed requirements for 100 lbs. of gain, +until the hog weighing 320 lbs. required 525 lbs. for each 100 lbs. of +gain. This is 135 lbs. or 33 per cent more feed than was required by the +78 lbs. pig." + +These tables prove most conclusively that the idea which is almost +universally prevalent that the fatting pig gives the greatest increase +for the food which it consumes when it becomes matured and nearly fat is +an entirely mistaken one, and that the young and growing pig, if well +kept, not only eats more in proportion to its weight, but gives a better +return for the food it consumes, besides requiring a smaller amount of +food to keep life within itself, and to replace the certain loss +sustained by movement, etc. There is still another point on which the +young pig scores: its carcase realises a higher price per lb. on a +majority of the markets. The fatting pig which pays best is one which +has a short life and a merry one, never having to seek or wait for its +food. + +Amongst the many other questions which have been compelled attention +owing to the shortage and the high value of pig food, is that of the +advisability or the reverse of cooking the food given to pigs. When the +practice of showing stock became fashionable every possible means of +forcing the exhibits was practised, since early maturity was of so great +importance, especially in the classes for the younger animals. The +cooking of the stronger kinds of food such as old beans for horses had +been found beneficial, as the risk of fever in the feet and other +ailments had been greatly reduced by this practice. The stock man +naturally concluded that the cooking or steaming of beans having proved +to be of advantage, similar good results would follow the steaming of +the other kinds of food. In this fanciful theory they would have been +able to find ample support in many of the books on stock feeding which +were published in the first half of the last century and even later. +Like many other novelties, the steaming or boiling of almost all kinds +of food for animals was followed in the establishments of well-to-do +persons where cost was studied less than success in the show yards. +Then, as now, the Germans took little for granted, they proceeded to +test the much belauded new plan by attempting to discover the fact as to +whether steaming rendered hay more digestible when fed to cattle, with +the result that it was clearly proved that when the hay was fed dry 46 +per cent of the protein was digested by the cattle while only 30 per +cent was digested from the steamed hay. But as our present business is +with pig-feeding, we will confine our remarks to the results of +experiments carried out to test the effects of cooking the food of pigs. +Perhaps the best summary of these is to be found in the most valuable +work, _Feeds and Feeding_, by Professor Henry, who wrote _Experiments +with Cooked Feed for Pigs_. + +These have been so numerous that all cannot be here presented. Those +given are selected because they are strictly representative, covering a +wide range of country foods and conditions. + +"At the Kansas Agricultural College, Shelton fed one lot of five pigs on +cooked shelled corn, while a second lot of four, similar in all +respects, was given uncooked shelled corn, the trial lasting ninety +days. In cooking, the corn was placed in a barrel and water poured over +it; into this mass a pipe carried steam, at a pressure ranging from 30 +to 60 lbs. The kernels were cooked until they were sufficiently soft +to be easily mashed between the thumb and finger. + +"At the Iowa Agricultural College, Stalker conducted trials for 120 days +in summer with cooked and uncooked shelled corn fed to Berkshire pigs. + +"At the Dominion (Canada) Station, Robertson fed grade Chester Whites, a +mixture of ground peas, barley, and rye, the trials beginning in +December and lasting 141 days. + +"At the Ohio Station, Devol fed pure bred Poland Chinas and Berkshires +for 112 days in winter. One lot of three pigs received the meal cooked, +while to the second lot it was given dry and uncooked. + +"At the Wisconsin Station, the writer (Henry) has conducted many trials +with cooked and uncooked feed for pigs. Only the later ones are here +reported. These trials lasted from 56 to 84 days each, the kinds of feed +experimented being given in the table. + +"The five trials reported from the Wisconsin Station, as will be seen by +consulting the table, are slightly in favour of cooked food, the +difference being very small, however. These are the only feeding trials +reported from any experiment station, so far as known to the writer, +where the results are favourable to cooking. Ten other trials by the +writer with cooked and uncooked feed for swine all gave results +unfavourable to cooking these, and a number of trials at other stations +with cooked and uncooked feed for swine are not included for want of +space." + +A table showing the stations at which the various experiments were +carried out, the numbers and weights of the pigs, the varieties of +foods, the duration of the different trials, the daily gain, the weights +of cooked and uncooked food consumed, the manner of cooking, the total +increases in weight and the quantities of cooked and uncooked food +required for increases of 100 lbs. in the live weights of the pigs are +given. Professor Henry sums these up and writes: "Including all the +trials then, so far as is known, that have been favourable to cooking +feed and omitting many for lack of space, that are unfavourable to that +operation, the average shows that 476 lbs. of uncooked meal or grain +were required for 100 lbs. of gain with pigs, while after it was cooked +505 lbs. were required. This shows a loss of 6 per cent of the feeding +value of these substances through cooking." + +Some thirty-five years since the present writer made some small +experiments in the feeding of cooked and uncooked whole maize; in each +case it was found that the pigs ate a greater quantity of uncooked than +cooked maize, and made a greater proportionate increase in weight from +the food consumed. Only one opinion appears to be possible, and this is +that the cooking of food for pigs, save potatoes, entails a loss of +time, an increase in cost, and a reduced return. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +A PIG CALENDAR + + +The pig-keeper, like the gardener, seldom has to seek for employment, +indeed his work may be said to be only occasionally completed. There are +always many little odd jobs to do, which if neglected may result in +loss, or a greatly increased amount of work at some later period. The +old proverb "A stitch in time saves nine" is equally as true in +connection with pig keeping as with any other form of work. + +In years gone by the month of January was considered to be quite a slack +time for pig-keepers, the sows and the store pigs usually found the +greater part of their living in the yards where the cattle were fed on +the straw which was continually being placed in the cribs as the +old-man-of-the-farm threshed the corn out of it with his flail. Many of +the cribs had slatted bottoms so that any kernels of corn which were +left in the straw would drop through and be picked up by the pigs which +found their way under the cribs. In most of the old-fashioned large +yards a corner would be railed off in which the pigs would be given a +few turnips, swedes, or small potatoes, and occasionally a handful or +two of beans or even a sheaf of beans. Those fatting pigs which had not +already been converted into bacon for consumption in the farm-house were +fed mainly on meal ground at the local wind or water mill from the tail +corn grown by the farmer. At the present time the most up-to-date +pig-keepers so arrange that many of the older sows farrow during this +month of January so that the sows have their second litter of the year +late in the month of June or early in July in order that both litters of +pigs obtain the greatest amount of benefit from the growing and hot +season, since pigs thrive best when the days are lengthening and when +the sun shines. + +Of late years we appear to have had somewhat severe weather in January. +This has rendered it the more necessary that care should be taken in +providing water and wind-tight sties, in which the sows farrow. Warmth +with free ventilation is needed. The latter is particularly necessary +after the pigs are a few days old, as these do not suffer so much from +cold as they do from damp and draughts. Of course whilst the sow is +farrowing warmth is imperative, as the moist little pigs when first +ejected very quickly become chilled in severe frost, unless they are +promptly wiped with a dry cloth, allowed a draught or two of new milk +from the sow, and then placed in a box or hamper three parts filled with +dry wheat straw. When once the pigs become thoroughly dry the cold does +not affect them very much, providing that the sow furnishes her family +with a full supply of milk. The cost of heating a little water so that +the sow and also the