diff options
Diffstat (limited to '33074-h/33074-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | 33074-h/33074-h.htm | 7221 |
1 files changed, 7221 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/33074-h/33074-h.htm b/33074-h/33074-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..11a6969 --- /dev/null +++ b/33074-h/33074-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7221 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<!-- $Id: header.txt 236 2009-12-07 18:57:00Z vlsimpson $ --> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Pig, Breeding, Rearing and Marketing, by Sanders Spencer. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +.advert { + width: 65%; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} /* div for advert layouts */ + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} /* page numbers */ + +.linenum { + position: absolute; + top: auto; + left: 4%; +} /* poetry number */ + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +.sideright { + width: 20%; + padding-bottom: .5em; + padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; + padding-right: .5em; + margin-left: 1em; + float: right; + clear: right; + margin-top: 1em; + font-size: smaller; + color: black; + background: #eeeeee; + border: dashed 1px; +} + +.sideleft { + width: 20%; + padding-bottom: .5em; + padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; + padding-right: .5em; + margin-left: 1em; + float: left; + clear: left; + margin-top: 1em; + font-size: smaller; + color: black; + background: #eeeeee; + border: dashed 1px; +} + +.bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + +.bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + +.bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + +.br {border-right: solid 2px;} + +.bbox {border: solid 2px;} + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.u {text-decoration: underline;} + +.caption {font-weight: bold;} + +/* Images */ +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Index */ + .ditto {padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;} /* spacing for ditto marks in index */ + ul {list-style-type: none} /* no bullets on lists */ + ul.nest {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em; text-indent: -1.5em;} /* spacing for nested list */ + ul.nest2 {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em; text-indent: -3em;} /* spacing for nested list */ + ul.nest3 {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em; text-indent: -4.5em;} /* spacing for nested list */ + li {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em;} /* spacing for list */ + + div.trans-note {border-style: solid; border-width: 1px; + margin: 2em 15%; padding: 1em; text-align: center;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pig, by Sanders Spencer + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Pig + Breeding, Rearing, and Marketing + +Author: Sanders Spencer + +Release Date: July 4, 2010 [EBook #33074] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIG *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_Front" id="Figure_Front"></a> +<a href="images/frontis_0001.jpg"> +<img src="images/frontis_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="296" alt="Frontispiece." title="BREEDING SOWS OF THE LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE BREEDS." /> +</a> +<span class="caption"> +<i>Frontispiece.</i> <br /> +<i>Photo, Reid, Wishaw.</i><br /> +BREEDING SOWS OF THE LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE BREEDS.<br /> +The Middle White Sow in the forefront (the property of the Author) was one of the best ever bred, "Holywell +Countess Victoria." +</span> +</div> + + + + +<h1>THE PIG +<br /> +<span style="font-size:large">BREEDING, REARING, AND MARKETING</span></h1> + +<p class="center">BY</p> + +<p class="center" style="font-size:large">SANDERS SPENCER</p> + +<p class="center"> +London +<br /> +C. Arthur Pearson Ltd. +<br /> +Henrietta Street +<br /> +1919 +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>CONTENTS</h3> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><th align="left">CHAPTER</th><th align="right"> </th><th align="right">PAGE</th></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> </td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">I.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Non-Pedigree Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">II.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pure Breeds</span> (with Standard Descriptions and Scales of Points)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">III.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Cross-bred Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">IV.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Dentition and Age of Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">V.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Selection of the Boar</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">VI.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Selection of the Sow</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">VII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Sow's Udder</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">VIII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mating the Young Sow</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">IX.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Farrowing Sow</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">X.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Weaning Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XI.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Rearing of Young Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Housing of Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XIII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Exhibition of Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XIV.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Present and Future Pig-keeping</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XV.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pig-fattening</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XVI.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Pig Calendar</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XVII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Diseases of the Pig</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XVIII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Curing of Pork</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> </td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> + +<h3>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h3> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_Front"><span class="smcap">Breeding Sows of the Large and Middle White Breeds</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right"><i>Frontispiece</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><th align="right">FACING PAGE</th></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F16"><span class="smcap">Large Black Boar, "Drayton King"</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">16</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F17"><span class="smcap">Pair of L.C.C. Gilts, Exhibited at Smithfield Show 1914</span></a> +</td><td align="right">17</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F32"><span class="smcap">A Berkshire Sow</span></a> +</td><td align="right">32</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F33"><span class="smcap">Large Black Sow, "Sudbourne Sadie"</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">33</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F48"><span class="smcap">Three Middle White Breeding Sows</span></a> +</td><td align="right">48</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F49"><span class="smcap">A Middle White Boar</span></a></td> +<td align="right">49</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F64"><span class="smcap">Tamworth Boar: Bishop of Webton</span></a> +</td><td align="right">64</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F65"><span class="smcap">Gloucester Old Spot Sow</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">65</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F80"><span class="smcap">Large White Boar</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">80</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F81"><span class="smcap">Tamworth Sow, "Queen of the Fairies"</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">81</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F96"><span class="smcap">Middle White Sow</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">96</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F97"><span class="smcap">Cumberland Sow</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">97</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F112"><span class="smcap">Large White Sow, "Worsley Sunbeam"</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">112</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> +<a href="#Figure_F113"><span class="smcap">Large White Ulster Boar</span></a> +</td> +<td align="right">113</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h3>INTRODUCTION</h3> + + +<p>There are few points in the breeding of stock on +which a greater variation of opinion has been confidently +expressed than on the origin of the domesticated +pig. It has been contended that our various +types had a common origin in the wild hog, and that +the difference in form, colour, and character amongst +the local breeds is due, in the main, to the requirements, +imaginary or real, of the interested residents +in the particular districts. On the other hand, it is +asserted with equal confidence, and probably with +the same amount of actual proof, that it would be +impossible so to improve the wild hog by selection +as to render it the equal of the domesticated hog. +There must, therefore, have been an infusion of +blood of a cultivated breed of pigs to acquire even +that amount of success which was noticeable in the +improved pig of a century, or less, ago. Unfortunately, +for this argument, it has not been possible +to obtain any information of value as to the alleged +source of origin of this cultivated breed of pigs.</p> + +<p>Again, those pigs which possess in a marked +degree early maturity, fine quality of flesh, and +those other characteristics of the improved pig, are +so various in colour, that one cultivated breed only +could not have been utilised in the general improvement.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p> + +<p>All the ancient writers on pigs appear to have +experienced the same difficulty when endeavouring +to discover the sources of origin of the material +which might have been used in the production of +the pig which in their time was looked upon as the +domesticated and improved pig of the period. This +difficulty extends even to the present day. So far +as is known there exists no actual proof that the +domesticated hog has been evolved in any particular +way other than by continued selection of those +animals for breeding purposes which possessed in +the greatest degree those particular qualities held +in the highest estimation at the time.</p> + +<p>Of course, the soil, climate, etc., of the district in +which pigs are reared have a certain amount of +influence, but this is noticeable to a much lesser +extent with pigs than with horses, cattle, or sheep, +since under the present system of pig-breeding the +greater portion of the food used in the different +districts is of a very similar character—indeed, +much of it has a common origin—having been imported +from abroad.</p> + +<p>As a rule, comparatively speaking very little +difference is noticeable in the development, form, +and character of pigs bred in the various parts of +the country, whereas with some of the other domesticated +animals a very considerable change follows +the removal of sheep of a pure breed from one +district to another. The quality and quantity of +the wool, flesh, and bone are all affected. An +exactly similar effect is noticeable when horses of a +particular breed are moved from one district to +another. For instance, a Shire foal bred in the Fens<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +may possess the characteristic bone, flesh, and hair, +yet if it be moved into portions of the Eastern +counties where the soil is of a totally different +character, it will when matured have lost, to a very +considerable extent, its peculiar characteristics of +bone and hair. The changes wrought may be due +in small measure to climate, but the predominant +cause must be due to the variation in the food +grown on soils of a different character.</p> + +<p>This question of the original cause or causes of +the varying colour of the pigs in different localities +appears to be equally difficult of solution. As to +the continuation in certain districts of pigs of one +colour, custom and even prejudice have a great +effect. So strong is this prejudice that some +persons will even declare that the pork of pigs of +the fashionable colour in the neighbourhood is +superior to that from pigs of any other colour. As +this weakness is common in districts where black +and where white pigs are kept it must be admitted +that prejudice alone must be the foundation of the +belief.</p> + +<p>Probably the safest conclusion to arrive at with +respect to the variation in colour of the pigs noticeable +in certain districts is that in the long ago the +native pig in the wild state was of the colour of the +soil and the herbage in which it sheltered, and was +thus less conspicuous to its enemies, whether human +or animal. A marked instance of this is to be found +in the colour of the common or original pig found in +some parts of the country where the soil is of a +decidedly red colour. In the district referred to one +actually hears some farms spoken of as "red land<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +farms." What more natural than to find in the +districts in which land of this hue predominates +that the pigs should be a red rusty hue such as was +the original colour of that breed of pigs now called +the Tamworth breed.</p> + +<p>Some persons, who do not agree with this theory +of the origin of the various coloured pigs, cite as a +proof of their belief the fact that in so many districts +the pigs are of a mixed colour, and that this +peculiar marking is equally as general in localities +as is any particular or special colour in the pigs. +This is perfectly true, and it is probably due to +exactly the same causes, fancy, prejudice, or custom. +The residents in certain districts have grown accustomed +to certain things or certain forms, and are +loth to change; the manufacturer of any article +must humour the actual or fancied requirements of +his customers if he is to secure success; and in a +similar manner the breeder of pigs has to consider +and to produce pigs of the form, size, and colour +which are most in demand. Further if, as confidently +alleged, there is a preference in some districts +for pork from pigs of a certain colour, then the +butcher naturally offers a higher price for pigs of +that colour which most fully satisfy the fancies of +his customers, and thus we find a similarity of form +and colour in the pigs of various districts.</p> + +<p>As to the origin of these parti-coloured pigs, the +explanation offered is that even in pre-railway times +there was a certain amount of interchange of the +different local breeds of stock. This would be +affected in various ways, which need not be specified.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p> + +<p>At the present time we have several defined and +distinct breeds of pigs which have secured recognition +at our principal agricultural shows. Indeed +it may be claimed that the exhibitions of live stock +which have become so general in all parts of the +country have been one of the chief factors in fixing +to a certain extent the type and character of certain +local breeds. Within the memory of the present +writer the classification of pigs at our principal +shows was of a very simple character; it consisted +of classes for pigs of a white colour and for pigs of +any other colour. There was no attempt at any +definition as to size, form, and quality of the pigs. +These points were left entirely to the judges, who +naturally were led to favour pigs of the type which +they bred. There was thus a greater amount of +uncertainty as to the success of an exhibitor's stock +than at the present time. This uncertainty—save +as to the members of the Show Committees or their +friends—was increased by the unfair system of +withholding from the knowledge of the average +exhibitor the names of those selected to judge.</p> + +<p>The necessity of some definition, if only of colour, +quickly became obvious. At first classes were established +for pigs of certain colours; then the prizes +were offered for pigs of certain breeds, which were +more or less loosely defined. Now at the chief shows +the pigs exhibited in the various classes must be +qualified for entry in the herd books of the particular +breeds.</p> + +<p>At the Royal Agricultural Shows there have been +classes for pigs of the Large White, Middle White, +Berkshire, Tamworth, Large Black and Lincolnshire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +Curly Coated breeds; whilst for the next +show classes for pigs of the so-called Gloucestershire +Old Spots breed are to be included. As showing +the changes which are in progress it may be +noted that two breeds of pigs which had classes +provided for them at the Royal and some other +Shows have become extinct. These were the Small +White and the Small Black breeds—the sole cause +of their disappearance being the unsuitability of +the pigs of the breeds to supply the present requirements +of the consumer.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F16" id="Figure_F16"></a> +<a href="images/imagep016_0001.jpg"> +<img src="images/imagep016_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="320" alt="LARGE BLACK BOAR" +title="LARGE BLACK BOAR" /> +</a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i> +<br /> +LARGE BLACK BOAR, "DRAYTON KING." +<br /> +Owner, Terah F. Hooley. 1st Prize, Somerset County Agricultural Show, 1913. +<br /> +To face page 16.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F17" id="Figure_F17"></a> +<a href="images/imagep017_0001.jpg"> +<img src="images/imagep017_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="288" alt="PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS" +title="PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, Exhibited at Smithfield Show 1914." /> +</a> +<span class="caption"><i>Block kindly supplied by E. F. Casswell, Manor House, Graby, Folkingham.</i> +<br /> +PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, Exhibited at Smithfield Show 1914. +<br /> +1st Prize. Age 8 months, 1 week, 5 days. Weight 7 cwts. +<br /> +To face page 17.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h2>THE PIG</h2> + + + + +<h3>CHAPTER I +<br /> +NON-PEDIGREE PIGS</h3> + + +<p>Although the more general use of so-called pedigree +pigs has tended to modify the characteristics of the +various local breeds of pigs, yet it is possible to find +a certain number of pig breeders who adhere to the +type of pig which has been in the past most generally +found in their district. This type was undoubtedly +fixed by the wants or fancies of those resident in the +particular portions of the country.</p> + +<p>In the past it has been the practice when describing +these local breeds to write as though they were +confined to certain counties. It may be that +pigs of a peculiar or characteristic type are more +numerous within the borders of various counties, +but this is by no means always the case. The +habits and pursuits of the inhabitants rather than +the soil and climate—as with horses, cattle and +sheep—have the greatest influence on the form, +size and quality of the local pigs, whilst use and +custom appear to determine the colour of the pig. +We are of opinion that it will be more instructive +if we give a short description of some of the more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +common types of these local breeds of pigs, and +mention the names of those counties in which they +are more generally found.</p> + +<p>Amongst the most distinct of these local breeds +is that which is variously termed the sheeted or +saddle-backed pig, which in the United States has +a society to look after its interests, and where it +bears the name of</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">The Hampshire</span></h4> + +<p>Just why our American cousins should have +decided to call these sheeted pigs Hampshires is +not on the surface, since the oldest writers on pigs +give to the county of Sussex the credit of being +their original home. The description given by +Sidney of the Hampshire pig is that "it is a coarse +and useful black pig, inferior to the Berkshire, and +not in the same refined class as the Essex." Richardson +writes "The Hampshire breed is not infrequently +confounded with the Berkshire; but its body is +longer and its sides flatter; the head is long and +the snout sharp. The colour of the breed is usually +dark spotted; but it is sometimes black altogether, +and more frequently white."</p> + +<p>The sheeted pig has also been bred in the county +of Essex for over a century, but it is recorded that +it was introduced into this county by a Mr. Western +who subsequently became Lord Western, and whose +estate was situated in Essex.</p> + +<p>In Sidney's book <i>The Pig</i>, we read, "West Sussex, +Hampshire, Berkshire, Dorset, Shropshire and Wales +had indigenous black or red and black breeds of +swine; and between the whites, the blacks and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +the reds the parti-colours were produced which have +since in a great degree disappeared under the +influence of prizes, generally awarded to pure +breeds of single colours."</p> + +<p>Sidney also states "that Youatt and all the +authors who have followed him down to the latest +work published on the subject, occupy space in +describing various county pigs which have long +ceased to possess, if they ever possessed, any merit +worth the attention of the breeder."</p> + +<p>The Rudgwick, which is another name for the +sheeted pig, is included in the list. Richardson at a +still earlier date describes the Sussex breed as +"black and white in colour, but not <i>spotted</i>; that +is to say, these colours are distributed in very large +patches; one half—say, for instance, the fore part +of the body white and the hinder end black; or +sometimes both ends black and the middle white or +<i>vice versâ</i>; these pigs are in no way remarkable; +they seldom feed to over twenty stone. They are +well made, of middle size, and their skin covered +with scanty bristles. The snout tapering and firm, +the ears upright and pointed, the jowl deep and the +body compactly round. They arrive at early +maturity, fatten quickly, and the flesh is excellent."</p> + +<p>Richardson also writes, "There is another improved +Essex breed, called the Essex Half-Blacks, +resembling that which I have described in colour, +said to be descended from the Berkshire. This +breed was originally introduced by Lord Western, +and obtained much celebrity," etc. etc.</p> + +<p>He then quotes from <i>The Complete Grazier</i>, sixth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +edition, as follows: "They are black and white, +short haired, fine skinned with smaller heads and +ears than the Berkshire, but feathered with inside +hair which is a distinctive mark of both; have +short snubby noses, very fine bone, broad and deep +in the belly, full in the hind quarters, but light in +the bone and offal. They feed remarkably fast and +are of an excellent quality of meat. The sows are +good breeders, and bring litters of from eight to +twelve; but they have the character of being bad +nurses." If this allegation were true at the time it +was written, it is not at the present time as the Half-Blacks +or sheeted sows are both prolific and first-rate +mothers.</p> + +<p>Malden describes the Sussex: "A large breed called +the Rudgwick, was one of the largest in England. +There appears to be a doubt as to whether the +coloured pig was descended from the spotted Berkshire +or the black and white Essex. They were of +medium size, of good quality generally, but of +somewhat heavy bone." The generally accepted +view is that the Essex sheeted pig was descended +from importations from the county of Sussex. These +sheeted pigs are still occasionally met with in Essex, +but the system of crossing which is generally followed +by pig breeders in the county is gradually reducing +its number, although even amongst the cross-breeds +the peculiar marking occasionally shows itself. At +the time of writing there is a movement on foot to +form a society for the purpose of reviving the breed. +From the utility point of view the sheeted pig has +much to recommend it, but whether or not one or +more of the breeds of pigs whose pedigrees are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +already recorded do not possess at least equal merits +must be left for decision by others.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Spotted Pigs</span></h4> + +<p>In many districts are found other parti-coloured +pigs, but in these the black, the white, and the red +colours show themselves in spots of varying size and +extent. Probably amongst the best types of these +spotted pigs is the one found over the greater part of +the county of Northampton, and portions of the +counties of Leicester and Oxford adjoining. In the +former county the pigs have more of black than +white in their colouring, whilst in the two latter red +spots are more often seen. This is probably due to +a stronger infusion of the blood of the Staffordshire +red pig which is now known as the Tamworth. The +blood of the Neapolitan pig through the Berkshire +or the Small Black is credited with being the origin +of the darker coloured Northamptonshire spotted +pig. The qualities claimed for these spotted or +"plum pudding" pigs as they are locally termed, +are prolificacy, quick growth, hardihood, and the +production of pork possessing a large proportion of +lean to fat meat. They are also good grazers, and +grow to a size quite the equal of the Berkshire. In +form they are perhaps more suited for the fresh +pork trade than for the manufacture of bacon of +the kind now so much in demand.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">The Large White and Blue Pigs</span></h4> + +<p>Those large, coarse-boned pigs with hair of a +white colour and skins more or less mottled with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +blue are gradually giving place to pigs with finer +hair, skin, bone, and quality of meat. The coarse +lop ears are being reduced in size and thickness, +whilst the pig itself is becoming less gaunt and its +early maturity considerably increased by crossing +with the better quality Large White and the +quickly maturing Middle White. These coarse +white with blue markings pigs were common in the +Fens of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, the Isle of Ely +and Lincolnshire, and in the counties of Bedford, +Cheshire, etc.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">White Pigs</span></h4> + +<p>Within the memory of persons now living, white +pigs of varying types were found in various parts of +this country. Many of these white pigs found in +Norfolk, Suffolk, Shropshire, and Wales had little +to recommend them as they were flat sided, long +legged, hard feeders, and required to be comparatively +old before they could be turned into pork. +A vast improvement has of late years been effected +in these unprofitable swine by crossing them with +compact and early maturing pigs of different colours, +but mainly white pigs until the last few years, when +Large Blacks and even a few Gloucestershire Old +Spots boars have been introduced in Norfolk.</p> + +<p>At one time white pigs of a small size were by no +means uncommon in Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, +Yorkshire, and parts of Berkshire, and other counties. +The origin of these small, compact, and early +maturing pigs appears to have been a cross of the +imported Chinese on the neater and shorter country +pigs of a white colour. For a period these handsome<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +pigs were quite fashionable amongst the well-to-do, +but the general public objected to the pork produced +by them, owing to its excessive fatness. The +bacon curers still more strongly objected to the short +sides and the very small amount of lean meat in the +cured carcases. During the last thirty years comparatively +few of these pretty, but useless, pigs +have been bred.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Black Pigs</span></h4> + +<p>The description given of the two main types of +white pigs would apply equally well to the Black +pigs common in this country, save with respect to +colour. The long flat-sided black pig was found in +Essex, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Sussex, etc. These +pigs were noted for their prolificacy, hardihood, and +quick growth, whilst the sows furnished a full supply +of milk to their youngsters, but they were such slow +feeders that it became necessary to cross them with +pigs which matured more quickly. A type of black +pig similar in form to the Small White was also +found in Essex and Suffolk, whilst in Devonshire, +Dorset, and one or two other counties the colour of +the pigs was blue rather than black, and of a somewhat +larger size, but possessing the same weakness, +too large a proportion of fat to lean meat.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + + +<h3>CHAPTER II +<br /> +PURE BREEDS</h3> + + +<p>The task of writing a description of the various +breeds of swine has been rendered less difficult by +the formation during the past half-century of +societies for the registration of the pedigrees of the +pigs of the different breeds, and by the setting up +of scales of those points which pigs for entry in the +particular herd books should possess. The first of +these societies was the National Pig Breeders +Association, of which the present writer was the +honorary secretary for two years. At the time of +its formation the breeds of pigs most generally +recognised were the Berkshire, the Large, Middle, +and Small Whites or Yorkshires, and the Small +Black breed. It was intended that the pedigrees of +the pure bred pigs of each of these breeds should be +recorded by the Association and published in one +herd book.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that this would have been an +ideal plan, and would have resulted in a saving of +much labour and expense, and decidedly more convenient +for those connected with the export trade. +For reasons into which it is not now necessary to +enter, the breeders of Berkshires determined to have +a separate herd book; therefore, they started a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +society which they named the British Berkshire +Society, to distinguish it from the American Berkshire +Record.</p> + +<p>Subsequently the Tamworth breed of pigs became +recognised by the Royal Agricultural Society, and +the breeders of the red pig joined the National Pig +Breeders Association. Then the demand for Small +White and Small Black pigs ceased, so that eventually +the pedigrees of Large White, Middle White, +and Tamworth pigs only were registered in the +N.P.A. Herd Book.</p> + +<p>Subsequently the breeders of Tamworth pigs +formed themselves into a society presumably for +propaganda work, and to conserve the interests of +breeders of Tamworth pigs. Of late years other +breeds of pigs have been brought to public notice, +and have had herd books, and societies specially +devoted to their particular interests. The Large +Black, Large White Ulster, the Lincolnshire Curly +Coated pigs, the Gloucestershire Old Spots, and the +Cumberland pigs have their pedigrees recorded. +An attempt was made some years since to resuscitate +the Oxfordshire Spotted pig, but it was not a +continued success. It is quite possible that other +local breeds of pigs may find sufficient admirers to +form societies to bring before the public the many +good qualities possessed by the pigs of these breeds, +but apart from local interest it is at least doubtful if +any permanent benefit will supervene from this +multiplication of herd books—save that it may increase +the interest in pig breeding, a result devoutly +to be prayed for.</p> + +<p>The issuing of the scales of points of those breeds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +of pigs whose pedigrees are recorded in the various +herd books has rendered it unnecessary for us to +endeavour to formulate the good qualities which +are presumably those which are more or less completely +possessed by these pedigreed animals, nor +does the necessity exist for us to mention those +particular qualities which each breed is supposed +by the admirers of other breeds to lack. There is +no doubt that each breed possesses certain points +which render it specially suitable for differing +localities and varying purposes.</p> + +<p>Some persons who look upon a pig solely as an +animal, as a converter of various substances into +pork, are of opinion that the tendency of those +responsible for the running of these societies is +towards fancy points to the detriment of the practical +points. There appears to have been some +grounds for this view. The Small White, the Small +Black, the Berkshire, and the Large White have all +been affected by the acts of faddists. The three +first-named breeds suffered from the aims of certain +of the breeders to reduce the size and to increase +the so-called quality until the consumers of pork +refused to follow the fashion; whilst the craze +which has seriously affected the utility of the Large +White pigs has been exactly the opposite, i.e. an +endeavour to so vastly increase the size that they +ceased to supply the kind of pork and the size of +joints which the general public demanded. It may +be natural for fanciers to declare that a Small White +or a Small Black pig must be a small animal, but +this is only on comparison with the large breeds of +the same colour and characteristics. The usefulness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +of the pig in the commercial world must be +studied if any breed of pig is to hold its own on the +market.</p> + +<p>The opposite extreme to that followed by the +breeders of the small breeds is that of the breeders +of Large Whites, who look upon mere size as the +most important of the points to be studied. The +mere increase in bulk, in length of head and leg and +weight of bone may appeal to the mere fancier or +faddist, but by paying undue attention to these +fancy points the actual object of the breeding and +fattening of pigs is lost sight of, and the consumer +who is after all the one whose wants must first +receive study, is estranged and the commercial +market is lost.</p> + +<p>In the following pages will be found full particulars +together with the scales of points, as issued +by the various societies, of the chief breeds and +varieties.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE</h3> + +<h4>LARGE WHITE</h4> +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Colour.</span>—White, free from black hairs, and as free as possible +from blue spots on the skin.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Head.</span>—Moderately long, face slightly dished, snout broad, not +too much turned up, jowl not too heavy, wide between the +ears.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ears.</span>—Long, thin, slightly inclined forward, and fringed with +fine hair.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Neck.</span>—Long, and proportionately full to shoulders.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Chest.</span>—Wide and deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders.</span>—Level across the top, not too wide, free from +coarseness.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Legs.</span>—Straight and well set, level with the outside of the body +with flat bone.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Pasterns.</span>—Short and springy.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Feet.</span>—Strong, even, and wide.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Back.</span>—Long, level, and wide from neck to rump.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Loin.</span>—Broad.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tail.</span>—Set high, stout and long, but not coarse, with tassel of +fine hair.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Sides.</span>—Deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ribs.</span>—Well sprung.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Belly.</span>—Full, but not flabby, with straight under line.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Flank.</span>—Thick, and well let down.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Quarters.</span>—Long and wide.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hams.</span>—Broad, full, and deep to hocks.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Coat.</span>—Long and moderately fine.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Action.</span>—Firm and free.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Skin.</span>—Not too thick, quite free from wrinkles. + +<br />Large bred pigs do not fully develop their points until +some months old, the pig at five months often proving at a +year or 15 months a much better animal than could be anticipated +at the earlier age and <i>vice versâ</i>; but size and quality +are most important.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Objections.</span>—Black hairs, black spots, a curly coat, a coarse +mane, short snout, inbent knees, hollowness at back of +shoulders.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<h4>MIDDLE WHITE</h4> +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Colour.</span>—White, free from black hairs or blue spots on the +skin.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Head.</span>—Moderately short, face dished, snout broad and turned +up, jowl full, wide between ears.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ears.</span>—Fairly large, carried erect and fringed with fine hair.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Neck.</span>—Medium length, proportionately full to the shoulders.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Chest.</span>—Wide and deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders.</span>—Level across the top, moderately wide, free from +coarseness.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Legs.</span>—Straight and well set, level with the outside of body +with fine bone.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Pasterns.</span>—Short and springy.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Feet.</span>—Strong, even, and wide.