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+Project Gutenberg's Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith and John Slater
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Architecture
+       Classic and Early Christian
+
+Author: Thomas Roger Smith
+        John Slater
+
+Release Date: August 22, 2009 [EBook #29759]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Sam W. and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+     _ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS OF ART HISTORY_
+                  _OF ALL AGES_
+
+                  ARCHITECTURE
+          CLASSIC AND EARLY CHRISTIAN
+
+    BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+                      AND
+
+         JOHN SLATER, B.A., F.R.I.B.A.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS, AS IT WAS IN THE TIME OF
+      PERICLES, _circa_ B.C. 438.]
+
+
+
+
+         _ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS OF ART HISTORY_
+
+                      ARCHITECTURE
+
+               CLASSIC AND EARLY CHRISTIAN
+
+              BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+   _Professor of Architecture, University Coll. London_
+
+                           AND
+
+              JOHN SLATER, B.A., F.R.I.B.A.
+
+
+        [Illustration: ATRIUM OF A ROMAN MANSION.]
+
+
+                         LONDON
+         SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON
+           CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET
+                          1882.
+
+
+
+
+[_All rights reserved._]
+
+  LONDON. PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
+            STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This handbook is intended to give such an outline of the Architecture
+of the Ancient World, and of that of Christendom down to the period of
+the Crusades, as, without attempting to supply the minute information
+required by the professional student, may give a general idea of the
+works of the great building nations of Antiquity and the Early
+Christian times. Its chief object has been to place information on the
+subject within the reach of those persons of literary or artistic
+education who desire to become in some degree acquainted with
+Architecture. All technicalities which could be dispensed with have
+been accordingly excluded; and when it has been unavoidable that a
+technical word or phrase should occur, an explanation has been added
+either in the text or in the glossary; but as this volume and the
+companion one on Gothic and Renaissance Architecture are, in effect,
+two divisions of the same work, it has not been thought necessary to
+repeat in the glossary given with this part the words explained in
+that prefixed to the other.
+
+In treating so very wide a field, it has been felt that the chief
+prominence should be given to that great sequence of architectural
+styles which form the links of a chain connecting the architecture of
+modern Europe with the earliest specimens of the art. Egypt, Assyria,
+and Persia combined to furnish the foundation upon which the splendid
+architecture of the Greeks was based. Roman architecture was founded
+on Greek models with the addition of Etruscan construction, and was
+for a time universally prevalent. The break-up of the Roman Empire was
+followed by the appearance of the Basilican, the Byzantine, and the
+Romanesque phases of Christian art; and, later on, by the Saracenic.
+These are the styles on which all mediæval and modern European
+architecture has been based, and these accordingly have furnished the
+subjects to which the reader's attention is chiefly directed. Such
+styles as those of India, China and Japan, which lie quite outside
+this series, are noticed much more briefly; and some matters--such,
+for example, as prehistoric architecture--which in a larger treatise
+it would have been desirable to include, have been entirely left out
+for want of room.
+
+In treating each style the object has not been to mention every phase
+of its development, still less every building, but rather to describe
+the more prominent buildings with some approach to completeness. It is
+true that much is left unnoticed, for which the student who wishes to
+pursue the subject further will have to refer to the writings
+specially devoted to the period or country. But it has been possible
+to describe a considerable number of typical examples, and to do so in
+such a manner as, it is hoped, may make some impression on the
+reader's mind. Had notices of a much greater number of buildings been
+compressed into the same space, each must have been so condensed that
+the volume, though useful as a catalogue for reference, would have, in
+all probability, become uninteresting, and consequently unserviceable
+to the class of readers for whom it is intended.
+
+As far as possible mere matters of opinion have been excluded from
+this handbook. A few of the topics which it has been necessary to
+approach are subjects on which high authorities still more or less
+disagree, and it has been impossible to avoid these in every instance;
+but, as far as practicable, controverted points have been left
+untouched. Controversy is unsuited to the province of such a manual as
+this, in which it is quite sufficient for the authors to deal with the
+ascertained facts of the history which they have to unfold.
+
+It is not proposed here to refer to the authorities for the various
+statements made in these pages, but to this rule it is impossible to
+avoid making one exception. The writers feel bound to acknowledge how
+much they, in common with all students of the art, are indebted to the
+patient research, the profound learning, and the admirable skill in
+marshalling facts displayed by Mr. Fergusson in his various writings.
+Had it been possible to devote a larger space to Eastern architecture,
+Pagan and Mohammedan, the indebtedness to him, in a field where he
+stands all but alone, must of necessity have been still greater.
+
+The earlier chapters of this volume were chiefly written by Mr.
+Slater, who very kindly consented to assist in the preparation of it;
+but I am of course, as editor, jointly responsible with him for the
+contents. The Introduction, Chapters V. to VII., and from Chapter X.
+to the end, have been written by myself: and if our work shall in any
+degree assist the reader to understand, and stimulate him to admire,
+the architecture of the far-off past; above all, if it enables him to
+appreciate our vast indebtedness to Greek art, and in a lesser degree
+to the art of other nations who have occupied the stage of the world,
+the aim which the writers have kept in view will not have been missed.
+
+                                             T. ROGER SMITH.
+
+    _University College, London._
+        _May, 1882._
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FRIEZE FROM CHURCH AT DENKENDORF.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+                                                                  PAGE
+    INTRODUCTION.                                                    1
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+    EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Pyramids. Tombs. Temples. Analysis of Buildings.            14
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+    WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Babylonian. Assyrian. Persian. Analysis of Buildings.       43
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+    ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Hindu. Chinese and Japanese.                                64
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+    GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Buildings of the Doric Order.                               80
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+        Buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.              102
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+        Analysis of Greek Architecture. The Plan. The Walls.
+          The Roof. The Openings. The Columns. The Ornaments.
+          Architectural Character.                                 117
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+    ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Historical and General Sketch.                             138
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+
+        The Buildings of the Romans. Basilicas. Theatres and
+          Amphitheatres. Baths (Thermæ). Bridges and Aqueducts.
+          Commemorative Monuments. Domestic Architecture.          147
+
+  CHAPTER X.
+
+        Analysis of Roman Architecture. The Plan. The Walls.
+          The Roofs. The Openings. The Columns. The Ornaments.
+          Architectural Character.                                 182
+
+  CHAPTER XI.
+
+    EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Basilicas in Rome and Italy.                               198
+
+  CHAPTER XII.
+
+    BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.                                        210
+
+  CHAPTER XIII.
+
+    ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.                                       222
+
+  CHAPTER XIV.
+
+    CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Analysis of Basilican, Byzantine, and Romanesque.          240
+
+  CHAPTER XV.
+
+    MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Egypt, Syria and Palestine, Sicily and Spain, Persia
+          and India.                                               252
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+  THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS, AS IT WAS IN THE TIME OF
+      PERICLES, _circa_ B.C. 438.                       _Frontispiece_
+
+  ATRIUM OF A ROMAN MANSION.                         (_on title-page_)
+
+  FRIEZE FROM CHURCH AT DENKENDORF.                                  x
+
+  ROCK-CUT TOMB AT MYRA, IN LYCIA. IMITATION OF
+  TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE.                                  xviii
+
+  THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI.                                  xxiv
+
+  1. OPENING SPANNED BY A LINTEL. ARCH OF THE GOLDSMITHS,
+     ROME.                                                           3
+
+  2. OPENING SPANNED BY A SEMICIRCULAR ARCH. ROMAN TRIUMPHAL
+     ARCH AT POLA.                                                   4
+
+  3. OPENINGS SPANNED BY POINTED ARCHES. INTERIOR OF ST.
+     FRONT, PÉRIGUEUX, FRANCE.                                       5
+
+  4. TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA. RESTORED ACCORDING TO ADLER.         8
+
+  5. PART OF THE EXTERIOR OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME.                   10
+
+  6. TIMBER ARCHITECTURE. CHURCH AT BORGUND.                        12
+
+  7. AN EGYPTIAN CORNICE.                                           14
+
+  8. SECTION ACROSS THE GREAT PYRAMID (OF CHEOPS OR SUPHIS).        17
+
+  9. ASCENDING GALLERY IN THE GREAT PYRAMID.                        19
+
+  10. THE SEPULCHRAL CHAMBER IN THE PYRAMID OF CEPHREN AT GIZEH.    19
+
+  11. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE KING'S CHAMBER IN THE GREAT PYRAMID.  19
+
+  12. IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE, FROM A TOMB
+      AT MEMPHIS.                                                   21
+
+  13. IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE, FROM A TOMB
+      AT MEMPHIS.                                                   21
+
+  14. PLAN AND SECTION OF THE TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.                  23
+
+  15. ROCK-CUT FAÇADE OF THE TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.                   24
+
+  16. GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT KARNAK.                          26
+
+  17. THE HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK, SHOWING THE CLERESTORY.         27
+
+  18. ENTRANCE TO AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE, SHOWING THE PYLONS.           27
+
+  19. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT EDFOU.                                  30
+
+  20. EXAMPLE OF ONE OF THE MAMMISI AT EDFOU.                       30
+
+  21. GROUND-PLAN OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL.              31
+
+  22. SECTION OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL.                  31
+
+  23. EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS BUD CAPITAL.                       33
+
+  24. EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS FLOWER CAPITAL.                    33
+
+  25. PALM CAPITAL.                                                 34
+
+  26. SCULPTURED CAPITAL.                                           34
+
+  27. ISIS CAPITAL FROM DENDERAH.                                   35
+
+  28. FANCIFUL COLUMN FROM PAINTED DECORATION AT THEBES.            35
+
+  29. CROWNING CORNICE AND BEAD.                                    36
+
+  30. PAINTED DECORATION FROM THEBES.                               42
+
+  31. SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT NINEVEH.                               43
+
+  32. PALACE AT KHORSABAD. BUILT BY KING SARGON ABOUT 710 B.C.      48
+
+  33. PAVEMENT FROM KHOYUNJIK.                                      51
+
+  34. PROTO-IONIC COLUMN FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE.                   53
+
+  34a. PROTO-IONIC CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE.                 53
+
+  34b. PROTO-CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE.            53
+
+  35. TOMB OF CYRUS.                                                54
+
+  35a. GENERAL PLAN OF THE BUILDINGS AT PERSEPOLIS.                 56
+
+  35b. COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS--EAST AND WEST PORTICOES.             58
+
+  36. COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS--NORTH PORTICO.                        58
+
+  37. THE ROCK-CUT TOMB OF DARIUS.                                  60
+
+  38. SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT ALLAHABAD.                             64
+
+  39. DAGOBA FROM CEYLON.                                           66
+
+  40. CHAITYA NEAR POONA.                                           68
+
+  41. THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. A ROCK-CUT MONUMENT.                     69
+
+  42. PLAN OF THE KYLAS AT ELLORA.                                  70
+
+  43. VIMANA FROM MANASARA.                                         71
+
+  44. BRACKET CAPITAL.                                              73
+
+  45. COLUMN FROM AJUNTA.                                           73
+
+  46. COLUMN FROM ELLORA.                                           73
+
+  47. COLUMN FROM AJUNTA.                                           73
+
+  48. A SMALL PAGODA.                                               76
+
+  49. GREEK HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT.                                   80
+
+  50. PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE IN ANTIS.                        82
+
+  50a. PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE.                                83
+
+  51. ANCIENT GREEK WALL OF UNWROUGHT STONE FROM SAMOTHRACE.        86
+
+  52. PLAN OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT MYCENÆ.                     86
+
+  52a. SECTION OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT MYCENÆ.                 86
+
+  53. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SELINUS.                             87
+
+  53a. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM THE THESEUM.                        87
+
+  53b. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SAMOTHRACE.                         87
+
+  54. THE RUINS OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS.                         89
+
+  55. PLAN OF THE PARTHENON.                                        90
+
+  56. THE ROOF OF A GREEK DORIC TEMPLE, SHOWING THE MARBLE
+      TILES.                                                        91
+
+  56a. SECTION OF THE GREEK DORIC TEMPLE AT PÆSTUM. AS RESTORED
+       BY BÖTTICHER.                                                92
+
+  57. THE GREEK DORIC ORDER FROM THE THESEUM.                       93
+
+  58. PLAN OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN.                                 94
+
+  59. THE FILLETS UNDER A GREEK DORIC CAPITAL.                      94
+
+  60. CAPITAL OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN FROM ÆGINA, WITH
+      COLOURED DECORATION.                                          95
+
+  61. SECTION OF THE ENTABLATURE OF THE GREEK DORIC ORDER.          96
+
+  62. PLAN, LOOKING UP, OF PART OF A GREEK DORIC PERISTYLE.         96
+
+  63. DETAILS OF THE TRIGLYPH.                                      97
+
+  64. DETAILS OF THE MUTULES.                                       97
+
+  65. ELEVATION AND SECTION OF THE CAPITAL OF A GREEK ANTA,
+      WITH COLOURED DECORATION.                                     99
+
+  66. PALMETTE AND HONEYSUCKLE.                                    102
+
+  67. SHAFT OF AN IONIC COLUMN, SHOWING THE FLUTES.                103
+
+  68. IONIC CAPITAL. FRONT ELEVATION.                              103
+
+  69. IONIC CAPITAL. SIDE ELEVATION.                               103
+
+  70. THE IONIC ORDER. FROM PRIENE, ASIA MINOR.                    105
+
+  71. THE IONIC ORDER. FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM, ATHENS.               106
+
+  72. NORTH-WEST VIEW OF THE ERECHTHEIUM, IN THE TIME OF
+      PERICLES.                                                    107
+
+  73. PLAN OF THE ERECHTHEIUM.                                     108
+
+  74. IONIC BASE FROM THE TEMPLE OF THE WINGLESS VICTORY
+      (NIKÈ APTEROS).                                              108
+
+  75. IONIC BASE MOULDINGS FROM PRIENE.                            108
+
+  76. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. FROM THE MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES
+      AT ATHENS.                                                   111
+
+  77. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM THE MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES.          112
+
+  78. MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES, AS IN THE TIME OF PERICLES.          113
+
+  79. CAPITAL OF AN ANTA FROM MILETUS. SIDE VIEW.                  114
+
+  80. RESTORATION OF THE GREEK THEATRE OF SEGESTA.                 115
+
+  81. CAPITAL OF AN ANTA FROM MILETUS.                             117
+
+  82. GREEK DOORWAY, SHOWING CORNICE.                              123
+
+  83. GREEK DOORWAY. FRONT VIEW. (FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM.)           123
+
+  84. THE ACANTHUS LEAF AND STALK.                                 128
+
+  85. THE ACANTHUS LEAF.                                           129
+
+  86. METOPE FROM THE PARTHENON. CONFLICT BETWEEN A CENTAUR
+      AND ONE OF THE LAPITHÆ.                                      130
+
+  87. MOSAIC FROM THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS, OLYMPIA.                     131
+
+  88. SECTION OF THE PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM.                   132
+
+  89. PLAN OF THE PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM, LOOKING UP.          132
+
+  90. CAPITAL OF ANTÆ FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM.                        133
+
+  91-96. GREEK ORNAMENTS IN RELIEF.                                134
+
+  97-104. GREEK ORNAMENTS IN RELIEF.                               135
+
+  105-110. GREEK ORNAMENTS IN COLOUR.                              136
+
+  111-113. EXAMPLES OF HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT.                       137
+
+  114. COMBINATION OF THE FRET, THE EGG AND DART, THE BEAD
+       AND FILLET, AND THE HONEYSUCKLE.                            137
+
+  116-120. EXAMPLES OF THE FRET.                                   137
+
+  121. ELEVATION OF AN ETRUSCAN TEMPLE (RESTORED FROM
+       DESCRIPTIONS ONLY).                                         138
+
+  122. SEPULCHRE AT CORNETO.                                       140
+
+  123. THE CLOACA MAXIMA.                                          142
+
+  124. "INCANTADA" IN SALONICA.                                    147
+
+  125. THE IONIC ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA VIRILIS,
+       ROME.                                                       148
+
+  126. ROMAN-CORINTHIAN TEMPLE AT NÎMES (MAISON CARRÉE).
+       PROBABLY OF THE TIME OF HADRIAN.                            150
+
+  127. GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI.               151
+
+  128. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI.    152
+
+  129. THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. PLAN, LOOKING UP, AND
+       SECTION OF PART OF THE PERISTYLE.                           153
+
+  130. GROUND-PLAN OF THE BASILICA ULPIA, ROME.                    155
+
+  131. PLAN OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME.                                157
+
+  132. THE COLOSSEUM. SECTION AND ELEVATION.                       158
+
+  133. PLAN OF THE PRINCIPAL BUILDING, BATHS OF CARACALLA, ROME.   163
+
+  134. INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA DEGLI ANGELI, ROME.                 165
+
+  135. THE PANTHEON, ROME. GROUND-PLAN.                            166
+
+  136. THE PANTHEON. EXTERIOR.                                     167
+
+  137. THE PANTHEON. INTERIOR.                                     168
+
+  138. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE PANTHEON.                     169
+
+  139. THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME.                              172
+
+  140. GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII.                 176
+
+  141. GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE TRAGIC POET, POMPEII.       177
+
+  142. THE ATRIUM OF A POMPEIAN HOUSE.                             178
+
+  143. WALL DECORATION FROM POMPEII.                               180
+
+  144. CARVING FROM THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME.                      182
+
+  145. ROMAN-CORINTHIAN CAPITAL AND BASE. FROM THE TEMPLE OF
+       VESTA AT TIVOLI.                                            188
+
+  145a. A ROMAN COMPOSITE CAPITAL.                                 188
+
+  146. PART OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, ROME. SHOWING THE
+       COMBINATION OF COLUMNS AND ARCHED OPENINGS.                 190
+
+  147. FROM THE RUINS OF THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME. SHOWING
+       THE USE OF AN ATTIC STORY.                                  191
+
+  148. FROM THE BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN, ROME. SHOWING A
+       FRAGMENTARY ENTABLATURE AT THE STARTING OF PART
+       OF A VAULT.                                                 192
+
+  149. FROM THE PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, SPALATRO. SHOWING AN
+       ARCH SPRINGING FROM A COLUMN.                               192
+
+  150. MOULDINGS AND ORNAMENTS FROM VARIOUS ROMAN BUILDINGS.       193
+
+  151. ROMAN CARVING. AN ACANTHUS LEAF.                            194
+
+  152. THE EGG AND DART ENRICHMENT--ROMAN.                         194
+
+  153. WALL-DECORATION OF (SO-CALLED) ARABESQUE CHARACTER
+       FROM POMPEII.                                               195
+
+  154. DECORATION IN RELIEF AND COLOUR OF THE VAULT OF A TOMB
+       IN THE VIA LATINA, NEAR ROME.                               197
+
+  155. BASILICA CHURCH OF SAN MINIATO, FLORENCE.                   198
+
+  156. INTERIOR OF A BASILICA AT POMPEII. RESTORED, FROM
+       DESCRIPTIONS BY VARIOUS AUTHORS.                            200
+
+  156a. BASILICA, OR EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH, OF SANT' AGNESE
+        AT ROME.                                                   202
+
+  157. SANT' APOLLINARE, RAVENNA. PART OF THE ARCADE AND APSE.     205
+
+  158. APSE OF THE BASILICA OF SAN PAOLO FUORI LE MURA, ROME.      207
+
+  158a. FRIEZE FROM THE MONASTERY AT FULDA.                        210
+
+  159. CHURCH OF SANTA SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE. LONGITUDINAL
+       SECTION.                                                    212
+
+  160. PLAN OF SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA.                              216
+
+  161. SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. LONGITUDINAL SECTION.                216
+
+  162. PLAN OF ST. MARK'S AT VENICE.                               217
+
+  163. SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM THE GOLDEN DOOR OF JERUSALEM.      219
+
+  164. CHURCH AT TURMANIN IN SYRIA.                                220
+
+  165. TOWER OF A RUSSIAN CHURCH.                                  221
+
+  166. TOWER OF EARL'S BARTON CHURCH.                              223
+
+  167. CATHEDRAL AT PIACENZA.                                      225
+
+  168. VAULTS OF THE EXCAVATED ROMAN BATHS IN THE MUSÉE
+       DE CLUNY, PARIS.                                            227
+
+  169. CHURCH OF ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE.                             228
+
+  170. NAVE ARCADE AT ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE.                        229
+
+  171. ARCHES IN RECEDING PLANES AT ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE.          230
+
+  172. NORMAN ARCHES IN ST. PETER'S CHURCH, NORTHAMPTON.           234
+
+  173. NAVE ARCADE, PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL.                        236
+
+  174. DECORATIVE ARCADE FROM CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL.                237
+
+  175. HEDINGHAM CASTLE.                                           238
+
+  176. INTERIOR OF HEDINGHAM CASTLE.                               239
+
+  177. ROUNDED ARCH OF CHURCH AT GELNHAUSEN.                       240
+
+  178. PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES AT COLOGNE.              241
+
+  179. SPIRE OF SPIRES CATHEDRAL.                                  242
+
+  180. CHURCH AT ROSHEIM. UPPER PORTION OF FAÇADE.                 244
+
+  181. CUBIC CAPITAL.                                              246
+
+  182. DOORWAY AT TIND, NORWAY.                                    247
+
+  183. MOULDINGS OF PORTAL OF ST. JAMES'S CHURCH AT KOESFELD.      248
+
+  184. BYZANTINE BASKET WORK CAPITAL FROM SAN MICHELE IN
+       AFFRICISCO AT RAVENNA.                                      251
+
+  185. ARABIAN CAPITAL. FROM THE ALHAMBRA.                         252
+
+  186. HORSE-SHOE ARCH.                                            254
+
+  187. EXTERIOR OF SANTA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE. SHOWING THE
+       MINARETS ADDED AFTER ITS CONVERSION INTO A MOSQUE.          255
+
+  188. ALHAMBRA. HALL OF THE ABENCERRAGES.                         257
+
+  189. MOSQUE "EL MOYED" AT CAIRO.                                 259
+
+  190. ARABIAN WALL DECORATION.                                    260
+
+  191. PLAN OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM.                     261
+
+  192. SECTION OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM.                  262
+
+  193. DOORWAY IN THE ALHAMBRA.                                    264
+
+  194. GRAND MOSQUE AT DELHI, BUILT BY SHAH JEHAN.                 267
+
+  195. ENTRANCE TO A MOORISH BAZAAR.                               269
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: ROCK-CUT TOMB AT MYRA, IN LYCIA.
+      _Imitation of Timber Construction in Stone._]
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY.
+
+
+    ABACUS, a square tablet which crowns the capital of the
+    column.
+
+    ACANTHUS, a plant, the foliage of which was imitated in
+    the ornament of the Corinthian capital.
+
+    AGORA, the place of general assembly in a Greek city.
+
+    ALÆ (_Lat._ wings), recesses opening out of the atrium
+    of a Roman house.
+
+    ALHAMBRA, the palatial fortress of Granada (from _al
+    hamra_--the red).
+
+    AMBO, a fitting of early Christian churches, very
+    similar to a pulpit.
+
+    AMPHITHEATRE, a Roman place of public entertainment in
+    which combats of gladiators, &c., were exhibited.
+
+    ANTÆ, narrow piers used in connection with columns in
+    Greek architecture, for the same purpose as pilasters in
+    Roman.
+
+    ARABESQUE, a style of very light ornamental decoration.
+
+    ARCHAIC, primitive, so ancient as to be rude, or at
+    least extremely simple.
+
+    ARCHIVOLT, the series of mouldings which is carried
+    round an arch.
+
+    ARENA, the space in the centre of an amphitheatre where
+    the combats, &c., took place.
+
+    ARRIS, a sharp edge.
+
+    ASTRAGAL, a small round moulding.
+
+    ATRIUM, the main quadrangle in a Roman dwelling-house;
+    also the enclosed court in front of an early Christian
+    basilican church.
+
+
+    BAPTISTERY, a building, or addition to a building,
+    erected for the purposes of celebrating the rite of
+    Christian baptism.
+
+    BASEMENT, the lowest story of a building, applied also
+    to the lowest part of an architectural design.
+
+    BAS-RELIEF, a piece of sculpture in low relief.
+
+    BIRD'S-BEAK, a moulding in Greek architecture, used in
+    the capitals of Antæ.
+
+    BYZANTINE, the style of Christian architecture which
+    had its origin at Byzantium (Constantinople).
+
+
+    CARCERES, in the ancient racecourses, goals and
+    starting-points.
+
+    CARTOUCHE, in Egyptian buildings, a hieroglyphic
+    signifying the name of a king or other important person.
+
+    CARYATIDÆ, human figures made to carry an entablature,
+    in lieu of columns in some Classic buildings.
+
+    CAVÆDIAM, another name for the atrium of a Roman house.
+
+    CAVEA, the part of an ancient theatre occupied by the
+    audience.
+
+    CAVETTO, in Classic architecture, a hollow moulding.
+
+    CELLA, the principal, often the only, apartment of a
+    Greek or Roman temple.
+
+    CHAITYA, an Indian temple, or hall of assembly.
+
+    CIRCUS, a Roman racecourse.
+
+    CLOACA, a sewer or drain.
+
+    COLUMBARIUM, literally a pigeon-house--a Roman sepulchre
+    built in many compartments.
+
+    COLUMNAR, made with columns.
+
+    COMPLUVIUM, the open space or the middle of the roof of
+    a Roman atrium.
+
+    CORONA, in the cornices of Greek and Roman architecture,
+    the plain unmoulded feature which is supported by the
+    lower part of the cornice, and on which the crowning
+    mouldings rest.
+
+    CORNICE, the horizontal series of mouldings crowning the
+    top of a building or the walls of a room.
+
+    CUNEIFORM, of letters in Assyrian inscriptions,
+    wedge-shaped.
+
+    CYCLOPEAN, applied to masonry constructed of vast
+    stones, usually not hewn or squared.
+
+    CYMA (recta, or reversa), a moulding, in Classic
+    architecture, of an outline partly convex and partly
+    concave.
+
+
+    DAGOBA, an Indian tomb of conical shape.
+
+    DENTIL BAND, in Classic architecture, a series of small
+    blocks resembling square-shaped teeth.
+
+    DOMUS (_Lat._), a house, applied usually to a detached
+    residence.
+
+    DWARF-WALL, a very low wall.
+
+
+    ECHINUS, in Greek Doric architecture, the principal
+    moulding of the capital placed immediately under the
+    abacus.
+
+    ENTABLATURE, the superstructure--comprising architrave,
+    frieze and cornice--above the columns in Classic
+    architecture.
+
+    ENTASIS, in the shaft of a column, a curved outline.
+
+    EPHEBEUM, the large hall in Roman baths in which youths
+    practised gymnastic exercises.
+
+
+    FACIA, in Classic architecture, a narrow flat band or
+    face.
+
+    FAUCES, the passage from the atrium to the peristyle in
+    a Roman house.
+
+    FLUTES, the small channels which run from top to bottom
+    of the shaft of most columns in Classic architecture.
+
+    FORUM, the place of general assembly in a Roman city, as
+    the Agora was in a Greek.
+
+    FRESCO, painting executed upon a plastered wall while
+    the plaster is still wet.
+
+    FRET, an ornament made up of squares and L-shaped lines,
+    in use in Greek architecture.
+
+
+    GARTH, the central space round which a cloister is
+    carried.
+
+    GIRDER, a beam.
+
+    GROUTED, said of masonry or brickwork, treated with
+    liquid mortar to fill up all crevices and interstices.
+
+    GUTTÆ, small pendent features in Greek and Roman Doric
+    cornices, resembling rows of wooden pegs.
+
+
+    HEXASTYLE, of six columns.
+
+    HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT, a decoration constantly introduced
+    into Assyrian and Greek architecture, founded upon the
+    flower of the honeysuckle.
+
+    HORSE-SHOE ARCH, an arch more than a semicircle, and so
+    wider above than at its springing.
+
+    HYPOSTYLE, literally "under columns," but used to mean
+    filled by columns.
+
+
+    IMPLUVIUM, the space into which the rain fell in the
+    centre of the atrium of a Roman house.
+
+    INSULA, a block of building surrounded on all sides by
+    streets, literally an island.
+
+    INTERCOLUMNIATION, the space between two columns.
+
+
+    KEYED, secured closely by interlocking.
+
+    KIBLA, the most sacred part of a Mohammedan mosque.
+
+
+    LÂTS, in Indian architecture, Buddhist inscribed
+    pillars.
+
+
+    MAMMISI, small Egyptian temples.
+
+    MASTABA, the most usual form of Egyptian tomb.
+
+    MAUSOLEUM, a magnificent sepulchral monument or tomb.
+    From the tomb erected to Mausolus, by his wife
+    Artemisia, at Halicarnassus, 379 B.C.
+
+    METOPES, literally faces, the square spaces between
+    triglyphs in Doric architecture; occasionally applied to
+    the sculptures fitted into these spaces.
+
+    MINARET, a slender lofty tower, a usual appendage of a
+    Mohammedan mosque.
+
+    MONOLITH, of one stone.
+
+    MORTISE, a hollow in a stone or timber to receive a
+    corresponding projection.
+
+    MOSQUE, a Mohammedan place of worship.
+
+    MUTULE, a feature in a Classic Doric cornice, somewhat
+    resembling the end of a timber beam.
+
+
+    NARTHEX, in an early Christian church, the space next
+    the entrance.
+
+
+    OBELISK, a tapering stone pillar, a feature of Egyptian
+    architecture.
+
+    OPUS ALEXANDRINUM, the mosaic work used for floors in
+    Byzantine and Romanesque churches.
+
+    OVOLO, a moulding, the profile of which resembles the
+    outline of an egg, used in Classic architecture.
+
+
+    PENDENTIVE, a feature in Byzantine and other domed
+    buildings, employed to enable a circular dome to stand
+    over a square space.
+
+    PERISTYLAR, or PERIPTERAL, with columns all round.
+
+    PERISTYLIUM, or PERISTYLE, in a Roman house, the inner
+    courtyard; also any space or enclosure with columns all
+    round it.
+
+    PISCINA, a small basin usually executed in stone and
+    placed within a sculptured niche, fixed at the side of
+    an altar in a church, with a channel to convey away the
+    water poured into it.
+
+    POLYCHROMY, the use of decorative colours.
+
+    PRECINCTS, the space round a church or religious house,
+    usually enclosed with a wall.
+
+    PRESBYTERY, the eastern part of a church, the chancel.
+
+    PROFILE (of a moulding), the outline which it would
+    present if cut across at right angles to its length.
+
+    PRONAOS, the front portion or vestibule to a temple.
+
+    PROPYLÆA, in Greek architecture, a grand portal or state
+    entrance.
+
+    PROTHYRUM, in a Roman house, the porch or entrance.
+
+    PSEUDO-PERIPTERAL, resembling, but not really being
+    peristylar.
+
+    PYLON, or PRO-PYLON, the portal or front of an Egyptian
+    temple.
+
+
+    QUADRIGA, a four-horse chariot.
+
+
+    ROMANESQUE, the style of Christian architecture which
+    was founded on Roman work.
+
+    ROTUNDA, a building circular in plan.
+
+
+    SACRISTY, the part of a church where the treasures
+    belonging to the church are preserved.
+
+    SHINTO TEMPLES, temples (in Japan) devoted to the Shinto
+    religion.
+
+    SPAN, the space over which an arch or a roof extends.
+
+    SPINA, the central wall of a Roman racecourse.
+
+    STILTED, raised, usually applied to an arch when its
+    centre is above the top of the jambs from which it
+    springs.
+
+    STRUTS, props.
+
+    STUPA, in Indian architecture, a mound or tope.
+
+    STYLOBATE, a series of steps, usually those leading up
+    to a Classic temple.
+
+
+    TAAS, a pagoda.
+
+    TABLINUM, in a Roman house, the room between the atrium
+    and the peristyle.
+
+    TALAR, in Assyrian architecture, an open upper story.
+
+    TENONED, fastened with a projection or tenon.
+
+    TESSELATED, made of small squares of material, applied
+    to coarse mosaic work.
+
+    TETRASTYLE, with four columns.
+
+    THERMÆ, the great bathing establishments of the Romans.
+
+    TOPES, in Indian architecture, artificial mounds.
+
+    TRABEATED, constructed with a beam or beams, a term
+    usually employed in contrast to arches.
+
+    TRICLINIUM, in a Roman house, the dining-room.
+
+    TRIGLYPH, the channelled feature in the frieze of the
+    Doric order.
+
+    TUMULI, mounds, usually sepulchral.
+
+    TYPHONIA, small Egyptian temples.
+
+
+    VELARIUM, a great awning.
+
+    VESTIBULE, the outer hall or ante-room.
+
+    VOLUTES, in Classic architecture, the curled ornaments
+    of the Ionic capital.
+
+    VOUSSOIRS, the wedge-shaped stones of which arches are
+    made.
+
+
+N.B. For the explanation of other technical words found in this
+volume, consult the Glossary given with the companion volume on Gothic
+and Renaissance Architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI.]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Architecture may be described as building at its best, and when we
+talk of the architecture of any city or country we mean its best,
+noblest, or most beautiful buildings; and we imply by the use of the
+word that these buildings possess merits which entitle them to rank as
+works of art.
+
+The architecture of the civilised world can be best understood by
+considering the great buildings of each important nation separately.
+The features, ornaments, and even forms of ancient buildings differed
+just as the speech, or at any rate the literature, differed. Each
+nation wrote in a different language, though the books may have been
+devoted to the same aims; and precisely in the same way each nation
+built in a style of its own, even if the buildings may have been
+similar in the purposes they had to serve. The division of the subject
+into the architecture of Egypt, Greece, Rome, &c., is therefore the
+most natural one to follow.
+
+But certain broad groups, rising out of peculiarities of a physical
+nature, either in the buildings themselves or in the conditions under
+which they were erected, can hardly fail to be suggested by a general
+view of the subject. Such, for example, is the fourfold division to
+which the reader's attention will now be directed.
+
+All buildings, it will be found, can be classed under one or other of
+four great divisions, each distinguished by a distinct mode of
+building, and each also occupying a distinct place in history. The
+first series embraces the buildings of the Egyptians, the Persians,
+and the Greeks, and was brought to a pitch of the highest perfection
+in Greece during the age of Pericles. All the buildings erected in
+these countries during the many centuries which elapsed from the
+earliest Egyptian to the latest Greek works, however they may have
+differed in other respects, agree in this--that the openings, be they
+doors, or be they spaces between columns, were spanned by beams of
+wood or lintels of stone (Fig. 1). Hence this architecture is called
+architecture of the beam, or, in more formal language, trabeated
+architecture. This mode of covering spaces required that in buildings
+of solid masonry, where stone or marble lintels were employed, the
+supports should not be very far apart, and this circumstance led to
+the frequent use of rows of columns. The architecture of this period
+is accordingly sometimes called columnar, but it has no exclusive
+claim to the epithet; the column survived long after the exclusive
+use of the beam had been superseded, and the term columnar must
+accordingly be shared with buildings forming part of the succeeding
+series.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--OPENING SPANNED BY A LINTEL. ARCH OF THE
+      GOLDSMITHS, ROME.]
+
+The second great group of buildings is that in which the semicircular
+arch is introduced into construction, and used either together with
+the beam, or, as mostly happened, instead of the beam, to span the
+openings (Fig. 2). This use of the arch began with the Assyrians, and
+it reappeared in the works of the early Etruscans. The round-arched
+series of styles embraces the buildings of the Romans from their
+earliest beginnings to their decay; it also includes the two great
+schools of Christian architecture which were founded by the Western
+and the Eastern Church respectively,--namely, the Romanesque, which,
+originating in Rome, extended itself through Western Europe, and
+lasted till the time of the Crusades, and the Byzantine, which spread
+from Constantinople over all the countries in which the Eastern (or
+Greek) Church flourished, and which continues to our own day.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--OPENING SPANNED BY A SEMICIRCULAR ARCH. ROMAN
+      TRIUMPHAL ARCH AT POLA.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--OPENINGS SPANNED BY POINTED ARCHES. INTERIOR
+      OF ST. FRONT, PÉRIGUEUX, FRANCE.]
+
+The third group of buildings is that in which the pointed arch is
+employed instead of the semicircular arch to span the openings (Fig.
+3). It began with the rise of Mohammedan architecture in the East, and
+embraces all the buildings of Western Europe, from the time of the
+First Crusade to the revival of art in the fifteenth century. This
+great series of buildings constitutes what is known as Pointed, or,
+more commonly, as Gothic architecture.
+
+The fourth group consists of the buildings erected during or since the
+Renaissance (_i.e._ revival) period, and is marked by a return to the
+styles of past ages or distant countries for the architectural
+features and ornaments of buildings; and by that luxury, complexity,
+and ostentation which, with other qualities, are well comprehended
+under the epithet Modern. This group of buildings forms what is known
+as Renaissance architecture, and extends from the epoch of the revival
+of letters in the fifteenth century, to the present day.
+
+The first two of these styles--namely, the architecture of the beam,
+and that of the round arch--are treated of in this little volume. They
+occupy those remote times of pagan civilisation which may be
+conveniently included under the broad term Ancient; and the better
+known work of the Greeks and Romans--the classic nations--and they
+extend over the time of the establishment of Christianity down to the
+close of that dreary period not incorrectly termed the Dark ages.
+Ancient, Classic, and early Christian architecture is accordingly an
+appropriate title for the main subjects of this volume, though, for
+the sake of convenience, some notices of Oriental architecture have
+been added. Gothic and Renaissance architecture form the subjects of
+the companion volume.
+
+It may excite surprise that what appears to be so small a difference
+as that which exists between a beam, a round arch, or a pointed arch,
+should be employed in order to distinguish three of the four great
+divisions. But in reality this is no pedantic or arbitrary grouping.
+The mode in which spaces or openings are covered lies at the root of
+most of the essential differences between styles of architecture, and
+the distinction thus drawn is one of a real, not of a fanciful nature.
+
+Every building when reduced to its elements, as will be done in both
+these volumes, may be considered as made up of its (1) floor or plan,
+(2) walls, (3) roof, (4) openings, (5) columns, and (6) ornaments, and
+as marked by its distinctive (7) character, and the student must be
+prepared to find that the openings are by no means the least important
+of these elements. In fact, the moment the method of covering openings
+was changed, it would be easy to show, did space permit, that all the
+other elements, except the ornaments, were directly affected by the
+change, and the ornaments indirectly; and we thus find such a
+correspondence between this index feature and the entire structure as
+renders this primary division a scientific though a very broad one.
+The contrast between the trabeated style and the arched style may be
+well understood by comparing the illustration of the Parthenon which
+forms our frontispiece, or that of the great temple of Zeus at Olympia
+(Fig. 4), with the exterior of the Colosseum at Rome (Fig. 5),
+introduced here for the purposes of this comparison.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA. RESTORED ACCORDING
+      TO ADLER.]
+
+A division of buildings into such great series as these cannot,
+however, supersede the more obvious historical and geographical
+divisions. The architecture of every ancient country was partly the
+growth of the soil, _i.e._ adapted to the climate of the country, and
+the materials found there, and partly the outcome of the national
+character of its inhabitants, and of such influences as race,
+colonisation, commerce, or conquest brought to bear upon them. These
+influences produced strong distinctions between the work of different
+peoples, especially before the era of the Roman Empire. Since that
+period of universal dominion all buildings and styles have been
+influenced more or less by Roman art. We accordingly find the
+buildings of the most ancient nations separated from each other by
+strongly marked lines of demarcation, but those since the era of the
+Empire showing a considerable resemblance to one another. The
+circumstance that the remains of those buildings only which received
+the greatest possible attention from their builders have come down to
+us from any remote antiquity, has perhaps served to accentuate the
+differences between different styles, for these foremost buildings
+were not intended to serve the same purpose in all countries. Nothing
+but tombs and temples have survived in Egypt. Palaces only have been
+rescued from the decay of Assyrian and Persian cities; and temples,
+theatres, and places of public assembly are the chief, almost the only
+remains of architecture in Greece.
+
+A strong contrast between the buildings of different ancient nations
+rises also from the differing point of view for which they were
+designed. Thus, in the tombs and, to a large extent, the temples of
+the Egyptians, we find structures chiefly planned for internal effect;
+that is to say, intended to be seen by those admitted to the sacred
+precincts, but only to a limited extent appealing to the admiration of
+those outside. The buildings of the Greeks, on the other hand, were
+chiefly designed to please those who examined them from without, and
+though no doubt some of them, the theatres especially, were from their
+very nature planned for interior effect, by far the greatest works
+which Greek art produced were the exteriors of the temples.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--PART OF THE EXTERIOR OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME.
+      (NOW IN RUINS.)]
+
+The works of the Romans, and, following them, those of almost all
+Western Christian nations, were designed to unite external and
+internal effect; but in many cases external was evidently most sought
+after, and, in the North of Europe, many expedients--such, for
+example, as towers, high-pitched roofs, and steeples--were introduced
+into architecture with the express intention of increasing external
+effect. On the other hand, the Eastern styles, both Mohammedan and
+Christian, especially when practised in sunny climates, show in many
+cases a comparative disregard of external effect, and that their
+architects lavished most of their resources on the interiors of their
+buildings.
+
+Passing allusions have been made to the influence of climate on
+architecture; and the student whose attention has been once called to
+this subject will find many interesting traces of this influence in
+the designs of buildings erected in various countries. Where the power
+of the sun is great, flat terraced roofs, which help to keep buildings
+cool, and thick walls are desirable. Sufficient light is admitted by
+small windows far apart. Overhanging eaves, or horizontal cornices,
+are in such a climate the most effective mode of obtaining
+architectural effect, and accordingly in the styles of all Southern
+peoples these peculiarities appear. The architecture of Egypt, for
+example, exhibited them markedly. Where the sun is still powerful, but
+not so extreme, the terraced roof is generally replaced by a sloping
+roof, steep enough to throw off water, and larger openings are made
+for light and air; but the horizontal cornice still remains the most
+appropriate means of gaining effects of light and shade. This
+description will apply to the architecture of Italy and Greece. When,
+however, we pass to Northern countries, where snow has to be
+encountered, where light is precious, and where the sun is low in the
+heavens for the greater part of the day, a complete change takes
+place. Roofs become much steeper, so as to throw off snow. The
+horizontal cornice is to a large extent disused, but the buttress, the
+turret, and other vertical features, from which a level sun will cast
+shadows, begin to appear; and windows are made numerous and spacious.
+This description applies to Gothic architecture generally--in other
+words, to the styles which rose in Northern Europe.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--TIMBER ARCHITECTURE. CHURCH AT BORGUND.]
+
+The influence of materials on architecture is also worth notice. Where
+granite, which is worked with difficulty, is the material obtainable,
+architecture has invariably been severe and simple; where soft stone
+is obtainable, exuberance of ornament makes its appearance, in
+consequence of the material lending itself readily to the carver's
+chisel. Where, on the other hand, marble is abundant and good,
+refinement is to be met with, for no other building material exists in
+which very delicate mouldings or very slight or slender projections
+may be employed with the certainty that they will be effective. Where
+stone is scarce, brick buildings, with many arches, roughly
+constructed cornices and pilasters, and other peculiarities both of
+structure and ornamentation, make their appearance, as, for example,
+in Lombardy and North Germany. Where materials of many colours abound,
+as is the case, for example, in the volcanic districts of France,
+polychromy is sought as a means of ornamentation. Lastly, where timber
+is available, and stone and brick are both scarce, the result is an
+architecture of which both the forms and the ornamentation are
+entirely dissimilar to those proper to buildings of stone, marble, or
+brick, as may be seen by a glance at our illustration of an early
+Scandinavian church built of timber (Fig. 6), which presents forms
+appropriate to a timber building as being easily constructed of wood,
+but which would hardly be suitable to any other material whatever.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--EGYPTIAN CORNICE.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+The origin of Egyptian architecture, like that of Egyptian history, is
+lost in the mists of antiquity. The remains of all, or almost all,
+other styles of architecture enable us to trace their rude beginnings,
+their development, their gradual progress up to a culminating point,
+and thence their slow but certain decline; but the earliest remains of
+the constructions of the Egyptians show their skill as builders at the
+height of its perfection, their architecture highly developed, and
+their sculpture at its very best, if not indeed at the commencement of
+its decadence; for some of the statuary of the age of the Pyramids was
+never surpassed in artistic effect by the work of a later era. It is
+impossible for us to conceive of such scientific skill as is evidenced
+in the construction of the great pyramids, or such artistic power as
+is displayed on the walls of tombs of the same date, or in the statues
+found in them, as other than the outcome of a vast accumulation of
+experience, the attainment of which must imply the lapse of very long
+periods of time since the nation which produced such works emerged
+from barbarism. It is natural, where so remote an antiquity is in
+question, that we should feel a great difficulty, if not an
+impossibility, in fixing exact dates, but the whole tendency of modern
+exploration and research is rather to push back than to advance the
+dates of Egyptian chronology, and it is by no means impossible that
+the dynasties of Manetho, after being derided as apocryphal for
+centuries, may in the end be accepted as substantially correct.
+Manetho was an Egyptian priest living in the third century B.C., who
+wrote a history of his country, which he compiled from the archives of
+the temples. His work itself is lost, but Josephus quotes extracts
+from it, and Eusebius and Julius Africanus reproduced his lists, in
+which the monarchs of Egypt are grouped into thirty-four dynasties.
+These, however, do not agree with one another, and in many cases it is
+difficult to reconcile them with the records displayed in the
+monuments themselves.
+
+The remains with which we are acquainted indicate four distinct
+periods of great architectural activity in Egyptian history, viz.: (1)
+the period of the fourth dynasty, when the Great Pyramids were erected
+(probably 3500 to 3000 B.C.); (2) the period of the twelfth dynasty,
+to which belong the remains at Beni-Hassan; (3) the period of the
+eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, when Thebes was in its glory,
+which is attested by the ruins of Luxor and Karnak; and (4) the
+Ptolemaic period, of which there are the remains at Denderah, Edfou,
+and Philæ. The monuments that remain are almost exclusively tombs and
+temples. The tombs are, generally speaking, all met with on the east
+or right bank of the Nile: among them must be classed those grandest
+and oldest monuments of Egyptian skill, the Pyramids, which appear to
+have been all designed as royal burying-places. A large number of
+pyramids have been discovered, but those of Gizeh, near Cairo, are the
+largest and the best known, and also probably the oldest which can be
+authenticated.[1] The three largest pyramids are those of Cheops,
+Cephren, and Mycerinus at Gizeh (or, as the names are more correctly
+written, Suphis, Sensuphis, and Moscheris or Mencheris). These
+monarchs all belonged to the fourth dynasty, and the most probable
+date to be assigned to them is about 3000 B.C. The pyramid of Suphis
+is the largest, and is the one familiarly known as the Great Pyramid;
+it has a square base, the side of which is 760 feet long,[2] a height
+of 484 feet, and an area of 577,600 square feet. In this pyramid the
+angle of inclination of the sloping sides to the base is 51° 51', but
+in no two pyramids is this angle the same. There can be no doubt that
+these huge monuments were erected each as the tomb of an individual
+king, whose efforts were directed towards making it everlasting, and
+the greatest pains were taken to render the access to the burial
+chamber extremely hard to discover. This accounts for the vast
+disproportion between the lavish amount of material used for the
+pyramid and the smallness of the cavity enclosed in it (Fig. 8).
+
+The material employed was limestone cased with syenite (granite from
+Syene), and the internal passages were lined with granite. The granite
+of the casing has entirely disappeared, but that employed as linings
+is still in its place, and so skilfully worked that it would not be
+possible to introduce even a sheet of paper between the joints.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--SECTION ACROSS THE GREAT PYRAMID (OF CHEOPS
+      OR SUPHIS).]
+
+The entrance D to this pyramid of Suphis was at a height of 47 ft.
