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diff --git a/33074.txt b/33074.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fb8ecc6 --- /dev/null +++ b/33074.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5861 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pig, by Sanders Spencer + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Pig + Breeding, Rearing, and Marketing + +Author: Sanders Spencer + +Release Date: July 4, 2010 [EBook #33074] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIG *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +This Plain Text version has been prepared using the ASCII character set +only. Italic typeface is indicated by _underscore_. Bold typeface, which +is used in the advertisements only, is indicated by =equals=. The oe +ligature is indicated by the use of square brackets: [oe]. The symbol +for pound Sterling (currency) is indicated by [L]. + +Where changes have been made to the text (of typographical errors etc.) +these are listed at the end of the book. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Frontispiece. Photo, Reid, Wishaw._ BREEDING SOWS OF THE +LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE BREEDS. + +The Middle White Sow in the forefront (the property of the Author) was +one of the best ever bred, "Holywell Countess Victoria."] + + +THE PIG + + + + THE PIG + BREEDING, REARING, AND MARKETING + + BY + + SANDERS SPENCER + + + London + C. Arthur Pearson Ltd. + Henrietta Street + 1919 + + +CONTENTS + + CHAPTER PAGE + + INTRODUCTION 13 + + I. NON-PEDIGREE PIGS 19 + + II. PURE BREEDS (with Standard Descriptions and + Scales of Points) 26 + + III. CROSS-BRED PIGS 39 + + IV. DENTITION AND AGE OF PIGS 49 + + V. SELECTION OF THE BOAR 54 + + VI. SELECTION OF THE SOW 63 + + VII. THE SOW'S UDDER 67 + + VIII. MATING THE YOUNG SOW 72 + + IX. THE FARROWING SOW 79 + + X. WEANING PIGS 91 + + XI. THE REARING OF YOUNG PIGS 97 + + XII. HOUSING OF PIGS 107 + + XIII. THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS 113 + + XIV. PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING 125 + + XV. PIG-FATTENING 131 + + XVI. A PIG CALENDAR 148 + + XVII. DISEASES OF THE PIG 157 + + XVIII. THE CURING OF PORK 171 + + INDEX 182 + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + BREEDING SOWS OF THE LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE + BREEDS _Frontispiece_ + + FACING PAGE + + LARGE BLACK BOAR, "DRAYTON KING" 16 + + PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, EXHIBITED AT SMITHFIELD SHOW 1914 17 + + A BERKSHIRE SOW 32 + + LARGE BLACK SOW, "SUDBOURNE SADIE" 33 + + THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS 48 + + A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR 49 + + TAMWORTH BOAR: BISHOP OF WEBTON 64 + + GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW 65 + + LARGE WHITE BOAR 80 + + TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES" 81 + + MIDDLE WHITE SOW 96 + + CUMBERLAND SOW 97 + + LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM" 112 + + LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR 113 + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +There are few points in the breeding of stock on which a greater +variation of opinion has been confidently expressed than on the origin +of the domesticated pig. It has been contended that our various types +had a common origin in the wild hog, and that the difference in form, +colour, and character amongst the local breeds is due, in the main, to +the requirements, imaginary or real, of the interested residents in the +particular districts. On the other hand, it is asserted with equal +confidence, and probably with the same amount of actual proof, that it +would be impossible so to improve the wild hog by selection as to render +it the equal of the domesticated hog. There must, therefore, have been +an infusion of blood of a cultivated breed of pigs to acquire even that +amount of success which was noticeable in the improved pig of a century, +or less, ago. Unfortunately, for this argument, it has not been possible +to obtain any information of value as to the alleged source of origin of +this cultivated breed of pigs. + +Again, those pigs which possess in a marked degree early maturity, fine +quality of flesh, and those other characteristics of the improved pig, +are so various in colour, that one cultivated breed only could not have +been utilised in the general improvement. + +All the ancient writers on pigs appear to have experienced the same +difficulty when endeavouring to discover the sources of origin of the +material which might have been used in the production of the pig which +in their time was looked upon as the domesticated and improved pig of +the period. This difficulty extends even to the present day. So far as +is known there exists no actual proof that the domesticated hog has been +evolved in any particular way other than by continued selection of those +animals for breeding purposes which possessed in the greatest degree +those particular qualities held in the highest estimation at the time. + +Of course, the soil, climate, etc., of the district in which pigs are +reared have a certain amount of influence, but this is noticeable to a +much lesser extent with pigs than with horses, cattle, or sheep, since +under the present system of pig-breeding the greater portion of the food +used in the different districts is of a very similar character--indeed, +much of it has a common origin--having been imported from abroad. + +As a rule, comparatively speaking very little difference is noticeable +in the development, form, and character of pigs bred in the various +parts of the country, whereas with some of the other domesticated +animals a very considerable change follows the removal of sheep of a +pure breed from one district to another. The quality and quantity of the +wool, flesh, and bone are all affected. An exactly similar effect is +noticeable when horses of a particular breed are moved from one district +to another. For instance, a Shire foal bred in the Fens may possess the +characteristic bone, flesh, and hair, yet if it be moved into portions +of the Eastern counties where the soil is of a totally different +character, it will when matured have lost, to a very considerable +extent, its peculiar characteristics of bone and hair. The changes +wrought may be due in small measure to climate, but the predominant +cause must be due to the variation in the food grown on soils of a +different character. + +This question of the original cause or causes of the varying colour of +the pigs in different localities appears to be equally difficult of +solution. As to the continuation in certain districts of pigs of one +colour, custom and even prejudice have a great effect. So strong is this +prejudice that some persons will even declare that the pork of pigs of +the fashionable colour in the neighbourhood is superior to that from +pigs of any other colour. As this weakness is common in districts where +black and where white pigs are kept it must be admitted that prejudice +alone must be the foundation of the belief. + +Probably the safest conclusion to arrive at with respect to the +variation in colour of the pigs noticeable in certain districts is that +in the long ago the native pig in the wild state was of the colour of +the soil and the herbage in which it sheltered, and was thus less +conspicuous to its enemies, whether human or animal. A marked instance +of this is to be found in the colour of the common or original pig found +in some parts of the country where the soil is of a decidedly red +colour. In the district referred to one actually hears some farms spoken +of as "red land farms." What more natural than to find in the districts +in which land of this hue predominates that the pigs should be a red +rusty hue such as was the original colour of that breed of pigs now +called the Tamworth breed. + +Some persons, who do not agree with this theory of the origin of the +various coloured pigs, cite as a proof of their belief the fact that in +so many districts the pigs are of a mixed colour, and that this peculiar +marking is equally as general in localities as is any particular or +special colour in the pigs. This is perfectly true, and it is probably +due to exactly the same causes, fancy, prejudice, or custom. The +residents in certain districts have grown accustomed to certain things +or certain forms, and are loth to change; the manufacturer of any +article must humour the actual or fancied requirements of his customers +if he is to secure success; and in a similar manner the breeder of pigs +has to consider and to produce pigs of the form, size, and colour which +are most in demand. Further if, as confidently alleged, there is a +preference in some districts for pork from pigs of a certain colour, +then the butcher naturally offers a higher price for pigs of that colour +which most fully satisfy the fancies of his customers, and thus we find +a similarity of form and colour in the pigs of various districts. + +As to the origin of these parti-coloured pigs, the explanation offered +is that even in pre-railway times there was a certain amount of +interchange of the different local breeds of stock. This would be +affected in various ways, which need not be specified. + +At the present time we have several defined and distinct breeds of pigs +which have secured recognition at our principal agricultural shows. +Indeed it may be claimed that the exhibitions of live stock which have +become so general in all parts of the country have been one of the chief +factors in fixing to a certain extent the type and character of certain +local breeds. Within the memory of the present writer the classification +of pigs at our principal shows was of a very simple character; it +consisted of classes for pigs of a white colour and for pigs of any +other colour. There was no attempt at any definition as to size, form, +and quality of the pigs. These points were left entirely to the judges, +who naturally were led to favour pigs of the type which they bred. There +was thus a greater amount of uncertainty as to the success of an +exhibitor's stock than at the present time. This uncertainty--save as to +the members of the Show Committees or their friends--was increased by +the unfair system of withholding from the knowledge of the average +exhibitor the names of those selected to judge. + +The necessity of some definition, if only of colour, quickly became +obvious. At first classes were established for pigs of certain colours; +then the prizes were offered for pigs of certain breeds, which were more +or less loosely defined. Now at the chief shows the pigs exhibited in +the various classes must be qualified for entry in the herd books of the +particular breeds. + +At the Royal Agricultural Shows there have been classes for pigs of the +Large White, Middle White, Berkshire, Tamworth, Large Black and +Lincolnshire Curly Coated breeds; whilst for the next show classes for +pigs of the so-called Gloucestershire Old Spots breed are to be +included. As showing the changes which are in progress it may be noted +that two breeds of pigs which had classes provided for them at the Royal +and some other Shows have become extinct. These were the Small White and +the Small Black breeds--the sole cause of their disappearance being the +unsuitability of the pigs of the breeds to supply the present +requirements of the consumer. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +LARGE BLACK BOAR, "DRAYTON KING." + +Owner, Terah F. Hooley. 1st Prize, Somerset County Agricultural Show, +1913. + +To face page 16.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Block kindly supplied by E. F. Casswell, Manor House, +Graby, Folkingham._ + +PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, Exhibited at SMITHFIELD SHOW 1914. 1st Prize. Age +8 months, 1 week, 5 days. Weight 7 cwts. + +To face page 17.] + + +THE PIG + + + + +CHAPTER I + +NON-PEDIGREE PIGS + + +Although the more general use of so-called pedigree pigs has tended to +modify the characteristics of the various local breeds of pigs, yet it +is possible to find a certain number of pig breeders who adhere to the +type of pig which has been in the past most generally found in their +district. This type was undoubtedly fixed by the wants or fancies of +those resident in the particular portions of the country. + +In the past it has been the practice when describing these local breeds +to write as though they were confined to certain counties. It may be +that pigs of a peculiar or characteristic type are more numerous within +the borders of various counties, but this is by no means always the +case. The habits and pursuits of the inhabitants rather than the soil +and climate--as with horses, cattle and sheep--have the greatest +influence on the form, size and quality of the local pigs, whilst use +and custom appear to determine the colour of the pig. We are of opinion +that it will be more instructive if we give a short description of some +of the more common types of these local breeds of pigs, and mention the +names of those counties in which they are more generally found. + +Amongst the most distinct of these local breeds is that which is +variously termed the sheeted or saddle-backed pig, which in the United +States has a society to look after its interests, and where it bears the +name of + +THE HAMPSHIRE + +Just why our American cousins should have decided to call these sheeted +pigs Hampshires is not on the surface, since the oldest writers on pigs +give to the county of Sussex the credit of being their original home. +The description given by Sidney of the Hampshire pig is that "it is a +coarse and useful black pig, inferior to the Berkshire, and not in the +same refined class as the Essex." Richardson writes "The Hampshire breed +is not infrequently confounded with the Berkshire; but its body is +longer and its sides flatter; the head is long and the snout sharp. The +colour of the breed is usually dark spotted; but it is sometimes black +altogether, and more frequently white." + +The sheeted pig has also been bred in the county of Essex for over a +century, but it is recorded that it was introduced into this county by a +Mr. Western who subsequently became Lord Western, and whose estate was +situated in Essex. + +In Sidney's book _The Pig_, we read, "West Sussex, Hampshire, Berkshire, +Dorset, Shropshire and Wales had indigenous black or red and black +breeds of swine; and between the whites, the blacks and the reds the +parti-colours were produced which have since in a great degree +disappeared under the influence of prizes, generally awarded to pure +breeds of single colours." + +Sidney also states "that Youatt and all the authors who have followed +him down to the latest work published on the subject, occupy space in +describing various county pigs which have long ceased to possess, if +they ever possessed, any merit worth the attention of the breeder." + +The Rudgwick, which is another name for the sheeted pig, is included in +the list. Richardson at a still earlier date describes the Sussex breed +as "black and white in colour, but not _spotted_; that is to say, these +colours are distributed in very large patches; one half--say, for +instance, the fore part of the body white and the hinder end black; or +sometimes both ends black and the middle white or _vice versa_; these +pigs are in no way remarkable; they seldom feed to over twenty stone. +They are well made, of middle size, and their skin covered with scanty +bristles. The snout tapering and firm, the ears upright and pointed, the +jowl deep and the body compactly round. They arrive at early maturity, +fatten quickly, and the flesh is excellent." + +Richardson also writes, "There is another improved Essex breed, called +the Essex Half-Blacks, resembling that which I have described in colour, +said to be descended from the Berkshire. This breed was originally +introduced by Lord Western, and obtained much celebrity," etc. etc. + +He then quotes from _The Complete Grazier_, sixth edition, as follows: +"They are black and white, short haired, fine skinned with smaller heads +and ears than the Berkshire, but feathered with inside hair which is a +distinctive mark of both; have short snubby noses, very fine bone, broad +and deep in the belly, full in the hind quarters, but light in the bone +and offal. They feed remarkably fast and are of an excellent quality of +meat. The sows are good breeders, and bring litters of from eight to +twelve; but they have the character of being bad nurses." If this +allegation were true at the time it was written, it is not at the +present time as the Half-Blacks or sheeted sows are both prolific and +first-rate mothers. + +Malden describes the Sussex: "A large breed called the Rudgwick, was one +of the largest in England. There appears to be a doubt as to whether the +coloured pig was descended from the spotted Berkshire or the black and +white Essex. They were of medium size, of good quality generally, but of +somewhat heavy bone." The generally accepted view is that the Essex +sheeted pig was descended from importations from the county of Sussex. +These sheeted pigs are still occasionally met with in Essex, but the +system of crossing which is generally followed by pig breeders in the +county is gradually reducing its number, although even amongst the +cross-breeds the peculiar marking occasionally shows itself. At the time +of writing there is a movement on foot to form a society for the purpose +of reviving the breed. From the utility point of view the sheeted pig +has much to recommend it, but whether or not one or more of the breeds +of pigs whose pedigrees are already recorded do not possess at least +equal merits must be left for decision by others. + +SPOTTED PIGS + +In many districts are found other parti-coloured pigs, but in these the +black, the white, and the red colours show themselves in spots of +varying size and extent. Probably amongst the best types of these +spotted pigs is the one found over the greater part of the county of +Northampton, and portions of the counties of Leicester and Oxford +adjoining. In the former county the pigs have more of black than white +in their colouring, whilst in the two latter red spots are more often +seen. This is probably due to a stronger infusion of the blood of the +Staffordshire red pig which is now known as the Tamworth. The blood of +the Neapolitan pig through the Berkshire or the Small Black is credited +with being the origin of the darker coloured Northamptonshire spotted +pig. The qualities claimed for these spotted or "plum pudding" pigs as +they are locally termed, are prolificacy, quick growth, hardihood, and +the production of pork possessing a large proportion of lean to fat +meat. They are also good grazers, and grow to a size quite the equal of +the Berkshire. In form they are perhaps more suited for the fresh pork +trade than for the manufacture of bacon of the kind now so much in +demand. + +THE LARGE WHITE AND BLUE PIGS + +Those large, coarse-boned pigs with hair of a white colour and skins +more or less mottled with blue are gradually giving place to pigs with +finer hair, skin, bone, and quality of meat. The coarse lop ears are +being reduced in size and thickness, whilst the pig itself is becoming +less gaunt and its early maturity considerably increased by crossing +with the better quality Large White and the quickly maturing Middle +White. These coarse white with blue markings pigs were common in the +Fens of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, the Isle of Ely and Lincolnshire, and +in the counties of Bedford, Cheshire, etc. + +WHITE PIGS + +Within the memory of persons now living, white pigs of varying types +were found in various parts of this country. Many of these white pigs +found in Norfolk, Suffolk, Shropshire, and Wales had little to recommend +them as they were flat sided, long legged, hard feeders, and required to +be comparatively old before they could be turned into pork. A vast +improvement has of late years been effected in these unprofitable swine +by crossing them with compact and early maturing pigs of different +colours, but mainly white pigs until the last few years, when Large +Blacks and even a few Gloucestershire Old Spots boars have been +introduced in Norfolk. + +At one time white pigs of a small size were by no means uncommon in +Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, Yorkshire, and parts of Berkshire, and other +counties. The origin of these small, compact, and early maturing pigs +appears to have been a cross of the imported Chinese on the neater and +shorter country pigs of a white colour. For a period these handsome +pigs were quite fashionable amongst the well-to-do, but the general +public objected to the pork produced by them, owing to its excessive +fatness. The bacon curers still more strongly objected to the short +sides and the very small amount of lean meat in the cured carcases. +During the last thirty years comparatively few of these pretty, but +useless, pigs have been bred. + +BLACK PIGS + +The description given of the two main types of white pigs would apply +equally well to the Black pigs common in this country, save with respect +to colour. The long flat-sided black pig was found in Essex, Suffolk, +Cambridgeshire, Sussex, etc. These pigs were noted for their +prolificacy, hardihood, and quick growth, whilst the sows furnished a +full supply of milk to their youngsters, but they were such slow feeders +that it became necessary to cross them with pigs which matured more +quickly. A type of black pig similar in form to the Small White was also +found in Essex and Suffolk, whilst in Devonshire, Dorset, and one or two +other counties the colour of the pigs was blue rather than black, and of +a somewhat larger size, but possessing the same weakness, too large a +proportion of fat to lean meat. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +PURE BREEDS + + +The task of writing a description of the various breeds of swine has +been rendered less difficult by the formation during the past +half-century of societies for the registration of the pedigrees of the +pigs of the different breeds, and by the setting up of scales of those +points which pigs for entry in the particular herd books should possess. +The first of these societies was the National Pig Breeders Association, +of which the present writer was the honorary secretary for two years. At +the time of its formation the breeds of pigs most generally recognised +were the Berkshire, the Large, Middle, and Small Whites or Yorkshires, +and the Small Black breed. It was intended that the pedigrees of the +pure bred pigs of each of these breeds should be recorded by the +Association and published in one herd book. + +There is no doubt that this would have been an ideal plan, and would +have resulted in a saving of much labour and expense, and decidedly more +convenient for those connected with the export trade. For reasons into +which it is not now necessary to enter, the breeders of Berkshires +determined to have a separate herd book; therefore, they started a +society which they named the British Berkshire Society, to distinguish +it from the American Berkshire Record. + +Subsequently the Tamworth breed of pigs became recognised by the Royal +Agricultural Society, and the breeders of the red pig joined the +National Pig Breeders Association. Then the demand for Small White and +Small Black pigs ceased, so that eventually the pedigrees of Large +White, Middle White, and Tamworth pigs only were registered in the +N.P.A. Herd Book. + +Subsequently the breeders of Tamworth pigs formed themselves into a +society presumably for propaganda work, and to conserve the interests of +breeders of Tamworth pigs. Of late years other breeds of pigs have been +brought to public notice, and have had herd books, and societies +specially devoted to their particular interests. The Large Black, Large +White Ulster, the Lincolnshire Curly Coated pigs, the Gloucestershire +Old Spots, and the Cumberland pigs have their pedigrees recorded. An +attempt was made some years since to resuscitate the Oxfordshire Spotted +pig, but it was not a continued success. It is quite possible that other +local breeds of pigs may find sufficient admirers to form societies to +bring before the public the many good qualities possessed by the pigs of +these breeds, but apart from local interest it is at least doubtful if +any permanent benefit will supervene from this multiplication of herd +books--save that it may increase the interest in pig breeding, a result +devoutly to be prayed for. + +The issuing of the scales of points of those breeds of pigs whose +pedigrees are recorded in the various herd books has rendered it +unnecessary for us to endeavour to formulate the good qualities which +are presumably those which are more or less completely possessed by +these pedigreed animals, nor does the necessity exist for us to mention +those particular qualities which each breed is supposed by the admirers +of other breeds to lack. There is no doubt that each breed possesses +certain points which render it specially suitable for differing +localities and varying purposes. + +Some persons who look upon a pig solely as an animal, as a converter of +various substances into pork, are of opinion that the tendency of those +responsible for the running of these societies is towards fancy points +to the detriment of the practical points. There appears to have been +some grounds for this view. The Small White, the Small Black, the +Berkshire, and the Large White have all been affected by the acts of +faddists. The three first-named breeds suffered from the aims of certain +of the breeders to reduce the size and to increase the so-called quality +until the consumers of pork refused to follow the fashion; whilst the +craze which has seriously affected the utility of the Large White pigs +has been exactly the opposite, i.e. an endeavour to so vastly increase +the size that they ceased to supply the kind of pork and the size of +joints which the general public demanded. It may be natural for fanciers +to declare that a Small White or a Small Black pig must be a small +animal, but this is only on comparison with the large breeds of the same +colour and characteristics. The usefulness of the pig in the commercial +world must be studied if any breed of pig is to hold its own on the +market. + +The opposite extreme to that followed by the breeders of the small +breeds is that of the breeders of Large Whites, who look upon mere size +as the most important of the points to be studied. The mere increase in +bulk, in length of head and leg and weight of bone may appeal to the +mere fancier or faddist, but by paying undue attention to these fancy +points the actual object of the breeding and fattening of pigs is lost +sight of, and the consumer who is after all the one whose wants must +first receive study, is estranged and the commercial market is lost. + +In the following pages will be found full particulars together with the +scales of points, as issued by the various societies, of the chief +breeds and varieties. + + * * * * * + + +STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE + +LARGE WHITE + +COLOUR.--White, free from black hairs, and as free as possible from blue +spots on the skin. + +HEAD.--Moderately long, face slightly dished, snout broad, not too much +turned up, jowl not too heavy, wide between the ears. + +EARS.--Long, thin, slightly inclined forward, and fringed with fine +hair. + +NECK.--Long, and proportionately full to shoulders. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Level across the top, not too wide, free from coarseness. + +LEGS.--Straight and well set, level with the outside of the body with +flat bone. + +PASTERNS.--Short and springy. + +FEET.--Strong, even, and wide. + +BACK.--Long, level, and wide from neck to rump. + +LOIN.--Broad. + +TAIL.--Set high, stout and long, but not coarse, with tassel of fine +hair. + +SIDES.--Deep. + +RIBS.--Well sprung. + +BELLY.--Full, but not flabby, with straight under line. + +FLANK.--Thick, and well let down. + +QUARTERS.--Long and wide. + +HAMS.--Broad, full, and deep to hocks. + +COAT.--Long and moderately fine. + +ACTION.--Firm and free. + +SKIN.--Not too thick, quite free from wrinkles. + +Large bred pigs do not fully develop their points until some months old, +the pig at five months often proving at a year or 15 months a much +better animal than could be anticipated at the earlier age and _vice +versa_; but size and quality are most important. + +OBJECTIONS.--Black hairs, black spots, a curly coat, a coarse mane, +short snout, inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders. + + * * * * * + + +MIDDLE WHITE + +COLOUR.--White, free from black hairs or blue spots on the skin. + +HEAD.--Moderately short, face dished, snout broad and turned up, jowl +full, wide between ears. + +EARS.--Fairly large, carried erect and fringed with fine hair. + +NECK.--Medium length, proportionately full to the shoulders. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Level across the top, moderately wide, free from coarseness. + +LEGS.--Straight and well set, level with the outside of body with fine +bone. + +PASTERNS.--Short and springy. + +FEET.--Strong, even, and wide. + +BACK.--Long, level, and wide from neck to rump. + +LOIN.--Broad. + +TAIL.--Set high, moderately long, but not coarse, with tassel of fine +hair. + +SIDES.--Deep. + +RIBS.--Well sprung. + +BELLY.--Full, but not flabby, with straight under line. + +FLANK.--Thick and well let down. + +QUARTERS.--Long and wide. + +HAMS.--Broad, full, and deep to hocks. + +COAT.--Long, fine, and silky. + +ACTION.--Firm and free. + +SKIN.--Fine, and quite free from wrinkles. + +OBJECTIONS.--Black hairs, black or blue spots, a coarse mane, inbent +knees, hollowness at back of shoulders, wrinkled skin. + + * * * * * + + +TAMWORTH + +COLOUR.--Golden red hair on a flesh coloured skin, free from black. + +HEAD.--Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite straight, face +slightly dished, wide between ears. + +EARS.--Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid and inclined +slightly forward. + +NECK.--Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Fine, slanting, and well set. + +LEGS.--Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone and set well outside +body. + +PASTERNS.--Strong and sloping. + +FEET.--Strong, and of fair size. + +BACK.--Long and straight. + +LOIN.--Strong and broad. + +TAIL.--Set on high and well tasselled. + +SIDES.--Long and deep. + +RIBS.--Well sprung and extending well up to flank. + +BELLY.--Deep, with straight under line. + +FLANK.--Full and well let down. + +QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail. + +HAMS.--Broad, and full, well let down to hocks. + +COAT.--Abundant, long, straight, and fine. + +ACTION.--Firm and free. + +OBJECTIONS.--Black hair, very light or ginger hair, curly coat, coarse +mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, short or turned up +snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled skin, inbent knees, hollowness at back +of shoulders. + + * * * * * + + +BERKSHIRE PIGS + +COLOUR.--Black, with white on face, feet and tip of tail. + +SKIN.--Fine, and free from wrinkles. + +HAIR.--Long, fine, and plentiful. + +HEAD.--Moderately short, face dished, snout broad; and wide between the +eyes and ears. + +EARS.--Fairly large, carried erect or slightly inclined forward, and +fringed with fine hair. + +NECK.--Medium length, evenly set on shoulders; jowl full and not heavy. + +SHOULDERS.--Fine and well sloped backwards; free from coarseness. + +BACK.--Long and straight, ribs well sprung, sides deep. + +HAMS.--Wide and deep to hocks. + +TAIL.--Set high, and fairly large. + +FLANK.--Deep and well let down, and making straight under line. + +LEGS AND FEET.--Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart, and hoofs +nearly erect. + +IMPERFECTIONS.--A perfectly black face, foot, or tail. A white ear. A +crooked jaw. White or sandy spots, or white skin on the body. A rose +back. A very coarse mane, and inbent knees. + + * * * * * + + +LARGE BLACK PIG + +SCALE OF POINTS + + HEAD.--Medium length and wide between the ears 5 + + EARS.--Thin, inclined well over the face, and not extending + beyond point of nose 4 + + JOWL.--Medium size 3 + + NECK.--Fairly long and muscular 3 + + CHEST.--Wide and deep 3 + + SHOULDERS.--Well developed, in line with the ribs 8 + + BACK.--Long and level 15 + + RIBS.--Well sprung 5 + + SIDES.--Very deep 8 + + LOIN.--Broad 5 + + BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well developed 7 + + QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping 8 + + HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks 10 + + TAIL.--Set high, of moderate size 3 + + LEGS.--Short, straight, flat, and strong 5 + + SKIN AND COAT.--Fine and soft, with moderate quantity + of straight, silky hair 8 + + --- + 100 + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead or dished nose. Ears--thick, coarse, +or pricked. Coat--curly or coarse, with rose, bristly mane. +Skin--wrinkled. + +DISQUALIFICATION.