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Back.</span>—Long, level, and wide from neck to rump.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Loin.</span>—Broad.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tail.</span>—Set high, moderately long, but not coarse, with tassel of +fine hair.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Sides.</span>—Deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ribs.</span>—Well sprung.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Belly.</span>—Full, but not flabby, with straight under line.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Flank.</span>—Thick and well let down.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Quarters.</span>—Long and wide.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hams.</span>—Broad, full, and deep to hocks.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Coat.</span>—Long, fine, and silky.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Action.</span>—Firm and free.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Skin.</span>—Fine, and quite free from wrinkles.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Objections.</span>—Black hairs, black or blue spots, a coarse mane, +inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders, wrinkled +skin.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<h4>TAMWORTH</h4> +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Colour.</span>—Golden red hair on a flesh coloured skin, free from +black.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Head.</span>—Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite straight, +face slightly dished, wide between ears.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ears.</span>—Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid and inclined +slightly forward.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Neck.</span>—Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Chest.</span>—Wide and deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders.</span>—Fine, slanting, and well set.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Legs.</span>—Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone and set well +outside body.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Pasterns.</span>—Strong and sloping.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Feet.</span>—Strong, and of fair size.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Back.</span>—Long and straight.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Loin.</span>—Strong and broad.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tail.</span>—Set on high and well tasselled.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Sides.</span>—Long and deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ribs.</span>—Well sprung and extending well up to flank.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Belly.</span>—Deep, with straight under line.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Flank.</span>—Full and well let down.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Quarters.</span>—Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hams.</span>—Broad, and full, well let down to hocks.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Coat.</span>—Abundant, long, straight, and fine.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Action.</span>—Firm and free.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Objections.</span>—Black hair, very light or ginger hair, curly coat, +coarse mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, +short or turned up snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled skin, +inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<h4>BERKSHIRE PIGS</h4> +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Colour</span>.—Black, with white on face, feet and tip of tail.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Skin</span>.—Fine, and free from wrinkles.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hair</span>.—Long, fine, and plentiful.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Head</span>.—Moderately short, face dished, snout broad; and wide +between the eyes and ears.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.—Fairly large, carried erect or slightly inclined forward, +and fringed with fine hair.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Neck</span>.—Medium length, evenly set on shoulders; jowl full and +not heavy.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.—Fine and well sloped backwards; free from coarseness.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Back</span>.—Long and straight, ribs well sprung, sides deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.—Wide and deep to hocks.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.—Set high, and fairly large.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Flank</span>.—Deep and well let down, and making straight under +line.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Legs and Feet</span>.—Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart, +and hoofs nearly erect.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Imperfections</span>.—A perfectly black face, foot, or tail. A white +ear. A crooked jaw. White or sandy spots, or white skin +on the body. A rose back. A very coarse mane, and inbent +knees.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<h4>LARGE BLACK PIG</h4> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Scale of Points</span></h5> + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Head</span>.—Medium length and wide between the ears</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.—Thin, inclined well over the face, and not extendingbeyond point of nose</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Neck</span>.—Fairly long and muscular</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chest</span>.—Wide and deep</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.—Well developed, in line with the ribs</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Back</span>.—Long and level</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ribs</span>.—Well sprung</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sides</span>.—Very deep</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Loin</span>.—Broad</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank</span>.—Thick and well developed</td><td align="right">7</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Quarters</span>.—Long, wide, and not drooping</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.—Large and well filled to hocks</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.—Set high, of moderate size</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Legs</span>.—Short, straight, flat, and strong</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Skin and Coat</span>.—Fine and soft, with moderate quantity of straight, silky hair</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right" class="bt">100</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Objections</span>.—Head—narrow forehead or dished nose. Ears—thick, +coarse, or pricked. Coat—curly or coarse, with rose, +bristly mane. Skin—wrinkled.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Disqualification</span>.—Colour—any other than black.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<h4>LARGE WHITE ULSTER</h4> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Scale of Points</span></h5> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Head.</span>—Moderately long, wide between the ears</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ears.</span>—Long, thin, and inclined well over the face</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jowl.</span>—Light</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Neck.</span>—Fairly long and muscular</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chest.</span>—Wide and deep</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Shoulders.</span>—Not coarse, oblique, narrow plate</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Legs.</span>—Short, straight, and well set, level with the outside of the body, with flat bone, not coarse</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pasterns.</span>—Straight</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Back.</span>—Long and level (rising a little to centre of back not objected to)</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sides.</span>—Very deep</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ribs.</span>—Well sprung</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Loin.</span>—Broad</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Quarters.</span>—Long, wide, and not drooping</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hams.</span>—Large and well filled to hocks</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank.</span>—Thick and well filled</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tail.</span>—Well set and not coarse</td><td align="right">1</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Skin.</span>—Fine and soft</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Coat.</span>—Small quantity of fine silky hair</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="right" class="bt">100</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Objections.</span>—Head—narrow forehead. Ears—thick, coarse, +or pricked. Coat—coarse or curly; bristly mane.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Disqualification.</span>—Colour—any other than white.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<h4>LINCOLNSHIRE CURLY-COATED PIG</h4> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Scale of Points</span></h5> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Colour</span>.—White</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Face and Neck</span>.—Medium length and wide between the eyes and ears</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.—Medium length, and not too much over face</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jowl</span>.—Heavy</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chest</span>.—Wide and deep</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.—Wide</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Back</span>.—Long and level</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sides</span>.—Very deep, and ribs well sprung</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Loin</span>.—Broad</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Quarters</span>.—Long, wide, and not drooping</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.—Large and well filled to hocks</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.—Set high and thick</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Legs</span>.—Short and straight</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank</span>.—Thick and well filled</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Coat</span>.—Fair quantity of curly or wavy hair</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right" class="bt">100</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Objections</span>.—Head—narrow forehead. Ears—Thin.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Disqualifications</span>.—Ears—pricked. Nose—dished or long. +Coat—coarse, straight, or bristly. Colour of hair—any +other than white.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<h4>THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE OLD SPOTS</h4> +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Head</span>.—Medium length and wide between the ears, nose wide +and medium length, slightly dished.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.—Rather long and drooping.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Jowl</span>.—Medium size.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Neck</span>.—Fairly long and muscular.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Chest</span>.—Wide and deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.—Well developed but not projecting and in line +with ribs, must not show any coarseness.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Back</span>.—Long and level.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ribs</span>.—Deep, well sprung.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Loin</span>.—Very broad.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Sides</span>.—Very deep and presenting straight bottom line.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank</span>.—Full and thick.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Quarters</span>.—Long, wide, and not drooping.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.—Set high, of moderate size, yet fairly strong and long +and carrying brush.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.—Large, not too flat, and well filled to the hocks.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Legs</span>.—Short, straight and strong.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Skin and Coat</span>.—Skin light or dark, must not show coloured +splotches otherwise than beneath the spots of the coat. +The latter should be full and fairly thick, hair long and +silky but not curly, with an absence of mane bristles. +Colour: white spots on black ground, or black spots on +white ground. Such spots to be of medium size.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Teats</span>.—Minimum number of teats to be considered.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Objections</span>.—Head—narrow, face and nose both dished. +Ears—thick, floppy, coarse, or elevated. Coat—Coarse +or curly with rose; bristly mane, or decidedly sandy +colour; skewbald or saddleback markings.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<h4>THE CUMBERLAND PIG</h4> +<ul class="nest"> +<li><span class="smcap">Head</span>.—Fairly short, wide snout, dished face, wide between +ears.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.—Falling forward over face, long and thin.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Jowl</span>.—Heavy.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Neck</span>.—Fairly long and muscular.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Chest</span>.—Deep and wide.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.—Deep and sloping into the back, blades not +prominent, but in line with ribs, not too wide on top.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Back</span>.—Long and level or with a slight arch from head to tail.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Ribs</span>.—Deep and well sprung.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Loins</span>.—Broad and strong.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Sides</span>.—Deep.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank</span>.—Full and thick.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Quarters</span>.—Long and level or with only very slight droop.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.—Set high, not coarse.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.—Very large and well filled to hocks.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Legs</span>.—Short, straight, and strong.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Colour</span>.—White.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Skin and Coat</span>.—Smooth; hair straight, fine, and silky and +not too much of it.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Size</span>.—Large without coarseness.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Disqualifications</span>.—Black spots, black hair, prick ears.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Objections</span>.—Blue spots.</li> +</ul> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F32" id="Figure_F32"></a> +<a href="images/imagep032_0001.jpg"> +<img src="images/imagep032_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="298" alt="A BERKSHIRE SOW." +title="A BERKSHIRE SOW." /> +</a> +<span class="caption"><i>From a Painting by Wippell.</i> +<br /> +A BERKSHIRE SOW. +<br /> +To face page 32.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> +<a name="Figure_F33" id="Figure_F33"></a> +<a href="images/imagep033.jpg"><img src="images/imagep033_tn.jpg" width="350" height="263" alt="Large Black Sow" +title="Large Black Sow" /></a> +<span class="caption">LARGE BLACK SOW, "Sudbourne Sadie." +<br /> Owner, K. M. Clark. 1st Prize and Champion, R. A. Show, Norwich. +<br /> To face page 33.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER III +<br /> +CROSS-BRED PIGS</h3> + + +<p>This term has a varying meaning to different +persons. There are those who term a pig a cross-bred +unless it be bred from parents of recorded +pedigree, or those which possess pedigrees capable +of registration. Others claim that a cross-bred is +any pig which is bred indiscriminately from boar +and sow of no particular type or breeding—in fact +common pigs of the country; whilst still others +declare that the title of cross-bred can be legitimately +applied only to a pig whose parents were of +two different pure breeds in contradistinction to a +pig sired by a pure bred boar, and from a common +sow, or the diverse way.</p> + +<p>It is not for us to determine the knotty point, +but we may venture the opinion that the two first +definitions of a cross-bred are not convincing to us, +since in order to produce a cross-bred it is necessary +to have a sire, or a dam, or both of defined breeds. +Probably the most correct definition of a cross-bred +animal is one bred from the mating of sire and dam +of two distinct breeds, but the term is now loosely +applied to an animal begotten by a sire or from a +dam of pedigree breeding, the other parent being of +no particular breed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> + +<p>This system of breeding has become somewhat +common owing to the comparatively small outlay +required in the purchase of a boar as compared +with the purchase of both boar and sows, and also +to the belief which is general that a greater improvement +in the produce is noticeable when the boar is +pure bred and the sows of ordinary or no particular +breed, than if the sows are pure bred and the boar +a common bred one. In addition to this there is the +important point that the pure bred boar should be +able to beget at least fifty litters in a year whereas +the pure bred sow will not produce more than two +litters annually, so that the advantage obtainable +from the outlay on one pure bred boar is twenty-five +times as great as is possible from the purchase +of a pure bred sow.</p> + +<p>There is also another advantage to the owner of +a boar who has only a limited number of sows, he +can allow his neighbours to make use of his boar on +payment of a liberal service fee, which combined +will partially pay for the prime cost of the boar.</p> + +<p>A considerable number of pig breeders are influenced +in the purchase of a pure bred boar rather +than of a sow by the belief that pure bred sows are +neither so prolific nor such good mothers as are +common bred sows. This belief was even more +common in years gone by than it is at the present +time, and it must be candidly confessed that there +existed substantial grounds for it. Some fifty years +since it became fashionable, particularly amongst +those who had suddenly become rich by trade or +in other ways, to exhibit live-stock at the agricultural +shows. They may have been animated by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +the laudable desire of endeavouring to assist farmers +and stock breeders generally, or a desire to gain a +place in the sun may have had some slight influence. +As the majority of these exhibitors of stock had no +special knowledge of stock, they were compelled to +place themselves entirely in the hands of their +managers and stockman, who generally received by +arrangement a certain percentage of the prize +money won by the stock. It was then only natural +that they gave far more attention to the show points +of the animals in their charge than to the breeding +qualities.</p> + +<p>The supply of pedigree animals was also very +limited at about the period mentioned so that it +was much more difficult to avoid too close breeding, +nor was there the same care taken in the private +record of the pedigrees of the animals bred. These +various causes combined led to a loss of vitality +amongst the so-called pedigree stock, and this +weakening of the constitution showed itself in a +reduction in the number of the offspring and in the +power of the dam to furnish its young with a full +supply of well-balanced milk.</p> + +<p>There is little doubt that in the third quarter of +the past century a considerable proportion of the +pedigree sows were not so prolific as they ought to +have been, nor did they produce and rear thoroughly +well so many pigs at each litter as the common sow +of the country was capable of doing. A more +general study of stock breeding has tended to compel +attention to the practical apart from the show +points of pedigree pigs, but probably the strongest +influence has been the formation of the various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +breed societies, and the registration of the produce +including the number, sex, and sire of the pigs. +These entries most clearly showed those breeders +of pigs who had paid most attention to the utility +points of their pigs, especially those particular +points in which pedigree pigs were generally believed +to be deficient. The succeeding records of sows of +the same families afforded the best possible confirmation +of the belief which was becoming general that +prolificacy like many other qualities was most +certainly hereditary. This recorded proof that pure +bred animals and especially pigs were not necessarily +slow breeders, helped vastly to increase the +demand for pedigree animals for crossing purposes +in the breeding of commercial stock.</p> + +<p>The enormous benefit which has resulted from the +use of pedigree sires is most clearly proved in the +Irish live stock. The so-called premium bulls and +boars are pedigree animals purchased by or with +the sanction of the Live Stock Commissioners and +placed at the service of the general public at a +somewhat reduced fee, the Government paying to +the owner an annual premium of some £15 for each +bull, and a certain sum for each boar.</p> + +<p>It is alleged that the original improvement in the +ordinary pig stock of those parts of Ireland where +pig-keeping on a considerable scale is followed, was +due to the purchase in England of numbers of Large +White boars, as after experiments carried out in +Denmark, these boars were found to effect the +greatest improvement in the common country pigs +and to render them far more suitable for conversion +into the kind of bacon which was in most general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +demand, and of course realised the highest price. +For the beginning of the vast improvement in the +Irish pig which has followed the importation of +these Large White boars, the Irish bacon curers +must receive the credit, as they joined together in +the purchase of these boars which were distributed +in those districts from which the various factories +drew their supplies of fat pigs.</p> + +<p>A similar plan was adopted by Messrs. Harris of +Calne who purchased some hundreds of boars of the +Large White breed, and at first lent them on certain +conditions to pig breeders, but later on resold the +young boars by auction for whatever they would +fetch, their object being to secure the use of these +boars in order to render the farm pigs more suitable +for the purposes of their trade as bacon curers.</p> + +<p>There may or may not be any grounds for the +belief that the sire has a greater influence in the +external form of the joint produce than does the +dam, but this belief has also had its influence in +determining breeders of cross breds to use the pure +bred sire on the ordinary stock of the country, +rather than the reverse way. There is no doubt +that apart from the improvement in the general +quality of the produce of the pure bred sire there +results a general uniformity of the young stock, +which is a great recommendation when they are +placed on the market either as stores, or when +fattened for the butcher or bacon curer. This +uniformity of type and character in the young +stock would be more noticeable still if the buyers of +the pure bred sires were to continue their purchases +from the same herds, providing that the owners of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +them were sufficiently careful in avoiding incestuous +breeding.</p> + +<p>So many people appear to be content with the +knowledge that the sire which they are purchasing +has a recorded pedigree and is a pure bred sire +eligible for entry in the herd book of its breed, but +they forget that it is possible in the crossing of two +pedigree animals of a similar breed to obtain as +great a mixture of blood and points as in the mating +of two cross-breds or two come-by-chances. Uniformity +in a herd, stud, or flock can only be rendered +comparatively certain by the continued use of sires +of similar breeding. In making a compound, its +character is determined by the proportion of the +various ingredients used in its manufacture. So it +is in the breeding of stock, those points which are +most predominant in proportion in the blood of the +sire and dam will, on the average, be represented in +an equal degree in the joint produce. This it is +which renders so impressive a sire which is descended +from closely bred parents. Each of its forbears has +handed down a proportion of its own particular +characteristics so that the larger the number of +animals amongst its forbears which possessed these +particular points the greater the certainty of their +being possessed by the produce. The meaning of +this may be made more clear by pointing out that +the result of the mixing together of various mixtures +will depend entirely on the proportion of the substances +used in the manufacture or compounding +of those mixtures. In each animal is embodied the +characteristics of its forbears.</p> + +<p>There exists generally an opinion that the produce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +of two parents of distinct breeds, or as it is +termed a first cross is commonly superior to a pure +bred of either of the two breeds represented by the +parents. It is difficult to discover the cause of this, +if it be a fact. If one of the parents were deficient +in stamina the produce might conceivably be more +robust, and it might also occasionally happen that +the mixture of the qualities or properties possessed +by the parents would result in improvement, as +happens when a distinct new breed is originated; +but as a rule the good and the bad qualities of the +produce from the mating of two animals of diverse +breeds are in direct proportion to the qualities +possessed by the parents.</p> + +<p>The mere mixing of the blood of two animals +differently bred cannot increase the good or bad +properties, but the combination might possibly result +in a blend more suitable for the purpose in hand.</p> + +<p>Another claim commonly made for the crossing +of animals is that the risk of that delicacy of constitution +which they assert is far too common +amongst pure bred animals, and is due to close +breeding, is hereby avoided. It must be admitted +that in times past there was a certain amount of +cause for this complaint of want of constitution +amongst pedigree animals, but the cause has been +considerably if not entirely removed by the more +careful recording of the breeding, and by the more +drastic screening out of any animals suspected of +delicacy of constitution.</p> + +<p>The buyers of pure bred animals for crossing +purposes have also become more careful in their +selection. They have ceased to imagine that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +because the owner of certain animals most of which +he has purchased is successful in winning prizes at +the chief agricultural shows, the whole of the +animals in his stud, herd, or flock must be of equal +excellence or at all events sufficiently good for the +production of profitable commercial stock. Action +on this mistaken belief has led to much disappointment +in the past, since the home bred animals may +have been of totally different blood from those which +have won prizes, and further they may not be inbred +for a sufficiently long time on distinct lines to +render them prepotent enough to impress their +good qualities on their produce.</p> + +<p>Amongst the objections made to cross-breeding +is the heavy cost of replacing the breeding stock, as +to obtain a first cross, a succession of sires and dams +must be purchased. Many persons meet this difficulty +by merely buying sires of a breed similar to +the first used, but then the produce ceases to be +cross-breds and become grades until such time as +by the use of a certain number of sires of a similar +breed the produce become eligible for entry in the +herd book of the sires which have been continuously +used. This system of breeding insures a greater +uniformity in the produce providing that the sires +selected are of similar breeding, type, and character, +than even by the system of crossing sire and dam of +two pure breeds.</p> + +<p>The risk attending too close breeding as in the +breeding of pure breds is also avoided provided +that the herd from which the sires are bought is +sufficiently large to furnish a change of blood, yet +of similar breeding.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> + +<p>No one possessing a knowledge of the ordinary +farm stock of the country will for one moment deny +that there is still vast room for improvement in our +live stock, and particularly in our pigs, and it is +equally the fact that our Government has not +shown a readiness equal to that of some foreign +Governments, and even of the authorities in some +of our colonies to assist farmers in obtaining the use +of improved sires. Take Canada as an instance. +For years the Dominion Live Stock Branch has been +purchasing and delivering free into districts needing +them, male animals for the use of farmers and +stock owners free, save stallions, for which a covering +fee has to be paid sufficient to cover the insurance +of the stallion. The other important condition +which relates to all the sires provided by the +authorities is that the cost of maintenance shall be +paid by the Local Association which has the management +of the sire and the arrangement of its services.</p> + +<p>Another noticeable point is that all the sires +allocated to the various districts are Canadian bred, +and so far as is possible are purchased in the province +in which they are to be located. The object is undoubtedly +to encourage in Canada the breeding of +pure bred animals and may thus far be considered +satisfactory, but it is acting on an assumption +which may not be justified that there exists in the +Dominion a sufficiency of stock equal in quality +and breeding to those which it may be possible to +import.</p> + +<p>Within the past three or four years our Board of +Agriculture have taken some steps to assist our +farmers to improve their stock. The assistance has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +taken the form of offering premiums of fixed +amounts to private persons or associations who +hired or purchased approved stallions, bulls, and +boars which were placed at fixed fees at the service +of the stock of the public. Already great benefit +has been derived from the use of the stallions and +bulls, and this to a far greater extent than in the +pigs, as owing to an unfortunate condition which was +attempted to be enforced as to the formation of pig +clubs and impracticable conditions the number of +boars located in the country has been much smaller +than would have been had the conditions at present +in force been adopted at the initiation of the +scheme.</p> + +<p>The boar conditions are now of a similar character +to those in force from the first with regard to +stallions and bulls. In addition to the supply of +male animals at comparatively low fees an attempt +has been made to assist in the recording of the milk +yield of cows, a matter of the highest importance. +If only this could be extended to sows there would +soon cease to be cause for the far too common complaint +of the owners of sows of certain breeds of +pedigree pigs, as to the limited quantity of milk +which is provided by the sows for their litters of +pigs.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F48" id="Figure_F48"></a> +<a href="images/imagep048_0001.jpg"> +<img src="images/imagep048_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="321" alt="THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS." +title="THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS." /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Francis Davis, Needingworth.</i> +<br /> +THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS. +<br /> +The Property of the Author. Also portion of 17 Sties at Holywell Manor, near St. Ives. +<br /> +To face page 48.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F49" id="Figure_F49"></a> +<a href="images/imagep049_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep049_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="322" alt="A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR." +title="A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR." /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i> +<br /> +A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR. +<br /> +From the Author's Pig Farm. +<br /> +To face page 49.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER IV +<br /> +DENTITION AND AGE OF PIGS</h3> + + +<p>Although the majority of pig sellers may claim to +be, and may be able to substantiate the claim to be, +equally as honest as the majority of others in trade, +yet there may be a small minority who are apt to +attempt to palm off pigs as being older than they +really are. It is most annoying when you are +anxious to purchase pigs of say six or seven months +old which are quite ready to be quickly fattened, to +have pigs of four or five months old which continue +to make growth instead of flesh, so that they are +not ready for killing until two or three months after +they are required for conversion into bacon.</p> + +<p>Although the object of the Council of the Smithfield +Club is to prevent fraud of a different character, +i.e. the exhibition in classes limited to certain ages +of pigs of an age greater than that given on the entry +form, yet the following table showing the normal +state of the dentition of pigs at certain fixed ages +will enable purchasers to discover whether or not +the seller has attempted to deceive him. It may at +once be admitted that there will be a limited number +of cases in which the state of dentition of pigs is +abnormal, but after examining the teeth of some +thousands of pigs during the past sixty years, we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +have no hesitation in asserting that more than half, +at least, of the variations from the normal are +allayed dentition. It is claimed that a man of +experience is quite able to arrive at the approximate +age of a pig by its development and appearance; +some few persons may have that instinctive knowledge +more or less fully developed, but this examination +of the state of dentition is of the greatest +possible assistance in arriving at the actual age +of the pig, particularly desirable as it is in case +of a difference of opinion between buyer and +seller.</p> + +<p>The following are the conditions of the state of +dentition to which all pigs have to conform ere they +are allowed to compete for the prizes offered by the +Smithfield Club at their annual shows:—</p> + +<p>"Pigs having their corner permanent incisors cut +will be considered as exceeding six months.</p> + +<p>"Pigs having their permanent tusks more than +half up will be considered as exceeding nine +months.</p> + +<p>"Pigs having their central permanent incisors up, +and any of the first three permanent molars cut, will +be considered as exceeding twelve months.</p> + +<p>"Pigs having their lateral temporary incisors +shed, and the permanents appearing will be considered +as exceeding fifteen months.</p> + +<p>"Pigs having their lateral permanent incisors +fully up will be considered as exceeding eighteen +months."</p> + +<p>As the majority of the pigs bought of dealers by +amateurs are young pigs it may be advisable to +state that a pig of the age of eight weeks old should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +have its two central incisors fully grown. A pig +three months old should have all four temporary +incisors cut, the two outside ones being more than +half as long as the two central incisors.</p> + +<p>As the first set of the teeth of a pig like that of a +child are merely temporary, and as these give place +at fairly definite ages of the owner to permanent +ones, it may be well to endeavour to describe as +clearly as possible the position and appearance of +the temporaries as compared with the permanents. +The pig is one of the few animals which is possessed +of teeth at its birth; these number eight, two on +each side of the upper and lower jaw. It has been +suggested that these early teeth are provided to +assist the pigling to grasp firmly the sow's teat when +in the act of sucking. These eight teeth vary somewhat +in length; those pigs which are carried by the +sow beyond the usual period of sixteen weeks frequently +have longer and even sharper teeth than +those of pigs which are born at the usual time. +These longer teeth are also sometimes of a dark +colour. This is doubtless the origin of the remark +commonly made by old-fashioned pigmen that +"pigs born with black teeth never do well." This +might have been so prior to the discovery that the +breaking off the sharp teeth of the newly born pigs +frequently saved trouble, and often the life of the +little pigs. Pigs whose teeth are discoloured at +birth are usually more robust rather than the +reverse, since the sow carrying them beyond the +allotted time is invariably in a vigorous state of +health, and her pigs consequently more fully +developed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p> + +<p>When the pig is about a month old, the two +central incisors are cut in each jaw, these are two +of the four front teeth in each jaw of the pig at a +subsequent age. Two temporary molars are also +cut on each side of the jaw above and below, with +the first temporary molar in each place ready to +come through the gum.</p> + +<p>At two months the temporary central incisors +are fully developed, and the two lateral temporary +incisors can be seen in the gums, if they are not +already through. All three temporary molars are +now about level.