young pigs as soon as they begin to eat may have +warmed food, will be slight, as there is nearly always a fire required +in cottage and farm-house during the cold weather. Warm food makes a +vast difference in the thrift of pigs, especially of young ones. Very +slight observation will reveal the marked difference in the comfort of a +pig which has had a meal of warm or of cold food. In the former case the +pig will return to its nest and is soon lost in sleep, whilst the poor +beggar which has had its breakfast on cold and occasionally frozen food +will be the picture of misery and shaking with cold, much of its natural +heat produced from its last meal being required to warm up the food ere +its digestive organs can commence work. Coal and wood are at all times +less expensive to warm up food than the animal fat which is burned in +nature's lamp. + +Provision should have been made for the supply of some kind of vegetable +food which pigs require, particularly when in confinement. Kohl rabi, +swedes and cabbages, of which the first named is the best, are all +suitable, but the most nourishing are artichokes, which like the three +former should be fed raw, and potatoes which should be cooked ere they +are fed to the pigs. The difference in the feeding value between cooked +and uncooked potatoes is great. It is scarcely necessary to point out +that all vegetable food fed to pigs should have been protected from +frost. + +The operations connected with pig-keeping are very similar in February +to those of the preceding month. Towards the end of the month kohl rabis +will have lost much of their feeding value. On sunny days a run out for +a few minutes will be of great benefit to the young pigs over a month +old; as soon as they cease to gallop about they should be shut up again, +as if allowed to lie down they may contract a chill which might result +in "cramp" or rheumatism. Sows with litters two or three weeks old +should be allowed out of the sty each morning and afternoon for a short +time. + +The month of March brings with it an extra amount of work for the +pig-keeper, who will now think of selling the pigs born early in January +unless he purposes to keep them on and have them ready for sale as fat +pigs in harvest time, when there is always a good demand for medium +sized fat pigs. Anyway the sow pigs intended for breeding will have been +picked out and earmarked, this last should not be neglected after the +others have been spayed. + +This last operation has of late years been much neglected; this is a +great mistake, as experiments have clearly proved that on an average sow +pigs which have been spayed will make an equal gain in live weight on 5 +per cent less food than will an unspayed sow pig, when both have become +some five or six months old, and the periods of [oe]strum have +commenced. + +The sows which farrowed in January should now be weaned from their pigs, +and should be ready to be mated within a few days. The sows should be +carefully watched for the signs of heat or restlessness. Some sows give +little indication of this unrest, which is almost certain to appear +within four or five days providing the sow is in a healthy and vigorous +condition. To miss the sow means a loss of three weeks of most valuable +time, besides the risk of trouble in getting the sow to conceive after +she had been baulked. With the passing of the month swedes and +artichokes will have lost much of their nourishment; mangolds can now +take their place. It is a good plan to expose the mangolds to the air +for a few days prior to feeding them to the pigs; this exposure hastens +their ripening and reduces the proportion of water. Of course care must +be taken to prevent them becoming frozen, as in March this might be the +case. + +In the Southern counties tares, lucerne, and grass are sufficiently +forward towards the end of April to be cut and fed to the pigs which are +confined in the buildings. The pigs both fat and store will fully repay +the cost of labour in the cutting and carting of these vegetable foods. +Brood sows both in pig and with litters dependent on them, should be +allowed their liberty in the grass fields. This will both greatly reduce +the cost of keep and tend to their thrift and well doing. Young pigs +over a month old should have a run out both morning and afternoon. Newly +weaned pigs which have been well done are always in keen request in the +months of April and May at prices higher than in any other portion of +the year, owing to the demand from the cheese-makers who have a +superabundance of whey, of which 12 lbs. when fed in proper combination +is considered to be equal in value to 1 lb. of meal. Unfortunately, so +many dairymen do not study the requirements of the pig, and imagine that +it will give a good return from an excess of liquid in the form of whey. +Without some concentrated food the pig will not thrive on whey. Numbers +of young pigs are also required in those districts where butter-making +is carried on to consume the butter milk, and in ordinary times much of +the separated or skim milk. In the feeding of this again the results are +not so good as they should be owing to neglect. Both foods have been +rendered unbalanced owing to the extraction of the butter fat, so that +although new milk may be fed alone, the others require additional food +which should contain some oil or fat to be fed with them, or they cause +indigestion and want of thrift, particularly in young and immature pigs. + +The roots of all kinds, save potatoes and mangolds, have ceased to be of +much value before April ends, vetches and lucerne will prove to be the +best of substitutes. Spring cabbages are generally of more value for +human consumption than can be obtained from their use as pig food. If +there be any grass land available the in-pig sows and the stores, should +there be such, should now find the major portion of their food out of +doors. + +As a rule far too little attention is paid to the growth of lucerne in +this country. It is undoubtedly one of the most nutritive of our +vegetable crops. It also produces a large weight of food extending over +several months, and continues fruitful for many years providing +attention is paid to the keeping it free from grasses. It has the +additional advantage of furnishing a full supply of food when the +weather is so dry that grass and some other foods produce little. It is +true that in the initial stage it requires time and care, but the +results from it amply repay both. One of the best seasons for sowing it +is the month of May. The operation is simple, the land having been +cleared the seed is sown in drills about 1 ft. apart, the quantity of +seed required being at the rate of 20 lbs. per acre, say 2 oz. per pole +or a drill 35 yards long. As soon as the plants are high enough the land +should be hand hoed, and if kept free of weeds a light crop can +generally be cut from it towards the end of August. In the following +years it will produce at least three cuttings annually. + +Some persons are of opinion that as lucerne is such a deep-rooted plant +manure is unnecessary. It is true that the roots penetrate several feet +into the soil, still an application of short manure or rotted vegetable +matter applied each autumn will give a good return. + +The chief point in the use of lucerne for pigs and in the production of +a maximum crop is to cut it when young. The pigs will thrive on it far +better in this state than when the stalks become hard and sticky. In the +latter stage it is likely to cause constipation. It is best not to graze +it with either horses, cattle, or pigs, but benefit to it results from +folding it in the autumn with ewes or other sheep which find most of +their other food on the stubbles, commons, heaths, etc. + +All the sows and the yelts intended for breeding should now spend their +whole time out of doors. It might be noted that lucerne will grow on +almost any kind of land providing it is well drained--stagnant water +destroys it. + +The duties of the pig-keeper are very similar in the month of June to +those of the previous month. Prior to the outbreak of war it was +becoming general amongst the most practical pigmen to continue to fatten +pigs all the year round. The old-fashioned idea that pork was not a +suitable food during any of the months in which there was not the letter +"r" had become exploded. Not only did the bacon curers require a supply +of fat pigs weighing from 200 to 220 lbs. alive, but there was a good +demand from the butchers for small fat pigs weighing from 80 to 140 lbs. +alive. + +It must not be forgotten that a smaller quantity of food is required to +produce a pound of pork during the summer than during the winter months. +This has been clearly proved in many experiments. The difference varies +according to the temperature. In the very cold weather experienced in +some portions of the United States it was found that some pigs actually +made no increase in weight when well fed, the whole of the nutriment +having to be utilised in keeping up the bodily