--Colour--any other than black. + + * * * * * + + +LARGE WHITE ULSTER + +SCALE OF POINTS + + HEAD.--Moderately long, wide between the ears 5 + + EARS.--Long, thin, and inclined well over the face 6 + + JOWL.--Light 5 + + NECK.--Fairly long and muscular 2 + + CHEST.--Wide and deep 3 + + SHOULDERS.--Not coarse, oblique, narrow plate 8 + + LEGS.--Short, straight, and well set, level with the outside + of the body, with flat bone, not coarse 5 + + PASTERNS.--Straight 5 + + BACK.--Long and level (rising a little to centre of back + not objected to) 12 + + SIDES.--Very deep 10 + + RIBS.--Well sprung 5 + + LOIN.--Broad 3 + + QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping 8 + + HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks 12 + + BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well filled 5 + + TAIL.--Well set and not coarse 1 + + SKIN.--Fine and soft 10 + + COAT.--Small quantity of fine silky hair 10 + + --- + Total 100 + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead. Ears--thick, coarse, or pricked. +Coat--coarse or curly; bristly mane. + +DISQUALIFICATION.--Colour--any other than white. + + * * * * * + + +LINCOLNSHIRE CURLY-COATED PIG + +SCALE OF POINTS + + COLOUR.--White + + FACE AND NECK.--Medium length and wide between the + eyes and ears 5 + + EARS.--Medium length, and not too much over face 10 + + JOWL.--Heavy 3 + + CHEST.--Wide and deep 3 + + SHOULDERS.--Wide 15 + + BACK.--Long and level 10 + + SIDES.--Very deep, and ribs well sprung 10 + + LOIN.--Broad 5 + + QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping 5 + + HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks 15 + + TAIL.--Set high and thick 3 + + LEGS.--Short and straight 5 + + BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well filled 3 + + COAT.--Fair quantity of curly or wavy hair 8 + + --- + 100 + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead. Ears--Thin. + +DISQUALIFICATIONS.--Ears--pricked. Nose--dished or long. Coat--coarse, +straight, or bristly. Colour of hair--any other than white. + + * * * * * + + +THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE OLD SPOTS + +HEAD.--Medium length and wide between the ears, nose wide and medium +length, slightly dished. + +EARS.--Rather long and drooping. + +JOWL.--Medium size. + +NECK.--Fairly long and muscular. + +CHEST.--Wide and deep. + +SHOULDERS.--Well developed but not projecting and in line with ribs, +must not show any coarseness. + +BACK.--Long and level. + +RIBS.--Deep, well sprung. + +LOIN.--Very broad. + +SIDES.--Very deep and presenting straight bottom line. + +BELLY AND FLANK.--Full and thick. + +QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping. + +TAIL.--Set high, of moderate size, yet fairly strong and long and +carrying brush. + +HAMS.--Large, not too flat, and well filled to the hocks. + +LEGS.--Short, straight and strong. + +SKIN AND COAT.--Skin light or dark, must not show coloured splotches +otherwise than beneath the spots of the coat. The latter should be full +and fairly thick, hair long and silky but not curly, with an absence of +mane bristles. Colour: white spots on black ground, or black spots on +white ground. Such spots to be of medium size. + +TEATS.--Minimum number of teats to be considered. + +OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow, face and nose both dished. Ears--thick, +floppy, coarse, or elevated. Coat--Coarse or curly with rose; bristly +mane, or decidedly sandy colour; skewbald or saddleback markings. + + * * * * * + + +THE CUMBERLAND PIG + +HEAD.--Fairly short, wide snout, dished face, wide between ears. + +EARS.--Falling forward over face, long and thin. + +JOWL.--Heavy. + +NECK.--Fairly long and muscular. + +CHEST.--Deep and wide. + +SHOULDERS.--Deep and sloping into the back, blades not prominent, but in +line with ribs, not too wide on top. + +BACK.--Long and level or with a slight arch from head to tail. + +RIBS.--Deep and well sprung. + +LOINS.--Broad and strong. + +SIDES.--Deep. + +BELLY AND FLANK.--Full and thick. + +QUARTERS.--Long and level or with only very slight droop. + +TAIL.--Set high, not coarse. + +HAMS.--Very large and well filled to hocks. + +LEGS.--Short, straight, and strong. + +COLOUR.--White. + +SKIN AND COAT.--Smooth; hair straight, fine, and silky and not too much +of it. + +SIZE.--Large without coarseness. + +DISQUALIFICATIONS.--Black spots, black hair, prick ears. + +OBJECTIONS.--Blue spots. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _From a Painting by Wippell._ + +A BERKSHIRE SOW. + +To face page 32.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +LARGE BLACK SOW, "SUDBOURNE SADIE." + +Owner, K. M. Clark. 1st Prize and Champion, R. A. Show, Norwich. + +To face page 33.] + + + + +CHAPTER III + +CROSS-BRED PIGS + + +This term has a varying meaning to different persons. There are those +who term a pig a cross-bred unless it be bred from parents of recorded +pedigree, or those which possess pedigrees capable of registration. +Others claim that a cross-bred is any pig which is bred indiscriminately +from boar and sow of no particular type or breeding--in fact common pigs +of the country; whilst still others declare that the title of cross-bred +can be legitimately applied only to a pig whose parents were of two +different pure breeds in contradistinction to a pig sired by a pure bred +boar, and from a common sow, or the diverse way. + +It is not for us to determine the knotty point, but we may venture the +opinion that the two first definitions of a cross-bred are not +convincing to us, since in order to produce a cross-bred it is necessary +to have a sire, or a dam, or both of defined breeds. Probably the most +correct definition of a cross-bred animal is one bred from the mating of +sire and dam of two distinct breeds, but the term is now loosely applied +to an animal begotten by a sire or from a dam of pedigree breeding, the +other parent being of no particular breed. + +This system of breeding has become somewhat common owing to the +comparatively small outlay required in the purchase of a boar as +compared with the purchase of both boar and sows, and also to the belief +which is general that a greater improvement in the produce is noticeable +when the boar is pure bred and the sows of ordinary or no particular +breed, than if the sows are pure bred and the boar a common bred one. In +addition to this there is the important point that the pure bred boar +should be able to beget at least fifty litters in a year whereas the +pure bred sow will not produce more than two litters annually, so that +the advantage obtainable from the outlay on one pure bred boar is +twenty-five times as great as is possible from the purchase of a pure +bred sow. + +There is also another advantage to the owner of a boar who has only a +limited number of sows, he can allow his neighbours to make use of his +boar on payment of a liberal service fee, which combined will partially +pay for the prime cost of the boar. + +A considerable number of pig breeders are influenced in the purchase of +a pure bred boar rather than of a sow by the belief that pure bred sows +are neither so prolific nor such good mothers as are common bred sows. +This belief was even more common in years gone by than it is at the +present time, and it must be candidly confessed that there existed +substantial grounds for it. Some fifty years since it became +fashionable, particularly amongst those who had suddenly become rich by +trade or in other ways, to exhibit live-stock at the agricultural shows. +They may have been animated by the laudable desire of endeavouring to +assist farmers and stock breeders generally, or a desire to gain a place +in the sun may have had some slight influence. As the majority of these +exhibitors of stock had no special knowledge of stock, they were +compelled to place themselves entirely in the hands of their managers +and stockman, who generally received by arrangement a certain percentage +of the prize money won by the stock. It was then only natural that they +gave far more attention to the show points of the animals in their +charge than to the breeding qualities. + +The supply of pedigree animals was also very limited at about the period +mentioned so that it was much more difficult to avoid too close +breeding, nor was there the same care taken in the private record of the +pedigrees of the animals bred. These various causes combined led to a +loss of vitality amongst the so-called pedigree stock, and this +weakening of the constitution showed itself in a reduction in the number +of the offspring and in the power of the dam to furnish its young with a +full supply of well-balanced milk. + +There is little doubt that in the third quarter of the past century a +considerable proportion of the pedigree sows were not so prolific as +they ought to have been, nor did they produce and rear thoroughly well +so many pigs at each litter as the common sow of the country was capable +of doing. A more general study of stock breeding has tended to compel +attention to the practical apart from the show points of pedigree pigs, +but probably the strongest influence has been the formation of the +various breed societies, and the registration of the produce including +the number, sex, and sire of the pigs. These entries most clearly showed +those breeders of pigs who had paid most attention to the utility points +of their pigs, especially those particular points in which pedigree pigs +were generally believed to be deficient. The succeeding records of sows +of the same families afforded the best possible confirmation of the +belief which was becoming general that prolificacy like many other +qualities was most certainly hereditary. This recorded proof that pure +bred animals and especially pigs were not necessarily slow breeders, +helped vastly to increase the demand for pedigree animals for crossing +purposes in the breeding of commercial stock. + +The enormous benefit which has resulted from the use of pedigree sires +is most clearly proved in the Irish live stock. The so-called premium +bulls and boars are pedigree animals purchased by or with the sanction +of the Live Stock Commissioners and placed at the service of the general +public at a somewhat reduced fee, the Government paying to the owner an +annual premium of some [L]15 for each bull, and a certain sum for each +boar. + +It is alleged that the original improvement in the ordinary pig stock of +those parts of Ireland where pig-keeping on a considerable scale is +followed, was due to the purchase in England of numbers of Large White +boars, as after experiments carried out in Denmark, these boars were +found to effect the greatest improvement in the common country pigs and +to render them far more suitable for conversion into the kind of bacon +which was in most general demand, and of course realised the highest +price. For the beginning of the vast improvement in the Irish pig which +has followed the importation of these Large White boars, the Irish bacon +curers must receive the credit, as they joined together in the purchase +of these boars which were distributed in those districts from which the +various factories drew their supplies of fat pigs. + +A similar plan was adopted by Messrs. Harris of Calne who purchased some +hundreds of boars of the Large White breed, and at first lent them on +certain conditions to pig breeders, but later on resold the young boars +by auction for whatever they would fetch, their object being to secure +the use of these boars in order to render the farm pigs more suitable +for the purposes of their trade as bacon curers. + +There may or may not be any grounds for the belief that the sire has a +greater influence in the external form of the joint produce than does +the dam, but this belief has also had its influence in determining +breeders of cross breds to use the pure bred sire on the ordinary stock +of the country, rather than the reverse way. There is no doubt that +apart from the improvement in the general quality of the produce of the +pure bred sire there results a general uniformity of the young stock, +which is a great recommendation when they are placed on the market +either as stores, or when fattened for the butcher or bacon curer. This +uniformity of type and character in the young stock would be more +noticeable still if the buyers of the pure bred sires were to continue +their purchases from the same herds, providing that the owners of them +were sufficiently careful in avoiding incestuous breeding. + +So many people appear to be content with the knowledge that the sire +which they are purchasing has a recorded pedigree and is a pure bred +sire eligible for entry in the herd book of its breed, but they forget +that it is possible in the crossing of two pedigree animals of a similar +breed to obtain as great a mixture of blood and points as in the mating +of two cross-breds or two come-by-chances. Uniformity in a herd, stud, +or flock can only be rendered comparatively certain by the continued use +of sires of similar breeding. In making a compound, its character is +determined by the proportion of the various ingredients used in its +manufacture. So it is in the breeding of stock, those points which are +most predominant in proportion in the blood of the sire and dam will, on +the average, be represented in an equal degree in the joint produce. +This it is which renders so impressive a sire which is descended from +closely bred parents. Each of its forbears has handed down a proportion +of its own particular characteristics so that the larger the number of +animals amongst its forbears which possessed these particular points the +greater the certainty of their being possessed by the produce. The +meaning of this may be made more clear by pointing out that the result +of the mixing together of various mixtures will depend entirely on the +proportion of the substances used in the manufacture or compounding of +those mixtures. In each animal is embodied the characteristics of its +forbears. + +There exists generally an opinion that the produce of two parents of +distinct breeds, or as it is termed a first cross is commonly superior +to a pure bred of either of the two breeds represented by the parents. +It is difficult to discover the cause of this, if it be a fact. If one +of the parents were deficient in stamina the produce might conceivably +be more robust, and it might also occasionally happen that the mixture +of the qualities or properties possessed by the parents would result in +improvement, as happens when a distinct new breed is originated; but as +a rule the good and the bad qualities of the produce from the mating of +two animals of diverse breeds are in direct proportion to the qualities +possessed by the parents. + +The mere mixing of the blood of two animals differently bred cannot +increase the good or bad properties, but the combination might possibly +result in a blend more suitable for the purpose in hand. + +Another claim commonly made for the crossing of animals is that the risk +of that delicacy of constitution which they assert is far too common +amongst pure bred animals, and is due to close breeding, is hereby +avoided. It must be admitted that in times past there was a certain +amount of cause for this complaint of want of constitution amongst +pedigree animals, but the cause has been considerably if not entirely +removed by the more careful recording of the breeding, and by the more +drastic screening out of any animals suspected of delicacy of +constitution. + +The buyers of pure bred animals for crossing purposes have also become +more careful in their selection. They have ceased to imagine that +because the owner of certain animals most of which he has purchased is +successful in winning prizes at the chief agricultural shows, the whole +of the animals in his stud, herd, or flock must be of equal excellence +or at all events sufficiently good for the production of profitable +commercial stock. Action on this mistaken belief has led to much +disappointment in the past, since the home bred animals may have been of +totally different blood from those which have won prizes, and further +they may not be inbred for a sufficiently long time on distinct lines to +render them prepotent enough to impress their good qualities on their +produce. + +Amongst the objections made to cross-breeding is the heavy cost of +replacing the breeding stock, as to obtain a first cross, a succession +of sires and dams must be purchased. Many persons meet this difficulty +by merely buying sires of a breed similar to the first used, but then +the produce ceases to be cross-breds and become grades until such time +as by the use of a certain number of sires of a similar breed the +produce become eligible for entry in the herd book of the sires which +have been continuously used. This system of breeding insures a greater +uniformity in the produce providing that the sires selected are of +similar breeding, type, and character, than even by the system of +crossing sire and dam of two pure breeds. + +The risk attending too close breeding as in the breeding of pure breds +is also avoided provided that the herd from which the sires are bought +is sufficiently large to furnish a change of blood, yet of similar +breeding. + +No one possessing a knowledge of the ordinary farm stock of the country +will for one moment deny that there is still vast room for improvement +in our live stock, and particularly in our pigs, and it is equally the +fact that our Government has not shown a readiness equal to that of some +foreign Governments, and even of the authorities in some of our colonies +to assist farmers in obtaining the use of improved sires. Take Canada as +an instance. For years the Dominion Live Stock Branch has been +purchasing and delivering free into districts needing them, male animals +for the use of farmers and stock owners free, save stallions, for which +a covering fee has to be paid sufficient to cover the insurance of the +stallion. The other important condition which relates to all the sires +provided by the authorities is that the cost of maintenance shall be +paid by the Local Association which has the management of the sire and +the arrangement of its services. + +Another noticeable point is that all the sires allocated to the various +districts are Canadian bred, and so far as is possible are purchased in +the province in which they are to be located. The object is undoubtedly +to encourage in Canada the breeding of pure bred animals and may thus +far be considered satisfactory, but it is acting on an assumption which +may not be justified that there exists in the Dominion a sufficiency of +stock equal in quality and breeding to those which it may be possible to +import. + +Within the past three or four years our Board of Agriculture have taken +some steps to assist our farmers to improve their stock. The assistance +has taken the form of offering premiums of fixed amounts to private +persons or associations who hired or purchased approved stallions, +bulls, and boars which were placed at fixed fees at the service of the +stock of the public. Already great benefit has been derived from the use +of the stallions and bulls, and this to a far greater extent than in the +pigs, as owing to an unfortunate condition which was attempted to be +enforced as to the formation of pig clubs and impracticable conditions +the number of boars located in the country has been much smaller than +would have been had the conditions at present in force been adopted at +the initiation of the scheme. + +The boar conditions are now of a similar character to those in force +from the first with regard to stallions and bulls. In addition to the +supply of male animals at comparatively low fees an attempt has been +made to assist in the recording of the milk yield of cows, a matter of +the highest importance. If only this could be extended to sows there +would soon cease to be cause for the far too common complaint of the +owners of sows of certain breeds of pedigree pigs, as to the limited +quantity of milk which is provided by the sows for their litters of +pigs. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Francis Davis, Needingworth._ + +THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS. + +The Property of the Author. Also portion of 17 Sties at Holywell Manor, +near St. Ives. + +To face page 48.] + + * * * * * + + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR. + +From the Author's Pig Farm. + +To face page 49.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +DENTITION AND AGE OF PIGS + + +Although the majority of pig sellers may claim to be, and may be able to +substantiate the claim to be, equally as honest as the majority of +others in trade, yet there may be a small minority who are apt to +attempt to palm off pigs as being older than they really are. It is most +annoying when you are anxious to purchase pigs of say six or seven +months old which are quite ready to be quickly fattened, to have pigs of +four or five months old which continue to make growth instead of flesh, +so that they are not ready for killing until two or three months after +they are required for conversion into bacon. + +Although the object of the Council of the Smithfield Club is to prevent +fraud of a different character, i.e. the exhibition in classes limited +to certain ages of pigs of an age greater than that given on the entry +form, yet the following table showing the normal state of the dentition +of pigs at certain fixed ages will enable purchasers to discover whether +or not the seller has attempted to deceive him. It may at once be +admitted that there will be a limited number of cases in which the state +of dentition of pigs is abnormal, but after examining the teeth of some +thousands of pigs during the past sixty years, we have no hesitation in +asserting that more than half, at least, of the variations from the +normal are allayed dentition. It is claimed that a man of experience is +quite able to arrive at the approximate age of a pig by its development +and appearance; some few persons may have that instinctive knowledge +more or less fully developed, but this examination of the state of +dentition is of the greatest possible assistance in arriving at the +actual age of the pig, particularly desirable as it is in case of a +difference of opinion between buyer and seller. + +The following are the conditions of the state of dentition to which all +pigs have to conform ere they are allowed to compete for the prizes +offered by the Smithfield Club at their annual shows:-- + +"Pigs having their corner permanent incisors cut will be considered as +exceeding six months. + +"Pigs having their permanent tusks more than half up will be considered +as exceeding nine months. + +"Pigs having their central permanent incisors up, and any of the first +three permanent molars cut, will be considered as exceeding twelve +months. + +"Pigs having their lateral temporary incisors shed, and the permanents +appearing will be considered as exceeding fifteen months. + +"Pigs having their lateral permanent incisors fully up will be +considered as exceeding eighteen months." + +As the majority of the pigs bought of dealers by amateurs are young pigs +it may be advisable to state that a pig of the age of eight weeks old +should have its two central incisors fully grown. A pig three months +old should have all four temporary incisors cut, the two outside ones +being more than half as long as the two central incisors. + +As the first set of the teeth of a pig like that of a child are merely +temporary, and as these give place at fairly definite ages of the owner +to permanent ones, it may be well to endeavour to describe as clearly as +possible the position and appearance of the temporaries as compared with +the permanents. The pig is one of the few animals which is possessed of +teeth at its birth; these number eight, two on each side of the upper +and lower jaw. It has been suggested that these early teeth are provided +to assist the pigling to grasp firmly the sow's teat when in the act of +sucking. These eight teeth vary somewhat in length; those pigs which are +carried by the sow beyond the usual period of sixteen weeks frequently +have longer and even sharper teeth than those of pigs which are born at +the usual time. These longer teeth are also sometimes of a dark colour. +This is doubtless the origin of the remark commonly made by +old-fashioned pigmen that "pigs born with black teeth never do well." +This might have been so prior to the discovery that the breaking off the +sharp teeth of the newly born pigs frequently saved trouble, and often +the life of the little pigs. Pigs whose teeth are discoloured at birth +are usually more robust rather than the reverse, since the sow carrying +them beyond the allotted time is invariably in a vigorous state of +health, and her pigs consequently more fully developed. + +When the pig is about a month old, the two central incisors are cut in +each jaw, these are two of the four front teeth in each jaw of the pig +at a subsequent age. Two temporary molars are also cut on each side of +the jaw above and below, with the first temporary molar in each place +ready to come through the gum. + +At two months the temporary central incisors are fully developed, and +the two lateral temporary incisors can be seen in the gums, if they are +not already through. All three temporary molars are now about level. + +When the pig is about three months old its temporary teeth are all in +position, the temporary lateral incisors are through, and nearly as long +as the temporary central incisors. Owing to the lengthening of the jaws +the two temporary corner teeth which were present at birth will have +become further apart. When the pig is about five months, the fourth +molar in either jaw shows itself in the gums, then at six months the +wolf teeth show between the tusks and the premolars, and the fourth +molar is nearly level with the first premolar. The corner incisors and +the tusks usually disappear, and are replaced by permanents when the pig +is nine months old. The second permanent molar also shows itself. At +twelve months the two central temporary incisors give place to the +permanents; these last are more square in form than the temporaries, and +are thus easily distinguished. The three temporary molars will also be +ready for displacement by three permanents. These last will be level +with the other permanent molars when the pig is fifteen months. The two +lateral incisors will also have given place to permanents. At eighteen +months the third permanent molars will be coming through, and at the age +of twenty months the pig's teeth are fully developed. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +SELECTION OF THE BOAR + + +The hackneyed saying "The sire is half the herd" appears to have a +different meaning to varying persons. To some it conveys the idea that +the selection of the sire is of far more importance than the selection +of the dam because the influence of the sire is so much more powerful +than that of the dam on at least the external form and character of the +produce. The late Mr. James Howard, who took a particularly keen +interest in the breeding of pigs, used to declare that the appearance +and form of the young pigs far more generally followed those of the sire +than of the dam; whilst the influence of the latter was more shown in +the character and constitution of their joint produce; or in other +words, that the boar stamped his character to a greater extent on the +external points of the young, whilst the sow more strongly influenced +the internal parts of the youngsters. It is quite possible that this +idea has gained ground to a large extent from the fact that the use of a +pure bred sire on ordinary or grade females has been very much more +common than the crossing of pure bred females by the ordinary or +non-pedigree sire; as also from the far greater numbers of young which +each pure bred sire would improve, than would be improved by each pure +bred female which might be crossed. + +If only for this reason alone, we would always recommend buyers who are +desirous of grading up and improving their farm stock to attempt to do +this by the purchase or use of the pure bred or improved sire. The +original outlay is infinitely less, whilst the immediate results are +comparatively longer. + +It is scarcely desirable to go further into the question as to the +comparative influence on the young of the sire and the dam since our +actual knowledge of the subject is by no means large. Indeed, it is at +the least doubtful, if by the closest observation any definite opinion +on the subject is possible, so great is the difference which varying +parents have on the chief characteristics of their joint progeny, and +even in the separate specimens which they have procreated. Of course, it +is quite possible to breed animals especially well developed or endowed +with certain qualities, providing that the parents have been for +generations selected because of their possession in a marked degree of +those particular qualities sought. It is in this power of prepotency +that one of the chief benefits from the use of a pure bred sire or dam +arises. By the term pure bred is not meant merely that the names of a +certain number of the forbears of the animal shall have been recorded in +the register of the breed, but that the animal shall for a certain +number of generations have been bred on similar lines so that it shall +possess a considerable amount of concentrated blood. This is a point to +which sufficient care is not generally given by purchasers of so-called +pedigree sires to be used on the ordinary bred or graded stock. The far +too common practice is to purchase each boar required from a totally +different herd, or from one of quite dissimilar breeding, with the +result that there is not the slightest uniformity in the appearance or +character of the herd, or of the mature animals when ready for market. + +It is far too frequently forgotten that the chief value of a record of +the pedigree is that by it one can trace the breeding of the animal's +progenitors, and thus one is enabled to form some opinion of the +probable produce--providing it is possible to learn the chief +characteristics of the progenitors. Failing this, the only course open +is to note the names of the breeders of the more recent parents, as from +this a certain amount of information as to the probable qualities of the +parents may be obtained or surmised. + +Another point on which at least a diversity of opinion exists, is the +wisdom of giving so much consideration to the fact that the herd from +which the sire is purchased shall have been recently successful in the +show yard, or in extreme cases, that the sire itself shall have been a +prize winner. It is urged that the mere fact that a sire has succeeded +in winning one or more prizes is a proof that it possesses in a marked +degree those qualities which are most highly prized. This may be +conceded, yet there is no certainty that the mating of this winning sire +even with dams that have also been prize winners shall result in the +production of young the equal of the parents, since the winners at the +various shows may be of dissimilar types and breeding. + +But the case would be quite different if the winning sire and dam came +from the same old established herd in which the animals had been bred +for generations on similar lines. It is this concentration of certain +qualities in generation after generation which renders the pedigree +animal so intensely prepotent, particularly when mated with animals of +an ordinary character or not possessing concentrated breeding. Indeed, +it may be safely assumed that the power of a parent to impress its own +individuality and qualities on its produce, depends to a very large +extent, if not entirely, on the comparative hereditary extent of those +qualities in comparison with the other qualities possessed by itself, or +by the animal with which it may have been mated. + +In other words, it is contended that the sire or the dam has not the +power to impress certain of its characteristics on its young, merely +because of its sex, but that this power depends on the proportion in the +sire or dam of the blood of progenitors who possessed in a marked degree +certain qualities. + +It is with the breeding of animals as with the manufacture of a compound +article. The character and quality of that compound will vary according +to the proportion of the various ingredients used in its manufacture. It +is to this law or fact that the marked impressiveness of certain strains +of blood is attributable. + +Again, the marked and long continued success of the blood of the +animals bred by a few of our most successful breeders of live stock is +in the main due to the fact that the owners set up a standard and +persistently selected and bred together only animals possessing to a +greater