</p> + +<p>When the pig is about three months old its +temporary teeth are all in position, the temporary +lateral incisors are through, and nearly as long as +the temporary central incisors. Owing to the +lengthening of the jaws the two temporary corner +teeth which were present at birth will have become +further apart. When the pig is about five months, +the fourth molar in either jaw shows itself in the +gums, then at six months the wolf teeth show +between the tusks and the premolars, and the fourth +molar is nearly level with the first premolar. The +corner incisors and the tusks usually disappear, and +are replaced by permanents when the pig is nine +months old. The second permanent molar also +shows itself. At twelve months the two central +temporary incisors give place to the permanents; +these last are more square in form than the temporaries, +and are thus easily distinguished. The +three temporary molars will also be ready for displacement +by three permanents. These last will be +level with the other permanent molars when the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +pig is fifteen months. The two lateral incisors will +also have given place to permanents. At eighteen +months the third permanent molars will be coming +through, and at the age of twenty months the pig's +teeth are fully developed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER V +<br /> +SELECTION OF THE BOAR</h3> + + +<p>The hackneyed saying "The sire is half the herd" +appears to have a different meaning to varying +persons. To some it conveys the idea that the +selection of the sire is of far more importance than +the selection of the dam because the influence of +the sire is so much more powerful than that of the +dam on at least the external form and character of +the produce. The late Mr. James Howard, who took +a particularly keen interest in the breeding of pigs, +used to declare that the appearance and form of the +young pigs far more generally followed those of the +sire than of the dam; whilst the influence of the +latter was more shown in the character and constitution +of their joint produce; or in other words, +that the boar stamped his character to a greater +extent on the external points of the young, whilst +the sow more strongly influenced the internal parts +of the youngsters. It is quite possible that this +idea has gained ground to a large extent from the +fact that the use of a pure bred sire on ordinary or +grade females has been very much more common +than the crossing of pure bred females by the +ordinary or non-pedigree sire; as also from the far +greater numbers of young which each pure bred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +sire would improve, than would be improved by +each pure bred female which might be crossed.</p> + +<p>If only for this reason alone, we would always +recommend buyers who are desirous of grading up +and improving their farm stock to attempt to do +this by the purchase or use of the pure bred or improved +sire. The original outlay is infinitely less, +whilst the immediate results are comparatively +longer.</p> + +<p>It is scarcely desirable to go further into the +question as to the comparative influence on the +young of the sire and the dam since our actual +knowledge of the subject is by no means large. +Indeed, it is at the least doubtful, if by the closest +observation any definite opinion on the subject is +possible, so great is the difference which varying +parents have on the chief characteristics of their +joint progeny, and even in the separate specimens +which they have procreated. Of course, it is quite +possible to breed animals especially well developed +or endowed with certain qualities, providing that +the parents have been for generations selected because +of their possession in a marked degree of +those particular qualities sought. It is in this +power of prepotency that one of the chief benefits +from the use of a pure bred sire or dam arises. By +the term pure bred is not meant merely that the +names of a certain number of the forbears of the +animal shall have been recorded in the register of +the breed, but that the animal shall for a certain +number of generations have been bred on similar +lines so that it shall possess a considerable amount +of concentrated blood. This is a point to which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +sufficient care is not generally given by purchasers +of so-called pedigree sires to be used on the ordinary +bred or graded stock. The far too common practice +is to purchase each boar required from a totally +different herd, or from one of quite dissimilar +breeding, with the result that there is not the +slightest uniformity in the appearance or character +of the herd, or of the mature animals when ready +for market.</p> + +<p>It is far too frequently forgotten that the chief +value of a record of the pedigree is that by it one +can trace the breeding of the animal's progenitors, +and thus one is enabled to form some opinion of +the probable produce—providing it is possible to +learn the chief characteristics of the progenitors. +Failing this, the only course open is to note the +names of the breeders of the more recent parents, +as from this a certain amount of information as to +the probable qualities of the parents may be obtained +or surmised.</p> + +<p>Another point on which at least a diversity of +opinion exists, is the wisdom of giving so much +consideration to the fact that the herd from which +the sire is purchased shall have been recently +successful in the show yard, or in extreme cases, +that the sire itself shall have been a prize winner. +It is urged that the mere fact that a sire has succeeded +in winning one or more prizes is a proof that +it possesses in a marked degree those qualities +which are most highly prized. This may be conceded, +yet there is no certainty that the mating of this +winning sire even with dams that have also been +prize winners shall result in the production of young<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +the equal of the parents, since the winners at the +various shows may be of dissimilar types and breeding.</p> + +<p>But the case would be quite different if the +winning sire and dam came from the same old +established herd in which the animals had been +bred for generations on similar lines. It is this +concentration of certain qualities in generation +after generation which renders the pedigree animal +so intensely prepotent, particularly when mated +with animals of an ordinary character or not possessing +concentrated breeding. Indeed, it may be safely +assumed that the power of a parent to impress its +own individuality and qualities on its produce, +depends to a very large extent, if not entirely, on +the comparative hereditary extent of those qualities +in comparison with the other qualities possessed by +itself, or by the animal with which it may have +been mated.</p> + +<p>In other words, it is contended that the sire or +the dam has not the power to impress certain of its +characteristics on its young, merely because of its +sex, but that this power depends on the proportion +in the sire or dam of the blood of progenitors who +possessed in a marked degree certain qualities.</p> + +<p>It is with the breeding of animals as with the +manufacture of a compound article. The character +and quality of that compound will vary according +to the proportion of the various ingredients used in +its manufacture. It is to this law or fact that the +marked impressiveness of certain strains of blood +is attributable.</p> + +<p>Again, the marked and long continued success of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +the blood of the animals bred by a few of our most +successful breeders of live stock is in the main due +to the fact that the owners set up a standard and +persistently selected and bred together only animals +possessing to a greater or lesser extent the particular +qualities which together comprised that standard. +There is not the slightest doubt that in carrying out +their system they were often compelled to mate +animals related in blood the one to the other, but in +this there is little risk providing that all those +animals which show the slightest symptom of +delicacy of constitution are persistently draughted +out.</p> + +<p>It will be inferred from the above remarks that +we hold to the belief that the breeding of the boar +should receive attention as well as the following +points in its form and character.</p> + +<p>One of the most important of these points is good +temper. This is a quality not usually attributed to +the pig in its wild state, and consequently not natural +to the domesticated pig, yet on the possession of it +depends to a very great extent the thrift and well +doing of the produce of the boar. The produce of an +irritable boar are almost certain to inherit this +quality which is fatal to profitable fatting. In sows +this weakness is still more unfortunate, as a bad +tempered sow is almost invariably an indifferent +mother. The rigid avoidance of this failing of bad +temper in a boar is advisable not only because this +quality is almost invariably hereditary, but a savage +boar is a continual source of danger to man and +beast. It may be said that little trouble is likely if +the boar is kept in confinement, but there are times,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +such as when sows are placed with him, when a +certain amount of liberty must be given to him, and +it is generally on such occasions of excitement when +the bad temper is the most in evidence. The mere +fact that irritability and nervousness are natural to +the pig should make us the more careful to avoid +any increase in the failing by using a boar which is +the least inclined to be bad tempered.</p> + +<p>Many persons hold that in the selection of a boar +one of the principal points is size. They contend +that size, in pigs especially, is imperative if a profitable +return is to be made. This view may have +arisen to a greater or lesser extent from the want of +method and observation which is characteristic of +so many stock owners. The one point which to +them is of the greatest importance is the selling +price of the fat or store animal sold being fully up +to the average. Little or no thought is given to the +value of the food eaten by each animal. If it had +been, very frequently it would have been found +that the smaller animal of a lot had actually given +the best return for the food it had consumed. It is +not the size alone of the animal which determines +its value as the producer of meat, but more than +anything it is the feeding qualities of the animal +fattened. In addition to this there never was a +time when the consumer more strongly demanded +small joints of meat, and these of the best quality +and with as little bone as possible.</p> + +<p>Apart from this a very large boar is a mistake as +it is invariably awkward when serving—it can be +used only for large and strong sows, and its average +period of usefulness is decidedly shorter than that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +of a medium sized and compact boar. A large boar +generally possesses an undue proportion of bone, +its shoulders are heavy, and its ankles round, and +feet large and spreading. Now these are all objections. +The bone of a boar should be solid, not +porous; the ankles compact and the feet small, +and the pasterns short. The head should be wide +so that the brain can be well developed, the head +inclined to be short rather than long, since an +animal with an extremely long head is certain to be +deficient in natural flesh.</p> + +<p>On the question of the size and hang of the ears +a variety of opinion exists; pigs with long ears, and +pigs with short ears are found possessing good +carcases. It is the quality of the ear rather than its +size and hang which seems to indicate the character +most. A pig with a thin and firm ear is usually of +fine quality, whereas a pig which has a thick, +coarse ear is generally coarse in bone, skin, flesh, +and hair.</p> + +<p>The neck of the boar should be muscular as +indicating constitution and natural vigour; the +shoulders fine and obliquely laid, the ribs well +sprung, the loin wide, the quarters long and square, +not drooping, the hams full and extending quite +down to the hocks, and without any of that loose +skin which is far too common amongst the largest +of our breeds of pigs, and which is a sure sign of +coarseness. The flank should be thick and well let +down, as this indicates constitution and lean meat, +the legs should be fairly short and set well apart so +that the heart, lungs, and other organs have plenty +of room to perform their share of the work of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +pig. The skin should be fine and the hair straight +and silky, as well as plenty of it. Sparsity of hair is +generally an indication of shortage of lean meat, +whilst curliness and coarseness of hair are far too +frequently associated with excessive fat and coarseness +of meat.</p> + +<p>With regard to the reproductive parts of the boar +there are one or two points which should receive +special attention. A boar with excessively small +testicles should be avoided, as such a one is often +barren. Again, a boar with one testicle of normal +size and the other smaller, ordinarily suffers +from the same disqualification to a lesser extent. +A ruptured boar should not on any account +be used, as this weakness is strongly hereditary. +The weakness may not possibly show itself in the +first generation, but it is certain to appear sooner +or later. Not only is it a sure index of weakness of +constitution, but pigs so affected occasionally die +suddenly, whilst there is always a certain amount +of risk from the operation of castration.</p> + +<p>Occasionally one or more of the boar pigs of a +litter will be found to be malformed, in that only +one of the testicles is apparent. Generally speaking, +the other is found when the pig is killed to be attached +to the inside of the pig, and thus is unable +to descend into the scrotum or purse, so that the act +of castration is only partially performed. A boar +pig with only one testicle down is commonly +termed a rig. The removal of one of the testicles +does not deprive the rig of reproducing its species, +and it is thus a source of continual trouble when +herded with a lot of sow pigs now that the general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +custom is to allow the female pigs of a litter to remain +unspayed. It is, therefore, necessary to fatten +a rig either alone, or with male pigs which have +been operated upon. In addition to this extra +trouble, the flesh of a rig pig if it be kept fattening +after it is some five or six months old is almost +certain to be strong in flavour, like unto that of a +boar. It is, therefore, advisable to fatten a rig +quite early in life and convert it into a porket or +porker carcase of pork.</p> + +<p>It may appear strange to some readers to specially +mention the teats of the boar, but it is equally as +necessary to avoid boars having small teats, teats +unevenly placed, and commencing any distance +from the fore legs, and blind teats, as it is in the +case of the sow, since any weaknesses of the kind +are equally as hereditary from the boar as from the +sow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER VI +<br /> +SELECTION OF THE SOW</h3> + + +<p>It is impossible to agree with the view held by so +many persons that the necessity for the same care +is non-existent in the selection of a sow as in the +choice of a boar. We hold that the desirability for +studying the forbears, especially the dam, of a +young sow intended for breeding purposes is fully +as great as when selecting the young boar, since +many, if not most, of the qualities which we desire +the brood sow to possess are strongly hereditary. +Take, for instance, the question of gentleness or a +quiet disposition, it follows from dam to produce +with a regularity equal to that of bad temper, and +the latter is wellnigh a certainty. Again, whoever +found that the female produce of a sow deficient in +the maternal instincts proved, if saved for breeding +purposes, to be a really good mother? As a rule the +daughters of a sow which gives but a small quantity +of milk, and that of an inferior quality, are also +cursed with the same grievous failings, but this +does not appear to be universally the case, since the +milking qualities of the dam descend through her +sons, so that if the female progenitors of the boar +have been good milkers it is probable that the +boar's daughters may be able to rear their pigs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +successfully, even if their dam had not been in the +habit of suckling her pigs well.</p> + +<p>Still, it is quite safe to assert that with this one +exception we may fairly anticipate that the good +qualities which we seek in a sow are far more likely +to be found in the sow pigs of a sow herself the +possessor, than from one which does not possess +them. We are inclined to the belief that the alleged +failure of some pedigree yelts to make good brood +sows is in the main due to the continued selection +for breeding purposes of those pure-bred yelts which +show early maturing and flesh-forming qualities, +rather than that motherly look which is almost invariably +to be found in a sow which is prolific, a +free milker, and a really good mother. There is a +marked difference in the formation of a milk-giving +and a fat-producing sow—the latter is +generally somewhat heavy in the shoulders, has a +muscular or fat neck, is rather short in the head +and heavy in the jowl, and is altogether more compactly +built, whereas a good brood sow has rather +a long face, is wide between the eyes, has a light +muscular neck, is fine in the shoulders, possesses +long and square quarters and appears to be heavier +in the hind than in the forequarters. She is somewhat +more loosely built and often shows less of +quality. Thickness of flank and length of side are +desirable, the first as indicating substance and flesh, +whilst the second gives plenty of room for her pigs +to suck. The bone should be of good quality; the +same remarks apply to the skin and hair.</p> + +<p>About half a century since there existed a fancy, +which almost amounted to a craze for sows of small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +size; they could not be too neat, and showing too +much so-called feminine character. The almost +certain result of selecting the neatest of the female +pigs followed, the fat pigs sent to market were light +in weight, deficient in lean meat and rightly named +"animated bladders of lard." Within about the +same distance of time it was the common practice +of exhibitors of pigs at the Smithfield Club's Shows +to provide pillows in the form of round pieces of +wood on which the fat pigs rested their heads so +that these were raised in order to prevent the pigs +becoming suffocated. In addition, the pigs were +fed on forcing foods until they were at least one +and a half year old and allowed to take, or were +given little exercise, with the result that the pork +consisted mainly of soft fat or lard. To such an +extent had this craze for neatness been followed +that the bacon curers and consumers of pork wellnigh +ceased to purchase or consume pork.</p> + +<p>At the present time we are afraid that the tendency +is in the opposite direction, and mere size is +receiving far too much attention. At some of our +agricultural shows the judges select for honour +great unwieldly sows which could not possibly +perform with any amount of success those maternal +duties which a brood sow is supposed to be kept +solely to perform. An extremely large sow is +very frequently a poor milker, the quantity of +milk she gives is not large, nor does she continue +to give even this reduced supply for a period +long enough to allow her young to grow strong +enough to make a good start in life on their own +account.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p> + +<p>Another great objection to a sow of extreme size +is that her produce almost invariably take after her +to such an extent that it is difficult, if not wellnigh +impossible, to make them fat until they are from +nine to twelve months old, and by that time they +are too large and heavy for the general demand +which is at the present time, and likely to become +still more so in the future, for small joints of meat +which carry a large proportion of lean and a limited +quantity of bone. The most successful manufacturer +is he who most nearly supplies the consumer +with that which he requires or fancies. We are not +moved by the contention of breeders of pedigree +pigs that the most valuable pig is the one which +possesses in the greatest degree those special points +which are characteristic of the breed, as, for instance, +size in the pigs of the Large White, the Large Black, +and the Lincolnshire Curly Coated pigs, therefore +the biggest pigs should be held in the highest esteem. +In our opinion the best, as it is in the long run the +most profitable, is the pig which furnishes to the +greatest extent exactly the kind of meat in the +most general demand.</p> + +<p>In addition to these objections to an extremely +large and ungainly sow is the fact that such an one +is invariably clumsy in the breeding pen, she is +almost certain to lay on some of her pigs. It is +even alleged that her period of usefulness as a +breeder is shorter than that of a sow of ordinary +size.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F64" id="Figure_F64"></a> +<a href="images/imagep064_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep064_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="324" alt="TAMWORTH BOAR: Bishop of Webton." +title="TAMWORTH BOAR" /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i> +<br /> +TAMWORTH BOAR: Bishop of Webton. +<br /> +Owner, C. L. Coxon. 1st and Champion, Royal Show. +<br /> +To face page 64</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F65" id="Figure_F65"></a> +<a href="images/imagep065_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep065_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="310" alt="Photo, G. H. Parsons, Rostrevor." +title="GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW." /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, G. H. Parsons, Rostrevor.</i> +<br /> +GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW. +<br /> +From the herd of Lord Sherbourne. +<br /> +To face page 65.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER VII +<br /> +THE SOW'S UDDER</h3> + + +<p>One of the most important points in connection +with the reproduction of the species of our various +domestic animals is the provision of a full supply of +milk for the young in the early portion of their +existence. Nature herself has set us a good example +in a duplicated source of milk supply even amongst +animals which usually produce only one animal at +a birth. If this duplication be necessary under +such conditions, it must be imperative on us to +select those sow pigs which are intended for breeding +pigs which possess a well-formed udder, having a +full supply of teats, and these of good shape and +properly placed on the belly of the sow. Not only +is this necessary to ensure the rearing of a fairly +numerous litter of pigs in a satisfactory manner, +but it is held that the number of teats possessed by +a sow indicates to a remarkable extent the probable +degree of prolificacy of the sow. One can readily +understand that nature would not be likely to endow +a sow with the power to produce a larger number of +young at each birth than she would be able to rear. +Of course it may be said that the sow of the present +day is not as nature first made her, in that, by +selection and by feeding, the number of pigs produced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +at each birth is now so much larger than the +litters of the wild sows, which have some seven or +eight teats and farrow at each litter a similar +number of pigs. On the other hand, neither the +number of teats nor of the young is fixed either in +the domesticated sow, or the sow in a wild state, so +that by continued selection we are able to permanently +increase, within limits, the production of +larger litters and the increased supply of milk for +their sustenance when young.</p> + +<p>The provision of a suitable udder is even of more +importance with the domesticated than with the +sow running wild, since the latter produces each +year one litter only, and that in the season of the +year when the young are less dependent on their +dams; whereas the domesticated sow is expected +to rear at least two litters per year, and frequently +owing to want of care on the part of the owner the +young pigs are farrowed at the most unfavourable +time of the year.</p> + +<p>Apart from the provision of a certain number of +teats there is another point to be considered, the +power of the sow to produce milk enough to satisfy +the given number of pigs. This of course varies +with each family or tribe of pigs, and even with the +various members in it, so that to obtain the best +results selection must be made of the produce of +those sows which give the largest quantity of the +most nutritious milk. There exists amongst pig +keepers a difference of opinion as to the number of +pigs each sow should be allowed to rear, probably +the average of this number would be ten for a +mature sow, and seven or eight for a first litter.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +If so, the selected sow pig should possess twelve +teats, as frequently one of these may not give a full +supply of milk from either natural or accidental +causes. The teats should be regular in size and +form. It is not uncommon to find one or more of +the teats of a sow much smaller in size than the +others. These smaller teats will produce a reduced +quantity of milk, so that the pigling which +is unfortunate enough to decide on making this +small teat its very own—and each pigling is confined +by the others to its own special teat—is +certain to be less well developed than its +brothers and sisters, even if it should succeed in +surviving.</p> + +<p>The necessity for the teats being placed equidistant +the one from the other arises from the +desirability of each pig having room to suck comfortably. +Should two of the teats be closely placed +the two pigs will probably fight, when not only will +sores be caused on the cheeks of the pigs, but the +milk in the teats not properly drawn will gradually +cease to flow.</p> + +<p>Another point of great importance is that the +teats should commence as near as possible to the +fore legs—this for two reasons: it gives more room +for the pigs to suck as they grow larger; the other +and more important one is that the teats most +forward on the udder of the sow produce the +larger quantity of milk, or milk of a better +quality. It will be almost invariably found that +the pigs sucking the foremost teats thrive the +best.</p> + +<p>It is advisable to avoid the selection of a female<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +pig for breeding purposes from a sow which has +large and coarse teats, as these invariably accompany +coarseness of skin, bone, hair, and flesh, this +in turn affects the sale value of the carcase. It will +also be found that those sows with a neat and compact +udder, with fine teats, will give more milk and +a better quality than sows possessing a coarse and +flabby udder.</p> + +<p>Another weakness to be avoided when selecting a +sow pig for breeding purposes is that which is commonly +termed a blind teat, since it is undoubtedly +hereditary in addition to being useless for the purpose +of rearing pigs. The normal teat projects +boldly from the udder, whereas the blind teat is +almost flat or on a level with the udder. In appearance +it resembles a ring of skin with a depressed +nipple in its centre. At the time of parturition +the blind teat contains milk to the same extent +as do the other teats, but it promptly dries up +since it is impossible for the little pigs to extract +the milk from it since the nipple recedes +as soon as the pigling attempts to clasp it +with its lips and tongue, instead of becoming +more extended so that the little pig can suck the +milk from it.</p> + +<p>An ideal udder can be briefly described as one +possessing at least twelve fully developed teats, the +more the better—these should commence from a +point as near the fore legs of the sow as possible, +and be placed as nearly as possible an equal distance +the one from the other.</p> + +<p>Some persons hold that large teats and much +loose skin are sure indications that the sow has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +proved to be a good milker. This is a mistaken +view; it is with sows as with cows, the most prolific +milkers are those with well formed and soft udders +which almost disappear when the lactation period +has passed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII +<br /> +MATING THE YOUNG SOW</h3> + + +<p>As in most other details in the management of our +domesticated animals there exists a variety of +opinion as to the age at which the young sow, or, as +it is commonly locally termed, a gilt, yelt, yilt, +hilt, elt, etc., should be mated with the boar. Perhaps +the most important point to consider is the +time of the year when the anticipated pigs should +arrive. If possible the period between the middle +of the month of September and the middle of +December should be avoided. The long nights and +the short and dull days generally experienced +during this period are most unsuitable for young +pigs. Many litters of pigs farrowed in October are +not any larger nor nearly as thrifty in the month +of March as those farrowed during the early portion +of January in the following year, and very frequently +the loss amongst the October and November +farrowed pigs from lameness, or, as it is commonly +termed, cramp, is very large. An attempt should +be made so that the two litters which should be +bred each year from the sow arrive so that they are +weaned during the longer and brighter days of the +year; thus a sow which farrows in the beginning +of February may be expected to farrow again in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +July. The weather is sometimes rather cold for +little pigs early in the year, but it is surprising how +little they are affected by it providing the sow +furnishes a good supply of milk and the bedding is +dry and plentiful. The pigs farrowed in the months +of January and February are generally the most +profitable, as they will be ready for the consumption +of the separated milk, butter milk, whey, etc., +which is generally abundant in the month of May +in districts where dairying and cheese making are +followed. These pigs are also ready for turning +out to grass in April or May, or as soon as the weather +is suitable, and the grass has grown sufficiently. +These young pigs will grow and thrive splendidly +providing that some additional food is fed to them +and shelter provided.</p> + +<p>This natural system of pig raising is of great +benefit to those pigs which are intended for breeding +purposes and was consistently followed by the +writer from the year 1863. It was by no means a +new plan even at that period, although strange +claims have recently been made that the system is a +novel one and originated in the fertile brain of one +or two enthusiasts who have gone the whole hog in +pig breeding. In the middle of the last century it +was quite a common practice in parts of the counties +of Cambridge, Essex, and Suffolk to graze the seeds +which comprised clovers, trefoils, etc., with pigs +which received in addition extra food, such as peas +or beans in accordance with the amount of vegetable +food obtainable or the purpose for which the pigs +were required; those intended for pork receiving +the larger supply.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p> + +<p>Although it may not be possible to allow the +young boar pigs to have their liberty after they +become five months old, yet the sow pigs will grow +and develop far better in the field if properly fed +than they will in an inclosed sty; further, the young +pigs which they produce will be much more lusty +than if the sows had been kept in close confinement.</p> + +<p>Although the sow pig will generally come in heat +when she is about six months old, it is advisable +that she should not be mated until she is some +eight months old, so that her first litter of pigs is +not farrowed until she is about a year old, when she +should be quite strong enough to rear a fair litter +of pigs and also to grow and develop into a fully +natured specimen of its breed.</p> + +<p>In some districts where the breeding pigs are +generally kept in confinement and high keeping is +followed the sow pigs are mated with the boar at +an earlier age, but the system has its disadvantages +which more than outweigh the saving of the extra +few weeks of the keep of the yelt ere she is put to +the boar. This early mating is especially harmful if +the number of the pigs in the first litter should be +large. So few pig keepers have the hardihood to +knock a certain portion of the too numerous litter +on the head, and so reduce the number to say seven +or eight, which most young sows should be able to +rear fairly well and without any undue drain on +the sow's system—but the whole of the large litter +are left on the sow, which becomes very much +reduced in condition, and checked in growth, whilst +the too large litter of pigs are badly reared and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +frequently become a source of trouble and annoyance +to the owner.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, there are many practical pig +keepers who make it a rule to delay the mating of +their young sows beyond the eight months' age. +They contend that a sow pig at eight months is not +sufficiently matured to bear the strain of producing +a litter of pigs when she is about one year old, and +then to furnish the pigs with a sufficiency of milk to +give them a good start in life. The plan which they +adopt is to mate the sow when she is about a year +old so that she is some sixteen months old before +her family troubles commence.</p> + +<p>Another very curious reason has been recently +made public by an enthusiastic novice for delaying +the mating of the yelt until she is at least a year +old. It is the following, that it is quite possible to +ensure that the produce of young sows which have +reached the age of sixteen or seventeen months ere +they farrow their first litter shall possess the desired +characteristics of the breed, whereas this is by no +means certain if the young pigs arrive before the +sow has reached that age or is about a year old. +Unfortunately, we have see no attempt made to +account for this alleged curious variation in the +qualities inherited from a parent of about one year +old and the parent which had arrived at the more +matured age of about sixteen months, so that it is +impossible to discover a solution of the strange +problem.</p> + +<p>Therefore, we should be unable to admit the +correctness of the assertion even though it was not +directly in opposition to our belief which is founded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +on experience of a most extensive character extending +over some sixty years. To aver that the power +of a young sow to impress its hereditary characteristics +on its young are only fully developed by +deferring the arrival of the young pigs for four or +five months, or until the sow is sixteen instead of +twelve months old when she farrows must surely +cause surprise, if not, disbelief. Perhaps the object +of the propounder of the theory was to create a discussion—it +could not have been to bring his name +prominently before the public.</p> + +<p>Another advantage in mating the young sow so +that her first litter appears when she is about a year +old, her daughters will in turn farrow during the +most suitable months of the year, providing of +course that she herself had been farrowed in early +spring or about the month of July.</p> + +<p>When the sow pig which is intended to be kept +for breeding has been farrowed in some other part +of the year, it is advisable to defer beyond the eight +months the mating of her so that she farrows at the +best times, or perhaps even better than that, if the +pigs are not intended for breeding purposes, would +it be to have the sow mated when she is about +eight months old, and then allow the pigs to remain +on the sow a few weeks beyond the usual period of +eight weeks so that the pigs are taken off the sow +three or four days before it is desired to have her +again mated with the boar. The risk of the sow +returning to the boar will be minimised, as a sow +which has been baulked is sometimes difficult to +settle. In addition, the sow will be stronger and +more vigorous and likely to produce a strong<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +litter of pigs, whilst the piglings will scarcely miss +their mother's milk when they are weaned from +her.</p> + +<p>Those pig breeders who are in favour of withholding +the boar from the young sow until she is +about a year old aver that early mating results in +the sow becoming worn out and useless for breeding +at a much younger age than if she be not mated +until she is well matured. This is not in accordance +with the writer's experience, as many of his sows +which farrowed their first litter when they were +about a year old continued to breed regularly until +they were six or seven years old—indeed, one +Middle White, Holywell Victoria Countess farrowed +her last litter when she was in her eleventh year. +This sow also disproved the confident assertion that +the showing of sows renders them comparatively +useless for breeding purposes, since she not only +continued to rear her pigs well, but she produced a +number of most successful prize winning boars and +sows, and also won many prizes herself from the +age of five months to five years.</p> + +<p>The principal cause of premature old age amongst +sows is not due to their being first mated when they +are eight months old, but to the want of care in the +management and feeding of the sow during her +pregnancy and whilst she is suckling her litter of +pigs. To a sow with a good constitution the act of +breeding and rearing a family of pigs is only the +most important act of nature which cannot be +harmful to her, providing that she received that +amount of proper food and attention which nature +required.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p> + +<p>There may be very occasional instances of harm +being done to the breeding sow by over feeding, or +rather by injudicious feeding, but in comparison +there are hundreds of instances where under feeding +and neglect are the cause of trouble and loss.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER IX +<br /> +THE FARROWING SOW</h3> + + +<p>The pregnant sow usually carries her pigs about +sixteen weeks. The variations are neither great nor +numerous, when they do occur it is usually with +sows with their first litters or aged sows which +sometimes farrow ere the full time has expired, or +with robust sows in good condition which occasionally +carry their young beyond the one hundred and +twelve days which may be taken as the average +period.