warmth of the pigs. + +The months of July and August see little change in the duties of the +attendant on pigs. The old-fashioned plan of running the pigs on the +corn stubbles has almost gone out of fashion. The improved system of +harvesting the crops leaves less corn on the land, whilst the cost of +labour in keeping the pigs is almost prohibitive. At one time there used +to be a keen demand for young pigs in the month of August for so-called +"shacking" or running on the stubbles. Experience has proved that these +pigs pay less frequently under present conditions than they did under +the old ones. + +The scarcity of vegetable food which usually shows itself in August is +now, in September, met to a considerable extent by the plan of the early +digging of potatoes. Large quantities of chats, and sometimes of +slightly diseased ones are now cooked and fed to the pigs with a certain +proportion of meal. As a rule there is a keen demand for pork in the +month of September. Towards the end of the month all pigs should be +under shelter at night. + +During the last three months of the year there is little variation in +the management of pigs. One of the common mistakes made by farmers is to +neglect their pigs in the autumn, at the very season when a little extra +food is needed, and for which the pigs will give a better return than at +almost any time of the year. The early portion of October is one of the +best periods for mating the sows, the yelts may be left until the latter +part of the month so that their pigs do not arrive until the month of +February when the days are lengthening and the sun has more power. It is +advisable to have many of the fat pigs ready for market ere the month of +November ends, as the demand for pork is usually slack for two or three +weeks prior to and after Christmas. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +DISEASES OF THE PIG + + +Fortunately, the pig is subject to comparatively few serious +diseases--save swine fever, swine erysipelas, and very occasionally +anthrax, which are contagious or infectious, and all in the special +charts of the veterinary department of the Board of Agriculture, and +within the contagious Diseases Animals Acts. Prior to the stamping out +of Foot and Mouth Disease or apthous fever and rabies, pigs suffered +from these contagious and infectious diseases, particularly the former +of the two, which caused immense losses, especially of young pigs, +during the latter half of the past century. + +Of the other ailments to which pig flesh is heir, the majority and the +chief of them are mainly due to that want of knowledge or care in the +feeding and in the housing of the pigs which renders them more +susceptible to the sudden changes in the temperature or to the +inclemency of the season. In former chapters some, if not all, of these +ailments have been referred to, but it may be more convenient to our +readers to include in one chapter a brief description of the ailments +and the remedies and means of prevention. + + +SWINE FEVER + +Some thirty years since the losses from this disease were of so serious +a nature that the Board of Agriculture determined to attempt to stamp it +out, as they had succeeded in stamping out pleura pneumonia in cattle, +and foot and mouth disease. The success of their efforts was not at all +commensurate with the outlay. The failure was attributed to many causes; +amongst them the want of a complete knowledge of the disease, the +impossibility of diagnosing it during the life of the patient, the +absence of sympathy on the part of the local veterinary surgeons owing +to certain steps taken by the then Veterinary Adviser of the Board, to +which further reference is now inadvisable, and to the general +opposition of pig-keepers who had as little faith in many of the post +mortems and their results as in the power of the authorities to stamp +out the disease which under various names had been more or less common +in the country so long as they could remember. Doubts were also passed +on the infectivity or contagiousness of swine fever, or as it was +variously termed red soldier, spots, etc. + +This disbelief was probably due in part to the fact that some of the +external symptoms of swine fever, swine erysipelas, and heart disease, +such as discoloration of the skin were of a similar character. In some +instances this redness of the skin, which was looked upon as a sure sign +that the pig had died from swine fever, did not prove to be infectious, +as no other cases followed amongst the in-contact pigs. This led to the +general belief that swine fever was not necessarily infectious. +Dissatisfaction with the arbitrary manner in which the restrictions in +movement, etc., were carried out did not mend matters, nor help to +render the efforts of the Board more successful. + +At the present time it is imperative on the part of the owner of an ill +pig to report the fact to the nearest policeman. The owner then merely +carries out the instructions supplied to him by the police so that it is +almost unnecessary to state that the symptoms of swine fever are +several. At times the attack is of so virulent a nature that a pig may +take its food all right in the afternoon and be dead the next morning, +no discoloration of the skin or other external symptoms being visible +before or immediately after death. + +As a rule when the pig is attacked the first symptom is loss of +appetite, generally accompanied by a feverish condition of the skin +which shows more or fewer red spots behind the shoulder, and inside the +thighs, or in those portions of the body where the skin is the thinnest +and most free from hair. The great desire of the affected pig is to +burrow into the litter and to remain undisturbed, save when the feverish +thirst impels it to seek moisture of any sort or kind, even urine which +may have settled into any unevenness of the floor of the sty. + +Many of the ailing pigs suffer from a dry, husky cough, a gummy +discharge exudes from the eyes and forms a ring round them, the ankles +become affected, and the muscles of the back become weakened so that +the pig has difficulty in walking. The discoloration of the skin may or +may not increase, but the weakness gradually becomes greater so that +death may follow within a day or two from the first attack. Occasionally +the affected pig will continue to live for several days, and eventually +recover so much that it can be fatted, but there exists a great risk of +the recovered pig being what is termed a "carrier" of the disease, and +possessing the ability to infect other pigs with which it may come in +close contact, although the germs of the disease which it carries do not +affect its own health. Similar instances of human beings being +"carriers" of the disease have been recorded. So difficult is it at +times to discover the source of the infection of swine fever that +certain persons who are not amongst the strongest believers in the +practical knowledge of the members of the veterinary profession assert +that swine fever need not necessarily be the result of infection, but +that injudicious feeding or the neglect of sanitary arrangements will +sometimes cause an outbreak. There does not appear to be the slightest +ground for this belief, as there is a specific virus which when it +obtains ingress into the body of the pig, whether by the mouth, nose, or +in any other way, may result in an attack, more or less severe, of swine +fever, unless the virus has become so attenuated that it is unable to +affect the host sufficiently. This attenuation, which is due to causes +which are probably not completely known, is commonly the cause of the +absence of further cases of swine fever amongst one of a lot of pigs +which has had a very mild attack. This variation in the virulence of +most infectious diseases has been noticed and recorded. + +At the present time the Board of Agriculture have suspended the +slaughter order in cases where the owner of the pigs desires to +inoculate the in-contact pigs with serum which is supplied from the +Veterinary College. The experiment has not been in operation +sufficiently long enough to express a confident opinion upon its +results, but it is stated that in Denmark the inoculation of the pigs +which have been in contact with diseased pigs has proved to be a +success. The risks of carrying out the experiment are by no means +slight, but appear to be worth running if there be any great probability +of success. + + +SWINE ERYSIPELAS + +The symptoms of this disease, which fortunately is not so common as +swine fever, owing probably to its being more fatal and in a shorter +time, are very similar to those of swine fever, save that the husky +cough and the weakness of the muscles of the back are generally absent. +The post mortem shows distinctive differences from those of swine fever. +There appears to be far greater difficulty in thoroughly disinfecting +the sty in which pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed than +after swine fever cases; not only so, but the virus remains