+6 in. above the base, and, as was almost invariably the case, on the
+north face; from the entrance a passage slopes downward at an angle of
+26° 27' to a chamber cut in the rock at a depth of about 90 feet below
+the base of the pyramid. This chamber seems to have been intended as a
+blind, as it was not the place for the deposition of the corpse. From
+the point in the above described passage--marked A on our illustration
+of this pyramid--another gallery starts upwards, till it reaches the
+point C, from which a horizontal passage leads to another small
+chamber. This is called the Queen's Chamber, but no reason has been
+discovered for the name. From this point C the gallery continues
+upwards till, in the heart of the pyramid, the Royal Chamber, B, is
+reached. The walls of these chambers and passages are lined with
+masonry executed in the hardest stone (granite), and with an accuracy
+of fitting and a truth of surface that can hardly be surpassed.
+Extreme care seems to have been taken to prevent the great weight
+overhead from crushing in the galleries and the chamber. The gallery
+from C upwards is of the form shown in Fig. 9, where each layer of
+stones projects slightly beyond the one underneath it. Fig. 11 is a
+section of the chamber itself, and the succession of small chambers
+shown one above the other was evidently formed for the purpose of
+distributing the weight of the superincumbent mass. From the point C a
+narrow well leads almost perpendicularly downwards to a point nearly
+at the bottom of the first-mentioned gallery; and the purpose to be
+served by this well was long a subject of debate. The probability is
+that, after the corpse had been placed in its chamber, the workmen
+completely blocked up the passage from A to C by allowing large blocks
+of granite to slide down it, these blocks having been previously
+prepared and deposited in the larger gallery; the men then let
+themselves down the well, and by means of the lower gallery made their
+exit from the pyramid. The entrances to the chamber and to the pyramid
+itself were formed by huge blocks of stone which exactly fitted into
+grooves prepared for them with the most beautiful mathematical
+accuracy. The chief interest attaching to the pyramids lies in their
+extreme antiquity, and the scientific method of their construction;
+for their effect upon the spectator is by no means proportionate to
+their immense mass and the labour bestowed upon them.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--ASCENDING GALLERY IN THE GREAT PYRAMID.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--THE SEPULCHRAL CHAMBER IN THE PYRAMID OF
+      CEPHREN AT GIZEH.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE KING'S CHAMBER IN
+      THE GREAT PYRAMID.]
+
+In the neighbourhood of the pyramids are found a large number of tombs
+which are supposed to be those of private persons. Their form is
+generally that of a _mastaba_ or truncated pyramid with sloping walls,
+and their construction is evidently copied from a fashion of wooden
+architecture previously existing. The same idea of making an
+everlasting habitation for the body prevailed as in the case of the
+pyramids, and stone was therefore the material employed; but the
+builders seem to have desired to indulge in a decorative style, and as
+they were totally unable to originate a legitimate stone architecture,
+we find carved in stone, rounded beams as lintels, grooved posts,
+and--most curious of all--roofs that are an almost exact copy of the
+early timber huts when unsquared baulks of timber were laid across
+side by side to form a covering. Figs. 12 and 13 show this kind of
+stone-work, which is peculiar to the old dynasties, and seems to have
+had little influence upon succeeding styles.
+
+A remarkable feature of these early private tombs consists in the
+paintings with which the walls are decorated, and which vividly
+portray the ordinary every-day occupations carried on during his
+lifetime by the person who was destined to be the inmate of the tomb.
+These paintings are of immense value in enabling us to form an
+accurate idea of the life of the people at this early age.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE,
+      FROM A TOMB AT MEMPHIS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE,
+      FROM A TOMB AT MEMPHIS.]
+
+It may possibly be open to doubt whether the dignified appellation of
+architecture should be applied to buildings of the kind we have just
+been describing; but when we come to the series of remains of the
+twelfth dynasty at Beni-Hassan, in middle Egypt, we meet with the
+earliest known examples of that most interesting feature of all
+subsequent styles--the column. Whether the idea of columnar
+architecture originated with the necessities of quarrying--square
+piers being left at intervals to support the superincumbent mass of
+rock as the quarry was gradually driven in--or whether the earliest
+stone piers were imitations of brickwork or of timber posts, we shall
+probably never be able to determine accurately, though the former
+supposition seems the more likely. We have here monuments of a date
+1400 years anterior to the earliest known Greek examples, with
+splendid columns, both exterior and interior, which no reasonable
+person can doubt are the prototypes of the Greek Doric order. Fig. 14
+is a plan with a section, and Fig. 15 an exterior view, of one of
+these tombs, which, it will be seen, consisted of a portico, a chamber
+with its roof supported by columns, and a small space at the farther
+end in which is formed the opening of a sloping passage or well, at
+the bottom of which the vault for the reception of the body was
+constructed. The walls of the large chamber are lavishly decorated
+with scenes of every-day life, and it has even been suggested that
+these places were not erected originally as tombs, but as
+dwelling-places, which after death were appropriated as sepulchres.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--PLAN AND SECTION OF THE TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.
+
+      SECTION.]
+
+The columns are surmounted by a small square slab, technically called
+an abacus, and heavy square beams or architraves span the spaces
+between the columns, while the roof between the architraves has a
+slightly segmental form. The tombs of the later period, viz. of the
+eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, are very different from those of
+the twelfth dynasty, and present few features of architectural
+interest, though they are remarkable for their vast extent and the
+variety of form of their various chambers and galleries. They consist
+of a series of chambers excavated in the rock, and it appears certain
+that the tomb was commenced on the accession of each monarch, and was
+driven farther and farther into the rock during the continuance of his
+reign till his death, when all work abruptly ceased. All the chambers
+are profusely decorated with paintings, but of a kind very different
+from those of the earlier dynasties. Instead of depicting scenes of
+ordinary life, all the paintings refer to the supposed life after
+death, and are thus of very great value as a means of determining the
+religious opinions of the Egyptians at this time. One of the most
+remarkable of these tombs is that of Manephthah or Sethi I., at
+Bab-el-Molouk, and known as Belzoni's tomb, as it was discovered by
+him; from it was taken the alabaster sarcophagus now in the Soane
+Museum in Lincoln's Inn Fields. To this relic a new interest is given
+by the announcement, while these pages are passing through the press,
+of the discovery of the mummy of this very Manephthah, with
+thirty-eight other royal mummies, in the neighbourhood of Thebes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--ROCK-CUT FAÇADE OF TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.]
+
+Of the Ptolemaic period no tombs, except perhaps a few at Alexandria,
+are known to exist.
+
+
+TEMPLES.
+
+It is very doubtful whether any remains of temples of the time of the
+fourth dynasty--_i.e._ contemporaneous with the pyramids--exist. One,
+constructed on a most extraordinary plan, was supposed to have been
+discovered about a quarter of a century ago, and it was described by
+Professor Donaldson at the Royal Institute of British Architects in
+1861, but later Egyptologists rather incline to the belief that this
+was a tomb and not a temple, as in one of the chambers of the interior
+a number of compartments were discovered one above the other which
+were apparently intended for the reception of bodies. This singular
+building is close to the Great Sphinx; its plan is cruciform, and
+there are in the interior a number of rectangular piers of granite
+supporting very simple architraves, but there are no means of
+determining what kind of roof covered it in. The walls seem to have
+been faced on the interior with polished slabs of granite or
+alabaster, but no sculpture or hieroglyphic inscriptions were found on
+them to explain the purpose of the building. Leaving this
+building--which is of a type quite unique--out of the question,
+Egyptian temples can be generally classed under two heads: (1) the
+large principal temples, and (2) the small subsidiary ones called
+Typhonia or Mammisi. Both kinds of temple vary little, if at all, in
+plan from the time of the twelfth dynasty down to the Roman dominion.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE PALACE AT KARNAK.]
+
+The large temples consist almost invariably of an entrance gate
+flanked on either side by a large mass of masonry, called a pylon, in
+the shape of a truncated pyramid (Fig. 18). The axis of the
+ground-plan of these pylons is frequently obliquely inclined to the
+axis of the plan of the temple itself; and indeed one of the most
+striking features of Egyptian temples is the lack of regularity and
+symmetry in their construction. The entrance gives access to a large
+courtyard, generally ornamented with columns: beyond this, and
+occasionally approached by steps, is another court, smaller than the
+first, but much more splendidly adorned with columns and colossi;
+beyond this again, in the finest examples, occurs what is called the
+Hypostyle Hall, _i.e._ a hall with two rows of lofty columns down the
+centre, and at the sides other rows, more or less in number, of lower
+columns; the object of this arrangement being that the central portion
+might be lighted by a kind of clerestory above the roof of the side
+portions. Fig. 17 shows this arrangement. This hypostyle hall stood
+with its greatest length transverse to the general axis of the temple,
+so that it was entered from the side. Beyond it were other chambers,
+all of small size, the innermost being generally the sanctuary, while
+the others were probably used as residences by the priests. Homer's
+hundred-gated Thebes, which was for so long the capital of Egypt,
+offers at Karnak and Luxor the finest remains of temples; what is left
+of the former evidently showing that it must have been one of the most
+magnificent buildings ever erected in any country. Fig. 16 is a plan
+of the temple of Karnak, which was about 1200 feet long and 348 feet
+wide. A is the entrance between the two enormous pylons giving access
+to a large courtyard, in which is a small detached temple, and another
+larger one breaking into the courtyard obliquely. A gateway between a
+second pair of pylons admits to B, the grand Hypostyle Hall, 334 feet
+by 167 feet. Beyond this are additional gateways with pylons,
+separated by a sort of gallery, C, in which were two gigantic
+obelisks; D, another grand hall, is called the Hall of the Caryatides,
+and beyond is the Hall of the eighteen columns, through which access
+is gained to a number of smaller halls grouped round the central
+chamber E. Beyond this is a large courtyard, in the centre of which
+stood the original sanctuary, which has disappeared down to its
+foundations, nothing but some broken shafts of columns remaining. At
+the extreme east is another hall supported partly by columns and
+partly by square piers, and a second series of pillared courts and
+chambers. The pylons and buildings generally decrease in height as we
+proceed from the entrance eastwards. This is due to the fact that, the
+building grew by successive additions, each one more magnificent than
+the last, all being added on the side from which the temple was
+entered, leaving the original sanctuary unchanged and undisturbed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--THE HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK, SHOWING THE
+      CLERESTORY.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--ENTRANCE TO AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE, SHOWING THE
+      PYLONS.]
+
+Besides the buildings shown on the plan there were many other temples
+to the north, south, and east, entered by pylons and some of them
+connected together by avenues of sphinxes, obelisks, and colossi,
+which altogether made up the most wonderful agglomeration of buildings
+that can be conceived. It must not be imagined that this temple of
+Karnak, together with the series of connected temples is the result,
+of one clearly conceived plan; on the contrary, just as has been
+frequently the case with our own cathedrals and baronial halls,
+alterations were made here and additions there by successive kings one
+after the other without much regard to connection or congruity, the
+only feeling that probably influenced them being that of emulation to
+excel in size and grandeur the erections of their predecessors, as the
+largest buildings are almost always of latest date. The original
+sanctuary, or nucleus of the temple, was built by Usertesen I., the
+second or third king of the twelfth dynasty. Omenophis, the first king
+of the Shepherd dynasties, built a temple round the sanctuary, which
+has disappeared. Thothmes I. built the Hall of the Caryatides and
+commenced the next Hall of the eighteen columns, which was finished by
+Thothmes II. Thothmes III. built that portion surrounding the
+sanctuary, and he also built the courts on the extreme east. The pylon
+at C was built by Omenophis III., and formed the façade of the temple
+before the erection of the grand hall. Sethi I. built the Hypostyle
+Hall, which had probably been originated by Rhamses I., who commenced
+the pylon west of it. Sethi II. built the small detached temple, and
+Rhamses III. the intersecting temple. The Bubastites constructed the
+large front court by building walls round it, and the Ptolemies
+commenced the huge western pylon. The colonnade in the centre of the
+court was erected by Tahraka.
+
+Extensive remains of temples exist at Luxor, Edfou (Fig. 19), and
+Philæ, but it will not be necessary to give a detailed description of
+them, as, if smaller in size, they are very similar in arrangement to
+those already described. It should be noticed that all these large
+temples have the mastaba form, _i.e._ the outer walls are not
+perpendicular on the outside, but slope inwards as they rise, thus
+giving the buildings an air of great solidity.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT EDFOU.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--PLAN OF ONE OF THE MAMMISI AT EDFOU.]
+
+The Mammisi exhibit quite a different form of temple from those
+previously described, and are generally found in close proximity to
+the large temples. They are generally erected on a raised terrace,
+rectangular on plan and nearly twice as long as it was wide,
+approached by a flight of steps opposite the entrance; they consist of
+oblong buildings, usually divided by a wall into two chambers, and
+surrounded on all sides by a colonnade composed of circular columns or
+square piers placed at intervals, and the whole is roofed in. A dwarf
+wall is frequently found between the piers and columns, about half the
+height of the shaft. These temples differ from the larger ones in
+having their outer walls perpendicular. Fig. 20 is a plan of one of
+these small temples, and no one can fail to remark the striking
+likeness to some of the Greek temples; there can indeed be little
+doubt that this nation borrowed the peristylar form of its temples
+from the Ancient Egyptians.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT
+      IPSAMBOUL.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--SECTION OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT
+      IPSAMBOUL.]
+
+Although no rock-cut temples have been discovered in Egypt proper,
+Nubia is very rich in such remains. The arrangement of these temples
+hewn out of the rock is closely analogous to that of the detached
+ones. Figs. 21 and 22 show a plan and section of the largest of the
+rock-cut temples at Ipsamboul, which consists of two extensive courts,
+with smaller chambers beyond, all connected by galleries. The roof of
+the large court is supported by eight huge piers, the faces of which
+are sculptured into the form of standing colossi, and the entrance is
+adorned by four splendid seated colossi, 68 ft. 6 in. high. As was the
+case with the detached temples, it will be noticed that the height of
+the various chambers decreases towards the extremity of the
+excavation.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS BUD CAPITAL.
+
+      PLAN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS FLOWER CAPITAL.]
+
+The constructional system pursued by the Egyptians, which consisted in
+roofing over spaces with large horizontal blocks of stone, led of
+necessity to a columnar arrangement in the interiors, as it was
+impossible to cover large areas without frequent upright supports.
+Hence the column became the chief means of obtaining effect, and the
+varieties of form which it exhibits are very numerous. The earliest
+form is that at Beni-Hassan, which has already been noticed as the
+prototype of the Doric order. Figs. 23 and 24 are views of two columns
+of a type more commonly employed. In these the sculptors appear to
+have imitated as closely as possible the forms of the plant-world
+around them, as is shown in Fig. 23, which represents a bundle of
+reeds or lotus stalks, and is the earliest type known of the lotus
+column, which was afterwards developed into a number of forms, one of
+which will be observed on turning to our section of the Hypostyle Hall
+at Karnak (Fig. 17), as employed for the lateral columns. The stalks
+are bound round with several belts, and the capital is formed by the
+slightly bulging unopened bud of the flower, above which is a small
+abacus with the architrave resting upon it: the base is nothing but a
+low circular plinth. The square piers also have frequently a lotus bud
+carved on them. At the bottom of the shaft is frequently found a
+decoration imitated from the sheath of leaves from which the plant
+springs. As a further development of this capital we have the opened
+lotus flower of a very graceful bell-like shape, ornamented with a
+similar sheath-like decoration to that at the base of the shaft (Fig.
+24). This decoration was originally painted only, not sculptured, but
+at a later period we find these sheaths and buds worked in stone. Even
+more graceful is the palm capital, which also had its leading lines of
+decoration painted on it at first (Fig. 25), and afterwards sculptured
+(Fig. 26). At a later period of the style we find the plant forms
+abandoned, and capitals were formed of a fantastic combination of the
+head of Isis with a pylon resting upon it (Fig. 27). Considerable
+ingenuity was exercised in adapting the capitals of the columns to the
+positions in which they were placed: thus in the hypostyle halls, the
+lofty central row of columns generally had capitals of the form shown
+in Fig. 24, as the light here was sufficient to illuminate thoroughly
+the underside of the overhanging bell; but those columns which were
+farther removed from the light had their capitals of the unopened bud
+form, which was narrower at the top than at bottom. In one part of the
+temple at Karnak is found a very curious capital resembling the open
+lotus flower inverted. The proportion which the height of Egyptian
+columns bears to their diameter differs so much in various cases that
+there was evidently no regular standard adhered to, but as a general
+rule they have a heavy and massive character. The wall-paintings of
+the Egyptian buildings show many curious forms of columns (Fig. 28),
+but we have no reason for thinking that these fantastic shapes were
+really executed in stone.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--PALM CAPITAL.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--SCULPTURED CAPITAL.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--ISIS CAPITAL FROM DENDERAH.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--FANCIFUL COLUMN FROM PAINTED DECORATION AT
+      THEBES.]
+
+Almost the only sculptured ornaments worked on the exteriors of
+buildings were the curious astragal or bead at all the angles, and the
+cornice, which consisted of a very large cavetto, or hollow moulding,
+surmounted by a fillet. These features are almost invariable from the
+earliest to the latest period of the style. This cavetto was generally
+enriched, over the doorways, with an ornament representing a circular
+boss with a wing at each side of it (Fig. 29).
+
+One other feature of Egyptian architecture which was peculiar to it
+must be mentioned; namely, the obelisk. Obelisks were nearly always
+erected in pairs in front of the pylons of the temples, and added to
+the dignity of the entrance. They were invariably monoliths, slightly
+tapering in outline, carved with the most perfect accuracy; they must
+have existed originally in very large numbers. Not a few of these have
+been transported to Europe, and at least twelve are standing in Rome,
+one is in Paris, and one in London.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--CROWNING CORNICE AND BEAD.]
+
+The most striking features, and the most artistic, in the decoration
+of Egyptian buildings, are the mural paintings and sculptured
+pictures, which are found in the most lavish profusion, and which
+exhibit the highest skill in conventionalising the human figure and
+other objects.[3] Tombs and temples, columns and obelisks are
+completely covered with graphic representations of peaceful home
+pursuits, warlike expeditions and battle scenes, and--though not till
+a late period--descriptions of ritual and mythological delineations of
+the supposed spirit-world which the soul has entered after death.
+These pictures, together with the hieroglyphic inscriptions--which
+are in themselves a series of pictures--not only relieve the bare wall
+surface, but, what is far more important, enable us to realise the
+kind of existence which was led by this ancient people; and as in
+nearly every case the cartouche (or symbol representing the name) of
+the monarch under whose reign the building was erected was added, we
+should be able to fix the dates of the buildings with exactness, were
+the chronology of the kings made out beyond doubt.
+
+The following description of the manner in which the Egyptian
+paintings and sculptures were executed--from the pen of Owen
+Jones--will be read with interest:--"The wall was first chiselled as
+smooth as possible, the imperfections of the stone were filled up with
+cement or plaster, and the whole was rubbed smooth and covered with a
+coloured wash; lines were then ruled perpendicularly and horizontally
+with red colour, forming squares all over the wall corresponding with
+the proportions of the figure to be drawn upon it. The subjects of the
+painting and of the hieroglyphics were then drawn on the wall with a
+red line, most probably by the priest or chief scribe, or by some
+inferior artist, from a document divided into similar squares; then
+came the chief artist, who went over every figure and hieroglyphic
+with a black line, and a firm and steady hand, giving expression to
+each curve, deviating here and confirming there the red line. The line
+thus traced was then followed by the sculptor. The next process was to
+paint the figure in the prescribed colours."
+
+Although Egyptian architecture was essentially a trabeated
+style,--that is to say, a style in which beams or lintels were usually
+employed to cover openings,--there is strong ground for the belief
+that the builders of that time were acquainted with the nature of the
+arch. Dr. Birch mentions a rudimentary arch of the time of the fifth
+dynasty: at Abydos there are also remains of vaulted tombs of the
+sixth dynasty; and in a tomb in the neighbourhood of the Pyramids
+there is an elementary arch of three stones surmounted by a true arch
+constructed in four courses. The probability is that true brick arches
+were built at a very early period, but in the construction of their
+tombs, where heavy masses of superincumbent masonry or rock had to be
+supported, the Egyptians seem to have been afraid to risk even the
+remote possibility of their arches decaying; and hence, even when they
+preserved the form of the arch in masonry, they constructed it with
+horizontal courses of stones projecting one over the other, and then
+cut away the lower angles. One dominating idea seems to have
+influenced them in the whole of their work--_esto perpetua_ was their
+motto; and though they have been excelled by later peoples in grace
+and beauty, it is a question whether they have ever been surpassed in
+the skill with which they adapted their means to the end which they
+always kept in view.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+
+_Plan._
+
+_Floor_ (technically _Plan_).--The early rock-cut tombs were, of
+course, only capable of producing internal effects; their floor
+presents a series of halls and galleries, varying in size and shape,
+leading one out of the other, and intended by their contrast or
+combination to produce architectural effect. To this was added in the
+later rock-cut tombs a façade to be seen directly in front. Much the
+same account can be given of the disposition of the built temples.
+They possess one front, which the spectator approaches, and they are
+disposed so as to produce varied and impressive interiors, but not to
+give rise to external display. The supports, such as walls, columns,
+piers, are all very massive and very close together, so that the only
+wide open spaces are courtyards.
+
+The circle, or octagon, or other polygonal forms do not appear in the
+plans of Egyptian buildings; but though all the lines are straight,
+there is a good deal of irregularity in spacing, walls which face one
+another are not always parallel, and angles which appear to be right
+angles very often are not so.
+
+The later buildings extend over much space. The adjuncts to these
+buildings, especially the avenues of sphinxes, are planned so as to
+produce an air of stately grandeur, and in them some degree of
+external effect is aimed at.
+
+
+_Walls._
+
+The walls are uniformly thick, and often of granite or of stone,
+though brick is also met with; _e.g._ some of the smaller pyramids are
+built entirely of brick. In all probability the walls of domestic
+buildings were to a great extent of brick, and less thick than those
+of the temples; hence they have all disappeared.
+
+The surface of walls, even when of granite, was usually plastered with
+a thin fine plaster, which was covered by the profuse decoration in
+colour already alluded to.
+
+The walls of the propylons tapered from the base towards the top, and
+the same thing sometimes occurred in other walls. In almost all cases
+the stone walls are built of very large blocks, and they show an
+unrivalled skill in masonry.
+
+
+_Roofs._
+
+The roofing which remains is executed entirely in stone, but not
+arched or vaulted. The rock-cut tombs, however, as has been stated,
+contain ceilings of an arched shape, and in some cases forms which
+seem to be an imitation of timber roofing. The roofing of the
+Hypostyle Hall at Karnak provides an arrangement for admitting light
+very similar to the clerestory of Gothic cathedrals.
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+The openings were all covered by a stone lintel, and consequently were
+uniformly square-headed. The interspaces between columns were
+similarly covered, and hence Egyptian architecture has been, and
+correctly, classed as the first among the styles of trabeated
+architecture. Window-openings seldom occur.
+
+
+_Columns._
+
+The columns have been already described to some extent. They are
+almost always circular in plan, but the shaft is sometimes channelled.
+They are for the most part of sturdy proportions, but great grace and
+elegance are shown in the profile given to shafts and capitals. The
+design of the capitals especially is full of variety, and admirably
+adapts forms obtained from the vegetable kingdom. The general effect
+of the Egyptian column, wherever it is used, is that it appears to
+have, as it really has, a great deal more strength than is required.
+The fact that the abacus (the square block of stone introduced between
+the moulded part of the capital and what it carries) is often smaller
+in width than the diameter of the column aids very much to produce
+this effect.
+
+
+_Ornaments._
+
+Mouldings are very rarely employed; in fact, the large bead running up
+the angles of the pylons, &c., and a heavy hollow moulding doing duty
+as a cornice, are all that are usually met with. Sculpture and carving
+occur occasionally, and are freely introduced in later works, where we
+sometimes find statues incorporated into the design of the fronts of
+temples. Decoration in colour, in the shape of hieroglyphic
+inscriptions and paintings of all sorts, was profusely employed (Figs.
+27-30), and is executed with a truth of drawing and a beauty of
+colouring that have never been surpassed. As has been pointed out,
+almost every object drawn is partly conventionalised, in the most
+skilful manner, so as to make it fit its place as a piece of a
+decorative system.
+
+
+_Architectural Character._
+
+This is gloomy, and to a certain extent forbidding, owing to the heavy
+walls and piers and columns, and the great masses supported by them;
+but when in its freshness and quite uninjured by decay or violence,
+the exquisite colouring of the walls and ceilings and columns must
+have added a great deal of beauty: this must have very much diminished
+the oppressive effect inseparable from such massive construction and
+from the gloomy darkness of many portions of the buildings. It is also
+noteworthy that the expenditure of materials and labour is greater in
+proportion to the effect attained than in any other style. The
+pyramids are the most conspicuous example of this prodigality. Before
+condemning this as a defect in the style, it must be remembered that a
+stability which should defy enemies, earthquakes, and the tooth of
+time, was far more aimed at than architectural character; and that,
+had any mode of construction less lavish of material, and less perfect
+in workmanship, been adopted, the buildings of Egypt might have all
+disappeared ere this.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--PAINTED DECORATION FROM THEBES.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Some Egyptologists incline to the opinion that the pyramid of
+Saqqára is the most ancient, while others think it much more recent
+than those of Gizeh.
+
+[2] Strictly speaking, the base is not an exact square, the four sides
+measuring, according to the Royal Engineers, north, 760 ft. 7·5 in.;
+south, 761 ft. 8·5 in.; east, 760 ft. 9·5 in.; and west, 764 ft. 1 in.
+
+[3] Conventionalising may be described as representing a part only of
+the visible qualities or features of an object, omitting the remainder
+or very slightly indicating them. A black silhouette portrait is an
+extreme instance of convention, as it displays absolutely nothing but
+the outline of a profile. For decorative purposes it is almost always
+necessary to conventionalise to a greater or less extent whatever is
+represented.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31.--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT NINEVEH.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+The architectural styles of the ancient nations which ruled over the
+countries of Western Asia watered by the Tigris and the Euphrates,
+from a period about 2200 B.C. down to 330 B.C., are so intimately
+connected one with another, and so dependent one upon the other, that
+it is almost impossible to attempt an accurate discrimination between
+the Babylonian, or ancient Chaldæan, the Assyrian and the Persian. A
+more intelligible idea of the architecture of this long period will be
+gained by regarding the three styles as modifications and developments
+of one original style, than by endeavouring to separate them.[4] Their
+sequence can, however, be accurately determined. First comes the old
+Chaldæan period, next the Assyrian, during which the great city of
+Nineveh was built, and finally the Persian, after Cyrus had subdued
+the older monarchies; and remains exist of all these periods. As to
+the origin of the Chaldæan Kingdom, however, all is obscure; and the
+earliest date which can be fixed with the slightest approach to
+probability is 2234 B.C., when Nimrod is supposed to have founded the
+old Chaldæan dynasty. This seems to have lasted about 700 years, and
+was then overthrown by a conquering nation of which no record or even
+tradition remains, the next two and a half centuries being a complete
+blank till the rise of the great Assyrian Monarchy about 1290 B.C.,
+which lasted till its destruction by Cyrus about 538 B.C. The Persian
+Monarchy then endured till the death of Alexander the Great, in 333
+B.C., after which great confusion arose, the empire being broken up
+among his generals and rapidly falling to pieces.
+
+It is only within a comparatively recent period that we have had any
+knowledge of the architecture of these countries; but the explorations
+of M. Botta, commenced in 1843 and continued by M. Place, and those of
+Mr. (now Sir A. H.) Layard in 1845, combined with the successful
+attempts of Prof. Grotefend, Prof. Lassen, and Col. Rawlinson at
+deciphering the cuneiform inscriptions, have disclosed a new world to
+the architectural student, without which some of the developments of
+Greek architecture must have remained obscure. The authentic remains
+of buildings of the early Chaldæan period are too few and in too
+ruinous a condition to allow of a reproduction of their architectural
+features with any certainty. The buildings, whether palaces or
+temples, appear to have been constructed on terraces, and to have been
+several storeys in height; and in one instance, at Mugheyr, the walls
+sloped inwards in a similar manner to those of Egyptian buildings, a
+peculiarity which is not met with in other examples of West Asiatic
+architecture. The materials employed were bricks, both sun-dried and
+kiln-burnt, which seem to have been coated with a vitreous enamel for
+purposes of interior decoration. Fragments of carved limestone were
+discovered by Sir A. H. Layard, but the fact that the fragments found
+have been so few ought not to lead us too hastily to the conclusion
+that stone was not used as facing for architectural purposes, as after
+the buildings became ruined the stone would eagerly be sought for and
+carried away before the brickwork was touched. Bitumen seems to have
+been employed as a cement. Although original buildings of this era
+cannot be found, it has been shown that in all probability we have, in
+a building of a later date--the Birs-i-Nimrud--a type of the old
+Babylonian temple. This in its general disposition must have resembled
+that of the Tomb of Cyrus, described and figured later on, though on a
+vastly larger scale. The lowest storey appears to have been an exact
+square of 272 ft.; each of the higher storeys was 42 ft. less
+horizontally than the one below it, and was placed 30 ft. back from
+the front of the storey below it, but equidistant from the two sides,
+where the platforms were 21 ft. wide. The three upper storeys were
+45 ft. in height altogether, the two below these were 26 ft. each, and
+the height of the lowest is uncertain. The topmost storey probably had
+a tower on it which enclosed the shrine of the temple. This edifice
+was for a long time a bone of contention among savants, but Colonel
+Rawlinson's investigations have brought to light the fact that it was
+a temple dedicated to the seven heavenly spheres, viz. Saturn,
+Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon, in the order
+given, starting from the bottom. Access to the various platforms was
+obtained by stairs, and the whole building was surrounded by a walled
+enclosure. From remains found at Wurkha we may gather that the walls
+of the buildings of this period were covered with elaborate plaster
+ornaments, and that a lavish use was made of colour in their
+decoration.
+
+Of the later Assyrian period several ruins of buildings believed to be
+palaces have been excavated, of which the large palace at Khorsabad,
+the old name of which was Hisir-Sargon, now a small village between 10
+and 11 miles north-east of Nineveh, has been the most completely
+explored, and this consequently is the best adapted to explain the
+general plan of an Assyrian edifice. M. Botta, when French Consul at
+Mosul, and M. Victor Place conducted these explorations, and the
+following details are taken from their works. Like all other Assyrian
+palaces, this was reared on a huge artificial mound, the labour of
+forming which must have been enormous. The reason for the construction
+of these mounds is not far to seek. Just as the chiefs of a
+mountainous country choose the loftiest peaks for their castles, so in
+Assyria, which was a very flat country, the extra defensive strength
+of elevated buildings was clearly appreciated; and as these absolute
+monarchs ruled over a teeming population and had a very large number
+of slaves, and only had to direct their taskmasters to impress labour
+whenever they wanted it, no difficulty existed in forming elevated
+platforms for their palaces. These were frequently close to a river,
+and it is by no means improbable that this was turned into the
+excavation from which the earth for the mound was taken, and thus
+formed a lake or moat as an additional defence. A further reason for
+these terraces may be found in the fact that in a hot climate
+buildings erected some 20 or 30 ft. above the level of the plain
+catch the breezes much more quickly than lower edifices. In the case
+of Khorsabad the terrace was made of sun-dried bricks, about 15·7 in.
+square and 2 in. thick. These bricks were made of the most carefully
+prepared clay. The terrace was faced by a retaining wall of coursed
+masonry, nearly 10 ft. in thickness. On this terrace the palace was
+built, and it consisted of a series of open courts arranged
+unsymmetrically, surrounded by state or private apartments,
+storehouses, stables, &c. Great care seems to have been exercised in
+the accurate orientation of the building, but in rather a peculiar
+manner. Instead of any one façade of the building facing due north,
+the corners face exactly towards the four points of the compass. The
+courts were all entered by magnificent portals flanked by gigantic
+figures, and were approached by flights of steps. Fig. 32 is a plan of
+the palace of Khorsabad, which was placed close to the boundary of the
+city; in fact it was partly outside the city wall proper, though
+surrounded by a wall of its own. The grand south-east portals or
+propylæa were adorned with huge human-headed bulls and gigantic
+figures, and gave access to a large court, 315 ft. by 280 ft., on the
+east side of which are the stables and out-houses, and on the west
+side the metal stores. On the north of this court, though not
+approached directly from it, was the Seraglio (not to be confounded
+with the Harem), the grand entrance to which was from a second large
+court, access to which was obtained from a roadway sloping up from the
+city. The portals to this portion of the palace were also adorned with
+human-headed bulls. From the second court a vaulted passage gave
+access to the state apartments, which appear to have had a direct view
+across the open country, and were quite outside the city walls. The
+Harem has been excavated; it stood just outside the palace proper,
+behind the metal stores. The remains of an observatory exist, and the
+outlines of what is supposed to have been a temple have also been
+unearthed, so that we have here a complete plan of the palace.
+Altogether 31 courts and 198 chambers have been discovered.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--PALACE OF KHORSABAD. BUILT BY KING SARGON
+      ABOUT 710 B.C.
+
+      A, Steps. B, Chief portal. C, Chief entrance-court. D-H, Women's
+      apartments (Harem). J, Centre court of building. K, Chief court
+      of royal residence. L, Portal with carved bulls as guards. M,
+      Centre court of royal residence. N, Temple (?). O, Pyramid of
+      steps. S, Entrance to chief court. T, Plan of terraces with wall
+      and towers.]
+
+It will be noticed that great disproportion exists between the length
+of the various apartments and their breadth, none being more than
+40 ft. wide; and it is probable that this was owing to structural
+necessities, the Assyrian builders finding it impossible, with the
+materials at their disposal, to cover wider spaces than this. The walls
+of this palace vary from 5 to 15 ft. in thickness, and are composed of
+sun-dried bricks, faced in the principal courts and state apartments
+with slabs of alabaster or Mosul gypsum to a height of from 9 to 12 ft.,
+above which kiln-burnt bricks were used. The alabaster slabs were
+held together by iron, copper, or wooden cramps or plugs, and were
+covered with sculptured pictures representing scenes of peace and war,
+from which, as was the case with the Egyptian remains, we are able to
+reconstruct for ourselves the daily life of the monarchs of those early
+times. Above the alabaster slabs plastered decorations were used; in
+some cases painted frescoes have been found, or mosaics formed with
+enamelled bricks of various colours. In the out-buildings and the more
+retired rooms of the palace, the alabaster slabs were omitted, and
+plaster decorations used, from the ground upwards. The researches of
+MM. Botta and Place have shown that colour was used with a lavishness
+quite foreign to our notions, as the alabaster statues as well as the
+plaster enrichments were coloured. M. Place says that in no case were
+the plain bricks allowed to face the walls of an apartment, the joint
+being always concealed either by colour or plaster: in fact, he remarks
+that after a time, if he found walls standing showing the brickwork
+joints, he invariably searched with success among the débris of the
+chamber for remains of the sculptured decorations which had been used
+to face the walls.
+
+Not the least interesting of these discoveries was that of the drains
+under the palace, portions of which were in very good preservation;
+and all were vaulted, so that there can be no doubt whatever that the
+Assyrians were acquainted with the use of the arch. This was further
+proved by the discovery by M. Place of the great arched gates of the
+city itself, with an archivolt of coloured enamelled bricks forming
+various patterns, with a semicircular arch springing from plain jambs.
+Extreme care was taken by the Assyrian builders in laying the
+pavements to ensure their being perfectly level: first a layer of
+kiln-burnt bricks was laid on the ordinary sun-dried bricks forming
+the terrace; then came a layer of fine sand, upon which the bricks or
+slabs of the pavement proper were laid, forming in many cases an
+elegant pattern (see Fig. 33).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--PAVEMENT FROM KHOYUNJIK.]
+
+Great difference of opinion exists as to the manner in which the
+various apartments of the palace were lighted. M. Place suggests that
+the rooms were all vaulted on the inside, and the spandrels filled in
+with earth afterwards to form perfectly flat roofs, and he gives a
+restoration of the building on such an arrangement; but if he is
+correct, it is impossible to see how any light at all can have
+penetrated into the interior of many of the apartments, and as these
+apartments are decorated with a profusion of paintings it is very
+difficult to believe that artificial light alone was used in them. M.
+Place thinks, however, that in some cylindrical terra-cotta vessels
+which he found he has hit upon a species of skylight which passed
+completely through the vault over the rooms, and thus admitted the
+light from above. This, however, can hardly be considered as settled
+yet. Mr. Fergusson, on the other hand, suggests that the thick main
+walls were carried to a height of about 18 or 19 ft., and that above
+this were two rows of dwarf columns, one on the inner and the other on
+the outer edge of the wall, these columns supporting a flat terrace
+roof, and the walls thus forming galleries all round the apartments.
+Then to cover the space occupied by the apartments themselves it is
+necessary to assume the existence of rows of columns, the capitals of
+which were at the same level as those of the dwarf columns on the
+walls. Where one apartment is surrounded on all sides by others, the
+roof over it may have been carried up to a higher level, forming a
+sort of clerestory. This theory no doubt accounts for many things
+which are very hard to explain otherwise, and derives very strong
+support from the analogy of Persepolis, where slender stone columns
+exist. Such columns of cedar wood would add enormously to the
+magnificence and grandeur of the building; and if, as seems likely,
+most of these Assyrian palaces were destroyed by fire, the absence of
+the remains of columns offers no difficulty. On the other hand, in
+many parts of the palace of Khorsabad no trace of fire remains, and
+yet here no suggestion of detached columns can be found, and,
+moreover, it is extremely difficult to arrange columns symmetrically
+in the various apartments so that doorways are not interfered with.
+There is also another difficulty, viz. that if the building called the
+Harem at Khorsabad was built in this way, the apartments would have
+been open to the view of any one ascending the lofty building called
+the observatory. It is quite possible that further explorations may
+tend to elucidate this difficult question of roofing, but at present
+all that can be said is that none of the theories that have been put
+forward is wholly satisfactory.
+
+As no columns at all exist, we cannot say what capitals were employed,
+but it is probable that those of Persepolis, which will be shortly
+described, were copied from an earlier wooden form, which may have
+been that used by the Assyrian builders. There is, however, capping
+the terrace on which the temple was erected at Khorsabad, a good
+example of an Assyrian cornice, which is very similar indeed to the
+forms found in Egypt, and some of the sculptured bas-reliefs which
+have been discovered depict rude copies of Assyrian buildings drawn by
+the people themselves; and it is most interesting to notice that just
+as we found in the Egyptian style the proto-Doric column, so in the
+Assyrian we find the proto-Ionic (Figs. 34, 34a), and possibly also
+the proto-Corinthian (Fig. 34b).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--PROTO-IONIC COLUMN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34a.--PROTO-IONIC CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN
+      SCULPTURE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34b.--PROTO-CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN
+      SCULPTURE.]
+
+The third branch of West Asiatic architecture is the Persian, which
+was developed after Cyrus had conquered the older monarchies, and
+which attained its greatest magnificence under Darius and Xerxes. The
+Persians were originally a brave and hardy race inhabiting the
+mountainous region south of Media, which slopes down to the Persian
+Gulf. Until the time of Cyrus, who was the founder of the great
+kingdom of Persia, they inhabited small towns, had no architecture,
+and were simple barbarians. But after Cyrus had vanquished the wealthy
+and luxurious Assyrian monarchs, and his warriors had seen and
+wondered at the opulence and splendour of the Assyrian palaces, it was
+natural that his successors should strive to emulate for themselves
+the display of their vassals. Therefore, having no indigenous style to
+fall back upon, the artisans who were summoned to build the tomb of
+the founder of the monarchy and the palaces of his successors, simply
+copied the forms with which they were acquainted. Fortunately, the
+sites for the new palaces were in a locality where building stone was
+good and abundant, and the presence of this material had a modifying
+effect upon the architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--TOMB OF CYRUS.]
+
+The best known of the remains which date as far back as the earlier
+Persian dynasties is the so-called tomb of Cyrus at Pasargadæ, near
+Murghab (Fig. 35). This may be looked upon as a model in white marble
+of an old Chaldæan temple, such as the Birs-i-Nimrud. There are the
+same platforms diminishing in area as the top is approached, and on
+the topmost platform is a small cella or temple with a gabled stone
+roof, which probably originally contained the sarcophagus. It is,
+however, at Persepolis, the real capital of the later Persian kings,
+whose grandeur and wealth were such that Alexander is said to have
+found there treasure to the amount of thirty millions of pounds
+sterling, that we find the most magnificent series of ruins. These
+were carefully measured and drawn by Baron Texier in 1835, and his
+work and that of MM. Flandrin and Coste are those from which the best
+information on this subject can be obtained.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35a.--GENERAL PLAN OF THE BUILDINGS AT
+      PERSEPOLIS.]
+
+Persepolis is about 35 miles north-east of Shiraz, close to the main
+highway to Ispahan, at the foot of the mountain range which bounds the
+extensive plain of Nurdusht. The modern inhabitants of the district
+call the ruins Takht-i-Jamshid (or the building of Jamshid), but the
+inscriptions that have been deciphered prove that Darius and Xerxes
+were the chief builders. Just as was the case with the Assyrian ruins,
+these stand on an immense platform which rises perpendicularly from
+the plain and abuts in the rear against the mountain range. Instead,
+however, of this platform being raised artificially, it was cut out of
+the rock, and levelled into a series of terraces, on which the
+buildings were erected. The platform, whose length from north to south
+is about 1582 ft., and breadth from east to west about 938 ft., is
+approached from the plain by a magnificent double staircase of black
+marble, of very easy rise, not more than 4 in. each step. Its general
+height above the level of the plain was originally 34 ft. 9 in. The
+retaining wall of the platform is not straight, but has in it 40
+breaks or set-offs of unequal dimensions. At the top of the staircase
+are the remains of a building with four columns in the centre and with
+large portals both back and front, each of which is adorned with
+gigantic bulls, strikingly resembling those found at Khorsabad. Those
+in the front have no wings, but those in the rear have wings and human
+heads. It has been suggested that these are the ruins of one of those
+large covered gates frequently mentioned in the Bible, under the
+shelter of which business was transacted, and which probably formed
+the entrance to the whole range of courts and buildings. After passing
+through this gateway and turning southwards, at a distance of 177 feet
+from it, another terrace is reached, 9 ft. 2 in. higher than the first
+one. This terrace also is approached by four flights of steps
+profusely decorated with sculptured bas-reliefs, and on it are the
+remains of the Chehil Minar, the grand hexastyle Hall of Xerxes,
+which must have been one of the most magnificent buildings of ancient
+times. This building is marked A on the general plan. It consisted of
+a central court, containing thirty-six columns, the distance from
+centre to centre of the outside columns being 142 ft. 8 in. This court
+was surrounded by walls, of which nothing now remains but the jambs of
+three of the doorways. On three sides of this court, to the north,
+east and west, were porticoes of twelve columns each, precisely in a
+line with those of the central court, the distance from centre to
+centre of the columns being 28 ft. 6 in. These columns, both in their
+proportions and shape, suggest an imitation of timber construction. On
+the south the court was probably terminated by a wall, and Mr.
+Fergusson suggests that the corners between the porticoes were filled
+up with small chambers. The most striking feature of this hall or
+palace must have been its loftiness, the height of the columns varying
+from 63 ft. 8 in. to 64 feet from bottom of base to top of capital.
+The shafts were slightly tapering and had 48 flutings, and were 4 ft.
+6 in. in diameter in the upper part. The bases of the columns show
+hardly any variations, and consist of a series of mouldings such as is
+shown in Fig. 36; the lowest part of this moulded base is enriched
+with leaves, and rests on a low circular plinth at the bottom: the
+total height of the base averages 5 feet. The capitals show
+considerable variations. Those of the east and west porticoes
+represent the heads and fore part of the bodies of two bulls[5] placed
+directly on the shaft back to back, with their forelegs doubled under
+them, the feet resting on the shaft and the knees projecting; the
+total height of these capitals is 7 ft. 4 in. Between the necks of the
+bulls rested the wooden girder which supported the cross-bearers of
+the roof. In the north portico and, so far as can be ascertained, in
+the central court, the shaft of the column was much shorter, and
+supported a fantastic elongated capital, consisting of a sort of
+inverted cup, supporting an elegant shape much resembling the Egyptian
+palm-leaf capital, above which, on all the four sides, are double
+spirals resembling the ornaments of the Greek Ionic capital known as
+volutes, but placed perpendicularly, and not, as in the Ionic capital,
+horizontally. These volutes again may have supported double bulls,
+which would make the total height of the columns the same as those of
+the east and west porticoes. The doorways have cornices enriched with
+leaves, similar to those found at Khorsabad, which have already been
+noticed as bearing a decided resemblance to the Egyptian doorways.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35b.--COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS, EAST AND WEST
+      PORTICOES.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS, NORTH PORTICO.]
+
+On other terraces, slightly raised above the main platform, exist the
+remains, in a more or less ruined condition, of numerous other courts
+and halls, one of which has no less than one hundred columns to
+support its roof, but the height of this building was much inferior to
+that of the Chehil Minar. The existence of these columns leaves no
+doubt that these buildings were covered with flat roofs; and that over
+part of them was a raised talar or prayer-platform is rendered
+probable from the introduction of such a feature into the sculptured
+representation of a palace façade which forms the entrance to the
+rock-tomb of Darius, which was cut out of the mountain at the back of
+the terrace of Persepolis. The position of this tomb on the general
+plan is marked B, and Fig. 37 is a view of the entrance, which was
+probably intended as a copy of one of the halls. All the walls of the
+palaces were profusely decorated with sculptured pictures, and various
+indications occur which induce the belief that painting was used to
+decorate those portions of the walls that were not faced with
+sculptured slabs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--THE ROCK-CUT TOMB OF DARIUS.]
+
+The superior lightness and elegance of the Persepolitan ruins to those
+of an earlier epoch will not fail to be noticed, but there is still a
+certain amount of barbaric clumsiness discernible, and it is not till
+we come to Greek architecture that we see how an innate genius for art
+and beauty, such as was possessed by that people, could cull from
+previous styles everything capable of being used with effect, and
+discard or prune off all the unnecessary exuberances of those styles
+which offend a critically artistic taste.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+
+_Plan._
+
+The floor-space of a great Assyrian or Medo-Persian building was laid
+out on a plan quite distinct from that of an Egyptian temple; for the
+rooms are almost always grouped round quadrangles. The buildings are
+also placed on terraces, and no doubt would secure external as well as
+internal effects, to which the imposing flights of stairs provided
+would largely contribute. We find in Assyrian palaces, halls
+comparatively narrow in proportion to their great length, but still so
+wide that the roofing of them must have been a serious business, and
+we find them arranged side by side, often three deep. In the Persian
+buildings, halls nearly square on plan, and filled by a multitude of
+columns, occur frequently. In the plan of detached buildings like the
+Birs-i-Nimrud, we are reminded of the pyramids of Egypt, which no
+doubt suggested the idea of pyramidal monuments to all subsequent
+building peoples.
+
+
+_Walls._
+
+The magnificently worked granite and stones of Egypt give place to
+brick for the material of the walls, with the result that a far larger
+space could be covered with buildings by a given number of men in a
+given time, but of course the structures were far more liable to
+decay. Accordingly, sturdy as their walls are, we find them at the
+present day reduced to mere shapeless mounds, but of prodigious
+extent.
+
+
+_Roofs._
+
+We can only judge of the roofs by inference, and it has already been
+stated that a difference of opinion exists respecting them. It appears
+most probable that a large proportion of the buildings must have been
+roofed by throwing timber beams from wall to wall and forming a thick
+platform of earth on them, and must have been lighted by some sort of
+clerestory. At any rate the stone roofs of the Egyptians seem to have
+been discarded, and with them the necessity for enormous columns and
+piers placed very close together. In some bas-reliefs, buildings with
+roofs of a domical shape are represented.