</p> + +<p>We assume that each owner of a breeding sow +keeps a record of the date of service of the sow in +order that the necessary preparation of the sty, +etc., can be made in readiness for the arrival of the +expected litter. Even when this wise precaution is +neglected nature gives a sufficient warning to the +observant owner. Apart from the increasing size +of the body, the udder gradually becomes more +prominent, and each pap becomes more defined, +the vulva becomes enlarged and the muscles on +either side of the tail fall away and lose their tenseness, +whilst in the vast majority of cases milk appears +in the udder some twelve hours before the arrival +of the pigs. The teats shine and become more prominent, +the presence of milk is easily ascertained by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +gently pressing the teat between the finger and +thumb.</p> + +<p>Another certain indication of the early arrival of +a family is the act of the sow carrying straw about +in her mouth wherewith to make her farrowing bed.</p> + +<p>One of the chief causes of trouble with the farrowing +sow arises from the sow not having been allowed +to take sufficient exercise. Of course, the best of all +systems is to allow the sow its complete freedom at +all seasons of the year save when she is within about +a fortnight of her time, and when she is rearing a +litter of pigs. Even if there be no grass field or +paddock in which she is able to pick up a good +portion of her living, or a roadside where she can +get a few blades of grass, an open yard is infinitely +better than the confinement of a sty, as apart from +the reduction in the cost of keep, the sow will produce +stronger pigs, and have a decidedly easier time of +farrowing.</p> + +<p>In the case of a sow showing a disinclination to +take a sufficiency of exercise either owing to laziness, +to high condition, or heaviness of body, it is +advisable to exercise her by walking her about +quietly for a short time each morning and evening +before and after the heat of the day has become +excessive, or has passed off.</p> + +<p>There is a difference of opinion amongst pig +breeders as to the desirability or the reverse of +having someone in attendance on the sow during +the time she is farrowing. Those who object to this +procedure do so on the ground that the presence of +a man simply tends to irritate the sow, and to frequently +cause her to become restless, with the result<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +that the little pigs are trodden upon or become +laid upon and killed. This view is generally held +by those who are not particularly fond of animals, +as evidenced by that occasional intercourse between +pig and owner which consists of rubbing the head +of the pig, or scratching its side, when in response +to the pleasant sensation it rolls over on to its side +like Oliver and asks for more. The trouble if any, +which arises from the owner or pig man being in +the sty with the farrowing sow almost invariably +arises from the absence of a sympathetic feeling +between the two. Sows, and indeed wellnigh all +animals, pine for sympathy and company, and no +animal more so than a pig. Still there are very +occasional instances where the young sow becomes +very excitable as she commences to farrow even when +she and her owner or attendant have previously +been on the best of terms. But there the cause is +not the presence of a human being, but the arrival +of one of her own little pigs. So long as the pigling +remains quiet there is peace, but as soon as the +youngster endeavours to get to the teat and especially +if in the endeavour it utters a cry or a squeak, +the young sow will jump up from her nest and +endeavour to seize the youngster in her mouth, +when unless prevented the sow quickly squeezes all +life out of the pig; and in some cases when the +pressure has been so severe as to break the skin of +the piglet, and the sow tastes blood, she will proceed +to eat the dead pig. When affairs have arrived +at this sad state, the chances of the remaining pigs +having a pleasant reception into the world are comparatively +slight.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p> + +<p>When there exists a good understanding between +the sow and attendant, as there invariably is when +the latter is not rough and unkind, as only bad +tempered men can be, the trouble in a case such as +just referred to is greatly reduced, as the attendant +runs no risk in entering the sty and in removing the +little pigs as they arrive, and placing them in a +hamper or box partially filled with straw until such +time as the sow has completed her farrowing, when +the pigs can be placed against the sow's udder, and +providing they do not bite her, all will settle down in +peace and comfort.</p> + +<p>In order to avoid the slightest risk of trouble it is +advisable when the pigs are apart from the sow to +break off with a pair of pliers the four little teeth +with which the pigs are endowed prior to their +birth. Care being taken to remove the pigs beyond +the hearing of the sow each little pig in turn is tucked +under the left arm, the mouth is opened by the left +hand, and the teeth pressed hard with the pliers, or +even a slight turn of the wrist given, when necessary, +and the brittle teeth are crushed.</p> + +<p>As soon as the placenta or afterbirth is ejected +this should be removed. A little slop food should +be fed to the sow, and whilst she is eating it, the +wettest part of the bedding should be replaced by a +little short and dry straw just enough to render the +nest comfortable for the little pigs. The nest should +be disturbed as little as possible, as should the whole +of it be removed and fresh straw given, the sow will +probably spend a considerable time in remaking the +nest, and in the meantime the little pigs will be in +danger from a chill, or in being mixed up in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +straw and being laid upon. The risk from delay in +the sow laying down and suckling her pigs is much +greater in cold weather, as not only will they become +chilled, but they will persist in crowding +round the sow and so run the greater risk of +being trodden upon, or rolled up in the bedding +in the effort of the sow to remake her comfortable +nest.</p> + +<p>Some persons strongly recommend the giving of +a strong dose of medicine to the sow after she has +farrowed. In ordinary cases this is not necessary, +the farrowing of a litter of pigs is a simple and +natural operation. In those occasional instances +where manual assistance has to be given to the sow +owing to the unusual size of the pig, or wrong +presentation, or even of a pig which has been dead +for a day or two and has begun to decompose and +consequently to increase in bulk, it is advisable to +give medicine to the sow, since there is every probability +of some amount of inflammation due to the +insertion of the hand. As the sow's bowels are +likely to be somewhat constipated it is always advisable +to exercise her for a few minutes during the +morning after she has farrowed. In most cases the +exercise will at once cause her to relieve her bowels +and her bladder, when she can be returned to her +sty.</p> + +<p>We found sharps, or the finest portion of miller's +offals (which usually go by varying names in +different parts of the country), the most suitable +food for newly farrowed sows, and until the pigs +were at least four weeks old. Some persons recommend +that a portion of the food should consist of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +bran, this on two grounds—the first that its use +tends to prevent constipation, and secondly on +account of the food analysis which it gives. Our +experience has been that when sharps are fed to the +sow no trouble should arise from constipation, +whilst as to the nutriment which bran contains the +claim may be good, but the pig is unable to extract +it; so large a proportion of the bran passes through +the pig in an undigested condition. As a rule the +pig, unlike the horse, cow, or sheep, does not masticate +its food, nor does it, like the two last named, +chew its cud, but it usually bolts its food, and thus +casts a greater labour on its digestive organs which +have neither the time nor power to extract the +whole of the nutriment from the bran. In addition +to this, bran tends to too great looseness of the +bowels, which in the case of young pigs tends to +become diarrhÅ“a.</p> + +<p>There is a tendency on the part of some pigmen +who are over anxious to succeed to feed the sow too +large a quantity of food during the first ten days or +so after she has farrowed. During this period the +demand on the sow is really not much greater than +it was during the last two or three weeks of carrying +the pigs. As the pigs grow older an increased +supply of food is necessary, but for a week or two +after the arrival of the pigs twice feeding of the sow +should suffice unless she is very low in condition, +or a very large litter of pigs is left on her. In such +cases it may be advisable to feed her three times +per day just as much as she will promptly clear up. +It is a great mistake to give so much food at one +time that a portion is left over in the trough, particularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +is this so when the pigs are over three +weeks old, as nothing so quickly upsets the stomachs +of the youngsters as sour food. If in ordinary cases +feeding the sow three times daily is persisted in, the +same quantity of food given should simply be distributed +over the three feedings, as an excess of +food is only less a mistake than underfeeding.</p> + +<p>Three of the most common troubles with young +pigs are diarrhÅ“a, fits, and loss of the tail. There is +a belief amongst many old pigmen that every litter +of pigs is bound to have at least one attack of +diarrhÅ“a ere it is weaned. They look upon it as a +fatality which is certain to eventuate, no matter +what steps may be taken. Of course, this is folly. +The liability of little pigs to an attack of what is +commonly called scouring is great as the causes are +several, amongst them the greatest is perhaps a +chill which may arise from draughts owing to faulty +construction of the sty doors or ventilators neglected; +insufficient, unsuitable, or damp bedding; +neglect of proper sanitation, or the frequent cleaning +out of the sty; and most frequently of all from +injudicious feeding of the sow. In fact, anything +which affects the health of the young pig to any +great extent appears to result in indigestion, which +causes constipation, and this in turn nature endeavours +to remove by a special effort which softens +the fæces somewhat. On removal of the cause of +the constipation, the bowels perform their duty +normally, but if this be not removed the result is +diarrhÅ“a, which again if continued for any length of +time often becomes dysentery, when the fever is +acute; the pigling neglects its mother's teat, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +instead sucks up any moisture however foul which +it can find in the sty. This is almost invariably a +precursor of death.</p> + +<p>From the above it will be gathered that prevention +is better than cure. In case of an attack, +the first thing is to discover the cause, and the +second is to remove it, when, generally speaking, the +trouble ceases. As a help to this end, depriving the +sow of one meal is recommended. Coal, cinders, or +even earth will be readily eaten by the young +pigs and prove of benefit. Medicine is not often +required if the steps recommended are promptly +taken.</p> + +<p>In our earlier days hog's madder was the common +medicine used with pigs for most ailments, but of +late years sulphur appears to have taken its place. +It is less violent than castor oil, which is apt to +cause constipation of the bowels after its first effect +has passed off.</p> + +<p>The soreness of the tails, which if not attended +to generally results in the pig becoming bob-tailed, +appears most generally in damp and cold +weather, and is the result of impaired circulation of +the blood. The cure is simple. The application of +fat or oil as soon as the tail becomes red and cold, +twice per day, and continued for two or three days +will almost always result in a cure. For some years +we used boro-glyceride, a compound, we believe, of +boracic acid and glycerine, but we are not certain +that it is now procurable.</p> + +<p>The third of the common troubles of the young +pig is fits of an apoplectic and epileptic character. +As a rule the shortest, thickest, and fattest pigs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +the litter are those which are affected. This points +to the chief cause, too much food in the form of +mother's milk. A reduction in the quantity of the +food fed to the sow will generally be effectual, +except when the pigs are old enough to eat. Then +both the quantity and the quality of the food given +to them should be reduced. Prompt removal of +the cause is usually sufficient, but it may be necessary +to mix a little medicine in the food in persistent +cases, or when remedial measures are not promptly +taken. The ordinary symptoms are unmistakable, +the pig falls on its side, struggles and gasps for +breath, then in a minute or two it rises and appears +to be little the worse. Unless continued over a +period, fits are not usually fatal.</p> + +<p>Very occasionally young pigs suffer from the protrusion +of the rectum, or as it is commonly termed +"shooting of the gut." This is due to various +causes which result in straining. Of these constipation +and diarrhÅ“a are the two most common. As +soon as the protrusion of the gut is noticeable, the +enlargement should be carefully washed, then oiled +and gently pressed back into its natural position. +Some pigmen advise the dusting of flour on to the +protruded portion before it is returned, but there is +a risk of increasing the amount of inflammation +which is generally present. If known the original +cause of the trouble should be removed, but in +any case it is advisable not to give any solid +food to the pig for two or three days after the +operation.</p> + +<p>Still another of the troubles to which pig flesh is +heir is hernia, or rupture. This is of two kinds,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +umbilical and scrotum. The former is the escape of +a portion of the bowels through an imperfectly +closed navel opening, whilst the latter shows itself +in an enlargement of the scrotum or purse due to +an escape into it of a portion of the abdominal +contents. Both of these ailments are considered to +be hereditary, but the most common and the most +troublesome is the latter, since there is always a +chance of strangulation of the escaped portions, +which nearly always results in death.</p> + +<p>At one time it was considered to be inadvisable +to castrate the boar pigs affected, but of late years +the plan has been adopted of making only one incision +in the scrotum in place of two, and making +that one as high as possible. Then after the operation +is performed, the aperture is sown up. The pig +should be fed lightly for a day or two in order to +give time for the healing of the wound.</p> + +<p>Umbilical hernia is not generally of much importance, +the navel opening gradually closes as the +pig grows stronger and the enlargement disappears. +It is advisable not to breed from a sow pig which +has been affected, nor to continue to use a boar +which has begotten ruptured pigs, as both failings +are hereditary.</p> + +<p>For a time at least, there is certain to be a difficulty +in obtaining a full supply of sharps, even of +the greatly reduced feeding value of the present +quantity available. It may, therefore, be advisable +to refer to another system of feeding the suckling +sow and the young pigs. It is now perforce being +generally adopted, but the result is not generally +considered to be equal to the old system recommended.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +It is that of feeding pigs of the kind +mentioned on vegetable food, and a mixture of +palm nut, cocoa nut, ground nut, or linseed cake. +The proportions fed at the Cambridge University +Farm are mangolds 20 lbs.; a mixture of two parts +palm nut cake, and one part cocoa nut cake, 2 lbs.; +linseed cake, 2 lbs.; and ground nut cake, 1 lb. +The two former were fed in the morning and evening, +and the other two at midday. The various +cakes seem to have been fed in a dry condition, but +other pig feeders have found it beneficial to soak +the cake in water for some twelve hours. This view +seems to have received support from the practice +at Cambridge, which was to mix the cake with the +cut mangolds twenty-four hours before being fed +to the pigs so that at least a portion of the cake +would become softened by the mangold juice. +Almost any kind of vegetable matter containing a +fair amount of nutrition would be equally as suitable +as mangold, indeed more so during the period +from October to April. In the winter months +cooked potatoes; kohl rabi, swedes, parsnips, +cabbages, artichokes, etc., fed raw; and in the +summer grass, lucerne, clover, vetches, rape, or +almost any kind of vegetable food will be readily +eaten by the pigs. Even where the wasteful practice +of peeling the potatoes before being cooked for +the household is still followed (and just how wasteful +this old-fashioned plan is has been lately proved +to be a loss of nearly one quarter of the nutriment)—it +is advisable to boil the parings and then mix +the whole with the pig's food.</p> + +<p>It cannot be too strongly impressed on pig<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +keepers that a certain proportion of vegetable food +is most beneficial for pigs of all ages, as not only is +a saving in cost effected, but the pigs will continue +in a more healthy condition than when fed solely +on meal or other concentrated food.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F80" id="Figure_F80"></a> +<a href="images/imagep080_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep080_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="358" alt="LARGE WHITE BOAR." +title="LARGE WHITE BOAR." /></a> +<span class="caption">LARGE WHITE BOAR. +<br /> +The property of the Author. The Winner of many Prizes. +<br /> +To face page 80.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F81" id="Figure_F81"></a> +<a href="images/imagep081_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep081_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="326" alt="TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES."" +title="TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES."" /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i> +<br /> +TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES."</span> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER X +<br /> +WEANING PIGS</h3> + + +<p>There are few points in connection with the breeding +and feeding of pigs on which there is a greater +diversity of opinion and practice than on the question +of the weaning of the young pigs.</p> + +<p>For instance, take the age at which it is most +satisfactory to take the pigs off the sow. This +practice varies greatly in different districts, and +even in the same district where one would naturally +suppose that the determining influences would be +similar weaning at five or six weeks old.</p> + +<p>One pig breeder will declare that a little pig of +five or six weeks old should be and is able to support +itself alone, and will act accordingly. Should perchance +a litter weaned thus early cease to grow the +excuses made will be various.</p> + +<p>The weather is at fault, it is either too hot or too +cold, or the sharps, etc., on which they have been +fed were not good or sweet, that the sow's milk was +not sufficiently plentiful, or it was wanting in +nutriment. In fact, any excuse will be made rather +than the actual cause admitted.</p> + +<p>In far too many instances the real reason for the +want of thrift on the part of the young pigs taken +from their mother when they are not more than five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +or six weeks old is that their digestive organs are +not sufficiently developed as to enable them to +digest enough food to nourish them properly.</p> + +<p>Another excuse often made for what we consider +to be undue haste in weaning young pigs is the alleged +desire of the owner not to waste the time of the sow. +He is anxious to have her served again and hasten +the arrival of the next litter.</p> + +<p>Occasionally it is found to be unnecessary to wean +the pigs for this purpose as the sow will come in +heat and can be served by the boar, but if she should +become in pig the result will be much the same so +far as the pigs are concerned, since as soon as the +sow has conceived the milk will promptly cease or +become very reduced in quantity and quality.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, if the sow does not stand to +the boar time may be wasted. It is most unlikely +that the sow will again become in heat for some three +weeks, whereas this almost always occurs within a +few days of the weaning of the litter of pigs.</p> + +<p>Then another extreme, and one which is practised +by some pig breeders, is to allow the young pigs to +remain on the sow until the former are from ten to +twelve weeks old. It is claimed for this practice +that the young pigs grow much faster when left on +the sow than when weaned, and that less food is +consumed for a live weight increase from a given +quantity of food. Also, it is said that food of more +inferior kind can be fed to the sow than could be +fed to the pigs if they were weaned, and thus the +sow and litter are kept at less expense, and that if +the pigs are not weaned until nearly three months, +the milk of the sow will have gradually ceased to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +flow, and the pigs will not miss the help from their +dam. Their digestive organs will then have become +sufficiently developed to enable them to make the +best use of the food given to them, and they will +sustain no check in thrift or growth when they are +weaned.</p> + +<p>In this question of weaning pigs the good old +fashioned plan of following the middle course will +probably be found to be the best. Anyway, it was +the one which we followed for a great number of +years and found the results generally satisfactory +for the following among other reasons.</p> + +<p>As a breeder of pure bred pigs for sale as boars or +yelts for breeding purposes, we were naturally +anxious to give the pigs a good start in life so that +we should be able to sell them as quickly as possible, +and that they should thrive when they came into +the possession of their new owners, and thus prove +the best possible advertisement of our herds. As a +rule we found that if the pigs were allowed to remain +on the sows until they were some eight weeks +old they were quite strong enough to fend for +themselves, that by gradually increasing the length +of time which the sow was allowed to remain from +the pigs, the latter became accustomed to exist +without the mother's milk, and as the milk of the +sow naturally dried up when the pigs partially +ceased to withdraw it, no trouble was experienced +with inflamed udders as is usually or commonly the +case when the pigs are suddenly weaned from a sow +which is in full milk.</p> + +<p>There is also another advantage apart from that +to the sow and pigs, it is that the sow will almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +invariably come in heat within three or four days +of the weaning, and with the best possible chance +of becoming in pig.</p> + +<p>Some pig keepers are more inclined to wean their +litter of pigs at an early age, and then if the sow be +low in condition to baulk her at the first time of +Å“strum. There are objections to this—one of them +is that there is frequently a difficulty in getting the +sow to conceive after she has been baulked. Why +this should be so we have not been able to ascertain. +We only record what we know to be a fact.</p> + +<p>In our opinion this difficulty is one of the strongest +points in favour of the practice of allowing the +young pigs of a sow with her first litter, or of an old +sow which has become low in condition (either from +having had too many pigs left on her, or from other +natural cause), to remain on the sow for a longer +period than about eight weeks. Some persons will +keep the pigs on the sow until they are nearly three +months old in the belief that both sow and pigs are +benefited, and that the pigs can be kept quite as +cheaply if not more so when unweaned than weaned. +They also claim that the sow is so much stronger +and better fitted to prepare for another litter. +Experiments have been carried out in the United +States which go far to prove that the first of these +two claims is founded on fact; and it has further +been demonstrated that certain foods can be fed to +the sow without affecting the thrift and health of +the pigs which could not with safety be fed to the +latter direct, yet when fed through the sow the +pigs will thrive on the milk produced therefrom. It +is entirely a question of the cost of a rest for the sow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +during the extra two or three weeks, and the benefit +to the sow and her pigs.</p> + +<p>One occasionally sees in the press a claim for +what is considered to be a great achievement in that +some one has bred three litters of pigs from one sow +within the year. There really is something wonderful +in this since of the fifty-two weeks constituting +a year, the sow would be carrying her pigs some +forty-eight weeks. This would allow only four +weeks for the two litters of pigs to be suckled, and +this would also include the few days between the +pigs being weaned and the sow coming in heat. +Apart from the natural difficulty of successfully +breeding three litters of pigs from one sow within +twelve months, there exists a far greater possibility +of loss rather than of gain from unduly hurrying +on the arrival of each litter of pigs from a sow, +especially of the profitable kind of sow.</p> + +<p>Some forty years since when Small Whites, Small +Blacks, and short thick Berkshires were fashionable, +the number of pigs in each litter was few, and the +number reared still fewer, owing to the limited +quantity of milk furnished by the sow. Now, the +Large Black, the Large White, the Middle White, the +Lincolnshire Curly Coat, the old Gloucester Spots, +the Tamworth, the Cumberland, and even the sows +of most of the local breeds of pigs are expected to +rear nine or ten pigs each litter. Even if it were +possible for a sow to bring forth three litters within +the year, she could not possibly do justice to them +either before or after the piglings arrived in this +world; and further, the life of such a sow would of +necessity be a short one. It must not be forgotten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +that in the production of each litter of pigs the sow +is compelled to manufacture from 20 to 30 lbs. of +flesh, skin, hair, etc., which together constitute the +newly farrowed pig, and very frequently this has +to be accomplished on a far too limited supply of +suitable food.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F96" id="Figure_F96"></a> +<a href="images/imagep096_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep096_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="302" alt="MIDDLE WHITE SOW." +title="MIDDLE WHITE SOW." /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>From a Painting by Wippell.</i> +<br /> +MIDDLE WHITE SOW. +<br /> +To face page 96.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F97" id="Figure_F97"></a> +<a href="images/imagep097_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep097_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="320" alt="CUMBERLAND SOW." +title="CUMBERLAND SOW." /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Block kindly supplied by Cumberland Pig Breeders' Association, Carlisle.</i> +<br /> +CUMBERLAND SOW. +<br /> +Owned by Mr. Carr, Kirkbride, Carlisle.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XI +<br /> +THE REARING OF YOUNG PIGS</h3> + + +<p>One of the most important points in the profitable +raising of stock is to give the animals a good start +in their earliest days. There is an old and true +saying amongst shepherds that the best and most +profitable sheep are those which have never lost +their lamb fat. It may with equal truth be +declared that the most profitable pig is the one +which has a good start when on its mother, +and never afterwards lacks suitable food, judiciously +given.</p> + +<p>At frequent intervals, the question as to the +number of pigs which a sow should have left on her +to rear is the subject of discussion in the press. At +each of these periods very similar arguments for and +against large litters are used with much the same +inconclusive results. This probably arises to a great +extent from the varying conditions under which the +particular litter of pigs is to be reared. The time of +year has a vast influence, a sow farrowing in May +will more successfully rear a dozen pigs than she +would bring up ten if they were farrowed in the +month of October.</p> + +<p>The age and condition of the sow should also be +considered. A young sow of about twelve months<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +should not have more than seven or eight pigs left +on her to rear, whereas with her succeeding litters +until she is at least four years old she would rear at +least ten pigs each litter. After the sow has reached +the age of about four years, if that time has been +fully employed in her maternal duties, she becomes +gradually less able to rear so large a number of pigs +with an equal amount of success. It is then advisable +to vary the number according to the season, +and to the physical condition of the sow; generally +speaking an aged sow will bring up more +pigs in the summer months than in the colder +months.</p> + +<p>Reference is made elsewhere to the manner in +which the young pigs should be cared for until they +are weaned from their dam, but no harm can arise +from a repetition of the advice that the young pigs +should be so managed and fed that only the very +slightest difference will be noticed by the youngsters +when parted from their mother. Many pigs are +permanently checked in growth by being suddenly +deprived of a full supply of mother's milk if weaned +when their digestive organs are insufficiently developed +as to treat a sufficiency of food to make +growth and progress without the assistance received +from their mother's milk.</p> + +<p>Opinions differ as to the age at which little pigs +are sufficiently developed as to exist and thrive +without their dam's help. Here again the time of +the year, not only as far as the weather is concerned, +but the desirability of prompt or deferred remating +of the sow in order that her succeeding litters should +arrive during the most favourable portions of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +year, must be considered. The thrift and growth of +each litter of pigs varies greatly. The health of the +sow, her condition before farrowing, and other +causes, some of which are not always on the surface, +have their influence, but it may be taken as a rule +that young pigs are fully able to fend for themselves +by the time they are eight weeks old. Should it be +possible to allow the pigs to remain on the sow for +so long a time as twelve weeks without prejudicing +the next litters as to the time of year of their arrival, +the pigs may benefit, and no loss of food will be +sustained, since it has been clearly proved that pigs +beyond the age of eight weeks can be fed quite as +economically, if not more so, on the sow than if +weaned. It may also be possible to feed the sow on +somewhat coarser and less expensive food than +could be satisfactorily fed to the young pigs, as her +digestive organs would be better able to treat the +coarser food. Another advantage generally follows +keeping the pigs for a longer time on the sow if the +latter be well fed is that she will be in a stronger +and better condition to start the building up of her +next litter.</p> + +<p>As a rule young pigs will commence to eat when +they are from three to four weeks old. If the sow is +fed in the sty in which the little pigs are, these will +endeavour to share in the food; at first they may +content themselves with licking any food which +may be outside the trough, but they quickly show a +desire for more, and attempt to get into the trough. +When this is evident, it is advisable to feed the +little pigs apart from the sow; a low flat trough is +best, as one with high sides is said to cause "high<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +backed" pigs, or pigs suffering from a curvature of +the spine. If a little milk can be obtained, the pigs +will promptly drink it, if the milk be whole they will +thrive best, but even if only skim or separated milk +be obtainable, or butter milk, providing that it be +drawn off ere the salt is put into the churn, a small +quantity will be beneficial, but the pigs will not be +able to digest so large a quantity of the separated +as of the whole milk. The former is apt to have a +constipating effect on the bowels of the youngsters. +Should an ample supply of separated milk be available +it can be fed through the sow, who will be +better able to digest it, and whose yield of milk will +be increased, provided that sufficient separated +milk to affect her bowels be not given to her. A +few kernels of wheat or white peas will be readily +eaten by the little pigs, which will benefit therefrom.</p> + +<p>If no other food is available, sharps, or whatever +the local term for the finer miller's offals may be, +mixed with a little warm water and fed to the piglings, +will prove beneficial, care being taken to give +only so much as the pigs will eat up readily, or that +any surplus is taken away, so that it does not become +sour, as in this last condition it will cause +diarrhÅ“a in the young pigs.</p> + +<p>When the pigs are about six weeks old the sow +can be allowed to remain from them for a longer +time, and the youngsters fed two or three times each +day. The sow's milk will then gradually dry up, +and the pigs will become accustomed to the food, +so that when the latter are about eight weeks old +they will have become weaned naturally, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +receive no check from the loss of the sow's milk. +This system, will also prevent any trouble arising +from the collection of milk in the sow's udder, and +the occasional attacks of inflammation or garget +which follow a chill to the sow when her udder is in +an inflamed condition from being closely impacted +with milk.</p> + +<p>Assuming that the economical and beneficial +practice of supplying the suckling sow with vegetable +food of some kind after the pigs are some three or +four weeks old has been adopted, the pigs will have +become accustomed to its consumption. It will be +found to be advisable to continue this whether it +has taken the form of cooked potatoes, of mangolds, +swedes, kohl rabi, cabbages, artichokes, etc., as +not only will the food bill be reduced, as the pigs +will make equal growth and thrift on food containing +say ten per cent of vegetable matter as they will if +fed wholly on sharps, but the vegetable food will +have a beneficial effect on the health of the pigs, and +tend to prevent those attacks of constipation and +diarrhÅ“a which are so frequently the result of food +of too rich a character.</p> + +<p>Of the vegetable foods, cooked potatoes and raw +artichokes are the most nourishing and the most +readily eaten, lucerne and clover in a green state +come next in food value and favouritism with the +pigs; cabbages are credited with causing constipation +when fed to young pigs, whilst mangolds are +said to have the opposite effect, and in addition +when grown on light land by the aid of artificial +manure mangolds are apt to affect the kidneys and +cause excessive urination. Kohl rabi are not so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +much used in the feeding of pigs as would +be advisable. They are easily grown and will +take the place of swedes on land on which swedes +are subject to mildew; they are very nutritious, +and are readily eaten by both old and young +pigs.</p> + +<p>Coleseed is not used in the feeding of pigs in this +country to anything approaching the same extent as +in Canada and the United States; its value and +results are of a very similar character to those of +cabbages. Tares or vetches contain too large a +proportion of water for young pigs, and they also +have a tendency to cause looseness of the bowels. +The growth of maize for feeding to pigs in a green +state has been recommended by some writers, but +in practice we found it most unsuitable for young +pigs, and of little value for aged pigs, owing to the +small proportion of nourishment contained in it in +comparison with its bulk. Further, pigs both old +and young will refuse to eat it unless driven by +hunger. It is needless to remark that no pigs, +especially young ones, will thrive under such conditions.</p> + +<p>One of the most common mistakes made by pig +feeders is allowing too long a time to pass between +feeding times. Twice or three times per day is considered +to be quite frequent enough, whereas prior +to their being weaned the pigs would have had a +meal wellnigh each two hours both day and night. +Infrequent meals result in the pigs becoming so +hungry that they bolt their food, and a greater +quantity than is desirable, and then suffer from +indigestion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p> + +<p>It must also be remembered that the pig's capacity +for storing food is very small, especially as compared +with some others of our domesticated animals. +Four or five meals per day at least should be given +to newly weaned pigs. That most troublesome of +ailments commonly termed cramp more generally +results from injudicious feeding than from all other +causes combined. Even when the young pigs are +properly fed on suitable food there is a tendency in +some little pigs to attacks of cramp. One of the +best preventatives and even remedies is to compel +the pigs to leave their nests late in the evening or +prior to the pigman retiring for the night, as they +will then relieve the bowels and bladder. Otherwise, +particularly in cold weather, the pigs would +remain quiescent in their nests from feeding time +in the afternoon until they were fed the following +morning, or in winter a period of some fifteen or +sixteen hours—far too long a time for the good +health of the young pigs.</p> + +<p>Another point which requires attention is the +provision of a dry bed. Pigs are naturally +clean animals, and will not as a rule foul their +bed when they are in a healthy state. Still +the straw will in winter time become damp solely +from the moisture thrown off by the pigs when +huddled together in their nest. All damp litter +should be carefully removed at least once each +day.