active for a +very long period, so that any accident which may expose the virus even +after many months may affect any pigs with which it comes in contact. + +In an outbreak of swine erysipelas it is advisable to have the +unaffected pigs inoculated as well as those housed in a sty or building +in which at any time pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed. A +certain limited number may die, and a few suffer for a time, but the +total loss will be considerably reduced. + + +ANTHRAX, FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE AND RABIES + +It may be unnecessary to describe these very infectious or contagious +diseases to which pigs are subject, as fortunately the steps taken to +stamp them out, and which were much decried when taken by the Board of +Agriculture, have proved so successful that the two latter are stamped +out, and the first named is so promptly and effectually dealt with that +a case of it amongst swine is seldom recorded. + + +CRAMP, DIARRH[OE]A AND EPILEPTIC FITS + +These diseases, which are more frequent amongst young pigs, have been +fully described in the chapters dealing with the rearing, weaning, and +growing of pigs, where it is pointed out that they are all mainly due to +faults in feeding, and the simple remedies applicable are there given. + +Hernia and Scrotal Hernia are also treated upon in the chapter on the +Farrowing Sow. + + +INVERSION OF THE VAGINA OR THE UTERUS + +These two troubles, of which the latter is a complete expulsion and the +former only a partial protrusion of the "breeding bag," are generally +the result of a difficult or a protracted farrowing. The second is +almost impossible of treatment, and indeed may be declared as fatal, so +that the loss may be reduced by prompt slaughter. + +The first varies in extent; a partial or limited inversion may at times +be noticeable during the latter stages of pregnancy, and then after +delivery may disappear without treatment until the pressure due to the +increasing size of the f[oe]tus again causes it. Even in serious cases +which attend the delivery and are due to excessive straining of the sow, +the attack is not necessarily fatal if extreme care in treatment is +applied. The first thing is to wash the protruding part with warm water, +to which some disinfectant has been added, in order that all dirt, short +straw, etc., shall be removed. The sow should then be made to rise, or +if she refuses, as is not uncommon, the hind quarters of the sow should +be raised and the protruding portion be gently but firmly forced back. +In order to prevent a re-expulsion stitches with strong cord or leather +lace should be inserted into the edges of the vulva--these need not be +very close together or otherwise the sow would be unable to make water. +For a few days the sow must be kept as quiet as possible and fed on a +little nourishing but laxative food, so that the pressure on the vagina +is slight until the muscles regain their normal strength. Should there +be the slightest symptom of constipation, salts or castor oil should be +given to the sow. No harm, but rather good, will attend the giving of a +gentle dose of salts at the first time of feeding after the operation as +there is certain to be an amount of inflammation present. + + +INVERSION OF THE RECTUM + +This expulsion of the gut as it is commonly termed is not often +experienced amongst mature pigs. Young pigs are not uncommonly affected +save when constipation is neglected, or when the food is of a heating +nature which causes continual difficulty on the part of the pig in +expelling the faeces. The effort of straining causes the gut to exude. +Similar treatment, save as to the stitching of the part, as with +inversion of the vagina, should be followed. + + +TENDER FEET + +This trouble is frequently mistaken for cramp or rheumatism, and is +generally due to the same causes, injudicious feeding, etc. In the +latter disease the ankles are mainly affected, in the case of fever in +the feet, the feet only are affected. A strong dose of Epsom salts +should be given and daily doses of nitre should be given in the food. +The object should be to reduce and remove the fever and then to cure or +remove that tenderness and soreness of the feet which follows the fever. +Poulticing the feet and applying diluted white oils by adding equal +quantities of water and vinegar around the coronets are both remedial +measures of great value. + + +CONSTIPATION + +This trouble is very common amongst pigs which are confined to the +sties, its avoidance is comparatively easy, when the want of exercise is +the sole cause. A run in an enclosure or even in the road will almost +always result in the pig evacuating dung and water. A dose of salts, +varying from 1/2 oz. to 1-1/2 oz. for each pig, according to age, in the +next supply of food is advisable. + +Constipation is usually the first indication of many of the troubles to +which the pig is heir. The little pig on its mother becomes constipated +when the food fed to the mother is unsuitable, and the pig suffers from +indigestion; fever caused by a chill is also foretold by constipation +which should be first removed by a gentle dose of salts or of castor +oil; the last only to be used in severe cases. Linseed oil is also +frequently used to relieve the constipation, but with this there is a +fear of billiousness following its use. If exercise and the above +remedies do not effect a cure, an enema of soap and water or even +glycerine may be necessary. Old-fashioned pigmen remove the hard and +knotty faeces by the aid of the finger. + + +ECZEMA + +This is sometimes called a skin disease, but it appears to be rather a +symptom of a severe attack of indigestion or of billiousness than a +disease in itself. It shows itself in the form of a bright red spot, +varying in size from that of a threepenny piece to that of a shilling, +these spots vary greatly in number. Small pimples appear on the spots +from which a sticky fluid exudes. As soon as the bowels are thoroughly +relieved by aperient medicine, the spots become dark in colour and peel +off the skin. The application of oil to the spots hastens the shedding +of them. A dose of sulphur of one to eight drachms in addition to the +salts will be beneficial. + +Frequently the pig will refuse to eat, it will then be necessary to dose +it. The pig must be caught, its head raised and the liquid gently poured +down its throat, the greatest care being taken not to pour the liquid +whilst the pig is squealing or the medicine will go into the lungs and +cause suffocation, or inflammation of the lungs which will generally +prove fatal. + + +MEASLES + +This is a trouble of a very similar character to eczema save that the +red spots are more numerous and of a more irritating character. The +patient is continually rubbing itself against the wall or any prominence +in an endeavour to relieve the itching. The pig is also more feverish. +The pig should be placed in a warm sty, with plenty of dry straw, into +which it will quickly burrow. A dose of Epsom salts to which is added a +small quantity of spirit of nitre should be given, as the pig affected +will almost invariably refuse food for a time. Neat's foot or sweet oil +applied to the spots will relieve the irritation. + + +RICKETS + +This is not by any means a common ailment amongst pigs, but it is very +hereditary. The most common cause is too close breeding. The bones and +joints appear to be unequal to the performance of their duties, the pig +staggers and stumbles when it attempts to move, whilst sometimes the +back is affected, when the pig is stated to be suffering from +"swayback." As a rule treatment is inadvisable as recovery is doubtful. +The first loss by knocking the pig on the head is generally the least. + + +TUBERCULOSIS + +Pigs, like unto human beings, are much subject to tuberculosis when they +are kept under conditions similar to those which result in human beings +becoming affected. The disease is highly infectious, pigs coming in +contact with or even being housed in sties where pigs affected have been +recently kept are very likely to become infected. Some persons declare +that tuberculosis, or, as it is more commonly called, consumption, is +hereditary. For this there does not appear to be any foundation. The +chief thing to prevent one's animals being affected is to keep them away +from contagion. Although many parts of the body may be attacked by +tuberculosis, the lungs are more frequently affected than any other of +the organs, owing probably to the ease with which infection by the +minute germ is conveyed to the lungs in the act of breathing. + +In the past a considerable number of pigs became infected through being +fed on skim milk which contained germs from the udder of a cow suffering +from a tuberculous udder. In these cases of the lungs and the bowels +becoming tubercular, the pigs become unthrifty and frequently waste away +and die. When the bones and other portions of the body are attacked the +development of the disease is not so rapid, but in any case