or lesser extent the particular qualities which together +comprised that standard. There is not the slightest doubt that in +carrying out their system they were often compelled to mate animals +related in blood the one to the other, but in this there is little risk +providing that all those animals which show the slightest symptom of +delicacy of constitution are persistently draughted out. + +It will be inferred from the above remarks that we hold to the belief +that the breeding of the boar should receive attention as well as the +following points in its form and character. + +One of the most important of these points is good temper. This is a +quality not usually attributed to the pig in its wild state, and +consequently not natural to the domesticated pig, yet on the possession +of it depends to a very great extent the thrift and well doing of the +produce of the boar. The produce of an irritable boar are almost certain +to inherit this quality which is fatal to profitable fatting. In sows +this weakness is still more unfortunate, as a bad tempered sow is almost +invariably an indifferent mother. The rigid avoidance of this failing of +bad temper in a boar is advisable not only because this quality is +almost invariably hereditary, but a savage boar is a continual source of +danger to man and beast. It may be said that little trouble is likely if +the boar is kept in confinement, but there are times, such as when sows +are placed with him, when a certain amount of liberty must be given to +him, and it is generally on such occasions of excitement when the bad +temper is the most in evidence. The mere fact that irritability and +nervousness are natural to the pig should make us the more careful to +avoid any increase in the failing by using a boar which is the least +inclined to be bad tempered. + +Many persons hold that in the selection of a boar one of the principal +points is size. They contend that size, in pigs especially, is +imperative if a profitable return is to be made. This view may have +arisen to a greater or lesser extent from the want of method and +observation which is characteristic of so many stock owners. The one +point which to them is of the greatest importance is the selling price +of the fat or store animal sold being fully up to the average. Little or +no thought is given to the value of the food eaten by each animal. If it +had been, very frequently it would have been found that the smaller +animal of a lot had actually given the best return for the food it had +consumed. It is not the size alone of the animal which determines its +value as the producer of meat, but more than anything it is the feeding +qualities of the animal fattened. In addition to this there never was a +time when the consumer more strongly demanded small joints of meat, and +these of the best quality and with as little bone as possible. + +Apart from this a very large boar is a mistake as it is invariably +awkward when serving--it can be used only for large and strong sows, and +its average period of usefulness is decidedly shorter than that of a +medium sized and compact boar. A large boar generally possesses an undue +proportion of bone, its shoulders are heavy, and its ankles round, and +feet large and spreading. Now these are all objections. The bone of a +boar should be solid, not porous; the ankles compact and the feet small, +and the pasterns short. The head should be wide so that the brain can be +well developed, the head inclined to be short rather than long, since an +animal with an extremely long head is certain to be deficient in natural +flesh. + +On the question of the size and hang of the ears a variety of opinion +exists; pigs with long ears, and pigs with short ears are found +possessing good carcases. It is the quality of the ear rather than its +size and hang which seems to indicate the character most. A pig with a +thin and firm ear is usually of fine quality, whereas a pig which has a +thick, coarse ear is generally coarse in bone, skin, flesh, and hair. + +The neck of the boar should be muscular as indicating constitution and +natural vigour; the shoulders fine and obliquely laid, the ribs well +sprung, the loin wide, the quarters long and square, not drooping, the +hams full and extending quite down to the hocks, and without any of that +loose skin which is far too common amongst the largest of our breeds of +pigs, and which is a sure sign of coarseness. The flank should be thick +and well let down, as this indicates constitution and lean meat, the +legs should be fairly short and set well apart so that the heart, lungs, +and other organs have plenty of room to perform their share of the work +of the pig. The skin should be fine and the hair straight and silky, as +well as plenty of it. Sparsity of hair is generally an indication of +shortage of lean meat, whilst curliness and coarseness of hair are far +too frequently associated with excessive fat and coarseness of meat. + +With regard to the reproductive parts of the boar there are one or two +points which should receive special attention. A boar with excessively +small testicles should be avoided, as such a one is often barren. Again, +a boar with one testicle of normal size and the other smaller, +ordinarily suffers from the same disqualification to a lesser extent. A +ruptured boar should not on any account be used, as this weakness is +strongly hereditary. The weakness may not possibly show itself in the +first generation, but it is certain to appear sooner or later. Not only +is it a sure index of weakness of constitution, but pigs so affected +occasionally die suddenly, whilst there is always a certain amount of +risk from the operation of castration. + +Occasionally one or more of the boar pigs of a litter will be found to +be malformed, in that only one of the testicles is apparent. Generally +speaking, the other is found when the pig is killed to be attached to +the inside of the pig, and thus is unable to descend into the scrotum or +purse, so that the act of castration is only partially performed. A boar +pig with only one testicle down is commonly termed a rig. The removal of +one of the testicles does not deprive the rig of reproducing its +species, and it is thus a source of continual trouble when herded with a +lot of sow pigs now that the general custom is to allow the female pigs +of a litter to remain unspayed. It is, therefore, necessary to fatten a +rig either alone, or with male pigs which have been operated upon. In +addition to this extra trouble, the flesh of a rig pig if it be kept +fattening after it is some five or six months old is almost certain to +be strong in flavour, like unto that of a boar. It is, therefore, +advisable to fatten a rig quite early in life and convert it into a +porket or porker carcase of pork. + +It may appear strange to some readers to specially mention the teats of +the boar, but it is equally as necessary to avoid boars having small +teats, teats unevenly placed, and commencing any distance from the fore +legs, and blind teats, as it is in the case of the sow, since any +weaknesses of the kind are equally as hereditary from the boar as from +the sow. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +SELECTION OF THE SOW + + +It is impossible to agree with the view held by so many persons that the +necessity for the same care is non-existent in the selection of a sow as +in the choice of a boar. We hold that the desirability for studying the +forbears, especially the dam, of a young sow intended for breeding +purposes is fully as great as when selecting the young boar, since many, +if not most, of the qualities which we desire the brood sow to possess +are strongly hereditary. Take, for instance, the question of gentleness +or a quiet disposition, it follows from dam to produce with a regularity +equal to that of bad temper, and the latter is wellnigh a certainty. +Again, whoever found that the female produce of a sow deficient in the +maternal instincts proved, if saved for breeding purposes, to be a +really good mother? As a rule the daughters of a sow which gives but a +small quantity of milk, and that of an inferior quality, are also cursed +with the same grievous failings, but this does not appear to be +universally the case, since the milking qualities of the dam descend +through her sons, so that if the female progenitors of the boar have +been good milkers it is probable that the boar's daughters may be able +to rear their pigs successfully, even if their dam had not been in the +habit of suckling her pigs well. + +Still, it is quite safe to assert that with this one exception we may +fairly anticipate that the good qualities which we seek in a sow are far +more likely to be found in the sow pigs of a sow herself the possessor, +than from one which does not possess them. We are inclined to the belief +that the alleged failure of some pedigree yelts to make good brood sows +is in the main due to the continued selection for breeding purposes of +those pure-bred yelts which show early maturing and flesh-forming +qualities, rather than that motherly look which is almost invariably to +be found in a sow which is prolific, a free milker, and a really good +mother. There is a marked difference in the formation of a milk-giving +and a fat-producing sow--the latter is generally somewhat heavy in the +shoulders, has a muscular or fat neck, is rather short in the head and +heavy in the jowl, and is altogether more compactly built, whereas a +good brood sow has rather a long face, is wide between the eyes, has a +light muscular neck, is fine in the shoulders, possesses long and square +quarters and appears to be heavier in the hind than in the forequarters. +She is somewhat more loosely built and often shows less of quality. +Thickness of flank and length of side are desirable, the first as +indicating substance and flesh, whilst the second gives plenty of room +for her pigs to suck. The bone should be of good quality; the same +remarks apply to the skin and hair. + +About half a century since there existed a fancy, which almost amounted +to a craze for sows of small size; they could not be too neat, and +showing too much so-called feminine character. The almost certain result +of selecting the neatest of the female pigs followed, the fat pigs sent +to market were light in weight, deficient in lean meat and rightly named +"animated bladders of lard." Within about the same distance of time it +was the common practice of exhibitors of pigs at the Smithfield Club's +Shows to provide pillows in the form of round pieces of wood on which +the fat pigs rested their heads so that these were raised in order to +prevent the pigs becoming suffocated. In addition, the pigs were fed on +forcing foods until they were at least one and a half year old and +allowed to take, or were given little exercise, with the result that the +pork consisted mainly of soft fat or lard. To such an extent had this +craze for neatness been followed that the bacon curers and consumers of +pork wellnigh ceased to purchase or consume pork. + +At the present time we are afraid that the tendency is in the opposite +direction, and mere size is receiving far too much attention. At some of +our agricultural shows the judges select for honour great unwieldly sows +which could not possibly perform with any amount of success those +maternal duties which a brood sow is supposed to be kept solely to +perform. An extremely large sow is very frequently a poor milker, the +quantity of milk she gives is not large, nor does she continue to give +even this reduced supply for a period long enough to allow her young to +grow strong enough to make a good start in life on their own account. + +Another great objection to a sow of extreme size is that her produce +almost invariably take after her to such an extent that it is difficult, +if not wellnigh impossible, to make them fat until they are from nine to +twelve months old, and by that time they are too large and heavy for the +general demand which is at the present time, and likely to become still +more so in the future, for small joints of meat which carry a large +proportion of lean and a limited quantity of bone. The most successful +manufacturer is he who most nearly supplies the consumer with that which +he requires or fancies. We are not moved by the contention of breeders +of pedigree pigs that the most valuable pig is the one which possesses +in the greatest degree those special points which are characteristic of +the breed, as, for instance, size in the pigs of the Large White, the +Large Black, and the Lincolnshire Curly Coated pigs, therefore the +biggest pigs should be held in the highest esteem. In our opinion the +best, as it is in the long run the most profitable, is the pig which +furnishes to the greatest extent exactly the kind of meat in the most +general demand. + +In addition to these objections to an extremely large and ungainly sow +is the fact that such an one is invariably clumsy in the breeding pen, +she is almost certain to lay on some of her pigs. It is even alleged +that her period of usefulness as a breeder is shorter than that of a sow +of ordinary size. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +TAMWORTH BOAR: BISHOP OF WEBTON. Owner, C. L. Coxon. 1st and Champion, +Royal Show. + +To face page 64] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, G. H. Parsons, Rostrevor._ + +GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW. From the herd of Lord Sherbourne. + +To face page 65.] + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE SOW'S UDDER + + +One of the most important points in connection with the reproduction of +the species of our various domestic animals is the provision of a full +supply of milk for the young in the early portion of their existence. +Nature herself has set us a good example in a duplicated source of milk +supply even amongst animals which usually produce only one animal at a +birth. If this duplication be necessary under such conditions, it must +be imperative on us to select those sow pigs which are intended for +breeding pigs which possess a well-formed udder, having a full supply of +teats, and these of good shape and properly placed on the belly of the +sow. Not only is this necessary to ensure the rearing of a fairly +numerous litter of pigs in a satisfactory manner, but it is held that +the number of teats possessed by a sow indicates to a remarkable extent +the probable degree of prolificacy of the sow. One can readily +understand that nature would not be likely to endow a sow with the power +to produce a larger number of young at each birth than she would be able +to rear. Of course it may be said that the sow of the present day is not +as nature first made her, in that, by selection and by feeding, the +number of pigs produced at each birth is now so much larger than the +litters of the wild sows, which have some seven or eight teats and +farrow at each litter a similar number of pigs. On the other hand, +neither the number of teats nor of the young is fixed either in the +domesticated sow, or the sow in a wild state, so that by continued +selection we are able to permanently increase, within limits, the +production of larger litters and the increased supply of milk for their +sustenance when young. + +The provision of a suitable udder is even of more importance with the +domesticated than with the sow running wild, since the latter produces +each year one litter only, and that in the season of the year when the +young are less dependent on their dams; whereas the domesticated sow is +expected to rear at least two litters per year, and frequently owing to +want of care on the part of the owner the young pigs are farrowed at the +most unfavourable time of the year. + +Apart from the provision of a certain number of teats there is another +point to be considered, the power of the sow to produce milk enough to +satisfy the given number of pigs. This of course varies with each family +or tribe of pigs, and even with the various members in it, so that to +obtain the best results selection must be made of the produce of those +sows which give the largest quantity of the most nutritious milk. There +exists amongst pig keepers a difference of opinion as to the number of +pigs each sow should be allowed to rear, probably the average of this +number would be ten for a mature sow, and seven or eight for a first +litter. If so, the selected sow pig should possess twelve teats, as +frequently one of these may not give a full supply of milk from either +natural or accidental causes. The teats should be regular in size and +form. It is not uncommon to find one or more of the teats of a sow much +smaller in size than the others. These smaller teats will produce a +reduced quantity of milk, so that the pigling which is unfortunate +enough to decide on making this small teat its very own--and each +pigling is confined by the others to its own special teat--is certain to +be less well developed than its brothers and sisters, even if it should +succeed in surviving. + +The necessity for the teats being placed equidistant the one from the +other arises from the desirability of each pig having room to suck +comfortably. Should two of the teats be closely placed the two pigs will +probably fight, when not only will sores be caused on the cheeks of the +pigs, but the milk in the teats not properly drawn will gradually cease +to flow. + +Another point of great importance is that the teats should commence as +near as possible to the fore legs--this for two reasons: it gives more +room for the pigs to suck as they grow larger; the other and more +important one is that the teats most forward on the udder of the sow +produce the larger quantity of milk, or milk of a better quality. It +will be almost invariably found that the pigs sucking the foremost teats +thrive the best. + +It is advisable to avoid the selection of a female pig for breeding +purposes from a sow which has large and coarse teats, as these +invariably accompany coarseness of skin, bone, hair, and flesh, this in +turn affects the sale value of the carcase. It will also be found that +those sows with a neat and compact udder, with fine teats, will give +more milk and a better quality than sows possessing a coarse and flabby +udder. + +Another weakness to be avoided when selecting a sow pig for breeding +purposes is that which is commonly termed a blind teat, since it is +undoubtedly hereditary in addition to being useless for the purpose of +rearing pigs. The normal teat projects boldly from the udder, whereas +the blind teat is almost flat or on a level with the udder. In +appearance it resembles a ring of skin with a depressed nipple in its +centre. At the time of parturition the blind teat contains milk to the +same extent as do the other teats, but it promptly dries up since it is +impossible for the little pigs to extract the milk from it since the +nipple recedes as soon as the pigling attempts to clasp it with its lips +and tongue, instead of becoming more extended so that the little pig can +suck the milk from it. + +An ideal udder can be briefly described as one possessing at least +twelve fully developed teats, the more the better--these should commence +from a point as near the fore legs of the sow as possible, and be placed +as nearly as possible an equal distance the one from the other. + +Some persons hold that large teats and much loose skin are sure +indications that the sow has proved to be a good milker. This is a +mistaken view; it is with sows as with cows, the most prolific milkers +are those with well formed and soft udders which almost disappear when +the lactation period has passed. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +MATING THE YOUNG SOW + + +As in most other details in the management of our domesticated animals +there exists a variety of opinion as to the age at which the young sow, +or, as it is commonly locally termed, a gilt, yelt, yilt, hilt, elt, +etc., should be mated with the boar. Perhaps the most important point to +consider is the time of the year when the anticipated pigs should +arrive. If possible the period between the middle of the month of +September and the middle of December should be avoided. The long nights +and the short and dull days generally experienced during this period are +most unsuitable for young pigs. Many litters of pigs farrowed in October +are not any larger nor nearly as thrifty in the month of March as those +farrowed during the early portion of January in the following year, and +very frequently the loss amongst the October and November farrowed pigs +from lameness, or, as it is commonly termed, cramp, is very large. An +attempt should be made so that the two litters which should be bred each +year from the sow arrive so that they are weaned during the longer and +brighter days of the year; thus a sow which farrows in the beginning of +February may be expected to farrow again in July. The weather is +sometimes rather cold for little pigs early in the year, but it is +surprising how little they are affected by it providing the sow +furnishes a good supply of milk and the bedding is dry and plentiful. +The pigs farrowed in the months of January and February are generally +the most profitable, as they will be ready for the consumption of the +separated milk, butter milk, whey, etc., which is generally abundant in +the month of May in districts where dairying and cheese making are +followed. These pigs are also ready for turning out to grass in April or +May, or as soon as the weather is suitable, and the grass has grown +sufficiently. These young pigs will grow and thrive splendidly providing +that some additional food is fed to them and shelter provided. + +This natural system of pig raising is of great benefit to those pigs +which are intended for breeding purposes and was consistently followed +by the writer from the year 1863. It was by no means a new plan even at +that period, although strange claims have recently been made that the +system is a novel one and originated in the fertile brain of one or two +enthusiasts who have gone the whole hog in pig breeding. In the middle +of the last century it was quite a common practice in parts of the +counties of Cambridge, Essex, and Suffolk to graze the seeds which +comprised clovers, trefoils, etc., with pigs which received in addition +extra food, such as peas or beans in accordance with the amount of +vegetable food obtainable or the purpose for which the pigs were +required; those intended for pork receiving the larger supply. + +Although it may not be possible to allow the young boar pigs to have +their liberty after they become five months old, yet the sow pigs will +grow and develop far better in the field if properly fed than they will +in an inclosed sty; further, the young pigs which they produce will be +much more lusty than if the sows had been kept in close confinement. + +Although the sow pig will generally come in heat when she is about six +months old, it is advisable that she should not be mated until she is +some eight months old, so that her first litter of pigs is not farrowed +until she is about a year old, when she should be quite strong enough to +rear a fair litter of pigs and also to grow and develop into a fully +natured specimen of its breed. + +In some districts where the breeding pigs are generally kept in +confinement and high keeping is followed the sow pigs are mated with the +boar at an earlier age, but the system has its disadvantages which more +than outweigh the saving of the extra few weeks of the keep of the yelt +ere she is put to the boar. This early mating is especially harmful if +the number of the pigs in the first litter should be large. So few pig +keepers have the hardihood to knock a certain portion of the too +numerous litter on the head, and so reduce the number to say seven or +eight, which most young sows should be able to rear fairly well and +without any undue drain on the sow's system--but the whole of the large +litter are left on the sow, which becomes very much reduced in +condition, and checked in growth, whilst the too large litter of pigs +are badly reared and frequently become a source of trouble and +annoyance to the owner. + +On the other hand, there are many practical pig keepers who make it a +rule to delay the mating of their young sows beyond the eight months' +age. They contend that a sow pig at eight months is not sufficiently +matured to bear the strain of producing a litter of pigs when she is +about one year old, and then to furnish the pigs with a sufficiency of +milk to give them a good start in life. The plan which they adopt is to +mate the sow when she is about a year old so that she is some sixteen +months old before her family troubles commence. + +Another very curious reason has been recently made public by an +enthusiastic novice for delaying the mating of the yelt until she is at +least a year old. It is the following, that it is quite possible to +ensure that the produce of young sows which have reached the age of +sixteen or seventeen months ere they farrow their first litter shall +possess the desired characteristics of the breed, whereas this is by no +means certain if the young pigs arrive before the sow has reached that +age or is about a year old. Unfortunately, we have see no attempt made +to account for this alleged curious variation in the qualities inherited +from a parent of about one year old and the parent which had arrived at +the more matured age of about sixteen months, so that it is impossible +to discover a solution of the strange problem. + +Therefore, we should be unable to admit the correctness of the assertion +even though it was not directly in opposition to our belief which is +founded on experience of a most extensive character extending over some +sixty years. To aver that the power of a young sow to impress its +hereditary characteristics on its young are only fully developed by +deferring the arrival of the young pigs for four or five months, or +until the sow is sixteen instead of twelve months old when she farrows +must surely cause surprise, if not, disbelief. Perhaps the object of the +propounder of the theory was to create a discussion--it could not have +been to bring his name prominently before the public. + +Another advantage in mating the young sow so that her first litter +appears when she is about a year old, her daughters will in turn farrow +during the most suitable months of the year, providing of course that +she herself had been farrowed in early spring or about the month of +July. + +When the sow pig which is intended to be kept for breeding has been +farrowed in some other part of the year, it is advisable to defer beyond +the eight months the mating of her so that she farrows at the best +times, or perhaps even better than that, if the pigs are not intended +for breeding purposes, would it be to have the sow mated when she is +about eight months old, and then allow the pigs to remain on the sow a +few weeks beyond the usual period of eight weeks so that the pigs are +taken off the sow three or four days before it is desired to have her +again mated with the boar. The risk of the sow returning to the boar +will be minimised, as a sow which has been baulked is sometimes +difficult to settle. In addition, the sow will be stronger and more +vigorous and likely to produce a strong litter of pigs, whilst the +piglings will scarcely miss their mother's milk when they are weaned +from her. + +Those pig breeders who are in favour of withholding the boar from the +young sow until she is about a year old aver that early mating results +in the sow becoming worn out and useless for breeding at a much younger +age than if she be not mated until she is well matured. This is not in +accordance with the writer's experience, as many of his sows which +farrowed their first litter when they were about a year old continued to +breed regularly until they were six or seven years old--indeed, one +Middle White, Holywell Victoria Countess farrowed her last litter when +she was in her eleventh year. This sow also disproved the confident +assertion that the showing of sows renders them comparatively useless +for breeding purposes, since she not only continued to rear her pigs +well, but she produced a number of most successful prize winning boars +and sows, and also won many prizes herself from the age of five months +to five years. + +The principal cause of premature old age amongst sows is not due to +their being first mated when they are eight months old, but to the want +of care in the management and feeding of the sow during her pregnancy +and whilst she is suckling her litter of pigs. To a sow with a good +constitution the act of breeding and rearing a family of pigs is only +the most important act of nature which cannot be harmful to her, +providing that she received that amount of proper food and attention +which nature required. + +There may be very occasional instances of harm being done to the +breeding sow by over feeding, or rather by injudicious feeding, but in +comparison there are hundreds of instances where under feeding and +neglect are the cause of trouble and loss. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE FARROWING SOW + + +The pregnant sow usually carries her pigs about sixteen weeks. The +variations are neither great nor numerous, when they do occur it is +usually with sows with their first litters or aged sows which sometimes +farrow ere the full time has expired, or with robust sows in good +condition which occasionally carry their young beyond the one hundred +and twelve days which may be taken as the average period. + +We assume that each owner of a breeding sow keeps a record of the date +of service of the sow in order that the necessary preparation of the +sty, etc., can be made in readiness for the arrival of the expected +litter. Even when this wise precaution is neglected nature gives a +sufficient warning to the observant owner. Apart from the increasing +size of the body, the udder gradually becomes more prominent, and each +pap becomes more defined, the vulva becomes enlarged and the muscles on +either side of the tail fall away and lose their tenseness, whilst in +the vast majority of cases milk appears in the udder some twelve hours +before the arrival of the pigs. The teats shine and become more +prominent, the presence of milk is easily ascertained by gently +pressing the teat between the finger and thumb. + +Another certain indication of the early arrival of a family is the act +of the sow carrying straw about in her mouth wherewith to make her +farrowing bed. + +One of the chief causes of trouble with the farrowing sow arises from +the sow not having been allowed to take sufficient exercise. Of course, +the best of all systems is to allow the sow its complete freedom at all +seasons of the year save when she is within about a fortnight of her +time, and when she is rearing a litter of pigs. Even if there be no +grass field or paddock in which she is able to pick up a good portion of +her living, or a roadside where she can get a few blades of grass, an +open yard is infinitely better than the confinement of a sty, as apart +from the reduction in the cost of keep, the sow will produce stronger +pigs, and have a decidedly easier time of farrowing. + +In the case of a sow showing a disinclination to take a sufficiency of +exercise either owing to laziness, to high condition, or heaviness of +body, it is advisable to exercise her by walking her about quietly for a +short time each morning and evening before and after the heat of the day +has become excessive, or has passed off. + +There is a difference of opinion amongst pig breeders as to the +desirability or the reverse of having someone in attendance on the sow +during the time she is farrowing. Those who object to this procedure do +so on the ground that the presence of a man simply tends to irritate the +sow, and to frequently cause her to become restless, with the result +that the little pigs are trodden upon or become laid upon and killed. +This view is generally held by those who are not particularly fond of +animals, as evidenced by that occasional intercourse between pig and +owner which consists of rubbing the head of the pig, or scratching its +side, when in response to the pleasant sensation it rolls over on to its +side like Oliver and asks for more. The trouble if any, which arises +from the owner or pig man being in the sty with the farrowing sow almost +invariably arises from the absence of a sympathetic feeling between the +two. Sows, and indeed wellnigh all animals, pine for sympathy and +company, and no animal more so than a pig. Still there are very +occasional instances where the young sow becomes very excitable as she +commences to farrow even when she and her owner or attendant have +previously been on the best of terms. But there the cause is not the +presence of a human being, but the arrival of one of her own little +pigs. So long as the pigling remains quiet there is peace, but as soon +as the youngster endeavours to get to the teat and especially if in the +endeavour it utters a cry or a squeak, the young sow will jump up from +her nest and endeavour to seize the youngster in her mouth, when unless +prevented the sow quickly squeezes all life out of the pig; and in some +cases when the pressure has been so severe as to break the skin of the +piglet, and the sow tastes blood, she will proceed to eat the dead pig. +When affairs have arrived at this sad state, the chances of the +remaining pigs having a pleasant reception into the world are +comparatively slight. + +When there exists a good understanding between the sow and attendant, as +there invariably is when the latter is not rough and unkind, as only bad +tempered men can be, the trouble in a case such as just referred to is +greatly reduced, as the attendant runs no risk in entering the sty and +in removing the little pigs as they arrive, and placing them in a hamper +or box partially filled with straw until such time as the sow has +completed her farrowing, when the pigs can be placed against the sow's +udder, and providing they do not bite her, all will settle down in peace +and comfort. + +In order to avoid the slightest risk of trouble it is advisable when the +pigs are apart from the sow to break off with a pair of pliers the four +little teeth with which the pigs are endowed prior to their birth. Care +being taken to remove the pigs beyond the hearing of the sow each little +pig in turn is tucked under the left arm, the mouth is opened by the +left hand, and the teeth pressed hard with the pliers, or even a slight +turn of the wrist given, when necessary, and the brittle teeth are +crushed. + +As soon as the placenta or afterbirth is ejected this should be removed. +A little slop food should be fed to the sow, and whilst she is eating +it, the wettest part of the bedding should be replaced by a little short +and dry straw just enough to render the nest comfortable for the little +pigs. The nest should be disturbed as little as possible, as should the +whole of it be removed and fresh straw given, the sow will probably +spend a considerable time in remaking the nest, and in the meantime the +little pigs will be in danger from a chill, or in being mixed up in the +straw and being laid upon. The risk from delay in the sow laying down +and suckling her pigs is much greater in cold weather, as not only will +they become chilled, but they will persist in crowding round the sow and +so run the greater risk of being trodden upon, or rolled up in the +bedding in the effort of the sow to remake her comfortable nest. + +Some persons strongly recommend the giving of a strong dose of medicine +to the sow after she has farrowed. In ordinary cases this is not +necessary, the farrowing of a litter of pigs is a simple and natural +operation. In those occasional instances where manual assistance has to +be given to the sow owing to the unusual size of the pig, or wrong +presentation, or even of a pig which has been dead for a day or two and +has begun to decompose and consequently to increase in bulk, it is +advisable to give medicine to the sow, since there is every probability +of some amount of inflammation due to the insertion of the hand. As the +sow's bowels are likely to be somewhat constipated it is always +advisable to exercise her for a few minutes during the morning after she +has farrowed. In most cases the exercise will at once cause her to +relieve her bowels and her bladder, when she can be returned to her sty. + +We found sharps, or the finest portion of miller's offals (which usually +go by varying names in different parts of the country), the most +suitable food for newly farrowed sows, and until the pigs were at least +four weeks old. Some persons recommend that a portion of the food should +consist of bran, this on two grounds--the first that its use tends to +prevent constipation, and secondly on account of the food analysis which +it gives. Our experience has been that when sharps are fed to the sow no +trouble should arise from constipation, whilst as to the nutriment which +bran contains the claim may be good, but the pig is unable to extract +it; so large a proportion of the bran passes through the pig in an +undigested condition. As a rule the pig, unlike the horse, cow, or +sheep, does not masticate its food, nor does it, like the two last +named, chew its cud, but it usually bolts its food, and thus casts a +greater labour on its digestive organs which have neither the time nor +power to extract the whole of the nutriment from the bran. In addition +to this, bran tends to too great looseness of the bowels, which in the +case of young pigs tends to become diarrh[oe]a. + +There is a tendency on the part of some pigmen who are over anxious to +succeed to feed the sow too large a quantity of food during the first +ten days or so after she has farrowed. During this period the demand on +the sow is really not much greater than it was during the last two or +three weeks of carrying the pigs. As the pigs grow older an increased +supply of food is necessary, but for a week or two after the arrival of +the pigs twice feeding of the sow should suffice unless she is very low +in condition, or a very large litter of pigs is left on her. In such +cases it may be advisable to feed her three times per day just as much +as she will promptly clear up. It is a great mistake to give so much +food at one time that a portion is left over in the trough, +particularly is this so when the pigs are over three weeks old, as +nothing so quickly upsets the stomachs of the youngsters as sour food. +If in ordinary cases feeding the sow three times daily is persisted in, +the same quantity of food given should simply be distributed over the +three feedings, as an excess of food is only less a mistake than +underfeeding. + +Three of the most common troubles with young pigs are diarrh[oe]a, fits, +and loss of the tail. There is a belief amongst many old pigmen that +every litter of pigs is bound to have at least one attack of diarrh[oe]a +ere it is weaned. They look upon it as a fatality which is certain to +eventuate, no matter what steps may be taken. Of course, this is folly. +The liability of little pigs to an attack of what is commonly called +scouring is great as the causes are several, amongst them the greatest +is perhaps a chill which may arise from draughts owing to faulty +construction of the sty doors or ventilators neglected; insufficient, +unsuitable, or damp bedding; neglect of proper sanitation, or the +frequent cleaning out of the sty; and most frequently of all from +injudicious feeding of the sow. In fact, anything which affects the +health of the young pig to any great extent appears to result in +indigestion, which causes constipation, and this in turn nature +endeavours to remove by a special effort which softens the faeces +somewhat. On removal of the cause of the constipation, the bowels +perform their duty normally, but if this be not removed the result is +diarrh[oe]a, which again if continued for any length of time often +becomes dysentery, when the fever is acute; the pigling neglects its +mother's teat, and instead sucks up any moisture however foul which it +can find in the sty. This is almost invariably a precursor of death. + +From the above it will be gathered that prevention is better than cure. +In case of an attack, the first thing is to discover the cause, and the +second is to remove it, when, generally speaking, the trouble ceases. As +a help to this end, depriving the sow of one meal is recommended. Coal, +cinders, or even earth will be readily eaten by the young pigs and prove +of benefit. Medicine is not often required if the steps recommended are +promptly taken. + +In our earlier days hog's madder was the common medicine used with pigs +for most ailments, but of late years sulphur appears to have taken its +place. It is less violent than castor oil, which is apt to cause +constipation of the bowels after its first effect has passed off. + +The soreness of the tails, which if not attended to generally results in +the pig becoming bob-tailed, appears most generally in damp and cold +weather, and is the result of impaired circulation of the blood. The +cure is simple. The application of fat or oil as soon as the tail +becomes red and cold, twice per day, and continued for two or three days +will almost always result in a cure. For some years we used +boro-glyceride, a compound, we believe, of boracic acid and glycerine, +but we are not certain that it is now procurable. + +The third of the common troubles of the young pig is fits of an +apoplectic and epileptic character. As a rule the shortest, thickest, +and fattest pigs of the litter are those which are affected. This +points to the chief cause, too much food in the form of mother's milk. A +reduction in the quantity of the food fed to the sow will generally be +effectual, except when the pigs are old enough to eat. Then both the +quantity and the quality of the food given to them should be reduced. +Prompt removal of the cause is usually sufficient, but it may be +necessary to mix a little medicine in the food in persistent cases, or +when remedial measures are not promptly taken. The ordinary symptoms are +unmistakable, the pig falls on its side, struggles and gasps for breath, +then in a minute or two it rises and appears to be little the worse. +Unless continued over a period, fits are not usually fatal. + +Very occasionally young pigs suffer from the protrusion of the rectum, +or as it is commonly termed "shooting of the gut." This is due to +various causes which result in straining. Of these constipation and +diarrh[oe]a are the two most common. As soon as the protrusion of the +gut is noticeable, the enlargement should be carefully washed, then +oiled and gently pressed back into its natural position. Some pigmen +advise the dusting of flour on to the protruded portion before it is +returned, but there is a risk of increasing the amount of inflammation +which is generally present. If known the original cause of the trouble +should be removed, but in any case it is advisable not to give any solid +food to the pig for two or three days after the operation. + +Still another of the troubles to which pig flesh is heir is hernia, or +rupture. This is of two kinds, umbilical and scrotum. The former is +the escape of a portion of the bowels through an imperfectly closed +navel opening, whilst the latter shows itself in an enlargement of the +scrotum or purse due to an escape into it of a portion of the abdominal +contents. Both of these ailments are considered to be hereditary, but +the most common and the most troublesome is the latter, since there is +always a chance of strangulation of the escaped portions, which nearly +always results in death. + +At one time it was considered to be inadvisable to castrate the boar +pigs affected, but of late years the plan has been adopted of making +only one incision in the scrotum in place of two, and making that one as +high as possible. Then after the operation is performed, the aperture is +sown up. The pig should be fed lightly for a day or two in order to give +time for the healing of the wound. + +Umbilical hernia is not generally of much importance, the navel opening +gradually closes as the pig grows stronger and the enlargement +disappears. It is advisable not to breed from a sow pig which has been +affected, nor to continue to use a boar which has begotten ruptured +pigs, as both failings are hereditary. + +For a time at least, there is certain to be a difficulty in obtaining a +full supply of sharps, even of the greatly reduced feeding value of the +present quantity available. It may, therefore, be advisable to refer to +another system of feeding the suckling sow and the young pigs. It is now +perforce being generally adopted, but the result is not generally +considered to be equal to the old system recommended. It is that of +feeding pigs of the kind mentioned on vegetable food, and a mixture of +palm nut, cocoa nut, ground nut, or linseed cake. The proportions fed at +the Cambridge University Farm are mangolds 20 lbs.; a mixture of two +parts palm nut cake, and one part cocoa nut cake, 2 lbs.; linseed cake, +2 lbs.; and ground nut cake, 1 lb. The two former were fed in the +morning and evening, and the other two at midday. The various cakes seem +to have been fed in a dry condition, but other pig feeders have found it +beneficial to soak the cake in water for some twelve hours. This view +seems to have received support from the practice at Cambridge, which was +to mix the cake with the cut mangolds twenty-four hours before being fed +to the pigs so that at least a portion of the cake would become softened +by the mangold juice. Almost any kind of vegetable matter containing a +fair amount of nutrition would be equally as suitable as mangold, indeed +more so during the period from October to April. In the winter months +cooked potatoes; kohl rabi, swedes, parsnips, cabbages, artichokes, +etc., fed raw; and in the summer grass, lucerne, clover, vetches, rape, +or almost any kind of vegetable food will be readily eaten by the pigs. +Even where the wasteful practice of peeling the potatoes before being +cooked for the household is still followed (and just how wasteful this +old-fashioned plan is has been lately proved to be a loss of nearly one +quarter of the nutriment)--it is advisable to boil the parings and then +mix the whole with the pig's food. + +It cannot be too strongly impressed on pig keepers that a certain +proportion of vegetable food is most beneficial for pigs of all ages, as +not only is a saving in cost effected, but the pigs will continue in a +more healthy condition than when fed solely on meal or other +concentrated food. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: LARGE WHITE BOAR. The property of the Author. The Winner +of many Prizes. + +To face page 80.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES."] + + + + +CHAPTER X + +WEANING PIGS + + +There are few points in connection with the breeding and feeding of pigs +on which there is a greater diversity of opinion and practice than on +the question of the weaning of the young pigs. + +For instance, take the age at which it is most satisfactory to take the +pigs off the sow. This practice varies greatly in different districts, +and even in the same district where one would naturally suppose that the +determining influences would be similar weaning at five or six weeks +old. + +One pig breeder will declare that a little pig of five or six weeks old +should be and is able to support itself alone, and will act accordingly. +Should perchance a litter weaned thus early cease to grow the excuses +made will be various. + +The weather is at fault, it is either too hot or too cold, or the +sharps, etc., on which they have been fed were not good or sweet, that +the sow's milk was not sufficiently plentiful, or it was wanting in +nutriment. In fact, any excuse will be made rather than the actual cause +admitted. + +In far too many instances the real reason for the want of thrift on the +part of the young pigs taken from their mother when they are not more +than five or six weeks old is that their digestive organs are not +sufficiently developed as to enable them to digest enough food to +nourish them properly. + +Another excuse often made for what we consider to be undue haste in +weaning young pigs is the alleged desire of the owner not to waste the +time of the sow. He is anxious to have her served again and hasten the +arrival of the next litter. + +Occasionally it is found to be unnecessary to wean the pigs for this +purpose as the sow will come in heat and can be served by the boar, but +if she should become in pig the result will be much the same so far as +the pigs are concerned, since as soon as the sow has conceived the milk +will promptly cease or become very reduced in quantity and quality. + +On the other hand, if the sow does not stand to the boar time may be +wasted. It is most unlikely that the sow will again become in heat for +some three weeks, whereas this almost always occurs within a few days of +the weaning of the litter of pigs. + +Then another extreme, and one which is practised by some pig breeders, +is to allow the young pigs to remain on the sow until the former are +from ten to twelve weeks old. It is claimed for this practice that the +young pigs grow much faster when left on the sow than when weaned, and +that less food is consumed for a live weight increase from a given +quantity of food. Also, it is said that food of more inferior kind can +be fed to the sow than could be fed to the pigs if they were weaned, and +thus the sow and litter are kept at less expense, and that if the pigs +are not weaned until nearly three months, the milk of the sow will have +gradually ceased to flow, and the pigs will not miss the help from +their dam. Their digestive organs will then have become sufficiently +developed to enable them to make the best use of the food given to them, +and they will sustain no check in thrift or growth when they are weaned. + +In this question of weaning pigs the good old fashioned plan of +following the middle course will probably be found to be the best. +Anyway, it was the one which we followed for a great number of years and +found the results generally satisfactory for the following among other +reasons. + +As a breeder of pure bred pigs for sale as boars or yelts for breeding +purposes, we were naturally anxious to give the pigs a good start in +life so that we should be able to sell them as quickly as possible, and +that they should thrive when they came into the possession of their new +owners, and thus prove the best possible advertisement of our herds. As +a rule we found that if the pigs were allowed to remain on the sows +until they were some eight weeks old they were quite strong enough to +fend for themselves, that by gradually increasing the length of time +which the sow was allowed to remain from the pigs, the latter became +accustomed to exist without the mother's milk, and as the milk of the +sow naturally dried up when the pigs partially ceased to withdraw it, no +trouble was experienced with inflamed udders as is usually or commonly +the case when the pigs are suddenly weaned from a sow which is in full +milk. + +There is also another advantage apart from that to the sow and pigs, it +is that the sow will almost invariably come in heat within three or +four days of the weaning, and with the best possible chance of becoming +in pig. + +Some pig keepers are more inclined to wean their litter of pigs at an +early age, and then if the sow be low in condition to baulk her at the +first time of [oe]strum. There are objections to this--one of them is +that there is frequently a difficulty in getting the sow to conceive +after she has been baulked. Why this should be so we have not been able +to ascertain. We only record what we know to be a fact. + +In our opinion this difficulty is one of the strongest points in favour +of the practice of allowing the young pigs of a sow with her first +litter, or of an old sow which has become low in condition (either from +having had too many pigs left on her, or from other natural cause), to +remain on the sow for a longer period than about eight weeks. Some +persons will keep the pigs on the sow until they are nearly three months +old in the belief that both sow and pigs are benefited, and that the +pigs can be kept quite as cheaply if not more so when unweaned than +weaned. They also claim that the sow is so much stronger and better +fitted to prepare for another litter. Experiments have been carried out +in the United States which go far to prove that the first of these two +claims is founded on fact; and it has further been demonstrated that +certain foods can be fed to the sow without affecting the thrift and +health of the pigs which could not with safety be fed to the latter +direct, yet when fed through the sow the pigs will thrive on the milk +produced therefrom. It is entirely a question of the cost of a rest for +the sow during the extra two or three weeks, and the benefit to the +sow and her pigs. + +One occasionally sees in the press a claim for what is considered to be +a great achievement in that some one has bred three litters of pigs from +one sow within the year. There really is something wonderful in this +since of the fifty-two weeks constituting a year, the sow would be +carrying her pigs some forty-eight weeks. This would allow only four +weeks for the two litters of pigs to be suckled, and this would also +include the few days between the pigs being weaned and the sow coming in +heat. Apart from the natural difficulty of successfully breeding three +litters of pigs from one sow within twelve months, there exists a far +greater possibility of loss rather than of gain from unduly hurrying on +the arrival of each litter of pigs from a sow, especially of the +profitable kind of sow. + +Some forty years since when Small Whites, Small Blacks, and short thick +Berkshires were fashionable, the number of pigs in each litter was few, +and the number reared still fewer, owing to the limited quantity of milk +furnished by the sow. Now, the Large Black, the Large White, the Middle +White, the Lincolnshire Curly Coat, the old Gloucester Spots, the +Tamworth, the Cumberland, and even the sows of most of the local breeds +of pigs are expected to rear nine or ten pigs each litter. Even if it +were possible for a sow to bring forth three litters within the year, +she could not possibly do justice to them either before or after the +piglings arrived in this world; and further, the life of such a sow +would of necessity be a short one. It must not be forgotten that in +the production of each litter of pigs the sow is compelled to +manufacture from 20 to 30 lbs. of flesh, skin, hair, etc., which +together constitute the newly farrowed pig, and very frequently this has +to be accomplished on a far too limited supply of suitable food. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _From a Painting by Wippell._ + +MIDDLE WHITE SOW. + +To face page 96.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Block kindly supplied by Cumberland Pig Breeders' +Association, Carlisle._ + +CUMBERLAND SOW. + +Owned by Mr. Carr, Kirkbride, Carlisle.] + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE REARING OF YOUNG PIGS + + +One of the most important points in the profitable raising of stock is +to give the animals a good start in their earliest days. There is an old +and true saying amongst shepherds that the best and most profitable +sheep are those which have never lost their lamb fat. It may with equal +truth be declared that the most profitable pig is the one which has a +good start when on its mother, and never afterwards lacks suitable food, +judiciously given. + +At frequent intervals, the question as to the number of pigs which a sow +should have left on her to rear is the subject of discussion in the +press. At each of these periods very similar arguments for and against +large litters are used with much the same inconclusive results. This +probably arises to a great extent from the varying conditions under +which the particular litter of pigs is to be reared. The time of year +has a vast influence, a sow farrowing in May will more successfully rear +a dozen pigs than she would bring up ten if they were farrowed in the +month of October. + +The age and condition of the sow should also be considered. A young sow +of about twelve months should not have more than seven or eight pigs +left on her to rear, whereas with her succeeding litters until she is at +least four years old she would rear at least ten pigs each litter. After +the sow has reached the age of about four years, if that time has been +fully employed in her maternal duties, she becomes gradually less able +to rear so large a number of pigs with an equal amount of success. It is +then advisable to vary the number according to the season, and to the +physical condition of the sow; generally speaking an aged sow will bring +up more pigs in the summer months than in the colder months. + +Reference is made elsewhere to the manner in which the young pigs should +be cared for until they are weaned from their dam, but no harm can arise +from a repetition of the advice that the young pigs should be so managed +and fed that only the very slightest difference will be noticed by the +youngsters when parted from their mother. Many pigs are permanently +checked in growth by being suddenly deprived of a full supply of +mother's milk if weaned when their digestive organs are insufficiently +developed as to treat a sufficiency of food to make growth and progress +without the assistance received from their mother's milk. + +Opinions differ as to the age at which little pigs are sufficiently +developed as to exist and thrive without their dam's help. Here again +the time of the year, not only as far as the weather is concerned, but +the desirability of prompt or deferred remating of the sow in order that +her succeeding litters should arrive during the most favourable portions +of the year, must be considered. The thrift and growth of each litter +of pigs varies greatly. The health of the sow, her condition before +farrowing, and other causes, some of which are not always on the +surface, have their influence, but it may be taken as a rule that young +pigs are fully able to fend for themselves by the time they are eight +weeks old. Should it be possible to allow the pigs to remain on the sow +for so long a time as twelve weeks without prejudicing the next litters +as to the time of year of their arrival, the pigs may benefit, and no +loss of food will be sustained, since it has been clearly proved that +pigs beyond the age of eight weeks can be fed quite as economically, if +not more so, on the sow than if weaned. It may also be possible to feed +the sow on somewhat coarser and less expensive food than could be +satisfactorily fed to the young pigs, as her digestive organs would be +better able to treat the coarser food. Another advantage generally +follows keeping the pigs for a longer time on the sow if the latter be +well fed is that she will be in a stronger and better condition to start +the building up of her next litter. + +As a rule young pigs will commence to eat when they are from three to +four weeks old. If the sow is fed in the sty in which the little pigs +are, these will endeavour to share in the food; at first they may +content themselves with licking any food which may be outside the +trough, but they quickly show a desire for more, and attempt to get into +the trough. When this is evident, it is advisable to feed the little +pigs apart from the sow; a low flat trough is best, as one with high +sides is said to cause "high backed" pigs, or pigs suffering from a +curvature of the spine. If a little milk can be obtained, the pigs will +promptly drink it, if the milk be whole they will thrive best, but even +if only skim or separated milk be obtainable, or butter milk, providing +that it be drawn off ere the salt is put into the churn, a small +quantity will be beneficial, but the pigs will not be able to digest so +large a quantity of the separated as of the whole milk. The former is +apt to have a constipating effect on the bowels of the youngsters. +Should an ample supply of separated milk be available it can be fed +through the sow, who will be better able to digest it, and whose yield +of milk will be increased, provided that sufficient separated milk to +affect her bowels be not given to her. A few kernels of wheat or white +peas will be readily eaten by the little pigs, which will benefit +therefrom. + +If no other food is available, sharps, or whatever the local term for +the finer miller's offals may be, mixed with a little warm water and fed +to the piglings, will prove beneficial, care being taken to give only so +much as the pigs will eat up readily, or that any surplus is taken away, +so that it does not become sour, as in this last condition it will cause +diarrh[oe]a in the young pigs. + +When the pigs are about six weeks old the sow can be allowed to remain +from them for a longer time, and the youngsters fed two or three times +each day. The sow's milk will then gradually dry up, and the pigs will +become accustomed to the food, so that when the latter are about eight +weeks old they will have become weaned naturally, and receive no check +from the loss of the sow's milk. This system, will also prevent any +trouble arising from the collection of milk in the sow's udder, and the +occasional attacks of inflammation or garget which follow a chill to the +sow when her udder is in an inflamed condition from being closely +impacted with milk. + +Assuming that the economical and beneficial practice of supplying the +suckling sow with vegetable food of some kind after the pigs are some +three or four weeks old has been adopted, the pigs will have become +accustomed to its consumption. It will be found to be advisable to +continue this whether it has taken the form of cooked potatoes, of +mangolds, swedes, kohl rabi, cabbages, artichokes, etc., as not only +will the food bill be reduced, as the pigs will make equal growth and +thrift on food containing say ten per cent of vegetable matter as they +will if fed wholly on sharps, but the vegetable food will have a +beneficial effect on the health of the pigs, and tend to prevent those +attacks of constipation and diarrh[oe]a which are so frequently the +result of food of too rich a character. + +Of the vegetable foods, cooked potatoes and raw artichokes are the most +nourishing and the most readily eaten, lucerne and clover in a green +state come next in food value and favouritism with the pigs; cabbages +are credited with causing constipation when fed to young pigs, whilst +mangolds are said to have the opposite effect, and in addition when +grown on light land by the aid of artificial manure mangolds are apt to +affect the kidneys and cause excessive urination. Kohl rabi are not so +much used in the feeding of pigs as would be advisable. They are easily +grown and will take the place of swedes on land on which swedes are +subject to mildew; they are very nutritious, and are readily eaten by +both old and young pigs. + +Coleseed is not used in the feeding of pigs in this country to anything +approaching the same extent as in Canada and the United States; its +value and results are of a very similar character to those of cabbages. +Tares or vetches contain too large a proportion of water for young pigs, +and they also have a tendency to cause looseness of the bowels. The +growth of maize for feeding to pigs in a green state has been +recommended by some writers, but in practice we found it most unsuitable +for young pigs, and of little value for aged pigs, owing to the small +proportion of nourishment contained in it in comparison with its bulk. +Further, pigs both old and young will refuse to eat it unless driven by +hunger. It is needless to remark that no pigs, especially young ones, +will thrive under such conditions. + +One of the most common mistakes made by pig feeders is allowing too long +a time to pass between feeding times. Twice or three times per day is +considered to be quite frequent enough, whereas prior to their being +weaned the pigs would have had a meal wellnigh each two hours both day +and night. Infrequent meals result in the pigs becoming so hungry that +they bolt their food, and a greater quantity than is desirable, and then +suffer from indigestion. + +It must also be remembered that the pig's capacity for storing food is +very small, especially as compared with some others of our domesticated +animals. Four or five meals per day at least should be given to newly +weaned pigs. That most troublesome of ailments commonly termed cramp +more generally results from injudicious feeding than from all other +causes combined. Even when the young pigs are properly fed on suitable +food there is a tendency in some little pigs to attacks of cramp. One of +the best preventatives and even remedies is to compel the pigs to leave +their nests late in the evening or prior to the pigman retiring for the +night, as they will then relieve the bowels and bladder. Otherwise, +particularly in cold weather, the pigs would remain quiescent in their +nests from feeding time in the afternoon until they were fed the +following morning, or in winter a period of some fifteen or sixteen +hours--far too long a time for the good health of the young pigs. + +Another point which requires attention is the provision of a dry bed. +Pigs are naturally clean animals, and will not as a rule foul their bed +when they are in a healthy state. Still the straw will in winter time +become damp solely from the moisture thrown off by the pigs when huddled +together in their nest. All damp litter should be carefully removed at +least once each day. + +The best of all materials for the bedding of pigs is wheat straw. This +will absorb a larger amount of moisture than any other kind of straw, +whilst the skin and hair of the pigs will remain of a brighter colour +than if bedded on oat or barley straw. Of these two, the former is more +suitable than the latter, which so readily becomes damp and foul. In +those parts of the country where comparatively little corn is grown, +sawdust and wood shavings are commonly used for litter for pigs. So far +as the comfort of the pigs is concerned there is little difference as +compared with straw with regard to pigs of all ages in the warmer +weather, but in the winter little pigs suffer, as they are unable to +make the warm nest which straw enables them to make and enjoy. + +When peat moss was first introduced it was strongly recommended for the +bedding of pigs. It was claimed for it that it was a far better +absorbent of moisture than sawdust, and that its manurial value was much +greater. It is probable that both claims are founded on fact, as sawdust +is of comparatively no value as a manure. But there exists one serious +objection to the use of peat moss as litter for young pigs. It is that +the pigs are given to eat it, that it causes severe attacks of +indigestion, and often the death of the pig eating it. + +Of late years the spaying of the sow pigs has ceased to be general. The +causes of this neglect may be several, amongst them the dislike of +trouble, but perhaps the main reason is that the so-called store period +of the pig's life is now so much shorter than in the olden days, and +consequently the loss of food, and the risk of the arrival of unexpected +litters of pigs are less, from the repeated periods of heat, indeed +under the present or recent conditions of pig keeping a large +proportion of the pigs are killed ere they have become sufficiently +developed to be troublesome in this respect. + +Still, there is little doubt that the castrating and spaying of young +pigs at about the age of six weeks, or before they have been weaned from +the sow is advisable and the cost of the operation is well repaid. An +unspayed sow pig becomes a nuisance in company with other pigs, and when +it is put up to fatten will make no progress on some three or four days +during each three weeks when she ordinarily becomes in heat. + +In addition to her own waste of time she will, if penned with others, be +continually worrying her mates and preventing them from resting and +thriving. + +Until recently another objection was taken to the unspayed sow pig, it +was that if she were killed during the period of [oe]strum that great +difficulty would be experienced in curing the meat properly, and that +signs of her heated condition would be noticed in the mammary glands in +the form of dark globules of what was considered to be blood, but +investigation carried out at the University Farm at Cambridge by Messrs. +Russell and Kenneth Mackensie have proved that the discoloration and the +consequent loss in value of a certain portion of the belly of a side of +bacon is not due to the pig having been in a state of heat at the time +of its slaughter, but to an excess of pigment, noticeable only amongst +coloured pigs. Thus, the globules would be of a dark colour when the +bacon was from a pig of a black colour, and red from the pigs of the +Tamworth breed. This shows another cause of the marked preference of the +bacon curers for pigs of a white colour in the manufacture of the +highest priced bacon. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +HOUSING OF PIGS + + +In the general management of pigs there are many points on which +improvements might be effected without any very considerable amount of +trouble or expense. Far too frequently this neglect or want of care and +thought is observable in the housing of pigs. Many of the sties in the +country districts are neither wind nor water tight, and they are far too +often in a most unsanitary condition, indeed in such a disgraceful state +that some excuse was afforded for the drastic, if injudicious order of +the sanitary authorities which prohibited the erection of a pigsty +within from sixty to one hundred feet of a dwelling house. Undoubtedly +it would have been wiser to have permitted the keeping of pigs within a +much shorter distance of the house only so long as the necessary steps +were taken to prevent a nuisance or a risk of the residents in the house +suffering in health. The proximity of a pigsty to a house can be +rendered perfectly innocuous with ordinary care, and the cottager not be +deprived of very considerable advantages not only in making a profit, +but in the provision of manure for his allotment or garden which will +benefit greatly from its application. + +The mistakes or want of care in the erection of pigsties is by no means +confined to the owners of cottages or small holdings, as a considerable +proportion of the piggeries on which great outlay is expended are +equally as unsuitable if not so insanitary. Even in so-called model +buildings the piggery has often been the last thing thought of; the +stables, the cow house, etc., have been conveniently placed for feeding +the occupants, for air, light, and sun, and then the piggery has been +placed in whatever spot may have been left unoccupied, and as this +generally happens to be on the northern side of the buildings, the +unhappy pigs are deprived of the rays of the sun, which are to them +quite as necessary, if not more so, than to any others of our +domesticated animals. + +This same want of sun, and the exposure to cold is noticeable in only a +lesser degree in those buildings which comprise a double row of sties +with a passage down the centre, a store and a cooking and mixing house +at one end, and an exercise or feeding yard adjoining. It matters not +whether the building be placed north or south, or east or west, one half +of the sties have a wrong aspect; even if the sties facing the west can +be said to possess one. The trouble is still greater with the system of +having a yard attached to each sty. The north or east wind renders the +sties with such an aspect a most uncomfortable and unhealthy place for +young pigs during more than half the year, whilst older pigs cannot +thrive on the same amount of food as they would if their quarters were +comfortable. Apart from the waste of food which results from these +draughty and cold sties, the latter are the chief cause, with +injudicious feeding, of that most troublesome ailment amongst pigs, +rheumatic gout, or, as it is commonly termed, cramp. How very draughty +and uncomfortable these sties are which have an open yard attached, and +an inlet at all times usable, can be readily discovered in cold and +windy weather by noticing the position in which the occupant has made +its bed. This will be found not on the highest part of the sty, which +will be opposite to the opening into the yard, but in the corner next to +the opening, since in this position it is less exposed to the cold wind +which rushes into the sty through the opening. + +Apart from the unhealthiness to the pigs resulting from the exposure to +draughts it is not apparent to the writer that any advantage is gained +from the provision of these yards. In many instances they serve only for +an excuse to limit the height of the sties, as unless these are of a +fair height there is a considerable difficulty in cleaning them out. The +money expended on building the yard would easily cover the extra cost of +raising the side walls of the pigsty by two feet, and thus not only +render it free from draughts, but also make it far more healthy and less +subject to the extremes of heat and cold. + +The ordinary sty with a yard attached is unhealthy for a growing or +matured pig, but in the colder weather it is simply cruel for newly born +pigs, of which numbers are annually lost from exposure or are greatly +checked in their growth. + +One of the very best places in which to house pigs in the experience of +the writer was a large barn with a thatched roof. This was divided off +into sties by partitions some 4 ft. 6 in. high; owing to the height of +the building the temperature was not unduly high in the hottest weather +nor did the pigs suffer to any extent during severe weather. These +advantages arose mainly from the slight changes in temperature, and an +abundant supply of uncontaminated air. + +One of the greatest drawbacks to the majority of the pigsties is the +absence of ventilation without draught. This trouble is especially +noticeable where the side walls are not more than about 4 ft. high, +whilst the proximity of the roof to the pigs increases the sufferings of +the pigs from the heat when the weather is excessively hot. + +Some of our most successful pig feeders on a large scale have found it +profitable to erect cheap buildings very similar to small barns, the +side walls being at least 10 feet high. This will permit of thorough +ventilation, quite free from draughts, whilst the variations in the +temperature will be comparatively slight. The building being complete +within itself, and entirely used for the pigs, there is no disturbance +of the pigs between the feeding times, so that the pigs will rest and +grow fat. These houses are most suitable for a number of fattening pigs, +whereas for sows and for young sows smaller sties or houses are more +convenient. These should be at least 10 ft. square, the front 6 ft. 6 +in. high, the doors divided so that the upper half can be opened when +the weather is favourable; ventilation can be obtained by hanging or +sliding doors just under the eaves so that the pigs are not affected by +the draught; the floor should be laid with brick and gradually incline +to the front of the building so that the liquid can run through an +aperture in the lower part of the front wall into a cesspool placed +close to the building. A row of these houses, which should face to the +south, can be more cheaply erected than a single house, as the wooden +partitions between the houses need not be more than 4 ft. high, and one +of these would take the place of two gables or ends. Several of the +houses which the writer erected had brick foundations and feather-edged +boarded sides and ends; the roofs were of tiles unpointed, as in this +way the houses were much cooler in the summer, whilst in the winter the +upper portions of the houses were packed with straw which still +permitted of the escape of the foul air, yet greatly added to the warmth +and comfort of the building. + +The one thing of all others most needful in the sty or house for the +well doing of pigs is a sufficiency of pure air without draughts; pigs +of even a few days old will suffer less from cold than from moist and +foul hot air. It is not the most costly building in which pigs will +thrive best, but the one in which they are the most comfortable and free +from the extremes of heat and cold with a dry bed on which to rest and +be thankful. + +When making a tour of the Agricultural Experiment Stations and +Agricultural Schools in Denmark some few years since, the writer saw +near Aarhuss what was then a novelty in the form of a two decker pigsty, +i.e. a sty with a sleeping place above--one could scarcely term it an +upstairs room as access was gained not by stairs but by an inclined +board with struts of wood fastened across it to give a firm holding to +the pigs as they ascended to the upper story. The incline was very +steep, but the pigs seemed to have no difficulty in getting up and down. +The advantages claimed for it by the principal were that the sleeping +compartment was so much cleaner and sweeter; that less straw was +required for bedding, and that the pigs were far more comfortable and +rested better than when boxed up, especially in the summer season when +the heat in the lower portion was very oppressive. The feeding took +place in the lower portion. It was stated that nearly the whole of the +urine and dung was deposited below. This was a great advantage as the +moisture ran off at once into the drains, and the solids were easily +cleared out as there was no litter mixed with them, or the dung could be +readily washed into the drains by water from a hose, which was used in +the summer for the purpose of bathing or of washing the pigs. + +The chief objection to the plan would be its expense, as unless the +pigsties were in a barn or a shed already erected for some other purpose +the pigsty would have to be so much higher on the side walls and +consequently more strongly built. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._ + +LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM." + +To face page 112.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Photo kindly lent by Kenneth MacRae, R.U.A.S., Balmoral, +Belfast._ + +LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS + + +When the exhibition of live stock at our numerous shows became common, a +belief sprang up amongst non-exhibitors that the preparation for show +was most deleterious to the animals shown. It was also contended that +exhibitors were prone to pay attention, to a far greater extent, to the +fancy or show points of the animals which they bred than to those +utility points which are of infinitely more importance to the ordinary +stock breeder and the consumer. It was also believed that the feeding or +training which the show stock underwent seriously affected their +procreative powers, and especially so with the animals of the feminine +gender. + +It may at once be frankly admitted that there existed some ground for +the belief that a majority of the exhibitors did appear to give too +great attention to the claims of the judges who were, in too many cases, +chosen for reasons other than their knowledge of practical agriculture +or the requirements of the consumers of meat. For so acting, the +exhibitors were not beyond blame, as in the earlier days of showing, +their main object was to win prizes in order to advertise their stock +and so secure customers for their spare breeding animals. The actual +improvement of the various breeds of stock did not in those far-off days +appear to be of such vital importance as the world upheaval, of which +the present generation has been the witness, has proved it to be. + +It may also be fairly claimed that there has been some slight +improvement in the system of feeding and training followed by the pig +exhibitors of to-day. This is in part due to the fact that the cramming +on rich food and giving little exercise may result in rendering the show +pig in such a state of obesity as to secure the approval of the +non-practical judge, who is unable to appraise the points of a pig when +in its natural breeding condition, but that to be able to follow the +present system of exhibiting at several successive shows and even when +the bloated pig is intended to be returned to the breeding pen, this +excessive feeding proved to be a grievous mistake. It may not be +possible to claim that the over feeding of show animals is a thing of +the past, but there is little doubt that exhibitors of pigs have become +alive to the fact that it is not profitable. Not only is the expense +excessive, but the damage done to the breeding animals is so great as to +render it inadvisable for any ordinary farmer to follow. Again, there +has of late years been a very considerable improvement in the pig +classification at both the breeding and the fat stock shows. When the +writer began pig showing, on his own account, fifty years since, the +common classification at most of the shows was, boar any age, sows any +age, and pens of three breeding pigs, not exceeding nine or in some +cases even twelve months. There were no restrictions as to the age of +the boar or of the sow, no condition as to utility, of the sow having at +any time reared a litter of pigs or of being in pig, so that it was by +no means uncommon at even some of the chief shows to find both boars and +sows appear year after year, having been guiltless of any attempt to +procreate their species, but having been kept solely for the purpose of +winning prizes and adding to the renown of their owners, if not directly +adding much to their balances at the bank. The only way in which the +continued exhibition of these old stagers was made profitable was the +securing of customers for breeding stock from the exhibitors, who in far +too many cases were not the breeders of the winning animals. To so great +an extent had this purchase, frequently from middlemen or dealers of +exhibition pigs, become in the seventies of the last century, that some +of the live stock papers in the United States took up the cudgels on +behalf of the American breeders of pigs, who had been in the habit of +importing show winners from this country and plainly asked for the +English definition of a pure bred pig. It was pointed out at a recent +show of the Royal Agricultural Society several winners shown by one +exhibitor were entered as of certain defined breeds, yet neither age, +pedigree, nor name of breeder was given, the only particulars given in +the show catalogue being the name and address of the exhibitor, the name +of the pig, and the further statement age and breeder unknown. As our +American cousins asked, how could it be possible to ensure that a pig +was of a certain pure breed when it was admitted that no knowledge +existed of the breeding of the animal nor actually of the person who +bred it. This scandal, as it was termed, was one of the contributing +causes of the establishment of societies for the registration of the +pedigrees of the various types or breeds of pigs. + +Other changes which have been great improvements have been the +limitation of the ages of boars and sows shown, the requirement that the +sow has within a certain fixed time farrowed a litter of pigs and that +when entered as being in farrow a certificate of subsequent farrowing +shall be furnished ere the prize money is paid over. The age of the +young boars and sows has also been reduced at most shows to six months, +or the pigs must have been farrowed in the year of the show. In the good +old times the age of the pigs shown in the classes for pens of two or +three or five, varied from six to twelve months, and the asserted age +given by the exhibitor was accepted as correct. At many of the important +shows not only are some means of identification asked for, but the state +of the dentition are variously dealt with; at some shows they are +disqualified at once by the stewards on the certificate of the +veterinary surgeon. It may at once be admitted that this mode of +procedure is very hard on an honest exhibitor whose pig has for some +reason developed its temporary or permanent teeth abnormally--and such +cases are not unknown--- although as a rule the various stages in the +cutting of the permanent teeth are very regular, the majority of the +irregularities are also in favour of the exhibitor, since delayed rather +than precocious development of dentition is the most common. Just how +imperative it was that some steps should be taken to prevent mistakes +being made in the ages of young pigs exhibited, many cases could be +cited, but one may suffice where one of the sow pigs in a pen of five +entered in a class for pigs not exceeding six months actually farrowed a +litter of fully developed pigs in the show yard. + +During the last forty years, great improvements have been made in the +classification for pigs at our principal Fat Stock shows. The division +of breeds or types has been attended to and the ages of the pigs in the +various classes have been greatly reduced. For instance, when the writer +was judging pigs with two colleagues at the 1880 show of the Smithfield +Club, there were classes for Small White pigs, not exceeding nine +months; above nine months, and not exceeding twelve months, and above +twelve months and not exceeding eighteen months. A more ridiculous +classification could not possibly have been devised since no small white +pig would have paid for fattening after it had become nine months old. A +similar classification existed for pigs of the Large White breed, for +Black breeds, and for Berkshires. In addition there was a class for a +single pig of any age or breed. The condition of some of the exhibits in +the oldest classes was most pitiable, they had been stuffed to such an +extent that their life must have been a misery to them, they were unable +to walk any distance, and to prevent suffocation rollers were used on +which to raise their heads. The only way in which to describe these +unfortunate subjects of man's inhumanity was as animated bladders of +lard. + +At the recent shows of the Smithfield Club, not only has the age limit +been greatly reduced but classes for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live +weight have been instituted, in addition to classes for all the +recognised pure breeds of pigs and those of any cross. Even this great +reduction in age has not been enough to satisfy some of our reformers, +as an endeavour is being made to reduce the limit of twelve months to +nine months, so that in future the classes will be for pens of two pigs +not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, for pigs not exceeding six months +old and for pigs between six and nine months old, with certain classes +for single pigs under nine months. It is contended that fat pigs cannot +be profitably kept after they reach the age of nine months. Another +innovation of recent years at the Smithfield Show has been the +establishment of the so-called slaughter classes. This is probably by +far the greatest improvement of recent years in the pig section. Classes +are provided for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, pigs weighing +over 100 lbs. and not exceeding 220 lbs., and for pigs above 220 lbs. +and not exceeding 300 lbs. live weight. The pigs are first exhibited and +judged alive, then slaughtered and the carcases judged on their pork +merits. There is also one class for pigs above 160 lbs. and not +exceeding 240 lbs. live weight best suited for the manufacture of bacon. +These various classes have created great interest and have proved of the +greatest educational value. + +Another beneficial effect of the changed conditions is the elimination +from the summer show-yards of fat sows guiltless of milk and +accompanied in the pen by half a score of young boars and yelts of an +age varying from three months upwards, and which together were exhibited +in the class for breeding sows, or breeding sows and pigs. A fine fat +sow which would take kindly to an unlimited number of adopted youngsters +was in those days almost as valuable as a small gold mine. An old and +well-known pigman, Dick by name, assured the writer that no fewer than +sixty-three young boars and yelts were sold in one year off or when in +company of one well-known sow. At the present time the pigs shown with a +sow must be certified to be her produce and not to exceed the age of +eight weeks. + +It is at all times difficult to discover the motive power for certain +actions on the part of a human being. It has been declared that there is +an equal amount of doubt as to the cause of a breeder of stock wishing +to exhibit his animals. Surely this last assertion is at least of a +doubtful character. What greater proof could a stock breeder give of his +pride in his animals than a burning desire to expose their good +qualities to the public gaze. In addition to this, few men are entirely +free from the spirit of gambling and this enters into all competitions, +particularly in the show yards. The winning of prizes with stock may not +be quite so uncertain as the winning of horse races, still, there is +enough of uncertainty to render the judging ring a centre of great +excitement. Some persons will even contend that the showing of farm +stock is not desirable on the part of young farmers as it is likely to +assume so great a similarity with gambling, that attending the shows +means a neglect of business and leads to expensive habits. On the other +hand, it cannot be denied that the exhibition of our improved specimens +of stock has been of untold benefit to both home and foreign stock +breeders. Further, the exportation of our pedigree stock has actually +saved us from semi-starvation during this most fearful of all wars, as +without our improved stock the native stock of foreign countries could +not possibly have furnished the enormous quantities of meat which we +have had to import. + +It may be that a great many exhibitors of stock had little or no +intention of becoming one when they first purchased their stock, but on +these proving quite the equal of that possessed by their neighbour, the +desire grew to suggest how good they were, or in many instances the +original entries have been made in response to a request to support the +local show. + +This may be still another cause for a beginner in stock breeding +exercising extreme care in the selection of his original stock. Even if +the prime cost be higher than that of ordinary market stock the extra +outlay expended on animals from well-known breeders, and out of old +established herds, is certain to prove a good investment. There is just +as great difference in the different families or strains of our domestic +stock, as there is in the various human families and of animals, and it +may be probably more true that the vast majority of the best of them are +the descendants of a comparatively few ancestors. This is evident in +almost everyone of the breeds of our improved stock, it is so in +thoroughbred and shire horses, and so one might go through the whole +list of domesticated or farm animals. + +It is therefore desirable that anyone who thinks of exhibiting his pigs +should endeavour first to discover the particular tribes or families +which, in the past, have furnished a large proportion of the winners, +and then to obtain some of the specimens of those families which have +been successful in the show yards and in the breeding pen. This +combination is most important, as it does not necessarily follow that a +line of blood which produces prize winners shall also produce animals +which are not only good in type, character, and form, but possessed of +prolificacy, free milking properties, and ability to raise large +litters. The difficulty of finding in some of the mere exhibition herds +this most desirable combination is due, in the main, to the far too +frequent neglect of the utility points, the two aims of the herdsman are +in too many instances the winning of prizes for their employers and the +securing of a percentage of the prize money for themselves. + +Although there have been attempts made to impress on outsiders the claim +that there exists in the training of pigs for successful exhibition in +our show yards a large amount of mystery, yet, the practice is most +simple, it consists in the employment of the greatest possible +observation, care, and attention; without the continual use of these +qualities it is not possible to become a really successful pigman. In +very many instances just that little extra attention has turned the +scales. The one chief qualification on the part of a successful stock +man is the art of taking pains. Unlike most of the other exhibitors of +pigs who exhibited largely over many years the writer never employed a +professional pigman. The comparatively small number of pigmen who +assisted him to win thousands of prizes were merely ordinary farm +labourers, save in one case, and he was an old sailor, yet one of the +best feeders and trainers we ever employed. He was naturally fond of +animals and was never tired of waiting on them and of supplying their +needs. It was once jokingly said of him that, having no children, he +bestowed on the pigs in his care the love which some other people +bestowed on their children. There is much of truth in the assertion made +by a coloured preacher in the United States when discussing the want of +success of ordinary pig-keeping in the States, the chief cause he +declared was the absence of love. We would call it want of natural +fondness of animals and an insufficient determination to render the +conditions of life of the animals in our charge as pleasant and +satisfactory as circumstances will allow. With regard to the system of +rearing and feeding animals intended for exhibition, nothing more is +needed than the concentrated care and attention which is required in the +successful rearing and feeding of all commercial animals. A liberal +supply of suitable food, prepared in the most tempting form and +judiciously fed to the pigs in just the quantity required, as frequently +as the pig is able to thoroughly enjoy it. Little and often is a good +motto for the pig feeder. The more closely we adhere to nature, the +more successful shall we be. It is to this, perhaps, that exercise is so +specially necessary for pigs which are being prepared for the show yard. +It is impossible to render a pig perfectly fit for exhibition at a show, +and more particularly at several successive shows, without plenty of +exercise. Each morning and evening a walk of a distance varying with the +ages, etc., of the pigs is desirable. Another point to which some +professional pigmen give great prominence is the regular dosing of their +charges with secret medicines. This is not only unnecessary, but may +with breeding animals prove harmful. A sound healthy pig seldom requires +medicine if it is properly fed and exercised. It is the over feeding or +intense desire of the pigman which in the majority of cases renders +medicine necessary. + +A word of warning against this haste to get the pig into show condition. +This last can only be a work of time, and the commencement of the +process must be in the early stages of the life of the pig and be +steadily continued until within a few days of the show. This slight +reduction of the food may be necessary in the summer when the heat is +great and the pigs become restless when travelling boxed up in a crate +in an enclosed truck. Many of the pigs lost in travelling to or from the +shows or soon after arriving at the shows, have been fed just prior to +being loaded up, because of the difficulty in feeding them when on the +journey. This is an entire mistake; not only should the pigs not be fed, +but prior to being put into the crates they should be given just so much +exercise as will cause them to evacuate the bowels, or the bladder. Care +in this respect and non-exposure to the rays of the sun may not in +every case prevent trouble, but it will most certainly reduce to a +minimum the chance of it. Should a pig suffer from the heat, cold water +should be applied to the head by means of a sponge or a cloth, and +should some of the water percolate into the mouth of the pig so much the +better. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING + + +As it is impossible to foretell the effect which the present disastrous +war will have upon the pig-breeding industry, we have deemed it +expedient to refer as briefly as possible to the present conditions of +feeding, etc., which may or may not prove to be of a temporary character +or which may become permanent in a more or less modified manner. + +One of the results of the scarcity and high market value of the +different articles which have been commonly used in the feeding of pigs +is drawing greatly increased attention to the original conditions under +which pigs were kept, i.e. when they were in a wild state or when they +were allowed their partial freedom for the purpose of getting their own +living to a greater or lesser extent. + +We are aware that a claim has been made by an enthusiastic convert to +pig-keeping that in allowing his pigs their liberty to roam over grass +fields and in woods he is practising quite a novel course of procedure, +but the old hands merely smile and admire the enthusiasm which is more +nearly allied with youth than old age. The practice may not have been +generally followed of late years, but in the middle of the last century +it was to the writer's knowledge common in certain of the Eastern +Counties, particularly in Suffolk and portions of Essex and +Cambridgeshire, where a considerable acreage of grass and especially +clovers was grazed by pigs, having a greater or lesser quantity of other +food as the pigs were intended for breeding or fattening purposes. + +Generally speaking, some shelter of a temporary character was provided +failing that furnished by trees, and straw stacks, etc., but our +American cousins have gone one better in that they have introduced small +movable houses which can be transported on wheels and can be utilised +for a sow and her pigs, or for a number of stores. In the former course, +an enclosure sufficiently large for the sow to graze therein is fenced +in so that each sow can be kept separate until the pigs are old enough +to prevent others from robbing them of their birthright. The chief +difficulty attending this system is not experienced in the United States +to the extent it is in this country, since the general custom there is +to allow each sow to farrow a litter of pigs in the spring and then to +fatten off both sow and pigs, save those reserved for breeding purposes +next year. This plan, which appears to be wasteful, also handicaps the +owner who desires to improve his pig stock, since an opportunity is +denied him of discovering the best of his sows and so reserving them and +their produce to form the nucleus of a really good herd. The system is +not an entirely new one, as it is practised to a great extent in some +parts of Lincolnshire and other Northern counties, where there is not +the excuse made for it in the States that it avoids the trouble and +risk from the intense cold attending the farrowing of sows in the +winter. + +It may be that the severity of our winters is not usually great, but the +cold, damp and foggy weather commonly experienced in England during the +last two or three months of the year render it necessary to warmly house +young pigs, and this is difficult in wooden houses of limited size, as +these become hot and stuffy when entirely closed, or damp and cold when +unclosed. Again, the labour attending the feeding of a large herd housed +in isolated sties must be very considerable. Another objection raised +against this farrowing of sows in these small houses is that it is +difficult if not impossible at night to have the pigman in attendance on +the sow, further, that it is not advisable to allow the young pigs to +roam about with their dam until they are some weeks old, as when the +weather is cold or wet they become chilled and when the sun is hot they +quickly become blistered, both conditions materially interfering with +their well doing. + +It is claimed that both sow and pigs are able to secure a large portion +of their living, but a sow with a good litter of pigs on her requires a +considerable amount of food in addition to grass to enable her to do +justice to her young, whilst the younger pigs are unable to digest any +quantity of grass until they are some weeks old; besides this, the +youngsters thrive much better during their early life when confined in +quarters than when trailing about after the sow. Could we ensure fairly +fine weather, and an absence of cold nights and very changeable +weather, the little pigs' chances of thriving under outdoor conditions +would be considerably enhanced. + +Another alleged new discovery is the permitting of pigs to roam at large +in woods and plantations, wooden huts or open sheds being provided as +shelter. By this plan a considerable amount of pig food is obtained +where the trees are not closely planted, so that grass grows freely, or, +in the autumn, in the woods in which oaks, beech, hazel, or sweet +chestnut form a portion of the trees. In such woods strong store pigs +are able to obtain the major portion of their food, but where the trees +are of a kind which does not produce nuts or are closely planted, the +additional food must be more plentiful, whilst the manurial value of the +food is wasted to a considerable extent. + +Perhaps the most profitable form of outdoor pig-keeping is that of +running the pigs in orchards. This system has many advantages, the pigs +are able to live without much additional food for some months in the +year, they consume the insect-affected fallen fruit, and so act as +insecticides. The pigs also usually leave their droppings under the +trees, which are thus benefited therefrom, and especially is this the +case where the pigs are being fattened or fed on food which enables them +to make flesh. Many years since, the writer had several customers for +breeding pigs who kept numbers of pigs in their orchards. One fruit +grower in Kent declared that fattening pigs in his orchard resulted in +the growing of heavier crops of cherries of larger size, better colour, +and finer flavour. Another whose apple orchard was disappointing +followed my advice to fatten pigs in it, declared that the quantity of +apples grown was much greater, whilst both the size and quality of these +were infinitely better. + +Under the modern system of pig-keeping it is more profitable to give +some additional and concentrated food to the pigs having their liberty, +it is therefore wise to secure the full benefit arising from the richer +living by running the pigs where the manure can be utilised, and no +better place than an orchard can be found, since shelter from sun and +wind is furnished by the fruit trees, and the pigs deposit their urine +and excrement in exactly the place where it is most urgently required. + +The practice of growing considerable areas of rape or cole seed, +artichokes, peas of various kinds, beans, etc., to be fed off by pigs is +not followed extensively in this country, although pig-keepers in the +United States, Canada, Germany, Denmark, etc., have a partiality to it, +since it is declared to save labour and to bring the land into a good +manurial condition for the growth of corn crops; still some few of our +more advanced farmers have been in the habit of grazing off lucerne, +clovers, and even permanent and temporary grasses by the aid of pigs, +which have also received in addition a varying amount of roots, corn, or +meal. It is asserted, and evidence is available to prove the truth of +the statement, that land can be economically and quickly and vastly +improved by following the system referred to above. The scarcity and +high market value of miller's offals and of meals such as used in the +past to be utilised to a great extent in the feeding of pigs, has +caused pig-keepers to seek for other foods to take their place. The +residuum from the crushing of palm nuts, cocoa-nuts, and ground nuts has +been most successfully used in connection with various forms of +vegetable food; even sows have reared good litters of pigs on about 2 +lbs. of a mixture of the meals remaining from the extraction of the oil +from the nuts mentioned, with the addition of some form of vegetable +food. This last has comprised cooked potatoes, raw artichokes, mangolds, +kohl rabi, swedes, cabbages, etc., during the winter months, and grass, +lucerne, clover, vetches, cole seed, etc., during the summer months. +Fattening pigs will require a somewhat larger quantity of concentrated +food and a reduced amount of vegetable food. The pre-war belief that +sharps or middlings only was the most suitable food for sows with +litters and for newly weaned pigs has been somewhat modified. Whether or +not the quality and price of middlings will be restored after the war +and thus its use become general as of old, must be left, but it is +probable that in the future a certain proportion of the meals referred +to will continue to be used for both breeding and fattening pigs. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +PIG-FATTENING + + +If there be one task which is considered to be within the capacity of +any individual, it is that of feeding a pig. In the good old times, the +one thing needful was a good supply of barley meal, as much of this as +the pig could possibly eat was placed into its trough each day until the +pig was thought to be fat enough for slaughter. This was a very simple +and at the same time a very costly process and was looked upon as the +second of the two chief acts in the life of a pig. The first consisted +of building up a frame on which fat could be stored. Just why these two +processes were not combined has never been fully explained. One excuse +made for this uneconomical process is that our forbears must have +considered that there must be two distinct periods in the life of any +animal intended for the food of man, that in which the structure was +erected, and that in which the building was completely furnished with +the material--flesh--in a state which most nearly satisfied the +requirements or fancies of humanity. The system of first growing the +frame and then packing it with flesh was not alone followed by the +owners of pigs, as it was also adopted with cattle, which in the good +old times passed three or four years in a state of semi-starvation ere +they were placed on our best pastures to produce beef. Sheep, again, +spent two or three years in building up their frames and in the +production of a limited quantity of wool of inferior quality and +strength, before they were considered in a fit state to make mutton +economically. Another excuse which could have been offered by our +forbears, but which is not now available, is that the cattle, sheep, and +pigs of former times required age before it was possible to render them +sufficiently fat for slaughter. + +The very great improvement which has taken place during the past half +century, in wellnigh every breed of pig, has deprived our present day +pig-breeders of such an excuse, yet they persist in far too many +instances in following the old-fashioned and uneconomical system of +first growing the pig and then fatting it, whereas it is not only +possible but infinitely more profitable to combine the two operations. +So many persons have been in the habit of looking upon the pig as a mere +scavenger or an animal to put out of sight certain articles containing a +small amount of nutriment which, undisposed of, would become a nuisance +or offensive to one or other of our organs. Even the pig itself has been +considered by many farmers, especially those termed gentlemen farmers, +as a necessary nuisance, whereas the pig is really a machine for the +conversion of farm produce into meat, and like all machines, its output +will depend entirely on the quantity and quality of the raw material, +and the manner in which it is supplied. If the raw material be of +inferior quality and supplied irregularly, or in too limited +quantities, the article manufactured will be more costly and of an +inferior quality. An extension in the time of manufacture means +increased cost for fuel and for labour in attendance on the machinery. A +certain quantity of fuel is being continually used in the furnace +whether the engine is running at full power or at half power. It is +exactly the same with the meat making machine, the pig every day of its +existence consumes a certain quantity of food for which it gives one +return only, its life. It has been conclusively proved that each pig +weighing 100 lbs. requires 2 lbs. of food daily to enable it to sustain +life, i.e. to replace loss of tissue, to provide heat, progression, +etc., so that if a pig lives six months longer than is actually +necessary to enable it to manufacture a certain weight of meat, it will +have eaten to waste over 3 cwt. of good food. + +A pig is like unto any other machine, it will produce the manufactured +article most cheaply when it is fully supplied with the most suitable +raw material. There is not the slightest doubt that the least costly +pork is that which is produced by the pig which spends its whole time in +the object of its existence, the manufacture of pork. + +There is a further point of great importance. Wellnigh all those +materials which are used in the feeding of pigs contain the constituents +necessary for the building up of the frame and for the accumulation of +fat or, as it is commonly termed, the making of meat. Evidently nature +intended that the two operations should be carried on simultaneously. +Those constituents which are required in the building up of the frame +cannot be entirely used in the formation of fat, consequently if the +frame is first built up and then an attempt is made to lay on flesh, a +considerable portion of the building up constituents are simply wasted, +since the pig has no need for them and cannot make complete use of them. +They simply pass through the pig after taxing it to digest them, and are +wasted. + +Opinions and practices with regard to pig fatting have changed very much +during the past half century, and especially so since the full effect of +the fearful war has been felt. Rather before the first-mentioned period, +the late Sir John Lawes, whose researches and experiments have been of +lasting benefit to agriculturists, undertook to carry out experiments in +connection with pig-breeding, and the result which appears to have +impressed itself most upon the writers of the day was that barley meal +was the best single food for the fatting of pigs. At the time named, our +importations of maize and of many other materials now used in stock and +especially pig-breeding were not of anything the magnitude of the period +prior to the war, still, it seems to be strange to the enlightened +pig-breeder of to-day that more serious endeavours should not have been +made to determine the value of a mixed diet for pigs, since this had +been proved to be beneficial and necessary in the case of human beings +whose organs are so very similar to that of the despised pig. + +Fortunately for us, and indeed for the stock-keepers in all parts of the +world, experiments in the feeding of stock have been carried out in +various countries, Denmark, Sweden, the United States, Canada, +Germany, and indeed in nearly all countries, save to any great extent in +England. In connection with pigs, the practices of a few of our more +intelligent pig-keepers have been confirmed. Amongst these ideas which +the old-fashioned ones looked upon as fads, was that of feeding pigs of +all ages and especially fatting pigs on a certain proportion of +vegetable food. Experiments have conclusively proved that the +substitution of some 10 per cent of vegetable matter in place of an +equal amount of meal or concentrated food, does not result in the +slightest reduction in the live weight gain of the fatting pig, and +further that the old idea that a limited quantity of vegetable food fed +to a fatting pig tended to render the pork soft and to waste in the +cooking was not founded on fact. Another fact which has evolved from +these experiments is that the pig will make far greater progress on an +equal amount of a mixture of foods than if fed solely on one food. This +was clearly proved in many experiments as at the Wisconsin Agricultural +Station, where one lot of pigs was fed on middlings alone, a second lot +on corn meal alone, and a third lot on a mixture of corn meal and +middlings. To make an increase of 100 lbs. in their live weight, the +pigs in Lot 1 ate 522 lbs. of middlings, those in Lot 2 ate 537 lbs. of +corn meal to make an equal increase in weight, whilst Lot 3, which were +fed on a mixture of corn meal and middlings, required only 439 lbs., or +a saving of one-fifth in the weight of food. In experiments with regard +to the food value of corn meal and middlings carried out at the +Missouri College, middlings also gave the best returns, but +unfortunately the ages of the pigs used in the trials are omitted. This +is important as middlings are considered to be of more value in the +feeding of young than of older pigs, whilst the reverse holds good of +corn or maize meal. Other trials were carried out at Wisconsin with the +use of wheat meal alone as compared with a mixture of half wheat and +half corn meal. In these the average quantity of wheat meal required for +100 lbs. increased live weight was 500 lbs., whilst only 485 lbs. of the +mixture of wheat and corn meals was needed to obtain an equal increase +or a saving of some 5 per cent was obtained by mixing the meals. + +In the good old times it was considered to be the height of folly to +make a change in the food on which the pigs were being fattened, yet our +forbears would have been horrified had they been informed that it was +imperative that they themselves should have no variety of food, that day +after day the food at their various meals should be exactly similar; +surely what is good for one animal should be good for another animal +whose organs are of an exactly similar character. There is not the +slightest doubt that advantage is derived from the variation in the food +on which the pigs are being fattened. By this, it is not intended to +suggest that a complete change of food should be made at stated times in +the fatting pigs' food, as this would certainly result in a loss of time +and food, but that a slight variation in the proportions of the +different kinds of food is beneficial, or in the case where several +different kinds of food are being fed as a mixture, another kind of +food may be substituted so that the change made secures a variation +which has the effect of whetting or enticing the appetite. A long +continuance of the same kind of food has the effect of dulling the +appetite. In addition to this, it is considered that a variation in the +food tends to stimulate the digestive organs. + +It is a mistake to allow too long a time to pass between feeding times; +the pig is not endowed by nature with a capacious paunch which enables +it to stow away a large quantity of food. Even the old system of feeding +twice a day might be improved upon, and the fatting pig fed three times +per day would make greater thrift, even should the actual daily quantity +of food be not increased. + +Again, so many persons are apt to give to the fatting pig a greater +quantity of food than it requires or can eat with comfort to itself at +one meal. Should this be pointed out to them, their usual reply would be +that what the pig did not eat for their breakfast would be there in +readiness for the evening meal unless they ate it during the day, as +they frequently would do. This sounds plausible until the argument be +closely examined. What would the pigman think if he were treated in a +similar manner and an excessive quantity of food placed on his plate, +and then at the next meals the stale food be again placed before him +until it was finished? This certainly would not increase his appetite +nor aid his digestion. Yet the most successful pigman is he who succeeds +in so feeding his charges that they daily eat and thoroughly digest the +greatest amount of food possible. In pig fattening, as in many other +things, time is money. Further it is just as much a mistake for fatting +pigs as for human beings to be continually eating, or at irregular +intervals, small quantities of food. The two most certain indications +that a lot of fatting pigs are thriving is to find that they are asleep +and that their feeding troughs are empty. When pigs are fed a greater +quantity of food than they can eat at once they will be frequently +getting up to eat a little more of the surplus, and each time they rise +from their bed they will evacuate their bowels, and in most cases before +the major portion of the nutriment has been extracted. + +Still another of the fallacies of our forbears was that the fatting pig +made the greatest increase from a given quantity of food when it was at +least approaching maturity and ripeness, or complete fatness. It was +useless to argue with them, since anyone could see that it was so. If +you suggested the use of the scales, the idea was scouted, since a +person of any experience in pig fatting must be able to notice the +increase in bulk of the pig. It is true that apparently the pig would be +making a greater increase of weight as it approached the completion of +its fatting process, since the addition to its weight and bulk would be +almost entirely composed of fat which could only be deposited on the +outside of the carcase. All the vacant space in the interior of the pig +would have been occupied, the pig would have stored fat away in its +muscles, around its kidneys, on its stomach, its bowels, and wherever it +was possible to stow it away, but these additions to the weight of the +carcase which had been proceeding in the early stages of the fatting +could not be observed, nevertheless they were proceeding, and in this +was the pig enabled in its early stage of fatting to make a profitable +return for the food consumed. + +Fortunately we are not left on this point to mere conjecture; many +experiments have clearly proved that in the early stages of the life of +a pig it is enabled to manufacture pork at a far less cost than in its +later stages of life. The young pig also possesses over its older +companion the great advantage of being able to eat and utilise a greater +quantity of food in proportion to its weight or, in other words, the +young pig can convert a greater quantity of raw material into the +manufactured article than the more matured pig, in proportion to the +amount of food required for the mere upkeep of the machinery. +Experiments which most clearly prove this have been duplicated in +Denmark, in the United States, etc. At Copenhagen nearly seventy +different experiments were carried out with pigs of varying weights, +with the result that pigs weighing about 275 lbs. live weight were found +to require nearly twice as much food to make an increase in their live +weight as did pigs weighing from 35 to 75 lbs. That this was not an +exceptional case is clearly proved by the fact that the increase in the +amount of food required to enable them to make an increase in their live +weight was gradual, and shown in every stage; thus pigs of from 35 to 75 +lbs. consumed 376 lbs. of food for each 100 lbs. increase; pigs of 75 to +115 lbs., 435 lbs.; pigs of 115 to 155 lbs., 466 lbs.; pigs of 155 lbs. +to 195 lbs., 513 lbs.; pigs of 195 lbs. to 235 lbs., 540 lbs.; pigs of +235 lbs. to 275 lbs., 614 lbs.; and pigs of 275 lbs. to 315 lbs., 639 +lbs. + +Even if this series of experiments stood alone they surely would prove +most conclusively that the common belief in old and nearly fat pigs +giving the best return from the food consumed is founded on fiction, but +similar tests were made at many of the American Experiment Stations, +these tests together numbering some hundred. The results are given in +tabulated form in Henry's _Feeds and Feeding_, where the various points +are so clearly brought out that we have taken the liberty of lifting the +whole of the notes relating to "weight, gain, and feed consumed" by +pigs. "At many of our stations, records of weights and gains of pigs and +feed consumed by them have been so reported as to permit of studies +concerning the influence of increased size and weight of the animal on +the consumption of food. + +"All of the available data from trials of this character conducted in +this country" (the United States) "up to the time of going to press, +enter into the composition of the table given below. In compiling this +table, six pounds of skim milk or twelve pounds of whey are calculated +as equal to one pound of grain, according to the Danish valuation of +these articles. For convenience of study, the data are presented for +each period covering fifty pounds of growth, the actual average weight +of the pigs, however, being given for each division: + + DATA RELATIVE TO FEED, WEIGHT, AND GAIN OF PIGS-- + MANY AMERICAN STATIONS + + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + | | | | | + Weight of | Actual | No. of | Total | No. of | + pigs in | Average | stations | No. of | animals | + pounds. | weight. | reporting. | trials. | fed. | + | | | | | + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + | lbs. | | | | + 15 to 50 | 38 | 9 | 41 | 174 | + 50 " 100 | 78 | 13 | 100 | 417 | + 100 " 150 | 128 | 13 | 119 | 495 | + 150 " 200 | 174 | 11 | 107 | 489 | + 200 " 250 | 226 | 12 | 72 | 300 | + 250 " 300 | 271 | 8 | 46 | 223 | + 300 " 350 | 320 | 3 | 19 | 105 | + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + 350 " 400 | 378 | 1 | 5 | 36 | + 400 " 450 | 429 | 1 | 5 | 36 | + 450 " 500 | 471 | 1 | 2 | 18 | + -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+ + + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + | Average | Feed | | + Weight of | feed | eaten per | Average | Feed for + pigs in | eaten | 100 lbs. | gain per | 100 lbs. + pounds. | per day. | weight. | day. | gain. + | | | | + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. + 15 to 50 | 2.23 | 5.95 | .76 | 293 + 50 " 100 | 3.35 | 4.32 | .83 | 400 + 100 " 150 | 4.79 | 3.75 | 1.10 | 437 + 150 " 200 | 5.91 | 3.43 | 1.24 | 482 + 200 " 250 | 6.57 | 2.91 | 1.33 | 498 + 250 " 300 | 7.40 | 2.74 | 1.46 | 511 + 300 " 350 | 7.50 | 2.35 | 1.40 | 535 + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + 350 " 400 | 8.52 | 2.25 | 1.98 | 431 + 400 " 450 | 8.18 | 1.91 | 1.71 | 479 + 450 " 500 | 10.00 | 2.12 | 1.77 | 562 + -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------- + +"In the above table the large number of trials reported for pigs +weighing up to 350 lbs. each furnishes reliable data. After this point +is reached the number of animals is too small to give reliable averages. +The heavy weight hogs reported in the last three lines of the table were +fed by the writer (Professor Henry). They were mature specimens, with +large frames and in lean flesh when feeding began, having been summered +on pasture without grain. The figures are introduced to show what may be +accomplished with mature hogs when they are in thin flesh at the +beginning of fattening. + +"We learn from the main portion of the table that from 105 to 435 pigs +were employed in calculating each line of data. The number of trials +furnishing the data varied from 19 to 119, and were conducted by from 3 +to 13 experiment stations. + +"Amount of food consumed daily by the pig. The sixth column of the table +shows the average amount of feed consumed daily by pigs of different +weights. From it we learn that pigs weighing less than 50 lbs. each, +averaging 38 lbs., consumed on the average 2.23 lbs. of grain or grain +equivalent, daily. As the animal increased in weight there was a gradual +increase in the amount of food consumed, until we find the 450 lbs. hog +eating 10 lbs. of grain daily, or more than four times as much as the 50 +lbs. pig. + +"Feed per 100 lbs. live weight: In the seventh column it is shown that +pigs weighing 38 lbs. consumed 5.95 lbs. of feed for each 100 lbs. of +live weight. This is about 6 per cent of their live weight. As the pigs +grew larger they consumed less feed for 100 lbs. of live weight, until +with the heaviest hogs the feed consumed was little more than 2 per cent +of their live weight. Here was a decrease of about two-thirds in the +feed consumption per 100 lbs. between early weight and maturity. + +"Average daily gain: In the next column are presented data concerning +the daily gain of the pig. It is shown that the 38 lb. pig gained .76 of +a lb., or 2 per cent of its own weight daily. As it increased in size +the pig made larger daily gains, the maximum being reached with those +weighing 271 lbs., which made a daily gain of 1.46 lb. With large thin +hogs the gain reached 1.98 lb., or practically 2 lbs. per day, but these +animals, because of their mature frames and thin flesh, were fed under +exceptional circumstances. + +"Feed for 100 lbs. of gain: The last column is of interest to all, +especially the practical feeder, for it teaches a most interesting and +important lesson concerning the feed requirements of pigs. Those which +average 38 lbs. each made 100 lbs. of gain from 293 lbs. of feed. This +exceedingly small allowance of feed for gain was probably due in part to +the fact that the young pigs used in these trials received much milk, +which was practically all digestible, the other feed being also more +highly digestible than that usually supplied older animals. With pigs +weighing 78 lbs., 400 lbs. of feed were required for 100 lbs. of gain. +There was a gradual increase of feed requirements for 100 lbs. of gain, +until the hog weighing 320 lbs. required 525 lbs. for each 100 lbs. of +gain. This is 135 lbs. or 33 per cent more feed than was required by the +78 lbs. pig." + +These tables prove most conclusively that the idea which is almost +universally prevalent that the fatting pig gives the greatest increase +for the food which it consumes when it becomes matured and nearly fat is +an entirely mistaken one, and that the young and growing pig, if well +kept, not only eats more in proportion to its weight, but gives a better +return for the food it consumes, besides requiring a smaller amount of +food to keep life within itself, and to replace the certain loss +sustained by movement, etc. There is still another point on which the +young pig scores: its carcase realises a higher price per lb. on a +majority of the markets. The fatting pig which pays best is one which +has a short life and a merry one, never having to seek or wait for its +food. + +Amongst the many other questions which have been compelled attention +owing to the shortage and the high value of pig food, is that of the +advisability or the reverse of cooking the food given to pigs. When the +practice of showing stock became fashionable every possible means of +forcing the exhibits was practised, since early maturity was of so great +importance, especially in the classes for the younger animals. The +cooking of the stronger kinds of food such as old beans for horses had +been found beneficial, as the risk of fever in the feet and other +ailments had been greatly reduced by this practice. The stock man +naturally concluded that the cooking or steaming of beans having proved +to be of advantage, similar good results would follow the steaming of +the other kinds of food. In this fanciful theory they would have been +able to find ample support in many of the books on stock feeding which +were published in the first half of the last century and even later. +Like many other novelties, the steaming or boiling of almost all kinds +of food for animals was followed in the establishments of well-to-do +persons where cost was studied less than success in the show yards. +Then, as now, the Germans took little for granted, they proceeded to +test the much belauded new plan by attempting to discover the fact as to +whether steaming rendered hay more digestible when fed to cattle, with +the result that it was clearly proved that when the hay was fed dry 46 +per cent of the protein was digested by the cattle while only 30 per +cent was digested from the steamed hay. But as our present business is +with pig-feeding, we will confine our remarks to the results of +experiments carried out to test the effects of cooking the food of pigs. +Perhaps the best summary of these is to be found in the most valuable +work, _Feeds and Feeding_, by Professor Henry, who wrote _Experiments +with Cooked Feed for Pigs_. + +These have been so numerous that all cannot be here presented. Those +given are selected because they are strictly representative, covering a +wide range of country foods and conditions. + +"At the Kansas Agricultural College, Shelton fed one lot of five pigs on +cooked shelled corn, while a second lot of four, similar in all +respects, was given uncooked shelled corn, the trial lasting ninety +days. In cooking, the corn was placed in a barrel and water poured over +it; into this mass a pipe carried steam, at a pressure ranging from 30 +to 60 lbs. The kernels were cooked until they were sufficiently soft +to be easily mashed between the thumb and finger. + +"At the Iowa Agricultural College, Stalker conducted trials for 120 days +in summer with cooked and uncooked shelled corn fed to Berkshire pigs. + +"At the Dominion (Canada) Station, Robertson fed grade Chester Whites, a +mixture of ground peas, barley, and rye, the trials beginning in +December and lasting 141 days. + +"At the Ohio Station, Devol fed pure bred Poland Chinas and Berkshires +for 112 days in winter. One lot of three pigs received the meal cooked, +while to the second lot it was given dry and uncooked. + +"At the Wisconsin Station, the writer (Henry) has conducted many trials +with cooked and uncooked feed for pigs. Only the later ones are here +reported. These trials lasted from 56 to 84 days each, the kinds of feed +experimented being given in the table. + +"The five trials reported from the Wisconsin Station, as will be seen by +consulting the table, are slightly in favour of cooked food, the +difference being very small, however. These are the only feeding trials +reported from any experiment station, so far as known to the writer, +where the results are favourable to cooking. Ten other trials by the +writer with cooked and uncooked feed for swine all gave results +unfavourable to cooking these, and a number of trials at other stations +with cooked and uncooked feed for swine are not included for want of +space." + +A table showing the stations at which the various experiments were +carried out, the numbers and weights of the pigs, the varieties of +foods, the duration of the different trials, the daily gain, the weights +of cooked and uncooked food consumed, the manner of cooking, the total +increases in weight and the quantities of cooked and uncooked food +required for increases of 100 lbs. in the live weights of the pigs are +given. Professor Henry sums these up and writes: "Including all the +trials then, so far as is known, that have been favourable to cooking +feed and omitting many for lack of space, that are unfavourable to that +operation, the average shows that 476 lbs. of uncooked meal or grain +were required for 100 lbs. of gain with pigs, while after it was cooked +505 lbs. were required. This shows a loss of 6 per cent of the feeding +value of these substances through cooking." + +Some thirty-five years since the present writer made some small +experiments in the feeding of cooked and uncooked whole maize; in each +case it was found that the pigs ate a greater quantity of uncooked than +cooked maize, and made a greater proportionate increase in weight from +the food consumed. Only one opinion appears to be possible, and this is +that the cooking of food for pigs, save potatoes, entails a loss of +time, an increase in cost, and a reduced return. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +A PIG CALENDAR + + +The pig-keeper, like the gardener, seldom has to seek for employment, +indeed his work may be said to be only occasionally completed. There are +always many little odd jobs to do, which if neglected may result in +loss, or a greatly increased amount of work at some later period. The +old proverb "A stitch in time saves nine" is equally as true in +connection with pig keeping as with any other form of work. + +In years gone by the month of January was considered to be quite a slack +time for pig-keepers, the sows and the store pigs usually found the +greater part of their living in the yards where the cattle were fed on +the straw which was continually being placed in the cribs as the +old-man-of-the-farm threshed the corn out of it with his flail. Many of +the cribs had slatted bottoms so that any kernels of corn which were +left in the straw would drop through and be picked up by the pigs which +found their way under the cribs. In most of the old-fashioned large +yards a corner would be railed off in which the pigs would be given a +few turnips, swedes, or small potatoes, and occasionally a handful or +two of beans or even a sheaf of beans. Those fatting pigs which had not +already been converted into bacon for consumption in the farm-house were +fed mainly on meal ground at the local wind or water mill from the tail +corn grown by the farmer. At the present time the most up-to-date +pig-keepers so arrange that many of the older sows farrow during this +month of January so that the sows have their second litter of the year +late in the month of June or early in July in order that both litters of +pigs obtain the greatest amount of benefit from the growing and hot +season, since pigs thrive best when the days are lengthening and when +the sun shines. + +Of late years we appear to have had somewhat severe weather in January. +This has rendered it the more necessary that care should be taken in +providing water and wind-tight sties, in which the sows farrow. Warmth +with free ventilation is needed. The latter is particularly necessary +after the pigs are a few days old, as these do not suffer so much from +cold as they do from damp and draughts. Of course whilst the sow is +farrowing warmth is imperative, as the moist little pigs when first +ejected very quickly become chilled in severe frost, unless they are +promptly wiped with a dry cloth, allowed a draught or two of new milk +from the sow, and then placed in a box or hamper three parts filled with +dry wheat straw. When once the pigs become thoroughly dry the cold does +not affect them very much, providing that the sow furnishes her family +with a full supply of milk. The cost of heating a little water so that +the sow and also the young pigs as soon as they begin to eat may have +warmed food, will be slight, as there is nearly always a fire required +in cottage and farm-house during the cold weather. Warm food makes a +vast difference in the thrift of pigs, especially of young ones. Very +slight observation will reveal the marked difference in the comfort of a +pig which has had a meal of warm or of cold food. In the former case the +pig will return to its nest and is soon lost in sleep, whilst the poor +beggar which has had its breakfast on cold and occasionally frozen food +will be the picture of misery and shaking with cold, much of its natural +heat produced from its last meal being required to warm up the food ere +its digestive organs can commence work. Coal and wood are at all times +less expensive to warm up food than the animal fat which is burned in +nature's lamp. + +Provision should have been made for the supply of some kind of vegetable +food which pigs require, particularly when in confinement. Kohl rabi, +swedes and cabbages, of which the first named is the best, are all +suitable, but the most nourishing are artichokes, which like the three +former should be fed raw, and potatoes which should be cooked ere they +are fed to the pigs. The difference in the feeding value between cooked +and uncooked potatoes is great. It is scarcely necessary to point out +that all vegetable food fed to pigs should have been protected from +frost. + +The operations connected with pig-keeping are very similar in February +to those of the preceding month. Towards the end of the month kohl rabis +will have lost much of their feeding value. On sunny days a run out for +a few minutes will be of great benefit to the young pigs over a month +old; as soon as they cease to gallop about they should be shut up again, +as if allowed to lie down they may contract a chill which might result +in "cramp" or rheumatism. Sows with litters two or three weeks old +should be allowed out of the sty each morning and afternoon for a short +time. + +The month of March brings with it an extra amount of work for the +pig-keeper, who will now think of selling the pigs born early in January +unless he purposes to keep them on and have them ready for sale as fat +pigs in harvest time, when there is always a good demand for medium +sized fat pigs. Anyway the sow pigs intended for breeding will have been +picked out and earmarked, this last should not be neglected after the +others have been spayed. + +This last operation has of late years been much neglected; this is a +great mistake, as experiments have clearly proved that on an average sow +pigs which have been spayed will make an equal gain in live weight on 5 +per cent less food than will an unspayed sow pig, when both have become +some five or six months old, and the periods of [oe]strum have +commenced. + +The sows which farrowed in January should now be weaned from their pigs, +and should be ready to be mated within a few days. The sows should be +carefully watched for the signs of heat or restlessness. Some sows give +little indication of this unrest, which is almost certain to appear +within four or five days providing the sow is in a healthy and vigorous +condition. To miss the sow means a loss of three weeks of most valuable +time, besides the risk of trouble in getting the sow to conceive after +she had been baulked. With the passing of the month swedes and +artichokes will have lost much of their nourishment; mangolds can now +take their place. It is a good plan to expose the mangolds to the air +for a few days prior to feeding them to the pigs; this exposure hastens +their ripening and reduces the proportion of water. Of course care must +be taken to prevent them becoming frozen, as in March this might be the +case. + +In the Southern counties tares, lucerne, and grass are sufficiently +forward towards the end of April to be cut and fed to the pigs which are +confined in the buildings. The pigs both fat and store will fully repay +the cost of labour in the cutting and carting of these vegetable foods. +Brood sows both in pig and with litters dependent on them, should be +allowed their liberty in the grass fields. This will both greatly reduce +the cost of keep and tend to their thrift and well doing. Young pigs +over a month old should have a run out both morning and afternoon. Newly +weaned pigs which have been well done are always in keen request in the +months of April and May at prices higher than in any other portion of +the year, owing to the demand from the cheese-makers who have a +superabundance of whey, of which 12 lbs. when fed in proper combination +is considered to be equal in value to 1 lb. of meal. Unfortunately, so +many dairymen do not study the requirements of the pig, and imagine that +it will give a good return from an excess of liquid in the form of whey. +Without some concentrated food the pig will not thrive on whey. Numbers +of young pigs are also required in those districts where butter-making +is carried on to consume the butter milk, and in ordinary times much of +the separated or skim milk. In the feeding of this again the results are +not so good as they should be owing to neglect. Both foods have been +rendered unbalanced owing to the extraction of the butter fat, so that +although new milk may be fed alone, the others require additional food +which should contain some oil or fat to be fed with them, or they cause +indigestion and want of thrift, particularly in young and immature pigs. + +The roots of all kinds, save potatoes and mangolds, have ceased to be of +much value before April ends, vetches and lucerne will prove to be the +best of substitutes. Spring cabbages are generally of more value for +human consumption than can be obtained from their use as pig food. If +there be any grass land available the in-pig sows and the stores, should +there be such, should now find the major portion of their food out of +doors. + +As a rule far too little attention is paid to the growth of lucerne in +this country. It is undoubtedly one of the most nutritive of our +vegetable crops. It also produces a large weight of food extending over +several months, and continues fruitful for many years providing +attention is paid to the keeping it free from grasses. It has the +additional advantage of furnishing a full supply of food when the +weather is so dry that grass and some other foods produce little. It is +true that in the initial stage it requires time and care, but the +results from it amply repay both. One of the best seasons for sowing it +is the month of May. The operation is simple, the land having been +cleared the seed is sown in drills about 1 ft. apart, the quantity of +seed required being at the rate of 20 lbs. per acre, say 2 oz. per pole +or a drill 35 yards long. As soon as the plants are high enough the land +should be hand hoed, and if kept free of weeds a light crop can +generally be cut from it towards the end of August. In the following +years it will produce at least three cuttings annually. + +Some persons are of opinion that as lucerne is such a deep-rooted plant +manure is unnecessary. It is true that the roots penetrate several feet +into the soil, still an application of short manure or rotted vegetable +matter applied each autumn will give a good return. + +The chief point in the use of lucerne for pigs and in the production of +a maximum crop is to cut it when young. The pigs will thrive on it far +better in this state than when the stalks become hard and sticky. In the +latter stage it is likely to cause constipation. It is best not to graze +it with either horses, cattle, or pigs, but benefit to it results from +folding it in the autumn with ewes or other sheep which find most of +their other food on the stubbles, commons, heaths, etc. + +All the sows and the yelts intended for breeding should now spend their +whole time out of doors. It might be noted that lucerne will grow on +almost any kind of land providing it is well drained--stagnant water +destroys it. + +The duties of the pig-keeper are very similar in the month of June to +those of the previous month. Prior to the outbreak of war it was +becoming general amongst the most practical pigmen to continue to fatten +pigs all the year round. The old-fashioned idea that pork was not a +suitable food during any of the months in which there was not the letter +"r" had become exploded. Not only did the bacon curers require a supply +of fat pigs weighing from 200 to 220 lbs. alive, but there was a good +demand from the butchers for small fat pigs weighing from 80 to 140 lbs. +alive. + +It must not be forgotten that a smaller quantity of food is required to +produce a pound of pork during the summer than during the winter months. +This has been clearly proved in many experiments. The difference varies +according to the temperature. In the very cold weather experienced in +some portions of the United States it was found that some pigs actually +made no increase in weight when well fed, the whole of the nutriment +having to be utilised in keeping up the bodily warmth of the pigs. + +The months of July and August see little change in the duties of the +attendant on pigs. The old-fashioned plan of running the pigs on the +corn stubbles has almost gone out of fashion. The improved system of +harvesting the crops leaves less corn on the land, whilst the cost of +labour in keeping the pigs is almost prohibitive. At one time there used +to be a keen demand for young pigs in the month of August for so-called +"shacking" or running on the stubbles. Experience has proved that these +pigs pay less frequently under present conditions than they did under +the old ones. + +The scarcity of vegetable food which usually shows itself in August is +now, in September, met to a considerable extent by the plan of the early +digging of potatoes. Large quantities of chats, and sometimes of +slightly diseased ones are now cooked and fed to the pigs with a certain +proportion of meal. As a rule there is a keen demand for pork in the +month of September. Towards the end of the month all pigs should be +under shelter at night. + +During the last three months of the year there is little variation in +the management of pigs. One of the common mistakes made by farmers is to +neglect their pigs in the autumn, at the very season when a little extra +food is needed, and for which the pigs will give a better return than at +almost any time of the year. The early portion of October is one of the +best periods for mating the sows, the yelts may be left until the latter +part of the month so that their pigs do not arrive until the month of +February when the days are lengthening and the sun has more power. It is +advisable to have many of the fat pigs ready for market ere the month of +November ends, as the demand for pork is usually slack for two or three +weeks prior to and after Christmas. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +DISEASES OF THE PIG + + +Fortunately, the pig is subject to comparatively few serious +diseases--save swine fever, swine erysipelas, and very occasionally +anthrax, which are contagious or infectious, and all in the special +charts of the veterinary department of the Board of Agriculture, and +within the contagious Diseases Animals Acts. Prior to the stamping out +of Foot and Mouth Disease or apthous fever and rabies, pigs suffered +from these contagious and infectious diseases, particularly the former +of the two, which caused immense losses, especially of young pigs, +during the latter half of the past century. + +Of the other ailments to which pig flesh is heir, the majority and the +chief of them are mainly due to that want of knowledge or care in the +feeding and in the housing of the pigs which renders them more +susceptible to the sudden changes in the temperature or to the +inclemency of the season. In former chapters some, if not all, of these +ailments have been referred to, but it may be more convenient to our +readers to include in one chapter a brief description of the ailments +and the remedies and means of prevention. + + +SWINE FEVER + +Some thirty years since the losses from this disease were of so serious +a nature that the Board of Agriculture determined to attempt to stamp it +out, as they had succeeded in stamping out pleura pneumonia in cattle, +and foot and mouth disease. The success of their efforts was not at all +commensurate with the outlay. The failure was attributed to many causes; +amongst them the want of a complete knowledge of the disease, the +impossibility of diagnosing it during the life of the patient, the +absence of sympathy on the part of the local veterinary surgeons owing +to certain steps taken by the then Veterinary Adviser of the Board, to +which further reference is now inadvisable, and to the general +opposition of pig-keepers who had as little faith in many of the post +mortems and their results as in the power of the authorities to stamp +out the disease which under various names had been more or less common +in the country so long as they could remember. Doubts were also passed +on the infectivity or contagiousness of swine fever, or as it was +variously termed red soldier, spots, etc. + +This disbelief was probably due in part to the fact that some of the +external symptoms of swine fever, swine erysipelas, and heart disease, +such as discoloration of the skin were of a similar character. In some +instances this redness of the skin, which was looked upon as a sure sign +that the pig had died from swine fever, did not prove to be infectious, +as no other cases followed amongst the in-contact pigs. This led to the +general belief that swine fever was not necessarily infectious. +Dissatisfaction with the arbitrary manner in which the restrictions in +movement, etc., were carried out did not mend matters, nor help to +render the efforts of the Board more successful. + +At the present time it is imperative on the part of the owner of an ill +pig to report the fact to the nearest policeman. The owner then merely +carries out the instructions supplied to him by the police so that it is +almost unnecessary to state that the symptoms of swine fever are +several. At times the attack is of so virulent a nature that a pig may +take its food all right in the afternoon and be dead the next morning, +no discoloration of the skin or other external symptoms being visible +before or immediately after death. + +As a rule when the pig is attacked the first symptom is loss of +appetite, generally accompanied by a feverish condition of the skin +which shows more or fewer red spots behind the shoulder, and inside the +thighs, or in those portions of the body where the skin is the thinnest +and most free from hair. The great desire of the affected pig is to +burrow into the litter and to remain undisturbed, save when the feverish +thirst impels it to seek moisture of any sort or kind, even urine which +may have settled into any unevenness of the floor of the sty. + +Many of the ailing pigs suffer from a dry, husky cough, a gummy +discharge exudes from the eyes and forms a ring round them, the ankles +become affected, and the muscles of the back become weakened so that +the pig has difficulty in walking. The discoloration of the skin may or +may not increase, but the weakness gradually becomes greater so that +death may follow within a day or two from the first attack. Occasionally +the affected pig will continue to live for several days, and eventually +recover so much that it can be fatted, but there exists a great risk of +the recovered pig being what is termed a "carrier" of the disease, and +possessing the ability to infect other pigs with which it may come in +close contact, although the germs of the disease which it carries do not +affect its own health. Similar instances of human beings being +"carriers" of the disease have been recorded. So difficult is it at +times to discover the source of the infection of swine fever that +certain persons who are not amongst the strongest believers in the +practical knowledge of the members of the veterinary profession assert +that swine fever need not necessarily be the result of infection, but +that injudicious feeding or the neglect of sanitary arrangements will +sometimes cause an outbreak. There does not appear to be the slightest +ground for this belief, as there is a specific virus which when it +obtains ingress into the body of the pig, whether by the mouth, nose, or +in any other way, may result in an attack, more or less severe, of swine +fever, unless the virus has become so attenuated that it is unable to +affect the host sufficiently. This attenuation, which is due to causes +which are probably not completely known, is commonly the cause of the +absence of further cases of swine fever amongst one of a lot of pigs +which has had a very mild attack. This variation in the virulence of +most infectious diseases has been noticed and recorded. + +At the present time the Board of Agriculture have suspended the +slaughter order in cases where the owner of the pigs desires to +inoculate the in-contact pigs with serum which is supplied from the +Veterinary College. The experiment has not been in operation +sufficiently long enough to express a confident opinion upon its +results, but it is stated that in Denmark the inoculation of the pigs +which have been in contact with diseased pigs has proved to be a +success. The risks of carrying out the experiment are by no means +slight, but appear to be worth running if there be any great probability +of success. + + +SWINE ERYSIPELAS + +The symptoms of this disease, which fortunately is not so common as +swine fever, owing probably to its being more fatal and in a shorter +time, are very similar to those of swine fever, save that the husky +cough and the weakness of the muscles of the back are generally absent. +The post mortem shows distinctive differences from those of swine fever. +There appears to be far greater difficulty in thoroughly disinfecting +the sty in which pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed than +after swine fever cases; not only so, but the virus remains active for a +very long period, so that any accident which may expose the virus even +after many months may affect any pigs with which it comes in contact. + +In an outbreak of swine erysipelas it is advisable to have the +unaffected pigs inoculated as well as those housed in a sty or building +in which at any time pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed. A +certain limited number may die, and a few suffer for a time, but the +total loss will be considerably reduced. + + +ANTHRAX, FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE AND RABIES + +It may be unnecessary to describe these very infectious or contagious +diseases to which pigs are subject, as fortunately the steps taken to +stamp them out, and which were much decried when taken by the Board of +Agriculture, have proved so successful that the two latter are stamped +out, and the first named is so promptly and effectually dealt with that +a case of it amongst swine is seldom recorded. + + +CRAMP, DIARRH[OE]A AND EPILEPTIC FITS + +These diseases, which are more frequent amongst young pigs, have been +fully described in the chapters dealing with the rearing, weaning, and +growing of pigs, where it is pointed out that they are all mainly due to +faults in feeding, and the simple remedies applicable are there given. + +Hernia and Scrotal Hernia are also treated upon in the chapter on the +Farrowing Sow. + + +INVERSION OF THE VAGINA OR THE UTERUS + +These two troubles, of which the latter is a complete expulsion and the +former only a partial protrusion of the "breeding bag," are generally +the result of a difficult or a protracted farrowing. The second is +almost impossible of treatment, and indeed may be declared as fatal, so +that the loss may be reduced by prompt slaughter. + +The first varies in extent; a partial or limited inversion may at times +be noticeable during the latter stages of pregnancy, and then after +delivery may disappear without treatment until the pressure due to the +increasing size of the f[oe]tus again causes it. Even in serious cases +which attend the delivery and are due to excessive straining of the sow, +the attack is not necessarily fatal if extreme care in treatment is +applied. The first thing is to wash the protruding part with warm water, +to which some disinfectant has been added, in order that all dirt, short +straw, etc., shall be removed. The sow should then be made to rise, or +if she refuses, as is not uncommon, the hind quarters of the sow should +be raised and the protruding portion be gently but firmly forced back. +In order to prevent a re-expulsion stitches with strong cord or leather +lace should be inserted into the edges of the vulva--these need not be +very close together or otherwise the sow would be unable to make water. +For a few days the sow must be kept as quiet as possible and fed on a +little nourishing but laxative food, so that the pressure on the vagina +is slight until the muscles regain their normal strength. Should there +be the slightest symptom of constipation, salts or castor oil should be +given to the sow. No harm, but rather good, will attend the giving of a +gentle dose of salts at the first time of feeding after the operation as +there is certain to be an amount of inflammation present. + + +INVERSION OF THE RECTUM + +This expulsion of the gut as it is commonly termed is not often +experienced amongst mature pigs. Young pigs are not uncommonly affected +save when constipation is neglected, or when the food is of a heating +nature which causes continual difficulty on the part of the pig in +expelling the faeces. The effort of straining causes the gut to exude. +Similar treatment, save as to the stitching of the part, as with +inversion of the vagina, should be followed. + + +TENDER FEET + +This trouble is frequently mistaken for cramp or rheumatism, and is +generally due to the same causes, injudicious feeding, etc. In the +latter disease the ankles are mainly affected, in the case of fever in +the feet, the feet only are affected. A strong dose of Epsom salts +should be given and daily doses of nitre should be given in the food. +The object should be to reduce and remove the fever and then to cure or +remove that tenderness and soreness of the feet which follows the fever. +Poulticing the feet and applying diluted white oils by adding equal +quantities of water and vinegar around the coronets are both remedial +measures of great value. + + +CONSTIPATION + +This trouble is very common amongst pigs which are confined to the +sties, its avoidance is comparatively easy, when the want of exercise is +the sole cause. A run in an enclosure or even in the road will almost +always result in the pig evacuating dung and water. A dose of salts, +varying from 1/2 oz. to 1-1/2 oz. for each pig, according to age, in the +next supply of food is advisable. + +Constipation is usually the first indication of many of the troubles to +which the pig is heir. The little pig on its mother becomes constipated +when the food fed to the mother is unsuitable, and the pig suffers from +indigestion; fever caused by a chill is also foretold by constipation +which should be first removed by a gentle dose of salts or of castor +oil; the last only to be used in severe cases. Linseed oil is also +frequently used to relieve the constipation, but with this there is a +fear of billiousness following its use. If exercise and the above +remedies do not effect a cure, an enema of soap and water or even +glycerine may be necessary. Old-fashioned pigmen remove the hard and +knotty faeces by the aid of the finger. + + +ECZEMA + +This is sometimes called a skin disease, but it appears to be rather a +symptom of a severe attack of indigestion or of billiousness than a +disease in itself. It shows itself in the form of a bright red spot, +varying in size from that of a threepenny piece to that of a shilling, +these spots vary greatly in number. Small pimples appear on the spots +from which a sticky fluid exudes. As soon as the bowels are thoroughly +relieved by aperient medicine, the spots become dark in colour and peel +off the skin. The application of oil to the spots hastens the shedding +of them. A dose of sulphur of one to eight drachms in addition to the +salts will be beneficial. + +Frequently the pig will refuse to eat, it will then be necessary to dose +it. The pig must be caught, its head raised and the liquid gently poured +down its throat, the greatest care being taken not to pour the liquid +whilst the pig is squealing or the medicine will go into the lungs and +cause suffocation, or inflammation of the lungs which will generally +prove fatal. + + +MEASLES + +This is a trouble of a very similar character to eczema save that the +red spots are more numerous and of a more irritating character. The +patient is continually rubbing itself against the wall or any prominence +in an endeavour to relieve the itching. The pig is also more feverish. +The pig should be placed in a warm sty, with plenty of dry straw, into +which it will quickly burrow. A dose of Epsom salts to which is added a +small quantity of spirit of nitre should be given, as the pig affected +will almost invariably refuse food for a time. Neat's foot or sweet oil +applied to the spots will relieve the irritation. + + +RICKETS + +This is not by any means a common ailment amongst pigs, but it is very +hereditary. The most common cause is too close breeding. The bones and +joints appear to be unequal to the performance of their duties, the pig +staggers and stumbles when it attempts to move, whilst sometimes the +back is affected, when the pig is stated to be suffering from +"swayback." As a rule treatment is inadvisable as recovery is doubtful. +The first loss by knocking the pig on the head is generally the least. + + +TUBERCULOSIS + +Pigs, like unto human beings, are much subject to tuberculosis when they +are kept under conditions similar to those which result in human beings +becoming affected. The disease is highly infectious, pigs coming in +contact with or even being housed in sties where pigs affected have been +recently kept are very likely to become infected. Some persons declare +that tuberculosis, or, as it is more commonly called, consumption, is +hereditary. For this there does not appear to be any foundation. The +chief thing to prevent one's animals being affected is to keep them away +from contagion. Although many parts of the body may be attacked by +tuberculosis, the lungs are more frequently affected than any other of +the organs, owing probably to the ease with which infection by the +minute germ is conveyed to the lungs in the act of breathing. + +In the past a considerable number of pigs became infected through being +fed on skim milk which contained germs from the udder of a cow suffering +from a tuberculous udder. In these cases of the lungs and the bowels +becoming tubercular, the pigs become unthrifty and frequently waste away +and die. When the bones and other portions of the body are attacked the +development of the disease is not so rapid, but in any case the wisest +plan is to destroy the animal and thoroughly disinfect the place in +which it has been kept. Save when the disease is local and of very +limited duration the meat of a pig suffering from tuberculosis is unfit +for human consumption. + + +WORMS + +Pigs are subject to various kinds of worms. Of these the most serious by +far is the worm which causes the disease called Trichinosis in man. The +worms are transmitted to man in pork from a diseased pig. Thorough +cooking of meat appears to destroy the vitality of the worm, but in +foreign countries where the pork is eaten in an uncooked or an +undercooked condition the disease is not uncommon. Fortunately, +Trichinosis is almost unknown in this country, owing to our more +stringent sanitary conditions, the disease being due in the pig to the +eating of human excrement in which are thread worms. + +The most common kind of pig worm in this country is the round white +worm, pointed at both ends. Its length varies from one to several +inches. Its presence is often unsuspected until one or more of the worms +are noticed in the dung of the pig. It is readily got rid of by keeping +the pigs from food for at least twelve hours, and then giving them a +little tempting food in which a dose of santonine, varying from three to +ten grains for each pig, according to its age, has been added. Some two +hours later a dose of castor oil of from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz., or of one to +two ounces of Epsom salts, should be given in milk or some other +tempting food. Similar treatment will prove successful in the case of +pigs affected with the smaller kind of worms save that of the worm which +causes what is commonly known as "husk." This worm makes its home in the +windpipe and bronchial tubes. It is advisable to obtain from a chemist a +drench for the riddance of this worm, as the remedies will consist of +linseed oil, turpentine, spirits of camphor, and asaf[oe]tida. + + +SORE TEATS + +Occasionally the teats of sows, especially sows with their first +litters, become chapped or sore. This trouble is frequently due to the +too vigorous sucking of the little pigs when the supply of milk is +short, to the biting of the teats when the sharp little teeth have not +been broken off, or even to cold winds. + +An application of boro-glyceride will usually effect a speedy cure. In +persistent cases it will be advisable to give the sow a dose or two of +opening medicine such as salts or sulphur. + + +SALT AND SODA POISONING + +Although these can scarcely be classed as diseases, the effects are +often more serious than those of some actual diseases to which swine are +more or less subject. + +In the majority of cases the cause is the neglect of the cook to keep +separate from the swill the water in which salted meat or other food has +been boiled, or the water to which soda has been added in the washing +of the plates, etc. An attack if at all severe is usually fatal. + +The symptoms are a discoloration of the skin, and a refusal of food. As +these are the usual symptoms of several other ailments, it is difficult +to determine the cause of death save by a post-mortem examination. It is +to be feared that this mixing of a solution of salt and soda with the +other swill will be one of the difficulties met with in the more general +utilisation of kitchen refuse in the keeping of pigs. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THE CURING OF PORK + + +In the good old times bacon curing was carried on in the large majority +of farm-houses as well as in many houses in the country districts, not +only where there were conveniences for the keeping of pigs, but many +householders were in the habit of buying carcases of pork from their +neighbours and curing the major portion for the following year's supply +of cured meats. Even the better class labourers would kill and cure it +so that as long as it lasted they had on hand a supply of most +nutritious and suitable food. Unfortunately a great change has taken +place of late years; this convenient and profitable plan has been +superseded. The causes may have been many; amongst them, the importation +of immense quantities of salt pork of very inferior quality at very low +prices from the United States; the change in the public taste which is +now for mild cured and lean bacon from young pigs, instead of the more +heavily salted meats from older and fatter pigs; the great decrease in +the number of pigs kept by cottagers and others in urban districts +through the operation of the so-called sanitary regulations; and +probably from the different style of living, which may or may not be an +improvement, amongst the residents in country districts. + +It may be that one of the many changes which have been brought about by, +and which will also follow, the war will be a return to the more simple +and less luxurious manner of living. It is certain that a more +economical system will have to be followed, and one of the means of +effecting this may be a return to the keeping of pigs during their +growing stage on the house and garden refuse, and then when the pigs +have been fattened, by the killing and curing of the carcase for home +consumption. + +Much has been written during recent years about the folly of allowing so +many millions of sovereigns to go out of the country in payment for the +vast weight of bacon, hams, and lard which we import from foreign +countries. Residents in the country have been blamed by town residents +and literary men for their alleged want of enterprise in not breeding +and fattening the few extra million pigs which would furnish an amount +of pig produce equal to that imported, and thus, as they declare, save +the country that outlay which is a dead loss to these islands. + +It may at once be frankly admitted that a very considerable increase in +the number of our pig population is possible without any very greatly +extended cost of food, but when it is contended that farmers and even +cottagers are grossly neglectful in not producing sufficient pork and +its products for the use of the whole of the population of these +islands, an injustice is done, as the breeding and feeding of pigs is a +business calling, not a philanthropical pursuit. Farmers and cottagers +are like other manufacturers of necessary articles; they produce in +order to live, and they cease to manufacture an article when its +production ceases to repay them for their outlay and trouble. They must +of necessity do so, or they come to grief and are unable to carry on +their farms or businesses. + +It matters not what the cause be for the ability of the foreigner to +produce and land on our markets articles cheaper than we can afford to +offer them at, the result is the same--the home production is +automatically reduced. There are many causes which have helped to render +it possible for foreigners to supply us with a certain proportion of the +pork and bacon which we require at a less cost than our home breeder and +feeders of pigs can supply it. These include help to the farmers from +the Governments of certain countries such as Denmark, where assistance +is given in the purchase of pure bred pigs for the improvement of the +native pigs, in the reduced railway and other rates on the transit of +pigs, foods, and bacon, in the provision of certain foods, and in +carrying out experiments in order to show how they may be utilised in +the best manner. Stud farms have also been established from which pure +bred boars are distributed, whilst the whole industry of pig breeding +and bacon curing is carried on under the supervision and with the advice +of many Government officials appointed for the purpose. The intrinsic +value of this assistance is perceptible, as in no other country are +pig-keeping and bacon curing carried on with greater monetary success +than in Denmark. + +It is also asserted that the general system of farming in Denmark has +also contributed very largely to the phenomenal prosperity of the pig +industry, in that a very large proportion of the land is owned and +farmed by comparatively small farmers, men who have a direct interest in +the improvement of the land, and who with their families perform the +major portion of the work on the land and in attendance on the stock. +The land is almost certain to be well managed and the stock to receive +the best possible attention with, comparatively speaking, little cost as +to labour. The animals on the farm are likely to be of a higher grade +and the returns from them of an increased character, than when strangers +and disinterested hired labour attend and feeds them. + +Another of the great advantages possessed by some of our foreign +competitors is the very much better supply of feeding stuffs and their +very considerably lower cost. Take the United States, for instance, the +enormous supply of maize alone enables American pigmen to manufacture +pork at a cost which enables the packers to land bacon, hams, and lard +on the British shores which our home pig producers cannot approach. +Although it cannot be said that the cost of labour is less in the States +than in England, yet there are some countries from which we import pork +products where the labour is far more plentiful and less costly. In the +future the allowance for labour will have to be on a more liberal scale +than hitherto when estimating the cost of producing pork, unless the +number of persons owning and occupying small holdings is greatly +increased. + +It has been stated that our home producers of pork and bacon will obtain +a considerable advantage in the future in that the freight on the +imported meats will be so much higher. It is most probable that this +will increase the expense of landing bacon, etc., on our markets; on the +other hand, as we import so large a proportion of the pig fattening +foods, the cost of food will most likely be increased to quite the same +if not to a greater extent. The only plan to reduce this extra expense +will be to lessen the outlay on imported foods by paying more attention +to the growth of various foods suitable for pigs, attending more +carefully to our pigs and feeding them on common-sense lines. In these +particulars there is room for much improvement in many piggeries. + +By reducing the cost of the production of pork and by the more general +adoption of the system of home curing we shall not only obtain our bacon +at less cost, but we shall have a far greater amount of the finest +quality of bacon and hams generally available. We imagine that the +reader of the earlier portion of this book will experience little +difficulty in producing fine quality pork at a minimum cost--it will +then remain to cure and dry it properly. + +The fattened pig should not be fed for some twenty-four hours before it +is killed; after slaughter the carcase should remain hanging until it +is thoroughly cooled. The manner of cutting up will depend on the +custom in the particular district. In some parts of the country the pig +is split down, the head, feet, and tail taken off, the leaf and kidneys +and the skirt taken out, the loin and the crop with a certain proportion +of the lean cut off, and in some cases the shoulder blade is drawn; +after the necessary trimming a Wiltshire side remains. + +In other districts the ham and the shoulder are cut off and the side is +converted into a middle, a ham and a shoulder or fore-ham. The jowls are +taken off the head and salted with the bacon and hams. The upper part of +the head, or, as it is commonly termed, the scorf, is usually used with +the feet in the manufacture of brawn, or, as it is sometimes called, +pork cheese--presumably from its being cooled in a form, and then turned +out on to the dish on which it is served at table. + +The first operation in curing is to distribute a small quantity of salt +all over the meat to be cured. If allowed to remain about forty-eight +hours the blood remaining in the meat will have become dissolved, and +will have exuded from the carcase. This liquid should be thrown away. A +mixture in the proportion of 4 lbs. salt, 1 lb. coarse brown sugar, 1 +oz. saltpetre, 1/4 oz. bay salt, and 1/4 oz. salt prunell should be +prepared, and a portion of it be applied to all parts of the meat and +particularly in the pocket hole, if the shoulder blade has been drawn. +This should be continued for from twenty to thirty days, according to +the thickness of the meat and the degree of saltness desired. In one or +two districts of a limited area it is usual to rub the meat somewhat +violently with a large pebble when applying the salt mixture, the +alleged object being to rub in the salt; but for this there is not the +slightest necessity as the result of the rubbing is nil, since the salt +will penetrate the meat equally as well without the manipulation as with +it. The principal point is to secure the distribution of the salt to +every part of the meat so that the salt can penetrate and preserve it. + +When sufficiently cured the meat should be hung up and dried. If it be +desired to have it smoked this is best done at the village bakery or +smoke drying house. Smoking of hams and bacon is possible on a small +scale with the aid of a smoke oven such as supplied by Messrs. Douglas +and Sons of Putney, but it is, as a rule, cheaper and less troublesome +to send the meat to the village smoking house. It will be advisable to +brand or otherwise mark each piece of cured meat sent to be smoked, as +the return of the same pieces is thus assured. + +Where the home curing of bacon and hams is followed, this is best +carried out from the middle of October to the end of March; if it be +attempted earlier or later a cold chamber is necessary. + +The manufacture of salt pork is carried on all the year through as the +meat is usually kept in the brine, where it will keep perfectly good for +a considerable time providing it is perfectly sweet when first placed in +the brine. To secure this it is advisable to have the pig killed in the +evening, covered over with a cloth to prevent the flies approaching it, +and hanging it in a cool place so that all the natural heat has escaped +ere it is cut up and placed in the pickle pot. It may be advisable to +note that the last is only possible with a small pig during the hot +weather. In the mere salting of pork it is usual to use only salt and +saltpetre. The use of sugar should be avoided in the summer, as its use +is likely to result in fermentation in hot weather. + +There are two other points in connection with bacon curing on which a +change of opinion has taken place, or is taking place. These are the +cause of what are called in the trade "seedy bellies," and the effect on +the bacon of the female fat pig being in a state of [oe]strum when it is +slaughtered. Until quite recently the first of these troubles, and it is +a most serious one to the trade, was generally considered to be due to +the second. It was believed by curers that the slight inflammation +noticeable in the mammary glands of the female pig when she is in heat +resulted in these so-called "seedy bellies" if the pig was in that +condition when she was slaughtered. This belief may have been either the +cause or the result, or both, of the common saying that the meat of a +sow pig killed when it was in heat will not take the salt properly, and +that it is therefore advisable to wait until this natural condition has +passed away before the pig is slaughtered. This contention has been one +of the arguments used when the spaying of sow pigs has been advocated. +Of late years comparatively few sow pigs have been spayed, so that the +unspayed fat pigs have been nearly as numerous as those male pigs which +have been castrated, and as the sow pigs come in heat each three weeks, +and continue so for from three to five days, a very considerable +proportion of them must be in heat when they are slaughtered at the +large bacon-curing factories, without any loss resulting. We may, +therefore, assume that it matters little whether the pig be in heat or +not when it is slaughtered unless the seedy bellies result. + +On this point also the verdict is against the common belief, as Messrs. +Mackenzie and Marsh have carried out a series of investigations at +Cambridge which clearly proved that seedy bellies were equally as common +when the sow pigs were not in heat and when they were; but that the +discoloration which resembles numbers of small spots of colour varying +from dark blue to light red in the mammary glands is merely an excess of +pigment, the darker shade being common in pigs with dark coloured hair +and skin such as the Large Blacks, Berkshires, etc., and the lighter +shade in pigs of the Tamworth breed. In the bacon manufactured from pigs +with a white skin and white hair there is no discoloration or seedy +bellies. + +Although it has been generally considered by bacon curers that pigs of a +white colour were preferable for their trade, and this to such an extent +that some of the bacon curers in Ireland will pay a slightly higher +price for a pig with a white skin, the preference was generally +considered to be due to the more presentable appearance of a side of +bacon from a white than from a black pig; it would appear that in the +future a still greater preference will be observable when it becomes +generally known that the bacon made from white pigs is free from seedy +bellies. + + * * * * * + + +_To make money out of Pigs_ + +One must go on the NON-STOP PRINCIPLE, every little check to growth +means so much less profit. Now we know and there are thousands of other +pig feeders know that WILLSON'S CANADIAN PIG POWDERS are just the very +thing that is wanted, one or two powders a week to each Pig enables them +to digest their food and get the very utmost out of it. Nature does the +rest. You will find this so and the cost of powders is very small. + +[Illustration: Willson's Canadian Pig Powders] + + _are a Great Investment_ + +[Illustration: + + +--------------------------+ + | 7 for 6d., post free 7d.| + | 16 " 1/- " 1/2| + | 48 " 2/9 " 3/-| + |144 " 8/- " | + |and in bulk in tins | + |21/- post free. | + | | + |_We have agents almost | + |everywhere._ | + +--------------------------+ + +] + + _Sole Manufacturer:_ + + STEPHEN WILLSON + Canadian Pig Powder Factory + PETERBOROUGH + (_Who also keeps a big experimental piggery_). + + + * * * * * + + Continuous Cropping and Tillage + Dairy Farming for Small Farmers. + + By T. WIBBERLEY, N.D.A., N.D.D. + + Third Edition. Price 3/6 net; postage 4d. + + +Here Mr. Wibberley describes specially for the benefit of the small man +his system of all-weather farming, capable of doubling or trebling the +profits of even the best regulated small dairy farms. In this book he +discloses for the first time the whole secret of his success and the +success of the many thousands of small dairy farmers who follow him. + + + _Of all Booksellers or from the Publishers_, + C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. + + * * * * * + + + + +INDEX + + + Anthrax, 162 + + Apthous fever, 15, 162 + + Arrival of little pigs, 82 + + Artichokes for pigs, 89 + + Attendance on farrowing sow, 80 + + + Bacon curing, 177 + + Bacon smoking, 177 + + Bacon from young pigs, 171 + + Barley meal as sole fatting food, 134 + + Barn for pigsty, 109 + + Baulked sows, 76 + + Baulking sows, 94 + + Berkshire breed, 33 + + Black pigs, 75 + + Blind teats, 70 + + Boar's teats, 62 + + Board of Agriculture's premiums, 47 + + Bob-tailed pigs, 86 + + Breeds of pigs at shows, 17 + + British Berkshire Society, 27 + + Butter milk, 153 + + + Cabbages for pigs, 101 + + Canadian system, 47 + + Carriers of swine fever, 158, 188 + + Castrating pigs, 105 + + Castrating ruptured pigs, 88 + + Cause of parti-coloured pigs, 15 + + Close breeding, 46 + + Clover for pigs, 89 + + Coleseed for pigs, 103 + + Constipation in pigs, 164 + + Consumption in pigs, 167 + + Cooked _v._ uncooked maize, 147 + + Cooked _v._ uncooked potatoes, 150 + + Cooking pig foods, 144 + + Cooking potatoes, 147 + + Cross-bred pigs, 39 + + Cross breds _v._ pure breds, 45 + + Cumberland pigs, 38 + + Cutting up the pig, 176 + + + Danish pig-keeping, 174 + + Dead pigs, 83 + + Delicacy of pure-bred pigs, 45 + + Dentition of pigs, 49 + + Diarrh[oe]a, 162 + + Difficulty in disinfecting sties, 161 + + Diseases of pigs, 157 + Anthrax + Apthous fever + Constipation + Cramp + Diarrh[oe]a + Eczema + Epileptic fits + Foot and mouth disease + Inversion of the rectum + " " " vagina + " " " uterus + Measles + Rabies + Rickets + Salt poisoning + Soda poisoning + Sore teats + Swine erysipelas + Swine fever + Tender feet + Tuberculosis + Worms + + Dorset pigs, 25 + + Dosing pigs, 166 + + Dry beds, 103 + + Dysentery, 85 + + + Eczema, 165 + + Effect of food and climate, 148 + + Epileptic fits, 162 + + Essex half-blacks, 21 + + Excited young sows, 81 + + Exhibition of pigs, 113 + + Exposure of mangolds, 152 + + Extra food in the autumn, 155 + + + Farmer owners, 174 + + Farrowing sow, 79 + + Fits, 86 + + Flabby udders, 70 + + Foot and mouth disease, 15 + + Foster mothers, 119 + + + Garget, 101 + + Gloucestershire Old Spots breed, 37 + + Government help, 47 + + Grade breeding pigs, 46 + + Grazing pigs, 73 + + + Ham curing, 171 + + Hampshire pigs, 20 + + Hernia, 162 + + High-backed pigs, 100 + + Holywell Victoria Countess, 77 + + Husk, 160 + + + Importation of bacon and lard, 172 + + Improved breeds, origin of, 13 + + Increased cost of freight, 175 + + Infectivity of swine fever, 158 + + Influence of sire, 43, 54 + " " dam, 54 + + Inoculation for erysipelas, 162 + " " swine fever, 162 + + Inversion of the rectum, 164 + " " " vagina, 164 + " " " uterus, 162 + + + Large boars, 59 + + Large Black breed, 30 + + Large blue and white pigs, 23 + + Large White breed, 30 + + Large White Ulster breed, 35 + + Lincolnshire Curly Coated breed, 36 + + Litter for pigs, 103 + + Lucerne for pigs, 89, 153 + + + Maize supply, 174 + + Mangolds for pigs, 101 + + Mating the young sow, 72 + " " suckling sow, 92 + + Measles, 166 + + Medicine for farrowing sow, 83 + + Mere size studied, 65 + + Messrs. Harris's scheme, 43 + + Middle White breed, 31 + + Milk for sucking pigs, 100 + + Mixture of food, 135 + + Model piggeries, 108 + + + Neat sows, 65 + + Non-infectious swine fever, 160 + + Norfolk pigs, 24 + + Northamptonshire pigs, 23 + + Number of pigs for a sow, 97 + + Number in a litter, 68 + + + Origin of improved breeds, 13 + + Oxfordshire pigs, 23, 27 + + + Parsnips for pigs, 89 + + Parti-coloured pigs, cause of, 115 + + Peat moss litter, 104 + + Persistence of erysipelas virus, 161 + + Pig calendar, 148 + + Pig fattening, 132 + + Pig keeping in orchards, 128 + " " " woods, 128 + + Pigment, excess of, 179 + + Pig pillows, 65 + + Pig shacking, 153 + + Pigs suffering from heat, 124 + + Plenty of teats, 67 + + Potatoes for pigs, 89 + + Poulticing pigs' feet, 164 + + Practical _v._ show points, 41 + + Prepotency of dam, 55 + " " sire, 55 + + Prolificacy, 42 + " indications of, 67 + " value of, 42 + + Pure breeds, 26 + + + Quality of bone, 60 + + + Rabies, 162 + + Rape for pigs, 89 + + Rearing of young pigs, 97 + + Recorded pedigree insufficient, 44 + + Rectum, inversion of, 164 + + Registering produce, 42 + + Remaking sow's bed, 83 + + Rickets in pigs, 166 + + Ring pigs, 61 + + Rollers for fat pigs, 117 + + Round white worms, 168 + + Rudgwick pigs, 21 + + Rupture in pigs hereditary, 88 + + Ruptured boar, 61 + + + Salt poisoning, 169 + + Santonine as a cure for worms, 168 + + Scrotal hernia, 162 + + Seedy bellies, 177 + + Selection of boar, 53 + " " sow, 63 + + Separated milk for little pigs, 100 + + Sheeted pigs, 22 + + Size in boars, 59 + " of pigs' ears, 60 + + Skim milk and tuberculosis, 167 + + Slaughter classes, 118 + + Small black breed, 18 + + Small joints wanted, 66 + + Small testicles, 61 + + Smoke ovens, 177 + + Smoking bacon, 177 + + Soft pork, 135 + + Sore-tailed pigs, 86 + + Sore teats, 169 + + Sow's udder, 67 + + Spaying sow pigs, 151 + + Sty facing east, 108 + " " north, 108 + " " south, 108 + " " west, 108 + + Sugar in pork curing, 177 + + Sussex pigs, 21 + + Swayback pigs, 166 + + Swine erysipelas, 161 + + Swine fever, 158 + " " virus, 160 + + + Tares for pigs, 152 + + Tender feet, 164 + + Trichinosis, 168 + + Tuberculosis in pigs, 167 + + Tuberculosis in pigs not hereditary, 167 + + Tuberculosis meat unhealthy, 167 + + + Udder, the sow's, 67 + + Undersized teats, 70 + + Uniformity in a herd, 44 + " " young pigs, 43 + + Unwieldly sows, 65 + + Utility points, 42 + + + Value of feeding qualities, 59 + + Value of whey, 152 + + Variation in virulence of infectious diseases, 161 + + Varying food, 136 + + Vegetable food for pigs, 89, 135, 150 + + + Weaning pigs, 89 + + Wheat meal, 136 + + White peas for little pigs, 100 + + White-skinned pigs for bacon, 106, 179 + + Worms, 168 + + * * * * * + + +DENNIS'S + +"LINCOLNSHIRE" PIG POWDERS + +ARE THE BEST MEDICINE for all DISEASES of PIGS. Used by most of the +leading BREEDERS and EXHIBITORS. + +It will pay you well to use them regularly. The cost is so small, 10d. +per doz., post free 1/-. 144 Powders post free 10/-. + +[Sidenote: HEALTHY PIGS PAY WELL] + +[Illustration: DENNIS's LINCOLNSHIRE PIG POWDERS PROPRIETOR J. W. DENNIS +LOUTH. ENGLAND] + +Trade Mark No. 14,839. + +[Sidenote: SOLD EVERYWHERE] + +DENNIS'S "SPECIAL" WORM POWDERS =are recognised as the surest means of +ridding pigs of these parasites.= + +Mr. W. L. PAYNE, of Tor Hole, Chewton Mendip, says:--"I found 63 worms +in my stye, after giving your Worm Powders." + +In packets, 6d. Post free 7-1/2d. 6 packets Post free 3/4. + +Sold by all Chemists, Boots Ltd., Taylor's Drug Co. Ltd., and +Co-operative Societies, at all Branches. + +Proprietor: + +=JOHN W. DENNIS, Veterinary Chemist LOUTH, LINCS.= + + +All practical Farmers who want to keep abreast of the times should get +at once a copy of + +FARMING ON FACTORY LINES + +OR + +Continuous Cropping for Large Farmers + +BY + +T. WIBBERLEY, N.D.A., N.D.D. + +(_Of Queen's University, Belfast_). + + * * * * * + +Second Edition =6/-= net (postage 4d.) + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: pointing finger] It forms the great authoritative test +book on the Wibberley Continuous Cropping System, and is a new and +frankly revolutionary guide to ALL-WEATHER Farming and to cheaper Milk, +Corn and Beef Production. + +"In times past the climate has often conquered the British Farmer, but +it has not conquered Wibberley. He has conquered it, turning what +otherwise would be adverse climatic conditions to advantage in tilling +the land. + +"It sounds impossible. It reads like a fairy tale--yet the whole of the +scheme of 'Wibberleyism' or 'Continuous Cropping,' 'Farming on Factory +Lines'--as the system is variously termed--is in reality beautifully +simple. It is so effective that one wonders what our highly paid +officials have been thinking about, when they have not hammered out some +such a tillage system as Wibberley's years before Wibberley was +born."--THE SMALLHOLDER. + + * * * * * + +=Read all about it in this new and valuable work.= + + * * * * * + +_Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free for =6/4= +from_ + +Messrs. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Limited, 18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. +2. + + +SOME USEFUL HANDBOOKS + +FOR SMALLHOLDERS AND OTHERS + +=The Hobby Gardener.= By A. C. MARSHALL, F.R.H.S. With 22 full-page +Illustrations showing clearly the various operations throughout a year's +work in the garden. In Stiff Three-coloured Cover. Price 1/6 net, post +free 1/9. + +=Small Gardens and How to make the Most of Them.= By V. P. BIDDLE. Cloth +Boards. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +A most useful Handbook for the Amateur. Full instructions are given for +laying out, bedding, arrangement of borders, vegetable culture, flowers +and fruit trees, room plants, window boxes, etc. + +=Greenhouses: How to Make and Manage Them.= By WILLIAM F. ROWLES. With +numerous Diagrams. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +=The Dog: In Health and Disease.= By F. M. ARCHER. With 12 Illustrations +by S. T. DADD. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +=Cage and Singing Birds.= By GEORGE GARDNER. With numerous +Illustrations. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9. + +Some of the Contents are:--Birds for Song, for Exhibition and for +Breeding--Care of Young--Seeds: how and what to buy--Moulting for Song +and for Exhibition--Colour-feeding: how it is done--Diseases of Cage +Birds and how to treat them--Bird Fever--Parasites and how to destroy +them, etc. etc. + +=An Easy Poultry Guide.= By EDWARD BROWN, F.L.S. With 8 full-page +Illustrations and other Diagrams. Pocket size. Cloth. Price 1/-net, post +free 1/2. + +=War on Weeds.= By "FARMER GILES." Price 6d. net, post free 7d. + +This book gives a full description and illustrations of the thirteen +proscribed weeds, also a complete list of all other farm and garden +weeds, with sketches, full descriptions, and preventive measures. + +=War-Time Farming.= By T. WIBBERLEY. Price 6d. net, post free 7d. + +This small book tells how the man on the land can use it to the greatest +advantage. + + * * * * * + +_Any of these books may be ordered through your bookseller, or will be +sent post-paid on receipt of the price mentioned by_ + +=A. F. SOWTER, Publisher, "Smallholder and Small Owner" Offices, 16-18, +HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.= + + +FARMING + +MADE EASY + +By + +J. C. NEWSHAM, F.L.S. + +Principal of the Monmouthshire Agricultural and Horticultural +Institution, Usk. + +_Author of "The Potato Book," &c., Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 3/6 net._ + +This is an easy Guide to the most useful Elements of Agriculture. It has +been specially written by a thoroughly qualified agriculturist, with a +wide and successful practical knowledge of his subject, for the use of +the countless thousands of men and women who are now streaming +back--eager but half instructed--to work on the land. It covers +practically every department of farm labour and enterprise, and provides +the fullest and most reliable instruction for all who propose to take up +Agriculture in a serious and practical spirit, as a means of livelihood. + +_Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free for 3/10 +from_ + +MESSRS. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LIMITED, 18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. +2. + + + + +BOOKS FOR SMALLHOLDERS, ETC. + +A STANDARD BOOK BY AN EXPERT AUTHORITY. + + +DAIRY FARMING FOR SMALLHOLDERS + + +By JAMES LONG, formerly Professor of Dairy Farming, Royal Agricultural +College; Author of "The Book of the Pig," etc. + +Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 2/6 net, post free 2/9. + +THE CHAPTERS DEAL WITH:--Our Dairy Cows; The Cow and Her Management; +Foods and Feeding; Milk; Butter and Butter Making; Cheese Making, etc. + +"Professor Long has never been more happily inspired than in writing it. +The explanations are lucid and clear."--_Standard._ + +"The smallholder who has made dairying part of his system, or has +facilities for doing so, will be all the better for adding this book to +those already in his possession."--_Field._ + +"This is one of the best handbooks that can possibly find its way on the +dairy farmer's shelf."--_The Dairy._ + + * * * * * + +=POULTRY FOR PROFIT=. By E. T. BROWN. Author of "Profitable Poultry +Keeping" (Smallholders' Library), "Ducks, Geese and Turkeys," &c. Crown +8vo, cloth, with 15 full-page illustrations and many diagrams. A +thoroughly comprehensive guide for the poultry keeper. + +=ROSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.= By EDWIN BECKETT, V.M.H., F.R.H.S. Crown +8vo, cloth. With portrait frontispiece. Price 2/6 net (postage 3d. +extra). + +"A handy little book by Mr. E. Beckett, gardener at Aldenham House, and +famous as a grower of exhibition vegetables, as well as of plants +generally. He writes as a practical grower in a practical way, dealing +with soil and situation, planting, pruning, watering, propagation, the +cultivation of roses under glass and for exhibition in a way that is +satisfying."--_The Field._ + +=THE SMALLHOLDER'S YEAR BOOK.= Published annually in December. Price 1/6 +net, per post 1/9. + +The Smallholder's Year Book is now an institution. It is the recognised +court of appeal in all matters connected with the land, in gardening, +farming, poultry-keeping, goat, rabbit and bee-keeping circles. It +contains the cream of all the information that has ever appeared in THE +SMALLHOLDER. It solves at a glance every problem that is ever likely to +puzzle YOU. + + * * * * * + +_These Handbooks may be obtained through your Bookseller, or will be +forwarded post free, on receipt of the price mentioned, from_ + +=C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., 17 HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON W.C. 2.= + + + + +THE "SMALLHOLDER" CHARTS. + +ON CARD 11-1/2 in. BY 8-1/2 in. FOR HANGING UP. + + +(1) How to Make a Garden Frame + +(2) How and When to Sow Vegetable Seeds + +(3) The A.B.C. of Pig Keeping + +(4) The A.B.C. of Utility Rabbit Keeping + +(5) The A.B.C. of Poultry Keeping + +(6) Garden and Orchard Pests + +(7) How and When to Sow Flower Seeds + +(8) How to Cure Poultry Diseases + +(9) How to Cure Pig Diseases + +(10) Fruit Bottling + +(11) Manuring Made Easy + +(12) The Whole Art of Goat Keeping + +_Single Charts cost 4d. each, or any Six may be had for 1/8 post free._ + + * * * * * + +The "Smallholder" is issued in half-yearly volumes, March to August, and +September to February. Bound in Strong Cloth. Price 4/-net each; post +free 4/6. Cases for binding, including Title Page and Index, price 1/9 +each; post free 2/-. + +Write to the Editor + +The "SMALLHOLDER" Office, 16-18 Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2. + + + + +AN ATTRACTIVE NATURE BOOK FOR THE YOUNG. + +IN NATURE'S WAYS + +BY MARCUS WOODWARD. + + * * * * * + +A book for all young Lovers of Natural History. Being an Introduction to +Gilbert White's immortal "Natural History of Selborne." + +Illustrated by J. A. SHEPHERD. + +With Preface by WILFRID MARK WEBB, Secretary of the Selborne Society. + +This volume contains 8 full-page Illustrations on Art Paper in addition +to the Drawings in the Text. + +=Price in paper wrapper 1/-net, postage 3d. extra; or in cloth boards, +price 2/-net, postage 4d. extra.= + + * * * * * + +"This is a 'White's Selborne' for the young; giving passages from the +original under different headings and side by side, some talk about the +bird or beast referred to; with plenty of illustrations by Mr. J. A. +Shepherd, full of his usual vitality."--_Times._ + +"We think this volume cannot fail to interest and instruct the +young."--_Field._ + +"White's 'History of Selborne' is here amplified and explained for young +readers. Mr. Woodward has that gift of humour without which all writing +on nature is a weariness unto the flesh for young readers, and for many +readers who are no longer young. Mr. J. A. Shepherd's illustrations +catch the spirit of the letterpress, and are of a piece with the work +that has made his reputation as an artist."--_Literary World._ + + * * * * * + +_May be had of all Booksellers or will be sent direct on receipt of +published price and postage from_ + +C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LTD., Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2. + + * * * * * + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Changes to the text are listed as follows: + +page 168, "oze" changed to "oz.," (from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz.,) + +page 168, "b.," changed to "be" (should be given in milk) + +page 186, suspected typo "test" for "text" (the great authoritative +test book) + +page 187, "F.R.H.S" changed to "F.R.H.S." (A. C. 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