</p> + +<p>The best of all materials for the bedding of pigs +is wheat straw. This will absorb a larger amount +of moisture than any other kind of straw, whilst the +skin and hair of the pigs will remain of a brighter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +colour than if bedded on oat or barley straw. Of +these two, the former is more suitable than the latter, +which so readily becomes damp and foul. In those +parts of the country where comparatively little +corn is grown, sawdust and wood shavings are +commonly used for litter for pigs. So far as the comfort +of the pigs is concerned there is little difference +as compared with straw with regard to pigs of all +ages in the warmer weather, but in the winter little +pigs suffer, as they are unable to make the warm +nest which straw enables them to make and +enjoy.</p> + +<p>When peat moss was first introduced it was +strongly recommended for the bedding of pigs. It +was claimed for it that it was a far better absorbent +of moisture than sawdust, and that its manurial +value was much greater. It is probable that both +claims are founded on fact, as sawdust is of comparatively +no value as a manure. But there exists +one serious objection to the use of peat moss as +litter for young pigs. It is that the pigs are +given to eat it, that it causes severe attacks of +indigestion, and often the death of the pig eating +it.</p> + +<p>Of late years the spaying of the sow pigs has +ceased to be general. The causes of this neglect +may be several, amongst them the dislike of trouble, +but perhaps the main reason is that the so-called +store period of the pig's life is now so much shorter +than in the olden days, and consequently the +loss of food, and the risk of the arrival of +unexpected litters of pigs are less, from the repeated +periods of heat, indeed under the present<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +or recent conditions of pig keeping a large proportion +of the pigs are killed ere they have +become sufficiently developed to be troublesome in +this respect.</p> + +<p>Still, there is little doubt that the castrating and +spaying of young pigs at about the age of six weeks, +or before they have been weaned from the sow is +advisable and the cost of the operation is well repaid. +An unspayed sow pig becomes a nuisance in +company with other pigs, and when it is put up to +fatten will make no progress on some three or four +days during each three weeks when she ordinarily +becomes in heat.</p> + +<p>In addition to her own waste of time she will, if +penned with others, be continually worrying her +mates and preventing them from resting and thriving.</p> + +<p>Until recently another objection was taken to the +unspayed sow pig, it was that if she were killed +during the period of Å“strum that great difficulty +would be experienced in curing the meat properly, +and that signs of her heated condition would be +noticed in the mammary glands in the form of +dark globules of what was considered to be blood, +but investigation carried out at the University Farm +at Cambridge by Messrs. Russell and Kenneth +Mackensie have proved that the discoloration and +the consequent loss in value of a certain portion of +the belly of a side of bacon is not due to the pig +having been in a state of heat at the time of its +slaughter, but to an excess of pigment, noticeable +only amongst coloured pigs. Thus, the globules +would be of a dark colour when the bacon was from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +a pig of a black colour, and red from the pigs of the +Tamworth breed. This shows another cause of the +marked preference of the bacon curers for pigs of a +white colour in the manufacture of the highest +priced bacon.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XII +<br /> +HOUSING OF PIGS</h3> + + +<p>In the general management of pigs there are many +points on which improvements might be effected +without any very considerable amount of trouble +or expense. Far too frequently this neglect or want +of care and thought is observable in the housing of +pigs. Many of the sties in the country districts are +neither wind nor water tight, and they are far too +often in a most unsanitary condition, indeed in +such a disgraceful state that some excuse was +afforded for the drastic, if injudicious order of the +sanitary authorities which prohibited the erection +of a pigsty within from sixty to one hundred feet +of a dwelling house. Undoubtedly it would have +been wiser to have permitted the keeping of pigs +within a much shorter distance of the house only so +long as the necessary steps were taken to prevent a +nuisance or a risk of the residents in the house +suffering in health. The proximity of a pigsty to a +house can be rendered perfectly innocuous with +ordinary care, and the cottager not be deprived of +very considerable advantages not only in making a +profit, but in the provision of manure for his allotment +or garden which will benefit greatly from its +application.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> + +<p>The mistakes or want of care in the erection of +pigsties is by no means confined to the owners of +cottages or small holdings, as a considerable proportion +of the piggeries on which great outlay is +expended are equally as unsuitable if not so insanitary. +Even in so-called model buildings the +piggery has often been the last thing thought of; +the stables, the cow house, etc., have been conveniently +placed for feeding the occupants, for air, +light, and sun, and then the piggery has been placed +in whatever spot may have been left unoccupied, +and as this generally happens to be on the northern +side of the buildings, the unhappy pigs are deprived +of the rays of the sun, which are to them +quite as necessary, if not more so, than to any others +of our domesticated animals.</p> + +<p>This same want of sun, and the exposure to cold +is noticeable in only a lesser degree in those buildings +which comprise a double row of sties with a +passage down the centre, a store and a cooking and +mixing house at one end, and an exercise or feeding +yard adjoining. It matters not whether the building +be placed north or south, or east or west, one +half of the sties have a wrong aspect; even if the +sties facing the west can be said to possess one. +The trouble is still greater with the system of +having a yard attached to each sty. The north or +east wind renders the sties with such an aspect a +most uncomfortable and unhealthy place for young +pigs during more than half the year, whilst older +pigs cannot thrive on the same amount of food as +they would if their quarters were comfortable. +Apart from the waste of food which results from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +these draughty and cold sties, the latter are the +chief cause, with injudicious feeding, of that most +troublesome ailment amongst pigs, rheumatic gout, +or, as it is commonly termed, cramp. How very +draughty and uncomfortable these sties are which +have an open yard attached, and an inlet at all +times usable, can be readily discovered in cold and +windy weather by noticing the position in which +the occupant has made its bed. This will be found +not on the highest part of the sty, which will be +opposite to the opening into the yard, but in the +corner next to the opening, since in this position it +is less exposed to the cold wind which rushes into +the sty through the opening.</p> + +<p>Apart from the unhealthiness to the pigs resulting +from the exposure to draughts it is not apparent +to the writer that any advantage is gained from the +provision of these yards. In many instances they +serve only for an excuse to limit the height of the +sties, as unless these are of a fair height there is a +considerable difficulty in cleaning them out. The +money expended on building the yard would easily +cover the extra cost of raising the side walls of the +pigsty by two feet, and thus not only render it free +from draughts, but also make it far more healthy +and less subject to the extremes of heat and cold.</p> + +<p>The ordinary sty with a yard attached is unhealthy +for a growing or matured pig, but in the +colder weather it is simply cruel for newly born pigs, +of which numbers are annually lost from exposure +or are greatly checked in their growth.</p> + +<p>One of the very best places in which to house +pigs in the experience of the writer was a large barn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +with a thatched roof. This was divided off into +sties by partitions some 4 ft. 6 in. high; owing to +the height of the building the temperature was not +unduly high in the hottest weather nor did the pigs +suffer to any extent during severe weather. These +advantages arose mainly from the slight changes in +temperature, and an abundant supply of uncontaminated +air.</p> + +<p>One of the greatest drawbacks to the majority of +the pigsties is the absence of ventilation without +draught. This trouble is especially noticeable +where the side walls are not more than about 4 ft. +high, whilst the proximity of the roof to the pigs +increases the sufferings of the pigs from the heat +when the weather is excessively hot.</p> + +<p>Some of our most successful pig feeders on a large +scale have found it profitable to erect cheap buildings +very similar to small barns, the side walls +being at least 10 feet high. This will permit of +thorough ventilation, quite free from draughts, +whilst the variations in the temperature will be +comparatively slight. The building being complete +within itself, and entirely used for the pigs, there is +no disturbance of the pigs between the feeding times, +so that the pigs will rest and grow fat. These houses +are most suitable for a number of fattening pigs, +whereas for sows and for young sows smaller sties +or houses are more convenient. These should be at +least 10 ft. square, the front 6 ft. 6 in. high, the +doors divided so that the upper half can be opened +when the weather is favourable; ventilation can +be obtained by hanging or sliding doors just under +the eaves so that the pigs are not affected by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +draught; the floor should be laid with brick and +gradually incline to the front of the building so +that the liquid can run through an aperture in the +lower part of the front wall into a cesspool placed +close to the building. A row of these houses, which +should face to the south, can be more cheaply erected +than a single house, as the wooden partitions between +the houses need not be more than 4 ft. high, +and one of these would take the place of two gables +or ends. Several of the houses which the writer +erected had brick foundations and feather-edged +boarded sides and ends; the roofs were of tiles unpointed, +as in this way the houses were much cooler +in the summer, whilst in the winter the upper +portions of the houses were packed with straw +which still permitted of the escape of the foul air, +yet greatly added to the warmth and comfort of the +building.</p> + +<p>The one thing of all others most needful in the +sty or house for the well doing of pigs is a sufficiency +of pure air without draughts; pigs of even a few +days old will suffer less from cold than from moist +and foul hot air. It is not the most costly building +in which pigs will thrive best, but the one in which +they are the most comfortable and free from the +extremes of heat and cold with a dry bed on which +to rest and be thankful.</p> + +<p>When making a tour of the Agricultural Experiment +Stations and Agricultural Schools in Denmark +some few years since, the writer saw near Aarhuss +what was then a novelty in the form of a two +decker pigsty, i.e. a sty with a sleeping place above—one +could scarcely term it an upstairs room as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +access was gained not by stairs but by an inclined +board with struts of wood fastened across it to give +a firm holding to the pigs as they ascended to the +upper story. The incline was very steep, but the +pigs seemed to have no difficulty in getting up and +down. The advantages claimed for it by the +principal were that the sleeping compartment was +so much cleaner and sweeter; that less straw was +required for bedding, and that the pigs were far +more comfortable and rested better than when +boxed up, especially in the summer season when the +heat in the lower portion was very oppressive. The +feeding took place in the lower portion. It was +stated that nearly the whole of the urine and dung +was deposited below. This was a great advantage +as the moisture ran off at once into the drains, and +the solids were easily cleared out as there was no +litter mixed with them, or the dung could be readily +washed into the drains by water from a hose, which +was used in the summer for the purpose of bathing +or of washing the pigs.</p> + +<p>The chief objection to the plan would be its expense, +as unless the pigsties were in a barn or a +shed already erected for some other purpose the +pigsty would have to be so much higher on the side +walls and consequently more strongly built.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F112" id="Figure_F112"></a> +<a href="images/imagep112_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep112_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="324" alt="LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM."" +title="LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM."" /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i> +<br /> +LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM." +<br /> +To face page 112.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Figure_F113" id="Figure_F113"></a> +<a href="images/imagep113_0001.jpg"><img src="images/imagep113_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="322" alt="LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR." +title="LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR." /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Photo kindly lent by Kenneth MacRae, R.U.A.S., Balmoral, Belfast.</i> +<br /> +LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XIII +<br /> +THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS</h3> + + +<p>When the exhibition of live stock at our numerous +shows became common, a belief sprang up amongst +non-exhibitors that the preparation for show was +most deleterious to the animals shown. It was +also contended that exhibitors were prone to pay +attention, to a far greater extent, to the fancy or +show points of the animals which they bred than +to those utility points which are of infinitely more +importance to the ordinary stock breeder and the +consumer. It was also believed that the feeding or +training which the show stock underwent seriously +affected their procreative powers, and especially so +with the animals of the feminine gender.</p> + +<p>It may at once be frankly admitted that there +existed some ground for the belief that a majority +of the exhibitors did appear to give too great attention +to the claims of the judges who were, in too +many cases, chosen for reasons other than their +knowledge of practical agriculture or the requirements +of the consumers of meat. For so acting, the +exhibitors were not beyond blame, as in the earlier +days of showing, their main object was to win +prizes in order to advertise their stock and so secure +customers for their spare breeding animals. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +actual improvement of the various breeds of stock +did not in those far-off days appear to be of such +vital importance as the world upheaval, of which +the present generation has been the witness, has +proved it to be.</p> + +<p>It may also be fairly claimed that there has been +some slight improvement in the system of feeding +and training followed by the pig exhibitors of to-day. +This is in part due to the fact that the cramming +on rich food and giving little exercise may result in +rendering the show pig in such a state of obesity as +to secure the approval of the non-practical judge, +who is unable to appraise the points of a pig when +in its natural breeding condition, but that to be +able to follow the present system of exhibiting at +several successive shows and even when the bloated +pig is intended to be returned to the breeding pen, +this excessive feeding proved to be a grievous +mistake. It may not be possible to claim that the +over feeding of show animals is a thing of the past, +but there is little doubt that exhibitors of pigs have +become alive to the fact that it is not profitable. +Not only is the expense excessive, but the damage +done to the breeding animals is so great as to render +it inadvisable for any ordinary farmer to follow. +Again, there has of late years been a very considerable +improvement in the pig classification at both +the breeding and the fat stock shows. When the +writer began pig showing, on his own account, fifty +years since, the common classification at most of +the shows was, boar any age, sows any age, and +pens of three breeding pigs, not exceeding nine or in +some cases even twelve months. There were no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +restrictions as to the age of the boar or of the sow, +no condition as to utility, of the sow having at any +time reared a litter of pigs or of being in pig, so +that it was by no means uncommon at even some +of the chief shows to find both boars and sows +appear year after year, having been guiltless of any +attempt to procreate their species, but having been +kept solely for the purpose of winning prizes and +adding to the renown of their owners, if not directly +adding much to their balances at the bank. The +only way in which the continued exhibition of these +old stagers was made profitable was the securing of +customers for breeding stock from the exhibitors, +who in far too many cases were not the breeders of +the winning animals. To so great an extent had +this purchase, frequently from middlemen or dealers +of exhibition pigs, become in the seventies of the +last century, that some of the live stock papers in +the United States took up the cudgels on behalf of +the American breeders of pigs, who had been in the +habit of importing show winners from this country +and plainly asked for the English definition of a +pure bred pig. It was pointed out at a recent show +of the Royal Agricultural Society several winners +shown by one exhibitor were entered as of certain +defined breeds, yet neither age, pedigree, nor name +of breeder was given, the only particulars given in +the show catalogue being the name and address of +the exhibitor, the name of the pig, and the further +statement age and breeder unknown. As our +American cousins asked, how could it be possible +to ensure that a pig was of a certain pure breed +when it was admitted that no knowledge existed of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +the breeding of the animal nor actually of the person +who bred it. This scandal, as it was termed, was +one of the contributing causes of the establishment +of societies for the registration of the pedigrees of +the various types or breeds of pigs.</p> + +<p>Other changes which have been great improvements +have been the limitation of the ages of boars +and sows shown, the requirement that the sow has +within a certain fixed time farrowed a litter of pigs +and that when entered as being in farrow a certificate +of subsequent farrowing shall be furnished ere +the prize money is paid over. The age of the young +boars and sows has also been reduced at most shows +to six months, or the pigs must have been farrowed +in the year of the show. In the good old times the +age of the pigs shown in the classes for pens of two +or three or five, varied from six to twelve months, +and the asserted age given by the exhibitor was +accepted as correct. At many of the important +shows not only are some means of identification +asked for, but the state of the dentition are variously +dealt with; at some shows they are disqualified at +once by the stewards on the certificate of the +veterinary surgeon. It may at once be admitted +that this mode of procedure is very hard on an +honest exhibitor whose pig has for some reason +developed its temporary or permanent teeth abnormally—and +such cases are not unknown—- although +as a rule the various stages in the cutting +of the permanent teeth are very regular, the +majority of the irregularities are also in favour of +the exhibitor, since delayed rather than precocious +development of dentition is the most common.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +Just how imperative it was that some steps should +be taken to prevent mistakes being made in the +ages of young pigs exhibited, many cases could be +cited, but one may suffice where one of the sow pigs +in a pen of five entered in a class for pigs not exceeding +six months actually farrowed a litter of fully +developed pigs in the show yard.</p> + +<p>During the last forty years, great improvements +have been made in the classification for pigs at our +principal Fat Stock shows. The division of breeds +or types has been attended to and the ages of the +pigs in the various classes have been greatly reduced. +For instance, when the writer was judging pigs with +two colleagues at the 1880 show of the Smithfield +Club, there were classes for Small White pigs, not +exceeding nine months; above nine months, and +not exceeding twelve months, and above twelve +months and not exceeding eighteen months. A +more ridiculous classification could not possibly +have been devised since no small white pig would +have paid for fattening after it had become nine +months old. A similar classification existed for +pigs of the Large White breed, for Black breeds, +and for Berkshires. In addition there was a class +for a single pig of any age or breed. The condition +of some of the exhibits in the oldest classes was +most pitiable, they had been stuffed to such an +extent that their life must have been a misery to +them, they were unable to walk any distance, and +to prevent suffocation rollers were used on which to +raise their heads. The only way in which to describe +these unfortunate subjects of man's inhumanity was +as animated bladders of lard.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p> + +<p>At the recent shows of the Smithfield Club, not +only has the age limit been greatly reduced but +classes for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight +have been instituted, in addition to classes for all +the recognised pure breeds of pigs and those of any +cross. Even this great reduction in age has not +been enough to satisfy some of our reformers, as an +endeavour is being made to reduce the limit of +twelve months to nine months, so that in future the +classes will be for pens of two pigs not exceeding +100 lbs. live weight, for pigs not exceeding six +months old and for pigs between six and nine months +old, with certain classes for single pigs under nine +months. It is contended that fat pigs cannot be +profitably kept after they reach the age of nine +months. Another innovation of recent years at the +Smithfield Show has been the establishment of the +so-called slaughter classes. This is probably by +far the greatest improvement of recent years in the +pig section. Classes are provided for pigs not +exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, pigs weighing over +100 lbs. and not exceeding 220 lbs., and for pigs +above 220 lbs. and not exceeding 300 lbs. live +weight. The pigs are first exhibited and judged +alive, then slaughtered and the carcases judged on +their pork merits. There is also one class for pigs +above 160 lbs. and not exceeding 240 lbs. live weight +best suited for the manufacture of bacon. These +various classes have created great interest and have +proved of the greatest educational value.</p> + +<p>Another beneficial effect of the changed conditions +is the elimination from the summer show-yards +of fat sows guiltless of milk and accompanied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +in the pen by half a score of young boars and yelts +of an age varying from three months upwards, and +which together were exhibited in the class for +breeding sows, or breeding sows and pigs. A fine +fat sow which would take kindly to an unlimited +number of adopted youngsters was in those days +almost as valuable as a small gold mine. An old +and well-known pigman, Dick by name, assured +the writer that no fewer than sixty-three young +boars and yelts were sold in one year off or when in +company of one well-known sow. At the present +time the pigs shown with a sow must be certified to +be her produce and not to exceed the age of eight +weeks.</p> + +<p>It is at all times difficult to discover the motive +power for certain actions on the part of a human +being. It has been declared that there is an equal +amount of doubt as to the cause of a breeder of +stock wishing to exhibit his animals. Surely this +last assertion is at least of a doubtful character. +What greater proof could a stock breeder give of +his pride in his animals than a burning desire to +expose their good qualities to the public gaze. In +addition to this, few men are entirely free from the +spirit of gambling and this enters into all competitions, +particularly in the show yards. The +winning of prizes with stock may not be quite so +uncertain as the winning of horse races, still, there +is enough of uncertainty to render the judging ring +a centre of great excitement. Some persons will +even contend that the showing of farm stock is not +desirable on the part of young farmers as it is likely +to assume so great a similarity with gambling, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +attending the shows means a neglect of business +and leads to expensive habits. On the other hand, +it cannot be denied that the exhibition of our improved +specimens of stock has been of untold benefit +to both home and foreign stock breeders. Further, +the exportation of our pedigree stock has actually +saved us from semi-starvation during this most +fearful of all wars, as without our improved stock +the native stock of foreign countries could not +possibly have furnished the enormous quantities of +meat which we have had to import.</p> + +<p>It may be that a great many exhibitors of stock +had little or no intention of becoming one when +they first purchased their stock, but on these +proving quite the equal of that possessed by their +neighbour, the desire grew to suggest how good +they were, or in many instances the original entries +have been made in response to a request to support +the local show.</p> + +<p>This may be still another cause for a beginner in +stock breeding exercising extreme care in the +selection of his original stock. Even if the prime +cost be higher than that of ordinary market stock +the extra outlay expended on animals from well-known +breeders, and out of old established herds, +is certain to prove a good investment. There is just +as great difference in the different families or strains +of our domestic stock, as there is in the various +human families and of animals, and it may be +probably more true that the vast majority of the +best of them are the descendants of a comparatively +few ancestors. This is evident in almost everyone +of the breeds of our improved stock, it is so in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +thoroughbred and shire horses, and so one might +go through the whole list of domesticated or farm +animals.</p> + +<p>It is therefore desirable that anyone who thinks +of exhibiting his pigs should endeavour first to +discover the particular tribes or families which, in +the past, have furnished a large proportion of the +winners, and then to obtain some of the specimens +of those families which have been successful in the +show yards and in the breeding pen. This combination +is most important, as it does not necessarily +follow that a line of blood which produces +prize winners shall also produce animals which are +not only good in type, character, and form, but +possessed of prolificacy, free milking properties, +and ability to raise large litters. The difficulty of +finding in some of the mere exhibition herds this +most desirable combination is due, in the main, to +the far too frequent neglect of the utility points, +the two aims of the herdsman are in too many +instances the winning of prizes for their employers +and the securing of a percentage of the prize money +for themselves.</p> + +<p>Although there have been attempts made to +impress on outsiders the claim that there exists in +the training of pigs for successful exhibition in our +show yards a large amount of mystery, yet, the +practice is most simple, it consists in the employment +of the greatest possible observation, care, and +attention; without the continual use of these qualities +it is not possible to become a really successful +pigman. In very many instances just that little +extra attention has turned the scales. The one chief<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +qualification on the part of a successful stock man +is the art of taking pains. Unlike most of the other +exhibitors of pigs who exhibited largely over many +years the writer never employed a professional +pigman. The comparatively small number of +pigmen who assisted him to win thousands of prizes +were merely ordinary farm labourers, save in one +case, and he was an old sailor, yet one of the best +feeders and trainers we ever employed. He was +naturally fond of animals and was never tired of +waiting on them and of supplying their needs. It +was once jokingly said of him that, having no +children, he bestowed on the pigs in his care the +love which some other people bestowed on their +children. There is much of truth in the assertion +made by a coloured preacher in the United +States when discussing the want of success of +ordinary pig-keeping in the States, the chief cause +he declared was the absence of love. We would call +it want of natural fondness of animals and an insufficient +determination to render the conditions of +life of the animals in our charge as pleasant and +satisfactory as circumstances will allow. With +regard to the system of rearing and feeding animals +intended for exhibition, nothing more is needed than +the concentrated care and attention which is required +in the successful rearing and feeding of all +commercial animals. A liberal supply of suitable +food, prepared in the most tempting form and +judiciously fed to the pigs in just the quantity +required, as frequently as the pig is able to +thoroughly enjoy it. Little and often is a good +motto for the pig feeder. The more closely we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +adhere to nature, the more successful shall we be. +It is to this, perhaps, that exercise is so specially +necessary for pigs which are being prepared for the +show yard. It is impossible to render a pig perfectly +fit for exhibition at a show, and more particularly at +several successive shows, without plenty of exercise. +Each morning and evening a walk of a distance +varying with the ages, etc., of the pigs is desirable. +Another point to which some professional pigmen +give great prominence is the regular dosing of their +charges with secret medicines. This is not only +unnecessary, but may with breeding animals prove +harmful. A sound healthy pig seldom requires +medicine if it is properly fed and exercised. It is +the over feeding or intense desire of the pigman which +in the majority of cases renders medicine necessary.</p> + +<p>A word of warning against this haste to get the +pig into show condition. This last can only be a +work of time, and the commencement of the process +must be in the early stages of the life of the pig and +be steadily continued until within a few days of the +show. This slight reduction of the food may be +necessary in the summer when the heat is great and +the pigs become restless when travelling boxed up +in a crate in an enclosed truck. Many of the pigs +lost in travelling to or from the shows or soon after +arriving at the shows, have been fed just prior to +being loaded up, because of the difficulty in feeding +them when on the journey. This is an entire mistake; +not only should the pigs not be fed, but prior +to being put into the crates they should be given +just so much exercise as will cause them to evacuate +the bowels, or the bladder. Care in this respect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +and non-exposure to the rays of the sun may not in +every case prevent trouble, but it will most certainly +reduce to a minimum the chance of it. +Should a pig suffer from the heat, cold water should +be applied to the head by means of a sponge or a +cloth, and should some of the water percolate into +the mouth of the pig so much the better.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XIV +<br /> +PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING</h3> + + +<p>As it is impossible to foretell the effect which the +present disastrous war will have upon the pig-breeding +industry, we have deemed it expedient to +refer as briefly as possible to the present conditions +of feeding, etc., which may or may not prove to be +of a temporary character or which may become +permanent in a more or less modified manner.</p> + +<p>One of the results of the scarcity and high market +value of the different articles which have been +commonly used in the feeding of pigs is drawing +greatly increased attention to the original conditions +under which pigs were kept, i.e. when they +were in a wild state or when they were allowed their +partial freedom for the purpose of getting their +own living to a greater or lesser extent.</p> + +<p>We are aware that a claim has been made by +an enthusiastic convert to pig-keeping that in +allowing his pigs their liberty to roam over grass +fields and in woods he is practising quite a novel +course of procedure, but the old hands merely smile +and admire the enthusiasm which is more nearly +allied with youth than old age. The practice may +not have been generally followed of late years, but +in the middle of the last century it was to the writer's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +knowledge common in certain of the Eastern +Counties, particularly in Suffolk and portions of +Essex and Cambridgeshire, where a considerable +acreage of grass and especially clovers was grazed +by pigs, having a greater or lesser quantity of other +food as the pigs were intended for breeding or +fattening purposes.</p> + +<p>Generally speaking, some shelter of a temporary +character was provided failing that furnished by +trees, and straw stacks, etc., but our American +cousins have gone one better in that they have +introduced small movable houses which can be +transported on wheels and can be utilised for a sow +and her pigs, or for a number of stores. In the +former course, an enclosure sufficiently large for the +sow to graze therein is fenced in so that each sow +can be kept separate until the pigs are old enough +to prevent others from robbing them of their birthright. +The chief difficulty attending this system is +not experienced in the United States to the extent +it is in this country, since the general custom there +is to allow each sow to farrow a litter of pigs in the +spring and then to fatten off both sow and pigs, +save those reserved for breeding purposes next +year. This plan, which appears to be wasteful, +also handicaps the owner who desires to improve +his pig stock, since an opportunity is denied him of +discovering the best of his sows and so reserving +them and their produce to form the nucleus of a +really good herd. The system is not an entirely +new one, as it is practised to a great extent in some +parts of Lincolnshire and other Northern counties, +where there is not the excuse made for it in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +States that it avoids the trouble and risk from the +intense cold attending the farrowing of sows in the +winter.</p> + +<p>It may be that the severity of our winters is not +usually great, but the cold, damp and foggy weather +commonly experienced in England during the last +two or three months of the year render it necessary +to warmly house young pigs, and this is difficult in +wooden houses of limited size, as these become hot +and stuffy when entirely closed, or damp and cold +when unclosed. Again, the labour attending the +feeding of a large herd housed in isolated sties must +be very considerable. Another objection raised +against this farrowing of sows in these small houses +is that it is difficult if not impossible at night to +have the pigman in attendance on the sow, further, +that it is not advisable to allow the young pigs to +roam about with their dam until they are some +weeks old, as when the weather is cold or wet they +become chilled and when the sun is hot they quickly +become blistered, both conditions materially interfering +with their well doing.</p> + +<p>It is claimed that both sow and pigs are able to +secure a large portion of their living, but a sow with +a good litter of pigs on her requires a considerable +amount of food in addition to grass to enable her +to do justice to her young, whilst the younger pigs +are unable to digest any quantity of grass until +they are some weeks old; besides this, the youngsters +thrive much better during their early life when +confined in quarters than when trailing about after +the sow. Could we ensure fairly fine weather, and +an absence of cold nights and very changeable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +weather, the little pigs' chances of thriving under +outdoor conditions would be considerably enhanced.</p> + +<p>Another alleged new discovery is the permitting +of pigs to roam at large in woods and plantations, +wooden huts or open sheds being provided as +shelter. By this plan a considerable amount of pig +food is obtained where the trees are not closely +planted, so that grass grows freely, or, in the autumn, +in the woods in which oaks, beech, hazel, or sweet +chestnut form a portion of the trees. In such +woods strong store pigs are able to obtain the major +portion of their food, but where the trees are of a +kind which does not produce nuts or are closely +planted, the additional food must be more plentiful, +whilst the manurial value of the food is wasted to a +considerable extent.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most profitable form of outdoor pig-keeping +is that of running the pigs in orchards. +This system has many advantages, the pigs are able +to live without much additional food for some +months in the year, they consume the insect-affected +fallen fruit, and so act as insecticides. The +pigs also usually leave their droppings under the +trees, which are thus benefited therefrom, and +especially is this the case where the pigs are being +fattened or fed on food which enables them to make +flesh. Many years since, the writer had several +customers for breeding pigs who kept numbers of +pigs in their orchards. One fruit grower in Kent +declared that fattening pigs in his orchard resulted +in the growing of heavier crops of cherries of larger +size, better colour, and finer flavour. Another whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +apple orchard was disappointing followed my +advice to fatten pigs in it, declared that the quantity +of apples grown was much greater, whilst both the +size and quality of these were infinitely better.