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+Doorways are the openings chiefly met with, and it is not often that
+the superstructure, whether arch or lintel, remains, but it is clear
+that in some instances, at least, openings were arched. Great
+attention was paid to important doorways, and a large amount of
+magnificent sculpture was employed to enrich them.
+
+
+_Columns._
+
+The columns most probably were of wood in Assyrian palaces. In some of
+the Persian ones they were of marble, but of a proportion and
+treatment which point to an imitation of forms suitable for wood. The
+bases and capitals of these slender shafts are beautiful in
+themselves, and very interesting as suggesting the source from which
+some of the forms in Greek architecture were derived, and on the
+bas-reliefs other architectural forms are represented which were
+afterwards used by the Greeks.
+
+
+_Ornaments._
+
+Sculptured slabs, painted wall decorations, and terra-cotta
+ornamentation were used as enrichments of the walls. These slabs,
+which have become familiarly known through the attention roused by the
+discoveries of Sir A. H. Layard and the specimens sent by him to the
+British Museum, are objects of the deepest interest; so are the carved
+bulls from gateways. In the smaller and more purely ornamental
+decorations the honeysuckle, and other forms familiar to us from their
+subsequent adoption by Greek artists, are met with constantly,
+executed with great taste.
+
+
+_Architectural Character._
+
+A character of lavish and ornate magnificence is the quality most
+strongly displayed by the architectural remains of Western Asia, and
+could we have beheld any one of the monuments before it was reduced to
+ruin, we should probably have seen this predominant to an extent of
+which it is almost impossible now to form an adequate idea.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] In any such endeavour we should be met by the further difficulty,
+that the writers of antiquity differ widely in the precise limits
+which they give to the Assyrian Kingdom. Some make it include Babylon,
+other writers say that it was bounded on the south by Babylon, and
+altogether the greatest confusion exists in the accounts that have
+come down to us.
+
+[5] As a matter of fact there is a marked distinction between the
+heads of the animals of the east and west porticoes: those of the west
+are undoubtedly bulls, but those of the east are grotesque
+mythological creatures somewhat resembling the fabled unicorn.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT ALLAHABAD.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Hindu Architecture._
+
+Hindu architecture is not only unfamiliar but uncongenial to Western
+tastes; and as it has exercised no direct influence upon the later
+styles of Europe, it will be noticed in far less detail than the
+magnitude and importance of many Indian buildings which have been
+examined and measured during the last few years would otherwise claim,
+although the exuberant wealth of ornament exhibited in these buildings
+denotes an artistic genius of very high order, if somewhat uncultured
+and barbaric. As by far the largest number of Hindu buildings are of a
+date much later than the commencement of our era, a strict adherence
+to chronological sequence would scarcely allow the introduction of
+this style so early in the present volume; but we know that several
+centuries before Christ powerful kingdoms and wealthy cities existed
+in India; and as it seems clear also that in architecture and art, as
+well as in manners and customs, hardly any change[6] has occurred
+from remote antiquity, it appeared allowable, as well as convenient,
+that the short description we have to offer should precede rather than
+follow that of the classical styles properly so called. Here, as
+always when we attempt to penetrate farther back than a certain date,
+all is obscure and mythical. We find lists of kings and dynasties
+going back thousands of years before our era, but nothing at all to
+enable us to judge how much of this may be taken as solid fact. Mr.
+Fergusson believes he has discovered in one date, viz. 3101 B.C., the
+first Aryan settlement; but be this as it may, it is useless to look
+for any architectural remains until after the death of Gotama Buddha
+in 543 B.C.; in fact, it is very doubtful whether remains can be
+authenticated until the reign of King Asoka (B.C. 272 to B.C. 236),
+when Buddhism had spread over almost the whole of the country, where
+it remained the predominant cult until Brahmanism again asserted its
+supremacy in the 14th century A.D.
+
+The earliest, or among the earliest, architectural remains are the
+inscribed pillars called Lâts, which are found in numerous localities,
+but have been almost always overthrown. Many of these were erected by
+the above-named Asoka: they were ornamented with bands and mouldings
+separating the inscriptions, and crowned by a sort of capital, which
+was generally in the form of an animal. One very curious feature in
+these pillars is the constant occurrence of a precise imitation of
+the well-known honeysuckle ornament of the Greeks; this was probably
+derived from the same source whence the Greeks obtained it, namely
+Assyria. It is most probable that these pillars served to ornament the
+approaches to some kind of sacred enclosure or temple, of which,
+however, no remains have been found.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--DAGOBA FROM CEYLON.]
+
+Extremely early in date are some of the tumuli or topes which exist in
+large numbers in various parts of India. These are of two kinds,--the
+topes or stupas proper, which were erected to commemorate some
+striking event or to mark a sacred spot; and the dagobas, which were
+built to cover the relics of Buddha himself or some Buddhist saint.
+These topes consist of a slightly stilted hemispherical dome
+surmounting a substructure, circular in plan, which forms a sort of
+terrace, access to which is obtained by steps. The domical shape was,
+however, external only, as on the inside the masonry was almost
+solid, a few small cavities only being left for the protection of
+various jewels, &c. The dome was probably surmounted by a pinnacle, as
+shown in Fig. 39. In the neighbourhood of Bhilsa, in Central India,
+there are a large number of these topes, of which the largest, that of
+Sanchi, measures 121 ft. in diameter and 55 ft. in height; it was
+erected by King Asoka.
+
+Two kinds of edifices which are not tombs remain, the chaityas
+(temples or halls of assembly) and viharas or monasteries, which were
+generally attached to the chaityas. These erections were either
+detached or cut in the rock, and it is only the rock-cut ones of which
+remains exist of an earlier date than the commencement of the
+Christian era. The earliest specimen of a rock-cut chaitya is in the
+Nigope cave, near Behar, constructed about 200 B.C. This consists of
+two compartments, an outer rectangular one 32 ft. 9 in. by 19 ft.
+1 in., and an inner circular one 19 ft. in diameter. The Lomas Rishi
+cave is of a slightly later date: both of these rock-cut temples
+exhibit in every detail a reproduction of wooden forms. In the doorway
+the stone piers slope inwards, just like raking wooden struts, and the
+upper part represents the ends of longitudinal rafters supporting a
+roof. Later on the builders emancipated themselves to a certain extent
+from this servile adhesion to older forms, and Fig. 40 gives a plan
+and section of a later chaitya at Karli, near Poona. This bears a
+striking resemblance to a Christian basilica:[7] there is first the
+forecourt; then a rectangular space divided by columns into nave and
+aisles, and terminated by a semicircular apse. The nave is 25 ft.
+7 in. wide, and the aisles 10 ft. each, the total length is 126 ft.
+Fifteen columns separate the nave from the aisles, and these have
+bases, octagonal shafts, and rich capitals. Round the apse the columns
+are replaced by piers. The side aisles have flat roofs, and the
+central nave a stilted semicircular one, practically a vault, which at
+the apse becomes a semicircular dome, under which is the dagoba, the
+symbol of Buddhism. The screen separating the forecourt from the
+temple itself is richly ornamented with sculpture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--CHAITYA NEAR POONA.]
+
+The older viharas or monasteries were also cut in the rock (Figs. 41,
+42), and were divided into cells or chambers; they were several
+storeys in height, and it is probable that the cells were used by
+devout Buddhists as habitations for the purposes of meditation.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. A ROCK-CUT MONUMENT.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.--PLAN OF THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. A ROCK-CUT
+      MONUMENT.]
+
+Among the most remarkable, and in fact almost unique features of
+Hindu Architecture are the so-called rails which form enclosures
+sometimes round the topes and sometimes round sacred trees.
+Occasionally they are found standing alone, though when this is the
+case it is probably on account of the object which was the cause of
+their erection having perished. They are built of stone, carved so as
+to represent a succession of perpendicular and horizontal bands or
+rails, separated by a sort of pierced panels. The carving is of the
+most elaborate description, both human and animal forms being
+depicted with great fidelity, and representations occur of various
+forms of tree worship which have been of the greatest use in
+elucidating the history of this phase of religious belief.
+Occasionally the junctions of the rails are carved into a series of
+discs, separated by elaborate scroll-work. These rails are
+frequently of very large dimensions, that at Bharhut--which is one of
+the most recently discovered--measuring 275 ft. in circumference,
+with a height of 22 ft. 6 in. The date of these erections is
+frequently very difficult to determine, but the chief authorities
+generally concur in the opinion that none are found dating earlier
+than about 250 B.C., nor later than 500 A.D., so that it is pretty
+certain they must have been appropriated to some form of Buddhist
+worship.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.--VIMANA FROM MANASARA.]
+
+All the buildings that we have mentioned were devoted to the worship
+of Buddha, but the Jain schism, Brahmanism, and other cults had their
+representative temples and buildings, a full description of which
+would require a volume many times larger than the present one. Many of
+the late detached buildings display rich ornamentation and elaborate
+workmanship. They are generally of a pyramidal shape, several storeys
+in height, covered with intricately cut mouldings and other fantastic
+embellishments.
+
+Columns are of all shapes and sizes, brackets frequently take the
+place of capitals, and where capitals exist almost every variety of
+fantastic form is found. It has been stated that no fixed laws govern
+the plan or details of Indian buildings, but there exists an essay on
+Indian Architecture by Ram Raz--himself a Hindoo--which tends to show
+that such a statement is erroneous, as he quotes original works of
+considerable antiquity which lay down stringent rules as to the
+planning of buildings, their height, and the details of the columns.
+It is probable that a more extended acquaintance with Hindu literature
+will throw further light on these rules.
+
+Of the various invasions which have occurred some have left traces in
+the architecture of India. None of these are more interesting than
+certain semi-Greek forms which are met with in the Northern Provinces,
+and which without doubt are referable to the influence of the invasion
+under Alexander the Great. A far more conspicuous and widespread
+series of changes followed in the wake of the Mohammedan invasions. We
+shall have an opportunity later on of recurring to this subject,[8]
+but it is one to which attention should be called at this early stage,
+lest it should be thought that a large and splendid part of Indian
+architecture had been overlooked.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 44.--BRACKET CAPITAL.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 45.--COLUMN FROM AJUNTA.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 46.--COLUMN FROM ELLORA.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 47.--COLUMN FROM AJUNTA.]
+
+
+_Chinese and Japanese Architecture._
+
+Although the Chinese have existed as a nation, continuously for
+between two and three thousand years, if not longer, and at a very
+early period had arrived at a high state of artistic and scientific
+cultivation, yet none of their buildings with which we are acquainted
+has any claim on our attention because of its antiquity. Several
+reasons may be assigned for this, the principal being that the Chinese
+seem to be as a race singularly unsusceptible to all emotions.
+Although they reverence their dead ancestors, yet this reverence never
+led them, as did that of the Egyptians, Etruscans, and other nations,
+to a lavish expenditure of labour or materials, to render their tombs
+almost as enduring as the everlasting hills. Though waves of religious
+zeal must have flowed over the country when Confucius inculcated his
+simple and practical morality and gained an influential following, and
+again when Buddhism was introduced and speedily became the religion of
+the greater portion of the people, their religious emotion never led
+them, as it did the Greeks and the Mediæval builders, to erect grand
+and lasting monuments of sacred art. When most of the Western nations
+were still barbarians, the Chinese had attained a settled system of
+government, and were acquainted with numerous scientific truths which
+we have prided ourselves on rediscovering within the last two
+centuries; but no thought ever seems to have occurred to them, as it
+did to the Romans, of commemorating any event connected with their
+life as a nation, or of handing down to posterity a record of their
+great achievements. Peaceful and prosperous, they have pursued the
+even tenor of their way at a high level of civilisation certainly, but
+at a most monotonous one.
+
+The Buddhist temples of China have a strong affinity to those of
+India. The largest is that at Honan, the southern suburb of Canton.
+This is 306 ft. long by 174 ft. wide, and consists of a series of
+courts surrounded by colonnades and cells for the _bonzes_ or priests.
+In the centre of the courtyard is a series of pavilions or temples
+connected by passages, and devoted to the worship of the idols
+contained in them. On each side of the main court, against the outer
+wall, is another court, with buildings round it, consisting of kitchen
+and refectories on the one side, and hospital wards on the other. It
+is almost certain that this is a reproduction of the earlier forms of
+chaityas and viharas which existed in India, and have been already
+referred to. The temple of Honan is two storeys in height, the
+building itself being of stone, but the colonnade surrounding it is of
+wood on marble bases. On the second storey the columns are placed on
+two sides only, and not all round. The columns have no capitals, but
+have projecting brackets. The roof of each storey projects over the
+columns, and has a curved section, which is, in fact, peculiar to
+Chinese roofs, and it is enriched at the corners with carved beasts
+and foliage. This is a very common form of temple throughout China.
+
+The Taas or Pagodas are the buildings of China best known to
+Europeans. These are nearly always octagonal in plan, and consist
+generally of nine storeys, diminishing both in height and breadth as
+they approach the top. Each storey has a cornice composed of a fillet
+and large hollow moulding, supporting a roof which is turned up at
+every corner and ornamented with leaves and bells. On the top of all
+is a long pole, forming a sort of spire, surrounded by iron hoops, and
+supported by eight chains attached to the summit and to each angle of
+the roof of the topmost storey. The best known pagoda is that of
+Nankin, which is 40 ft. in diameter at its base, and is faced inside
+and outside with white glazed porcelain slabs keyed into the brick
+core. The roof tiles are also of porcelain, in bands of green and
+yellow, and at each angle is a moulding of larger tiles, red and green
+alternately. The effect of the whole is wonderfully brilliant and
+dazzling. Apart from the coloured porcelain, nearly every portion of a
+Chinese temple or pagoda is painted, colour forming the chief means of
+producing effect; but as nearly everything is constructed of wood,
+there was and is no durability in these edifices.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 48.--A SMALL PAGODA.]
+
+In public works of utility, such as roads, canals--one of which is
+nearly 700 miles in length--and boldly designed bridges, the Chinese
+seem to have shown a more enlightened mind; and the Great Wall, which
+was built to protect the northern boundary of the kingdom, about 200
+B.C., is a wonderful example of engineering skill. This wall, which
+varies from 15 to 30 ft. in height, is about 25 ft. thick at the base,
+and slopes off to 20 ft. at the top. It is defended by bastions placed
+at stated intervals, which are 40 ft. square at the base, and about
+the same in height; the wall is carried altogether through a course of
+about 1400 miles, following all the sinuosities of the ground over
+which it passes. It is a most remarkable fact that a nation should
+have existed 2000 years ago capable of originating and completing so
+great a work; but it is still more remarkable that such a nation,
+possessing moreover, as it does, a great faculty in decorative art
+applied to small articles of use and fancy, should be still leading a
+populous and prosperous existence, and yet should have so little to
+show in the way of architecture, properly so termed, at the present
+time.
+
+Japan, like China, possesses an architecture, but one exclusively of
+wood; for although the use of stone for bridges, walls, &c., had been
+general, all houses and temples were invariably built of wood until
+the recent employment of foreigners led to the erection of brick and
+stone buildings. The consequence has been that nearly all the old
+temples have been burnt down and rebuilt several times; and though it
+is probable that the older forms were adhered to when the buildings
+were re-erected, it is only by inference that we can form an idea of
+the ancient architecture of the country. The heavy curved roofs which
+are so characteristic of Chinese buildings are found also in Japan,
+but only in the Buddhist temples, and this makes it probable that this
+form of roof is not of native origin, but was introduced with the
+Buddhist cult. The earlier Shinto temples have a different form of
+roof, which is without the upward curve, but which has nearly as much
+projection at the eaves as the curved roofs. Where the buildings are
+more than one storey in height the upper one is always set somewhat
+back, as we saw was the case in the Chinese pagodas, and considerable
+and pleasing variety is obtained by treating the two storeys
+differently. Very great skill in carving is shown, all the posts,
+brackets, beams, and projecting rafters being formed into elaborate
+representations of animals and plants, or quaintly conceived
+grotesques; and the flat surfaces have frequently a shallow incised
+arabesque pattern intertwined with foliage. The roofs are always
+covered with tiles, and a curious effect is produced by enriching the
+hips and ridges with several courses of tiles in cement, thus making
+them rise considerably above the other portions of the roof. A
+peculiar feature of Japanese houses is that the walls, whether
+external or internal, are not filled in with plaster, but are
+constructed of movable screens which slide in grooves formed in the
+framing of the partitions. Thus all the rooms can easily be thrown
+together or laid open to the outer air in hot weather. All travellers
+in Japan remark upon the impossibility of obtaining privacy in the
+hotels in consequence of this.
+
+The Shinto temples are approached through what might be termed an
+archway, only that the arch does not enter into its composition. This
+erection is called a Torii, and is thus described by Professor
+Conder:[9]--"It is composed of two upright posts of great thickness,
+each consisting of the whole trunk of a tree rounded, about 15 ft.
+high, and placed 12 ft. apart. Across the top of these is placed a
+wooden lintel, projecting considerably and curving upwards at the
+ends. Some few feet below this another horizontal piece is tenoned
+into the uprights, having a little post in the centre helping to
+support the upper lintel." These erections occasionally occur in front
+of a Buddhist temple, when they are built of stone, exactly imitating,
+however, the wooden originals. This is interesting, as offering
+another proof, were one needed, that the curious forms of masonry
+exhibited in much of the work of the early nations, some of which has
+been described, is the result of an imitation of earlier wooden forms.
+
+The chief effect in the buildings of the Japanese is intended to be
+produced by colour, which is profusely used; and they have attained to
+a height of perfection in the preparation of varnishes and lacquers
+that has never been equalled. Their lacquer is used all over their
+buildings, besides forming their chief means of decorating small
+objects. It is, however, beginning to be questioned whether the old
+art of lacquering is not becoming lost by the Japanese themselves, as
+the modern work appears by no means equal to the old. One curious form
+of decoration, of which the Japanese are much enamoured, consists in
+forming miniature representations of country scenes and landscapes;
+waterfalls, bridges, &c., being reproduced on the most diminutive
+scale. It is much to be feared that our small stock of knowledge of
+ancient Japanese art will never be greatly increased, as the whole
+country and the people are becoming modernised and Europeanised to
+such an extent that it appears probable there will soon be little
+indigenous art left in the country.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It has not been thought necessary to append to this chapter analyses
+of the Eastern styles similar to those which are given in the case of
+the great divisions of Western Architecture. The notice of these
+styles must unavoidably be condensed into very small space.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] It is not intended to imply that Hindustan has been without change
+in her ruling dynasties. These have been continually changing; but the
+remarkable fact is that, numerous as have been the nations that have
+poured across the Indus attracted by "the wealth of Ind," there has
+been no reflux, as it were: the various peoples, with their arts,
+religions, and manners, have been swallowed up and assimilated,
+leaving but here and there slight traces of their origin.
+
+[7] See Chap. X. for an illustration of a Christian Basilica.
+
+[8] See chapter on Saracenic Architecture.
+
+[9] Paper communicated to the Royal Institute of Architects.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 49.--GREEK HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Buildings of the Doric Order._
+
+The architecture of Greece has a value far higher than that attaching
+to any of the styles which preceded it, on account of the beauty of
+the buildings and the astonishing refinement which the best of them
+display. This architecture has a further claim on our attention, as
+being virtually the parent of that of all the nations of Western
+Europe. We cannot put a finger upon any features of Egyptian,
+Assyrian, or Persian architecture, the influence of which has survived
+to the present day, except such as were adopted by the Greeks. On the
+other hand, there is no feature, no ornament, nor even any principle
+of design which the Greek architects employed, that can be said to
+have now become obsolete. Not only do we find direct reproductions of
+Greek architecture forming part of the practice of every European
+country, but we are able to trace to Greek art the parentage of many
+of the forms and features of Roman, Byzantine, and Gothic
+architecture, especially those connected with the column and which
+grew out of its artistic use. Greek architecture did not include the
+arch and all the forms allied to it, such as the vault and the dome;
+and, so far as we know, the Greeks abstained from the use of the
+tower. Examples of both these features were, it is almost certain, as
+fully within the knowledge of the Greeks as were those features of
+Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian buildings which they employed;
+consequently it is to deliberate selection that we must attribute this
+exclusion. Within the limits by which they confined themselves, the
+Greeks worked with such power, learning, taste, and skill that we may
+fairly claim for their highest achievement--the Parthenon--that it
+advanced as near to absolute perfection as any work of art ever has
+been or ever can be carried.
+
+Greek architecture seems to have begun to emerge from the stage of
+archaic simplicity about the beginning of the sixth century before the
+Christian era (600 B.C. is the reputed date of the old Doric Temple at
+Corinth). All the finest examples were erected between that date and
+the death of Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), after which period it
+declined and ultimately gave place to Roman.
+
+The domestic and palatial buildings of the Greeks have decayed or been
+destroyed, leaving but few vestiges. We know their architecture
+exclusively from ruins of public buildings, and to a limited extent of
+sepulchral monuments remaining in Greece and in Greek colonies. By far
+the most numerous and excellent among these buildings are temples. The
+Greek idea of a temple was different from that entertained by the
+Egyptians. The building was to a much greater extent designed for
+external effect than internal. A comparatively small sacred cell was
+provided for the reception of the image of the divinity, usually with
+one other cell behind it, which seems to have served as treasury or
+sacristy; but there were no surrounding chambers, gloomy halls, or
+enclosed courtyards, like those of the Egyptian temples, visible only
+to persons admitted within a jealously guarded outer wall. The temple,
+it is true, often stood within some sort of precinct, but it was
+accessible to all. It stood open to the sun and air; it invited the
+admiration of the passer-by; its most telling features and best
+sculpture were on the exterior. Whether this may have been, to some
+extent, the case with Persian buildings, we have few means of knowing,
+but certainly the attention paid by the Greeks to the outside of their
+temples offers a striking contrast to the practice of the Egyptians,
+and to what we know of that of the Assyrians.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50.--PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE IN ANTIS.]
+
+The temple, however grand, was always of simple form, with a gable at
+each end, and in this respect differed entirely from the series of
+halls, courts, and chambers of which a great Egyptian temple
+consisted. In the very smallest temple at least one of the gables was
+made into a portico by the help of columns and two pilasters (Fig.
+50). More important temples had a larger number of columns, and
+often a portico at each end (Figs. 50a and 55). The most important
+had columns on the flanks as well as at the front and rear, the
+sacred cell being, in fact, surrounded by them. It will be apparent
+from this that the column, together with the superstructure which
+rested upon it, must have played a very important part in Greek
+temple-architecture, and an inspection of any representations of
+Greek buildings will at once confirm the impression.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50a.--PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE.]
+
+We find in Greece three distinct manners, distinguished largely by the
+mode in which the column is dealt with. These it would be quite
+consistent to call "styles," were it not that another name has been so
+thoroughly appropriated to them, that they would hardly now be
+recognised were they to be spoken of as anything else than "orders."
+The Greek orders are named the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each of
+them presents a different series of proportions, mouldings, features,
+and ornaments, though the main forms of the buildings are the same in
+all. The column and its entablature (the technical name for the
+frieze, architrave, and cornice, forming the usual superstructure)
+being the most prominent features in every such building, have come
+to be regarded as the index or characteristic from an inspection of
+which the order and the degree of its development can be recognised,
+just as a botanist recognises plants by their flowers. By reproducing
+the column and entablature, almost all the characteristics of either
+of the orders can be copied; and hence a technical and somewhat
+unfortunate use of the word "order" to signify these features only has
+crept in, and has overshadowed and to a large extent displaced its
+wider meaning. It is difficult in a book on architecture to avoid
+employing the word "order" when we have to speak of a column and its
+entablature, because it has so often been made use of in this sense.
+The student must, however, always bear in mind that this is a
+restricted and artificial sense of the word, and that the column
+belonging to any order is always accompanied by the use throughout the
+building of the appropriate proportions, ornaments, and mouldings
+belonging to that order.
+
+The origin of Greek architecture is a very interesting subject for
+inquiry, but, owing to the disappearance of almost all very early
+examples of the styles, it is necessarily obscure. Such information,
+however, as we possess, taken together with the internal evidence
+afforded by the features of the matured style, points to the influence
+of Egypt, to that of Assyria and Persia, and to an early manner of
+timber construction--the forms proper to which were retained in spite
+of the abandonment of timber for marble--as all contributing to the
+formation of Greek architecture.
+
+In Asia Minor a series of monuments, many of them rock-cut, has been
+discovered, which throw a curious light upon the early growth of
+architecture. We refer to tombs found in Lycia, and attributed to
+about the seventh century B.C. In these we obviously have the first
+work in stone of a nation of ship builders. A Lycian tomb--such as the
+one now to be seen, accurately restored, in the British
+Museum--represents a structure of beams of wood framed together,
+surmounted by a roof which closely resembles a boat turned upside
+down. The planks, the beams to which they were secured, and even a
+ridge similar to the keel of a vessel, all reappear here, showing that
+the material in use for building was so universally timber, that when
+the tomb was to be "graven in the rock for ever" the forms of a timber
+structure were those that presented themselves to the imagination of
+the sculptor. In other instances the resemblance to shipwrights' work
+disappears, and that of a carpenter is followed by that of the mason.
+Thus we find imitations of timber beams framed together and of
+overhanging low-pitched roofs, in some cases carried on unsquared
+rafters lying side by side, in several of these tombs.
+
+What happened on the Asiatic shore of the Egean must have occurred on
+the Greek shores, and though none of the very earliest specimens of
+reproduction in stone of timber structures has come down to us, there
+are abundant traces, as we shall presently see, of timber originals in
+buildings of the Doric order. Timber originals were not, however, the
+only sources from which the early inhabitants of Greece drew their
+inspiration.
+
+Constructions of extreme antiquity, and free from any appearance of
+imitating structures of timber, mark the sites of the oldest cities of
+Greece, Mycenæ and Orchomenos for example, the most ancient being
+Pelasgic city walls of unwrought stone (Fig. 51). The so-called
+Treasury of Atreus at Mycenæ, a circular underground chamber 48 ft.
+6 in. in diameter, and with a pointed vault, is a well-known specimen
+of more regular yet archaic building. Its vault is constructed of stones
+corbelling over one another, and is not a true arch (Figs. 52, 52a).
+The treatment of an ornamental column found here, and of the remains
+of sculptured ornaments over a neighbouring gateway called the Gate of
+the Lions, is of very Asiatic character, and seems to show that
+whatever influences had been brought to bear on their design were
+Oriental.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 51.--ANCIENT GREEK WALL OF UNWROUGHT STONE FROM
+      SAMOTHRACE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 52.--PLAN OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT MYCENÆ.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 52a.--SECTION OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT
+      MYCENÆ.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53.--GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SELINUS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53a.--GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM THE THESEUM.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53b.--GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SAMOTHRACE.]
+
+A wide interval of time and a great contrast in taste separate the
+early works of Pelasgic masonry and even the chamber at Mycenæ from
+even the rudest and most archaic of the remaining Hellenic works of
+Greece. The Doric temple at Corinth is attributed, as has been stated,
+to the seventh century B.C. This was a massive masonry structure with
+extremely short, stumpy columns, and strong mouldings, but presenting
+the main features of the Doric style, as we know it, in its earliest
+and rudest form. Successive examples (Figs. 53 to 53b) show
+increasing slenderness of proportions and refinement of treatment, and
+are accompanied by sculpture which approaches nearer and nearer to
+perfection; but in the later and best buildings, as in the earliest
+and rudest, certain forms are retained for which it seems impossible
+to account, except on the supposition that they are reproductions in
+stone or marble of a timber construction. These occur in the
+entablature, while the column is of a type which it is hard to believe
+is not copied from originals in use in Egypt many centuries earlier,
+and already described (chap. II.).
+
+We will now proceed to examine a fully-developed Greek Doric temple of
+the best period, and in doing so we shall be able to recognise the
+forms referred to in the preceding paragraph as we come to them. The
+most complete Greek Doric temple was the Parthenon, the work of the
+architect Ictinus, the temple of the Virgin Goddess Athene (Minerva)
+at Athens, and on many accounts this building will be the best to
+select for our purpose.[10]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 54.--RUINS OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS.]
+
+The Parthenon at Athens stood on the summit of a lofty rock, and
+within an irregularly shaped enclosure, something like a cathedral
+close; entered through a noble gateway.[11] The temple itself was of
+perfectly regular plan, and stood quite free from dependencies of any
+sort. It consisted of a cella, or sacred cell, in which stood the
+statue of the goddess, with one chamber (the treasury) behind. In the
+cella, and also in the chamber behind, there were columns. A series of
+columns surrounded this building, and at either end was a portico,
+eight columns wide, and two deep. There were two pediments, or gables,
+of flat pitch, one at each end. The whole stood on a basement of
+steps; the building, exclusive of the steps, being 228 ft. long by
+101 ft. wide, and 64 ft. high. The columns were each 34 ft. 3 in. high,
+and more than 6 ft. in diameter at the base; a portion of the shaft
+and of the capital of one is in the British Museum, and a magnificent
+reproduction, full size, of the column and its entablature may be seen
+at the École des Beaux Arts, Paris. The ornaments consisted almost
+exclusively of sculpture of the very finest quality, executed by or
+under the superintendence of Pheidias. Of this sculpture many
+specimens are now in the British Museum.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 55.--PLAN OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--THE ROOF OF A GREEK DORIC TEMPLE, SHOWING
+      THE MARBLE TILES.]
+
+The construction of this temple was of the most solid and durable
+kind, marble being the material used; and the workmanship was most
+careful in every part of which remains have come down to us. The roof
+was, no doubt, made of timber and covered with marble tiles (Fig. 56),
+carried on a timber framework, all traces of which have entirely
+perished; and the mode in which it was constructed is a subject upon
+which authorities differ, especially as to what provision was made
+for the admission of light. The internal columns, found in other
+temples as well as in the Parthenon, were no doubt employed to support
+this roof, as is shown in Bötticher's restoration of the Temple at
+Pæstum which we reproduce (Fig. 56a), though without pledging
+ourselves to its accuracy; for, indeed, it seems probable that
+something more or less like the clerestory of a Gothic church must
+have been employed to admit light to these buildings, as we know was
+the case in the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. But this structure, if it
+existed, has entirely disappeared.[12]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56a.--SECTION OF THE GREEK DORIC TEMPLE AT
+      PÆSTUM. AS RESTORED BY BÖTTICHER.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 57.--THE GREEK DORIC ORDER FROM THE THESEUM.]
+
+The order of the Parthenon was Doric, and the leading proportions were
+as follows:--The column was 5·56 diameters high; the whole height,
+including the stylobate or steps, might be divided into nine parts, of
+which two go to the stylobate, six to the column, and one to the
+entablature.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 58.--PLAN OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 59.--THE FILLETS UNDER A GREEK DORIC CAPITAL.]
+
+The Greek Doric order is without a base; the shaft of the column
+springs from the top step and tapers towards the top, the outline
+being not, however, straight, but of a subtle curve, known technically
+as the entasis of the column. This shaft is channelled with twenty
+shallow channels,[13] the ridges separating one from another being
+very fine lines. A little below the moulding of the capital, fine
+sinkings, forming lines round the shaft, exist, and above these the
+channels of the flutes are stopped by or near the commencement of the
+projecting moulding of the capital. This moulding, which is of a
+section calculated to convey the idea of powerful support, is called
+the echinus, and its lower portion is encircled by a series of fillets
+(Fig. 59), which are cut into it. Above the echinus, which is
+circular, like the shaft, comes the highest member--the abacus, a
+square stout slab of marble, which completes the capital of the
+column. The whole is most skilfully designed to convey the idea of
+sturdy support, and yet to clothe the support with grace. The strong
+proportions of the shaft, the slight curve of its outline, the lines
+traced upon its surface by the channels, and even the vigorous
+uncompromising planting of it on the square step from which it
+springs, all contribute to make the column look strong. The check
+given to the vigorous upward lines of the channels on the shaft by the
+first sinkings, and their arrest at the point where the capital
+spreads out, intensified as it is by the series of horizontal lines
+drawn round the echinus by the fillets cut into it, all seem to convey
+the idea of spreading the supporting energy of the column outwards;
+and the abacus appears naturally fitted, itself inert, to receive a
+burden placed upon it and to transmit its pressure to the capital and
+shaft below.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 60.--CAPITAL OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN FROM ÆGINA,
+      WITH COLOURED DECORATION.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 61.--SECTION OF THE ENTABLATURE OF THE GREEK
+      DORIC ORDER.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 62.--PLAN LOOKING UP OF PART OF A GREEK DORIC
+      PERISTYLE.]
+
+The entablature which formed the superstructure consisted first of a
+square marble beam--the architrave, which, it may be assumed,
+represents a square timber beam that occupied the same position in
+the primitive structures. On this rests a second member called the
+frieze, the prominent feature of which is a series of slightly
+projecting features, known as triglyphs (three channels) (Fig. 63),
+from the channels running down their face. These closely resemble, and
+no doubt actually represent, the ends of massive timber beams, which
+must have connected the colonnade to the wall of the cell in earlier
+buildings. At the bottom of each is a row of small pendants, known as
+guttæ, which closely resemble wooden pins, such as would be used to
+keep a timber beam in place. The panels between the triglyphs are
+usually as wide as they are high. They are termed metopes and
+sculpture commonly occupies them. The third division of the
+entablature, the cornice represents the overhanging eaves of the roof.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 63.--DETAILS OF THE TRIGLYPH.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 64.--DETAILS OF THE MUTULES.]
+
+The cornices employed in classic architecture may be almost invariably
+subdivided into three parts: the supporting part, which is the
+lowest,--the projecting part, which is the middle,--and the crowning
+part, which is the highest division of the cornice. The supporting
+part in a Greek Doric cornice is extremely small. There are no
+mouldings, such as we shall find in almost every other cornice,
+calculated to convey the idea of contributing to sustain the
+projection of the cornice, but there are slabs of marble, called
+mutules (Fig. 64), dropping towards the outer end, of which one is
+placed over each triglyph and one between every two. These seem to
+recall, by their shape, their position, and their slope alike, the
+ends of the rafters of a timber roof; and their surface is covered
+with small projections which resemble the heads of wooden pins,
+similar to those already alluded to. The projecting part, in this as
+in almost all cornices, is a plain upright face of some height, called
+"the corona," and recalling probably a "facia" or flat narrow board
+such as a carpenter of the present day would use in a similar
+position, secured in the original structure to the ends of the rafters
+and supporting the eaves. Lastly, the crowning part is, in the Greek
+Doric, a single convex moulding, not very dissimilar in profile to the
+ovolo of the capital, and forming what we commonly call an
+eaves-gutter.
+
+At the ends of the building the two upper divisions of the
+cornice--namely, the projecting corona and the crowning ovolo--are
+made to follow the sloping line of the gable, a second corona being
+also carried across horizontally in a manner which can be best
+understood by inspecting a diagram of the corner of a Greek Doric
+building (Fig. 57); and the triangular space thus formed was termed a
+pediment, and was the position in which the finest of the sculpture
+with which the building was enriched was placed.
+
+In the Parthenon a continuous band of sculpture ran round the exterior
+of the cell, near the top of the wall.
+
+One other feature was employed in Greek temple-architecture. The
+_anta_ was a square pillar or pier of masonry attached to the wall,
+and corresponded very closely to our pilaster; but its capital always
+differed from that of the columns in the neighbourhood of which it was
+employed. The antæ of the Greek Doric order, as employed in the
+Parthenon, have a moulded base, which it will be remembered is not the
+case with the column, and their capital has for its principal feature
+an under-cut moulding, known as the bird's beak, quite dissimilar from
+the ovolo of the capital of the column (Fig. 65). Sometimes the
+portico of a temple consisted of the side walls prolonged, and ending
+in two antæ, with two or more columns standing between them. Such a
+portico is said to be in antis.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 65.--ELEVATION AND SECTION OF THE CAPITAL OF A
+      GREEK ANTA, WITH COLOURED DECORATION.]
+
+The Parthenon presents examples of the most extraordinary refinements
+in order to correct optical illusions. The delicacy and subtlety of
+these are extreme, but there can be no manner of doubt that they
+existed. The best known correction is the diminution in diameter or
+taper, and the _entasis_ or convex curve of the tapered outline of the
+shaft of the column. Without the taper, which is perceptible enough in
+the order of this building, and much more marked in the order of
+earlier buildings, the columns would look top-heavy; but the entasis
+is an additional optical correction to prevent their outline from
+appearing hollowed, which it would have done had there been no curve.
+The columns of the Parthenon have shafts that are over 34 ft. high,
+and diminish from a diameter of 6·15 ft. at the bottom to 4·81 ft. at
+the top. The outline between these points is convex, but so slightly
+so that the curve departs at the point of greatest curvature not more
+than ¾ in. from the straight line joining the top and bottom. This
+is, however, just sufficient to correct the tendency to look hollow in
+the middle.
+
+A second correction is intended to overcome the apparent tendency of a
+building to spread outwards towards the top. This is met by inclining
+the columns slightly inwards. So slight, however, is the inclination,
+that were the axes of two columns on opposite sides of the Parthenon
+continued upwards till they met, the meeting-point would be 1952
+yards, or, in other words, more than one mile from the ground.
+
+Another optical correction is applied to the horizontal lines. In
+order to overcome a tendency which exists in all long lines to seem as
+though they droop in the middle, the lines of the architrave, of the
+top step, and of other horizontal features of the building, are all
+slightly curved. The difference between the outline of the top step of
+the Parthenon and a straight line joining its two ends is at the
+greatest only just over 2 inches.
+
+The last correction which it is necessary to name here was applied to
+the vertical proportions of the building. The principles upon which
+this correction rests have been demonstrated by Mr. John
+Pennethorne;[14] and it would hardly come within the scope of this
+volume to attempt to state them here: suffice it to say, that small
+additions, amounting in the entire height of the order to less than 5
+inches, were made to the heights of the various members of the order,
+with a view to secure that from one definite point of view the effect
+of foreshortening should be exactly compensated, and so the building
+should appear to the spectator to be perfectly proportioned.
+
+The Parthenon, like many, if not all Greek buildings, was profusely
+decorated with coloured ornaments, of which nearly every trace has now
+disappeared, but which must have contributed largely to the splendid
+beauty of the building as a whole, and must have emphasised and set
+off its parts. The ornaments known as Doric frets were largely
+employed. They consist of patterns made entirely of straight lines
+interlacing, and, while preserving the severity which is
+characteristic of the style, they permit of the introduction of
+considerable richness.
+
+The principal remaining examples or fragments of Greek Doric may be
+enumerated as follows:--
+
+IN GREECE.
+
+  Temple of (?) Athena, at Corinth, ab. 650 B.C.
+  Temple of (?) Zeus, in the island of Ægina, ab. 550 B.C.
+  Temple of Theseus (Theseum), at Athens, 465 B.C.
+  Temple of Athena (Parthenon), on the Acropolis at Athens, fin. 438 B.C.
+  The Propylæa, on the Acropolis at Athens, 436-431 B.C.
+  Temple of Zeus at Olympia.
+  Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bassæ,[15] in Arcadia (designed by
+      Ictinus).
+  Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Phigaleia, in Arcadia (built by
+      Ictinus).
+  Temple of Athena, on the rock of Sunium, in Attica.
+  Temple of Nemesis, at Rhamnus, in Attica.
+  Temple of Demeter (Ceres), at Eleusis, in Attica.
+
+IN SICILY AND SOUTH ITALY.
+
+  Temple of (?) Zeus, at Agrigentum, in Sicily (begun B.C. 480).
+  Temple at Ægesta (or Segesta), in Sicily.
+  Temple of (?) Zeus, at Selinus, in Sicily (? ab. 410 B.C.).
+  Temple of (?) Athena, at Syracuse, in Sicily.
+  Temple of Poseidon, at Pæstum, in South of Italy (? ab. 550 B.C.).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] See Frontispiece and Figs. 54 and 55.
+
+[11] The Propylæa.
+
+[12] Mr. Fergusson's investigations, soon, it is understood, to be
+published in a complete form, clearly show that the clerestory and
+roof can be restored with the greatest probability.
+
+[13] In a few instances a smaller number is found.
+
+[14] 'Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture.'
+
+[15] ? Exterior Doric--Interior Ionic.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 66.--PALMETTE AND HONEYSUCKLE.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders._
+
+The Doric was the order in which the full strength and the complete
+refinement of the artistic character of the Greeks were most
+completely shown. There was a great deal of the spirit of severe
+dignity proper to Egyptian art in its aspect; but other nationalities
+contributed to the formation of the many-sided Greek nature, and we
+must look to some other country than Egypt for the spirit which
+inspired the Ionic order. This seems to have been brought into Greece
+by a distinct race, and shows marks of an Asiatic origin. The feature
+which is most distinctive is the one most distinctly Eastern--the
+capital of the column, ornamented always by volutes, _i.e._ scrolls,
+which bear a close resemblance to features similarly employed in the
+columns found at Persepolis. The same resemblance can be also detected
+in the moulded bases, and even the shafts of the columns, and in many
+of the ornaments employed throughout the buildings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 67.--SHAFT OF IONIC COLUMN SHOWING THE FLUTES.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 68.--IONIC CAPITAL. FRONT ELEVATION.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 69.--IONIC CAPITAL. SIDE ELEVATION.]
+
+In form and disposition an ordinary Ionic temple was similar to one of
+the Doric order, but the general proportions are more slender, and the
+mouldings of the order are more numerous and more profusely enriched.
+The column in the Ionic order had a base, often elaborately and
+sometimes singularly moulded (Figs. 74, 75). The shaft (Figs. 67, 70)
+is of more slender proportions than the Doric shaft. It was fluted,
+but its channels are more numerous, and are separated from one another
+by broader fillets than in the Doric. The distinctive feature, as in
+all the orders, is the capital (Figs. 68, 69), which is recognised at
+a glance by the two remarkable ornaments already alluded to as like
+scrolls, and known as volutes. These generally formed the faces of a
+pair of cushion-shaped features, which could be seen in a side view of
+the capital; but sometimes volutes stand in a diagonal position, and
+in almost every building they differ slightly. The abacus is less deep
+than in the Greek Doric, and it is always moulded at the edge, which
+was never the case with the Doric abacus. The entablature (Fig. 70)
+is, generally speaking, richer than that of the Doric order. The
+architrave, for example, has three facias instead of being plain. On
+the other hand, the frieze has no triglyphs, and but rarely sculpture.
+There are more members in the cornice, several mouldings being
+combined to fortify the supporting portion. These have sometimes been
+termed "the bed mouldings," and among them occurs one which is almost
+typical of the order, and is termed a dentil band. This moulding
+presents the appearance of a plain square band of stone, in which a
+series of cuts had been made dividing it into blocks somewhat
+resembling teeth, whence the name. Such an ornament is more naturally
+constructed in wood than in stone or marble, but if the real
+derivation of the Ionic order, as of the Doric, be in fact from timber
+structures, the dentil band is apparently the only feature in which
+that origin can now be traced. The crowning member of the cornice is a
+partly hollow moulding, technically called a "cyma recta," less
+vigorous than the convex ovolo, of the Doric: this moulding, and some
+of the bed mouldings, were commonly enriched with carving. Altogether
+more slenderness and less vigour, more carved enrichment and less
+painted decoration, more reliance on architectural ornament and
+less on the work of the sculptor, appear to distinguish those examples
+of Greek Ionic which have come down to us, as compared with Doric
+buildings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 70.--THE IONIC ORDER. FROM PRIENE, ASIA MINOR.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 71.--IONIC ORDER. FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM, ATHENS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 72.--NORTH-WEST VIEW OF THE ERECHTHEIUM, IN THE
+      TIME OF PERICLES.]
+
+The most numerous examples of the Ionic order of which remains exist
+are found in Asia Minor, but the most refined and complete is the
+Erechtheium at Athens (Figs. 72, 73), a composite structure containing
+three temples built in juxtaposition, but differing from one another
+in scale, levels, dimensions, and treatment. The principal order from
+the Erechtheium (Fig. 71) shows a large amount of enrichment
+introduced with the most refined and severe taste. Specially
+remarkable are the ornaments (borrowed from the Assyrian honeysuckle)
+which encircle the upper part of the shaft at the point where it
+passes into the capital, and the splendid spirals of the volutes
+(Figs. 68, 69). The bases of the columns in the Erechtheium example
+are models of elegance and beauty. Those of some of the examples from
+Asia Minor are overloaded with a vast number of mouldings, by no
+means always producing a pleasing effect (Figs. 74, 75). Some of them
+bear a close resemblance to the bases of the columns at Persepolis.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 73.--PLAN OF THE ERECHTHEIUM.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 74.--IONIC BASE FROM THE TEMPLE OF THE WINGLESS
+      VICTORY (NIKÈ APTEROS).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 75.--IONIC BASE MOULDINGS FROM PRIENE.]
+
+The most famous Greek building which was erected in the Ionic style
+was the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. This temple has been all but
+totally destroyed, and the very site of it had been for centuries lost
+and unknown till the energy and sagacity of an English architect (Mr.
+Wood) enabled him to discover and dig out the vestiges of the
+building. Fortunately sufficient traces of the foundation have
+remained to render it possible to recover the plan of the temple
+completely; and the discovery of fragments of the order, together with
+representations on ancient coins and a description by Pliny, have
+rendered it possible to make a restoration on paper, of the general
+appearance of this famous temple, which must be very nearly, if not
+absolutely, correct.
+
+The walls of this temple enclosed, as usual, a cella (in which was the
+statue of the goddess), with apparently a treasury behind it: they
+were entirely surrounded by a double series of columns, with a
+pediment at each end. The exterior of the building, including these
+columns, was about twice the width of the cella. The whole structure,
+which was of marble, was planted on a spacious platform with steps.
+The account of Pliny refers to thirty-six columns, which he describes
+as "_columnæ celatæ_" (sculptured columns), adding that one was by
+Scopas, a very celebrated artist. The fortunate discovery by Mr. Wood
+of a few fragments of these columns shows that the lower part of the
+shaft immediately above the base was enriched by a group of
+figures--about life-size--carved in the boldest relief and encircling
+the column. One of these groups has been brought to the British
+Museum, and its beauty and vigour enable the imagination partly to
+restore this splendid feature, which certainly was one of the most
+sumptuous modes of decorating a building by the aid of sculpture which
+has ever been attempted; and the effect must have been rich beyond
+description.
+
+It is worth remark that the Erechtheium, which has been already
+referred to, contains an example of a different, and perhaps a not
+less remarkable, mode of combining sculpture with architecture. In one
+of its three porticoes (Fig. 72) the columns are replaced by standing
+female figures, known as caryatidæ, and the entablature rests on their
+heads. This device has frequently been repeated in ancient and in
+modern architecture, but, except in some comparatively obscure
+examples, the sculptured columns of Ephesus do not appear to have been
+imitated.
+
+Another famous Greek work of art, the remains of which have been, like
+the Temple of Diana, disinterred by the energy and skill of a learned
+Englishman, belonged to the Ionic order. To Mr. Newton we owe the
+recovery of the site, and considerable fragments of the architectural
+features, of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the ancient
+wonders of the world. The general outline of this monument must have
+resembled other Greek tombs which have been preserved, such, for
+example, as the Lion Tomb at Cnidus; that is to say, the plan was
+square: there was a basement, above this an order, and above that a
+steep pyramidal roof rising in steps, not carried to a point, but
+stopping short to form a platform, on which was placed a quadriga (or
+four-horsed chariot). This building is known to have been richly
+sculptured, and many fragments of great beauty have been recovered.
+Indeed it was probably its elaboration, as well as its very unusual
+height (for the Greek buildings were seldom lofty), which led to its
+being so celebrated.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 76.--THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. FROM THE MONUMENT OF
+      LYSICRATES AT ATHENS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 77.--CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM THE MONUMENT OF
+      LYSICRATES AT ATHENS.]