the wisest +plan is to destroy the animal and thoroughly disinfect the place in +which it has been kept. Save when the disease is local and of very +limited duration the meat of a pig suffering from tuberculosis is unfit +for human consumption. + + +WORMS + +Pigs are subject to various kinds of worms. Of these the most serious by +far is the worm which causes the disease called Trichinosis in man. The +worms are transmitted to man in pork from a diseased pig. Thorough +cooking of meat appears to destroy the vitality of the worm, but in +foreign countries where the pork is eaten in an uncooked or an +undercooked condition the disease is not uncommon. Fortunately, +Trichinosis is almost unknown in this country, owing to our more +stringent sanitary conditions, the disease being due in the pig to the +eating of human excrement in which are thread worms. + +The most common kind of pig worm in this country is the round white +worm, pointed at both ends. Its length varies from one to several +inches. Its presence is often unsuspected until one or more of the worms +are noticed in the dung of the pig. It is readily got rid of by keeping +the pigs from food for at least twelve hours, and then giving them a +little tempting food in which a dose of santonine, varying from three to +ten grains for each pig, according to its age, has been added. Some two +hours later a dose of castor oil of from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz., or of one to +two ounces of Epsom salts, should be given in milk or some other +tempting food. Similar treatment will prove successful in the case of +pigs affected with the smaller kind of worms save that of the worm which +causes what is commonly known as "husk." This worm makes its home in the +windpipe and bronchial tubes. It is advisable to obtain from a chemist a +drench for the riddance of this worm, as the remedies will consist of +linseed oil, turpentine, spirits of camphor, and asaf[oe]tida. + + +SORE TEATS + +Occasionally the teats of sows, especially sows with their first +litters, become chapped or sore. This trouble is frequently due to the +too vigorous sucking of the little pigs when the supply of milk is +short, to the biting of the teats when the sharp little teeth have not +been broken off, or even to cold winds. + +An application of boro-glyceride will usually effect a speedy cure. In +persistent cases it will be advisable to give the sow a dose or two of +opening medicine such as salts or sulphur. + + +SALT AND SODA POISONING + +Although these can scarcely be classed as diseases, the effects are +often more serious than those of some actual diseases to which swine are +more or less subject. + +In the majority of cases the cause is the neglect of the cook to keep +separate from the swill the water in which salted meat or other food has +been boiled, or the water to which soda has been added in the washing +of the plates, etc. An attack if at all severe is usually fatal. + +The symptoms are a discoloration of the skin, and a refusal of food. As +these are the usual symptoms of several other ailments, it is difficult +to determine the cause of death save by a post-mortem examination. It is +to be feared that this mixing of a solution of salt and soda with the +other swill will be one of the difficulties met with in the more general +utilisation of kitchen refuse in the keeping of pigs. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THE CURING OF PORK + + +In the good old times bacon curing was carried on in the large majority +of farm-houses as well as in many houses in the country districts, not +only where there were conveniences for the keeping of pigs, but many +householders were in the habit of buying carcases of pork from their +neighbours and curing the major portion for the following year's supply +of cured meats. Even the better class labourers would kill and cure it +so that as long as it lasted they had on hand a supply of most +nutritious and suitable food. Unfortunately a great change has taken +place of late years; this convenient and profitable plan has been +superseded. The causes may have been many; amongst them, the importation +of immense quantities of salt pork of very inferior quality at very low +prices from the United States; the change in the public taste which is +now for mild cured and lean bacon from young pigs, instead of the more +heavily salted meats from older and fatter pigs; the great decrease in +the number of pigs kept by cottagers and others in urban districts +through the operation of the so-called sanitary regulations; and +probably from the different style of living, which may or may not be an +improvement, amongst the residents in country districts. + +It may be that one of the many changes which have been brought about by, +and which will also follow, the war will be a return to the more simple +and less luxurious manner of living. It is certain that a more +economical system will have to be followed, and one of the means of +effecting this may be a return to the keeping of pigs during their +growing stage on the house and garden refuse, and then when the pigs +have been fattened, by the killing and curing of the carcase for home +consumption. + +Much has been written during recent years about the folly of allowing so +many millions of sovereigns to go out of the country in payment for the +vast weight of bacon, hams, and lard which we import from foreign +countries. Residents in the country have been blamed by town residents +and literary men for their alleged want of enterprise in not breeding +and fattening the few extra million pigs which would furnish an amount +of pig produce equal to that imported, and thus, as they declare, save +the country that outlay which is a dead loss to these islands. + +It may at once be frankly admitted that a very considerable increase in +the number of our pig population is possible without any very greatly +extended cost of food, but when it is contended that farmers and even +cottagers are grossly neglectful in not producing sufficient pork and +its products for the use of the whole of the population of these +islands, an injustice is done, as the breeding and feeding of pigs is a +business calling, not a philanthropical pursuit. Farmers and cottagers +are like other manufacturers of necessary articles; they produce in +order to live, and they cease to manufacture an article when its +production ceases to repay them for their outlay and trouble. They must +of necessity do so, or they come to grief and are unable to carry on +their farms or businesses. + +It matters not what the cause be for the ability of the foreigner to +produce and land on our markets articles cheaper than we can afford to +offer them at, the result is the same--the home production is +automatically reduced. There are many causes which have helped to render +it possible for foreigners to supply us with a certain proportion of the +pork and bacon which we require at a less cost than our home breeder and +feeders of pigs can supply it. These include help to the farmers from +the Governments of certain countries such as Denmark, where assistance +is given in the purchase of pure bred pigs for the improvement of the +native pigs, in the reduced railway and other rates on the transit of +pigs, foods, and bacon, in the provision of certain foods, and in +carrying out experiments in order to show how they may be utilised in +the best manner. Stud farms have also been established from which pure +bred boars are distributed, whilst the whole industry of pig breeding +and bacon curing is carried on under the supervision and with the advice +of many Government officials appointed for the purpose. The intrinsic +value of this assistance is perceptible, as in no other country are +pig-keeping and bacon curing carried on with greater monetary success +than in Denmark. + +It is also asserted that the general system of farming in Denmark has +also contributed very largely to the phenomenal prosperity of the pig +industry, in that a very large proportion of the land is owned and +farmed by comparatively small farmers, men who have a direct interest in +the improvement of the land, and who with their families perform the +major portion of the work on the land and in attendance on the stock. +The land is almost certain to be well managed and the stock to receive +the best possible attention with, comparatively speaking, little cost as +to labour. The animals on the farm are likely to be of a higher grade +and the returns from them of an increased character, than when strangers +and disinterested hired labour attend and feeds them. + +Another of the great advantages possessed by some of our foreign +competitors is the very much better supply of feeding stuffs and their +very considerably lower cost. Take the United States, for instance, the +enormous supply of maize alone enables American pigmen to manufacture +pork at a cost which enables the packers to land bacon, hams, and lard +on the British shores which our home pig producers cannot approach. +Although it cannot