</p> + +<p>Under the modern system of pig-keeping it is +more profitable to give some additional and concentrated +food to the pigs having their liberty, it is +therefore wise to secure the full benefit arising from +the richer living by running the pigs where the +manure can be utilised, and no better place than an +orchard can be found, since shelter from sun and +wind is furnished by the fruit trees, and the pigs +deposit their urine and excrement in exactly the +place where it is most urgently required.</p> + +<p>The practice of growing considerable areas of +rape or cole seed, artichokes, peas of various kinds, +beans, etc., to be fed off by pigs is not followed +extensively in this country, although pig-keepers in +the United States, Canada, Germany, Denmark, +etc., have a partiality to it, since it is declared to +save labour and to bring the land into a good manurial +condition for the growth of corn crops; still some +few of our more advanced farmers have been in the +habit of grazing off lucerne, clovers, and even permanent +and temporary grasses by the aid of pigs, +which have also received in addition a varying +amount of roots, corn, or meal. It is asserted, and +evidence is available to prove the truth of the statement, +that land can be economically and quickly +and vastly improved by following the system referred +to above. The scarcity and high market +value of miller's offals and of meals such as used in +the past to be utilised to a great extent in the feeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +of pigs, has caused pig-keepers to seek for other +foods to take their place. The residuum from the +crushing of palm nuts, cocoa-nuts, and ground nuts +has been most successfully used in connection with +various forms of vegetable food; even sows have +reared good litters of pigs on about 2 lbs. of a mixture +of the meals remaining from the extraction of the +oil from the nuts mentioned, with the addition of +some form of vegetable food. This last has comprised +cooked potatoes, raw artichokes, mangolds, +kohl rabi, swedes, cabbages, etc., during the winter +months, and grass, lucerne, clover, vetches, cole +seed, etc., during the summer months. Fattening +pigs will require a somewhat larger quantity of +concentrated food and a reduced amount of vegetable +food. The pre-war belief that sharps or middlings +only was the most suitable food for sows with litters +and for newly weaned pigs has been somewhat +modified. Whether or not the quality and price of +middlings will be restored after the war and thus its +use become general as of old, must be left, but it is +probable that in the future a certain proportion of +the meals referred to will continue to be used for +both breeding and fattening pigs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XV +<br /> +PIG-FATTENING</h3> + + +<p>If there be one task which is considered to be within +the capacity of any individual, it is that of feeding a +pig. In the good old times, the one thing needful +was a good supply of barley meal, as much of this +as the pig could possibly eat was placed into its +trough each day until the pig was thought to be fat +enough for slaughter. This was a very simple and +at the same time a very costly process and was +looked upon as the second of the two chief acts in +the life of a pig. The first consisted of building up a +frame on which fat could be stored. Just why +these two processes were not combined has never +been fully explained. One excuse made for this uneconomical +process is that our forbears must have +considered that there must be two distinct periods +in the life of any animal intended for the food of +man, that in which the structure was erected, and +that in which the building was completely furnished +with the material—flesh—in a state which most +nearly satisfied the requirements or fancies of +humanity. The system of first growing the frame +and then packing it with flesh was not alone followed +by the owners of pigs, as it was also adopted with +cattle, which in the good old times passed three or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +four years in a state of semi-starvation ere they +were placed on our best pastures to produce beef. +Sheep, again, spent two or three years in building +up their frames and in the production of a limited +quantity of wool of inferior quality and strength, +before they were considered in a fit state to make +mutton economically. Another excuse which could +have been offered by our forbears, but which is not +now available, is that the cattle, sheep, and pigs of +former times required age before it was possible to +render them sufficiently fat for slaughter.</p> + +<p>The very great improvement which has taken +place during the past half century, in wellnigh every +breed of pig, has deprived our present day pig-breeders +of such an excuse, yet they persist in far +too many instances in following the old-fashioned +and uneconomical system of first growing the pig +and then fatting it, whereas it is not only possible +but infinitely more profitable to combine the two +operations. So many persons have been in the +habit of looking upon the pig as a mere scavenger +or an animal to put out of sight certain articles +containing a small amount of nutriment which, undisposed +of, would become a nuisance or offensive +to one or other of our organs. Even the pig itself +has been considered by many farmers, especially +those termed gentlemen farmers, as a necessary +nuisance, whereas the pig is really a machine for the +conversion of farm produce into meat, and like all +machines, its output will depend entirely on the +quantity and quality of the raw material, and the +manner in which it is supplied. If the raw material +be of inferior quality and supplied irregularly, or in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +too limited quantities, the article manufactured +will be more costly and of an inferior quality. An +extension in the time of manufacture means increased +cost for fuel and for labour in attendance +on the machinery. A certain quantity of fuel is +being continually used in the furnace whether the +engine is running at full power or at half power. It +is exactly the same with the meat making machine, +the pig every day of its existence consumes a certain +quantity of food for which it gives one return only, +its life. It has been conclusively proved that each +pig weighing 100 lbs. requires 2 lbs. of food daily to +enable it to sustain life, i.e. to replace loss of tissue, +to provide heat, progression, etc., so that if a pig +lives six months longer than is actually necessary +to enable it to manufacture a certain weight of +meat, it will have eaten to waste over 3 cwt. of +good food.</p> + +<p>A pig is like unto any other machine, it will produce +the manufactured article most cheaply when +it is fully supplied with the most suitable raw +material. There is not the slightest doubt that the +least costly pork is that which is produced by the +pig which spends its whole time in the object of its +existence, the manufacture of pork.</p> + +<p>There is a further point of great importance. +Wellnigh all those materials which are used in the +feeding of pigs contain the constituents necessary +for the building up of the frame and for the accumulation +of fat or, as it is commonly termed, the making +of meat. Evidently nature intended that the two +operations should be carried on simultaneously. +Those constituents which are required in the building<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +up of the frame cannot be entirely used in the +formation of fat, consequently if the frame is first +built up and then an attempt is made to lay on +flesh, a considerable portion of the building up +constituents are simply wasted, since the pig has +no need for them and cannot make complete use of +them. They simply pass through the pig after +taxing it to digest them, and are wasted.</p> + +<p>Opinions and practices with regard to pig fatting +have changed very much during the past half +century, and especially so since the full effect of the +fearful war has been felt. Rather before the first-mentioned +period, the late Sir John Lawes, whose +researches and experiments have been of lasting +benefit to agriculturists, undertook to carry out +experiments in connection with pig-breeding, and +the result which appears to have impressed itself +most upon the writers of the day was that barley +meal was the best single food for the fatting of pigs. +At the time named, our importations of maize and +of many other materials now used in stock and +especially pig-breeding were not of anything the +magnitude of the period prior to the war, still, it +seems to be strange to the enlightened pig-breeder +of to-day that more serious endeavours should not +have been made to determine the value of a mixed +diet for pigs, since this had been proved to be +beneficial and necessary in the case of human +beings whose organs are so very similar to that of +the despised pig.</p> + +<p>Fortunately for us, and indeed for the stock-keepers +in all parts of the world, experiments in the +feeding of stock have been carried out in various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +countries, Denmark, Sweden, the United States, +Canada, Germany, and indeed in nearly all countries, +save to any great extent in England. In connection +with pigs, the practices of a few of our more intelligent +pig-keepers have been confirmed. Amongst +these ideas which the old-fashioned ones looked upon +as fads, was that of feeding pigs of all ages and +especially fatting pigs on a certain proportion of +vegetable food. Experiments have conclusively +proved that the substitution of some 10 per cent of +vegetable matter in place of an equal amount of +meal or concentrated food, does not result in the +slightest reduction in the live weight gain of the +fatting pig, and further that the old idea that a +limited quantity of vegetable food fed to a fatting +pig tended to render the pork soft and to waste in +the cooking was not founded on fact. Another +fact which has evolved from these experiments is +that the pig will make far greater progress on an +equal amount of a mixture of foods than if fed +solely on one food. This was clearly proved in +many experiments as at the Wisconsin Agricultural +Station, where one lot of pigs was fed on middlings +alone, a second lot on corn meal alone, and a third +lot on a mixture of corn meal and middlings. To +make an increase of 100 lbs. in their live weight, the +pigs in Lot 1 ate 522 lbs. of middlings, those in +Lot 2 ate 537 lbs. of corn meal to make an equal +increase in weight, whilst Lot 3, which were fed on a +mixture of corn meal and middlings, required only +439 lbs., or a saving of one-fifth in the weight of +food. In experiments with regard to the food value +of corn meal and middlings carried out at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +Missouri College, middlings also gave the best +returns, but unfortunately the ages of the pigs used +in the trials are omitted. This is important as middlings +are considered to be of more value in the +feeding of young than of older pigs, whilst the +reverse holds good of corn or maize meal. Other +trials were carried out at Wisconsin with the use of +wheat meal alone as compared with a mixture of +half wheat and half corn meal. In these the average +quantity of wheat meal required for 100 lbs. increased +live weight was 500 lbs., whilst only 485 +lbs. of the mixture of wheat and corn meals was +needed to obtain an equal increase or a saving of +some 5 per cent was obtained by mixing the meals.</p> + +<p>In the good old times it was considered to be the +height of folly to make a change in the food on +which the pigs were being fattened, yet our forbears +would have been horrified had they been informed +that it was imperative that they themselves +should have no variety of food, that day after day +the food at their various meals should be exactly +similar; surely what is good for one animal should +be good for another animal whose organs are of an +exactly similar character. There is not the slightest +doubt that advantage is derived from the variation +in the food on which the pigs are being fattened. +By this, it is not intended to suggest that a complete +change of food should be made at stated times in +the fatting pigs' food, as this would certainly result +in a loss of time and food, but that a slight variation +in the proportions of the different kinds of food is +beneficial, or in the case where several different +kinds of food are being fed as a mixture, another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +kind of food may be substituted so that the change +made secures a variation which has the effect of +whetting or enticing the appetite. A long continuance +of the same kind of food has the effect of +dulling the appetite. In addition to this, it is considered +that a variation in the food tends to stimulate +the digestive organs.</p> + +<p>It is a mistake to allow too long a time to pass +between feeding times; the pig is not endowed by +nature with a capacious paunch which enables it to +stow away a large quantity of food. Even the old +system of feeding twice a day might be improved +upon, and the fatting pig fed three times per day +would make greater thrift, even should the actual +daily quantity of food be not increased.</p> + +<p>Again, so many persons are apt to give to the +fatting pig a greater quantity of food than it requires +or can eat with comfort to itself at one meal. +Should this be pointed out to them, their usual +reply would be that what the pig did not eat for +their breakfast would be there in readiness for the +evening meal unless they ate it during the day, as +they frequently would do. This sounds plausible +until the argument be closely examined. What +would the pigman think if he were treated in a +similar manner and an excessive quantity of food +placed on his plate, and then at the next meals the +stale food be again placed before him until it was +finished? This certainly would not increase his +appetite nor aid his digestion. Yet the most successful +pigman is he who succeeds in so feeding his +charges that they daily eat and thoroughly digest +the greatest amount of food possible. In pig fattening,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +as in many other things, time is money. Further it +is just as much a mistake for fatting pigs as for +human beings to be continually eating, or at irregular +intervals, small quantities of food. The two most +certain indications that a lot of fatting pigs are +thriving is to find that they are asleep and that +their feeding troughs are empty. When pigs are +fed a greater quantity of food than they can eat at +once they will be frequently getting up to eat a +little more of the surplus, and each time they rise +from their bed they will evacuate their bowels, and +in most cases before the major portion of the nutriment +has been extracted.</p> + +<p>Still another of the fallacies of our forbears was +that the fatting pig made the greatest increase +from a given quantity of food when it was at least +approaching maturity and ripeness, or complete +fatness. It was useless to argue with them, since +anyone could see that it was so. If you suggested +the use of the scales, the idea was scouted, since a +person of any experience in pig fatting must be able +to notice the increase in bulk of the pig. It is true +that apparently the pig would be making a greater +increase of weight as it approached the completion +of its fatting process, since the addition to its weight +and bulk would be almost entirely composed of fat +which could only be deposited on the outside of the +carcase. All the vacant space in the interior of the +pig would have been occupied, the pig would have +stored fat away in its muscles, around its kidneys, +on its stomach, its bowels, and wherever it was +possible to stow it away, but these additions to the +weight of the carcase which had been proceeding in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +the early stages of the fatting could not be observed, +nevertheless they were proceeding, and in this was +the pig enabled in its early stage of fatting to make +a profitable return for the food consumed.</p> + +<p>Fortunately we are not left on this point to mere +conjecture; many experiments have clearly proved +that in the early stages of the life of a pig it is +enabled to manufacture pork at a far less cost than +in its later stages of life. The young pig also possesses +over its older companion the great advantage +of being able to eat and utilise a greater quantity of +food in proportion to its weight or, in other words, +the young pig can convert a greater quantity of +raw material into the manufactured article than the +more matured pig, in proportion to the amount of +food required for the mere upkeep of the machinery. +Experiments which most clearly prove this have +been duplicated in Denmark, in the United States, +etc. At Copenhagen nearly seventy different experiments +were carried out with pigs of varying weights, +with the result that pigs weighing about 275 lbs. +live weight were found to require nearly twice as +much food to make an increase in their live weight +as did pigs weighing from 35 to 75 lbs. That this +was not an exceptional case is clearly proved by the +fact that the increase in the amount of food required +to enable them to make an increase in their +live weight was gradual, and shown in every stage; +thus pigs of from 35 to 75 lbs. consumed 376 lbs. +of food for each 100 lbs. increase; pigs of 75 to +115 lbs., 435 lbs.; pigs of 115 to 155 lbs., 466 +lbs.; pigs of 155 lbs. to 195 lbs., 513 lbs.; pigs +of 195 lbs. to 235 lbs., 540 lbs.; pigs of 235 lbs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +to 275 lbs., 614 lbs.; and pigs of 275 lbs. to 315 +lbs., 639 lbs.</p> + +<p>Even if this series of experiments stood alone +they surely would prove most conclusively that the +common belief in old and nearly fat pigs giving the +best return from the food consumed is founded on +fiction, but similar tests were made at many of the +American Experiment Stations, these tests together +numbering some hundred. The results are given in +tabulated form in Henry's <i>Feeds and Feeding</i>, +where the various points are so clearly brought out +that we have taken the liberty of lifting the whole +of the notes relating to "weight, gain, and feed +consumed" by pigs. "At many of our stations, +records of weights and gains of pigs and feed consumed +by them have been so reported as to permit +of studies concerning the influence of increased size +and weight of the animal on the consumption of +food.</p> + +<p>"All of the available data from trials of this character +conducted in this country" (the United +States) "up to the time of going to press, enter +into the composition of the table given below. In +compiling this table, six pounds of skim milk or +twelve pounds of whey are calculated as equal to +one pound of grain, according to the Danish valuation +of these articles. For convenience of study, +the data are presented for each period covering +fifty pounds of growth, the actual average weight +of the pigs, however, being given for each division.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="center">DATA RELATIVE TO FEED, WEIGHT, AND GAIN OF PIGS—MANY AMERICAN STATIONS</p> + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><th align="right">Weight of pigs in pounds.</th><th align="right">Actual Average weight.</th><th align="right">No. of stations reporting.</th><th align="right">Total No. of trials.</th><th align="right">No. of animals fed.</th><th align="right">Average feed eaten per day.</th><th align="right">Feed eaten per 100 lbs. weight.</th><th align="right">Average gain per day.</th><th align="right">Feed for 100 lbs. gain.</th></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">lbs.</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">lbs.</td><td align="right">lbs.</td><td align="right">lbs.</td><td align="right">lbs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 15 to 50</td><td align="right">38</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">41</td><td align="right">174</td><td align="right">2.23</td><td align="right">5.95</td><td align="right">.76</td><td align="right">293</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 50 to 100</td><td align="right">78</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">100</td><td align="right">417</td><td align="right">3.35</td><td align="right">4.32</td><td align="right">.83</td><td align="right">400</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 100 to 150</td><td align="right">128</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">119</td><td align="right">495</td><td align="right">4.79</td><td align="right">3.75</td><td align="right">1.10</td><td align="right">437</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 150 to 200</td><td align="right">174</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">107</td><td align="right">489</td><td align="right">5.91</td><td align="right">3.43</td><td align="right">1.24</td><td align="right">482</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 200 to 250</td><td align="right">226</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">72</td><td align="right">300</td><td align="right">6.57</td><td align="right">2.91</td><td align="right">1.33</td><td align="right">498</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 250 to 300</td><td align="right">271</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">46</td><td align="right">223</td><td align="right">7.40</td><td align="right">2.74</td><td align="right">1.46</td><td align="right">511</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 300 to 350</td><td align="right">320</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">105</td><td align="right">7.50</td><td align="right">2.35</td><td align="right">1.40</td><td align="right">535</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 350 to 400</td><td align="right">378</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">36</td><td align="right">8.52</td><td align="right">2.25</td><td align="right">1.98</td><td align="right">431</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 400 to 450</td><td align="right">429</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">36</td><td align="right">8.18</td><td align="right">1.91</td><td align="right">1.71</td><td align="right">479</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> 450 to 500</td><td align="right">471</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">10.00</td><td align="right">2.12</td><td align="right">1.77</td><td align="right">562</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p> + +<p>"In the above table the large number of trials +reported for pigs weighing up to 350 lbs. each +furnishes reliable data. After this point is reached +the number of animals is too small to give reliable +averages. The heavy weight hogs reported in the +last three lines of the table were fed by the writer +(Professor Henry). They were mature specimens, +with large frames and in lean flesh when feeding +began, having been summered on pasture without +grain. The figures are introduced to show what +may be accomplished with mature hogs when they +are in thin flesh at the beginning of fattening.</p> + +<p>"We learn from the main portion of the table +that from 105 to 435 pigs were employed in calculating +each line of data. The number of trials +furnishing the data varied from 19 to 119, and were +conducted by from 3 to 13 experiment stations.</p> + +<p>"Amount of food consumed daily by the pig. +The sixth column of the table shows the average +amount of feed consumed daily by pigs of different +weights. From it we learn that pigs weighing less +than 50 lbs. each, averaging 38 lbs., consumed on +the average 2.23 lbs. of grain or grain equivalent, +daily. As the animal increased in weight there was +a gradual increase in the amount of food consumed, +until we find the 450 lbs. hog eating 10 lbs. of grain +daily, or more than four times as much as the 50 lbs. +pig.</p> + +<p>"Feed per 100 lbs. live weight: In the seventh +column it is shown that pigs weighing 38 lbs. consumed +5.95 lbs. of feed for each 100 lbs. of live +weight. This is about 6 per cent of their live +weight. As the pigs grew larger they consumed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +less feed for 100 lbs. of live weight, until with the +heaviest hogs the feed consumed was little more +than 2 per cent of their live weight. Here was a +decrease of about two-thirds in the feed consumption +per 100 lbs. between early weight and maturity.</p> + +<p>"Average daily gain: In the next column are +presented data concerning the daily gain of the pig. +It is shown that the 38 lb. pig gained .76 of a lb., +or 2 per cent of its own weight daily. As it increased +in size the pig made larger daily gains, the +maximum being reached with those weighing 271 lbs., +which made a daily gain of 1.46 lb. With large +thin hogs the gain reached 1.98 lb., or practically +2 lbs. per day, but these animals, because of their +mature frames and thin flesh, were fed under exceptional +circumstances.</p> + +<p>"Feed for 100 lbs. of gain: The last column is +of interest to all, especially the practical feeder, for +it teaches a most interesting and important lesson +concerning the feed requirements of pigs. Those +which average 38 lbs. each made 100 lbs. of gain from +293 lbs. of feed. This exceedingly small allowance +of feed for gain was probably due in part to the fact +that the young pigs used in these trials received +much milk, which was practically all digestible, the +other feed being also more highly digestible than +that usually supplied older animals. With pigs +weighing 78 lbs., 400 lbs. of feed were required for +100 lbs. of gain. There was a gradual increase of +feed requirements for 100 lbs. of gain, until the hog +weighing 320 lbs. required 525 lbs. for each 100 lbs. +of gain. This is 135 lbs. or 33 per cent more feed +than was required by the 78 lbs. pig."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p> + +<p>These tables prove most conclusively that the +idea which is almost universally prevalent that the +fatting pig gives the greatest increase for the food +which it consumes when it becomes matured and +nearly fat is an entirely mistaken one, and that the +young and growing pig, if well kept, not only eats +more in proportion to its weight, but gives a better +return for the food it consumes, besides requiring a +smaller amount of food to keep life within itself, +and to replace the certain loss sustained by movement, +etc. There is still another point on which the +young pig scores: its carcase realises a higher price +per lb. on a majority of the markets. The fatting +pig which pays best is one which has a short life +and a merry one, never having to seek or wait for +its food.</p> + +<p>Amongst the many other questions which have +been compelled attention owing to the shortage and +the high value of pig food, is that of the advisability +or the reverse of cooking the food given to pigs. +When the practice of showing stock became fashionable +every possible means of forcing the exhibits +was practised, since early maturity was of so great +importance, especially in the classes for the younger +animals. The cooking of the stronger kinds of food +such as old beans for horses had been found beneficial, +as the risk of fever in the feet and other ailments +had been greatly reduced by this practice. +The stock man naturally concluded that the cooking +or steaming of beans having proved to be of +advantage, similar good results would follow the +steaming of the other kinds of food. In this fanciful +theory they would have been able to find ample<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +support in many of the books on stock feeding +which were published in the first half of the last +century and even later. Like many other novelties, +the steaming or boiling of almost all kinds of food +for animals was followed in the establishments of +well-to-do persons where cost was studied less than +success in the show yards. Then, as now, the +Germans took little for granted, they proceeded to +test the much belauded new plan by attempting to +discover the fact as to whether steaming rendered +hay more digestible when fed to cattle, with the +result that it was clearly proved that when the hay +was fed dry 46 per cent of the protein was digested +by the cattle while only 30 per cent was digested +from the steamed hay. But as our present business +is with pig-feeding, we will confine our remarks to +the results of experiments carried out to test the +effects of cooking the food of pigs. Perhaps the best +summary of these is to be found in the most valuable +work, <i>Feeds and Feeding</i>, by Professor Henry, who +wrote <i>Experiments with Cooked Feed for Pigs</i>.</p> + +<p>These have been so numerous that all cannot be +here presented. Those given are selected because +they are strictly representative, covering a wide +range of country foods and conditions.</p> + +<p>"At the Kansas Agricultural College, Shelton fed +one lot of five pigs on cooked shelled corn, while a +second lot of four, similar in all respects, was given +uncooked shelled corn, the trial lasting ninety days. +In cooking, the corn was placed in a barrel and +water poured over it; into this mass a pipe carried +steam, at a pressure ranging from 30 to 60 lbs. The +kernels were cooked until they were sufficiently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +soft to be easily mashed between the thumb and +finger.</p> + +<p>"At the Iowa Agricultural College, Stalker conducted +trials for 120 days in summer with cooked +and uncooked shelled corn fed to Berkshire pigs.</p> + +<p>"At the Dominion (Canada) Station, Robertson +fed grade Chester Whites, a mixture of ground peas, +barley, and rye, the trials beginning in December +and lasting 141 days.</p> + +<p>"At the Ohio Station, Devol fed pure bred Poland +Chinas and Berkshires for 112 days in winter. One +lot of three pigs received the meal cooked, while to +the second lot it was given dry and uncooked.</p> + +<p>"At the Wisconsin Station, the writer (Henry) +has conducted many trials with cooked and uncooked +feed for pigs. Only the later ones are here +reported. These trials lasted from 56 to 84 days +each, the kinds of feed experimented being given +in the table.</p> + +<p>"The five trials reported from the Wisconsin +Station, as will be seen by consulting the table, are +slightly in favour of cooked food, the difference +being very small, however. These are the only +feeding trials reported from any experiment station, +so far as known to the writer, where the results are +favourable to cooking. Ten other trials by the +writer with cooked and uncooked feed for swine all +gave results unfavourable to cooking these, and a +number of trials at other stations with cooked and +uncooked feed for swine are not included for want +of space."</p> + +<p>A table showing the stations at which the various +experiments were carried out, the numbers and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +weights of the pigs, the varieties of foods, the duration +of the different trials, the daily gain, the weights +of cooked and uncooked food consumed, the manner +of cooking, the total increases in weight and the +quantities of cooked and uncooked food required +for increases of 100 lbs. in the live weights of the +pigs are given. Professor Henry sums these up and +writes: "Including all the trials then, so far as is +known, that have been favourable to cooking feed +and omitting many for lack of space, that are unfavourable +to that operation, the average shows that +476 lbs. of uncooked meal or grain were required +for 100 lbs. of gain with pigs, while after it was +cooked 505 lbs. were required. This shows a loss of +6 per cent of the feeding value of these substances +through cooking."</p> + +<p>Some thirty-five years since the present writer +made some small experiments in the feeding of +cooked and uncooked whole maize; in each case it +was found that the pigs ate a greater quantity of +uncooked than cooked maize, and made a greater +proportionate increase in weight from the food consumed. +Only one opinion appears to be possible, +and this is that the cooking of food for pigs, save +potatoes, entails a loss of time, an increase in cost, +and a reduced return.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XVI +<br /> +A PIG CALENDAR</h3> + + +<p>The pig-keeper, like the gardener, seldom has to +seek for employment, indeed his work may be said +to be only occasionally completed. There are always +many little odd jobs to do, which if neglected may +result in loss, or a greatly increased amount of work +at some later period. The old proverb "A stitch +in time saves nine" is equally as true in connection +with pig keeping as with any other form of +work.</p> + +<p>In years gone by the month of January was considered +to be quite a slack time for pig-keepers, the +sows and the store pigs usually found the greater +part of their living in the yards where the cattle +were fed on the straw which was continually being +placed in the cribs as the old-man-of-the-farm +threshed the corn out of it with his flail. Many of +the cribs had slatted bottoms so that any kernels +of corn which were left in the straw would drop +through and be picked up by the pigs which found +their way under the cribs. In most of the old-fashioned +large yards a corner would be railed off +in which the pigs would be given a few turnips, +swedes, or small potatoes, and occasionally a handful +or two of beans or even a sheaf of beans. Those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +fatting pigs which had not already been converted +into bacon for consumption in the farm-house were +fed mainly on meal ground at the local wind or +water mill from the tail corn grown by the +farmer. At the present time the most up-to-date +pig-keepers so arrange that many of the older sows +farrow during this month of January so that the +sows have their second litter of the year late in the +month of June or early in July in order that both +litters of pigs obtain the greatest amount of benefit +from the growing and hot season, since pigs thrive +best when the days are lengthening and when the +sun shines.</p> + +<p>Of late years we appear to have had somewhat +severe weather in January. This has rendered it +the more necessary that care should be taken in +providing water and wind-tight sties, in which the +sows farrow. Warmth with free ventilation is +needed. The latter is particularly necessary after +the pigs are a few days old, as these do not suffer so +much from cold as they do from damp and draughts. +Of course whilst the sow is farrowing warmth is +imperative, as the moist little pigs when first ejected +very quickly become chilled in severe frost, unless +they are promptly wiped with a dry cloth, allowed a +draught or two of new milk from the sow, and then +placed in a box or hamper three parts filled with +dry wheat straw. When once the pigs become +thoroughly dry the cold does not affect them very +much, providing that the sow furnishes her family +with a full supply of milk. The cost of heating a +little water so that the sow and also the young pigs +as soon as they begin to eat may have warmed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +food, will be slight, as there is nearly always a fire +required in cottage and farm-house during the cold +weather. Warm food makes a vast difference in +the thrift of pigs, especially of young ones. Very +slight observation will reveal the marked difference +in the comfort of a pig which has had a meal of +warm or of cold food. In the former case the pig +will return to its nest and is soon lost in sleep, +whilst the poor beggar which has had its breakfast +on cold and occasionally frozen food will be the +picture of misery and shaking with cold, much of +its natural heat produced from its last meal being +required to warm up the food ere its digestive organs +can commence work. Coal and wood are at all times +less expensive to warm up food than the animal +fat which is burned in nature's lamp.</p> + +<p>Provision should have been made for the supply +of some kind of vegetable food which pigs require, +particularly when in confinement. Kohl rabi, swedes +and cabbages, of which the first named is the best, +are all suitable, but the most nourishing are artichokes, +which like the three former should be fed +raw, and potatoes which should be cooked ere they +are fed to the pigs. The difference in the feeding +value between cooked and uncooked potatoes is +great. It is scarcely necessary to point out that all +vegetable food fed to pigs should have been protected +from frost.</p> + +<p>The operations connected with pig-keeping are +very similar in February to those of the preceding +month. Towards the end of the month kohl rabis +will have lost much of their feeding value. On +sunny days a run out for a few minutes will be of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +great benefit to the young pigs over a month old; +as soon as they cease to gallop about they should +be shut up again, as if allowed to lie down they may +contract a chill which might result in "cramp" or +rheumatism. Sows with litters two or three weeks +old should be allowed out of the sty each morning +and afternoon for a short time.</p> + +<p>The month of March brings with it an extra +amount of work for the pig-keeper, who will now +think of selling the pigs born early in January +unless he purposes to keep them on and have them +ready for sale as fat pigs in harvest time, when +there is always a good demand for medium sized +fat pigs. Anyway the sow pigs intended for breeding +will have been picked out and earmarked, this +last should not be neglected after the others have +been spayed.</p> + +<p>This last operation has of late years been much +neglected; this is a great mistake, as experiments +have clearly proved that on an average sow pigs +which have been spayed will make an equal gain in +live weight on 5 per cent less food than will an +unspayed sow pig, when both have become some +five or six months old, and the periods of Å“strum +have commenced.</p> + +<p>The sows which farrowed in January should now +be weaned from their pigs, and should be ready to +be mated within a few days. The sows should be +carefully watched for the signs of heat or restlessness. +Some sows give little indication of this unrest, +which is almost certain to appear within four or +five days providing the sow is in a healthy and +vigorous condition. To miss the sow means a loss of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +three weeks of most valuable time, besides the risk +of trouble in getting the sow to conceive after she +had been baulked. With the passing of the month +swedes and artichokes will have lost much of their +nourishment; mangolds can now take their place. +It is a good plan to expose the mangolds to the air +for a few days prior to feeding them to the pigs; +this exposure hastens their ripening and reduces +the proportion of water. Of course care must be +taken to prevent them becoming frozen, as in March +this might be the case.