+
+The Corinthian order, the last to make its appearance, was almost as
+much Roman as Greek, and is hardly found in any of the great temples
+of the best period of which remains exist in Greece, though we hear of
+its use. For example, Pausanias states that the Corinthian order was
+employed in the interior of the Temple of Athena Alea at Tegea, built
+by Scopas, to which a date shortly after the year 394 B.C. is
+assigned. The examples which we possess are comparatively small works,
+and in them the order resembles the Ionic, but with the important
+exceptions that the capital of the column is quite different, that the
+proportions are altogether a little slenderer, and that the
+enrichments are somewhat more florid.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 78.--MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES AT ATHENS, AS IN THE
+      TIME OF PERICLES.]
+
+The capital of the Greek Corinthian order, as seen in the Choragic
+Monument of Lysicrates at Athens (Fig. 78)--a comparatively miniature
+example, but the most perfect we have--is a work of art of marvellous
+beauty (Fig. 77). It retains a feature resembling the Ionic volute,
+but reduced to a very small size, set obliquely and appearing to
+spring from the sides of a kind of long bell-shaped termination to the
+column. This bell is clothed with foliage, symmetrically arranged and
+much of it studied, but in a conventional manner, from the graceful
+foliage of the acanthus; between the two small volutes appears an
+Assyrian honeysuckle, and tendrils of honeysuckle, conventionally
+treated, occupy part of the upper portion of the capital. The abacus
+is moulded, and is curved on plan, and the base of the capital is
+marked by a very unusual turning-down of the flutes of the columns.
+The entire structure to which this belonged is a model of elegance,
+and the large sculptured mass of leaves and tendrils with which it is
+crowned is especially noteworthy.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 79.--CAPITAL OF ANTÆ FROM MILETUS. SIDE VIEW.]
+
+A somewhat simpler Corinthian capital, and another of very rich
+design, are found in the Temple of Apollo Didymæus at Miletus, where
+also a very elegant capital for the antæ--or pilasters--is employed
+(Figs. 79, 81). A more ornamental design for a capital could hardly be
+adopted than that of the Lysicrates example, but there was room for
+more elaboration in the entablature, and accordingly large
+richly-sculptured brackets seem to have been introduced, and a
+profusion of ornament was employed. The examples of this treatment
+which remain are, however, of Roman origin rather than Greek.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 80.--RESTORATION OF THE GREEK THEATRE OF
+      SEGESTA.]
+
+The Greek cities must have included structures of great beauty and
+adapted to many purposes, of which in most cases few traces, if any,
+have been preserved. We have no remains of a Greek palace, or of Greek
+dwelling-houses, although those at Pompeii were probably erected and
+decorated by Greek artificers, for Roman occupation. The agora of a
+Greek city, which was a place of public assembly something like the
+Roman Forum, is known to us only by descriptions in ancient writers,
+but we possess some remains of Greek theatres; and from these, aided
+by Roman examples and written descriptions, can understand what these
+buildings were. The auditory was curved in plan, occupying rather more
+than a semicircle; the seats rose in tiers one behind another; a
+circular space was reserved for the chorus in the centre of the seats,
+and behind it was a raised stage, bounded by a wall forming its back
+and sides: a rough notion of the arrangement can be obtained from the
+lecture theatre of many modern colleges, and our illustration (Fig.
+80) gives a general idea of what must have been the appearance of one
+of these structures. Much of the detail of these buildings is,
+however, a matter of pure speculation, and consequently does not enter
+into the scheme of this manual.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 81.--CAPITAL OF ANTÆ FROM MILETUS.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Analysis._
+
+The _Plan_ or floor-disposition of a Greek building was always simple
+however great its extent, was well judged for effect, and capable of
+being understood at once. The grandest results were obtained by simple
+means, and all confusion, uncertainty, or complication were
+scrupulously avoided. Refined precision, order, symmetry, and
+exactness mark the plan as well as every part of the work.
+
+The plan of a Greek temple may be said to present many of the same
+elements as that of an Egyptian temple, but, so to speak, turned
+inside out. Columns are relied on by the Greek artist, as they were by
+the Egyptian artist, as a means of giving effect; but they are placed
+by him outside the building instead of within its courts and halls.
+The Greek, starting with a comparatively small nucleus formed by the
+cell and the treasury, encircles them by a magnificent girdle of
+pillars, and so makes a grand structure, the first hint or suggestion
+being in all probability to be found in certain small Egyptian
+buildings to which reference has already been made. The disposition of
+these columns and of the great range of steps, or stylobate, is the
+most marked feature in Greek temple plans. Columns also existed, it is
+true, in the interior of the building, but these were of smaller size,
+and seem to have been introduced to aid in carrying the roof and the
+clerestory, if there was one. They have in several instances
+disappeared, and there is certainly no ground for supposing that in
+any Greek interior the grand but oppressive effect of a hypostyle hall
+was attempted to be reproduced. That was abandoned, together with the
+complication, seclusion, and gloom of the long series of chambers,
+cells, &c., placed one behind another, just as the contrasts and
+surprises of the series of courts and halls following in succession
+were abandoned for the one simple but grand mass built to be seen from
+without rather than from within. In the greater number of Greek
+buildings a degree of precision is exhibited, to which the Egyptians
+did not attain. All right angles are absolutely true; the setting-out
+(or spacing) of the different columns, piers, openings, &c., is
+perfectly exact; and, in the Parthenon, the patient investigations of
+Mr. Penrose and other skilled observers have disclosed a degree of
+accuracy as well as refinement which resembles the precision with
+which astronomical instruments are adjusted in Europe at the present
+day, rather than the rough-and-ready measurements of a modern mason or
+bricklayer.
+
+What the plans of Greek palaces might have exhibited, did any remains
+exist, is merely matter for inference and conjecture, and it is not
+proposed in this volume to pass far beyond ascertained and observed
+facts. There can be, however, little doubt that the palaces of the
+West Asiatic style must have at least contributed suggestions as to
+internal disposition of the later and more magnificent Greek mansions.
+The ordinary dwelling-houses of citizens, as described by ancient
+writers, resembled those now visible in the disinterred cities of
+Pompeii and Herculaneum, which will be referred to under Roman
+Architecture.[16] The chief characteristic of the plan of these is
+that they retain the disposition which in the temples was discarded;
+that is to say, all the doors and windows looked into an inner court,
+and the house was as far as possible secluded within an encircling
+wall. The contrast between the openness of the public life led by the
+men in Greek cities, and the seclusion of the women and the families
+when at home, is remarkably illustrated by this difference between the
+public and private buildings.
+
+The plan of the triple building called the Erechtheium (Fig. 72)
+deserves special mention, as an example of an exceptional arrangement
+which appears to set the ordinary laws of symmetry at defiance, and
+which is calculated to produce a result into which the picturesque
+enters at least as much as the beautiful. Though the central temple is
+symmetrical, the two attached porticoes are not so, and do not, in
+position, dimensions, or treatment, balance one another. The result is
+a charming group, and we cannot doubt that other examples of freedom
+of planning would have been found, had more remains of the
+architecture of the great cities of Greece come down to our own day.
+
+In public buildings other than temples--such as the theatre, the
+agora, and the basilica--the Greek architects seem to have had great
+scope for their genius; the planning of the theatres shows skilful and
+thoroughly complete provisions to meet the requirements of the case. A
+circular disposition was here introduced--not, it is true, for the
+first time, since it is rendered probable by the representations on
+sculptured slabs that some circular buildings existed in Assyria, and
+circular buildings remain in the archaic works at Mycenæ; but it was
+now elaborated with remarkable completeness, beauty, and mastery over
+all the difficulties involved. Could we see the great theatre of
+Athens as it was when perfect, we should probably find that as an
+interior it was almost unrivalled, alike for convenience and for
+beauty; and for these excellences it was mainly indebted to the
+elegance of its planning. The actual floor of many of the Greek
+temples appears to have been of marble of different colours.
+
+
+_The Walls._
+
+The construction of the walls of the Greek temples rivalled that of
+the Egyptians in accuracy and beauty of workmanship, and resembled
+them in the use of solid materials. The Greeks had within reach
+quarries of marble, the most beautiful material which nature has
+provided for the use of the builder; and great fineness of surface and
+high finish were attained. Some interesting examples of hollow walling
+occur in the construction of the Parthenon. The wall was not an
+element of the building on which the Greek architect seemed to dwell
+with pleasure; much of it is almost invariably overshadowed by the
+lines of columns which form the main features of the building.
+
+The pediment (or gable) of a temple is a grand development of the
+walls, and perhaps the most striking of the additions which the Greeks
+made to the resources of the architect. It offers a fine field for
+sculpture, and adds real and apparent height beyond anything that the
+Egyptians ever attempted since the days of the Pyramid-builders; and
+it has remained in constant use to the present hour.
+
+We do not hear of towers being attached to buildings, and, although
+such monumental structures as the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus
+approached the proportions of a tower, height does not seem to have
+commended itself to the mind of the Greek architect as necessary to
+the buildings which he designed. It was reserved for Roman and
+Christian art to introduce this element of architectural effect in all
+its power. On the other hand, the Greek, like the Persian architect,
+emphasised the base of his building in a remarkable manner, not only
+by base mouldings, but by planting the whole structure on a great
+range of steps which formed an essential part of the composition.
+
+
+_The Roof._
+
+The construction of the roofs of Greek temples has been the subject of
+much debate. It is almost certain that they were in some way so made
+as to admit light. They were framed of timber and covered by tiles,
+often, if not always, of marble. Although all traces of the timber
+framing have disappeared, we can at least know that the pitch was not
+steep, by the slope of the outline of the pediments, which formed, as
+has already been said, perhaps the chief glory of a Greek temple. The
+flat stone roofs sometimes used by the Egyptians, and necessitating
+the placing of columns or other supports close together, seem to have
+become disused, with the exception that where a temple was surrounded
+by a range of columns the space between the main wall and the columns
+was so covered.
+
+The vaulted stone roofs of the archaic buildings, of which the
+treasury of Atreus (Figs. 52, 52a) was the type, do not seem to have
+prevailed in a later period, or, so far as we know, to have been
+succeeded by any similar covering or vault of a more scientific
+construction.
+
+It is hardly necessary to add that the Greek theatres were not roofed.
+The Romans shaded the spectators in their theatres and amphitheatres
+by means of a velarium or awning, but it is extremely doubtful whether
+even this expedient was in use in Greek theatres.
+
+
+_The Openings._
+
+The most important characteristic of the openings in Greek buildings
+is that they were flat-topped,--covered by a lintel of stone or
+marble,--and never arched. We have already[17] shown that this
+circumstance is really of the first importance as determining the
+architectural character of buildings. Doors and window openings were
+often a little narrower at the top than the bottom, and were marked by
+a band of mouldings, known as the architrave, on the face of the wall,
+and, so to speak, framing in the opening. There was often also a small
+cornice over each (Figs. 82, 83). Openings were seldom advanced into
+prominence or employed as features in the exterior of a building; in
+fact, the same effects which windows produce in other styles were in
+Greek buildings created by the interspaces between the columns.
+
+
+_The Columns._
+
+These features, together with the superstructure or entablature, which
+they customarily carried, were the prominent parts of Greek
+architecture, occupying as they did the entire height of the building.
+The development of the orders (which we have explained to be really
+decorative systems, each of which involved the use of one sort of
+column, though the term is constantly understood as meaning merely the
+column and entablature) is a very interesting subject, and illustrates
+the acuteness with which the Greeks selected from those models which
+were accessible to them, exactly what was suited to their purpose, and
+the skill with which they altered and refined, and almost redesigned,
+everything which they so selected.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 82.--GREEK DOORWAY SHOWING CORNICE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 83.--GREEK DOORWAY. FRONT VIEW. (FROM THE
+      ERECHTHEIUM.)]
+
+During the whole period when Greek art was being developed, the
+ancient and polished civilisation of Egypt constituted a most
+powerful and most stable influence, always present,--always,
+comparatively speaking, within reach,--and always the same. Of all the
+forms of column and capital existing in Egypt, the Greeks, however,
+only selected that straight-sided fluted type of which the Beni-Hassan
+example is the best known, but by no means the only instance. We first
+meet with these fluted columns at Corinth, of very sturdy proportions,
+and having a wide, swelling, clumsy moulding under the abacus by way
+of a capital. By degrees the proportions of the shaft grew more
+slender, and the profile of the capital more elegant and less bold,
+till the perfected perfections of the Greek Doric column were
+attained. This column is the original to which all columns with
+moulded capitals that have been used in architecture, from the age of
+Pericles to our own, may be directly or indirectly referred; while the
+Egyptian types which the Greeks did not select--such, for example, as
+the lotus-columns at Karnak--have never been perpetuated.
+
+A different temper or taste, and partly a different history, led to
+the selection of the West Asiatic types of column by a section of the
+Greek people; but great alterations in proportion, in the treatment of
+the capital, and in the management of the moulded base from which the
+columns sprang, were made, even in the orders which occur in the Ionic
+buildings of Asia Minor. This was carried further when the Ionic order
+was made use of in Athens herself, and as a result the Attic base and
+the perfected Ionic capital are to be found at their best in the
+Erechtheium example. The Ionic order and the Corinthian, which soon
+followed it, are the parents,--not, it is true, of all, but of the
+greater part of the columns with foliated capitals that have been used
+in all styles and periods of architecture since. It will not be
+forgotten that rude types of both orders are found represented on
+Assyrian bas-reliefs, but still the Corinthian capital and order must
+be considered as the natural and, so to speak, inevitable development
+of the Ionic. From the Corinthian capital an unbroken series of
+foliated capitals can be traced down to our own day; almost the only
+new ornamented type ever devised since being that which takes its
+origin in the Romanesque block capital, known to us in England as the
+early Norman cushion capital: this was certainly the parent of a
+distinct series, though even these owe not a little to Greek
+originals.
+
+We have alluded to the Ionic base. It was derived from a very tall one
+in use at Persepolis, and we meet with it first in the rich but clumsy
+forms of the bases in the Asia Minor examples. In them we find the
+height of the feature as used in Persia compressed, while great, and
+to our eyes eccentric, elaboration marked the mouldings: these the
+refinement of Attic taste afterwards simplified, till the profile of
+the well-known Attic base was produced--a base which has had as wide
+and lasting an influence as either of the original forms of capital.
+
+The Corinthian order, as has been above remarked, is the natural
+sequel of the Ionic. Had Greek architecture continued till it fell
+into decadence, this order would have been the badge of it. As it was,
+the decadence of Greek art was Roman art, and the Corinthian order was
+the favourite order of the Romans; in fact all the important examples
+of it which remain are Roman work.
+
+If we remember how invariably use was made of one or other of the two
+great types of the Greek order in all the buildings of the best Greek
+time, with the addition towards its close of the Corinthian order, and
+that these orders, a little more subdivided and a good deal modified,
+have formed the substratum of Roman architecture and of that in use
+during the last three centuries; and if we also bear in mind that
+nearly all the columnar architecture of Early Christian, Byzantine,
+Saracenic, and Gothic times, owes its forms to the same great source,
+we may well admit that the invention and perfecting of the orders of
+Greek architecture has been--with one exception--the most important
+event in the architectural history of the world. That exception is, of
+course, the introduction of the Arch.
+
+
+_The Ornaments._
+
+Greek Ornaments have exerted the same wide influence over the whole
+course of Western art as Greek columns; and in their origin they are
+equally interesting as specimens of Greek skill in adapting existing
+types, and of Greek invention where no existing types would serve.
+
+Few of the mouldings of Greek architecture are to be traced to
+anterior styles. There is nothing like them in Egyptian work, and
+little or nothing in Assyrian; and though a suggestion of some of them
+may no doubt be found in Persian examples, we must take them as having
+been substantially originated by Greek genius, which felt that they
+were wanted, designed them, and brought them far towards absolute
+perfection. They were of the most refined form, and when enriched were
+carved with consummate skill. They were executed, it must be
+remembered, in white marble,--a material having the finest surface,
+and capable of responding to the most delicate variations in contour
+by corresponding changes in shade or light in a manner and to a degree
+which no other material can equal. In the Doric, mouldings were few,
+and almost always convex; they became much more numerous in the later
+styles, and then included many of concave profile. The chief are the
+OVOLO, which formed the curved part of the Doric capital, and the
+crowning moulding of the Doric cornice; the CYMA; the BIRD'S BEAK,
+employed in the capitals of the antæ; the FILLETS under the Doric
+capital; the hollows and TORUS mouldings of the Ionic and Corinthian
+bases.
+
+The profiles of these mouldings were very rarely segments of circles,
+but lines of varying curvature, capable of producing the most delicate
+changes of light and shade, and contours of the most subtle grace.
+Many of them correspond to conic sections, but it seems probable that
+the outlines were drawn by hand, and not obtained by any mechanical or
+mathematical method.
+
+The mouldings were some of them enriched, to use the technical word,
+by having such ornaments cut into them or carved on them as, though
+simple in form, lent themselves well to repetition.[18] Where more
+room for ornament existed, and especially in the capitals of the Ionic
+and Corinthian orders, ornaments were freely and most gracefully
+carved, and very symmetrically arranged. Though these were very
+various, yet most of them can be classed under three heads. (1.) FRETS
+(Figs. 116 to 120). These were patterns made up of squares or L-shaped
+lines interlaced and made to seem intricate, though originally simple.
+Frequently these patterns are called Doric frets, from their having
+been most used in buildings of the Doric order. (2.) HONEYSUCKLE
+(Figs. 94 and 111 to 114). This ornament, admirably conventionalised,
+had been used freely by the Assyrians, and the Greeks only adopted
+what they found ready to their hand when they began to use it; but
+they refined it, at the same time losing no whit of its vigour or
+effectiveness, and the honeysuckle has come to be known as a typical
+Greek decorative _motif_. (3.) ACANTHUS (Figs. 84 and 85). This is a
+broad-leaved plant, the foliage and stems of which, treated in a
+conventional manner, though with but little departure from nature,
+were found admirably adapted for floral decorative work, and
+accordingly were made use of in the foliage of the Corinthian capital,
+and in such ornaments as, for example, the great finial which forms
+the summit of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE ACANTHUS LEAF AND STALK.]
+
+The beauty of the carving was, however, eclipsed by that highest of
+all ornaments--sculpture. In the Doric temples, as, for example, in
+the Parthenon, the architect contented himself with providing suitable
+spaces for the sculptor to occupy; and thus the great pediments, the
+metopes (Fig. 86) or square panels, and the frieze of the Parthenon
+were occupied by sculpture, in which there was no necessity for more
+conventionalism than the amount of artificial arrangement needed in
+order fitly to occupy spaces that were respectively triangular,
+square, or continuous. In the later and more voluptuous style of the
+Ionic temples we find sculpture made into an architectural feature, as
+in the famous statues, known as the Caryatides, which support the
+smallest portico of the Erechtheium, and in the enriched columns of
+the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. Sculpture had already been so employed
+in Egypt, and was often so used in later times; but the best
+opportunity for the display of the finest qualities of the sculptor's
+art is such an one as the pediments, &c., of the great Doric temples
+afforded.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 85.--THE ACANTHUS LEAF.]
+
+There is little room for doubting that all the Greek temples were
+richly decorated in colours, but traces and indications are all that
+remain: these, however, are sufficient to prove that a very large
+amount of colour was employed, and that probably ornaments (Figs. 105
+to 120) were painted upon many of those surfaces which were left plain
+by the mason, especially on the cornices, and that mosaics (Fig. 87)
+and coloured marbles, and even gilding, were freely used. There is
+also ground for believing that as the use of carved enrichments
+increased with the increasing adoption of the Ionic and Corinthian
+styles, less use was made of painted decorations.
+
+
+_Architectural Character._
+
+Observations which have been made during the course of this and the
+previous chapters will have gone far to point out the characteristics
+of Greek art. An archaic and almost forbidding severity, with heavy
+proportions and more strength than grace, marks the earliest Greek
+buildings of which we have any fragments remaining. Dignity, sobriety,
+refinement, and beauty are the qualities of the works of the best
+period. The latest buildings were more rich, more ornate, and more
+slender in their proportions and to a certain extent less severe.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 86.--METOPE FROM THE PARTHENON. CONFLICT BETWEEN
+      A CENTAUR AND ONE OF THE LAPITHÆ.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 87.--MOSAIC FROM THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS, OLYMPIA.]
+
+Most carefully studied proportions prevailed, and were wrought out to
+a pitch of completeness and refinement which is truly astounding.
+Symmetry was the all but invariable law of composition. Yet in certain
+respects--as, for example, the spacing and position of the columns--a
+degree of freedom was enjoyed which Roman architecture did not
+possess. Repetition ruled to the almost entire suppression of variety.
+Disclosure of the arrangement and construction of the building was
+almost complete, and hardly a trace of concealment can be detected.
+Simplicity reigns in the earliest examples; the elaboration of even
+the most ornamental is very chaste and graceful; and the whole effect
+of Greek architecture is one of harmony, unity, and refined power.
+
+  [Illustration: EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT
+
+      IN THE NORTHERN PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM--SHOWING THE
+      ORNAMENTATION OF THE CEILING.
+
+      FIG. 88.--SECTION OF THE PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM.
+
+      FIG. 89.--PLAN OF THE PORTICO--LOOKING UP.]
+
+A general principle seldom pointed out which governs the application
+of enrichments to mouldings in Greek architecture may be cited as a
+good instance of the subtle yet admirable concord which existed
+between the different features: it is as follows. _The outline of each
+enrichment in relief was ordinarily described by the same line as the
+profile of the moulding to which it was applied._ The egg enrichment
+(Fig. 91) on the ovolo, the water-leaf on the cyma reversa (Figs. 92
+and 97), the honeysuckle on the cyma recta (Fig. 94), and the
+guilloche (Fig. 100) on the torus, are examples of the application of
+this rule,--one which obviously tends to produce harmony.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 90.--CAPITAL OF ANTÆ FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM.]
+
+  [Illustration: EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN RELIEF.
+
+      FIG. 91.--EGG AND DART.
+
+      FIG. 92.--LEAF AND DART.
+
+      FIG. 93.--HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+      FIG. 94.--HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+      FIG. 95.--ACANTHUS.
+
+      FIG. 96.--ACANTHUS.
+
+      FIG. 97.--LEAF AND TONGUE.
+
+      FIG. 98.--LEAF AND TONGUE.
+
+      FIG. 99.--GARLAND.
+
+      FIG. 100.--GUILLOCHE.
+
+      FIG. 101.--BEAD AND FILLET.
+
+      FIG. 102.--BEAD AND FILLET.
+
+      FIG. 103.--TORUS MOULDING.
+
+      FIG. 104.--TORUS MOULDING.]
+
+  [Illustration: EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN COLOUR.
+
+      FIG. 105.--HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+      FIGS. 106, 108.--FACIAS WITH BANDS OF FOLIAGE.
+
+      FIG. 106.
+
+      FIG. 107.--HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+      FIG. 108.
+
+      FIG. 109.--LEAF AND DART.
+
+      FIG. 110.--EGG AND DART.
+
+      FIGS. 111 TO 113.--EXAMPLES OF THE HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+      FIG. 111.
+
+      FIG. 112.
+
+      FIG. 113.
+
+      FIG. 114.--COMBINATION OF THE FRET, THE EGG AND DART, THE BEAD
+      AND FILLET, AND THE HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+      FIG. 114.
+
+      FIG. 115.--GUILLOCHE.
+
+      FIGS. 116 TO 120.--EXAMPLES OF THE FRET.
+
+      FIG. 116.
+
+      FIG. 117.
+
+      FIG. 118.
+
+      FIG. 119.
+
+      FIG. 120.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[16] See Chap. IX.
+
+[17] Chap. I.
+
+[18] For a statement of the general rule governing such enrichments,
+see page 133.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 121.--ELEVATION OF AN ETRUSCAN TEMPLE (RESTORED
+      FROM DESCRIPTIONS ONLY).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Historical and General Sketch._
+
+The few grains of truth that we are able to sift from the mass of
+legend which has accumulated round the early history of Rome seem to
+indicate that at a very early period--which the generally received
+date of 753 B.C. may be taken to fix as nearly as is now possible--a
+small band of outcasts and marauders settled themselves on the
+Palatine Hill and commenced to carry on depredations against the
+various cities of the tribes whose territories were in the immediate
+neighbourhood, such as the Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, Latins, and
+Etruscans. A walled city was built, which from its admirable situation
+succeeded in attracting inhabitants in considerable numbers, and
+speedily began to exercise supremacy over its neighbours. The most
+important of the neighbouring nations were the Etruscans, who called
+themselves Rasena, and who must have settled on the west coast of
+Italy, between the rivers Arno and Tiber, at a very early period.
+Their origin is, however, very obscure, some authorities believing,
+upon apparently good grounds, that they came from Asia Minor, while
+others assert that they descended from the north over the Rhætian
+Alps. But whatever that origin may have been, they had at the time of
+the founding of Rome as a city attained a high degree of civilisation,
+and showed a considerable amount of architectural skill; and their
+arts exercised a very great influence upon Roman art.
+
+Considerable remains of the city walls of several Etruscan towns still
+exist. These show that the masonry was of what has been termed a
+Cyclopean character,--that is to say, the separate stones were of an
+enormous size; in the majority of examples these stones were of a
+polygonal shape, though in a few instances they were rectangular,
+while in all cases they were fitted together with the most consummate
+accuracy of workmanship, which, together with their great massiveness,
+has enabled much of this masonry to endure to the present day.
+Cortona, Volterra, Fiesole, and other towns exhibit instances of this
+walling. The temples, palaces, or dwelling-houses which went to make
+up the cities so fortified have all disappeared, and the only existing
+structural remains of Etruscan buildings are tombs. These are found in
+large numbers, and consist--as in the earlier instances which have
+already been described--both of rock-cut and detached erections. Of
+the former, the best known group is at Castel d'Asso, where we find
+not only chambers cut into the rock, each resembling an ordinary room
+with an entrance in the face of the rock, but also monuments cut
+completely out and standing clear all round; and we cannot fail to
+detect in the forms into which the rock has been cut, especially those
+of the roof, imitations of wooden buildings, heavy square piers being
+left at intervals supporting longitudinal beams which hold up the
+roof. Fig. 122 is an illustration of the interior of a chamber in the
+rock. Occasionally there were a cornice and pediment over the
+entrance.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 122.--SEPULCHRE AT CORNETO.]
+
+The other class of tombs are circular tumuli, similar to the Pelasgic
+tombs of Asia Minor; of these large numbers exist, but not
+sufficiently uninjured to enable us to restore them completely. They
+generally consisted of a substructure of stone, upon which was raised
+a conical elevation. In the case of the Regulini Galeassi tomb there
+were an inner and an outer tumulus, the latter of which covered
+several small tombs, while the inner enclosed one only, which had
+fortunately never been opened till it was lately discovered. This tomb
+was vaulted on the horizontal system--that is to say, its vault was
+not a true arch, but was formed of courses of masonry, each
+overhanging the one below, as in the Treasury of Atreus, and it had a
+curious recess in the roof, in which were found numerous interesting
+examples of Etruscan pottery. It is, however, clear from the city
+gates, sewers, aqueducts, &c., that the Etruscans were acquainted with
+and extensively used the true radiating arch composed of wedge-shaped
+stones (voussoirs), and that they constructed it with great care and
+scientific skill. The gate at Perugia, and the Cloacæ or Sewers at
+Rome, constructed during the reign of the Tarquins,[19] at the
+beginning of the sixth century B.C., are examples of the true arch,
+and this makes it certain that it was from the Etruscans that the
+Romans learned the arched construction which, when combined with the
+trabeated or lintel mode of construction which they copied from the
+Greeks, formed the chief characteristic of Roman architecture. The
+Cloaca Maxima (Fig. 123), which is roofed over with three concentric
+semicircular rings of large stones, still exists in many places with
+not a stone displaced, as a proof of the skill of these early
+builders. There are remains of an aqueduct at Tusculum which are
+interesting from the fact of the horizontal being combined with the
+true arch in its construction.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 123.--CLOACA MAXIMA.]
+
+No Etruscan temples remain now, but we know from Vitruvius that they
+consisted of three cells with one or more rows of columns in front,
+the intercolumniation or interval between the columns being excessive.
+The largest Etruscan temple of which any record remains was that of
+Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome, which, under the Empire, became one of
+the most splendid temples of antiquity. It was commenced by Tarquinius
+Superbus, and is said to have derived its name from the fact of the
+builders, when excavating the foundations, coming upon a freshly
+bleeding head (_caput_), indicating that the place would eventually
+become the chief city of the world. Another form of Etruscan temple is
+described by Vitruvius, consisting of one circular cell only, with a
+porch. This form was probably the origin of the series of circular
+Roman buildings which includes such forms of temples as that at
+Tivoli, and many of the famous mausolea, _e.g._ that of Hadrian, and
+the culmination of which style is seen in the Pantheon. It is
+interesting to notice that the Romans never entirely gave up the
+circular form, one instance of its use in Britain at a late period of
+the Roman occupation having been discovered in the ruins of Silchester
+near Basingstoke; and we shall find that it was perpetuated in
+Christian baptisteries, tombs, and occasionally churches.
+
+We know from the traces of such buildings which exist, that the
+Etruscans must have constructed theatres and amphitheatres, and it is
+recorded that the first Tarquin laid out the Circus Maximus and
+instituted the great games held there. At Sutri there are ruins of an
+amphitheatre which is nearly a perfect circle, measuring 265 ft. in
+its greatest breadth and 295 ft. in length.
+
+There are no remains of other buildings which would enable us to form
+an opinion as to the civic architecture of the Etruscans: they must,
+however, have attained to a considerable skill in sculpture, as in
+some of the tombs figures are represented in high relief which show no
+small power of expression. They, too, like the Egyptians, embellished
+their tombs with mural paintings. These are generally in outline, and
+represent human figures and animals in scenes of every-day life, with
+conventionalised foliage, or mythological scenes such as the passage
+of the soul after death to the judgment-seat where its actions in life
+are to be adjudicated upon. In the plastic arts the Etruscans made
+great progress, many of their vases showing a delicacy and grace which
+have never been surpassed, and exhibiting in their decorations traces
+of both Greek and Egyptian influence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We now reach the last of the classical styles of antiquity, the
+Roman,--a style which, however, is rather an adaptation or
+amalgamation of other styles than an original and independent creation
+or development. The contrast is very great between the "lively
+Grecian," imaginative and idealistic in the highest degree--who seemed
+to have an innate genius for art and beauty, and who was always eager
+to perpetuate in marble his ideal conception of the "hero from whose
+loins he sprung," or to immortalise with some splendid work of art the
+name of his mother-city--and the stern, practical Roman, realistic in
+his every pore, eager for conquest, and whose one dominant idea was to
+bring under his sway all the nations who were brought into contact
+with him, and to make his city--as had been foretold--the capital of
+the whole world. With this idea always before him, it is no wonder
+that such a typical Roman as M. Porcius Cato should look with disdain
+upon the fine arts in all their forms, and should regard a love for
+the beautiful, whether in literature or art, as synonymous with
+effeminacy. Mummius, also, who destroyed Corinth, is said to have been
+so little aware of the value of the artistic treasures which he
+carried away, as to stipulate with the carriers who undertook to
+transport them to Rome, that if any of the works of art were lost they
+should be replaced by others of equal value.
+
+When the most prominent statesmen displayed such indifference, it is
+not surprising that for nearly 500 years no single trace of any
+architectural building of any merit at all in Rome can now be
+discovered, and that history is silent as to the existence of any
+monuments worthy of being mentioned. Works of public utility of a
+very extensive nature were indeed carried out during this period;
+such, for example, as the Appian Way from Rome to Capua, which was the
+first paved road in Rome, and was constructed by the Censor Appius
+Claudius in B.C. 309. This was 14 ft. wide and 3 ft. thick, in three
+layers: 1st, of rough stones grouted together; 2nd, of gravel; and
+3rd, of squared stones of various dimensions. The same Censor also
+brought water from Præneste to Rome by a subterranean channel 11 miles
+long. Several bridges were also erected, and Cato the Censor is said
+to have built a basilica.
+
+Until about 150 B.C. all the buildings of Rome were constructed either
+of brick or the local stone; and though we hear nothing of
+architecture as a fine art, we cannot hesitate to admit that during
+this period the Romans carried the art of construction, and especially
+that of employing materials of small dimensions and readily
+obtainable, in buildings of great size, to a remarkable pitch of
+perfection. It was not till after the fall of Carthage and the
+destruction of Corinth, when Greece became a Roman province under the
+name of Achaia--both which events occurred in the year 146 B.C.--that
+Rome became desirous of emulating, to a certain extent, the older
+civilisation which she had destroyed; and about this time she became
+so enormously wealthy that vast sums of money were expended, both
+publicly and privately, in the erection of monuments, many of which
+remain to the present day, more or less altered. The first marble
+temple in Rome was built by the Consul Q. Metellus Macedonicus, who
+died B.C. 115. Roman architecture from this period began to show a
+wonderful diversity in the objects to which it was directed,--a
+circumstance perhaps as interesting as its great scientific and
+structural advance upon all preceding styles. In the earlier styles
+temples, tombs, and palaces were the only buildings deemed worthy of
+architectural treatment; but under the Romans baths, theatres,
+amphitheatres, basilicas, aqueducts, triumphal arches, &c., were
+carried out just as elaborately as the temples of the gods.
+
+It was under the Emperors that the full magnificence of Roman
+architectural display was reached. The famous boast of Augustus, that
+he found Rome of brick and left her of marble, gives expression in a
+few words to what was the great feature of his reign. Succeeding
+emperors lavished vast sums on buildings and public works of all
+kinds; and thus it comes to pass that though the most destructive of
+all agencies, hostile invasions, conflagrations, and long periods of
+neglect, have each in turn done their utmost to destroy the vestiges
+of Imperial Rome, there still remain fragments, and in one or two
+instances whole monuments, enough to make Rome, after Athens, the
+richest store of classic architectural antiquities in the world.
+
+But it was not in Rome only that great buildings were erected. The
+whole known civilised world was under Roman dominion, and wherever a
+centre of government or even a flourishing town existed there sprang
+up the residences of the dominant race, and their places of business,
+public worship, and public amusement. Consequently, we find in our own
+country, and in France, Spain, Germany, Italy, North Africa, and
+Egypt--in short, in all the countries where Roman rule was
+established--examples of temples, amphitheatres, theatres, triumphal
+arches, and dwelling-houses, some of them of great interest and
+occasionally in admirable preservation.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[19] The story of the Tarquins probably points to a period when the
+chief supremacy at Rome was in the hands of an Etruscan family, and is
+interesting for this reason.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 124.--"INCANTADA" IN SALONICA.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE BUILDINGS OF THE ROMANS.
+
+
+The temples in Rome were not, as in Greece and Egypt, the structures
+upon which the architect lavished all the resources of his art and his
+science. The general form of them was copied from that made use of by
+the Greeks, but the spirit in which the original idea was carried out
+was entirely different. In a word, the temples of Rome were by no
+means worthy of her size and position as the metropolis of the world,
+and very few remains of them exist.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 125.--IONIC ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA
+      VIRILIS, ROME.]
+
+Ten columns are still standing of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina
+(now the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda): it occupied the site of a
+previous temple and was dedicated by Antoninus Pius to his wife
+Faustina. The Temple (supposed) of Fortuna Virilis, in the Ionic style
+(Fig. 125), still exists as the church of Santa Maria Egiziaca: this
+was tetrastyle, with half-columns all round it, and this was of the
+kind called by Vitruvius "pseudo-peripteral." A few fragmentary
+remains of other temples exist in Rome, but in some of the Roman
+provinces far finer specimens of temples remain, of which perhaps the
+best is the Maison Carrée at Nîmes (Fig. 126). Here we find the Roman
+plan of a single cell and a deep portico in front, while the sides and
+rear have the columns attached. The intercolumniations and the details
+of the capitals and entablature are, however, almost pure Greek. The
+date of this temple is uncertain, but it is most probable that it was
+erected during the reign of Hadrian. The same emperor is said to have
+completed the magnificent Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, which
+was 354 ft. long by 171 ft. wide. It consisted of a cell flanked on
+each side by a double row of detached columns; in front was one row of
+columns in antis, and three other rows in front of these, while there
+were also three rows in the rear: as the columns were of the
+Corinthian order, and nearly 60 ft. in height, it may be imagined that
+it was a splendid edifice.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 126.--ROMAN-CORINTHIAN TEMPLE AT NÎMES
+      (MAISON-CARRÉE). PROBABLY OF THE TIME OF HADRIAN.]
+
+The ruins of another magnificent provincial Roman temple exist at
+Baalbek--the ancient Heliopolis--in Syria, not far from Damascus. This
+building was erected during the time of the Antonines, probably by
+Antoninus Pius himself, and originally it must have been of very
+extensive dimensions, the portico alone being 180 ft. long and about
+37 ft. deep. This gives access to a small hexagonal court, on the
+western side of which a triple gateway opens into the Great Court,
+which is a vast quadrangle about 450 ft. long by 400 ft. broad, with
+ranges of small chambers or niches on three sides, some of which
+evidently had at one time beautifully groined roofs. At the western
+end of this court, on an artificial elevation, stand the remains of
+what is called the Great Temple. This was originally 290 ft. long by
+160 ft. wide, and had 54 columns supporting its roof, six only of
+which now remain erect. The height of these columns, including base
+and capital, is 75 ft., and their diameter is 7 ft. at base and about
+6 ft. 6 in. at top; they are of the Corinthian order, and above them
+rises an elaborately moulded entablature, 14 ft. in height. Each of
+the columns is composed of three stones only, secured by strong iron
+cramps; and indeed one of the most striking features of this group of
+buildings is the colossal size of the stones used in their
+construction. The quarries from which these stones were hewn are close
+at hand, and in them is one stone surpassing all the others in
+magnitude, its dimensions being 68 ft. by 14 ft. 2 in. by 13 ft.
+11 in. It is difficult to imagine what means can have existed for
+transporting so huge a mass, the weight of which has been calculated
+at 1100 tons.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 127.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT
+      TIVOLI.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 128.--CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF VESTA
+      AT TIVOLI.]
+
+Other smaller temples exist in the vicinity, all of which are lavishly
+decorated, but on the whole the ornamentation shows an exuberance of
+detail which somewhat offends a critical artistic taste.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 129.--THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. PLAN
+      (LOOKING UP) AND SECTION OF PART OF THE PERISTYLE.]
+
+Circular temples were an elegant variety, which seems to have been
+originated by the Romans, and of which two well-known examples
+remain--the Temples of Vesta at Rome and at Tivoli. The columns of the
+temple at Tivoli (Fig. 128) form a well-known and pleasing variety of
+the Corinthian order, and the circular form of the building as shown
+on the plan (Fig. 127) gives excellent opportunities for good
+decorative treatment, as may be judged of by the enlarged diagram of
+part of the peristyle (Fig. 129).
+
+
+_Basilicas._
+
+Among the most remarkable of the public buildings of Roman times, both
+in the mother-city and in the provinces, were the Basilicas or Halls
+of Justice, which were also used as commercial exchanges. It is also
+believed that Basilicas existed in some Greek cities, but no clue to
+their structural arrangements exists, and whence originated the idea
+of the plan of these buildings we are unable to state; their striking
+similarity to some of the rock-cut halls or temples of India has been
+already pointed out. They were generally (though not always) covered
+halls, oblong in shape, divided into three or five aisles by two or
+more rows of columns, the centre aisle being much wider than those at
+the sides: over the latter, galleries were frequently erected. At one
+end was a semicircular recess or apse, the floor of which was raised
+considerably above the level of the rest of the building, and here the
+presiding magistrate sat to hear causes tried. Four[20] of these
+buildings are mentioned by ancient writers as having existed in
+republican times, viz. the Basilica Portia, erected in B.C. 184, by
+Cato the Censor; the Basilica Emilia et Fulvia, erected in B.C. 179 by
+the censors M. Fulvius Nobilior and M. Æmilius Lepidus, and afterwards
+enlarged and called the Basilica Paulli; the Basilica Sempronia,
+erected in B.C. 169 by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus; and the Basilica
+Julia, erected by Julius Cæsar, B.C. 46. All these buildings had
+wooden roofs, and were of no great architectural merit, and they
+perished at a remote date. Under the Empire, basilicas of much greater
+size and magnificence were erected; and remains of that of Trajan,
+otherwise called the Basilica Ulpia, have been excavated in the Forum
+of Trajan. This was about 360 ft. long by 180 ft. wide, had four rows
+of columns inside, and it supposed to have been covered by a
+semicircular wooden roof. Apollodorus of Damascus was the architect of
+this building. Another basilica of which remains exist is that of
+Maxentius, which after his overthrow by Constantine in A.D. 312, was
+known as the Basilica Constantiniana. This structure was of stone, and
+had a vaulted roof; it was 195 ft. between the walls, and was divided
+into three aisles by piers with enormous columns standing in front of
+them.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 130.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE BASILICA ULPIA, ROME.]
+
+One provincial basilica, that at Trèves, still stands; and although it
+must have been considerably altered, it is by far the best existing
+example of this kind of building. The internal columns do not exist
+here, and it is simply a rectangular hall about 175 ft. by 85 ft.,
+with the usual semicircular apse.
+
+The chief interest attaching to these basilicas lies in the fact that
+they formed the first places of Christian assembly, and that they
+served as the model upon which the first Christian churches were
+built.
+
+
+_Theatres and Amphitheatres._
+
+Although dramas and other plays were performed in Rome as early as 240
+B.C., there seems to have been a strong prejudice against permanent
+buildings for their representation, as it is recorded that a decree
+was passed in B.C. 154 forbidding the construction of such buildings.
+Mummius, the conqueror of Corinth, obtained permission to erect a
+wooden theatre for the performance of dramas as one of the shows of
+his triumph, and after this many buildings of the kind were erected,
+but all of a temporary nature; and it was not till B.C. 61 that the
+first permanent theatre was built by Pompey. This, and the theatres of
+Balbus and Marcellus, appear to have been the only permanent theatres
+that were erected in Imperial Rome; and there are no remains of any
+but the last of these, and this is much altered. So that, were it not
+for the remains of theatres found at Pompeii, it would be almost
+impossible to tell how they were arranged; but from these we can see
+that the stage was raised and separated from the part appropriated to
+the spectators by a semicircular area, much like that which in Greek
+theatres was allotted to the chorus: in the Roman ones this was
+assigned for the use of the senators. The portion devoted to the
+spectators--called the Cavea--was also semicircular on plan, and
+consisted of tiers of steps rising one above the other, and divided at
+intervals by wide passages and converging staircases communicating
+with the porticoes, which ran round the whole theatre at every story.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 131.--PLAN OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME.]
+
+At Orange, in the South of France, are the remains of a very fine
+theatre, similar in plan to that described. The great wall which
+formed the back of the scene in this building is still standing, and
+is one of the most magnificent pieces of masonry existing.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 132.--THE COLOSSEUM. SECTION AND ELEVATION.]
+
+Although the Romans were not particularly addicted to dramatic
+representations, yet they were passionately fond of shows and games of
+all kinds: hence, not only in Rome itself, but in almost every Roman
+settlement, from Silchester to Verona, are found traces of their
+amphitheatres, and the mother-city can claim the possession of the
+most stupendous fabric of the kind that was ever erected--the
+Colosseum or Flavian Amphitheatre, which was commenced by Vespasian
+and finished by his son Titus. An amphitheatre is really a double
+theatre without a stage, and with the space in the centre unoccupied
+by seats. This space, which was sunk several feet below the first row
+of seats, was called the arena, and was appropriated to the various
+exhibitions which took place in the building. The plan was elliptical
+or oval, and this shape seems to have been universal.
+
+The Colosseum, whose ruins still remain to attest its pristine
+magnificence--
+
+    "Arches on arches, as it were that Rome,
+    Collecting the chief trophies of her line,
+    Would build up all her triumphs in one dome"[21]--
+
+was 620 ft. long and 513 wide, and the height was about 162 ft. It was
+situated in the hollow between the Esquiline and Cælian hills. The
+ranges of seats were admirably planned so as to enable all the
+audience to have a view of what was going on in the arena, and great
+skill was shown both in the arrangement of the approaches to the
+different tiers and in the structural means for supporting the seats,
+and double corridors ran completely round the building on each floor,
+affording ready means of exit. Various estimates have been made of the
+number of spectators that could be accommodated, and these range from
+50,000 to 100,000, but probably 80,000 was the maximum. Recent
+excavations have brought to light the communications which existed
+between the arena and the dens where the wild animals and human slaves
+and prisoners were confined, and some of the water channels used when
+mimic sea-fights were exhibited. The external façade is composed of
+four stories, separated by entablatures that run completely round the
+building without a break. The three lower stories consist of a series
+of semicircular arched openings, eighty in number, separated by piers
+with attached columns in front of them, the Doric order being used in
+the lowest story, the Ionic in the second, and the Corinthian in the
+third; the piers and columns are elevated on stylobates; the
+entablatures have a comparatively slight projection, and there are no
+projecting keystones in the arches. In the lowest range these openings
+are 13 ft. 4 in. wide, except the four which are at the ends of the
+two axes of the ellipse, and these are 14 ft. 6 in. wide. The diameter
+of the columns is 2 ft. 8¾ in. The topmost story, which is
+considerably more lofty than either of the lower ones, was a nearly
+solid wall enriched by Corinthian pilasters. In this story occur two
+tiers of small square openings in the alternate spaces between the
+pilasters. These openings are placed accurately over the centres of
+the arches of the lower stories. Immediately above the higher range of
+square openings are a series of corbels--three between each pair of
+pilasters--which probably received the ends of the poles carrying the
+huge awning which protected the spectators from the sun's rays. The
+whole is surmounted by a heavy cornice, in which, at intervals
+immediately over each corbel, are worked square mortise holes, forming
+sockets through which the poles of the awning passed. The stone of
+which the façade of the Colosseum is built is a local stone, called
+travertine, the blocks of which are secured by iron cramps without
+cement. Nearly all the internal portion of the building is of brick,
+and the floors of the corridors, &c., are paved with flat bricks
+covered with hard stucco. These amphitheatres were occasionally the
+scene of imitations of marine conflicts, when the arena was flooded
+with water and mimic vessels of war engaged each other. Very complete
+arrangements were made, by means of small aqueducts, for leading the
+water into the arena and for carrying it off.
+
+Apart from theatrical representations and gladiatorial combats, the
+Romans had an inordinate passion for chariot races. For those the
+circi were constructed, of which class of buildings the Circus Maximus
+was the largest. This, originally laid out by Tarquinius Priscus, was
+reconstructed on a larger scale by Julius Cæsar. It was circular at
+one end and rectangular at the other, at which was the entrance. On
+both sides of the entrance were a number of small arched chambers,
+called _carceres_, from which the chariots started. The course was
+divided down the centre by a low wall, called the _spina_, which was
+adorned with various sculptures. The seats rose in a series of covered
+porticoes all round the course, except at the entrance. As the length
+of the Circus Maximus was nearly 700 yards, and the breadth about 135
+yards, it is possible that Dionysius may not have formed an
+exaggerated notion of its capacity when he says it would accommodate
+150,000 spectators.
+
+In the Roman provinces amphitheatres were often erected; and at Pola
+in Istria, Verona in Italy, and Nîmes and Arles in France, fine
+examples remain. A rude Roman amphitheatre, with seats cut in the turf
+of a hill-side, exists to this day at the old town of Dorchester in
+Dorset, which was anciently a Roman settlement.
+
+
+_Baths (Thermæ)._
+
+Nothing can give us a more impressive idea of the grandeur and lavish
+display of Imperial Rome than the remains of the huge Thermæ, or
+bathing establishments, which still exist. Between the years 10 A.D.,
+when Agrippa built the first public baths, and 324 A.D., when those
+of Constantine were erected, no less than twelve of these vast
+establishments were erected by various emperors, and bequeathed to the
+people. Of the whole number, the baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian
+are the only ones which remain in any state of preservation, and these
+were probably the most extensive and magnificent of all. All these
+splendid buildings were really nothing more than bribes to secure the
+favour of the populace; for it seems quite clear that the public had
+practically free entrance to them, the only charge mentioned by
+writers of the time being a quadrans, about a farthing of our money.