be said that the cost of labour is less in the States +than in England, yet there are some countries from which we import pork +products where the labour is far more plentiful and less costly. In the +future the allowance for labour will have to be on a more liberal scale +than hitherto when estimating the cost of producing pork, unless the +number of persons owning and occupying small holdings is greatly +increased. + +It has been stated that our home producers of pork and bacon will obtain +a considerable advantage in the future in that the freight on the +imported meats will be so much higher. It is most probable that this +will increase the expense of landing bacon, etc., on our markets; on the +other hand, as we import so large a proportion of the pig fattening +foods, the cost of food will most likely be increased to quite the same +if not to a greater extent. The only plan to reduce this extra expense +will be to lessen the outlay on imported foods by paying more attention +to the growth of various foods suitable for pigs, attending more +carefully to our pigs and feeding them on common-sense lines. In these +particulars there is room for much improvement in many piggeries. + +By reducing the cost of the production of pork and by the more general +adoption of the system of home curing we shall not only obtain our bacon +at less cost, but we shall have a far greater amount of the finest +quality of bacon and hams generally available. We imagine that the +reader of the earlier portion of this book will experience little +difficulty in producing fine quality pork at a minimum cost--it will +then remain to cure and dry it properly. + +The fattened pig should not be fed for some twenty-four hours before it +is killed; after slaughter the carcase should remain hanging until it +is thoroughly cooled. The manner of cutting up will depend on the +custom in the particular district. In some parts of the country the pig +is split down, the head, feet, and tail taken off, the leaf and kidneys +and the skirt taken out, the loin and the crop with a certain proportion +of the lean cut off, and in some cases the shoulder blade is drawn; +after the necessary trimming a Wiltshire side remains. + +In other districts the ham and the shoulder are cut off and the side is +converted into a middle, a ham and a shoulder or fore-ham. The jowls are +taken off the head and salted with the bacon and hams. The upper part of +the head, or, as it is commonly termed, the scorf, is usually used with +the feet in the manufacture of brawn, or, as it is sometimes called, +pork cheese--presumably from its being cooled in a form, and then turned +out on to the dish on which it is served at table. + +The first operation in curing is to distribute a small quantity of salt +all over the meat to be cured. If allowed to remain about forty-eight +hours the blood remaining in the meat will have become dissolved, and +will have exuded from the carcase. This liquid should be thrown away. A +mixture in the proportion of 4 lbs. salt, 1 lb. coarse brown sugar, 1 +oz. saltpetre, 1/4 oz. bay salt, and 1/4 oz. salt prunell should be +prepared, and a portion of it be applied to all parts of the meat and +particularly in the pocket hole, if the shoulder blade has been drawn. +This should be continued for from twenty to thirty days, according to +the thickness of the meat and the degree of saltness desired. In one or +two districts of a limited area it is usual to rub the meat somewhat +violently with a large pebble when applying the salt mixture, the +alleged object being to rub in the salt; but for this there is not the +slightest necessity as the result of the rubbing is nil, since the salt +will penetrate the meat equally as well without the manipulation as with +it. The principal point is to secure the distribution of the salt to +every part of the meat so that the salt can penetrate and preserve it. + +When sufficiently cured the meat should be hung up and dried. If it be +desired to have it smoked this is best done at the village bakery or +smoke drying house. Smoking of hams and bacon is possible on a small +scale with the aid of a smoke oven such as supplied by Messrs. Douglas +and Sons of Putney, but it is, as a rule, cheaper and less troublesome +to send the meat to the village smoking house. It will be advisable to +brand or otherwise mark each piece of cured meat sent to be smoked, as +the return of the same pieces is thus assured. + +Where the home curing of bacon and hams is followed, this is best +carried out from the middle of October to the end of March; if it be +attempted earlier or later a cold chamber is necessary. + +The manufacture of salt pork is carried on all the year through as the +meat is usually kept in the brine, where it will keep perfectly good for +a considerable time providing it is perfectly sweet when first placed in +the brine. To secure this it is advisable to have the pig killed in the +evening, covered over with a cloth to prevent the flies approaching it, +and hanging it in a cool place so that all the natural heat has escaped +ere it is cut up and placed in the pickle pot. It may be advisable to +note that the last is only possible with a small pig during the hot +weather. In the mere salting of pork it is usual to use only salt and +saltpetre. The use of sugar should be avoided in the summer, as its use +is likely to result in fermentation in hot weather. + +There are two other points in connection with bacon curing on which a +change of opinion has taken place, or is taking place. These are the +cause of what are called in the trade "seedy bellies," and the effect on +the bacon of the female fat pig being in a state of [oe]strum when it is +slaughtered. Until quite recently the first of these troubles, and it is +a most serious one to the trade, was generally considered to be due to +the second. It was believed by curers that the slight inflammation +noticeable in the mammary glands of the female pig when she is in heat +resulted in these so-called "seedy bellies" if the pig was in that +condition when she was slaughtered. This belief may have been either the +cause or the result, or both, of the common saying that the meat of a +sow pig killed when it was in heat will not take the salt properly, and +that it is therefore advisable to wait until this natural condition has +passed away before the pig is slaughtered. This contention has been one +of the arguments used when the spaying of sow pigs has been advocated. +Of late years comparatively few sow pigs have been spayed, so that the +unspayed fat pigs have been nearly as numerous as those male pigs which +have been castrated, and as the sow pigs come in heat each three weeks, +and continue so for from three to five days, a very considerable +proportion of them must be in heat when they are slaughtered at the +large bacon-curing factories, without any loss resulting. We may, +therefore, assume that it matters little whether the pig be in heat or +not when it is slaughtered unless the seedy bellies result. + +On this point also the verdict is against the common belief, as Messrs. +Mackenzie and Marsh have carried out a series of investigations at +Cambridge which clearly proved that seedy bellies were equally as common +when the sow pigs were not in heat and when they were; but that the +discoloration which resembles numbers of small spots of colour varying +from dark blue to light red in the mammary glands is merely an excess of +pigment, the darker shade being common in pigs with dark coloured hair +and skin such as the Large Blacks, Berkshires, etc., and the lighter +shade in pigs of the Tamworth breed. In the bacon manufactured from pigs +with a white skin and white hair there is no discoloration or seedy +bellies. + +Although it has been generally considered by bacon curers that pigs of a +white colour were preferable for their trade, and this to such an extent +that some of the bacon curers in Ireland will pay a slightly higher +price for a pig with a white skin, the preference was generally +considered to be due to the more presentable appearance of a side of +bacon from a white than from a black pig; it would appear that in the +future a still greater preference will be observable when it becomes +generally known that the bacon made from white pigs is free from seedy +bellies. + + * * * * * + + +_To make money out of Pigs_ + +One must go on the NON-STOP PRINCIPLE, every little check to growth +means so much less profit. Now we know and there are thousands of other +pig feeders know that WILLSON'S CANADIAN PIG POWDERS are just the very +thing that is wanted, one or two powders a week to each Pig enables them +to digest their food and get the very utmost out of it. Nature does the +rest. You will find this so and the cost of powders is very small. + +[Illustration: Willson's Canadian Pig Powders] + + _are a Great Investment_ + +[Illustration: + + +--------------------------+ + | 7 for 6d., post free 7d.