</p> + +<p>In the Southern counties tares, lucerne, and grass +are sufficiently forward towards the end of April to +be cut and fed to the pigs which are confined in the +buildings. The pigs both fat and store will fully +repay the cost of labour in the cutting and carting +of these vegetable foods. Brood sows both in pig +and with litters dependent on them, should be allowed +their liberty in the grass fields. This will both +greatly reduce the cost of keep and tend to their +thrift and well doing. Young pigs over a month old +should have a run out both morning and afternoon. +Newly weaned pigs which have been well done are +always in keen request in the months of April and +May at prices higher than in any other portion of +the year, owing to the demand from the cheese-makers +who have a superabundance of whey, of +which 12 lbs. when fed in proper combination is +considered to be equal in value to 1 lb. of meal. +Unfortunately, so many dairymen do not study the +requirements of the pig, and imagine that it will +give a good return from an excess of liquid in the +form of whey. Without some concentrated food<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +the pig will not thrive on whey. Numbers of young +pigs are also required in those districts where +butter-making is carried on to consume the butter +milk, and in ordinary times much of the separated +or skim milk. In the feeding of this again the results +are not so good as they should be owing to neglect. +Both foods have been rendered unbalanced owing +to the extraction of the butter fat, so that although +new milk may be fed alone, the others require +additional food which should contain some oil or +fat to be fed with them, or they cause indigestion +and want of thrift, particularly in young and immature +pigs.</p> + +<p>The roots of all kinds, save potatoes and mangolds, +have ceased to be of much value before April +ends, vetches and lucerne will prove to be the best +of substitutes. Spring cabbages are generally of +more value for human consumption than can be +obtained from their use as pig food. If there be any +grass land available the in-pig sows and the stores, +should there be such, should now find the major +portion of their food out of doors.</p> + +<p>As a rule far too little attention is paid to the +growth of lucerne in this country. It is undoubtedly +one of the most nutritive of our vegetable crops. It +also produces a large weight of food extending over +several months, and continues fruitful for many +years providing attention is paid to the keeping it +free from grasses. It has the additional advantage +of furnishing a full supply of food when the weather +is so dry that grass and some other foods produce +little. It is true that in the initial stage it requires +time and care, but the results from it amply repay<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +both. One of the best seasons for sowing it is the +month of May. The operation is simple, the land +having been cleared the seed is sown in drills about +1 ft. apart, the quantity of seed required being at +the rate of 20 lbs. per acre, say 2 oz. per pole or a +drill 35 yards long. As soon as the plants are high +enough the land should be hand hoed, and if kept free +of weeds a light crop can generally be cut from it +towards the end of August. In the following years +it will produce at least three cuttings annually.</p> + +<p>Some persons are of opinion that as lucerne is +such a deep-rooted plant manure is unnecessary. +It is true that the roots penetrate several feet into +the soil, still an application of short manure or rotted +vegetable matter applied each autumn will give a +good return.</p> + +<p>The chief point in the use of lucerne for pigs and +in the production of a maximum crop is to cut it +when young. The pigs will thrive on it far better in +this state than when the stalks become hard and +sticky. In the latter stage it is likely to cause constipation. +It is best not to graze it with either +horses, cattle, or pigs, but benefit to it results from +folding it in the autumn with ewes or other sheep +which find most of their other food on the stubbles, +commons, heaths, etc.</p> + +<p>All the sows and the yelts intended for breeding +should now spend their whole time out of doors. It +might be noted that lucerne will grow on almost +any kind of land providing it is well drained—stagnant +water destroys it.</p> + +<p>The duties of the pig-keeper are very similar in +the month of June to those of the previous month.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +Prior to the outbreak of war it was becoming general +amongst the most practical pigmen to continue to +fatten pigs all the year round. The old-fashioned +idea that pork was not a suitable food during any +of the months in which there was not the letter "r" +had become exploded. Not only did the bacon +curers require a supply of fat pigs weighing from +200 to 220 lbs. alive, but there was a good demand +from the butchers for small fat pigs weighing from +80 to 140 lbs. alive.</p> + +<p>It must not be forgotten that a smaller quantity +of food is required to produce a pound of pork +during the summer than during the winter months. +This has been clearly proved in many experiments. +The difference varies according to the temperature. +In the very cold weather experienced in some +portions of the United States it was found that +some pigs actually made no increase in weight when +well fed, the whole of the nutriment having to be +utilised in keeping up the bodily warmth of the pigs.</p> + +<p>The months of July and August see little change +in the duties of the attendant on pigs. The old-fashioned +plan of running the pigs on the corn +stubbles has almost gone out of fashion. The improved +system of harvesting the crops leaves less +corn on the land, whilst the cost of labour in keeping +the pigs is almost prohibitive. At one time there +used to be a keen demand for young pigs in the +month of August for so-called "shacking" or running +on the stubbles. Experience has proved that +these pigs pay less frequently under present conditions +than they did under the old ones.</p> + +<p>The scarcity of vegetable food which usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +shows itself in August is now, in September, met to +a considerable extent by the plan of the early +digging of potatoes. Large quantities of chats, and +sometimes of slightly diseased ones are now cooked +and fed to the pigs with a certain proportion of +meal. As a rule there is a keen demand for pork in +the month of September. Towards the end of the +month all pigs should be under shelter at night.</p> + +<p>During the last three months of the year there is +little variation in the management of pigs. One of +the common mistakes made by farmers is to neglect +their pigs in the autumn, at the very season when a +little extra food is needed, and for which the pigs +will give a better return than at almost any time of +the year. The early portion of October is one of the +best periods for mating the sows, the yelts may be +left until the latter part of the month so that their +pigs do not arrive until the month of February +when the days are lengthening and the sun has +more power. It is advisable to have many of +the fat pigs ready for market ere the month of +November ends, as the demand for pork is usually +slack for two or three weeks prior to and after +Christmas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XVII +<br /> +DISEASES OF THE PIG</h3> + + +<p>Fortunately, the pig is subject to comparatively +few serious diseases—save swine fever, swine +erysipelas, and very occasionally anthrax, which +are contagious or infectious, and all in the special +charts of the veterinary department of the Board +of Agriculture, and within the contagious Diseases +Animals Acts. Prior to the stamping out of +Foot and Mouth Disease or apthous fever and +rabies, pigs suffered from these contagious and +infectious diseases, particularly the former of the +two, which caused immense losses, especially of +young pigs, during the latter half of the past +century.</p> + +<p>Of the other ailments to which pig flesh is heir, +the majority and the chief of them are mainly due +to that want of knowledge or care in the feeding +and in the housing of the pigs which renders them +more susceptible to the sudden changes in the +temperature or to the inclemency of the season. +In former chapters some, if not all, of these ailments +have been referred to, but it may be more convenient +to our readers to include in one chapter a +brief description of the ailments and the remedies +and means of prevention.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Swine Fever</span></h4> + +<p>Some thirty years since the losses from this +disease were of so serious a nature that the Board +of Agriculture determined to attempt to stamp it +out, as they had succeeded in stamping out pleura +pneumonia in cattle, and foot and mouth disease. +The success of their efforts was not at all commensurate +with the outlay. The failure was attributed +to many causes; amongst them the want of +a complete knowledge of the disease, the impossibility +of diagnosing it during the life of the patient, +the absence of sympathy on the part of the local +veterinary surgeons owing to certain steps taken +by the then Veterinary Adviser of the Board, to +which further reference is now inadvisable, and to +the general opposition of pig-keepers who had as +little faith in many of the post mortems and their +results as in the power of the authorities to stamp +out the disease which under various names had +been more or less common in the country so long as +they could remember. Doubts were also passed on +the infectivity or contagiousness of swine fever, +or as it was variously termed red soldier, spots, +etc.</p> + +<p>This disbelief was probably due in part to the +fact that some of the external symptoms of swine +fever, swine erysipelas, and heart disease, such as +discoloration of the skin were of a similar character. +In some instances this redness of the skin, +which was looked upon as a sure sign that the pig +had died from swine fever, did not prove to be infectious, +as no other cases followed amongst the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +in-contact pigs. This led to the general belief that +swine fever was not necessarily infectious. Dissatisfaction +with the arbitrary manner in which the +restrictions in movement, etc., were carried out did +not mend matters, nor help to render the efforts of +the Board more successful.</p> + +<p>At the present time it is imperative on the part +of the owner of an ill pig to report the fact to the +nearest policeman. The owner then merely carries +out the instructions supplied to him by the police +so that it is almost unnecessary to state that the +symptoms of swine fever are several. At times the +attack is of so virulent a nature that a pig may +take its food all right in the afternoon and be dead +the next morning, no discoloration of the skin or +other external symptoms being visible before or +immediately after death.</p> + +<p>As a rule when the pig is attacked the first +symptom is loss of appetite, generally accompanied +by a feverish condition of the skin which shows +more or fewer red spots behind the shoulder, and +inside the thighs, or in those portions of the body +where the skin is the thinnest and most free from +hair. The great desire of the affected pig is to +burrow into the litter and to remain undisturbed, +save when the feverish thirst impels it to seek +moisture of any sort or kind, even urine which may +have settled into any unevenness of the floor of the +sty.</p> + +<p>Many of the ailing pigs suffer from a dry, husky +cough, a gummy discharge exudes from the eyes +and forms a ring round them, the ankles become +affected, and the muscles of the back become<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +weakened so that the pig has difficulty in walking. +The discoloration of the skin may or may +not increase, but the weakness gradually becomes +greater so that death may follow within a day or +two from the first attack. Occasionally the affected +pig will continue to live for several days, and +eventually recover so much that it can be fatted, +but there exists a great risk of the recovered pig +being what is termed a "carrier" of the disease, +and possessing the ability to infect other pigs with +which it may come in close contact, although the +germs of the disease which it carries do not affect +its own health. Similar instances of human beings +being "carriers" of the disease have been recorded. +So difficult is it at times to discover the source of +the infection of swine fever that certain persons +who are not amongst the strongest believers in the +practical knowledge of the members of the veterinary +profession assert that swine fever need not necessarily +be the result of infection, but that injudicious +feeding or the neglect of sanitary arrangements will +sometimes cause an outbreak. There does not +appear to be the slightest ground for this belief, as +there is a specific virus which when it obtains ingress +into the body of the pig, whether by the mouth, +nose, or in any other way, may result in an attack, +more or less severe, of swine fever, unless the virus +has become so attenuated that it is unable to +affect the host sufficiently. This attenuation, which +is due to causes which are probably not completely +known, is commonly the cause of the absence of +further cases of swine fever amongst one of a lot of +pigs which has had a very mild attack. This variation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +in the virulence of most infectious diseases has +been noticed and recorded.</p> + +<p>At the present time the Board of Agriculture have +suspended the slaughter order in cases where the +owner of the pigs desires to inoculate the in-contact +pigs with serum which is supplied from the +Veterinary College. The experiment has not been +in operation sufficiently long enough to express a +confident opinion upon its results, but it is stated +that in Denmark the inoculation of the pigs which +have been in contact with diseased pigs has proved +to be a success. The risks of carrying out the +experiment are by no means slight, but appear to +be worth running if there be any great probability +of success.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Swine Erysipelas</span></h4> + +<p>The symptoms of this disease, which fortunately +is not so common as swine fever, owing probably to +its being more fatal and in a shorter time, are very +similar to those of swine fever, save that the husky +cough and the weakness of the muscles of the back +are generally absent. The post mortem shows distinctive +differences from those of swine fever. +There appears to be far greater difficulty in +thoroughly disinfecting the sty in which pigs +suffering from erysipelas have been housed than +after swine fever cases; not only so, but the virus +remains active for a very long period, so that any +accident which may expose the virus even after +many months may affect any pigs with which it +comes in contact.</p> + +<p>In an outbreak of swine erysipelas it is advisable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +to have the unaffected pigs inoculated as well as +those housed in a sty or building in which at any +time pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed. +A certain limited number may die, and a few suffer +for a time, but the total loss will be considerably +reduced.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Anthrax, Foot and Mouth Disease and Rabies</span></h4> + +<p>It may be unnecessary to describe these very +infectious or contagious diseases to which pigs are +subject, as fortunately the steps taken to stamp +them out, and which were much decried when taken +by the Board of Agriculture, have proved so successful +that the two latter are stamped out, and the +first named is so promptly and effectually dealt +with that a case of it amongst swine is seldom recorded.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Cramp, DiarrhÅ“a and Epileptic Fits</span></h4> + +<p>These diseases, which are more frequent amongst +young pigs, have been fully described in the chapters +dealing with the rearing, weaning, and growing of +pigs, where it is pointed out that they are all mainly +due to faults in feeding, and the simple remedies +applicable are there given.</p> + +<p>Hernia and Scrotal Hernia are also treated upon +in the chapter on the Farrowing Sow.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Inversion of the Vagina or the Uterus</span></h4> + +<p>These two troubles, of which the latter is a complete +expulsion and the former only a partial protrusion +of the "breeding bag," are generally the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +result of a difficult or a protracted farrowing. The +second is almost impossible of treatment, and indeed +may be declared as fatal, so that the loss may be +reduced by prompt slaughter.</p> + +<p>The first varies in extent; a partial or limited inversion +may at times be noticeable during the latter +stages of pregnancy, and then after delivery may +disappear without treatment until the pressure due +to the increasing size of the fÅ“tus again causes it. +Even in serious cases which attend the delivery and +are due to excessive straining of the sow, the attack +is not necessarily fatal if extreme care in treatment +is applied. The first thing is to wash the protruding +part with warm water, to which some disinfectant +has been added, in order that all dirt, short straw, +etc., shall be removed. The sow should then be +made to rise, or if she refuses, as is not uncommon, +the hind quarters of the sow should be raised and +the protruding portion be gently but firmly forced +back. In order to prevent a re-expulsion stitches +with strong cord or leather lace should be inserted +into the edges of the vulva—these need not be very +close together or otherwise the sow would be unable +to make water. For a few days the sow must be +kept as quiet as possible and fed on a little nourishing +but laxative food, so that the pressure on the +vagina is slight until the muscles regain their +normal strength. Should there be the slightest +symptom of constipation, salts or castor oil should +be given to the sow. No harm, but rather good, +will attend the giving of a gentle dose of salts at the +first time of feeding after the operation as there is +certain to be an amount of inflammation present.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Inversion of the Rectum</span></h4> + +<p>This expulsion of the gut as it is commonly termed +is not often experienced amongst mature pigs. +Young pigs are not uncommonly affected save when +constipation is neglected, or when the food is of a +heating nature which causes continual difficulty on +the part of the pig in expelling the fæces. The +effort of straining causes the gut to exude. Similar +treatment, save as to the stitching of the part, as +with inversion of the vagina, should be followed.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Tender Feet</span></h4> + +<p>This trouble is frequently mistaken for cramp or +rheumatism, and is generally due to the same causes, +injudicious feeding, etc. In the latter disease the +ankles are mainly affected, in the case of fever in the +feet, the feet only are affected. A strong dose of +Epsom salts should be given and daily doses of +nitre should be given in the food. The object should +be to reduce and remove the fever and then to cure +or remove that tenderness and soreness of the feet +which follows the fever. Poulticing the feet and +applying diluted white oils by adding equal quantities +of water and vinegar around the coronets are +both remedial measures of great value.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Constipation</span></h4> + +<p>This trouble is very common amongst pigs which +are confined to the sties, its avoidance is comparatively +easy, when the want of exercise is the sole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +cause. A run in an enclosure or even in the road +will almost always result in the pig evacuating dung +and water. A dose of salts, varying from 1/2 oz. to +1-1/2 oz. for each pig, according to age, in the next +supply of food is advisable.</p> + +<p>Constipation is usually the first indication of +many of the troubles to which the pig is heir. The +little pig on its mother becomes constipated when +the food fed to the mother is unsuitable, and the +pig suffers from indigestion; fever caused by a +chill is also foretold by constipation which should +be first removed by a gentle dose of salts or of castor +oil; the last only to be used in severe cases. Linseed +oil is also frequently used to relieve the constipation, +but with this there is a fear of billiousness following +its use. If exercise and the above remedies do not +effect a cure, an enema of soap and water or even +glycerine may be necessary. Old-fashioned pigmen +remove the hard and knotty fæces by the aid of the +finger.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Eczema</span></h4> + +<p>This is sometimes called a skin disease, but it +appears to be rather a symptom of a severe attack +of indigestion or of billiousness than a disease in +itself. It shows itself in the form of a bright red +spot, varying in size from that of a threepenny piece +to that of a shilling, these spots vary greatly in +number. Small pimples appear on the spots from +which a sticky fluid exudes. As soon as the bowels +are thoroughly relieved by aperient medicine, the +spots become dark in colour and peel off the skin. +The application of oil to the spots hastens the shedding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +of them. A dose of sulphur of one to eight +drachms in addition to the salts will be beneficial.</p> + +<p>Frequently the pig will refuse to eat, it will then +be necessary to dose it. The pig must be caught, +its head raised and the liquid gently poured down its +throat, the greatest care being taken not to pour +the liquid whilst the pig is squealing or the medicine +will go into the lungs and cause suffocation, or +inflammation of the lungs which will generally prove +fatal.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Measles</span></h4> + +<p>This is a trouble of a very similar character to +eczema save that the red spots are more numerous +and of a more irritating character. The patient is +continually rubbing itself against the wall or any +prominence in an endeavour to relieve the itching. +The pig is also more feverish. The pig should be +placed in a warm sty, with plenty of dry straw, into +which it will quickly burrow. A dose of Epsom +salts to which is added a small quantity of spirit of +nitre should be given, as the pig affected will almost +invariably refuse food for a time. Neat's foot or +sweet oil applied to the spots will relieve the irritation.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Rickets</span></h4> + +<p>This is not by any means a common ailment +amongst pigs, but it is very hereditary. The most +common cause is too close breeding. The bones and +joints appear to be unequal to the performance of +their duties, the pig staggers and stumbles when it +attempts to move, whilst sometimes the back is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +affected, when the pig is stated to be suffering from +"swayback." As a rule treatment is inadvisable +as recovery is doubtful. The first loss by knocking +the pig on the head is generally the least.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Tuberculosis</span></h4> + +<p>Pigs, like unto human beings, are much subject to +tuberculosis when they are kept under conditions +similar to those which result in human beings becoming +affected. The disease is highly infectious, +pigs coming in contact with or even being housed in +sties where pigs affected have been recently kept +are very likely to become infected. Some persons +declare that tuberculosis, or, as it is more commonly +called, consumption, is hereditary. For this there +does not appear to be any foundation. The chief +thing to prevent one's animals being affected is to +keep them away from contagion. Although many +parts of the body may be attacked by tuberculosis, +the lungs are more frequently affected than any +other of the organs, owing probably to the ease +with which infection by the minute germ is conveyed +to the lungs in the act of breathing.</p> + +<p>In the past a considerable number of pigs became +infected through being fed on skim milk which +contained germs from the udder of a cow suffering +from a tuberculous udder. In these cases of the +lungs and the bowels becoming tubercular, the pigs +become unthrifty and frequently waste away and +die. When the bones and other portions of the body +are attacked the development of the disease is not +so rapid, but in any case the wisest plan is to destroy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +the animal and thoroughly disinfect the place in +which it has been kept. Save when the disease is +local and of very limited duration the meat of a pig +suffering from tuberculosis is unfit for human consumption.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Worms</span></h4> + +<p>Pigs are subject to various kinds of worms. Of +these the most serious by far is the worm which +causes the disease called Trichinosis in man. The +worms are transmitted to man in pork from a +diseased pig. Thorough cooking of meat appears to +destroy the vitality of the worm, but in foreign +countries where the pork is eaten in an uncooked or +an undercooked condition the disease is not uncommon. +Fortunately, Trichinosis is almost unknown +in this country, owing to our more stringent +sanitary conditions, the disease being due in the +pig to the eating of human excrement in which are +thread worms.</p> + +<p>The most common kind of pig worm in this +country is the round white worm, pointed at both +ends. Its length varies from one to several inches. +Its presence is often unsuspected until one or more +of the worms are noticed in the dung of the pig. It +is readily got rid of by keeping the pigs from food +for at least twelve hours, and then giving them a +little tempting food in which a dose of santonine, +varying from three to ten grains for each pig, +according to its age, has been added. Some two +hours later a dose of castor oil of from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz., +or of one to two ounces of Epsom salts, should be +given in milk or some other tempting food. Similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +treatment will prove successful in the case of pigs +affected with the smaller kind of worms save that +of the worm which causes what is commonly known +as "husk." This worm makes its home in the windpipe +and bronchial tubes. It is advisable to obtain +from a chemist a drench for the riddance of this +worm, as the remedies will consist of linseed oil, +turpentine, spirits of camphor, and asafÅ“tida.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Sore Teats</span></h4> + +<p>Occasionally the teats of sows, especially sows +with their first litters, become chapped or sore. +This trouble is frequently due to the too vigorous +sucking of the little pigs when the supply of milk is +short, to the biting of the teats when the sharp +little teeth have not been broken off, or even to +cold winds.</p> + +<p>An application of boro-glyceride will usually +effect a speedy cure. In persistent cases it will be +advisable to give the sow a dose or two of opening +medicine such as salts or sulphur.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Salt and Soda Poisoning</span></h4> + +<p>Although these can scarcely be classed as diseases, +the effects are often more serious than those of some +actual diseases to which swine are more or less subject.</p> + +<p>In the majority of cases the cause is the neglect +of the cook to keep separate from the swill the +water in which salted meat or other food has been +boiled, or the water to which soda has been added<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +in the washing of the plates, etc. An attack if at +all severe is usually fatal.</p> + +<p>The symptoms are a discoloration of the skin, and +a refusal of food. As these are the usual symptoms +of several other ailments, it is difficult to determine +the cause of death save by a post-mortem examination. +It is to be feared that this mixing of a solution +of salt and soda with the other swill will be one +of the difficulties met with in the more general +utilisation of kitchen refuse in the keeping of pigs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XVIII +<br /> +THE CURING OF PORK</h3> + + +<p>In the good old times bacon curing was carried on +in the large majority of farm-houses as well as in +many houses in the country districts, not only +where there were conveniences for the keeping of +pigs, but many householders were in the habit of +buying carcases of pork from their neighbours and +curing the major portion for the following year's +supply of cured meats. Even the better class +labourers would kill and cure it so that as long as it +lasted they had on hand a supply of most nutritious +and suitable food. Unfortunately a great change +has taken place of late years; this convenient and +profitable plan has been superseded. The causes +may have been many; amongst them, the importation +of immense quantities of salt pork of +very inferior quality at very low prices from the +United States; the change in the public taste which +is now for mild cured and lean bacon from young +pigs, instead of the more heavily salted meats from +older and fatter pigs; the great decrease in the +number of pigs kept by cottagers and others in +urban districts through the operation of the so-called +sanitary regulations; and probably from the +different style of living, which may or may not be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +an improvement, amongst the residents in country +districts.</p> + +<p>It may be that one of the many changes which +have been brought about by, and which will also +follow, the war will be a return to the more simple +and less luxurious manner of living. It is certain +that a more economical system will have to be +followed, and one of the means of effecting this may +be a return to the keeping of pigs during their +growing stage on the house and garden refuse, and +then when the pigs have been fattened, by the +killing and curing of the carcase for home consumption.</p> + +<p>Much has been written during recent years about +the folly of allowing so many millions of sovereigns +to go out of the country in payment for the vast +weight of bacon, hams, and lard which we import +from foreign countries. Residents in the country +have been blamed by town residents and literary +men for their alleged want of enterprise in not +breeding and fattening the few extra million pigs +which would furnish an amount of pig produce +equal to that imported, and thus, as they declare, +save the country that outlay which is a dead loss +to these islands.</p> + +<p>It may at once be frankly admitted that a very +considerable increase in the number of our pig +population is possible without any very greatly +extended cost of food, but when it is contended that +farmers and even cottagers are grossly neglectful in +not producing sufficient pork and its products for +the use of the whole of the population of these +islands, an injustice is done, as the breeding and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +feeding of pigs is a business calling, not a philanthropical +pursuit. Farmers and cottagers are like +other manufacturers of necessary articles; they +produce in order to live, and they cease to manufacture +an article when its production ceases to +repay them for their outlay and trouble. They +must of necessity do so, or they come to grief +and are unable to carry on their farms or businesses.</p> + +<p>It matters not what the cause be for the ability +of the foreigner to produce and land on our markets +articles cheaper than we can afford to offer them at, +the result is the same—the home production is automatically +reduced. There are many causes which +have helped to render it possible for foreigners to +supply us with a certain proportion of the pork and +bacon which we require at a less cost than our +home breeder and feeders of pigs can supply it. +These include help to the farmers from the Governments +of certain countries such as Denmark, where +assistance is given in the purchase of pure bred pigs +for the improvement of the native pigs, in the reduced +railway and other rates on the transit of +pigs, foods, and bacon, in the provision of certain +foods, and in carrying out experiments in order to +show how they may be utilised in the best manner. +Stud farms have also been established from which +pure bred boars are distributed, whilst the whole +industry of pig breeding and bacon curing is +carried on under the supervision and with the +advice of many Government officials appointed for +the purpose. The intrinsic value of this assistance +is perceptible, as in no other country are pig-keeping<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +and bacon curing carried on with greater monetary +success than in Denmark.</p> + +<p>It is also asserted that the general system of +farming in Denmark has also contributed very +largely to the phenomenal prosperity of the pig +industry, in that a very large proportion of the land +is owned and farmed by comparatively small +farmers, men who have a direct interest in the +improvement of the land, and who with their +families perform the major portion of the work +on the land and in attendance on the stock. The +land is almost certain to be well managed and the +stock to receive the best possible attention with, +comparatively speaking, little cost as to labour. +The animals on the farm are likely to be +of a higher grade and the returns from them +of an increased character, than when strangers +and disinterested hired labour attend and feeds +them.</p> + +<p>Another of the great advantages possessed by +some of our foreign competitors is the very much +better supply of feeding stuffs and their very considerably +lower cost. Take the United States, for +instance, the enormous supply of maize alone +enables American pigmen to manufacture pork at +a cost which enables the packers to land bacon, +hams, and lard on the British shores which our +home pig producers cannot approach. Although it +cannot be said that the cost of labour is less in the +States than in England, yet there are some countries +from which we import pork products where the +labour is far more plentiful and less costly. In the +future the allowance for labour will have to be on a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +more liberal scale than hitherto when estimating +the cost of producing pork, unless the number of +persons owning and occupying small holdings is +greatly increased.</p> + +<p>It has been stated that our home producers of +pork and bacon will obtain a considerable advantage +in the future in that the freight on the imported +meats will be so much higher. It is most +probable that this will increase the expense of landing +bacon, etc., on our markets; on the other hand, +as we import so large a proportion of the pig fattening +foods, the cost of food will most likely be increased +to quite the same if not to a greater extent. +The only plan to reduce this extra expense will be +to lessen the outlay on imported foods by paying +more attention to the growth of various foods suitable +for pigs, attending more carefully to our pigs +and feeding them on common-sense lines. In these +particulars there is room for much improvement in +many piggeries.</p> + +<p>By reducing the cost of the production of pork +and by the more general adoption of the system of +home curing we shall not only obtain our bacon at +less cost, but we shall have a far greater amount of +the finest quality of bacon and hams generally +available. We imagine that the reader of the +earlier portion of this book will experience little +difficulty in producing fine quality pork at a +minimum cost—it will then remain to cure and dry +it properly.</p> + +<p>The fattened pig should not be fed for some +twenty-four hours before it is killed; after slaughter +the carcase should remain hanging until it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +thoroughly cooled. The manner of cutting up will +depend on the custom in the particular district. +In some parts of the country the pig is split down, +the head, feet, and tail taken off, the leaf and +kidneys and the skirt taken out, the loin and the +crop with a certain proportion of the lean cut off, +and in some cases the shoulder blade is drawn; +after the necessary trimming a Wiltshire side remains.</p> + +<p>In other districts the ham and the shoulder are +cut off and the side is converted into a middle, a +ham and a shoulder or fore-ham. The jowls are +taken off the head and salted with the bacon and +hams. The upper part of the head, or, as it is commonly +termed, the scorf, is usually used with the +feet in the manufacture of brawn, or, as it +is sometimes called, pork cheese—presumably +from its being cooled in a form, and then +turned out on to the dish on which it is served +at table.</p> + +<p>The first operation in curing is to distribute a +small quantity of salt all over the meat to be cured. +If allowed to remain about forty-eight hours the +blood remaining in the meat will have become dissolved, +and will have exuded from the carcase. +This liquid should be thrown away. A mixture in +the proportion of 4 lbs. salt, 1 lb. coarse brown sugar, +1 oz. saltpetre, 1/4 oz. bay salt, and 1/4 oz. salt prunell +should be prepared, and a portion of it be applied +to all parts of the meat and particularly in the pocket +hole, if the shoulder blade has been drawn. This +should be continued for from twenty to thirty days, +according to the thickness of the meat and the degree<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> +of saltness desired. In one or two districts of a +limited area it is usual to rub the meat somewhat +violently with a large pebble when applying the +salt mixture, the alleged object being to rub in the +salt; but for this there is not the slightest necessity +as the result of the rubbing is nil, since the salt will +penetrate the meat equally as well without the +manipulation as with it. The principal point is to +secure the distribution of the salt to every part of +the meat so that the salt can penetrate and preserve +it.</p> + +<p>When sufficiently cured the meat should be hung +up and dried. If it be desired to have it smoked +this is best done at the village bakery or smoke +drying house. Smoking of hams and bacon is +possible on a small scale with the aid of a smoke +oven such as supplied by Messrs. Douglas and Sons +of Putney, but it is, as a rule, cheaper and less +troublesome to send the meat to the village smoking +house. It will be advisable to brand or otherwise +mark each piece of cured meat sent to be +smoked, as the return of the same pieces is thus +assured.