+Gibbon says, "The meanest Roman could purchase with a small copper
+coin the daily enjoyment of a scene of pomp and luxury which might
+excite the envy of the kings of Asia." And this language is not
+exaggerated. Not only were there private bath-rooms, swimming-baths,
+hot baths, vapour-baths, and, in fact, all the appurtenances of the
+most approved Turkish baths of modern times, but there were also
+gymnasia, halls for various games, lecture-halls, libraries, and
+theatres in connection with the baths, all lavishly ornamented with
+the finest paintings and sculpture that could be obtained. Stone seems
+to have been but sparingly used in the construction of these
+buildings, which were almost entirely of brick faced with stucco: this
+served as the ground for an elaborate series of fresco paintings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 133.--PLAN OF THE PRINCIPAL BUILDING, BATHS OF
+      CARACALLA, ROME.]
+
+The baths of Caracalla, at the foot of the Aventine hill, erected A.D.
+217, comprised a quadrangular block of buildings of about 1150 ft.
+(about the fifth of a mile) each way. The side facing the street
+consisted of a portico the whole length of the façade, behind which
+were numerous ranges of private bath-rooms. The side and rear blocks
+contained numerous halls and porticoes, the precise object of which
+it is now very difficult to ascertain. As Byron says:
+
+    "Temples, baths, or halls?
+      Pronounce who can."
+
+This belt of buildings surrounded an open courtyard or garden, in
+which was placed the principal bathing establishment (Fig. 133), a
+building 730 ft. by 380 ft., which contained the large piscina, or
+swimming-bath, various hot baths, dressing-rooms, gymnasia, and other
+halls for athletic exercises. In the centre of one of the longer sides
+was a large semicircular projection, roofed with a dome, which was
+lined with brass: this rotunda was called the solar cell. From the
+ruins of these baths were taken some of the most splendid specimens of
+antique sculpture, such as the Farnese Hercules and the Flora in the
+Museum of Naples.
+
+The baths of Diocletian, erected just at the commencement of the
+fourth century A.D., were hardly inferior to those of Caracalla, but
+modern and ancient buildings are now intermingled to such an extent
+that the general plan of the buildings cannot now be traced with
+accuracy. There are said to have been over 3000 marble seats in these
+baths; the walls were covered with mosaics, and the columns were of
+Egyptian granite and green Numidian marble. The Ephebeum, or grand
+hall, still exists as the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, having
+been restored by Michelangelo. It is nearly 300 ft. long by 90 ft.
+wide, and is roofed by three magnificent cross vaults, supported on
+eight granite columns 45 ft. in height. (Fig. 134.)
+
+There is one ancient building in Rome more impressive than any other,
+not only because it is in a better state of preservation, but because
+of the dignity with which it has been designed, the perfection with
+which it has been constructed, and the effectiveness of the mode in
+which its interior is lighted. We allude to the Pantheon. Opinions
+differ as to whether this was a Hall attached to the thermæ of
+Agrippa, or whether it was a temple. Without attempting to determine
+this point, we may at any rate claim that the interior of this
+building admirably illustrates the boldness and telling power with
+which the large halls forming part of the thermæ were designed; and,
+whether it belonged to such a building or not, it is wonderfully well
+fitted to illustrate this subject.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 134.--INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA DEGLI ANGELI,
+      ROME.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 135.--THE PANTHEON, ROME. GROUND-PLAN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 136.--THE PANTHEON, ROME. EXTERIOR.]
+
+The Pantheon is the finest example of a domed hall which we have
+left. The building, which forms the church of Santa Maria ad Martyres,
+has been considerably altered at various times since its erection, and
+now consists of a rotunda with a rectangular portico in front of it.
+The rotunda was most probably erected by Agrippa, the son-in-law of
+Augustus, in B.C. 27, and is a most remarkable instance of clever
+construction at so early a date. The diameter of the interior is
+145 ft. 6 in., and the height to the top of the dome is 147 ft. In
+addition to the entrance, the walls are broken up by seven large
+niches, three of which are semicircular on plan, and the others,
+alternating with them, rectangular. The walls are divided into two
+stories by an entablature supported by columns and pilasters; but
+although this is now cut through by the arches of the niches, it is at
+least probable that originally this was not the case, and that the
+entablature ran continuously round the walls, as shown in Fig. 137,
+which is a restoration of the Pantheon by Adler. Above the attic story
+rises the huge hemispherical dome, which is pierced at its summit by a
+circular opening 27 ft. in diameter, through which a flood of light
+pours down and illuminates the whole of the interior. The dome is
+enriched by boldly recessed panels, and these were formerly covered
+with bronze ornaments, which have been removed for the sake of the
+metal. The marble enrichments of the attic have also disappeared, and
+their place has been taken by common and tawdry decorations more
+adapted to the stage of a theatre. But notwithstanding everything that
+has been done to detract from the imposing effect of the building by
+the alteration of its details, there is still, taking it as a whole, a
+simple grandeur in the design, a magnificence in the material
+employed, and a quiet harmony in the illumination, that impart to the
+interior a character of sublimity which nothing can impair. The
+rectangular portico was added at some subsequent period, and consists
+of sixteen splendid Corinthian columns (Fig. 138), eight in front
+supporting the pediment, and the other eight dividing the portico into
+three bays, in precisely the same way as if it formed the pronaos to
+the three cells of an Etruscan temple.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 137.--THE PANTHEON, ROME. INTERIOR.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 138.--THE CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE PANTHEON,
+      ROME.]
+
+
+_Bridges and Aqueducts._
+
+The earliest Roman bridges were of wood, and the Pons Sublicius,
+though often rebuilt, continued to be of this material until the time
+of Pliny, but it was impossible for a people who made such use of the
+arch to avoid seeing the great advantage this form gave them in the
+construction of bridges, and several of these formed of stone spanned
+the Tiber even before the time of the Empire. The finest Roman
+bridges, however, were built in the provinces. Trajan constructed one
+over the Danube which was 150 ft. high and 60 ft. wide, and the arches
+of which were of no less than 170 ft. span. This splendid structure
+was destroyed by his successor, Hadrian, who was probably jealous of
+it. The bridge over the Tagus at Alcantara, which was constructed by
+Hadrian, is another very fine example. There were six arches here, of
+which the two centre ones had a span of 100 ft.
+
+The Roman aqueducts afford striking evidence of the building
+enterprise and architectural skill of the people. Pliny says of these
+works: "If any one will carefully consider the quantity of water used
+in the open air, in private baths, swimming-baths, houses, gardens,
+&c., and thinks of the arches that have been built, the hills that
+have been tunnelled, and the valleys that have been levelled for the
+purpose of conducting the water to its destination, he must confess
+that nothing has existed in the world more calculated to excite
+admiration." The same sentiment strikes an observer of to-day when
+looking at the ruins of these aqueducts. At the end of the first
+century A.D. we read of nine aqueducts in Rome, and in the time of
+Procopius (A.D. 550) there were fourteen in use. Of these, the Aqua
+Claudia and the Anio Novus were the grandest and most costly. Those
+were constructed about the year 48 A.D., and entered the city upon the
+same arches, though at different levels, the Aqua Claudia being the
+lower. The arches carrying the streams were over nine miles long, and
+in some cases 109 ft. high. They were purely works of utility, and had
+no architectural decorations; but they were most admirably adapted for
+their purpose, and were so solidly constructed, that portions of them
+are still in use. Some of the provincial aqueducts, such as those of
+Tarragona and Segovia in Spain, were more ornamental, and had a double
+tier of arches. The Pont du Gard, not far from Nîmes, in France, is a
+well-known and very picturesque structure of this character.
+
+
+_Commemorative Monuments._
+
+These comprise triumphal arches, columns, and tombs. The former
+consisted of a rectangular mass of masonry having sculptured
+representations of the historical event to be commemorated, enriched
+with attached columns on pedestals, supporting an entablature crowned
+with a high attic, on which there was generally an inscription. In the
+centre was the wide and lofty arched opening. The Arch of Titus,
+recording the capture of Jerusalem, is one of the finest examples.
+Later on triumphal arches were on a more extended scale, and comprised
+a small arch on each side of the large one; examples of which may be
+seen in the arches of Septimius Severus and of Constantine (Fig. 139).
+The large arched gateways which are met with in various parts of
+Europe--such as the Porte d'Arroux at Autun, and the Porta Nigra at
+Trèves--are monuments very similar to triumphal arches. There remain
+also smaller monuments of the same character, such as the so-called
+Arch of the Goldsmiths in Rome (Fig. 1).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 139.--THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME.]
+
+Columns were erected in great numbers during the time of the Emperors
+as memorials of victory. Of these the Column of Trajan and that of
+Marcus Aurelius are the finest. The former was erected in the centre
+of Trajan's Forum, in commemoration of the Emperor's victory over the
+Dacians. It is of the Doric order, 132 ft. 10 in. high, including the
+statue. The shaft is constructed of thirty-four pieces of marble
+joined with bronze cramps. The figures on the pedestal are very finely
+carved, and the entire shaft is encircled by a series of elaborate
+bas-reliefs winding round it in a spiral from its base to its capital.
+The beauty of the work on this shaft may be best appreciated by a
+visit to the cast of it set up--in two heights, unfortunately--at the
+South Kensington Museum. The Column of Marcus Aurelius, generally
+known as the Antonine Column, is similarly enriched, but is not equal
+to the Trajan Column.
+
+The survival of Etruscan habits is clearly seen in the construction of
+Roman tombs, which existed in enormous numbers outside the gates of
+the city. Merivale says: "The sepulchres of twenty generations lined
+the sides of the high-roads for several miles beyond the gates, and
+many had considerable architectural pretensions." That of Cecilia
+Metella is a typical example. Here we find a square basement
+surmounted by a circular tower-like structure, with a frieze and
+cornice. This was erected about B.C. 60, by Crassus. The mausoleum of
+Augustus was on a much more extensive scale, and consisted of four
+cylindrical stories, one above the other, decreasing in diameter as
+they ascended, and the topmost of all was crowned with a colossal
+statue of the Emperor. The tomb of Hadrian, on the banks of the
+Tiber--now known as the Castle of Sant' Angelo--was even more
+magnificent. This comprised a square base, 75 ft. high, the side of
+which measured about 340 ft.; above this was a cylindrical building
+surmounted by a circular peristyle of thirty-four Corinthian columns.
+On the top was a quadriga with a statue of the Emperor. These mausolea
+were occasionally octagonal or polygonal in plan, surmounted by a
+dome, and cannot fail to remind us of the Etruscan tumuli.
+
+Another kind of tomb, of less magnificence, was the columbarium, which
+was nothing more than a subterranean chamber, the walls of which had a
+number of small apertures in them for receiving the cinerary urns
+containing the ashes of the bodies which had been cremated. In the
+eastern portion of the Empire, in rocky districts, the tombs were cut
+in the rock, and the façade was elaborately decorated with columns and
+other architectural features.
+
+
+_Domestic Architecture._
+
+Of all the palaces which the Roman emperors built for themselves, and
+which we know from historical records to have been of the most
+magnificent description, nothing now remains in Rome itself that is
+not too completely ruined to enable any one to restore its plan with
+accuracy, though considerable remains exist of the Palace of the
+Cæsars on the Palatine Hill. In fact, the palace of Diocletian at
+Spalatro, in Dalmatia, is the only remaining example in the whole of
+the Roman empire of the dwelling-house of an emperor, and even this
+was not built till after Diocletian had resigned the imperial
+dignity, so that its date is the early part of the fourth century A.D.
+This palace is a rectangle, measuring about 700 ft. one way and 590 ft.
+the other, and covers an area of nearly 10 acres. It is surrounded
+by high walls, broken at intervals by square and octagonal towers, and
+contains temples, baths, and extensive galleries, besides the private
+apartments of the Emperor and dwellings for the principal officers of
+the household. The architect of this building broke away from
+classical traditions to a great extent; for example, the columns stand
+on corbels instead of pedestals, the entablatures being much broken,
+and the arches spring directly from the capitals of the columns (Fig.
+149).
+
+The private houses in Borne were of two kinds: the _insula_ and the
+_domus_. The insula was a block of buildings several stories high,
+frequently let out to different families in flats. The ground-floor
+was generally given up to shops, which had no connection with the
+upper parts of the building; and one roof covered the whole. This kind
+of house was generally tenanted by the poorer class of tradesmen and
+artificers. The other kind of house, the domus, was a detached
+mansion. The excavations at Pompeii have done much to elucidate a
+number of points in connection with Roman dwellings which had been the
+subject of much discussion by scholars, but we must not too hastily
+assume that the Pompeian houses are the exact counterpart of those of
+ancient Rome, as Pompeii was what may be called a Romano-Greek city.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 140.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 141.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE TRAGIC POET,
+      POMPEII.]
+
+The general arrangements of a Roman house were as follows: next the
+street an open space was frequently left, with porticoes on each side
+of it provided with seats: this constituted the vestibule, and was
+entirely outside the house;[22] the entrance-door opened into a
+narrow passage, called the _prothyrum_, which led to the _atrium_,[23]
+which in the houses of Republican Rome was the principal apartment,
+though afterwards it served as a sort of waiting-room for the clients
+and retainers of the house; it was an open court, roofed in on all
+the four sides, but open to the sky in the centre. The simplest form
+was called the Tuscan atrium, where the roof was simply a lean-to
+sloping towards the centre, the rafters being supported on beams, two
+of which rested on the walls of the atrium, and had two other
+cross-beams trimmed into them. The centre opening was called the
+_impluvium_, and immediately under it a tank, called the _compluvium_,
+was formed in the pavement to collect the rain-water (Fig. 142). When
+the atrium became larger, and the roof had to be supported by
+columns, it was called a _cavædium_.[24] At the end of this apartment
+were three others, open in front, the largest, in the centre, called
+_tablinum_, and the two side ones _alæ_;[25] these were
+muniment-rooms, where all the family archives were kept, and their
+position is midway between the semi-public part of the house, which
+lay towards the front, and the strictly domestic and private part,
+which lay in the rear. At the sides of the atrium in the larger houses
+were placed small rooms, which served as sleeping chambers.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 142.--THE ATRIUM OF A POMPEIAN HOUSE.]
+
+From the end of the atrium a passage, or sometimes two passages,
+called the _fauces_, running by the side of the tablinum, led to the
+_peristylium_,[26] which was the grand private reception-room; this
+also was a court open to the sky in the centre, and among the wealthy
+Romans its roof was supported by columns of the rarest marbles. Round
+the peristyle were grouped the various private rooms, which varied
+according to the size of the house and the taste of the owner. There
+was always one dining-room (_triclinium_), and frequently two or more,
+which were arranged with different aspects, for use in different
+seasons of the year. If several dining-rooms existed, they were of
+various sizes and decorated with various degrees of magnificence; and
+a story is told of one of the most luxurious Romans of Cicero's time,
+that he had simply to tell his slaves which room he would dine in for
+them to know what kind of banquet he wished to be prepared. In the
+largest houses there were saloons (_æci_), parlours (_exedræ_),
+picture galleries (_pinacothecæ_), chapels (_lararia_), and various
+other apartments. The kitchen, with scullery and bakehouse attached,
+was generally placed in one angle of the peristyle, round which
+various sleeping-chambers, according to the size of the house, were
+arranged. Most of the rooms appear to have been on the ground-floor,
+and probably depended for their light upon the doorway only; though
+in some instances at Pompeii small windows exist high up in the walls.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 143.--WALL DECORATION FROM POMPEII.]
+
+In the extreme rear of the larger houses there was generally a garden;
+and in those which were without this, the dead walls in the rear were
+frequently painted so as to imitate a garden. The houses of the
+wealthy Romans were decorated with the utmost magnificence: marble
+columns, mosaic pavements, and charming pieces of sculpture adorned
+their apartments, and the walls were in all cases richly painted (Fig.
+143), being divided into panels, in the centre of which were
+represented sometimes human figures, sometimes landscapes, and
+sometimes pictures of historical events. All the decoration of Roman
+houses was internal only: the largest and most sumptuous mansion had
+little to distinguish it, next the street, from a comparatively humble
+abode; and, with the exception of the space required for the vestibule
+and entrance doorway, nearly the whole of the side of the house next
+the street was most frequently appropriated to shops. All that we are
+able to learn of the architecture of Roman private houses, whether
+from contemporary descriptions or from the uncovered remains of
+Pompeii and Herculaneum,[27] points to the fact that it, even in a
+greater measure than the public architecture, was in no sense of
+indigenous growth, but was simply a copy of Greek arrangement and
+Greek decoration.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] The passage in Varro, which is the sole authority for the
+Basilica Opimia, is generally considered to be corrupt.
+
+[21] Byron.
+
+[22] This does not occur in the Pompeian houses.
+
+[23] Marked _a_, _a_, on the plans.
+
+[24] Vitruvius, however, seems to use the terms _atrium_ and
+_cavædium_ as quite synonymous.
+
+[25] Marked respectively _c_, and _f_, _f_, on the plan of the House
+of Pansa.
+
+[26] Marked _b_, _b_, on the plans.
+
+[27] At the Crystal Palace can be seen an interesting reproduction of
+a Pompeian house, which was designed by the late Sir Digby Wyatt. It
+gives a very faithful reproduction of the arrangement and the size of
+an average Pompeian house; and though every part is rather more fully
+covered with decoration than was usual in the originals, the
+decorations of each room faithfully reproduce the treatment of some
+original in Pompeii or Herculaneum.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 144.--CARVING FROM THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Analysis._
+
+_The Plan_ (_or floor-disposition_).--The plans of Roman buildings are
+striking from their variety and the vast extent which in some cases
+they display, as well as from a certain freedom, mastery, and facility
+of handling which are not seen in earlier work. Their variety is
+partly due to the very various purposes which the buildings of the
+Romans were designed to serve: these comprised all to which Greek
+buildings had been appropriated, and many others, the product of the
+complex and luxurious civilisation of the Empire. But independent of
+this circumstance, the employment of such various forms in the plans
+of buildings as the ellipse, the circle, and the octagon, and their
+facile use, seem to denote a people who could build rapidly, and who
+looked carefully to the general masses and outlines of what they
+built, however carelessly they handled the minute details. The freedom
+with which these new forms were employed arises partly also from the
+fact that the Romans were in possession of a system of construction
+which rendered them practically independent of most of the
+restrictions which had fettered the genius of the Egyptians,
+Assyrians, and Greeks. Their vaulted roofs could be supported by a
+comparatively small number of piers of great solidity, placed far
+apart; and accordingly in the great halls of the Thermæ and elsewhere
+we find planning in which, a few stable points of support being
+secured, the outline of the spaces between them is varied at the
+pleasure of the architect in the most picturesque and pleasing manner.
+
+The actual floor received a good deal of attention from the Romans. It
+was generally covered with tesselated pavement, often with mosaic, and
+its treatment entered into the scheme of the design for most
+interiors.
+
+
+_The Walls._
+
+The construction of these was essentially different from that adopted
+by most earlier nations. The Romans rather avoided than cultivated the
+use of large blocks of stone; they invented methods by which very
+small materials could be aggregated together into massive and solid
+walls. They used mortar of great cementing power, so much so that many
+specimens of Roman walling exist in this country as well as in Italy
+or France, where the mortar is as hard as the stones which it unites.
+They also employed a system of binding together the small materials so
+employed by introducing, at short distances apart, courses of flat
+stones or bricks, called "bond courses," and they further fortified
+such walls by bands of flat materials placed edgeways after the manner
+popularly known as herring-bone work. The result of these methods of
+construction was that the Roman architect could build anywhere, no
+matter how unpromising the materials which the locality afforded; that
+he could put the walls of his building together without its being
+requisite to employ exclusively the skilled labour of the mason, and
+that both time and expense were thus saved. This economy and speed
+were not pushed so far as to render the work anything but durable;
+they had, however, a bad effect in another direction, for these rough
+rubble walls were habitually encased in some more sightly material, in
+order to make them look as though they were something finer than they
+really were; and accordingly, the exterior was often faced with a thin
+skin of masonry, and not infrequently plastered. The interior was also
+almost invariably plastered, but to this little exception can be
+taken. This casing of the exteriors was, however, the beginning of a
+system of what may be called false architecture, and one which led to
+much that was degrading to the art.
+
+The walls were in many cases, it has been already observed, gathered
+into strong masses, such as it is customary to term piers, in order to
+support the vaulted roofs at the proper points. They were often
+carried to a much greater height than in Greek buildings, and they
+played altogether a far more important part in the design of Roman
+buildings than they had done in that of the Greeks.
+
+
+_The Roofs._
+
+As has been already stated, the Romans, in their possession of a new
+system of construction, enjoyed a degree of freedom which was unknown
+before. This system was based upon the use of the arch, and arched
+roofs and domes, and it enabled the Romans to produce interiors
+unapproached before for size and splendour, and such as have hardly
+been surpassed since, except by the vaulted churches of the Middle
+Ages,--buildings which are themselves descended from Roman originals.
+The art of vaulting was, in short, the key to the whole system of
+Roman architecture, just as the Orders were to that of the Greeks.
+
+The well-known arch over the Cloaca Maxima at Rome (Fig. 123, p. 142)
+may be taken as an illustration of the most ancient and most simple
+kind of vault, the one which goes by the significant name of "barrel
+or waggon-head vault." This is simply a continuous arched vault
+springing from the top of two parallel walls; in fact, like the arch
+of a railway tunnel. Such a vault may be constructed of very great
+span, and affords a means of putting a permanent roof over a floor the
+outline of which is a parallelogram; but it is heavy and uninteresting
+in appearance. It was soon found to be possible to introduce a cross
+vault running at right angles to the original one; and where such an
+intersecting vault occurs the side walls of the original vault may be
+dispensed with, for so much of their length as the newly-added vault
+spans.
+
+The next step was to introduce a succession of such cross vaults close
+to one another, so that large portions of the original main wall might
+be dispensed with. What remained of the side walls was now only a
+series of oblong masses or piers, suitably fortified so as to carry
+the great weight resting upon them, but leaving the architect free to
+occupy the space between them as his fancy might dictate, or to leave
+it quite open. In this way were constructed the great halls of the
+Thermæ; and the finest halls of modern classic architecture--such, for
+example, as the Madeleine at Paris, or St. George's Hall at
+Liverpool--are only a reproduction of the splendid structures which
+such a system of vaulting rendered possible.
+
+When the floor of the space to be vaulted was circular, the result of
+covering it with an arched roof was the dome--a familiar feature of
+Roman architecture, and the noblest of all forms of roof. We possess
+in the dome of the Pantheon a specimen, in fairly good preservation,
+of this kind of roof on the grandest scale.
+
+We shall find that in later ages the dome and the vault were adopted
+by the Eastern and the Western schools of Christian architecture
+respectively. In Rome we have the origin of both.
+
+
+_The Openings._
+
+These were both square-headed and arched; but the arched ones occur
+far more frequently than the others, and, when occasion required,
+could be far bolder. The openings became of much greater importance
+than in earlier styles, and soon disputed with the columns the dignity
+of being the feature of the building: this eventually led, as will be
+related under the next head, to various devices for the fusion of the
+two.
+
+The adoption of the arch by the Romans led to a great modification in
+classic architecture; for its influence was to be traced in every part
+of the structure where an opening of any sort had to be spanned.
+Formerly the width of such openings was very limited, owing to the
+difficulty of obtaining lintels of great length. Now their width and
+height were pure matters of choice, and doorways, windows, and arcades
+naturally became very prominent, and were often very spacious.
+
+
+_The Columns._
+
+These necessarily took an altered place as soon as buildings were
+carried to such a height that one order could not, as in Greek
+temples, occupy the whole space from pavement to roof. The Greek
+orders were modified by the Romans in order to fit these altered
+circumstances, but columnar construction was by no means disused when
+the arch came to play so important a part in building. The Roman Doric
+order, and a very simple variety of it called Tuscan, were but rarely
+used. The chief alteration from the Greek Doric, in addition to a
+general degradation of all the mouldings and proportions, was the
+addition of a base, which sometimes consists of a square plinth and
+large torus, sometimes is a slightly modified Attic base; the capital
+has a small moulding round the top of the abacus, and under the ovolo
+are two or three small fillets with a necking below; the shaft was
+from 6 to 7 diameters in height, and was not fluted; the frieze was
+ornamented with triglyphs, and the metopes between these were
+frequently enriched with sculptured heads of bulls: the metopes were
+exact squares, and the triglyphs at the angles of buildings were
+placed precisely over the centre of the column.
+
+The Ionic order was but slightly modified by the Romans, the chief
+alteration being made in the capital. Instead of forming the angular
+volutes so that they exhibited a flat surface on the two opposite
+sides of the capital, the Romans appear to have desired to make the
+latter uniform on all the four sides; they therefore made the sides of
+the abacus concave on plan, and arranged the volutes so that they
+seemed to spring out of the mouldings under the abacus and faced
+anglewise. The capital altogether seems compressed and crowded up,
+and by no means elegant; in fact, both this and the Doric order were
+decidedly deteriorations from the fine forms of Greek architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 145.--ROMAN CORINTHIAN CAPITAL AND BASE FROM THE
+      TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 145a.--THE ROMAN COMPOSITE CAPITAL.]
+
+The Corinthian order was much more in accordance with the later Roman
+taste for magnificence and display, and hence we find its use very
+general both in Rome and in other cities of the Empire. Its
+proportions did not greatly differ from those of the Greek Corinthian,
+but the mouldings in general were more elaborate. Numerous variations
+of the capital exist (Figs. 145, 145a), but the principal one was an
+amalgamation of the large Ionic volutes in the upper with the acanthus
+leaves of the lower portion of the capital: this is known as the
+Composite order, and the capital thus treated has a strength and
+vigour which was wanting to the Greek order (see Fig. 145a). The
+shafts of the columns were more often fluted than not, though
+sometimes the lower portion was left plain and the upper only fluted.
+The Attic base was generally used, but an example has been found of an
+adaptation of the graceful Persepolitan base to the Corinthian column.
+This was the happiest innovation that the Romans made; it seems,
+however, to have been but an individual attempt, and, as it was
+introduced very shortly before the fall of the Empire, the idea was
+not worked out.
+
+The orders thus changed were employed for the most part as mere
+decorative additions to the walls. In many cases they did not even
+carry the eaves of the roof, as they always did in a Greek temple; and
+it was not uncommon for two, three, or more orders to be used one
+above another, marking the different stories of a lofty building.
+
+The columns, or pilasters which took their place, being reduced to the
+humble function of ornaments added to the wall of a building, it
+became very usual to combine them with arched openings, and to put an
+arch in the interspace between two columns, or, in other words, to add
+a column to the pier between two arches (Fig. 146). These arched
+openings being often wide, a good deal of disproportion between the
+height of the columns and their distance apart was liable to occur;
+and, partly to correct this, the column was often mounted upon a
+pedestal, to which the name of "stylobate" has been given.
+
+It was also sometimes customary to place above the order, or the
+highest order where more than one was employed, what was termed an
+attic--a low story ornamented with piers or pilasters. The exterior of
+the Colosseum (Fig. 5), the triumphal arches of Constantine (Fig. 139)
+and Titus, and the fragments of the upper part of the Forum of Nerva
+(Fig. 147) may be consulted as illustrations of the combination of an
+order and an arched opening, and of the use of pedestals and attics.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 146.--PART OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, ROME.
+      SHOWING THE COMBINATION OF COLUMNS AND ARCHED OPENINGS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 147.--FROM THE RUINS OF THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME.
+      SHOWING THE USE OF AN ATTIC STORY. WITH PLAN.]
+
+Another peculiarity, of which we give an illustration from the baths
+of Diocletian (Fig. 148), was the surmounting a column or pilaster
+with a square pillar of stone, moulded in the same way as an
+entablature, _i.e._ with the regular division into architrave, frieze,
+and cornice. This was a decided perversion of the use of the order;
+it occurs in examples of late date. So also do various other
+arrangements for making an arch spring from the capital of a column;
+one of these, from the palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, we are able
+to illustrate (Fig. 149).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 148.--FROM THE BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN, ROME. SHOWING
+      A FRAGMENTARY ENTABLATURE AT THE STARTING OF PART OF A VAULT.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 149.--FROM THE PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, SPALATRO.
+      SHOWING AN ARCH SPRINGING FROM A COLUMN.]
+
+In conclusion, it may be worth while to say that the Roman writers and
+architects recognised five orders: the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic,
+Corinthian, and Composite, the first and last in this list being,
+however, really only variations; and that when they placed the
+orders above one another, they invariably used those of them which
+they selected in the succession in which they have been named; that is
+to say, the Tuscan or Doric lowest, and so on in succession.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 150.--MOULDINGS AND ORNAMENTS FROM VARIOUS ROMAN
+      BUILDINGS.]
+
+
+_The Ornaments._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 151.--ROMAN CARVING. AN ACANTHUS LEAF.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 152.--THE EGG AND DART ENRICHMENT. ROMAN.]
+
+The mouldings with which Roman buildings are ornamented are all
+derived from Greek originals, but are often extremely rough and
+coarse. It is true that in some old Roman work, especially in those of
+the tombs which are executed in marble, mouldings of considerable
+delicacy and refinement of outline occur, but these are exceptional.
+The profiles of the mouldings are, as a rule, segments of circles,
+instead of being more subtle curves, and the result is that violent
+contrasts of light and shade are obtained, telling enough at a
+distance, but devoid of interest if the spectator come near.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 153.--WALL DECORATION OF (SO-CALLED) ARABESQUE
+      CHARACTER FROM POMPEII.]
+
+Carving is executed exactly on the same principles as those which
+govern the mouldings--that is to say, with much more coarseness than
+in Greek work; not lacking in vigour, or in a sort of ostentatious
+opulence of ornament, but often sadly deficient in refinement and
+grace.
+
+Statues, many of them copies of Greek originals, generally executed
+with a heavy hand, but sometimes clearly of Greek work, were employed,
+as well as bronzes, inlaid marbles, mosaics, and various devices to
+ornament the interiors of Greco-Roman buildings; and free use was made
+of ornamental plaster-work, both on walls and vaults.
+
+Coloured decoration was much in vogue, and, to judge from what has
+come down to us, must have been executed with great taste and much
+spirit. The walls of a Roman dwelling-house of importance seem to have
+been all painted, partly with that light kind of decoration to which
+the somewhat inappropriate name of arabesque has been given, and
+partly with groups or single figures, relieved by dark or black
+backgrounds. The remains of the Palace of the Cæsars in Rome, much of
+it not now accessible, and the decorations visible at Pompeii, give a
+high idea of the skill with which this mural ornamentation was
+executed; our illustration (Fig. 154) may be taken as affording a good
+example of the combined decorations in relief and colour often applied
+to vaulted ceilings.
+
+It is, however, characteristic of the lower level at which Roman art
+stood as compared with Greek that, though statues abounded, we find no
+traces of groups of sculpture designed to occupy the pediments of
+temples, or of bas-reliefs fitted to special localities in the
+buildings, such as were all but universal in the best Greek works.
+
+
+_Architectural Character._
+
+The nature of this will have been to a large extent gathered from the
+observations already made. Daring, energy, readiness, structural
+skill, and a not too fastidious taste were characteristic of the Roman
+architect and his works. We find traces of vast spaces covered, bold
+construction successfully and solidly carried out, convenience
+studied, and a great deal of magnificence attained in those buildings
+the remains of which have come down to us; but we do not discover
+refinement or elegance, a fine feeling for proportion, or a close
+attention to details, to a degree at all approaching the extent to
+which these qualities are to be met with in Greek buildings. We are
+thus sometimes tempted to regret that it was not possible to combine a
+higher degree of refinement with the great excellence in construction
+and contrivance exhibited by Roman architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 154.--DECORATION IN RELIEF AND COLOUR OF THE
+      VAULT OF A TOMB IN THE VIA LATINA, NEAR ROME.]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 155.--BASILICA-CHURCH OF SAN MINIATO, FLORENCE.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Basilicas in Rome and Italy._
+
+During the first three centuries the Christian religion was
+discredited and persecuted; and though many interesting memorials of
+this time (some of them having an indirect bearing upon architectural
+questions) remain in the Catacombs, it is chiefly for their paintings
+that the touching records of the past which have been preserved to us
+in these secluded excavations should be studied. Early in the fourth
+century Constantine the Great became Emperor, and in the course of his
+reign (from A.D. 312 to 337) he recognised Christianity, and made it
+the religion of the State. It then, of course, became requisite to
+provide places of public worship. Probably the Christians would have
+been, in many cases, reluctant to make use of heathen temples, and few
+temples, if any, were adapted to the assembling of a large
+congregation. But the large halls of the baths and the basilicas were
+free from associations of an objectionable character, and well fitted
+for large assemblages of worshippers. These and other such places were
+accordingly, in the first instance, employed as Christian churches.
+The basilica, however, became the model which, at least in Italy, was
+followed, to the exclusion of all others, when new buildings were
+erected for the purpose of Christian worship; and during the fourth
+century, and several succeeding ones, the churches of the West were
+all of the basilica type. What occurred at Constantinople, the seat of
+the Eastern Empire and the centre of the Eastern Church, will be
+considered presently.
+
+There is probably no basilica actually standing which was built during
+the reign of Constantine, or near his time; but there are several
+basilica churches in Rome, such as that of San Clemente, which were
+founded near his time, and which, though they have been partially or
+wholly rebuilt, exhibit what is believed to be the ancient disposition
+without modification.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 156.--INTERIOR OF A BASILICA AT POMPEII.
+      _Restored, from descriptions by various authors._]
+
+Access is obtained to San Clemente through a forecourt to which the
+name of the atrium is given. This is very much like the atrium of a
+Roman house, being covered with a shed roof round all four sides and
+open in the centre, and so resembling a cloister. The side next the
+church was called the narthex or porch; and when an atrium did not
+exist, a narthex at least was usually provided. The basilica has
+always a central avenue, or nave, and sides or aisles, and was
+generally entered from the narthex by three doors, one to each
+division. The nave of San Clemente is lofty, and covered by a simple
+wooden roof; it is separated from the side aisles by arcades, the
+arches of which spring from the capitals of columns; and high up in
+its side walls we find windows. The side aisles, like the nave, have
+wooden roofs. The nave terminates in a semicircular recess called "the
+apse," the floor of which is higher than that of the general
+structure, and is approached by steps. A large arch divides this apse
+from the nave. A portion of the nave floor is occupied by an enclosed
+space for the choir, surrounded by marble screens, and having a pulpit
+on either side of it. These pulpits are termed "ambos." Below the
+Church of San Clemente is a vaulted structure or crypt extending under
+the greater part, but not the whole, of the floor of the main
+building.
+
+The description given above would apply, with very slight variations,
+to any one of the many ancient basilica churches in Rome, Milan,
+Ravenna, and the other older cities of Italy; the principal variations
+being that in many instances, including the very ancient basilica of
+St. Peter, now destroyed, the avenues all stopped short of the end
+wall of the basilica, and a wide and clear transverse space or
+transept ran athwart them in front of the apse. San Clemente indeed
+shows some faint traces of such a feature. In one or two very large
+churches five avenues occur,--that is to say, a nave and double
+aisles; and in Santa Agnese (Fig. 156a) and at least one other, we
+find a gallery over the side aisles opening into the nave, or, as Mr.
+Fergusson puts it, "the side aisles in two stories." In many instances
+we should find no atrium, but in all cases we meet with the nave and
+aisles, and the apse at the end of the nave, with its arch and its
+elevated floor; and the entrances are always at the end of the
+building farthest from the apse, with some sort of porch or portal.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 156a.--BASILICA, OR EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH OF
+      SANTA AGNESE AT ROME.]
+
+The interest of these buildings lies not so much in their venerable
+antiquity as in the fact that the arrangements of all Christian
+churches in Western Europe down to the Reformation, and of very many
+since, are directly derived from these originals. If the reader will
+refer to the description of a Gothic cathedral in the companion volume
+of this series,[28] it will not be difficult for him to trace the
+correspondence between its plan and its general structure and those of
+the primitive basilica. The atrium no longer forms the access to a
+cathedral, but it still survives in the cloister, though in a changed
+position. The narthex or porch is still more or less traceable in the
+great western portals, and in a kind of separation which often, but
+not always, exists between the westernmost bay of a cathedral and the
+rest of the structure. The division into nave and aisles remains, and
+in very large churches and cathedrals there are double aisles, as
+there were in the largest basilicas. The nave roof is still higher
+than the aisles--the arcade, in two stories, survives in the usual
+arcade and triforium; the windows placed high in the nave are the
+present clerestory. The apsidal termination of the central avenue is
+still retained in almost all Continental architecture, though in Great
+Britain, from an early date, it was abandoned for a square east end;
+but square-ended or apsidal, a recess with a raised floor and a
+conspicuous arch, marking it off from the nave, always occupies this
+end of the church; and the under church, or crypt, is commonly, though
+not always, met with. The enclosure for the choir has, generally
+speaking, been moved farther east than it was in the basilica
+churches; though in Westminster Abbey, and in most Spanish cathedrals,
+we have examples of its occupying a position closely analogous to that
+of the corresponding enclosure at the basilica of San Clemente. The
+cross passage to which we have referred as having existed in the old
+basilica of St. Peter, and many others, is the original of the
+transept which in later churches has been made more conspicuous than
+it was in the basilica by being lengthened so as to project beyond the
+side walls of the church, and by being moved more westward. Lastly,
+the two ambos, or pulpits, survive in two senses. They are represented
+by the reading desk and the pulpit, and their situation and purpose
+are continued in the epistle and gospel sides of the choir.
+
+The one point in which an essential difference occurs is the position
+of the altar, or communion table, and that of the Bishop's chair, or
+throne. In the classic basilica the apse was the tribunal, and a
+raised seat with a tesselated pavement occupied the central position
+in it, and was the justice-seat of the presiding judge; and in the
+sweep of the apse, seats right and left, at a lower elevation, were
+provided for assessors or assistant-judges. In front of the president
+was placed a small altar. The whole of these arrangements were copied
+in the basilica churches. The seat of the president became the
+bishop's throne, the seats for assessors were appropriated to the
+clergy, and the altar retained substantially its old position in front
+of the apse, generally with a canopy erected over it. This disposition
+continues in basilica churches to the present day. At St. Peter's in
+Rome, for example, the Pope occupies a throne in the middle of the
+apse, and says mass with his face turned towards the congregation at
+the high altar, which stands in front of his throne under a vast
+baldacchino or canopy; but in Western Christendom generally a change
+has been made,--the altar has been placed in the apse where the
+bishop's throne formerly stood, and the throne of the bishop and
+stalls of his clergy have been displaced, and are to be found at the
+sides of the choir or presbytery.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 157.--SANT' APOLLINARE, RAVENNA. PART OF THE
+      ARCADE AND APSE.]
+
+Many basilica churches were erected out of fragments taken from older
+buildings, and present a curious mixture of columns, capitals, &c.;
+others, especially those at Ravenna, exhibit more care, and are noble
+specimens of ancient and severe architectural work. The illustration
+which we give of part of the nave, arcade, and apse of one of these,
+Sant' Apollinare in Classe, shows the dignified yet ornate aspect of
+one of the most carefully executed of these buildings (Fig. 157).
+
+In some of these churches the decorations are chiefly in mosaic, and
+are extremely striking. Our illustration of the apse of the great
+basilica of St. Paul without the walls (Fig. 158) may be taken as a
+fair specimen of the general arrangement and treatment of the crowd of
+sacred figures and subjects which it is customary to represent in
+these situations; but it can of course convey no idea of the brilliant
+effect produced by powerful colouring executed in mosaic, the most
+luminous of all methods of enrichment. The floor of most of them was
+formed in the style of mosaic known as "opus Alexandrinum," and the
+large sweeping, curved bands of coloured material with which the main
+outlines of the patterns are defined, and the general harmony of
+colour among the porphyries and other hard stones with which these
+pavements were executed, combine to satisfy the eye. A splendid
+specimen of opus Alexandrinum, the finest north of the Alps, exists in
+the presbytery of Westminster Abbey.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 158.--APSE OF THE BASILICA OF ST. PAUL WITHOUT
+      THE WALLS, ROME.]
+
+Another description of building is customarily met with in connection
+with early Christian churches,--the baptistery. This is commonly a
+detached building, and almost always circular or polygonal. In some
+instances the baptistery adjoins the atrium or forecourt; but it soon
+became customary to erect detached baptisteries of considerable size.
+These generally have a high central portion carried by a ring of
+columns, and a low aisle running round, the receptacle for water being
+in the centre. The origin of these buildings is not so clear as that
+of the basilica churches; they bear some resemblance to the Roman
+circular temples; but it is more probable that the form was suggested
+by buildings similar in general arrangement, and forming part of a
+Roman bath. The octagonal building known as the baptistery of
+Constantine, and the circular building now used as a church and
+dedicated to Santa Costanza in Rome, and the celebrated baptistery of
+Ravenna, are early examples of this class of structure. Somewhat more
+recent, and very well known, are the great baptisteries of Florence
+and Pisa.
+
+A few ancient circular or polygonal churches remain which do not
+appear to have been built as baptisteries. One of these is at Rome,
+the church of San Stefano Rotondo; but another, more remarkable in
+every way, is at Ravenna, the church of San Vitale. This is an
+octagonal building, with a large vestibule and a small apsidal choir.
+The central portion, carried by eight arches springing from as many
+lofty and solid piers, and surmounted by a hemispherical dome, rises
+high above the aisle which surrounds it. Much elegance is produced by
+the arrangement of smaller columns so as to form a kind of apsidal
+recess in each of the interspaces between the eight main piers.
+
+Another feature which has become thoroughly identified with church
+architecture is the bell-tower, or campanile. This appendage, there
+can be no doubt, originated with the basilicas of Italy. The use of
+bells as a call to prayer is said to have been introduced not later,
+at any rate, than the sixth century, and to this era is attributed a
+circular campanile belonging to Sant' Apollinare in Classe at Ravenna,
+a basilica already alluded to. The circular plan was, however,
+exceptional; the ancient campaniles remaining in Rome are all square;
+they are usually built of brick, many stories in height, and with a
+group of arched openings in each story, and are generally surmounted
+by a low conical roof.
+
+The type of church which we have described influenced church
+architecture in Italy down to the eleventh century, and such buildings
+as the beautiful church (Fig. 155) of San Miniato, near Florence (A.D.
+1013), and the renowned group of Cathedral, Baptistery, Campanile, and
+Campo Santo (a kind of cloistered cemetery) at Pisa, bear a very
+strong resemblance in many respects to these originals; though they
+belong rather to the Romanesque than to the Basilican division of
+early Christian architecture.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[28] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' chap. ii. p. 6.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 158a.--FRIEZE FROM THE MONASTERY AT FULDA.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+Constantine the Great, who by establishing the Christian religion had
+encouraged the erection of basilicas for Christian worship in Rome and
+Italy, effected a great political change, and one destined to exert a
+marked influence upon Christian architecture, when he removed the seat
+of empire from Rome to Byzantium, and called the new capital
+Constantinople,[29] after his own name. Byzantium had been an ancient
+place, but was almost in ruins when Constantine, probably attracted by
+the unrivalled advantages of its site,[30] rebuilt it, or at least
+re-established it as a city. The solemn inauguration of Constantinople
+as the new capital took place A.D. 330; and when, under Theodosius,
+the empire was divided, this city became the capital of the East.
+
+With a new point of departure among a people largely of Greek race,
+we might expect that a new development of the church from some other
+type than the basilica might be likely to show itself. This, in fact,
+is what occurred; for while the most ancient churches of Rome all
+present, as we have seen, an almost slavish copy of an existing type
+of building, and do not attempt the use of vaulted roofs, in Byzantium
+buildings of most original design sprang up, founded, it is true, on
+Roman originals, but by no means exact copies of them. In the erection
+of these churches the most difficult problems of construction were
+successfully encountered and solved. What may have been the course
+which architecture ran during the two centuries between the refounding
+of Byzantium and the building of Santa Sophia under Justinian, we can,
+however, only infer from its outcome. It is doubtful if any church
+older than the sixth century now remains in Constantinople; but it is
+certain that, to attain the power of designing and erecting so great a
+work as Santa Sophia, the architects of Constantinople must have
+continued and largely modified the Roman practice of building vaults
+and domes. There is every probability that if some of the early
+churches in Byzantium were domed structures others may have been
+vaulted basilicas; the more so as the very ancient churches in Syria,
+which owed their origin to Byzantium rather than to Rome, are most of
+them of the basilica type.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 159.--CHURCH OF SANTA SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE.
+      LONG SECTION. BUILT UNDER JUSTINIAN BY ANTHEMIOS AND ISIDOROS.
+      COMPLETED A.D. 537.]
+
+A church which had been erected by Constantine, dedicated to Santa
+Sophia (holy wisdom), was burnt early in the reign of Justinian (A.D.
+527 to 565); and in rebuilding it his architects, Anthemios of
+Thralles, and Isidoros of Miletus, succeeded in erecting one of the
+most famous buildings of the world, and one which is the typical and
+central embodiment of a distinct and very strongly marked
+well-defined style. The basis of this style may be said to be the
+adoption of the dome, in preference to the vault or the timber roof,
+as the covering of the space enclosed within the walls; with the
+result that the general disposition of the plan is circular or square,
+rather than oblong, and that the structure recalls the Pantheon more
+than the great Hall of the Thermæ of Diocletian, or the Basilica of
+St. Paul. In Santa Sophia one vast flattish dome dominates the central
+space. This dome is circular in plan, and the space over which it is
+placed is a square, the sides of which are occupied by four massive
+semicircular arches of 100 ft. span each, springing from four vast
+piers, one at each of the four corners. The four triangular spaces
+between the corners of the square so enclosed and the circle or ring
+resting upon it are filled by what are termed "pendentives"--features
+which may, perhaps, be best described as portions of a dome, each just
+sufficient to fit into one corner of the square, and the four uniting
+at their upper margin to form a ring. From this ring springs the main
+dome. It rises to a height of 46 ft., and is 107 ft. in clear
+diameter. East and west of the main dome are two half-domes, each
+springing from a wall apsidal (_i.e._ semicircular) in plan. Smaller
+apses again, domed over at a lower level, are introduced, and vaulted
+aisles two stories in height occupy the sides of the space within the
+outer walls till the outline of the building is brought to very nearly
+an exact square. Externally this church is uninteresting,[31] but its
+interior is of surpassing beauty, and can be better described in the
+eloquent language of Gilbert Scott[32] than in any other: "Simple as
+is the primary ideal, the actual effect is one of great intricacy, and
+of continuous gradation of parts, from the small arcades up to the
+stupendous dome, which hangs with little apparent support like a vast
+bubble over the centre, or as Procopius, who witnessed its erection,
+described it, 'as if suspended by a chain from heaven.'
+
+"The dome is lighted by forty small windows, which pierce it
+immediately above the cornice which crowns its pendentives, and which,
+by subdividing its lower part into narrow piers, increases the feeling
+of its being supported by its own buoyancy.
+
+"The interior thus generated, covered almost wholly by domes, or
+portions of them, each rising in succession higher and higher towards
+the floating hemisphere in the centre, and so arranged that one shall
+open out the view to others, and that nearly the entire system of
+vaulting may be viewed at a single glance, appears to me to be in some
+respects the noblest which has ever been designed, as it was certainly
+the most daring which, up to that time at least, if not absolutely,
+had ever been constructed." After pointing out how the smaller arcades
+and apsidal projections, and the vistas obtained through the various
+arched openings, introduced intricate effects of perspective and
+constant changes of aspect, Scott continues: "This union of the more
+palpable with the more mysterious, of the vast unbroken expanse with
+the intricately broken perspective, must, as it appears to me, and as
+I judge from representations, produce an impression more astounding
+than that of almost any other building: but when we consider the whole
+as clothed with the richest beauties of surface,--its piers encrusted
+with inlaid marbles of every hue, its arcades of marble gorgeously
+carved, its domes and vaultings resplendent with gold mosaic
+interspersed with solemn figures, and its wide-spreading floors rich
+with marble tesselation, over which the buoyant dome floats
+self-supported, and seems to sail over you as you move,--I cannot
+conceive of anything more astonishing, more solemn, and more
+magnificent."