| + | 16 " 1/- " 1/2| + | 48 " 2/9 " 3/-| + |144 " 8/- " | + |and in bulk in tins | + |21/- post free. | + | | + |_We have agents almost | + |everywhere._ | + +--------------------------+ + +] + + _Sole Manufacturer:_ + + STEPHEN WILLSON + Canadian Pig Powder Factory + PETERBOROUGH + (_Who also keeps a big experimental piggery_). + + + * * * * * + + Continuous Cropping and Tillage + Dairy Farming for Small Farmers. + + By T. WIBBERLEY, N.D.A., N.D.D. + + Third Edition. Price 3/6 net; postage 4d. + + +Here Mr. Wibberley describes specially for the benefit of the small man +his system of all-weather farming, capable of doubling or trebling the +profits of even the best regulated small dairy farms. In this book he +discloses for the first time the whole secret of his success and the +success of the many thousands of small dairy farmers who follow him. + + + _Of all Booksellers or from the Publishers_, + C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. + + * * * * * + + + + +INDEX + + + Anthrax, 162 + + Apthous fever, 15, 162 + + Arrival of little pigs, 82 + + Artichokes for pigs, 89 + + Attendance on farrowing sow, 80 + + + Bacon curing, 177 + + Bacon smoking, 177 + + Bacon from young pigs, 171 + + Barley meal as sole fatting food, 134 + + Barn for pigsty, 109 + + Baulked sows, 76 + + Baulking sows, 94 + + Berkshire breed, 33 + + Black pigs, 75 + + Blind teats, 70 + + Boar's teats, 62 + + Board of Agriculture's premiums, 47 + + Bob-tailed pigs, 86 + + Breeds of pigs at shows, 17 + + British Berkshire Society, 27 + + Butter milk, 153 + + + Cabbages for pigs, 101 + + Canadian system, 47 + + Carriers of swine fever, 158, 188 + + Castrating pigs, 105 + + Castrating ruptured pigs, 88 + + Cause of parti-coloured pigs, 15 + + Close breeding, 46 + + Clover for pigs, 89 + + Coleseed for pigs, 103 + + Constipation in pigs, 164 + + Consumption in pigs, 167 + + Cooked _v._ uncooked maize, 147 + + Cooked _v._ uncooked potatoes, 150 + + Cooking pig foods, 144 + + Cooking potatoes, 147 + + Cross-bred pigs, 39 + + Cross breds _v._ pure breds, 45 + + Cumberland pigs, 38 + + Cutting up the pig, 176 + + + Danish pig-keeping, 174 + + Dead pigs, 83 + + Delicacy of pure-bred pigs, 45 + + Dentition of pigs, 49 + + Diarrh[oe]a, 162 + + Difficulty in disinfecting sties, 161 + + Diseases of pigs, 157 + Anthrax + Apthous fever + Constipation + Cramp + Diarrh[oe]a + Eczema + Epileptic fits + Foot and mouth disease + Inversion of the rectum + " " " vagina + " " " uterus + Measles + Rabies + Rickets + Salt poisoning + Soda poisoning + Sore teats + Swine erysipelas + Swine fever + Tender feet + Tuberculosis + Worms + + Dorset pigs, 25 + + Dosing pigs, 166 + + Dry beds, 103 + + Dysentery, 85 + + + Eczema, 165 + + Effect of food and climate, 148 + + Epileptic fits, 162 + + Essex half-blacks, 21 + + Excited young sows, 81 + + Exhibition of pigs, 113 + + Exposure of mangolds, 152 + + Extra food in the autumn, 155 + + + Farmer owners, 174 + + Farrowing sow, 79 + + Fits, 86 + + Flabby udders, 70 + + Foot and mouth disease, 15 + + Foster mothers, 119 + + + Garget, 101 + + Gloucestershire Old Spots breed, 37 + + Government help, 47 + + Grade breeding pigs, 46 + + Grazing pigs, 73 + + + Ham curing, 171 + + Hampshire pigs, 20 + + Hernia, 162 + + High-backed pigs, 100 + + Holywell Victoria Countess, 77 + + Husk, 160 + + + Importation of bacon and lard, 172 + + Improved breeds, origin of, 13 + + Increased cost of freight, 175 + + Infectivity of swine fever, 158 + + Influence of sire, 43, 54 + " " dam, 54 + + Inoculation for erysipelas, 162 + " " swine fever, 162 + + Inversion of the rectum, 164 + " " " vagina, 164 + " " " uterus, 162 + + + Large boars, 59 + + Large Black breed, 30 + + Large blue and white pigs, 23 + + Large White breed, 30 + + Large White Ulster breed, 35 + + Lincolnshire Curly Coated breed, 36 + + Litter for pigs, 103 + + Lucerne for pigs, 89, 153 + + + Maize supply, 174 + + Mangolds for pigs, 101 + + Mating the young sow, 72 + " " suckling sow, 92 + + Measles, 166 + + Medicine for farrowing sow, 83 + + Mere size studied, 65 + + Messrs. Harris's scheme, 43 + + Middle White breed, 31 + + Milk for sucking pigs, 100 + + Mixture of food, 135 + + Model piggeries, 108 + + + Neat sows, 65 + + Non-infectious swine fever, 160 + + Norfolk pigs, 24 + + Northamptonshire pigs, 23 + + Number of pigs for a sow, 97 + + Number in a litter, 68 + + + Origin of improved breeds, 13 + + Oxfordshire pigs, 23, 27 + + + Parsnips for pigs, 89 + + Parti-coloured pigs, cause of, 115 + + Peat moss litter, 104 + + Persistence of erysipelas virus, 161 + + Pig calendar, 148 + + Pig fattening, 132 + + Pig keeping in orchards, 128 + " " " woods, 128 + + Pigment, excess of, 179 + + Pig pillows, 65 + + Pig shacking, 153 + + Pigs suffering from heat, 124 + + Plenty of teats, 67 + + Potatoes for pigs, 89 + + Poulticing pigs' feet, 164 + + Practical _v._ show points, 41 + + Prepotency of dam, 55 + " " sire, 55 + + Prolificacy, 42 + " indications of, 67 + " value of, 42 + + Pure breeds, 26 + + + Quality of bone, 60 + + + Rabies, 162 + + Rape for pigs, 89 + + Rearing of young pigs, 97 + + Recorded pedigree insufficient, 44 + + Rectum, inversion of, 164 + + Registering produce, 42 + + Remaking sow's bed, 83 + + Rickets in pigs, 166 + + Ring pigs, 61 + + Rollers for fat pigs, 117 + + Round white worms, 168 + + Rudgwick pigs, 21 + + Rupture in pigs hereditary, 88 + + Ruptured boar, 61 + + + Salt poisoning, 169 + + Santonine as a cure for worms, 168 + + Scrotal hernia, 162 + + Seedy bellies, 177 + + Selection of boar, 53 + " " sow, 63 + + Separated milk for little pigs, 100 + + Sheeted pigs, 22 + + Size in boars, 59 + " of pigs' ears, 60 + + Skim milk and tuberculosis, 167 + + Slaughter classes, 118 + + Small black breed, 18 + + Small joints wanted, 66 + + Small testicles, 61 + + Smoke ovens, 177 + + Smoking bacon, 177 + + Soft pork, 135 + + Sore-tailed pigs, 86 + + Sore teats, 169 + + Sow's udder, 67 + + Spaying sow pigs, 151 + + Sty facing east, 108 + " " north, 108 + " " south, 108 + " " west, 108 + + Sugar in pork curing, 177 + + Sussex pigs, 21 + + Swayback pigs, 166 + + Swine erysipelas, 161 + + Swine fever, 158 + " " virus, 160 + + + Tares for pigs, 152 + + Tender feet, 164 + + Trichinosis, 168 + + Tuberculosis in pigs, 167 + + Tuberculosis in pigs not hereditary, 167 + + Tuberculosis meat unhealthy, 167 + + + Udder, the sow's, 67 + + Undersized teats, 70 + + Uniformity in a herd, 44 + " " young pigs, 43 + + Unwieldly sows, 65 + + Utility points, 42 + + + Value of feeding qualities, 59 + + Value of whey, 152 + + Variation in virulence of infectious diseases, 161 + + Varying food, 136 + + Vegetable food for pigs, 89, 135, 150 + + + Weaning pigs, 89 + + Wheat meal, 136 + + White peas for little pigs, 100 + + White-skinned pigs for bacon, 106, 179 + + Worms, 168 + + * * * * * + + +DENNIS'S + +"LINCOLNSHIRE" PIG POWDERS + +ARE THE BEST MEDICINE for all DISEASES of PIGS. Used by most of the +leading BREEDERS and EXHIBITORS. + +It will pay you well to use them regularly. The cost is so small, 10d. +per doz., post free 1/-. 144 Powders post free 10/-. + +[Sidenote: HEALTHY PIGS PAY WELL] + +[Illustration: DENNIS's LINCOLNSHIRE PIG POWDERS PROPRIETOR J. W. DENNIS +LOUTH. ENGLAND] + +Trade Mark No. 14,839. + +[Sidenote: SOLD EVERYWHERE] + +DENNIS'S "SPECIAL" WORM POWDERS =are recognised as the surest means of +ridding pigs of these parasites.= + +Mr. W. L. PAYNE, of Tor Hole, Chewton Mendip, says:--"I found 63 worms +in my stye, after giving your Worm Powders." + +In packets, 6d. Post free 7-1/2d. 6 packets Post free 3/4. + +Sold by all Chemists, Boots Ltd., Taylor's Drug Co. Ltd., and +Co-operative Societies, at all Branches. + +Proprietor: + +=JOHN W. DENNIS, Veterinary Chemist LOUTH, LINCS.= + + +All practical Farmers who want to keep abreast of the times should get +at once a copy of + +FARMING ON FACTORY LINES + +OR + +Continuous Cropping for Large Farmers + +BY + +T. WIBBERLEY, N.D.A., N.D.D. + +(_Of Queen's University, Belfast_). + + * * * * * + +Second Edition =6/-= net (postage 4d.) + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: pointing finger] It forms the great authoritative test +book on the Wibberley Continuous Cropping System, and is a new and +frankly revolutionary guide to ALL-WEATHER Farming and to cheaper Milk, +Corn and Beef Production. + +"In times past the climate has often conquered the British Farmer, but +it has not conquered Wibberley. He has conquered it, turning what +otherwise would be adverse climatic conditions to advantage in tilling +the land. + +"It sounds impossible. It reads like a fairy tale--yet the whole of the +scheme of 'Wibberleyism' or 'Continuous Cropping,' 'Farming on Factory +Lines'--as the system is variously termed--is in reality beautifully +simple. It is so effective that one wonders what our highly paid +officials have been thinking about, when they have not hammered out some +such a tillage system as Wibberley's years before Wibberley was +born."--THE SMALLHOLDER. + + * * * * * + +=Read all about it in this new and valuable work.= + + * * * * * + +_Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free for =6/4= +from_ + +Messrs. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Limited, 18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. +2. + + +SOME USEFUL HANDBOOKS + +FOR SMALLHOLDERS AND OTHERS + +=The Hobby Gardener.= By A. C. MARSHALL, F.R.H.S. With 22 full-page +Illustrations showing clearly the various operations throughout a year's +work in the garden. In Stiff Three-coloured Cover. Price 1/6 net, post +free 1/9. + +=Small Gardens and How to make the Most of Them.= By V. P. BIDDLE. Cloth +Boards. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +A most useful Handbook for the Amateur. Full instructions are given for +laying out, bedding, arrangement of borders, vegetable culture, flowers +and fruit trees, room plants, window boxes, etc. + +=Greenhouses: How to Make and Manage Them.= By WILLIAM F. ROWLES. With +numerous Diagrams. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +=The Dog: In Health and Disease.= By F. M. ARCHER. With 12 Illustrations +by S. T. DADD. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +=Cage and Singing Birds.= By GEORGE GARDNER. With numerous +Illustrations. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +Some of the Contents are:--Birds for Song, for Exhibition and for +Breeding--Care of Young--Seeds: how and what to buy--Moulting for Song +and for Exhibition--Colour-feeding: how it is done--Diseases of Cage +Birds and how to treat them--Bird Fever--Parasites and how to destroy +them, etc. etc. + +=An Easy Poultry Guide.= By EDWARD BROWN, F.L.S. With 8 full-page +Illustrations and other Diagrams. Pocket size. Cloth. Price 1/-net, post +free 1/2. + +=War on Weeds.= By "FARMER GILES." Price 6d. net, post free 7d. + +This book gives a full description and illustrations of the thirteen +proscribed weeds, also a complete list of all other farm and garden +weeds, with sketches, full descriptions, and preventive measures. + +=War-Time Farming.= By T. WIBBERLEY. Price 6d. net, post free 7d. + +This small book tells how the man on the land can use it to the greatest +advantage. + + * * * * * + +_Any of these books may be ordered through your bookseller, or will be +sent post-paid on receipt of the price mentioned by_ + +=A. F. SOWTER, Publisher, "Smallholder and Small Owner" Offices, 16-18, +HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.= + + +FARMING + +MADE EASY + +By + +J. C. NEWSHAM, F.L.S. + +Principal of the Monmouthshire Agricultural and Horticultural +Institution, Usk. + +_Author of "The Potato Book," &c., Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 3/6 net._ + +This is an easy Guide to the most useful Elements of Agriculture. It has +been specially written by a thoroughly qualified agriculturist, with a +wide and successful practical knowledge of his subject, for the use of +the countless thousands of men and women who are now streaming +back--eager but half instructed--to work on the land. It covers +practically every department of farm labour and enterprise, and provides +the fullest and most reliable instruction for all who propose to take up +Agriculture in a serious and practical spirit, as a means of livelihood. + +_Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free for 3/10 +from_ + +MESSRS. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LIMITED, 18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. +2. + + + + +BOOKS FOR SMALLHOLDERS, ETC. + +A STANDARD BOOK BY AN EXPERT AUTHORITY. + + +DAIRY FARMING FOR SMALLHOLDERS + + +By JAMES LONG, formerly Professor of Dairy Farming, Royal Agricultural +College; Author of "The Book of the Pig," etc. + +Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 2/6 net, post free 2/9. + +THE CHAPTERS DEAL WITH:--Our Dairy Cows; The Cow and Her Management; +Foods and Feeding; Milk; Butter and Butter Making; Cheese Making, etc. + +"Professor Long has never been more happily inspired than in writing it. +The explanations are lucid and clear."--_Standard._ + +"The smallholder who has made dairying part of his system, or has +facilities for doing so, will be all the better for adding this book to +those already in his possession."--_Field._ + +"This is one of the best handbooks that can possibly find its way on the +dairy farmer's shelf."--_The Dairy._ + + * * * * * + +=POULTRY FOR PROFIT=. By E. T. BROWN. Author of "Profitable Poultry +Keeping" (Smallholders' Library), "Ducks, Geese and Turkeys," &c. Crown +8vo, cloth, with 15 full-page illustrations and many diagrams. A +thoroughly comprehensive guide for the poultry keeper. + +=ROSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.= By EDWIN BECKETT, V.M.H., F.R.H.S. Crown +8vo, cloth. With portrait frontispiece. Price 2/6 net (postage 3d. +extra). + +"A handy little book by Mr. E. Beckett, gardener at Aldenham House, and +famous as a grower of exhibition vegetables, as well as of plants +generally. He writes as a practical grower in a practical way, dealing +with soil and situation, planting, pruning, watering, propagation, the +cultivation of roses under glass and for exhibition in a way that is +satisfying."--_The Field._ + +=THE SMALLHOLDER'S YEAR BOOK.= Published annually in December. Price 1/6 +net, per post 1/9. + +The Smallholder's Year Book is now an institution. It is the recognised +court of appeal in all matters connected with the land, in gardening, +farming, poultry-keeping, goat, rabbit and bee-keeping circles. It +contains the cream of all the information that has ever appeared in THE +SMALLHOLDER. It solves at a glance every problem that is ever likely to +puzzle YOU. + + * * * * * + +_These Handbooks may be obtained through your Bookseller, or will be +forwarded post free, on receipt of the price mentioned, from_ + +=C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., 17 HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON W.C. 2.= + + + + +THE "SMALLHOLDER" CHARTS. + +ON CARD 11-1/2 in. BY 8-1/2 in. FOR HANGING UP. + + +(1) How to Make a Garden Frame + +(2) How and When to Sow Vegetable Seeds + +(3) The A.B.C. of Pig Keeping + +(4) The A.B.C. of Utility Rabbit Keeping + +(5) The A.B.C. of Poultry Keeping + +(6) Garden and Orchard Pests + +(7) How and When to Sow Flower Seeds + +(8) How to Cure Poultry Diseases + +(9) How to Cure Pig Diseases + +(10) Fruit Bottling + +(11) Manuring Made Easy + +(12) The Whole Art of Goat Keeping + +_Single Charts cost 4d. each, or any Six may be had for 1/8 post free._ + + * * * * * + +The "Smallholder" is issued in half-yearly volumes, March to August, and +September to February. Bound in Strong Cloth. Price 4/-net each; post +free 4/6. Cases for binding, including Title Page and Index, price 1/9 +each; post free 2/-. + +Write to the Editor + +The "SMALLHOLDER" Office, 16-18 Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2. + + + + +AN ATTRACTIVE NATURE BOOK FOR THE YOUNG. + +IN NATURE'S WAYS + +BY MARCUS WOODWARD. + + * * * * * + +A book for all young Lovers of Natural History. Being an Introduction to +Gilbert White's immortal "Natural History of Selborne." + +Illustrated by J. A. SHEPHERD. + +With Preface by WILFRID MARK WEBB, Secretary of the Selborne Society. + +This volume contains 8 full-page Illustrations on Art Paper in addition +to the Drawings in the Text. + +=Price in paper wrapper 1/-net, postage 3d. extra; or in cloth boards, +price 2/-net, postage 4d. extra.= + + * * * * * + +"This is a 'White's Selborne' for the young; giving passages from the +original under different headings and side by side, some talk about the +bird or beast referred to; with plenty of illustrations by Mr. J. A. +Shepherd, full of his usual vitality."--_Times._ + +"We think this volume cannot fail to interest and instruct the +young."--_Field._ + +"White's 'History of Selborne' is here amplified and explained for young +readers. Mr. Woodward has that gift of humour without which all writing +on nature is a weariness unto the flesh for young readers, and for many +readers who are no longer young. Mr. J. A. Shepherd's illustrations +catch the spirit of the letterpress, and are of a piece with the work +that has made his reputation as an artist."--_Literary World._ + + * * * * * + +_May be had of all Booksellers or will be sent direct on receipt of +published price and postage from_ + +C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LTD., Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2. + + * * * * * + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Changes to the text are listed as follows: + +page 168, "oze" changed to "oz.," (from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz.,) + +page 168, "b.," changed to "be" (should be given in milk) + +page 186, suspected typo "test" for "text" (the great authoritative +test book) + +page 187, "F.R.H.S" changed to "F.R.H.S." (A. C. Marshall, F.R.H.S.) + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pig, by Sanders Spencer + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIG *** + +***** This file should be named 33074.txt or 33074.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/0/7/33074/ + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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