</p> + +<p>Where the home curing of bacon and hams +is followed, this is best carried out from the +middle of October to the end of March; if it +be attempted earlier or later a cold chamber is +necessary.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of salt pork is carried on all the +year through as the meat is usually kept in the brine, +where it will keep perfectly good for a considerable +time providing it is perfectly sweet when first placed +in the brine. To secure this it is advisable to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +the pig killed in the evening, covered over with a +cloth to prevent the flies approaching it, and hanging +it in a cool place so that all the natural heat has +escaped ere it is cut up and placed in the pickle pot. +It may be advisable to note that the last is only +possible with a small pig during the hot weather. +In the mere salting of pork it is usual to use only +salt and saltpetre. The use of sugar should be +avoided in the summer, as its use is likely to result +in fermentation in hot weather.</p> + +<p>There are two other points in connection with +bacon curing on which a change of opinion has +taken place, or is taking place. These are the cause +of what are called in the trade "seedy bellies," and +the effect on the bacon of the female fat pig being +in a state of Å“strum when it is slaughtered. Until +quite recently the first of these troubles, and it is a +most serious one to the trade, was generally considered +to be due to the second. It was believed by +curers that the slight inflammation noticeable in +the mammary glands of the female pig when she is +in heat resulted in these so-called "seedy bellies" +if the pig was in that condition when she was +slaughtered. This belief may have been either the +cause or the result, or both, of the common saying +that the meat of a sow pig killed when it was in +heat will not take the salt properly, and that it is +therefore advisable to wait until this natural condition +has passed away before the pig is slaughtered. +This contention has been one of the arguments used +when the spaying of sow pigs has been advocated. +Of late years comparatively few sow pigs have been +spayed, so that the unspayed fat pigs have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +nearly as numerous as those male pigs which have +been castrated, and as the sow pigs come in heat +each three weeks, and continue so for from three to +five days, a very considerable proportion of them +must be in heat when they are slaughtered at the +large bacon-curing factories, without any loss +resulting. We may, therefore, assume that it +matters little whether the pig be in heat or not +when it is slaughtered unless the seedy bellies +result.</p> + +<p>On this point also the verdict is against the +common belief, as Messrs. Mackenzie and Marsh +have carried out a series of investigations at Cambridge +which clearly proved that seedy bellies were +equally as common when the sow pigs were not in +heat and when they were; but that the discoloration +which resembles numbers of small spots +of colour varying from dark blue to light red +in the mammary glands is merely an excess of +pigment, the darker shade being common in +pigs with dark coloured hair and skin such as +the Large Blacks, Berkshires, etc., and the lighter +shade in pigs of the Tamworth breed. In the +bacon manufactured from pigs with a white +skin and white hair there is no discoloration or +seedy bellies.</p> + +<p>Although it has been generally considered by +bacon curers that pigs of a white colour were preferable +for their trade, and this to such an extent that +some of the bacon curers in Ireland will pay a slightly +higher price for a pig with a white skin, the preference +was generally considered to be due to the more +presentable appearance of a side of bacon from a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +white than from a black pig; it would appear that +in the future a still greater preference will be +observable when it becomes generally known that +the bacon made from white pigs is free from seedy +bellies.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/imagep181.jpg" width="600" height="482" alt="Advertisement for Willson's Canadian Pig Powders." +title="Willson's Canadian Pig Powders." /> +</div> + +<div class="advert"> +<p style="font-size:large; font-style:italic">To make money out of Pigs</p> + +<p>One must go on the NON-STOP PRINCIPLE, every little check to growth +means so much less profit. Now we know and there are thousands of other +pig feeders know that WILLSON'S CANADIAN PIG POWDERS are just the very +thing that is wanted, one or two powders a week to each Pig enables them +to digest their food and get the very utmost out of it. Nature does the +rest. You will find this so and the cost of powders is very small.</p> + +<p><span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">Willson's Canadian Pig Powders</span> +<br /> +<span style="font-size:large; font-style:italic">are a +Great +Investment</span></p> + +</div> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Scale of prices advertised for Willson's Canadian Pig Powders."> +<tr><td align="right">7</td><td align="center">for</td><td align="left">6d.,</td><td align="center">post free</td><td align="left">7d.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">16</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">1/-</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">1/2</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">48</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">2/9</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">3/-</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">144</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">8/-</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5">and in bulk in tins +21/- post free.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="advert"> + +<p class="center"><i>We have agents almost +everywhere.</i></p> + + +<p class="center"> <i>Sole<br /> + Manufacturer:</i><br /> +<br /> + STEPHEN WILLSON<br /> + Canadian Pig Powder Factory<br /> + PETERBOROUGH<br /> + (<i>Who also keeps a big experimental piggery</i>).</p> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center"> <span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">Continuous Cropping and Tillage<br /> + Dairy Farming for Small Farmers.</span></p> + +<p class="center"> By T. WIBBERLEY, N.D.A., N.D.D.</p> + +<p class="center"> Third Edition. Price 3/6 net; postage 4d.</p> + + +<p>Here Mr. Wibberley describes specially for the benefit of the small man +his system of all-weather farming, capable of doubling or trebling the +profits of even the best regulated small dairy farms. In this book he +discloses for the first time the whole secret of his success and the +success of the many thousands of small dairy farmers who follow him.</p> + + +<p class="center"> <i>Of all Booksellers or from the Publishers</i>,<br /> + C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.2.</p> +</div> +<hr /> + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> + +<h3>INDEX</h3> + +<ul> +<li>Anthrax, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Apthous fever, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Arrival of little pigs, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li>Artichokes for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Attendance on farrowing sow, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Bacon curing, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Bacon smoking, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Bacon from young pigs, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> +<li>Barley meal as sole fatting food, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li>Barn for pigsty, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li>Baulked sows, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li>Baulking sows, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> +<li>Berkshire breed, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li>Black pigs, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Blind teats, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Boar's teats, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li>Board of Agriculture's premiums, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Bob-tailed pigs, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>Breeds of pigs at shows, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> +<li>British Berkshire Society, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Butter milk, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Cabbages for pigs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li>Canadian system, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Carriers of swine fever, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li>Castrating pigs, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li>Castrating ruptured pigs, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li>Cause of parti-coloured pigs, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li>Close breeding, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Clover for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Coleseed for pigs, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li>Constipation in pigs, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li>Consumption in pigs, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +<li>Cooked <i>v.</i> uncooked maize, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li>Cooked <i>v.</i> uncooked potatoes, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> +<li>Cooking pig foods, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> +<li>Cooking potatoes, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li>Cross-bred pigs, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li>Cross breds <i>v.</i> pure breds, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Cumberland pigs, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Cutting up the pig, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Danish pig-keeping, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +<li>Dead pigs, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>Delicacy of pure-bred pigs, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Dentition of pigs, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>Diarrh[oe]a, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Difficulty in disinfecting sties, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +<li>Diseases of pigs, <a href="#Page_157">157</a> + <ul class="nest"> + <li>Anthrax</li> + <li>Apthous fever</li> + <li>Constipation</li> + <li>Cramp</li> + <li>Diarrh[oe]a</li> + <li>Eczema</li> + <li>Epileptic fits</li> + <li>Foot and mouth disease</li> + <li>Inversion of the rectum</li> + <li><span class="ditto">" " "</span> vagina</li> + <li><span class="ditto">" " "</span> uterus</li> + <li>Measles</li> + <li>Rabies</li> + <li>Rickets</li> + <li>Salt poisoning</li> + <li>Soda poisoning</li> + <li>Sore teats</li> + <li>Swine erysipelas</li> + <li>Swine fever</li> + <li>Tender feet</li> + <li>Tuberculosis</li> + <li>Worms</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dorset pigs, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +<li>Dosing pigs, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Dry beds, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li>Dysentery, <a href="#Page_85">85</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Eczema, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> +<li>Effect of food and climate, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>Epileptic fits, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Essex half-blacks, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Excited young sows, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li>Exhibition of pigs, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> +<li>Exposure of mangolds, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li>Extra food in the autumn, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Farmer owners, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +<li>Farrowing sow, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li>Fits, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>Flabby udders, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Foot and mouth disease, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li>Foster mothers, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Garget, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li>Gloucestershire Old Spots breed, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +<li>Government help, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Grade breeding pigs, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Grazing pigs, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Ham curing, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> +<li>Hampshire pigs, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li>Hernia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>High-backed pigs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>Holywell Victoria Countess, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li>Husk, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Importation of bacon and lard, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> +<li>Improved breeds, origin of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Increased cost of freight, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> +<li>Infectivity of swine fever, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> +<li>Influence of sire, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> dam, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li>Inoculation for erysipelas, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> swine fever, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Inversion of the rectum, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" " "</span> vagina, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" " "</span> uterus, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Large boars, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li>Large Black breed, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li>Large blue and white pigs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>Large White breed, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li>Large White Ulster breed, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> +<li>Lincolnshire Curly Coated breed, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li>Litter for pigs, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li>Lucerne for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Maize supply, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +<li>Mangolds for pigs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li>Mating the young sow, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> suckling sow, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li>Measles, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Medicine for farrowing sow, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>Mere size studied, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li>Messrs. Harris's scheme, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>Middle White breed, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li>Milk for sucking pigs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>Mixture of food, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> +<li>Model piggeries, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Neat sows, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li>Non-infectious swine fever, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> +<li>Norfolk pigs, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Northamptonshire pigs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>Number of pigs for a sow, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li>Number in a litter, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Origin of improved breeds, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Oxfordshire pigs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Parsnips for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Parti-coloured pigs, cause of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> +<li>Peat moss litter, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li>Persistence of erysipelas virus, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +<li>Pig calendar, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>Pig fattening, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> +<li>Pig keeping in orchards, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" " "</span> woods, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li>Pigment, excess of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> +<li>Pig pillows, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li>Pig shacking, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li>Pigs suffering from heat, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li>Plenty of teats, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Potatoes for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Poulticing pigs' feet, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li>Practical <i>v.</i> show points, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li>Prepotency of dam, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> sire, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> +<li>Prolificacy, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">"</span> indications of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">"</span> value of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +<li>Pure breeds, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Quality of bone, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Rabies, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Rape for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Rearing of young pigs, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></li> +<li>Recorded pedigree insufficient, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li>Rectum, inversion of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li>Registering produce, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +<li>Remaking sow's bed, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>Rickets in pigs, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Ring pigs, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li>Rollers for fat pigs, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li>Round white worms, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +<li>Rudgwick pigs, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Rupture in pigs hereditary, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li>Ruptured boar, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Salt poisoning, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> +<li>Santonine as a cure for worms, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +<li>Scrotal hernia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Seedy bellies, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Selection of boar, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> sow, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> +<li>Separated milk for little pigs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>Sheeted pigs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> +<li>Size in boars, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">"</span> of pigs' ears, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li>Skim milk and tuberculosis, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +<li>Slaughter classes, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li>Small black breed, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li>Small joints wanted, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Small testicles, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li>Smoke ovens, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Smoking bacon, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Soft pork, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> +<li>Sore-tailed pigs, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>Sore teats, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> +<li>Sow's udder, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Spaying sow pigs, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> +<li>Sty facing east, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> north, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> south, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> west, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li>Sugar in pork curing, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Sussex pigs, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Swayback pigs, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Swine erysipelas, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +<li>Swine fever, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> virus, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Tares for pigs, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li>Tender feet, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li>Trichinosis, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +<li>Tuberculosis in pigs, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +<li>Tuberculosis in pigs not hereditary, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +<li>Tuberculosis meat unhealthy, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Udder, the sow's, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Undersized teats, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Uniformity in a herd, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li><span class="ditto">" "</span> young pigs, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>Unwieldly sows, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li>Utility points, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Value of feeding qualities, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li>Value of whey, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li>Variation in virulence of infectious diseases, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +<li>Varying food, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li>Vegetable food for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Weaning pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Wheat meal, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li>White peas for little pigs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>White-skinned pigs for bacon, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> +<li>Worms, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></li> +</ul> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center"><span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">DENNIS'S</span> +<br /> +<span style="font-size:large">"LINCOLNSHIRE" PIG POWDERS</span> +<br /> +ARE THE BEST MEDICINE for all DISEASES of PIGS. +<br /> +Used by most of the leading BREEDERS and EXHIBITORS.</p> + +<p class="center">It will pay you well to use them regularly. +<br /> +The cost is so small, 10d. per doz., post free 1/-. +<br /> +144 Powders post free 10/-.</p> +</div> + +<div class="sideleft">HEALTHY PIGS PAY WELL</div> +<div class="sideright">SOLD EVERYWHERE</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 621px;"> +<img src="images/image195.png" width="621" height="313" alt="Advertisement for Dennis's Pig Powders" +title="Advertisement for Dennis's Pig Powders" /> +<span class="caption">DENNIS's<br /> +LINCOLNSHIRE PIG POWDERS<br /> +PROPRIETOR J. W. DENNIS<br /> +LOUTH.<br /> +ENGLAND</span> +</div> +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center">Trade Mark No. 14,839.</p> + + + +<p class="center"><span style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">DENNIS'S "SPECIAL" WORM POWDERS</span> +<br /> +<b>are recognised as the surest means +<br /> +of ridding pigs of these parasites.</b></p> + +<p>Mr. W. L. PAYNE, of Tor Hole, Chewton Mendip, says:—"I +found 63 worms in my stye, after giving your Worm Powders."</p> + +<p class="center">In packets, 6d. Post free 7-1/2d. 6 packets Post free 3/4.</p> + +<p class="center">Sold by all Chemists, Boots Ltd., Taylor's Drug Co. Ltd., +and Co-operative Societies, at all Branches.</p> + +<p class="center">Proprietor:</p> + +<p class="center"><b>JOHN W. DENNIS, Veterinary Chemist +<br /> +LOUTH, LINCS.</b><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center">All practical Farmers who want to keep abreast of the times should +get at once a copy of</p> + +<p class="center"><span style="font-size:x-large"><b>FARMING ON FACTORY LINES</b></span> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">OR</span> +<br /> +<b>Continuous Cropping for Large Farmers</b> +</p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">BY</span> +<br /> +<b>T. WIBBERLEY, <span class="smcap">N.D.A.</span>, <span class="smcap">N.D.D.</span></b> +<br /> +(<i>Of Queen's University, Belfast</i>).</p> + +<p class="center">Second Edition <b>6/-</b> net (postage 4d.)</p> + + +<p><b>[Illustration: pointing finger] It forms the great authoritative test book on the +Wibberley Continuous Cropping System, and is a +new and frankly revolutionary guide to ALL-WEATHER +Farming and to cheaper Milk, Corn and Beef Production.</b></p> + +<p>"In times past the climate has often conquered the British Farmer, +but it has not conquered Wibberley. He has conquered it, turning +what otherwise would be adverse climatic conditions to advantage in +tilling the land.</p> + +<p>"It sounds impossible. It reads like a fairy tale—yet the whole of +the scheme of 'Wibberleyism' or 'Continuous Cropping,' 'Farming +on Factory Lines'—as the system is variously termed—is in reality +beautifully simple. It is so effective that one wonders what our highly +paid officials have been thinking about, when they have not hammered +out some such a tillage system as Wibberley's years before Wibberley +was born."—<span class="smcap">The Smallholder</span>.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>Read all about it in this new and valuable work.</b></p> + +<p class="center"><i>Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free +for <b>6/4</b> from</i></p> + +<p class="center">Messrs. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Limited, +<br /> +18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. 2.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center"><span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">SOME USEFUL HANDBOOKS</span> +<br /> +<span style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">FOR SMALLHOLDERS AND OTHERS</span></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>The Hobby Gardener.</b> By <span class="smcap">A. C. Marshall</span>, F.R.H.S. +With 22 full-page Illustrations showing clearly the various operations +throughout a year's work in the garden. In Stiff Three-coloured +Cover. Price 1/6 net, post free 1/9.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>Small Gardens and How to make the Most of +Them.</b> By <span class="smcap">V. P. Biddle</span>. Cloth Boards. Price 1/6, post +free 1/9.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">A most useful Handbook for the Amateur. Full instructions are given +for laying out, bedding, arrangement of borders, vegetable culture, flowers and +fruit trees, room plants, window boxes, etc.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>Greenhouses: How to Make and Manage Them.</b> +By <span class="smcap">William F. Rowles</span>. With numerous Diagrams. Cloth. +Price 1/6, post free 1/9.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>The Dog: In Health and Disease.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. M. +ARCHER</span>. With 12 Illustrations by <span class="smcap">S. T. Dadd</span>. Cloth. Price 1/6, +post free 1/9.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>Cage and Singing Birds.</b> By <span class="smcap">George Gardner</span>. With +numerous Illustrations. Cloth. Price 1/6, post free 1/9.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">Some of the Contents are:—Birds for Song, for Exhibition and for Breeding—Care +of Young—Seeds: how and what to buy—Moulting for Song and for +Exhibition—Colour-feeding: how it is done—Diseases of Cage Birds and how +to treat them—Bird Fever—Parasites and how to destroy them, etc. etc.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>An Easy Poultry Guide.</b> By <span class="smcap">Edward Brown</span>, F.L.S. +With 8 full-page Illustrations and other Diagrams. Pocket size. +Cloth. Price 1/-net, post free 1/2.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>War on Weeds.</b> By "<span class="smcap">Farmer Giles</span>." Price 6d. net, post +free 7d.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">This book gives a full description and illustrations of the thirteen proscribed +weeds, also a complete list of all other farm and garden weeds, with sketches, +full descriptions, and preventive measures.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>War-Time Farming.</b> By <span class="smcap">T. Wibberley</span>. Price 6d. net, +post free 7d.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">This small book tells how the man on the land can use it to the greatest +advantage.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Any of these books may be ordered through your bookseller, or will be sent post-paid +on receipt of the price mentioned by</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>A. F. SOWTER, Publisher, "Smallholder and Small Owner" Offices,<br /> +16-18, HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.</b><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center"><span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">FARMING</span> +<br /> +<span style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">MADE EASY</span></p> + +<p class="center">By +<br /> +<span style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">J. C. NEWSHAM, F.L.S.</span> +<br /> +Principal of the Monmouthshire Agricultural and Horticultural +Institution, Usk.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Author of "The Potato Book," &c., Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 3/6 net.</i></p> + +<p>This is an easy Guide to the +most useful Elements of Agriculture. +It has been specially +written by a thoroughly qualified +agriculturist, with a wide and +successful practical knowledge +of his subject, for the use of the +countless thousands of men and +women who are now streaming +back—eager but half instructed—to +work on the land. It covers +practically every department of +farm labour and enterprise, and +provides the fullest and most +reliable instruction for all who +propose to take up Agriculture +in a serious and practical spirit, +as a means of livelihood.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free +for 3/10 from</i></p> + +<p class="center">MESSRS. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LIMITED,<br /> +18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. 2.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center"><span style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">BOOKS FOR SMALLHOLDERS, ETC.</span></p> + +<p class="center">A STANDARD BOOK BY AN EXPERT AUTHORITY.</p> + + +<p class="center"><b><span style="font-size:large;">DAIRY FARMING</span><br /> +FOR<br /> +<span style="font-size:large;">SMALLHOLDERS</span></b></p> + + +<p>By <span class="smcap">James Long</span>, formerly Professor of Dairy Farming, Royal Agricultural College; +Author of "The Book of the Pig," etc.</p> + +<p class="center">Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 2/6 net, post free 2/9.</p> + +<p>THE CHAPTERS DEAL WITH:—Our Dairy Cows; The Cow and Her Management; Foods +and Feeding; Milk; Butter and Butter Making; Cheese Making, etc.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">"Professor Long has never been more happily inspired than in writing it. The explanations +are lucid and clear."—<i>Standard.</i></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">"The smallholder who has made dairying part of his system, or has facilities for doing so, +will be all the better for adding this book to those already in his possession."—<i>Field.</i></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">"This is one of the best handbooks that can possibly find its way on the dairy farmer's +shelf."—<i>The Dairy.</i></p> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 30%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>POULTRY FOR PROFIT</b>. By <span class="smcap">E. T. Brown</span>. Author of "Profitable +Poultry Keeping" (Smallholders' Library), "Ducks, Geese and Turkeys," &c. +Crown 8vo, cloth, with 15 full-page illustrations and many diagrams. A +thoroughly comprehensive guide for the poultry keeper.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>ROSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.</b> By <span class="smcap">Edwin Beckett</span>, V.M.H., +F.R.H.S. Crown 8vo, cloth. With portrait frontispiece. Price 2/6 net +(postage 3d. extra).</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">"A handy little book by Mr. E. Beckett, gardener at Aldenham House, and famous as a grower of +exhibition vegetables, as well as of plants generally. He writes as a practical grower in a practical +way, dealing with soil and situation, planting, pruning, watering, propagation, the cultivation of +roses under glass and for exhibition in a way that is satisfying."—<i>The Field.</i></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>THE SMALLHOLDER'S YEAR BOOK.</b> Published annually in December. +Price 1/6 net, per post 1/9.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">The Smallholder's Year Book is now an institution. It is the recognised court of appeal in all +matters connected with the land, in gardening, farming, poultry-keeping, goat, rabbit and bee-keeping +circles. It contains the cream of all the information that has ever appeared in THE +SMALLHOLDER. It solves at a glance every problem that is ever likely to puzzle YOU.</p> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 30%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center"><i>These Handbooks may be obtained through your Bookseller, or will be forwarded +post free, on receipt of the price mentioned, from</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., 17 HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON W.C. 2.</b><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p class="center" style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">THE<br /> +"SMALLHOLDER"<br /> +CHARTS.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">On Card</span> 11-1/2 in. <span class="smcap">by</span> 8-1/2 in. <span class="smcap">for Hanging Up.</span></p> + +<ol style="margin-left:20%; margin-right:20%"> +<li>How to Make a Garden Frame</li> + +<li>How and When to Sow Vegetable Seeds</li> + +<li>The A.B.C. of Pig Keeping</li> + +<li>The A.B.C. of Utility Rabbit Keeping</li> + +<li>The A.B.C. of Poultry Keeping</li> + +<li>Garden and Orchard Pests</li> + +<li>How and When to Sow Flower Seeds</li> + +<li>How to Cure Poultry Diseases</li> + +<li>How to Cure Pig Diseases</li> + +<li>Fruit Bottling</li> + +<li>Manuring Made Easy</li> + +<li>The Whole Art of Goat Keeping</li> +</ol> +<p class="center"><i>Single Charts cost 4d. each, or any Six may be had for 1/8 post free.</i></p> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 30%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center">The "Smallholder" is issued in half-yearly volumes, March to +August, and September to February. Bound in Strong Cloth. +Price 4/-net each; post free 4/6. Cases for binding, including +Title Page and Index, price 1/9 each; post free 2/-.</p> + +<p class="center">Write to the Editor<br /> + +The "SMALLHOLDER" Office, 16-18 Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p> + +</div> +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="advert"> +<p class="center">AN ATTRACTIVE NATURE BOOK +FOR THE YOUNG.</p> + +<p class="center" style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">IN NATURE'S WAYS</p> + +<p class="center">BY MARCUS WOODWARD.</p> + +<hr style="width: 30%;" /> + +<p class="center">A book for all young Lovers of Natural History. Being an +Introduction to Gilbert White's immortal "Natural History +of Selborne."</p> + +<p class="center">Illustrated by <span class="smcap">J. A. Shepherd</span>.</p> + +<p class="center">With Preface by <span class="smcap">Wilfrid Mark Webb</span>, Secretary of the Selborne +Society.</p> + +<p class="center">This volume contains 8 full-page Illustrations on Art Paper in +addition to the Drawings in the Text.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>Price in paper wrapper 1/-net, postage 3d. extra; or in cloth +boards, price 2/-net, postage 4d. extra.</b></p> + +<hr style="width: 30%;" /> + +<p>"This is a 'White's Selborne' for the young; giving passages from the +original under different headings and side by side, some talk about the bird or +beast referred to; with plenty of illustrations by Mr. J. A. Shepherd, full of his +usual vitality."—<i>Times.</i></p> + +<p>"We think this volume cannot fail to interest and instruct the young."—<i>Field.</i></p> + +<p>"White's 'History of Selborne' is here amplified and explained for young +readers. Mr. Woodward has that gift of humour without which all writing on +nature is a weariness unto the flesh for young readers, and for many readers +who are no longer young. Mr. J. A. Shepherd's illustrations catch the spirit of +the letterpress, and are of a piece with the work that has made his reputation +as an artist."—<i>Literary World.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 30%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>May be had of all Booksellers or will be sent direct on receipt of published price +and postage from</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LTD., Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2.</b></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + + +<div class="trans-note"> +<p>Transcriber's Notes:</p> + + +<p>page <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, "oze" changed to "oz.," (from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz.,)</p> +<p>page<a href="#Page_168"> 168</a>, "b.," changed to "be" (should be given in milk)</p> +<p>page <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, suspected typo "test" for "text" (the great authoritative test book)</p> +<p>page <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, "F.R.H.S" changed to "F.R.H.S." (A. C. Marshall, F.R.H.S.)</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pig, by Sanders Spencer + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIG *** + +***** This file should be named 33074-h.htm or 33074-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/0/7/33074/ + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> |