+
+The type of church of which this magnificent cathedral was the great
+example has continued in Eastern Christendom to the present day, and
+has undergone surprisingly little variation. A certain distinctive
+character in the foliage (Fig. 163) employed in capitals and other
+decorative carving, and mosaics of splendid colour but somewhat gaunt
+and archaic design, though often solemn and dignified, were typical of
+the work of Justinian's day, and could long afterwards be recognised
+in Eastern Christian churches.
+
+Between Rome and Constantinople, and well situated for receiving
+influence from both those cities, stood Ravenna, and here a series of
+buildings, all more or less Byzantine, were erected. The most
+interesting of these is the church of San Vitale (Figs. 160, 161).
+This building is octagonal in plan, and thus belongs to the series of
+round and polygonal churches and baptisteries for which the circular
+buildings of the Romans furnished a model; but in its high central
+dome, lighted by windows placed high up, its many subsidiary arcades
+and apses, the latter roofed by half-domes, and its vaulted aisles in
+two stories, it recalls Santa Sophia; and its sculpture, carving, and
+mosaic decorations are hardly less famous and no less characteristic.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 160.--PLAN OF SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 161.--SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. LONGITUDINAL
+      SECTION.]
+
+One magnificent specimen of Byzantine architecture, more within the
+reach of ordinary travellers, and consequently better known than San
+Vitale or Santa Sophia, must not be omitted, and can be studied easily
+by means of numberless photographic illustrations--St. Mark's at
+Venice. This cathedral was built between the years 977-1071, and, it
+is said, according to a design obtained from Constantinople. It has
+since been altered in external appearance by the erection of bulbous
+domical roofs over its domes, and by additions of florid Gothic
+character; but, disregarding these, we have alike in plan, structure,
+and ornament, a Byzantine church of the first class.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 162.--PLAN OF ST. MARK'S AT VENICE.]
+
+The ground-plan of St. Mark's (Fig. 162) presents a Greek cross,
+_i.e._ one in which all the arms are equal, and it is roofed by five
+principal domes, one at the crossing and one over each of the four
+limbs of the cross. Aisles at a low level, and covered by a series of
+small flat domes, in lieu of vaulting, fill up the angles between the
+arms of the cross, so as to make the outline of the plan nearly
+square.
+
+The rich colouring of St. Mark's, due to a profuse employment of
+mosaics and of the most costly marbles, and the splendid effects
+produced by the mode of introducing light, which is admitted much as
+at Santa Sophia, are perhaps its greatest charm; but there is beauty
+in every aspect of its interior which has furnished a fit theme for
+the pen of the most eloquent writer on art and architecture of the
+present or perhaps of any day.
+
+From Venice the influence of Byzantine art spread to a small extent in
+North Italy; in that city herself as well as in neighbouring towns,
+such as Padua, buildings and fragments of buildings exhibiting the
+characteristics of the style can be found. Remarkable traces of the
+influence of Byzantium as a centre, believed to be due to intercourse
+with Venice, can also be found in France. Direct communication with
+Constantinople by way of the Mediterranean has also introduced
+Byzantine taste into Sicily. One famous French church, St. Front in
+Périgueux, is identical (or nearly so) with St. Mark's in its plan;
+but all its constructive arches being pointed (Fig. 3, page 5), its
+general appearance differs a good deal from that of Eastern
+churches--a difference which is accentuated by the absence of the
+mosaics and other coloured ornaments which enrich the walls of St.
+Mark's. Many very old domed churches and much sculpture of the
+Byzantine type are moreover to be found in Central and Southern
+France--Anjou, Aquitaine, and Auvergne. These are, however, isolated
+examples of the style having taken root in spite of adverse
+circumstances; it is in those parts of Europe where the Greek Church
+prevails, or did prevail, that Byzantine architecture chiefly
+flourishes. In Greece and Asia Minor many ancient churches of
+Byzantine structure remain, while in Russia churches are built to the
+present day corresponding to the general type of those which have just
+been described.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 163.--FROM THE GOLDEN DOOR OF JERUSALEM. TIME OF
+      JUSTINIAN. A.D. 560.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 164.--CHURCH AT TURMANIN IN SYRIA. 4TH AND 5TH
+      CENTURY.]
+
+In ancient buildings of Syria the influence of both the Roman and the
+Byzantine models can be traced. No more characteristic specimens of
+Byzantine foliage can be desired than some to be found in Palestine,
+as for example the Golden Gate at Jerusalem, which we illustrate
+(Fig. 163); but in the deserted cities of Central Syria a group of
+exceptional and most interesting buildings, both secular and sacred,
+exists, which, as described by De Vogüé,[33] seem to display a free
+and very original treatment based upon Roman more than Byzantine
+ideas. We illustrate the exterior of one of these, the church at
+Turmanin (Fig. 164). This is a building divided into a nave and aisles
+and with a vestibule. Two low towers flank the central gable, and it
+will be noticed that openings of depressed proportion, mostly
+semicircular headed, and with the arches usually springing from square
+piers, mark the building; while the use made of columns strongly
+resembles the manner in which in later times they were introduced by
+the Gothic architects.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 165.--TOWER OF A RUSSIAN CHURCH.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[29] _I.e._ the City of Constantine.
+
+[30] "The edge of the world: the knot which links together East and
+West; the centre in which all extremes combine," was the not
+overcharged description given of Constantinople by one of her own
+bishops.
+
+[31] For an illustration see Fig. 187.
+
+[32] 'Lectures on Mediæval Architecture.'
+
+[33] 'Syrie Centrale.'
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+The term Romanesque is here used to indicate a style of Christian
+architecture, founded on Roman art, which prevailed throughout Western
+Europe from the close of the period of basilican architecture to the
+rise of Gothic; except in those isolated districts where the influence
+of Byzantium is visible. By some writers the significance of the word
+is restricted within narrower limits; but excellent authorities can be
+adduced for the employment of it in the wide sense here indicated.
+Indeed some difficulty exists in deciding what shall and what shall
+not be termed Romanesque, if any more restricted definition of its
+meaning is adopted; while under this general term, if applied broadly,
+many closely allied local varieties--as, for example, Lombard,
+Rhenish, Romance, Saxon, and Norman--can be conveniently included.
+
+The spectacle which Europe presented after the removal of the seat of
+empire to Byzantium and the incursions of the Northern tribes was
+melancholy in the extreme. Nothing but the church retained any
+semblance of organised existence; and when at last some kind of order
+began to emerge from a chaos of universal ruin, and churches and
+monastic buildings began to be built in Western Europe, all of them
+looked to Rome, and not to Constantinople, as their common
+ecclesiastical centre. It is not surprising that, as soon as
+differences between the ritual of the Eastern and the Western Church
+sprang up, a contrast between Eastern and Western architecture should
+establish itself, and that the early structures of the many countries
+where the Roman Church flourished never wandered far from the Roman
+type, with the exception of localities where circumstances favoured
+direct intercourse with the East. The architecture of the Eastern
+Church, on the other hand, adhered quite as closely to the models of
+Byzantium.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 166.--TOWER OF EARL'S BARTON CHURCH.]
+
+The style, so far as is known, was for a long time almost, if not
+absolutely, the same over a very large part of Western Christendom,
+and it has received from Mr. Freeman the appropriate designation of
+Primitive Romanesque. It was not till the tenth century, or later,
+that distinctive varieties began to make their appearance; and though
+that which was built earlier than that date has, through rebuildings
+and enlargements as well as natural decay, been in many cases swept
+away, still enough may be met with to show us what the buildings of
+that remote time were like.
+
+The churches are usually small, and have an apsidal east end. The
+openings are rude, with round-headed arches and small single or
+two-light windows, and the outer walls are generally marked by flat
+pilasters of very slight projection. Towers are common, and the
+openings in them are often divided into two or more lights by rude
+columns. The plan of these churches was founded on the basilica type,
+but they do not exhibit the same internal arrangement; and it is very
+noteworthy that many of them show marks of having been vaulted, or at
+least partly vaulted; and not covered, as the basilicas usually were,
+by timber roofs. Even a country so remote as Great Britain possessed
+in the 10th century many buildings of Primitive Romanesque character;
+and in such Saxon churches as those of Worth, Brixworth, Dover, or
+Bradford, and such towers as those of Earl's Barton (Fig. 166),
+Trinity Church Colchester, Barnack, or Sompting, we have specimens of
+the style remaining to the present day.
+
+By degrees, as buildings of greater extent and more ornament were
+erected, the local varieties to which reference has been made began to
+develop themselves. In Lombardy and North Italy, for example, a
+Lombard Romanesque style can be recognised distinctly; here a series
+of churches were built, many of them vaulted, but not many of the
+largest size. Most of them were on substantially the same plan as the
+basilicas, though a considerable number of circular or polygonal
+churches were also built. Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, and some of the
+churches at Brescia, Pavia, and Lucca, may be cited as well-known
+examples of early date, and a little later the cathedrals of Parma,
+Modena, and Piacenza (Fig. 167), and San Zenone at Verona. These
+churches are all distinguished by the free use of small ornamental
+arches and narrow pilaster-strips externally, and the employment of
+piers with half-shafts attached to them, rather than columns, in the
+arcades; they have fine bell-towers; circular windows often occupy
+the gables, and very frequently the walls have been built of, or
+ornamented with, coloured materials. The sculpture--grotesque,
+vigorous, and full of rich variety--which distinguishes many of these
+buildings, and which is to be found specially enriching the doorways,
+is of great interest, and began early to develop a character that is
+quite distinctive.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 167.--CATHEDRAL AT PIACENZA.]
+
+Turning to Germany, we find that a very strong resemblance existed
+between the Romanesque churches of that country and those of North
+Italy. At Aix-la-Chapelle a polygonal church exists, built by
+Charlemagne, and which tradition asserts was designed on the model of
+San Vitale at Ravenna. The resemblance is undoubted, but the German
+church is by no means an exact copy of Justinian's building. Early
+examples of German Romanesque exist in the cathedrals of Mayence,
+Worms, and Spires, and a steady advance was made till a point was
+reached (in the twelfth century) at which the style may be said to
+have attained the highest development which Romanesque architecture
+received in any country of Europe.
+
+The arcaded ornament (the arches being very frequently open so as to
+form a real arcade) which was noticed as occurring in Lombard
+churches, belongs also to German ones, though the secondary internal
+arcade (triforium) is absent from some of the early examples. Piers
+are used more frequently than columns in the interiors, and are often
+very plain. From an early date the use of a western as well as an
+eastern apse seems to have been common in Germany, and high western
+façades extending between two towers were features specially met with
+in that country. For a notice and some illustrations of the latest and
+best phase of German Romanesque, which may with propriety be termed
+"round-arched Gothic," the reader is referred to the companion volume
+of this series.[34]
+
+France exhibits more than one variety of Romanesque; for not only, as
+remarked in the chapter on Byzantine Art, is the influence of Greek or
+Venetian artists traceable in the buildings of certain districts,
+especially Périgueux, but it is clear that in others the existence of
+fine examples of Roman architecture (Fig. 168) affected the design of
+buildings down to and during the eleventh century. This influence may,
+for example, be detected in the use, in the churches at Autun,
+Valence, and Avignon, of capitals, pilasters, and other features
+closely resembling classic originals, and in the employment through a
+great part of Central and Northern France of vaulted roofs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 168.--VAULTS OF THE EXCAVATED ROMAN BATHS, IN
+      THE MUSÉE DE CLUNY, PARIS.]
+
+A specially French feature is the chevet, a group of apsidal chapels
+which were built round the apse itself, and which combined with it to
+make of the east end of a great cathedral a singularly rich and ornate
+composition. This feature, originating in Romanesque churches, was
+retained in France through the whole of the Gothic period, and a good
+example of it may be seen in the large Romanesque church of St. Sernin
+at Toulouse, which we illustrate (Fig. 169). The transepts were
+usually well marked. The nave arcades generally sprang from piers
+(Fig. 170), more rarely from columns. Arches are constantly met with
+recessed, _i.e._ in receding planes,[35] the first stage of progress
+towards a Gothic treatment, and are occasionally slightly moulded
+(Fig. 171). Western doorways are often highly enriched with sculpture;
+and the carving and sculpture generally, though often rude, are full
+of vitality. Towers occur, usually square, more rarely octagonal.
+Window-lights are frequently grouped two or more under one arch.
+Capitals of a basket-shape, and with a square abacus, often richly
+sculptured, are employed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 169.--CHURCH OF ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 170.--NAVE ARCADE AT ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 171.--ARCHES IN RECEDING PLANES AT ST. SERNIN,
+      TOULOUSE.]
+
+In Normandy, and generally in the North of France, round-arched
+architecture was excellently carried out, and churches remarkable both
+for their extent and their great dignity and solidity were erected.
+Generally speaking, however, Norman architecture, especially as met
+with in Normandy itself, is less ornate than the Romanesque of
+Southern France; in fact some of the best examples seem to suffer from
+a deficiency of ornament. The large and well-known churches at Caen,
+St. Etienne, otherwise the Abbaye aux Hommes--interesting to
+Englishmen as having been founded by William the Conqueror
+immediately after the Conquest--and the Trinité, or Abbaye aux Dames,
+are excellent examples of early Norman architecture, but the student
+must not forget that additions have been made to them, which, if they
+add to their beauty, at the same time alter their character. For
+example, in St. Etienne, the upper part of the western towers and the
+fine spires with which they are crowned were built subsequent to the
+original structure, as was also, in all probability, the chevet, or
+eastern limb. It seems probable also that the vaulting may not be what
+was contemplated in the original plan.
+
+St. Etienne is 364 ft. long, and is lofty in its proportions. It has a
+nave and aisles, arcades resting on piers, and strongly-marked
+transepts, and has two western towers with the gable of the nave
+between them. The west front is well designed in three stories, having
+strongly-marked vertical divisions in the buttresses of the towers,
+and equally distinct horizontal divisions in the three doorways below,
+and two ranges of windows, each of five lights, above. There is no
+circular west window. The nave and aisles are vaulted.
+
+Besides other cathedral churches, such for example as those of Bayeux
+and Evreux, in which considerable parts of the original structures
+remain, there exist throughout Normandy and Brittany many parochial
+churches and monastic buildings, exhibiting, at least in some portions
+of their structure, the same characteristics as those of St. Etienne;
+and it is clear that an immense number of buildings, the beauty and
+even refinement of which are conspicuous, must have been erected in
+Northern France during the eleventh and the early years of the twelfth
+centuries, the period to which Norman architecture in France may be
+said to belong.
+
+In Great Britain, as has been already pointed out, enough traces of
+Saxon--that is to say, Primitive Romanesque--architecture remain to
+show that many simple, though comparatively rude, buildings must have
+been erected previous to the Norman Conquest. Traces exist also of an
+influence which the rapid advance that had been made by the art of
+building as practised in Normandy was exerting in our island. The
+buildings at Westminster Abbey raised by Edward the Confessor, though
+they have been almost all rebuilt, have left just sufficient traces
+behind to enable us to recognise that they were of bold design. The
+plan of the Confessor's church was laid out upon a scale almost as
+large as that of the present structure. The monastic buildings were
+extensive. The details of the work were, some of them, refined and
+delicate, and resembled closely those employed in Norman buildings at
+that time. Thus it appears that, even had the Conquest not taken
+place, no small influence would have been exerted upon buildings in
+England by the advance then being made in France; but instead of a
+gradual improvement being so produced, a sudden and rapid revolution
+was effected by the complete conquest of the country and its
+occupation by nobles and ecclesiastics from Normandy, who, enriched by
+the plunder of the conquered country, were eager to establish
+themselves in permanent buildings.
+
+Shortly after the Conquest distinctive features began to show
+themselves. Norman architecture in England soon became essentially
+different from what it was in Normandy, and we possess in this country
+a large series of fine works showing the growth of this imported
+style, from the early simplicity of the chapel in the Tower of London
+to such elaboration as that of the later parts of Durham Cathedral.
+
+The number of churches founded or rebuilt soon after the Norman
+Conquest must have been enormous, for in examining churches of every
+date and in every part of England it is common to find some fragment
+of Norman work remaining from a former church: this is very frequently
+a doorway left standing or built into walls of later date: and, in
+addition to these fragments, no small number of churches, and more
+than one cathedral, together with numerous castles, remain in whole or
+in part as they were erected by the original builders.
+
+Norman architecture is considered to have prevailed in England for
+more than a century; that is to say, from the Conquest (1066) to the
+accession of Richard I. (1189). For some details of the marks by which
+Norman work can be recognised the reader is referred to the companion
+volume;[36] we propose here to give an account of the broader
+characteristics of the buildings erected during the prevalence of the
+style.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The oldest remaining parts of Canterbury Cathedral are specimens of
+Norman architecture executed in England immediately after the
+Conquest. This great church was rebuilt by Archbishop Lanfranc (whose
+episcopate lasted from 1070 to 1089), and in extent as laid out by him
+was very nearly identical with the existing structure; almost every
+portion has, however, been rebuilt, so that of his work only the
+towers forming transepts to the choir, and some other fragments, now
+remain. More complete and equally ancient is the chapel in the Tower
+of London, which consists of a small apsidal church with nave and
+aisles, vaulted throughout, and in excellent preservation. This
+building, though very charming, is almost destitute of ornament. A
+little more ornate, and still a good example of early Norman, is St.
+Peter's Church, Northampton (Fig. 172), the interior of which we
+illustrate. To these examples of early Norman we may add a large part
+of Rochester Cathedral, and the transepts of Winchester. The transepts
+of Exeter present a specimen of rather more advanced Norman work; and
+in the cathedrals of Peterborough and Durham the style can be seen at
+its best.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 172.--NORMAN ARCHES IN ST. PETER'S CHURCH,
+      NORTHAMPTON.]
+
+In most Norman buildings we find very excellent masonry and massive
+construction. The exteriors of west fronts, transepts, and towers
+show great skill and care in their composition, the openings being
+always well grouped, and contrasted with plain wall-spaces; and a keen
+sense of proportion is perceptible. The Norman architects had at
+command a rich, if perhaps a rather rude, ornamentation, which they
+generally confined to individual features, especially doorways; on
+these they lavished mouldings and sculpture, the elaboration of which
+was set off by the plainness of the general structure. In the interior
+of the churches we usually meet with piers of massive proportion,
+sometimes round, sometimes octagonal, sometimes rectangular, and a
+shaft is sometimes carried up the face of the piers; as, for example,
+in Peterborough Cathedral (Fig. 173). The capitals of the columns and
+piers have a square abacus, and, generally speaking, are of the
+cushion-shaped sort, commonly known as basket-capitals, and are
+profusely carved. The larger churches have the nave roofed with a
+timber roof, and at Peterborough there is a wooden ceiling; in these
+cases the aisles only are vaulted, but in some small churches the
+whole building has been so covered. Buttresses are seldom required,
+owing to the great mass of the walls; when employed they have a very
+slight projection, but the same strips or pilasters which are used in
+German Romanesque occur here also. Low towers were common, and have
+been not unfrequently preserved in cases where the rest of the
+building has been removed. As the style advanced, the proportions of
+arcades became more lofty, and shafts became more slender, decorative
+arcades (Fig. 174) became more common, and in these and many other
+changes the approaching transition to Gothic may be easily detected.
+
+We have already alluded to the many Norman doorways remaining in
+parish churches of which all other parts have been rebuilt. These
+doorways are generally very rich; they possess a series of mouldings
+sometimes springing from shafts, sometimes running not only round the
+arched head, but also up the jambs of the opening; and each moulding
+is richly carved, very often with a repetition of the same ornament on
+each voussoir of the arch. Occasionally, but not frequently, large
+portions of wall-surface are covered by a diaper; that is to say, an
+ornament constantly repeated so as to produce a general sense of
+enrichment.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 173.--NAVE ARCADE, PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 174.--DECORATIVE ARCADE FROM CANTERBURY
+      CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Norman castles, as well as churches, were built in great numbers
+shortly after the Conquest, and not a few remain. The stronghold
+which a follower of the Conqueror built in order to establish himself
+on the lands granted him was always a very sturdy massive square
+tower, low in proportion to its width, built very strongly, and with
+every provision for sustaining an attack or even a siege. Such a tower
+is called "a keep;" and in many famous castles, as for example the
+Tower of London, the keep forms the nucleus round which buildings and
+courtyards of later date have clustered. In some few instances,
+however, as for example at Colchester, the keep is the only part now
+standing, and it is probable that when originally built these Norman
+castles were not much encumbered with out-buildings. Rochester Castle
+is a fine example of a Norman keep, though it has suffered much from
+decay and injury. The very large Norman keep of the Tower of London,
+known as the White Tower, and containing the chapel already described,
+has been much modernised and altered, but retains the fine mass of its
+original construction. Perhaps the best (and best-preserved) example
+is Hedingham Castle in Essex, which we illustrate (Figs. 175 and 176).
+From the remains of this building some idea of the interior of the
+hall--the chief room within a Norman keep--may be obtained, as well as
+of the general external appearance of such a structure.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 175.--HEDINGHAM CASTLE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 176.--INTERIOR OF HEDINGHAM CASTLE.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[34] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' chap. vii.
+
+[35] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' chap. v. p. 62.
+
+[36] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' chap. ii. p. 23.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 177.--ROUNDED ARCH OF CHURCH AT GELNHAUSEN.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Analysis._
+
+Notwithstanding very wide differences which undoubtedly exist, there
+is a sufficient bond of union between the Basilican, the Byzantine,
+and the Romanesque styles, to render it possible for us to include the
+characteristics of the three in an analysis of Christian round-arched
+architecture.
+
+_The Plan or floor-disposition_ of the basilican churches, as has been
+pointed out, was distinctive. The atrium, or forecourt, the porch, the
+division into nave and aisles; the transept, the great arch, and the
+apse beyond it with the episcopal seat at the back behind the altar;
+the ambos; and the enclosure for the choir, were typical features.
+Detached towers sometimes occurred. The plan of Romanesque churches
+was based upon that of the basilica; the atrium was often omitted, so
+was the transept sometimes; but, when retained, the transept was
+generally made more prominent than in the basilica. The position of
+the altar and of the enclosure for the choir were changed, but in
+other respects the basilica plan was continued. In Germany, however,
+apsidal transepts (Fig. 178) were built. Towers were common,
+occasionally detached, but more frequently joined to the main
+building.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 178.--PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES AT
+      COLOGNE.]
+
+Circular and polygonal buildings for use as baptisteries, and
+sometimes as churches, existed both in the basilican and the
+Romanesque time.
+
+Byzantine church plans are all distinguished by their great central
+square space, covered by the central dome, flanked usually by four
+arms, comparatively short, and all of equal length; and the plan of
+the buildings is generally square, or nearly so, in outline. Circular
+and polygonal buildings sometimes occur.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 179.--SPIRE OF SPIRES CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Few traces of the arrangement of military, secular, or domestic
+buildings earlier than the twelfth century remain, but some examples
+of a cloister at the side of the nave (generally the south side) of a
+church, giving or intended to give access to monastic buildings, still
+exist.
+
+_The Walls_ of such buildings as have come down to us are, it may be
+well understood, strong, since the most recent of this round-arched
+series of buildings must be about seven hundred years old. Fine
+masonry was not much employed till the time of the Normans, but the
+Roman plan of building with bricks or rubble and casing the face of
+the walls with marble or mosaic, or at least plaster, was generally
+followed. The walls are carried up as gables and towers to a
+considerable extent (Fig. 179), especially in Western countries.
+
+_The Roof._--In a basilica this was of timber, in a Byzantine church
+it consisted of a series of domes; in a Romanesque church it was
+sometimes of timber as in the basilica, but not unfrequently vaulted.
+As a general rule the vault prevailed in the West and the dome in the
+East; and such examples of either sort of roof as occur in those
+provinces where the other was usual, like the domed churches in parts
+of France, must be looked upon as exceptional.
+
+_The Openings_ are almost invariably arched, and seldom, if ever,
+covered by a lintel. It is hardly necessary to add that the arches are
+always round. Almost always they are semicircular, but instances of
+the employment of a segmental arch, or of one the outline of which is
+a little more than half a circle, may be occasionally met with.
+
+Door openings are often made important both by size and decoration.
+Window openings are usually small; and the grouping of two or more
+lights under one head, which was so conspicuous a feature in Gothic
+architecture, first appears in Byzantine buildings, and is met with
+also in Romanesque ones. The mode of introducing light is to a certain
+extent characteristic. The basilican churches always possess a
+clerestory, and usually side windows in the aisles; and this
+arrangement is generally followed in Romanesque buildings, though
+sometimes, in Germany, the clerestory is omitted. The gable ends of
+the nave and transepts are not usually pierced by many or large lights
+(Fig. 180); and when there is a central feature, as a tower, or even a
+dome, little or no light is introduced through it. On the other hand,
+the Byzantine churches depend largely for light upon the ring of
+windows which commonly encircles the base of the central dome, and
+sometimes that of the subsidiary domes; and the gables are pierced
+so as to supply any additional light required, so that windows are
+infrequent in the lower walls. Broadly speaking, therefore, the
+Western churches have side-lighting and the Eastern top-lighting.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 180.--CHURCH AT ROSHEIM. UPPER PORTION OF
+      FAÇADE.]
+
+The great arches which carry the main domes form a notable feature in
+Eastern churches, and are of very bold construction. In the basilican
+churches one great arch, called "the arch of triumph," occurs, and
+only one; this gives access to the apse: and a similar arch, which we
+now denominate "the chancel arch," usually occupies a corresponding
+position in all Romanesque churches. The arches of the arcade
+separating the nave from the aisles in all Western churches are
+usually of moderate span. In some ancient basilicas these arches are
+replaced by a horizontal beam.
+
+_The Columns._--In basilicas these were of antique type; very often
+they had actually been obtained by the demolition of older buildings,
+and when made purposely they were as a rule of the same general
+character. The same might be said of those introduced into Byzantine
+buildings, though a divergence from the classic type soon manifested
+itself, and small columns began to appear as decorative features. In
+Romanesque buildings the columns are very varied indeed, and shafts
+are frequently introduced into the decoration of other features. They
+occur in the jambs of doorways with mouldings or sub-arches springing
+from them; long shafts and short ones, frequently supporting
+ornamental arcades, are employed both internally and externally; and
+altogether that use of the column as a means of decoration, of which
+Gothic architecture presents so many examples, first began in the
+Romanesque style.
+
+The capitals employed in Romanesque buildings generally depart
+considerably from the classic type, being based on the primitive cube
+capital (Fig. 181), but, as a rule, in Eastern as well as in basilican
+churches, they bear a tolerably close resemblance to classic ones.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 181.--CUBIC CAPITAL.]
+
+_The Ornaments_ throughout the whole of the Christian round-arched
+period are a very interesting subject of study, and will repay close
+attention. In the basilican style mouldings occur but seldom: where
+met with, they are all of the profiles common in Roman architecture,
+but often rudely and clumsily worked. Carving partakes also of classic
+character, though it is not difficult to detect the commencement of
+that metamorphosis which was effected in Byzantium, and which can
+hardly be better described than in the following paragraph from the
+pen of Sir Digby Wyatt:--"The foliage is founded on ancient Greek
+rather than on Roman traditions, and is characterised by a peculiarly
+sharp outline. All ornamental sculpture is in comparatively low
+relief, and the absence of human and other figures is very marked.
+Enrichments were almost invariably so carved, by sinking portions only
+of the surfaces and leaving the arrises and principal places
+untouched, as to preserve the original constructive forms given by the
+mason (Fig. 184). The employment of the drill instead of the chisel,
+so common in debased Roman work, was retained as a very general
+practice by the Greek carvers, and very often with excellent effect.
+The foliage of the acanthus, although imitated from the antique,
+quite changed its character, becoming more geometrical and
+conventional in its form. That which particularly distinguishes
+Lombard from Byzantine art is its sculpture abounding with grotesque
+imagery, with illustrations of every-day life, of a fanciful mythology
+not yet quite extinct, and allusions, no longer symbolic but direct,
+to the Christian creed; the latter quality a striking evidence of the
+triumph of the Roman Church over all iconoclastic adversaries in
+Greece." What is here asserted of Lombard carving is true of that in
+the Romanesque buildings in Germany, Scandinavia (Fig. 182), France,
+and to a certain extent in Great Britain, though in our own country a
+large proportion of the ornamental carving consists simply of
+decorative patterns, such as the chevron, billet, and zig-zag; and
+sculpture containing figures and animals is less common.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 182.--DOORWAY AT TIND, NORWAY. (END OF 12TH
+      CENTURY.)]
+
+The mouldings of Romanesque buildings are simple, and at first were
+few in number, but by degrees they become more conspicuous, and before
+the transition to Gothic they assumed considerable importance (Fig.
+183) and added not a little to the architectural character of the
+buildings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 183.--MOULDINGS OF PORTAL OF ST. JAMES'S CHURCH
+      AT KOESFELD.]
+
+Coloured decoration, especially in mosaic, was a conspicuous feature
+in basilican churches, and still more so in those of the Byzantine
+style; such decoration in Romanesque churches was not infrequent, but
+it was more commonly painted in fresco or tempera. The glass
+mosaic-work to be found on the walls of Early Christian churches, both
+basilican and Byzantine, but less frequently Romanesque, is most
+interesting and beautiful: "it was," says the high authority already
+quoted, "employed only to represent and reproduce the forms of
+existing objects, such as figures, architectural forms and
+conventional foliage, which were generally relieved with some slight
+indication of shading upon a gold ground--the whole being bedded in
+the cement covering the walls and vaults of the basilicas and
+churches."
+
+"The design of both figures and ornaments was, generally speaking,
+very rude, though not without an occasional rising in some of the
+figures to a certain sublimity, derivable principally from the great
+simplicity of the forms and draperies and the earnest grandiose
+expression depicted on their countenances. The pieces of glass
+employed in the formation of this work are very irregular in shapes
+and sizes, of all colours and tones of colour, and the ground tint
+almost invariably prevailing is gold. The manner of execution is
+always large and coarse, and rarely approaches in neatness of joint
+and regularity of bedding to the (ancient Roman) 'opus majus
+vermiculatus;' yet, notwithstanding these blemishes, the effect of
+gorgeous, luxurious, and at the same time solemn decoration produced
+is unattainable by any other means as yet employed as structural
+embellishment. How noble and truly ecclesiastical in character are the
+gold-clad interiors of Monreale Cathedral, of the Capella Palatina at
+Palermo, of St. Mark at Venice, San Miniato at Florence, or Santi
+Apollinare and Vitale at Ravenna, the concurrent testimony of all
+travellers attests."
+
+A finer kind of glass mosaic arranged in geometrical patterns was
+made use of to enrich the ambos, screens, episcopal chairs, sepulchral
+ornaments, and other similar fittings of churches, and was often of
+great beauty. A third sort of mosaic--the Alexandrine work (opus
+Alexandrinum)--used for pavements, has been already alluded to; this
+was extremely effective, but its use appears to have been less general
+than that of the glass mosaics for the walls.
+
+_The Architectural Character_ of the basilican churches may be briefly
+characterised as venerable and dignified, but yet cheerful and bright
+rather than forbidding; they are, as interiors, impressive but not
+oppressive, solemn but not gloomy. Comparatively little attention was
+paid to external effect, and there is not often much in them to strike
+the passer-by. The character of Byzantine interiors is far more rich,
+and even splendid; but it is more gloomy, and often is solemn and
+grand to the last degree. In many cases these churches possess fine
+exteriors; and for the level sky-line produced by the long straight
+roofs of the basilica, a more or less pyramidal composition, showing
+curved outlines rather than straight ones, is substituted. The
+architectural character of the Romanesque buildings varies extremely
+with the districts in which they are erected; but, generally speaking,
+it may be described as picturesque, and even sometimes romantic; the
+appearance of towers, prominent transepts, and many smaller decorative
+features serves to render the exteriors telling and varied, though
+often somewhat rude and primitive. A solid and somewhat heavy
+character distinguishes the interiors of some varieties of Romanesque
+buildings--such, for example, as our own Early Norman; but in our
+fully-developed and late Norman, and still more in the latest German
+Romanesque churches, this disappears almost entirely, and much beauty
+and even lightness of effect is obtained, without any loss of that
+richness which is characteristic of more ancient examples.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 184.--BYZANTINE BASKET-WORK CAPITAL FROM SAN
+      MICHELE IN AFFRICISCO AT RAVENNA.]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 185.--ARABIAN CAPITAL. FROM THE ALHAMBRA.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+Few revolutions more sudden, more signal, and more widespread are
+recorded in history than that which covered not only the East but part
+of the West with the Mohammedan religion and dominion. Mohammed was
+born either in the year 569 or 570 of the Christian era, and died A.D.
+652. The year of the Hegira, the era from which Mohammedans compute
+their chronology, is A.D. 622, and within little more than a century
+from this era the Prophet was acknowledged, and the suzerainty of the
+Caliph recognised eastwards, in Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and
+Persia, and in India as far as to the Ganges; and westwards along the
+north coast of Africa, in Sicily, and in Spain. It was only to be
+expected that such a wonderful tide of conquest and such a widespread
+change of religion should before long leave its impress on the
+architecture of the continents thus revolutionised; and accordingly a
+Mohammedan style soon rose. This style did not displace or override
+the indigenous art of the various countries where it prevailed, as
+Roman architecture did in the age of universal dominion under the
+Empire; it assimilated the peculiarities of each country, and so
+transmuted them, that although wherever the religion of Mohammed
+prevails the architecture will at a glance confess the fact, still the
+local or national peculiarities of each country remain prominent.
+
+The Arabs, a nomadic race who lived in tents, do not seem to have been
+great builders even in their cities. We have no authentic accounts or
+existing remains of very early buildings even in Mecca or Medina, as
+the oldest mosques in those cities have been completely rebuilt. It is
+to Egypt and Syria that we must turn for the most ancient remaining
+examples of Saracenic architecture. These consist of mosques and
+tombs.
+
+
+_Egypt._
+
+A mosque--or Mohammedan place of worship--has two forms. The earlier
+mosques are all of them of a type the arrangement of which is
+simplicity itself. A large open courtyard, resembling the garth of a
+cloister, with a fountain in it, is surrounded cloister-wise by
+arcades supporting timber roofs. On the side nearest Mecca the arcades
+are increased to several rows in depth, so as to cover a considerable
+space. This is the part in which the congregation chiefly assembles;
+here a niche or recess (termed Kibla), more or less enriched, is
+formed in which the Koran is to be kept, and hard by a pulpit is
+erected. For many centuries past, though not, it is believed, from the
+very earliest times, a minaret or high tower, from the top of which
+the call to prayer is given, has also been an indispensable adjunct to
+a mosque.
+
+The second sort of mosque is a domed, and sometimes vaulted building
+of a form chiefly suggested by the Byzantine domed churches, with a
+central space and four short arms. This sort of mosque became almost
+universal in Turkey and Egypt after the capture of Constantinople by
+the Turks, and the appropriation to Moslem worship of Santa Sophia
+itself. The tombs are ornate and monumental buildings, or sanctuaries,
+of the same general character as the domed mosques, and often attached
+to them.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 186.--HORSE-SHOE ARCH.]
+
+From very early times the arches, in the arcades which have been
+described as virtually constituting the whole structure of the simpler
+sort of mosque, were pointed. Lubke claims as the earliest known and
+dated example of the pointed arch in a Saracenic building, the
+Nilometer, a small structure on an island near Cairo, which contains
+pointed arches that must have been built either at the date of its
+original construction in A.D. 719, or at latest, when it was restored
+A.D. 821. The Mosque of Amrou, however, which was founded very soon
+after the conquest of Egypt in A.D. 643, and is largely made up of
+materials obtained from older buildings, exhibits pointed arches, not
+only in the arcades, which probably have been rebuilt since they were
+originally formed, but in the outer walls, which are likely, in part
+at least, to be original.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 187.--EXTERIOR OF SANTA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE.
+      SHOWING THE MINARETS ADDED AFTER ITS CONVERSION INTO A MOSQUE.]
+
+Whatever uncertainty may rest upon these very remote specimens of
+pointed architecture, there is little if any about the Mosque of Ibn
+Tulun, also at Cairo, and built A.D. 885, or, according to another
+authority, A.D. 879. Here arcades of bold pointed arches spring from
+piers, and the effect of the whole structure is noble and full of
+character. From that time the pointed arch was constantly used in
+Saracenic buildings along with the semicircular and the horse-shoe
+arch (Fig. 186).
+
+From the ninth century, then, the pointed arch was in constant use. It
+prevailed in Palestine as well as in the adjacent countries for two
+centuries before it reached the West, and there can be no doubt that
+it was there seen by the Western Crusaders, and a knowledge of its use
+and an appreciation of its beauty and convenience were brought back to
+Western Europe by the returning ecclesiastics and others at the end of
+the First Crusade.[37]
+
+In the eleventh century the splendid Tombs of the Caliphs at Cairo
+were erected,--buildings crowned with domes of a graceful pointed
+form, and remarkable for the external decoration which usually covers
+the whole surface of those domes. By this time also, if not earlier,
+the minaret had become universal. This is a lofty tower of slender
+proportions, passing from a square base below to a circular form above
+(Fig. 187). A minaret is often divided into several stages. Each stage
+is then marked by a balcony, and is, generally speaking, a polygon
+of a greater number of sides than the stage below it.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 188.--ALHAMBRA. HALL OF THE ABENCERRAGES.]
+
+In the interiors of Saracenic buildings what is generally known as
+honeycomb corbelling is constantly employed to fill up corners and
+effect a change of plan from a square below to a circle or octagon
+above. This ornament is formed by the use of a series of small
+brackets, each course of them overhanging those below, and produces an
+effect some idea of which may be gathered from our illustration (Fig.
+188) of the Hall of the Abencerrages in the Alhambra. The interiors
+when not domed are often covered by wooden or plaster ceilings, more
+or less richly decorated, such as are shown in the view of one of the
+arcades of the Mosque "El Moyed," Cairo (Fig. 189), where the
+horse-shoe and pointed arches can both be seen. This illustration also
+shows timber ties, at the feet of the arches, such as were commonly
+used by the earlier Saracenic builders.
+
+The surfaces of the interiors of most Mohammedan buildings in all
+countries are covered with the most exquisite decorations in colour.
+Imitations of natural objects being forbidden by the Koran (a
+prohibition occasionally, but very rarely, infringed), the Saracenic
+artists, whose instincts as decorators seem to have been unrivalled,
+fell back upon geometrical and flowing patterns and inscriptions, and
+upon the use of tiles (Fig. 190), mosaics, inlays, patterns impressed
+on plaster, and every possible device for harmoniously enriching the
+surfaces with which they had to deal. Several of our illustrations
+give indications of the presence of these unrivalled decorations in
+the buildings which they represent (Fig. 195). Windows are commonly
+filled by tracery executed in stone or in plaster, and glazed with
+stained glass, and many of the open spaces in buildings are occupied
+by grilles, executed in wood, and most effective and rich in design.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 189.--MOSQUE 'EL MOYED' AT CAIRO.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 190.--ARABIAN WALL DECORATION.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 191.--PLAN OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM.]
+
+
+_Syria and Palestine._
+
+Syria was one of the countries earliest overrun by the Arab
+propaganda, and Jerusalem was taken by the Caliph Omar as early as
+A.D. 637. He there built a small mosque, though not the one which
+commonly goes by his name. Two mosques of great antiquity and
+importance, but the origin of which is a matter of dispute among
+authorities, stand in the Haram enclosure at Jerusalem. One of these
+is the octagonal building called the Sakhra (Figs. 191-2), known in
+the Moslem world as the Dome of the Rock, popularly called the Mosque
+of Omar, and occupying, as is all but universally admitted, part of
+the site of the Temple itself. Whether this is a "nearly unaltered
+Christian building of the fourth century," or a construction of
+Abd-el-Malek, the second Caliph, erected in the year 688, has been
+debated keenly; but what is beyond debate is that this structure is
+very Byzantine, or, to speak with more exactness, very like some of
+the buildings of Justinian in plan and section, and that from early
+times it was in the possession of the Saracens, and was regarded by
+them as the next most venerable and sacred spot in the world after
+Mecca. Much the same difference of opinion prevails as to the origin
+of the neighbouring mosque, El Aksah, which bears an undoubted general
+resemblance to an ancient basilica, though having no fewer than
+seven parallel avenues. This building has with equal confidence been
+attributed to the fourth and the seventh century. It is fortunately
+quite unnecessary here to do more than point out that these mosques,
+whatever their origin, were in use at least as early as the eighth
+century, and that the beautiful Dome of the Rock must have exercised a
+great influence on Mohammedan art, and, notwithstanding some
+differences of plan, may be fairly regarded as the prototype of many
+of the domed mosques and tombs to which allusion has been made. The
+decorations shown in our illustration of the Sakhra are, it is right
+to observe, most of them of a date centuries later than the time of
+the original construction of the building.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 192.--SECTION OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM.]
+
+
+_Sicily and Spain._
+
+The spread of Mohammedan architecture westward next claims our notice;
+but want of space will only permit us to mention a small though
+interesting group of Saracenic buildings which still remains in
+Sicily; the numerous specimens of the style which exist on the north
+coast of Africa; and the works erected by the Saracens during their
+long rule in Spain. The most celebrated Spanish example is the
+fortress and palace of the Alhambra, begun in 1248, and finished in
+1314. This building (Fig. 188) has been measured, drawn, and fully
+illustrated in an elaborate monograph by our countryman Owen Jones,
+and has become popularly known by the beautiful reproduction of
+portions of it which he executed at the Crystal Palace, and of which
+he wrote an admirable description in his 'Guide-book to the Alhambra
+Court.' The Mohammedan architecture of Spain is here to be seen at
+its best; most of its features are those of Arab art, but with a
+distinguishing character (Fig. 193).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 193.--DOORWAY IN THE ALHAMBRA.]
+
+Two other well-known examples are, the Giralda[38] at Seville, and
+the Mosque at Cordova. The Giralda is a square tower, in fact a
+minaret on a magnificent scale, divided into panels and richly
+decorated, and shows a masculine though beautiful treatment wholly
+different from that of the minarets in Cairo. The well-known Mosque at
+Cordova is of the simplest sort of plan, but of very great extent, and
+contains no less than nineteen parallel avenues separated from one
+another by arcades at two heights springing from 850 columns. The
+Kibla in this mosque is a picturesque domed structure higher than the
+rest of the building. The columns employed throughout are antique ones
+from other buildings, but the whole effect of the structure, which
+abounds with curiously cusped arches and coloured decoration, is
+described as most picturesque and fantastic.
+
+
+_Persia and India._
+
+Turning eastwards, we find in Turkey, as has been said, a close
+adherence to the forms of Byzantine architecture. In Persia, where the
+people are now fire-worshippers, the Mohammedan buildings are mostly
+ruined, and probably many have disappeared, but enough remains to show
+that mosques and palaces of great grandeur were built. Lofty doorways
+are a somewhat distinctive feature of Persian buildings of this style;
+and the use of coloured tiles of singular beauty for linings to the
+walls, in the heads of these great portals, and in other situations to
+which such decoration is appropriate, is very common: these
+decorations afford opportunity for the Persian instinct for colour,
+probably the truest in the whole world, to make itself seen.
+
+In India the wealth of material is such that an almost unlimited
+series of fine buildings could be brought forward, were space and
+illustrations available. A large part of that vast country became
+Mohammedan, and in the buildings erected for mosques and tombs a
+complete blending of the decorative forms in use among Hindu and Jaina
+sculptors with the main lines of Mohammedan art is generally to be
+found. The great open quadrangle, the pointed arch, the dome, the
+minaret, all appear, but they are all made out of Indian materials.
+Perhaps not the least noteworthy feature of mosques and tombs in India
+is the introduction of perforated slabs of marble in the place of the
+bar-tracery which filled the heads of openings in Cairo or Damascus.
+These are works of the greatest and most refined beauty: sometimes
+panels of thin marble, each pierced with a different pattern, are
+fitted into a framework prepared for their reception; at others we
+meet with window-heads where upon a background of twining stems and
+leaves there grow up palms or banian-trees, their lithe branches and
+leaves wreathed into lines of admirable grace, and every part standing
+out, owing to the fine piercings of the marble, as distinctly as a
+tree of Jesse on a painted window in a Gothic cathedral.
+
+The dome at Bijapur, a tomb larger than the Pantheon at Rome, and the
+Kutub at Delhi, a tower not unfit to be compared with Giotto's
+campanile at Florence, are conspicuous among this series of monuments,
+and at Delhi one of the grandest mosques in India (Fig. 194) is also
+to be found. The series of mosques and tombs at Ahmedabad, however,
+form the most beautiful group of buildings in India, and are the only
+ones of which a complete series of illustrations has been published.
+These mosques are remarkable for the great skill with which they are
+roofed and lighted. This is done by means of a series of domes raised
+on columns sufficiently above the general level of the stone ceilings,
+which cover the intervening spaces, to admit light under the line of
+their springing. The beauty of the marble tracery and surface
+decoration is very great. Pointed arches occur here almost invariably,
+and in most cases the outline of the opening is very slightly turned
+upwards at the apex so as to give a slight increase of emphasis to the
+summit of the arch. The buildings are not as a rule lofty; and though
+plain walls and piers occur and contrast well with the arched
+features, pains have been taken to avoid anything like massive or
+heavy construction. Great extent, skilful distribution, extreme
+lightness, and admirably combined groupings of the features and
+masses, are among the fine qualities which lend to Mohammedan
+architecture in Ahmedabad a rare charm.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 194.--GRAND MOSQUE AT DELHI, BUILT BY SHAH JEHAN.]
+
+The religion and the art of Islam seem destined to live and die
+together. Nothing (with the one exception of the suggestion of the
+pointed arch to Western Europe at the very moment when Romanesque art
+was ripe for a change) has developed itself or appears likely to grow
+out of Mohammedan architecture in any part of the wide field to which
+the attention of the reader has been directed; and in this respect the
+art of the Mohammedan is as exclusive, as intolerant, and as infertile
+as his religion. The interest which it must possess in the eyes of a
+Western student will rise less from its own charms than from the fact
+that it first employed the pointed arch--that feature from which
+sprang the glorious series of Western Christian styles to which we
+give the name of Gothic. This arch, indeed, appears to have been
+discovered by the very beginners of Mohammedan architecture, at a time
+when the style was still plastic and in course of growth, and the
+beauty of Saracenic art is due to no small extent to the use of it;
+but in the employment of this feature the Western architect advanced
+much further than the Saracen even at his best could go. The pointed
+architecture of the Middle Ages, with its daring construction, its
+comprehensive design, its elaborate mouldings, and its magnificent
+sculptures, is far more highly developed and more beautiful than that
+of the countries which we have been describing, though in its
+treatment of the walls it cannot surpass, and indeed did not often
+equal, the unrivalled decoration of plane surfaces which forms the
+chief glory of Mohammedan art.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 195.--ENTRANCE TO A MOORISH BAZAAR.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[37] The First Crusade lasted from A.D. 1095 to A.D. 1099.
+
+[38] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' p. 141.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Abbaye aux Dames, Caen, 231
+       "     Hommes, Caen, 230
+
+  Abbey, Westminster, 204
+
+  Agora, 114
+
+  Alhambra, 258, 263
+
+  Amphitheatre at Arles, 161
+          "       Nîmes, 161
+          "       Pola, 161
+          "       Rome (Coloss.), 158
+          "       Sutri, 148
+          "       Verona, 161
+
+  Anthemios of Thralles, _Architect_, 211
+
+  Appian Way, 145
+
+  Apollodorus of Damascus, _Architect_, 155
+
+  Aqueduct at Nîmes (Pont du Gard), 171
+      "    from Præneste to Rome, 145
+      "    at Rome (Aqua Claudia), 171
+      "        "   (Anio Novus), 171
+      "    at Segovia, 171
+      "    at Tarragona, 171
+
+  Arch at Autun (Porte d'Arroux), 172
+      "   Jerusalem (Golden Gate), 220
+      "   Rome (of Constantine), 172
+      "    "   (of the Goldsmiths), 173
+      "    "   (of Sept. Severus), 172
+      "    "   (of Titus), 172
+      "   Trèves (Porta Nigra), 172
+
+  Asoka, 65
+
+
+  Baalbek, ruins at, 149
+
+  Basilica at Rome (Constantiniana), 155
+        "      "   (Emilia), 154
+        "      "   (Julia), 155
+        "      "   (Portia), 154
+        "      "   (Sempronia), 155
+        "      "   (Ulpia), 155
+        "     Trèves, 155
+
+  Basilica-church at Florence (S. Miniato), 209
+      "       "      Ravenna (S. Apollinare in Classe), 206, 209
+      "       "      Rome (S. Agnese), 201
+      "       "      Rome (S. Clemente), 199
+      "       "      Rome (S. Paul without the walls), 205
+      "       "      Rome (S. Pietro), 201
+
+  Baths of Agrippa, 162
+      "    Caracalla, 162
+      "    Diocletian, 164, 191
+
+  Bharhut, 71
+
+  Birs-i-Nimrud, 45
+
+  Bridge over the Danube (Trajan's), 170
+          "       Tagus (Hadrian's), 170
+          "       Tiber (Pons Sublicius), 170
+
+
+  Campo Santo, Pisa, 209
+
+  Castle of S. Angelo, 174
+
+  Cathedral at Canterbury, 233
+         "     Durham, 234
+         "     Exeter, 234
+         "     Monreale, 249
+         "     Peterborough, 234, 235
+         "     Piacenza, 224
+         "     Pisa, 209
+         "     Rochester, 234
+         "     Rome (S. Peter's), 205
+         "     Venice (S. Mark's), 217
+         "     Winchester, 234
+
+  Chaitya, 67
+
+  Chapel in Tower of London, 232, 233
+
+  Chehil Minar, 56
+
+  Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, 112
+
+  Church at Aix-la-Chapelle, 225
+       "    Caen (Abb. aux Hommes), 230
+       "     "   (Abb. aux Dames), 231
+       "    Constantinople (S. Sophia), 211
+       "    Earl's Barton, 224
+       "    Milan (S. Ambrogio), 224
+       "    Northampton (S. Peter's), 234
+       "    Paris (Madeleine), 185
+       "    Périgueux (S. Front), 218
+       "    Ravenna (S. Vitale), 208, 215
+       "    Rome (S. Maria degli Angeli), 164
+       "     "   (S. Maria ad Martyres), 166
+       "    Rome (S. Stefano Rot.), 208
+       "    Toulouse (S. Sernin), 227
+       "    Turmanin, Syria, 221
+       "    Verona (S. Zenone), 224
+
+  Circus Maximus, Rome, 143, 161
+
+  Cloaca Maxima, Rome, 141
+
+  Cnidus, Lion tomb at, 110
+
+  Colosseum, 158
+
+  Column of Marcus Aurelius, 173
+       "    Trajan, 173
+
+
+  Decoration of Egyptian buildings, 37
+
+
+  Erechtheium, 107
+
+
+  Forum of Nerva, 191
+
+
+  Gate, Golden, at Jerusalem, 220
+
+  Gate at Perugia, 141
+
+  Giralda, 265
+
+
+  Hall, S. George's, Liverpool, 185
+
+
+  Ictinus, _Architect_, 88
+
+  Isidoros of Miletus, _Architect_, 211
+
+
+  Keep at Colchester, 237
+      "   Hedingham Castle, 239
+      "   Rochester Castle, 238
+      "   Tower of London, 237, 239
+
+  Kutub, 266
+
+
+  Lâts, 65
+
+  Lotus Column, 32
+
+  Lysicrates, Choragic Monument of, 112
+
+
+  Maison Carrée, Nîmes, 149
+
+  Mammisi, 25
+
+  Manephthah, 24
+
+  Manetho, 15
+
+  Mastaba, 20
+
+  Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, 110
+
+  Mosque at Ahmedabad, 266
+       "    Cairo (of Amrou), 254
+       "      "   ("El Moyed"), 258
+       "      "   (of Ibn Tulun), 256
+       "    Cordova, 265
+       "    Delhi, 266
+       "    Jerusalem (El Aksah), 261
+       "        "     (Sakhra), 261
+       "    (the Nilometer), 254
+
+  Mugheyr, buildings at, 44
+
+  Mycenæ, Treasury of Atreus, 85
+     "    Gate of the Lions, 86
+
+
+  Obelisks, 36
+
+
+  Pagoda at Nankin, 76
+
+  Palace at Khorsabad, 46
+       "    Rome (of the Cæsars), 174
+       "    Spalatro (of Diocletian), 174, 192
+
+  Pantheon, 164
+
+  Parthenon, 88-91, 99-101
+
+  Persepolis, buildings at, 55
+
+  Persian columns, 57
+
+  Pheidias, _Sculptor_, 91
+
+  Pont du Gard, Nîmes, 171
+
+  Porta Nigra, Trèves, 172
+
+  Pylon, 25
+
+  Pyramid of Cephren, 16
+        "    Cheops, 16
+        "    Mycerinus, 16
+
+
+  Ram Raz, 72
+
+  Rome, Cloacæ at, 141
+
+
+  Scopas, _Sculptor and Architect_, 109, 112
+
+  Silchester, ruins at, 143
+
+  Sutri, ruins of an amphitheatre, 143
+
+
+  Temple at Athens (Erechtheium), 107
+       "      "    (Parthenon), 88-91, 99-101
+       "      "    (of Jupiter Olym.), 149
+       "    Baalbek, 149
+       "    Corinth, 81, 87
+       "    Ephesus (of Diana), 109
+       "    Honan, 75
+       "    Ipsamboul, 31
+       "    Karli (Chaitya), 67
+       "    Karnak, 26
+       "    Lomas Rishi cave, 67
+       "    Nigope cave (Chaitya), 67
+       "    Nîmes (Maison Carrée), 149
+       "    Orange (ruins), 157
+       "    Pæstum, 92
+       "    Rome (of Jupiter Capitolinus), 142
+       "     "   (of Q. Metellus Macedonicus), 145
+       "     "   (of Antoninus and Faustina), 147
+       "     "   (of Fortuna Vir.), 147
+       "     "   (of Vesta), 153
+       "     "   (Pantheon), 164
+       "    Sanchi (Tope), 67
+       "    Tegea (of Athena Alea), 112
+       "    Tivoli (of Vesta), 153
+
+  Temples, Egyptian, 25
+     "     Shinto, 77
+
+  Theatre of Balbus, 156
+     "    "  Marcellus, 156
+     "    "  Mummius, 156
+     "    at Orange, 157
+     "    of Pompey, 156
+
+  Thermæ, _see_ Baths
+
+  Tomb at Ahmedabad, 266
+    "  "  Bab-el-Molouk (Belzoni's), 24
+    "  "  Bijapur, 266
+    "  "  Castel d'Asso, 139
+    "  of Cecilia Metella, 173
+    "  "  Cyrus, 54
+    "  "  Darius, 59
+    "  "  Hadrian, 174
+    "  "  Regulini Galeassi, 141
+
+  Tombs, Egyptian, 20
+    "    Lycian, 85
+    "    Cnidus (Lion), 110
+
+  Tope at Sanchi, 67
+
+  Tower at Delhi (Kutub), 266
+      "    Seville (Giralda), 265
+
+  Treasury of Atreus, 85
+
+  Typhonia, 25
+
+
+  Usertesen I., 29
+
+
+  Wall of China, Great, 76
+
+  Way, Appian, 145
+
+  Westminster Abbey, 204
+
+  Wurkha, ruins at, 46
+
+
+  LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
+          STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS
+
+OF
+
+ART HISTORY OF ALL AGES
+
+Each Volume contains numerous Illustrations, and is strongly bound for
+the use of Students. Price 5_s._
+
+_NOW READY._
+
+BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH AND JOHN SLATER, B.A.
+
+    ARCHITECTURE: CLASSIC and EARLY CHRISTIAN. Comprising
+    the Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine and
+    Early Christian. Illustrated with upwards of 200
+    Engravings, including the Parthenon, the Erechtheium,
+    the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, the Colosseum, the Baths
+    of Diocletian, &c.
+
+BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH AND EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.
+
+    ARCHITECTURE: GOTHIC and RENAISSANCE. Showing the
+    progress of Gothic Architecture in England, France,
+    Germany, Italy, and Spain, and of Renaissance
+    Architecture in the same Countries. Illustrated with
+    more than 100 Engravings, including many of the
+    principal Cathedrals, Churches, Palaces, and Domestic
+    Buildings in England, and on the Continent.
+
+BY GEORGE REDFORD, F.R.C.S.
+
+    SCULPTURE: EGYPTIAN, ASSYRIAN, GREEK and ROMAN. With 160
+    Illustrations, including Examples of the Works of the
+    most celebrated Greek Sculptors, a Map of Ancient
+    Greece, and a Chronological List of Ancient Sculptors
+    and their Works.
+
+BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A., AND PERCY R. HEAD, B.A.
+
+    PAINTING: CLASSIC and ITALIAN. Including Painting in
+    Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Pompeii; the Renaissance in
+    Italy; Schools of Florence, Siena, Rome, Padua, Venice,
+    Perugia, Ferrara, Parma, Naples and Bologna. Illustrated
+    with 80 Engravings of many of the finest Pictures of
+    Italy.
+
+BY H. J. WILMOT-BUXTON, M.A., AND EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.
+
+    PAINTING: GERMAN, FLEMISH and DUTCH. Including an
+    Account of the Works of Albrecht Dürer, Cranach, and
+    Holbein; Van Eyck, Van der Weyden, and Memling; Rubens,
+    Snyders, and Van Dyck; Rembrandt, Hals, and Jan Steen;
+    Wynants, Ruisdael, and Hobbema; Cuyp, Potter, and
+    Berchem; Bakhuisen, Van de Velde, Van Huysum, and many
+    other celebrated painters.
+
+BY H. J. WILMOT-BUXTON, M.A.
+
+    PAINTING: ENGLISH and AMERICAN. Including an account of
+    the Earliest Paintings known in England; the works of
+    Holbein, Antonio Moro, Lucas de Heere, Zuccaro, and Marc
+    Garrard; the Hilliards and Olivers; Van Dyck, Lely, and
+    Kneller; Hogarth, Reynolds, and Gainsborough; West,
+    Romney, and Lawrence; Constable, Turner, and Wilkie;
+    Maclise, Mulready, and Landseer, and many other
+    celebrated painters.
+                                             _Nearly ready._
+
+BY GERARD SMITH, EXETER COLL. OXFORD.
+
+    PAINTING: SPANISH and FRENCH. Including the Works of
+    Ribera, Zurbaran, Velazquez, and Murillo; Poussin,
+    Claude Lorrain, Le Sueur, Watteau, Chardin, Greuze,
+    David, and Prud'hon; Ingres, Vernet, Delaroche, and
+    Delacroix; Corot, Diaz, and Millet; Courbet, Regnault,
+    Troyon, and many other celebrated artists.
+                                           _In preparation._
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Archaic spelling has been preserved as printed, for example, Egean
+instead of Ægean.
+
+Minor punctuation errors have been repaired.
+
+The following amendments have been made:
+
+    Page 67, footnote--X. amended to XI.--"See Chap. XI. for
+    an illustration of a Christian Basilica."
+
+    Page 101--Theseium amended to Theseum--"Temple of Theseus
+    (Theseum), at Athens, 465 B.C."
+
+    Page 211--Isodoros amended to Isidoros--"... Anthemius of
+    Thralles, and Isidoros of Miletus, ..."
+
+    Page 270--114 amended to 116--"Agora, 116"
+
+    Page 270--148 amended to 143--"Amphitheatre at Sutri, 143"
+
+    Page 270--205 amended to 206--"Basilica-church at Rome
+    (S. Paul without the walls), 206"
+
+Discrepancies between items in the List of Illustrations and actual
+captions have been preserved as printed.
+
+Figure 115--Guilloche is missing from the List of Illustrations in the
+original text. This omission has been preserved in this e-text.
+
+Figures 116 and 117 were out of sequence on page 136 (with Figures
+105-110). They have been moved to their proper place in the sequence
+of Figures. Other illustrations have been moved where necessary so
+that they are not in the middle of a paragraph.
+
+The advertising material has been moved to the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith and John Slater
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith and John Slater
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Architecture
+       Classic and Early Christian
+
+Author: Thomas Roger Smith
+        John Slater
+
+Release Date: August 22, 2009 [EBook #29759]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Sam W. and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center lrgfont"><i>ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS OF ART HISTORY<br />
+OF ALL AGES</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 100px;">
+<img src="images/acec001.png" width="100" height="15"
+alt="Decoration" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center xlrgfont">ARCHITECTURE<br />
+CLASSIC AND EARLY CHRISTIAN</p>
+
+<p class="center lrgfont">BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>AND</small></p>
+
+<p class="center lrgfont">JOHN SLATER, B.A., F.R.I.B.A.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 100px;">
+<img src="images/acec001.png" width="100" height="15"
+alt="Decoration" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a>
+<img src="images/acec002.jpg" width="700" height="419" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS, AS IT WAS IN THE TIME OF PERICLES, <i>circa</i> B.C. 438.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center lrgfont padtop"><i>ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS OF ART HISTORY</i></p>
+
+<h1 class="padtop"><span class="lrgfont">ARCHITECTURE</span><br />
+CLASSIC AND EARLY CHRISTIAN</h1>
+
+<h2 class="padtop">BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.</h2>
+
+<p class="center" style="margin-top: -1em;"><i>Professor of Architecture, University Coll. London</i></p>
+
+<p class="center smlfont">AND</p>
+
+<h2>JOHN SLATER, B.A., F.R.I.B.A.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="atrium" id="atrium"></a>
+<img src="images/acec003.jpg" width="400" height="282"
+alt="Halls surrounding a central open courtyard" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">ATRIUM OF A ROMAN MANSION.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center padtop">LONDON<br />
+SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, &amp; RIVINGTON<br />
+CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET<br />
+1882.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="center padtop">[<i>All rights reserved.</i>]</p>
+
+<p class="center padtop">LONDON. PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,<br />
+STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> handbook is intended to give such an outline of the
+Architecture of the Ancient World, and of that of Christendom
+down to the period of the Crusades, as, without
+attempting to supply the minute information required
+by the professional student, may give a general idea of
+the works of the great building nations of Antiquity
+and the Early Christian times. Its chief object has been
+to place information on the subject within the reach of
+those persons of literary or artistic education who desire
+to become in some degree acquainted with Architecture.
+All technicalities which could be dispensed with have
+been accordingly excluded; and when it has been unavoidable
+that a technical word or phrase should occur,
+an explanation has been added either in the text or in
+the glossary; but as this volume and the companion one
+on Gothic and Renaissance Architecture are, in effect,
+two divisions of the same work, it has not been thought
+necessary to repeat in the glossary given with this part
+the words explained in that prefixed to the other.</p>
+
+<p>In treating so very wide a field, it has been felt that
+the chief prominence should be given to that great
+sequence of architectural styles which form the links
+of a chain connecting the architecture of modern Europe
+with the earliest specimens of the art. Egypt, Assyria,
+and Persia combined to furnish the foundation upon
+which the splendid architecture of the Greeks was based.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
+Roman architecture was founded on Greek models with the
+addition of Etruscan construction, and was for a time
+universally prevalent. The break-up of the Roman
+Empire was followed by the appearance of the Basilican,
+the Byzantine, and the Romanesque phases of Christian
+art; and, later on, by the Saracenic. These are the styles
+on which all medi&aelig;val and modern European architecture
+has been based, and these accordingly have furnished the
+subjects to which the reader&rsquo;s attention is chiefly directed.
+Such styles as those of India, China and Japan, which lie
+quite outside this series, are noticed much more briefly; and
+some matters&mdash;such, for example, as prehistoric architecture&mdash;which
+in a larger treatise it would have been desirable
+to include, have been entirely left out for want of room.</p>
+
+<p>In treating each style the object has not been to mention
+every phase of its development, still less every building,
+but rather to describe the more prominent buildings
+with some approach to completeness. It is true that
+much is left unnoticed, for which the student who wishes
+to pursue the subject further will have to refer to the
+writings specially devoted to the period or country. But
+it has been possible to describe a considerable number of
+typical examples, and to do so in such a manner as, it is
+hoped, may make some impression on the reader&rsquo;s mind.
+Had notices of a much greater number of buildings been
+compressed into the same space, each must have been so
+condensed that the volume, though useful as a catalogue
+for reference, would have, in all probability, become
+uninteresting, and consequently unserviceable to the class
+of readers for whom it is intended.</p>
+
+<p>As far as possible mere matters of opinion have been
+excluded from this handbook. A few of the topics which
+it has been necessary to approach are subjects on which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span>
+high authorities still more or less disagree, and it has
+been impossible to avoid these in every instance; but,
+as far as practicable, controverted points have been left
+untouched. Controversy is unsuited to the province of
+such a manual as this, in which it is quite sufficient for
+the authors to deal with the ascertained facts of the
+history which they have to unfold.</p>
+
+<p>It is not proposed here to refer to the authorities for
+the various statements made in these pages, but to this
+rule it is impossible to avoid making one exception.
+The writers feel bound to acknowledge how much
+they, in common with all students of the art, are indebted
+to the patient research, the profound learning,
+and the admirable skill in marshalling facts displayed
+by Mr. Fergusson in his various writings. Had it been
+possible to devote a larger space to Eastern architecture,
+Pagan and Mohammedan, the indebtedness to him, in a
+field where he stands all but alone, must of necessity
+have been still greater.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier chapters of this volume were chiefly written
+by Mr. Slater, who very kindly consented to assist in the
+preparation of it; but I am of course, as editor, jointly
+responsible with him for the contents. The <a href="#Page_1">Introduction</a>,
+Chapters <a href="#Page_80">V.</a> to <a href="#Page_117">VII.</a>, and from Chapter <a href="#Page_182">X.</a> to the end, have
+been written by myself: and if our work shall in any
+degree assist the reader to understand, and stimulate him
+to admire, the architecture of the far-off past; above all,
+if it enables him to appreciate our vast indebtedness to
+Greek art, and in a lesser degree to the art of other nations
+who have occupied the stage of the world, the aim which
+the writers have kept in view will not have been missed.</p>
+
+<p class="sig smcap">T. Roger Smith.</p>
+
+<p class="address"><i>University College, London.</i><br />
+<i>May, 1882.</i></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="frieze" id="frieze"></a>
+<img src="images/acec004.jpg" width="500" height="188"
+alt="Interwoven stems ending in decorative leaves" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Frieze from Church at Denkendorf.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="Table of contents">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER I.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrb" colspan="2"><small>PAGE</small></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">INTRODUCTION.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER II.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Pyramids. Tombs. Temples. Analysis of Buildings.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER III.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Babylonian. Assyrian. Persian. Analysis of Buildings.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Hindu. Chinese and Japanese.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER V.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">GREEK ARCHITECTURE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Buildings of the Doric Order.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span>CHAPTER VII.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Analysis of Greek Architecture. The Plan. The Walls. The Roof. The Openings. The Columns. The Ornaments. Architectural Character.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Historical and General Sketch.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">The Buildings of the Romans. Basilicas. Theatres and Amphitheatres. Baths (Therm&aelig;). Bridges and Aqueducts. Commemorative Monuments. Domestic Architecture.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER X.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Analysis of Roman Architecture. The Plan. The Walls. The Roofs. The Openings. The Columns. The Ornaments. Architectural Character.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XI.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Basilicas in Rome and Italy.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XII.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIII.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIV.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Analysis of Basilican, Byzantine, and Romanesque.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XV.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Egypt, Syria and Palestine, Sicily and Spain, Persia and India.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="List of illustrations">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrb" colspan="3"><small>PAGE</small></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Parthenon at Athens, as it was in the time of Pericles</span>, <i>circa</i> <small>B.C.</small> 438.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlsc" colspan="2">Atrium of a Roman Mansion.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#atrium">(<i>on&nbsp;title&#8209;page</i>)</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlsc" colspan="2">Frieze from Church at Denkendorf.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#frieze">x</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlsc" colspan="2">Rock-cut Tomb at Myra, in Lycia. Imitation of Timber Construction in Stone.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#tomb">xviii</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlsc" colspan="2">The Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#temple">xxiv</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">1.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Opening spanned by a Lintel. Arch of the Goldsmiths, Rome.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig001">3</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">2.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Opening spanned by a Semicircular Arch. Roman Triumphal Arch at Pola.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig002">4</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">3.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Openings spanned by Pointed Arches. Interior of St. Front, P&eacute;rigueux, France.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig003">5</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">4.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Restored according to Adler.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig004">8</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">5.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Part of the Exterior of the Colosseum, Rome.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig005">10</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">6.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Timber Architecture. Church at Borgund.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig006">12</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">7.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">An Egyptian Cornice.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig007">14</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">8.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Section across the Great Pyramid (of Cheops or Suphis).</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig008">17</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">9.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Ascending Gallery in the Great Pyramid.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig009">19</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">10.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Sepulchral Chamber in the Pyramid of Cephren at Gizeh.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig010">19</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">11.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Construction of the King&rsquo;s Chamber in the Great Pyramid.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig011">19</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">12.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Imitation of Timber Construction in Stone, from a Tomb at Memphis.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig012">21</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">13.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Imitation of Timber Construction in Stone, from a Tomb at Memphis.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig013">21</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">14.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan and Section of the Tomb at Beni-Hassan.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig014">23</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">15.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Rock-cut Fa&ccedil;ade of the Tomb at Beni-Hassan.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig015">24</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">16.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Ground-plan of the Temple at Karnak.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig016">26</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">17.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, showing the Clerestory.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig017">27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">18.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Entrance to an Egyptian Temple, showing the Pylons.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig018">27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span>19.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Temple at Edfou.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig019">30</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">20.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Example of one of the Mammisi at Edfou.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig020">30</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">21.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Ground-plan of the Rock-cut Temple at Ipsamboul.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig021">31</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">22.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Section of the Rock-cut Temple at Ipsamboul.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig022">31</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">23.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Egyptian Column with Lotus Bud Capital.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig023">33</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">24.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Egyptian Column with Lotus Flower Capital.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig024">33</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">25.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Palm Capital.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig025">34</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">26.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Sculptured Capital.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig026">34</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">27.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Isis Capital from Denderah.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig027">35</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">28.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Fanciful Column from painted Decoration at Thebes.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig028">35</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">29.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Crowning Cornice and Bead.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig029">36</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">30.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Painted Decoration from Thebes.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig030">42</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">31.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Sculptured Ornament at Nineveh.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig031">43</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">32.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Palace at Khorsabad. Built by King Sargon about 710 <small>B.C.</small></td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig032">48</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">33.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Pavement from Khoyunjik.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig033">51</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">34.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Proto-Ionic Column from Assyrian Sculpture.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig034">53</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">34<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Proto-Ionic Capital from Assyrian Sculpture.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig034a">53</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">34<span class="smcap">b</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Proto-Corinthian Capital from Assyrian Sculpture.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig034b">53</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">35.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Tomb of Cyrus.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig035">54</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">35<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">General Plan of the Buildings at Persepolis.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig035a">56</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">35<span class="smcap">b</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Column from Persepolis&mdash;East and West Porticoes.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig035b">58</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">36.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Column from Persepolis&mdash;North Portico.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig036">58</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">37.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Rock-cut Tomb of Darius.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig037">60</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">38.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Sculptured Ornament at Allahabad.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig038">64</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">39.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Dagoba from Ceylon.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig039">66</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">40.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Chaitya near Poona.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig040">68</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">41.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Kylas at Ellora. A Rock-cut Monument.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig041">69</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">42.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Kylas at Ellora.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig042">70</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">43.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Vimana from Manasara.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig043">71</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">44.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Bracket Capital.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig044">73</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">45.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Column from Ajunta.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig045">73</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">46.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Column from Ellora.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig046">73</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">47.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Column from Ajunta.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig047">73</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">48.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">A small Pagoda.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig048">76</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">49.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Greek Honeysuckle Ornament.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig049">80</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">50.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of a small Greek Temple in Antis.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig050">82</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">50<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of a small Greek Temple.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig050a">83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">51.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Ancient Greek Wall of Unwrought Stone from Samothrace.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig051">86</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span>52.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Treasury of Atreus at Mycen&aelig;.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig052">86</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">52<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Section of the Treasury of Atreus at Mycen&aelig;.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig052a">86</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">53.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Greek Doric Capital from Selinus.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig053">87</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">53<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Greek Doric Capital from the Theseum.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig053a">87</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">53<span class="smcap">b</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Greek Doric Capital from Samothrace.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig053b">87</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">54.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Ruins of the Parthenon at Athens.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig054">89</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">55.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Parthenon.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig055">90</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">56.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Roof of a Greek Doric Temple, showing the Marble Tiles.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig056">91</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">56<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Section of the Greek Doric Temple at P&aelig;stum. As restored by B&ouml;tticher.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig056a">92</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">57.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Greek Doric Order from the Theseum.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig057">93</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">58.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of a Greek Doric Column.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig058">94</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">59.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Fillets under a Greek Doric Capital.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig059">94</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">60.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Capital of a Greek Doric Column from &AElig;gina, with Coloured Decoration.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig060">95</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">61.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Section of the Entablature of the Greek Doric Order.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig061">96</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">62.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan, looking up, of part of a Greek Doric Peristyle.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig062">96</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">63.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Details of the Triglyph.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig063">97</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">64.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Details of the Mutules.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig064">97</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">65.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Elevation and Section of the Capital of a Greek Anta, with Coloured Decoration.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig065">99</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">66.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Palmette and Honeysuckle.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig066">102</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">67.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Shaft of an Ionic Column, showing the Flutes.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig067">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">68.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Ionic Capital. Front Elevation.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig068">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">69.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Ionic Capital. Side Elevation.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig069">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">70.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Ionic Order. From Priene, Asia Minor.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig070">105</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">71.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Ionic Order. From the Erechtheium, Athens.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig071">106</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">72.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">North-west View of the Erechtheium, in the time of Pericles.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig072">107</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">73.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Erechtheium.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig073">108</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">74.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Ionic Base from the Temple of the Wingless Victory (Nik&egrave; Apteros).</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig074">108</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">75.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Ionic Base Mouldings from Priene.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig075">108</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">76.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Corinthian Order. From the Monument of Lysicrates at Athens.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig076">111</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">77.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Corinthian Capital from the Monument of Lysicrates.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig077">112</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">78.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Monument of Lysicrates, as in the time of Pericles.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig078">113</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">79.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Capital of an Anta from Miletus. Side View.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig079">114</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">80.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Restoration of the Greek Theatre of Segesta.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig080">115</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span>81.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Capital of an Anta from Miletus.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig081">117</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">82.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Greek Doorway, showing Cornice.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig082">123</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">83.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Greek Doorway. Front View. (From the Erechtheium.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig083">123</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">84.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Acanthus Leaf and Stalk.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig084">128</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">85.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Acanthus Leaf.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig085">129</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">86.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Metope from the Parthenon. Conflict between a Centaur and one of the Lapith&aelig;.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig086">130</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">87.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Mosaic from the Temple of Zeus, Olympia.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig087">131</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">88.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Section of the Portico of the Erechtheium.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig088">132</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">89.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Portico of the Erechtheium, looking up.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig089">132</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">90.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Capital of Ant&aelig; from the Erechtheium.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig090">133</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">91&#8209;96.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Greek Ornaments in Relief.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig091">134</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">97&#8209;104.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Greek Ornaments in Relief.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig097">135</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">105&#8209;110.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Greek Ornaments in Colour.</td>
+    <td class="tdrt"><a href="#fig105">136</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">111&#8209;113.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Examples of Honeysuckle Ornament.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig111">137</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">114.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Combination of the Fret, the Egg and Dart, the Bead and Fillet, and the Honeysuckle.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig114">137</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">116&#8209;120.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Examples of the Fret.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig116">137</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">121.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Elevation of an Etruscan Temple (restored from Descriptions only).</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig121">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">122.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Sepulchre at Corneto.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig122">140</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">123.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Cloaca Maxima.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig123">142</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">124.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">&ldquo;Incantada&rdquo; in Salonica.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig124">147</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">125.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Ionic Order from the Temple of Fortuna Virilis, Rome.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig125">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">126.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Roman-Corinthian Temple at N&icirc;mes (Maison Carr&eacute;e). Probably of the time of Hadrian.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig126">150</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">127.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Ground-plan of the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig127">151</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">128.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Corinthian Order from the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig128">152</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">129.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Temple of Vesta at Tivoli. Plan, looking up, and Section of Part of the Peristyle.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig129">153</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">130.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Ground-plan of the Basilica Ulpia, Rome.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig130">155</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">131.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Colosseum, Rome.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig131">157</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">132.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Colosseum. Section and Elevation.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig132">158</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">133.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the principal Building, Baths of Caracalla, Rome.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig133">163</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">134.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Interior of Santa Maria degli Angeli, Rome.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig134">165</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">135.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Pantheon, Rome. Ground-plan.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig135">166</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">136.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Pantheon. Exterior.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig136">167</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span>137.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Pantheon. Interior.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig137">168</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">138.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Corinthian Order from the Pantheon.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig138">169</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">139.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Arch of Constantine, Rome.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig139">172</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">140.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Ground-plan of the House of Pansa, Pompeii.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig140">176</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">141.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Ground-plan of the House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig141">177</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">142.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Atrium of a Pompeian House.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig142">178</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">143.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Wall Decoration from Pompeii.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig143">180</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">144.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Carving from the Forum of Nerva, Rome.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig144">182</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">145.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Roman-Corinthian Capital and Base. From the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig145">188</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">145<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">A Roman Composite Capital.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig145a">188</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">146.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Part of the Theatre of Marcellus, Rome. Showing the Combination of Columns and Arched Openings.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig146">190</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">147.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">From the Ruins of the Forum of Nerva, Rome. Showing the Use of an Attic Story.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig147">191</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">148.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">From the Baths of Diocletian, Rome. Showing a fragmentary Entablature at the starting of part of a Vault.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig148">192</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">149.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">From the Palace of Diocletian, Spalatro. Showing an Arch springing from a Column.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig149">192</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">150.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Mouldings and Ornaments from various Roman Buildings.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig150">193</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">151.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Roman Carving. An Acanthus Leaf.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig151">194</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">152.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">The Egg and Dart Enrichment&mdash;Roman.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig152">194</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">153.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Wall-Decoration of (so-called) Arabesque Character from Pompeii.</td>
+    <td class="tdrt"><a href="#fig153">195</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">154.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Decoration in Relief and Colour of the Vault of a Tomb in the Via Latina, near Rome.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig154">197</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">155.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Basilica Church of San Miniato, Florence.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig155">198</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">156.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Interior of a Basilica at Pompeii. Restored, from Descriptions by various Authors.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig156">200</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">156<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Basilica, or Early Christian Church, of Sant&rsquo; Agnese at Rome.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig156a">202</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">157.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Sant&rsquo; Apollinare, Ravenna. Part of the Arcade and Apse.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig157">205</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">158.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Apse of the Basilica of San Paolo Fuori le Mura, Rome.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig158">207</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">158<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Frieze from the Monastery at Fulda.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig158a">210</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">159.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Church of Santa Sophia at Constantinople. Longitudinal Section.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig159">212</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">160.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of San Vitale at Ravenna.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig160">216</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">161.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">San Vitale at Ravenna. Longitudinal Section.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig161">216</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</a></span>162.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of St. Mark&rsquo;s at Venice.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig162">217</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">163.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Sculptured Ornament from the Golden Door of Jerusalem.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig163">219</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">164.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Church at Turmanin in Syria.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig164">220</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">165.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Tower of a Russian Church.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig165">221</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">166.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Tower of Earl&rsquo;s Barton Church.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig166">223</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">167.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Cathedral at Piacenza.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig167">225</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">168.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Vaults of the excavated Roman Baths in the Mus&eacute;e de Cluny, Paris.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig168">227</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">169.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Church of St. Sernin, Toulouse.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig169">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">170.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Nave Arcade at St. Sernin, Toulouse.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig170">229</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">171.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Arches in receding Planes at St. Sernin, Toulouse.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig171">230</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">172.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Norman Arches in St. Peter&rsquo;s Church, Northampton.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig172">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">173.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Nave Arcade, Peterborough Cathedral.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig173">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">174.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Decorative Arcade from Canterbury Cathedral.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig174">237</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">175.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Hedingham Castle.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig175">238</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">176.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Interior of Hedingham Castle.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig176">239</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">177.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Rounded Arch of Church at Gelnhausen.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig177">240</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">178.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Church of the Apostles at Cologne.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig178">241</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">179.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Spire of Spires Cathedral.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig179">242</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">180.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Church at Rosheim. Upper Portion of Fa&ccedil;ade.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig180">244</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">181.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Cubic Capital.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig181">246</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">182.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Doorway at Tind, Norway.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig182">247</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">183.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Mouldings of Portal of St. James&rsquo;s Church at Koesfeld.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig183">248</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">184.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Byzantine Basket work Capital from San Michele in Affricisco at Ravenna.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig184">251</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">185.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Arabian Capital. From the Alhambra.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig185">252</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">186.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Horse-shoe Arch.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig186">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">187.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Exterior of Santa Sophia, Constantinople. Showing the Minarets added after its Conversion into a Mosque.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig187">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">188.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Alhambra. Hall of the Abencerrages.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig188">257</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">189.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Mosque &ldquo;El Moyed&rdquo; at Cairo.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig189">259</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">190.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Arabian Wall Decoration.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig190">260</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">191.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Sakhra Mosque at Jerusalem.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig191">261</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">192.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Section of the Sakhra Mosque at Jerusalem.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig192">262</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">193.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Doorway in the Alhambra.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig193">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">194.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Grand Mosque at Delhi, built by Shah Jehan.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig194">267</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">195.</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Entrance to a Moorish Bazaar.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig195">269</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 410px;">
+<a name="tomb" id="tomb"></a>
+<img src="images/acec005.jpg" width="410" height="500"
+alt="Entrance to the tomb" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Rock-cut Tomb at Myra, in Lycia.</span><br />
+<i>Imitation of Timber Construction in Stone.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[xix]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>GLOSSARY.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><span class="smcap">Abacus</span>, a square tablet which crowns the capital of the column.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Acanthus</span>, a plant, the foliage of which was imitated in the ornament
+of the Corinthian capital.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Agora</span>, the place of general assembly in a Greek city.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Al&aelig;</span> (<i>Lat.</i> wings), recesses opening out of the atrium of a Roman
+house.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alhambra</span>, the palatial fortress of Granada (from <i>al hamra</i>&mdash;the red).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ambo</span>, a fitting of early Christian churches, very similar to a pulpit.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Amphitheatre</span>, a Roman place of public entertainment in which
+combats of gladiators, &amp;c., were exhibited.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ant&aelig;</span>, narrow piers used in connection with columns in Greek architecture,
+for the same purpose as pilasters in Roman.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Arabesque</span>, a style of very light ornamental decoration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Archaic</span>, primitive, so ancient as to be rude, or at least extremely
+simple.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Archivolt</span>, the series of mouldings which is carried round an arch.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Arena</span>, the space in the centre of an amphitheatre where the combats,
+&amp;c., took place.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Arris</span>, a sharp edge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Astragal</span>, a small round moulding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Atrium</span>, the main quadrangle in a Roman dwelling-house; also the
+enclosed court in front of an early Christian basilican church.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Baptistery</span>, a building, or addition to a building, erected for the
+purposes of celebrating the rite of Christian baptism.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Basement</span>, the lowest story of a building, applied also to the lowest
+part of an architectural design.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bas-relief</span>, a piece of sculpture in low relief.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bird&rsquo;s-beak</span>, a moulding in Greek architecture, used in the capitals of
+Ant&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[xx]</a></span><span class="smcap">Byzantine</span>,
+the style of Christian architecture which had its origin
+at Byzantium (Constantinople).</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Carceres</span>, in the ancient racecourses, goals and starting-points.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cartouche</span>, in Egyptian buildings, a hieroglyphic signifying the name
+of a king or other important person.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Caryatid&aelig;</span>, human figures made to carry an entablature, in lieu of
+columns in some Classic buildings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cav&aelig;diam</span>, another name for the atrium of a Roman house.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cavea</span>, the part of an ancient theatre occupied by the audience.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cavetto</span>, in Classic architecture, a hollow moulding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cella</span>, the principal, often the only, apartment of a Greek or Roman
+temple.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chaitya</span>, an Indian temple, or hall of assembly.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Circus</span>, a Roman racecourse.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cloaca</span>, a sewer or drain.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Columbarium</span>, literally a pigeon-house&mdash;a Roman sepulchre built in
+many compartments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Columnar</span>, made with columns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Compluvium</span>, the open space or the middle of the roof of a Roman
+atrium.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Corona</span>, in the cornices of Greek and Roman architecture, the plain
+unmoulded feature which is supported by the lower part of the
+cornice, and on which the crowning mouldings rest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cornice</span>, the horizontal series of mouldings crowning the top of a
+building or the walls of a room.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cuneiform</span>, of letters in Assyrian inscriptions, wedge-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cyclopean</span>, applied to masonry constructed of vast stones, usually not
+hewn or squared.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cyma</span> (recta, or reversa), a moulding, in Classic architecture, of an outline
+partly convex and partly concave.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Dagoba</span>, an Indian tomb of conical shape.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dentil band</span>, in Classic architecture, a series of small blocks resembling
+square-shaped teeth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Domus</span> (<i>Lat.</i>), a house, applied usually to a detached residence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dwarf-wall</span>, a very low wall.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Echinus</span>, in Greek Doric architecture, the principal moulding of the
+capital placed immediately under the abacus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Entablature</span>, the superstructure&mdash;comprising architrave, frieze and
+cornice&mdash;above the columns in Classic architecture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</a></span><span class="smcap">Entasis</span>,
+in the shaft of a column, a curved outline.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ephebeum</span>, the large hall in Roman baths in which youths practised
+gymnastic exercises.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Facia</span>, in Classic architecture, a narrow flat band or face.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fauces</span>, the passage from the atrium to the peristyle in a Roman
+house.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Flutes</span>, the small channels which run from top to bottom of the shaft
+of most columns in Classic architecture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Forum</span>, the place of general assembly in a Roman city, as the Agora
+was in a Greek.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fresco</span>, painting executed upon a plastered wall while the plaster is
+still wet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fret</span>, an ornament made up of squares and L-shaped lines, in use in
+Greek architecture.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Garth</span>, the central space round which a cloister is carried.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Girder</span>, a beam.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grouted</span>, said of masonry or brickwork, treated with liquid mortar to
+fill up all crevices and interstices.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gutt&aelig;</span>, small pendent features in Greek and Roman Doric cornices,
+resembling rows of wooden pegs.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Hexastyle</span>, of six columns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Honeysuckle Ornament</span>, a decoration constantly introduced into
+Assyrian and Greek architecture, founded upon the flower of the
+honeysuckle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Horse-shoe Arch</span>, an arch more than a semicircle, and so wider above
+than at its springing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hypostyle</span>, literally &ldquo;under columns,&rdquo; but used to mean filled by
+columns.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Impluvium</span>, the space into which the rain fell in the centre of the
+atrium of a Roman house.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Insula</span>, a block of building surrounded on all sides by streets, literally
+an island.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Intercolumniation</span>, the space between two columns.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Keyed</span>, secured closely by interlocking.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Kibla</span>, the most sacred part of a Mohammedan mosque.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">L&acirc;ts</span>, in Indian architecture, Buddhist inscribed pillars.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[xxii]</a></span><span class="smcap">Mammisi</span>,
+small Egyptian temples.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mastaba</span>, the most usual form of Egyptian tomb.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mausoleum</span>, a magnificent sepulchral monument or tomb. From the
+tomb erected to Mausolus, by his wife Artemisia, at Halicarnassus,
+379 <small>B.C.</small></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Metopes</span>, literally faces, the square spaces between triglyphs in Doric
+architecture; occasionally applied to the sculptures fitted into
+these spaces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Minaret</span>, a slender lofty tower, a usual appendage of a Mohammedan
+mosque.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Monolith</span>, of one stone.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mortise</span>, a hollow in a stone or timber to receive a corresponding
+projection.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mosque</span>, a Mohammedan place of worship.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mutule</span>, a feature in a Classic Doric cornice, somewhat resembling
+the end of a timber beam.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Narthex</span>, in an early Christian church, the space next the entrance.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Obelisk</span>, a tapering stone pillar, a feature of Egyptian architecture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Opus Alexandrinum</span>, the mosaic work used for floors in Byzantine
+and Romanesque churches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ovolo</span>, a moulding, the profile of which resembles the outline of an
+egg, used in Classic architecture.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Pendentive</span>, a feature in Byzantine and other domed buildings,
+employed to enable a circular dome to stand over a square space.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Peristylar</span>, or <span class="smcap">Peripteral</span>, with columns all round.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Peristylium</span>, or <span class="smcap">Peristyle</span>, in a Roman house, the inner courtyard;
+also any space or enclosure with columns all round it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Piscina</span>, a small basin usually executed in stone and placed within a
+sculptured niche, fixed at the side of an altar in a church, with a
+channel to convey away the water poured into it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Polychromy</span>, the use of decorative colours.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Precincts</span>, the space round a church or religious house, usually
+enclosed with a wall.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Presbytery</span>, the eastern part of a church, the chancel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Profile</span> (of a moulding), the outline which it would present if cut
+across at right angles to its length.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pronaos</span>, the front portion or vestibule to a temple.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Propyl&aelig;a</span>, in Greek architecture, a grand portal or state entrance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</a></span><span class="smcap">Prothyrum</span>,
+in a Roman house, the porch or entrance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pseudo-peripteral</span>, resembling, but not really being peristylar.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pylon</span>, or <span class="smcap">Pro-Pylon</span>, the portal or front of an Egyptian temple.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Quadriga</span>, a four-horse chariot.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Romanesque</span>, the style of Christian architecture which was founded on
+Roman work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rotunda</span>, a building circular in plan.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Sacristy</span>, the part of a church where the treasures belonging to the
+church are preserved.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shinto Temples</span>, temples (in Japan) devoted to the Shinto religion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Span</span>, the space over which an arch or a roof extends.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spina</span>, the central wall of a Roman racecourse.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stilted</span>, raised, usually applied to an arch when its centre is above
+the top of the jambs from which it springs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Struts</span>, props.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stupa</span>, in Indian architecture, a mound or tope.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stylobate</span>, a series of steps, usually those leading up to a Classic
+temple.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Taas</span>, a pagoda.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tablinum</span>, in a Roman house, the room between the atrium and the
+peristyle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Talar</span>, in Assyrian architecture, an open upper story.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tenoned</span>, fastened with a projection or tenon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tesselated</span>, made of small squares of material, applied to coarse mosaic
+work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tetrastyle</span>, with four columns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Therm&aelig;</span>, the great bathing establishments of the Romans.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Topes</span>, in Indian architecture, artificial mounds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trabeated</span>, constructed with a beam or beams, a term usually employed
+in contrast to arches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Triclinium</span>, in a Roman house, the dining-room.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Triglyph</span>, the channelled feature in the frieze of the Doric order.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tumuli</span>, mounds, usually sepulchral.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Typhonia</span>, small Egyptian temples.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Velarium</span>, a great awning.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vestibule</span>, the outer hall or ante-room.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[xxiv]</a></span><span class="smcap">Volutes</span>,
+in Classic architecture, the curled ornaments of the Ionic
+capital.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Voussoirs</span>, the wedge-shaped stones of which arches are made.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="smlpadt">N.B. For the explanation of other technical words found in this
+volume, consult the Glossary given with the companion volume on
+Gothic and Renaissance Architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 361px;">
+<a name="temple" id="temple"></a>
+<img src="images/acec006.jpg" width="361" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">The Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/acec007.jpg" width="400" height="248"
+alt="Decorative capital of a column" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h1 class="padtop">ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE.</h1>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="padtop">CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">A</span>RCHITECTURE may be described as building at its
+best, and when we talk of the architecture of any
+city or country we mean its best, noblest, or most beautiful
+buildings; and we imply by the use of the word that these
+buildings possess merits which entitle them to rank as
+works of art.</p>
+
+<p>The architecture of the civilised world can be best
+understood by considering the great buildings of each important
+nation separately. The features, ornaments, and
+even forms of ancient buildings differed just as the speech,
+or at any rate the literature, differed. Each nation wrote
+in a different language, though the books may have been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+devoted to the same aims; and precisely in the same way
+each nation built in a style of its own, even if the buildings
+may have been similar in the purposes they had to
+serve. The division of the subject into the architecture of
+Egypt, Greece, Rome, &amp;c., is therefore the most natural
+one to follow.</p>
+
+<p>But certain broad groups, rising out of peculiarities of
+a physical nature, either in the buildings themselves or
+in the conditions under which they were erected, can
+hardly fail to be suggested by a general view of the
+subject. Such, for example, is the fourfold division to
+which the reader&rsquo;s attention will now be directed.</p>
+
+<p>All buildings, it will be found, can be classed under one
+or other of four great divisions, each distinguished by a
+distinct mode of building, and each also occupying a
+distinct place in history. The first series embraces
+the buildings of the Egyptians, the Persians, and the
+Greeks, and was brought to a pitch of the highest perfection
+in Greece during the age of Pericles. All the
+buildings erected in these countries during the many
+centuries which elapsed from the earliest Egyptian to the
+latest Greek works, however they may have differed in
+other respects, agree in this&mdash;that the openings, be they
+doors, or be they spaces between columns, were spanned
+by beams of wood or lintels of stone (Fig. <a href="#fig001">1</a>). Hence
+this architecture is called architecture of the beam, or, in
+more formal language, trabeated architecture. This mode
+of covering spaces required that in buildings of solid
+masonry, where stone or marble lintels were employed,
+the supports should not be very far apart, and this
+circumstance led to the frequent use of rows of columns.
+The architecture of this period is accordingly sometimes
+called columnar, but it has no exclusive claim to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+epithet; the column survived long after the exclusive
+use of the beam had been superseded, and the term
+columnar must accordingly be shared with buildings
+forming part of the succeeding series.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 444px;">
+<a name="fig001" id="fig001"></a>
+<img src="images/acec008.jpg" width="444" height="550"
+alt="Decorated with figures and text" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 1.&mdash;Opening spanned by a Lintel. Arch of the Goldsmiths, Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The second great group of buildings is that in which
+the semicircular arch is introduced into construction, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+used either together with the beam, or, as mostly happened,
+instead of the beam, to span the openings (Fig. <a href="#fig002">2</a>). This
+use of the arch began with the Assyrians, and it reappeared
+in the works of the early Etruscans. The round-arched
+series of styles embraces the buildings of the
+Romans from their earliest beginnings to their decay; it
+also includes the two great schools of Christian architecture
+which were founded by the Western and the Eastern
+Church respectively,&mdash;namely, the Romanesque, which,
+originating in Rome, extended itself through Western
+Europe, and lasted till the time of the Crusades, and the
+Byzantine, which spread from Constantinople over all
+the countries in which the Eastern (or Greek) Church
+flourished, and which continues to our own day.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 349px;">
+<a name="fig002" id="fig002"></a>
+<img src="images/acec009.jpg" width="349" height="400"
+alt="A plainer arch, with only two figures and small sections of text" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 2.&mdash;Opening Spanned by a Semicircular Arch. Roman Triumphal Arch
+at Pola.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 406px;">
+<a name="fig003" id="fig003"></a>
+<img src="images/acec010.jpg" width="406" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 3.&mdash;Openings Spanned by Pointed Arches. Interior of St. Front,
+P&eacute;rigueux, France.</p>
+
+<p>The third group of buildings is that in which the
+pointed arch is employed instead of the semicircular arch
+to span the openings (Fig. <a href="#fig003">3</a>). It began with the rise of
+Mohammedan architecture in the East, and embraces all
+the buildings of Western Europe, from the time of the
+First Crusade to the revival of art in the fifteenth century.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+This great series of buildings constitutes what is known
+as Pointed, or, more commonly, as Gothic architecture.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth group consists of the buildings erected
+during or since the Renaissance (<i>i.e.</i> revival) period, and
+is marked by a return to the styles of past ages or distant
+countries for the architectural features and ornaments of
+buildings; and by that luxury, complexity, and ostentation
+which, with other qualities, are well comprehended
+under the epithet Modern. This group of buildings
+forms what is known as Renaissance architecture, and
+extends from the epoch of the revival of letters in the
+fifteenth century, to the present day.</p>
+
+<p>The first two of these styles&mdash;namely, the architecture
+of the beam, and that of the round arch&mdash;are treated of in
+this little volume. They occupy those remote times of
+pagan civilisation which may be conveniently included
+under the broad term Ancient; and the better known
+work of the Greeks and Romans&mdash;the classic nations&mdash;and
+they extend over the time of the establishment of
+Christianity down to the close of that dreary period
+not incorrectly termed the Dark ages. Ancient, Classic,
+and early Christian architecture is accordingly an appropriate
+title for the main subjects of this volume, though,
+for the sake of convenience, some notices of Oriental
+architecture have been added. Gothic and Renaissance
+architecture form the subjects of the companion volume.</p>
+
+<p>It may excite surprise that what appears to be so small
+a difference as that which exists between a beam, a round
+arch, or a pointed arch, should be employed in order to
+distinguish three of the four great divisions. But in reality
+this is no pedantic or arbitrary grouping. The mode in
+which spaces or openings are covered lies at the root of
+most of the essential differences between styles of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+architecture, and the distinction thus drawn is one of a real,
+not of a fanciful nature.</p>
+
+<p>Every building when reduced to its elements, as will
+be done in both these volumes, may be considered as made
+up of its (1) floor or plan, (2) walls, (3) roof, (4) openings,
+(5) columns, and (6) ornaments, and as marked by
+its distinctive (7) character, and the student must be
+prepared to find that the openings are by no means the
+least important of these elements. In fact, the moment
+the method of covering openings was changed, it would
+be easy to show, did space permit, that all the other
+elements, except the ornaments, were directly affected by
+the change, and the ornaments indirectly; and we thus
+find such a correspondence between this index feature and
+the entire structure as renders this primary division a
+scientific though a very broad one. The contrast between
+the trabeated style and the arched style may be well
+understood by comparing the illustration of the Parthenon
+which forms our frontispiece, or that of the great
+temple of Zeus at Olympia (Fig. <a href="#fig004">4</a>), with the exterior of
+the Colosseum at Rome (Fig. <a href="#fig005">5</a>), introduced here for the
+purposes of this comparison.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig004" id="fig004"></a>
+<img src="images/acec011.jpg" width="700" height="310" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 4.&mdash;Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Restored according to Adler.</p>
+
+<p>A division of buildings into such great series as these
+cannot, however, supersede the more obvious historical
+and geographical divisions. The architecture of every
+ancient country was partly the growth of the soil,
+<i>i.e.</i> adapted to the climate of the country, and the
+materials found there, and partly the outcome of the
+national character of its inhabitants, and of such influences
+as race, colonisation, commerce, or conquest brought
+to bear upon them. These influences produced strong
+distinctions between the work of different peoples, especially
+before the era of the Roman Empire. Since that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"><!-- original location of Fig. 4 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+period of universal dominion all buildings and styles have
+been influenced more or less by Roman art. We accordingly
+find the buildings of the most ancient nations
+separated from each other by strongly marked lines of
+demarcation, but those since the era of the Empire showing
+a considerable resemblance to one another. The circumstance
+that the remains of those buildings only which
+received the greatest possible attention from their builders
+have come down to us from any remote antiquity, has
+perhaps served to accentuate the differences between
+different styles, for these foremost buildings were not
+intended to serve the same purpose in all countries.
+Nothing but tombs and temples have survived in Egypt.
+Palaces only have been rescued from the decay of Assyrian
+and Persian cities; and temples, theatres, and places of
+public assembly are the chief, almost the only remains of
+architecture in Greece.</p>
+
+<p>A strong contrast between the buildings of different
+ancient nations rises also from the differing point of view
+for which they were designed. Thus, in the tombs and,
+to a large extent, the temples of the Egyptians, we find
+structures chiefly planned for internal effect; that is to
+say, intended to be seen by those admitted to the sacred
+precincts, but only to a limited extent appealing to the
+admiration of those outside. The buildings of the Greeks,
+on the other hand, were chiefly designed to please those
+who examined them from without, and though no doubt
+some of them, the theatres especially, were from their
+very nature planned for interior effect, by far the greatest
+works which Greek art produced were the exteriors of
+the temples.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 372px;">
+<a name="fig005" id="fig005"></a>
+<img src="images/acec012.jpg" width="372" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 5.&mdash;Part of the Exterior of the Colosseum, Rome. (Now in Ruins.)</p>
+
+<p>The works of the Romans, and, following them, those
+of almost all Western Christian nations, were designed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"><!-- original location of Fig. 5 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+to unite external and internal effect; but in many cases
+external was evidently most sought after, and, in the
+North of Europe, many expedients&mdash;such, for example,
+as towers, high-pitched roofs, and steeples&mdash;were introduced
+into architecture with the express intention of
+increasing external effect. On the other hand, the Eastern
+styles, both Mohammedan and Christian, especially when
+practised in sunny climates, show in many cases a comparative
+disregard of external effect, and that their architects
+lavished most of their resources on the interiors of
+their buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Passing allusions have been made to the influence of
+climate on architecture; and the student whose attention
+has been once called to this subject will find many
+interesting traces of this influence in the designs of
+buildings erected in various countries. Where the power
+of the sun is great, flat terraced roofs, which help to keep
+buildings cool, and thick walls are desirable. Sufficient
+light is admitted by small windows far apart. Overhanging
+eaves, or horizontal cornices, are in such a climate
+the most effective mode of obtaining architectural effect,
+and accordingly in the styles of all Southern peoples
+these peculiarities appear. The architecture of Egypt,
+for example, exhibited them markedly. Where the sun
+is still powerful, but not so extreme, the terraced roof
+is generally replaced by a sloping roof, steep enough to
+throw off water, and larger openings are made for light
+and air; but the horizontal cornice still remains the most
+appropriate means of gaining effects of light and shade.
+This description will apply to the architecture of Italy
+and Greece. When, however, we pass to Northern countries,
+where snow has to be encountered, where light is
+precious, and where the sun is low in the heavens for the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+greater part of the day, a complete change takes place.
+Roofs become much steeper, so as to throw off snow.
+The horizontal cornice is to a large extent disused, but
+the buttress, the turret, and other vertical features, from
+which a level sun will cast shadows, begin to appear;
+and windows are made numerous and spacious. This
+description applies to Gothic architecture generally&mdash;in
+other words, to the styles which rose in Northern Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 450px;">
+<a name="fig006" id="fig006"></a>
+<img src="images/acec013.jpg" width="450" height="412"
+alt="Showing steep roof and turret of northern architecture" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 6.&mdash;Timber Architecture. Church at Borgund.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of materials on architecture is also worth
+notice. Where granite, which is worked with difficulty,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+is the material obtainable, architecture has invariably
+been severe and simple; where soft stone is obtainable,
+exuberance of ornament makes its appearance, in consequence
+of the material lending itself readily to the carver&rsquo;s
+chisel. Where, on the other hand, marble is abundant
+and good, refinement is to be met with, for no other
+building material exists in which very delicate mouldings
+or very slight or slender projections may be employed
+with the certainty that they will be effective. Where
+stone is scarce, brick buildings, with many arches, roughly
+constructed cornices and pilasters, and other peculiarities
+both of structure and ornamentation, make their appearance,
+as, for example, in Lombardy and North Germany.
+Where materials of many colours abound, as is the case, for
+example, in the volcanic districts of France, polychromy
+is sought as a means of ornamentation. Lastly, where
+timber is available, and stone and brick are both scarce,
+the result is an architecture of which both the forms and
+the ornamentation are entirely dissimilar to those proper
+to buildings of stone, marble, or brick, as may be seen by
+a glance at our illustration of an early Scandinavian
+church built of timber (Fig. <a href="#fig006">6</a>), which presents forms
+appropriate to a timber building as being easily constructed
+of wood, but which would hardly be suitable to
+any other material whatever.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig007" id="fig007"></a>
+<img src="images/acec014.jpg" width="500" height="182" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 7.&mdash;Egyptian Cornice.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE origin of Egyptian architecture, like that of
+Egyptian history, is lost in the mists of antiquity.
+The remains of all, or almost all, other styles of architecture
+enable us to trace their rude beginnings, their development,
+their gradual progress up to a culminating point, and
+thence their slow but certain decline; but the earliest
+remains of the constructions of the Egyptians show their
+skill as builders at the height of its perfection, their architecture
+highly developed, and their sculpture at its very
+best, if not indeed at the commencement of its decadence;
+for some of the statuary of the age of the Pyramids was
+never surpassed in artistic effect by the work of a later
+era. It is impossible for us to conceive of such scientific
+skill as is evidenced in the construction of the great pyramids,
+or such artistic power as is displayed on the walls of
+tombs of the same date, or in the statues found in them,
+as other than the outcome of a vast accumulation of experience,
+the attainment of which must imply the lapse of
+very long periods of time since the nation which produced
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+such works emerged from barbarism. It is natural, where
+so remote an antiquity is in question, that we should
+feel a great difficulty, if not an impossibility, in fixing
+exact dates, but the whole tendency of modern exploration
+and research is rather to push back than to advance
+the dates of Egyptian chronology, and it is by no means
+impossible that the dynasties of Manetho, after being
+derided as apocryphal for centuries, may in the end be
+accepted as substantially correct. Manetho was an
+Egyptian priest living in the third century <small>B.C.</small>, who
+wrote a history of his country, which he compiled
+from the archives of the temples. His work itself is
+lost, but Josephus quotes extracts from it, and Eusebius
+and Julius Africanus reproduced his lists, in which the
+monarchs of Egypt are grouped into thirty-four dynasties.
+These, however, do not agree with one another, and in
+many cases it is difficult to reconcile them with the records
+displayed in the monuments themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The remains with which we are acquainted indicate
+four distinct periods of great architectural activity in
+Egyptian history, viz.: (1) the period of the fourth
+dynasty, when the Great Pyramids were erected (probably
+3500 to 3000 <small>B.C.</small>); (2) the period of the twelfth
+dynasty, to which belong the remains at Beni-Hassan;
+(3) the period of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties,
+when Thebes was in its glory, which is attested by
+the ruins of Luxor and Karnak; and (4) the Ptolemaic
+period, of which there are the remains at Denderah,
+Edfou, and Phil&aelig;. The monuments that remain are
+almost exclusively tombs and temples. The tombs are,
+generally speaking, all met with on the east or right
+bank of the Nile: among them must be classed those
+grandest and oldest monuments of Egyptian skill, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+Pyramids, which appear to have been all designed as
+royal burying-places. A large number of pyramids have
+been discovered, but those of Gizeh, near Cairo, are the
+largest and the best known, and also probably the oldest
+which can be authenticated.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The three largest pyramids
+are those of Cheops, Cephren, and Mycerinus at Gizeh
+(or, as the names are more correctly written, Suphis, Sensuphis,
+and Moscheris or Mencheris). These monarchs
+all belonged to the fourth dynasty, and the most probable
+date to be assigned to them is about 3000 <small>B.C.</small> The pyramid
+of Suphis is the largest, and is the one familiarly
+known as the Great Pyramid; it has a square base, the
+side of which is 760 feet long,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> a height of 484 feet, and
+an area of 577,600 square feet. In this pyramid the angle
+of inclination of the sloping sides to the base is 51&deg; 51&#8242;,
+but in no two pyramids is this angle the same. There
+can be no doubt that these huge monuments were erected
+each as the tomb of an individual king, whose efforts were
+directed towards making it everlasting, and the greatest
+pains were taken to render the access to the burial chamber
+extremely hard to discover. This accounts for the vast
+disproportion between the lavish amount of material used
+for the pyramid and the smallness of the cavity enclosed
+in it (Fig. <a href="#fig008">8</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The material employed was limestone cased with syenite
+(granite from Syene), and the internal passages were lined
+with granite. The granite of the casing has entirely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+disappeared, but that employed as linings is still in its
+place, and so skilfully worked that it would not be possible
+to introduce even a sheet of paper between the joints.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig008" id="fig008"></a>
+<img src="images/acec015.jpg" width="500" height="374"
+alt="Showing the interior passages and chambers" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 8.&mdash;Section across the Great Pyramid (of Cheops or Suphis).</p>
+
+<p>The entrance D to this pyramid of Suphis was at a height
+of 47 ft. 6 in. above the base, and, as was almost invariably
+the case, on the north face; from the entrance a passage
+slopes downward at an angle of 26&deg; 27&#8242; to a chamber cut
+in the rock at a depth of about 90 feet below the base
+of the pyramid. This chamber seems to have been intended
+as a blind, as it was not the place for the deposition
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+of the corpse. From the point in the above described
+passage&mdash;marked A on our illustration of this pyramid&mdash;another
+gallery starts upwards, till it reaches the
+point C, from which a horizontal passage leads to another
+small chamber. This is called the Queen&rsquo;s Chamber, but
+no reason has been discovered for the name. From this
+point C the gallery continues upwards till, in the heart of
+the pyramid, the Royal Chamber, B, is reached. The walls
+of these chambers and passages are lined with masonry
+executed in the hardest stone (granite), and with an
+accuracy of fitting and a truth of surface that can
+hardly be surpassed. Extreme care seems to have been
+taken to prevent the great weight overhead from crushing
+in the galleries and the chamber. The gallery from C
+upwards is of the form shown in Fig. <a href="#fig009">9</a>, where each layer
+of stones projects slightly beyond the one underneath it.
+Fig. <a href="#fig011">11</a> is a section of the chamber itself, and the succession
+of small chambers shown one above the other was evidently
+formed for the purpose of distributing the weight
+of the superincumbent mass. From the point C a narrow
+well leads almost perpendicularly downwards to a point
+nearly at the bottom of the first-mentioned gallery; and
+the purpose to be served by this well was long a subject
+of debate. The probability is that, after the corpse had
+been placed in its chamber, the workmen completely
+blocked up the passage from A to C by allowing large
+blocks of granite to slide down it, these blocks having
+been previously prepared and deposited in the larger
+gallery; the men then let themselves down the well, and
+by means of the lower gallery made their exit from the
+pyramid. The entrances to the chamber and to the pyramid
+itself were formed by huge blocks of stone which
+exactly fitted into grooves prepared for them with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"><!-- original location of Figs. 9-11 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+most beautiful mathematical accuracy. The chief interest
+attaching to the pyramids lies in their extreme antiquity,
+and the scientific method of their construction; for their
+effect upon the spectator is by no means proportionate to
+their immense mass and the labour bestowed upon them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 121px;">
+<a name="fig009" id="fig009"></a>
+<img src="images/acec016.jpg" width="121" height="250"
+alt="Showing the stepped construction" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 9.&mdash;Ascending
+Gallery in the
+Great Pyramid.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 230px;">
+<a name="fig010" id="fig010"></a>
+<img src="images/acec017.jpg" width="230" height="250"
+alt="Showing the construction" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 10.&mdash;The Sepulchral
+Chamber in the Pyramid
+of Cephren at Gizeh.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 378px;">
+<a name="fig011" id="fig011"></a>
+<img src="images/acec018.jpg" width="378" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 11.&mdash;The Construction of the King&rsquo;s Chamber in the
+Great Pyramid.</p>
+
+<p>In the neighbourhood of the pyramids are found a large
+number of tombs which are supposed to be those of private
+persons. Their form is generally that of a <i>mastaba</i> or
+truncated pyramid with sloping walls, and their construction
+is evidently copied from a fashion of wooden architecture
+previously existing. The same idea of making an
+everlasting habitation for the body prevailed as in the
+case of the pyramids, and stone was therefore the material
+employed; but the builders seem to have desired to indulge
+in a decorative style, and as they were totally unable to
+originate a legitimate stone architecture, we find carved in
+stone, rounded beams as lintels, grooved posts, and&mdash;most
+curious of all&mdash;roofs that are an almost exact copy of
+the early timber huts when unsquared baulks of timber
+were laid across side by side to form a covering. Figs. <a href="#fig012">12</a>
+and <a href="#fig013">13</a> show this kind of stone-work, which is peculiar to
+the old dynasties, and seems to have had little influence
+upon succeeding styles.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable feature of these early private tombs consists
+in the paintings with which the walls are decorated,
+and which vividly portray the ordinary every-day occupations
+carried on during his lifetime by the person who
+was destined to be the inmate of the tomb. These
+paintings are of immense value in enabling us to form
+an accurate idea of the life of the people at this early
+age.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 363px;">
+<a name="fig012" id="fig012"></a>
+<img src="images/acec019.jpg" width="363" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 12.&mdash;Imitation of Timber Construction in
+Stone, from a Tomb at Memphis.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 374px;">
+<a name="fig013" id="fig013"></a>
+<img src="images/acec020.jpg" width="374" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 13.&mdash;Imitation of Timber Construction in
+Stone, from a Tomb at Memphis.</p>
+
+<p>It may possibly be open to doubt whether the dignified
+appellation of architecture should be applied to buildings
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"><!-- original location of Figs. 12-13 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+of the kind we have just been describing; but when we
+come to the series of remains of the twelfth dynasty at
+Beni-Hassan, in middle Egypt, we meet with the earliest
+known examples of that most interesting feature of all
+subsequent styles&mdash;the column. Whether the idea of
+columnar architecture originated with the necessities of
+quarrying&mdash;square piers being left at intervals to support
+the superincumbent mass of rock as the quarry was gradually
+driven in&mdash;or whether the earliest stone piers were
+imitations of brickwork or of timber posts, we shall probably
+never be able to determine accurately, though the
+former supposition seems the more likely. We have here
+monuments of a date 1400 years anterior to the earliest
+known Greek examples, with splendid columns, both
+exterior and interior, which no reasonable person can
+doubt are the prototypes of the Greek Doric order.
+Fig. <a href="#fig014">14</a> is a plan with a section, and Fig. <a href="#fig015">15</a> an exterior
+view, of one of these tombs, which, it will be seen, consisted
+of a portico, a chamber with its roof supported by
+columns, and a small space at the farther end in which
+is formed the opening of a sloping passage or well, at the
+bottom of which the vault for the reception of the body
+was constructed. The walls of the large chamber are
+lavishly decorated with scenes of every-day life, and it
+has even been suggested that these places were not erected
+originally as tombs, but as dwelling-places, which after
+death were appropriated as sepulchres.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig014" id="fig014"></a>
+<img src="images/acec021.jpg" width="300" height="180"
+alt="Showing view between columns" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Section.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/acec022.jpg" width="300" height="462"
+alt="Showing position of columns" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 14.&mdash;Plan and Section of the Tomb
+at Beni-Hassan.</p>
+
+<p>The columns are surmounted by a small square slab,
+technically called an abacus, and heavy square beams or
+architraves span the spaces between the columns, while
+the roof between the architraves has a slightly segmental
+form. The tombs of the later period, viz. of the eighteenth
+and nineteenth dynasties, are very different from those of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+the twelfth dynasty, and present few features of architectural
+interest, though they are remarkable for their
+vast extent and the
+variety of form of their
+various chambers and
+galleries. They consist
+of a series of
+chambers excavated in
+the rock, and it appears
+certain that the
+tomb was commenced
+on the accession of each
+monarch, and was
+driven farther and
+farther into the rock
+during the continuance
+of his reign till his
+death, when all work
+abruptly ceased. All
+the chambers are profusely
+decorated with
+paintings, but of a kind
+very different from
+those of the earlier
+dynasties. Instead of
+depicting scenes of ordinary
+life, all the paintings
+refer to the supposed
+life after death,
+and are thus of very
+great value as a means
+of determining the religious
+opinions of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+Egyptians at this time. One of the most remarkable
+of these tombs is that of Manephthah or Sethi I., at
+Bab-el-Molouk, and known as Belzoni&rsquo;s tomb, as it was
+discovered by him; from it was taken the alabaster sarcophagus
+now in the Soane Museum in Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields.
+To this relic a new interest is given by the announcement,
+while these pages are passing through the press, of the
+discovery of the mummy of this very Manephthah, with
+thirty-eight other royal mummies, in the neighbourhood
+of Thebes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="fig015" id="fig015"></a>
+<img src="images/acec023.jpg" width="400" height="280"
+alt="Showing entrance to the tomb" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 15.&mdash;Rock-cut Fa&ccedil;ade of Tomb at Beni-Hassan.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Ptolemaic period no tombs, except perhaps a few
+at Alexandria, are known to exist.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TEMPLES.</h3>
+
+<p>It is very doubtful whether any remains of temples of
+the time of the fourth dynasty&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> contemporaneous with
+the pyramids&mdash;exist. One, constructed on a most extraordinary
+plan, was supposed to have been discovered about
+a quarter of a century ago, and it was described by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+Professor Donaldson at the Royal Institute of British Architects
+in 1861, but later Egyptologists rather incline to
+the belief that this was a tomb and not a temple, as in one
+of the chambers of the interior a number of compartments
+were discovered one above the other which were apparently
+intended for the reception of bodies. This singular building
+is close to the Great Sphinx; its plan is cruciform,
+and there are in the interior a number of rectangular
+piers of granite supporting very simple architraves, but
+there are no means of determining what kind of roof
+covered it in. The walls seem to have been faced on the
+interior with polished slabs of granite or alabaster, but no
+sculpture or hieroglyphic inscriptions were found on them
+to explain the purpose of the building. Leaving this
+building&mdash;which is of a type quite unique&mdash;out of the
+question, Egyptian temples can be generally classed
+under two heads: (1) the large principal temples, and (2)
+the small subsidiary ones called Typhonia or Mammisi.
+Both kinds of temple vary little, if at all, in plan from
+the time of the twelfth dynasty down to the Roman
+dominion.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 206px;">
+<a name="fig016" id="fig016"></a>
+<img src="images/acec024.jpg" width="206" height="500"
+alt="Locations A to E shown in alphabetical order from bottom to top of the plan" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 16.&mdash;Ground-plan of the
+Palace at Karnak.</p>
+
+<p>The large temples consist almost invariably of an entrance
+gate flanked on either side by a large mass of masonry,
+called a pylon, in the shape of a truncated pyramid
+(Fig. <a href="#fig018">18</a>). The axis of the ground-plan of these pylons is
+frequently obliquely inclined to the axis of the plan of the
+temple itself; and indeed one of the most striking features
+of Egyptian temples is the lack of regularity and symmetry
+in their construction. The entrance gives access
+to a large courtyard, generally ornamented with columns:
+beyond this, and occasionally approached by steps, is
+another court, smaller than the first, but much more
+splendidly adorned with columns and colossi; beyond this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+again, in the finest examples, occurs what is called the
+Hypostyle Hall, <i>i.e.</i> a hall with two rows of lofty columns
+down the centre, and at the sides other rows, more or less
+in number, of lower columns; the object of this arrangement
+being that the central portion might be lighted by a
+kind of clerestory above the roof of the side portions.
+Fig. <a href="#fig017">17</a> shows this arrangement. This hypostyle hall
+stood with its greatest length transverse to the general
+axis of the temple, so that it was entered from the side.
+Beyond it were other chambers, all of small size, the
+innermost being generally the sanctuary,
+while the others were probably
+used as residences by the
+priests. Homer&rsquo;s hundred-gated
+Thebes, which was for so long the
+capital of Egypt, offers at Karnak
+and Luxor the finest remains of
+temples; what is left of the former
+evidently showing that it must
+have been one of the most magnificent
+buildings ever erected in
+any country. Fig. <a href="#fig016">16</a> is a plan of
+the temple of Karnak, which was
+about 1200 feet long and 348 feet
+wide. A is the entrance between
+the two enormous pylons giving
+access to a large courtyard, in
+which is a small detached temple,
+and another larger one breaking
+into the courtyard obliquely. A
+gateway between a second pair of pylons admits to B, the
+grand Hypostyle Hall, 334 feet by 167 feet. Beyond this
+are additional gateways with pylons, separated by a sort
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"><!-- original location of Figs. 17-18 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+of gallery, C, in which were two gigantic obelisks; D, another
+grand hall, is called the Hall of the Caryatides, and
+beyond is the Hall of the eighteen columns, through which
+access is gained to a number of smaller halls grouped round
+the central chamber E. Beyond this is a large courtyard,
+in the centre of which stood the original sanctuary, which
+has disappeared down to its foundations, nothing but some
+broken shafts of columns remaining. At the extreme east
+is another hall supported partly by columns and partly
+by square piers, and a second series of pillared courts and
+chambers. The pylons and buildings generally decrease
+in height as we proceed from the entrance eastwards.
+This is due to the fact that, the building grew by successive
+additions, each one more magnificent than the last,
+all being added on the side from which the temple was
+entered, leaving the original sanctuary unchanged and
+undisturbed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig017" id="fig017"></a>
+<img src="images/acec025.jpg" width="600" height="314"
+alt="Showing the highly decorated columns" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 17.&mdash;The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, showing the Clerestory.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig018" id="fig018"></a>
+<img src="images/acec026.jpg" width="600" height="403" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 18.&mdash;Entrance to an Egyptian Temple, showing the Pylons.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the buildings shown on the plan there were
+many other temples to the north, south, and east, entered
+by pylons and some of them connected together by avenues
+of sphinxes, obelisks, and colossi, which altogether made
+up the most wonderful agglomeration of buildings that
+can be conceived. It must not be imagined that this
+temple of Karnak, together with the series of connected
+temples is the result, of one clearly conceived plan; on
+the contrary, just as has been frequently the case with
+our own cathedrals and baronial halls, alterations were
+made here and additions there by successive kings one
+after the other without much regard to connection or
+congruity, the only feeling that probably influenced them
+being that of emulation to excel in size and grandeur
+the erections of their predecessors, as the largest buildings
+are almost always of latest date. The original sanctuary,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+or nucleus of the temple, was built by Usertesen I., the
+second or third king of the twelfth dynasty. Omenophis,
+the first king of the Shepherd dynasties, built a temple
+round the sanctuary, which has disappeared. Thothmes
+I. built the Hall of the Caryatides and commenced the
+next Hall of the eighteen columns, which was finished
+by Thothmes II. Thothmes III. built that portion surrounding
+the sanctuary, and he also built the courts on
+the extreme east. The pylon at C was built by Omenophis
+III., and formed the fa&ccedil;ade of the temple before the
+erection of the grand hall. Sethi I. built the Hypostyle
+Hall, which had probably been originated by Rhamses I.,
+who commenced the pylon west of it. Sethi II. built the
+small detached temple, and Rhamses III. the intersecting
+temple. The Bubastites constructed the large front court
+by building walls round it, and the Ptolemies commenced
+the huge western pylon. The colonnade in the centre of
+the court was erected by Tahraka.</p>
+
+<p>Extensive remains of temples exist at Luxor, Edfou
+(Fig. <a href="#fig019">19</a>), and Phil&aelig;, but it will not be necessary to give
+a detailed description of them, as, if smaller in size, they
+are very similar in arrangement to those already described.
+It should be noticed that all these large temples have the
+mastaba form, <i>i.e.</i> the outer walls are not perpendicular
+on the outside, but slope inwards as they rise, thus giving
+the buildings an air of great solidity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 239px;">
+<a name="fig019" id="fig019"></a>
+<img src="images/acec027.jpg" width="239" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 19.&mdash;Plan of the Temple at Edfou.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 182px;">
+<a name="fig020" id="fig020"></a>
+<img src="images/acec028.jpg" width="182" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 20.&mdash;Plan of one of the
+Mammisi at Edfou.</p>
+
+<p>The Mammisi exhibit quite a different form of temple
+from those previously described, and are generally found
+in close proximity to the large temples. They are
+generally erected on a raised terrace, rectangular on plan
+and nearly twice as long as it was wide, approached by
+a flight of steps opposite the entrance; they consist of
+oblong buildings, usually divided by a wall into two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+chambers, and surrounded on all sides by a colonnade
+composed of circular columns or square piers placed at
+intervals, and the whole is roofed in. A dwarf wall is frequently
+found between the piers and columns, about half
+the height of the shaft. These temples differ from the larger
+ones in having their outer walls perpendicular. Fig. <a href="#fig020">20</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+is a plan of one of these small temples, and no one can
+fail to remark the striking likeness to some of the Greek
+temples; there can indeed
+be little doubt that this
+nation borrowed the peristylar
+form of its temples
+from the Ancient Egyptians.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 335px;">
+<a name="fig021" id="fig021"></a>
+<img src="images/acec029.jpg" width="335" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 21.&mdash;Ground-plan of the Rock-cut
+Temple at Ipsamboul.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig022" id="fig022"></a>
+<img src="images/acec030.jpg" width="500" height="294" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 22.&mdash;Section of the Rock-cut Temple at Ipsamboul.</p>
+
+<p>Although no rock-cut
+temples have been discovered
+in Egypt proper,
+Nubia is very rich in such
+remains. The arrangement
+of these temples hewn out
+of the rock is closely analogous
+to that of the detached
+ones. Figs. <a href="#fig021">21</a> and <a href="#fig022">22</a> show
+a plan and section of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+largest of the rock-cut temples at Ipsamboul, which
+consists of two extensive courts, with smaller chambers
+beyond, all connected by galleries. The roof of the large
+court is supported by eight huge piers, the faces of which
+are sculptured into the form of standing colossi, and the
+entrance is adorned by four splendid seated colossi,
+68 ft. 6 in. high. As was the case with the detached
+temples, it will be noticed that the height of the
+various chambers decreases towards the extremity of the
+excavation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 100px;">
+<a name="fig023" id="fig023"></a>
+<img src="images/acec031.jpg" width="100" height="98"
+alt="Plan view of Egyptian column with lotus bud capital" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Plan.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 110px;">
+<img src="images/acec032.jpg" width="110" height="350" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 23.&mdash;Egyptian Column
+with Lotus Bud Capital.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 208px;">
+<a name="fig024" id="fig024"></a>
+<img src="images/acec033.jpg" width="208" height="450" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 24.&mdash;Egyptian Column
+with Lotus Flower Capital.</p>
+
+<p>The constructional system pursued by the Egyptians,
+which consisted in roofing over spaces with large horizontal
+blocks of stone, led of necessity to a columnar arrangement
+in the interiors, as it was impossible to cover large areas
+without frequent upright supports. Hence the column
+became the chief means of obtaining effect, and the varieties
+of form which it exhibits are very numerous. The earliest
+form is that at Beni-Hassan, which has already been noticed
+as the prototype of the Doric order. Figs. <a href="#fig023">23</a> and <a href="#fig024">24</a> are
+views of two columns of a type more commonly employed.
+In these the sculptors appear to have imitated as closely
+as possible the forms of the plant-world around them, as
+is shown in Fig. <a href="#fig023">23</a>, which represents a bundle of reeds
+or lotus stalks, and is the earliest type known of the lotus
+column, which was afterwards developed into a number of
+forms, one of which will be observed on turning to our
+section of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (Fig. <a href="#fig017">17</a>), as
+employed for the lateral columns. The stalks are bound
+round with several belts, and the capital is formed by
+the slightly bulging unopened bud of the flower, above
+which is a small abacus with the architrave resting upon
+it: the base is nothing but a low circular plinth. The
+square piers also have frequently a lotus bud carved on
+them. At the bottom of the shaft is frequently found
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+a decoration imitated from the sheath of leaves from
+which the plant springs. As a further development of
+this capital we have the opened lotus flower of a very
+graceful bell-like shape, ornamented with a similar sheath-like
+decoration to that at the base of the shaft (Fig. <a href="#fig024">24</a>).
+This decoration was originally painted only, not sculptured,
+but at a later period we find these sheaths and buds worked
+in stone. Even more graceful is the palm capital, which
+also had its leading lines of decoration painted on it at first
+(Fig. <a href="#fig025">25</a>), and afterwards sculptured (Fig. <a href="#fig026">26</a>). At a later
+period of the style we find the plant forms abandoned, and
+capitals were formed of a fantastic combination of the head
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+of Isis with a pylon resting upon it (Fig. <a href="#fig027">27</a>). Considerable
+ingenuity was exercised in adapting the capitals of the
+columns to the positions in which they were placed: thus
+in the hypostyle halls, the lofty central row of columns
+generally had capitals of the form shown in Fig. <a href="#fig024">24</a>, as
+the light here was sufficient to illuminate thoroughly the
+underside of the overhanging bell; but those columns
+which were farther removed from the light had their
+capitals of the unopened bud form, which was narrower
+at the top than at bottom. In one part of the temple at
+Karnak is found a very curious capital resembling the
+open lotus flower inverted. The proportion which the
+height of Egyptian columns bears to their diameter differs
+so much in various cases that there was evidently no
+regular standard adhered to, but as a general rule they
+have a heavy and massive character. The wall-paintings
+of the Egyptian buildings show many curious forms of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+columns (Fig. <a href="#fig028">28</a>), but we have no reason for thinking
+that these fantastic shapes were really executed in stone.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 306px;">
+<a name="fig025" id="fig025"></a>
+<img src="images/acec034.jpg" width="306" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 25.&mdash;Palm Capital.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 319px;">
+<a name="fig026" id="fig026"></a>
+<img src="images/acec035.jpg" width="319" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 26.&mdash;Sculptured Capital.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 221px;">
+<a name="fig027" id="fig027"></a>
+<img src="images/acec036.jpg" width="221" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 27.&mdash;Isis Capital from
+Denderah.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 100px;">
+<a name="fig028" id="fig028"></a>
+<img src="images/acec037.jpg" width="100" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 28.&mdash;Fanciful Column from
+Painted Decoration at Thebes.</p>
+
+<p>Almost the only sculptured ornaments worked on the
+exteriors of buildings were the curious astragal or bead at
+all the angles, and the cornice, which consisted of a very
+large cavetto, or hollow moulding, surmounted by a fillet.
+These features are almost invariable from the earliest to
+the latest period of the style. This cavetto was generally
+enriched, over the doorways, with an ornament representing
+a circular boss with a wing at each side of it
+(Fig. <a href="#fig029">29</a>).</p>
+
+<p>One other feature of Egyptian architecture which was
+peculiar to it must be mentioned; namely, the obelisk.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+Obelisks were nearly always erected in pairs in front
+of the pylons of the temples, and added to the dignity of
+the entrance. They were invariably monoliths, slightly
+tapering in outline, carved with the most perfect accuracy;
+they must have existed originally in very large numbers.
+Not a few of these have been transported to Europe, and
+at least twelve are standing in Rome, one is in Paris, and
+one in London.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 450px;">
+<a name="fig029" id="fig029"></a>
+<img src="images/acec038.jpg" width="450" height="162"
+alt="Featuring a winged scarab design" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 29.&mdash;Crowning Cornice and Bead.</p>
+
+<p>The most striking features, and the most artistic, in the
+decoration of Egyptian buildings, are the mural paintings
+and sculptured pictures, which are found in the most lavish
+profusion, and which exhibit the highest skill in conventionalising
+the human figure and other objects.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Tombs
+and temples, columns and obelisks are completely covered
+with graphic representations of peaceful home pursuits,
+warlike expeditions and battle scenes, and&mdash;though not
+till a late period&mdash;descriptions of ritual and mythological
+delineations of the supposed spirit-world which the soul
+has entered after death. These pictures, together with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+hieroglyphic inscriptions&mdash;which are in themselves a series
+of pictures&mdash;not only relieve the bare wall surface, but,
+what is far more important, enable us to realise the kind
+of existence which was led by this ancient people; and
+as in nearly every case the cartouche (or symbol representing
+the name) of the monarch under whose reign the
+building was erected was added, we should be able to fix
+the dates of the buildings with exactness, were the chronology
+of the kings made out beyond doubt.</p>
+
+<p>The following description of the manner in which the
+Egyptian paintings and sculptures were executed&mdash;from
+the pen of Owen Jones&mdash;will be read with interest:&mdash;&ldquo;The
+wall was first chiselled as smooth as possible, the
+imperfections of the stone were filled up with cement or
+plaster, and the whole was rubbed smooth and covered
+with a coloured wash; lines were then ruled perpendicularly
+and horizontally with red colour, forming squares
+all over the wall corresponding with the proportions of
+the figure to be drawn upon it. The subjects of the
+painting and of the hieroglyphics were then drawn on
+the wall with a red line, most probably by the priest or
+chief scribe, or by some inferior artist, from a document
+divided into similar squares; then came the chief artist,
+who went over every figure and hieroglyphic with a black
+line, and a firm and steady hand, giving expression to each
+curve, deviating here and confirming there the red line.
+The line thus traced was then followed by the sculptor.
+The next process was to paint the figure in the prescribed
+colours.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Although Egyptian architecture was essentially a trabeated
+style,&mdash;that is to say, a style in which beams or
+lintels were usually employed to cover openings,&mdash;there is
+strong ground for the belief that the builders of that time
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+were acquainted with the nature of the arch. Dr. Birch
+mentions a rudimentary arch of the time of the fifth
+dynasty: at Abydos there are also remains of vaulted
+tombs of the sixth dynasty; and in a tomb in the neighbourhood
+of the Pyramids there is an elementary arch of
+three stones surmounted by a true arch constructed in four
+courses. The probability is that true brick arches were
+built at a very early period, but in the construction of
+their tombs, where heavy masses of superincumbent
+masonry or rock had to be supported, the Egyptians
+seem to have been afraid to risk even the remote possibility
+of their arches decaying; and hence, even when
+they preserved the form of the arch in masonry, they
+constructed it with horizontal courses of stones projecting
+one over the other, and then cut away the lower angles.
+One dominating idea seems to have influenced them in
+the whole of their work&mdash;<i>esto perpetua</i> was their motto;
+and though they have been excelled by later peoples in
+grace and beauty, it is a question whether they have ever
+been surpassed in the skill with which they adapted their
+means to the end which they always kept in view.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.</h3>
+
+
+<h4><i>Plan.</i></h4>
+
+<p><strong>Floor</strong> (technically <strong>Plan</strong>).&mdash;The early rock-cut tombs
+were, of course, only capable of producing internal effects;
+their floor presents a series of halls and galleries, varying
+in size and shape, leading one out of the other, and
+intended by their contrast or combination to produce
+architectural effect. To this was added in the later rock-cut
+tombs a fa&ccedil;ade to be seen directly in front. Much
+the same account can be given of the disposition of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+built temples. They possess one front, which the spectator
+approaches, and they are disposed so as to produce varied
+and impressive interiors, but not to give rise to external
+display. The supports, such as walls, columns, piers, are
+all very massive and very close together, so that the only
+wide open spaces are courtyards.</p>
+
+<p>The circle, or octagon, or other polygonal forms do not
+appear in the plans of Egyptian buildings; but though all
+the lines are straight, there is a good deal of irregularity
+in spacing, walls which face one another are not always
+parallel, and angles which appear to be right angles very
+often are not so.</p>
+
+<p>The later buildings extend over much space. The
+adjuncts to these buildings, especially the avenues of
+sphinxes, are planned so as to produce an air of stately
+grandeur, and in them some degree of external effect is
+aimed at.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Walls.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The walls are uniformly thick, and often of granite or
+of stone, though brick is also met with; <i>e.g.</i> some of the
+smaller pyramids are built entirely of brick. In all probability
+the walls of domestic buildings were to a great
+extent of brick, and less thick than those of the temples;
+hence they have all disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The surface of walls, even when of granite, was usually
+plastered with a thin fine plaster, which was covered by
+the profuse decoration in colour already alluded to.</p>
+
+<p>The walls of the propylons tapered from the base towards
+the top, and the same thing sometimes occurred in other
+walls. In almost all cases the stone walls are built of
+very large blocks, and they show an unrivalled skill in
+masonry.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Roofs.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The roofing which remains is executed entirely in stone,
+but not arched or vaulted. The rock-cut tombs, however,
+as has been stated, contain ceilings of an arched shape,
+and in some cases forms which seem to be an imitation of
+timber roofing. The roofing of the Hypostyle Hall at
+Karnak provides an arrangement for admitting light very
+similar to the clerestory of Gothic cathedrals.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Openings.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The openings were all covered by a stone lintel, and
+consequently were uniformly square-headed. The interspaces
+between columns were similarly covered, and hence
+Egyptian architecture has been, and correctly, classed
+as the first among the styles of trabeated architecture.
+Window-openings seldom occur.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Columns.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The columns have been already described to some extent.
+They are almost always circular in plan, but the shaft is
+sometimes channelled. They are for the most part of
+sturdy proportions, but great grace and elegance are
+shown in the profile given to shafts and capitals. The
+design of the capitals especially is full of variety, and
+admirably adapts forms obtained from the vegetable kingdom.
+The general effect of the Egyptian column, wherever
+it is used, is that it appears to have, as it really has,
+a great deal more strength than is required. The fact
+that the abacus (the square block of stone introduced
+between the moulded part of the capital and what it
+carries) is often smaller in width than the diameter of
+the column aids very much to produce this effect.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Ornaments.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Mouldings are very rarely employed; in fact, the large
+bead running up the angles of the pylons, &amp;c., and a heavy
+hollow moulding doing duty as a cornice, are all that are
+usually met with. Sculpture and carving occur occasionally,
+and are freely introduced in later works, where
+we sometimes find statues incorporated into the design of
+the fronts of temples. Decoration in colour, in the shape
+of hieroglyphic inscriptions and paintings of all sorts,
+was profusely employed (Figs. <a href="#fig027">27-30</a>), and is executed
+with a truth of drawing and a beauty of colouring that
+have never been surpassed. As has been pointed out,
+almost every object drawn is partly conventionalised, in
+the most skilful manner, so as to make it fit its place
+as a piece of a decorative system.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Architectural Character.</i></h4>
+
+<p>This is gloomy, and to a certain extent forbidding,
+owing to the heavy walls and piers and columns, and the
+great masses supported by them; but when in its freshness
+and quite uninjured by decay or violence, the exquisite
+colouring of the walls and ceilings and columns must have
+added a great deal of beauty: this must have very much
+diminished the oppressive effect inseparable from such
+massive construction and from the gloomy darkness of
+many portions of the buildings. It is also noteworthy
+that the expenditure of materials and labour is greater in
+proportion to the effect attained than in any other style.
+The pyramids are the most conspicuous example of this
+prodigality. Before condemning this as a defect in the
+style, it must be remembered that a stability which should
+defy enemies, earthquakes, and the tooth of time, was far
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+more aimed at than architectural character; and that,
+had any mode of construction less lavish of material, and
+less perfect in workmanship, been adopted, the buildings
+of Egypt might have all disappeared ere this.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig030" id="fig030"></a>
+<img src="images/acec039.jpg" width="600" height="544"
+alt="A repeated and complex spiral, wheel and lotus design" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 30.&mdash;Painted Decoration from Thebes.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Some Egyptologists incline to the opinion that the pyramid of Saqq&aacute;ra
+is the most ancient, while others think it much more recent than
+those of Gizeh.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Strictly speaking, the base is not an exact square, the four sides
+measuring, according to the Royal Engineers, north, 760 ft. 7&middot;5 in.; south,
+761 ft. 8&middot;5 in.; east, 760 ft. 9&middot;5 in.; and west, 764 ft. 1 in.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Conventionalising may be described as representing a part only of the
+visible qualities or features of an object, omitting the remainder or very
+slightly indicating them. A black silhouette portrait is an extreme
+instance of convention, as it displays absolutely nothing but the outline
+of a profile. For decorative purposes it is almost always necessary to conventionalise
+to a greater or less extent whatever is represented.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig031" id="fig031"></a>
+<img src="images/acec040.jpg" width="500" height="190"
+alt="Showing kneeling winged bulls" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 31.&mdash;Sculptured Ornament at Nineveh.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE architectural styles of the ancient nations which
+ruled over the countries of Western Asia watered
+by the Tigris and the Euphrates, from a period about
+2200 <small>B.C.</small> down to 330 <small>B.C.</small>, are so intimately connected one
+with another, and so dependent one upon the other, that it
+is almost impossible to attempt an accurate discrimination
+between the Babylonian, or ancient Chald&aelig;an, the Assyrian
+and the Persian. A more intelligible idea of the architecture
+of this long period will be gained by regarding
+the three styles as modifications and developments of one
+original style, than by endeavouring to separate them.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+Their sequence can, however, be accurately determined.
+First comes the old Chald&aelig;an period, next the Assyrian,
+during which the great city of Nineveh was built, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+finally the Persian, after Cyrus had subdued the older
+monarchies; and remains exist of all these periods. As
+to the origin of the Chald&aelig;an Kingdom, however, all is
+obscure; and the earliest date which can be fixed with
+the slightest approach to probability is 2234 <small>B.C.</small>, when
+Nimrod is supposed to have founded the old Chald&aelig;an
+dynasty. This seems to have lasted about 700 years, and
+was then overthrown by a conquering nation of which
+no record or even tradition remains, the next two and a
+half centuries being a complete blank till the rise of the
+great Assyrian Monarchy about 1290 <small>B.C.</small>, which lasted
+till its destruction by Cyrus about 538 <small>B.C.</small> The Persian
+Monarchy then endured till the death of Alexander the
+Great, in 333 <small>B.C.</small>, after which great confusion arose, the
+empire being broken up among his generals and rapidly
+falling to pieces.</p>
+
+<p>It is only within a comparatively recent period that we
+have had any knowledge of the architecture of these
+countries; but the explorations of M. Botta, commenced
+in 1843 and continued by M. Place, and those of Mr. (now
+Sir A. H.) Layard in 1845, combined with the successful
+attempts of Prof. Grotefend, Prof. Lassen, and Col. Rawlinson
+at deciphering the cuneiform inscriptions, have disclosed
+a new world to the architectural student, without
+which some of the developments of Greek architecture
+must have remained obscure. The authentic remains of
+buildings of the early Chald&aelig;an period are too few and in
+too ruinous a condition to allow of a reproduction of their
+architectural features with any certainty. The buildings,
+whether palaces or temples, appear to have been constructed
+on terraces, and to have been several storeys in
+height; and in one instance, at Mugheyr, the walls sloped
+inwards in a similar manner to those of Egyptian buildings,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+a peculiarity which is not met with in other examples
+of West Asiatic architecture. The materials employed
+were bricks, both sun-dried and kiln-burnt, which seem
+to have been coated with a vitreous enamel for purposes
+of interior decoration. Fragments of carved limestone
+were discovered by Sir A. H. Layard, but the fact that
+the fragments found have been so few ought not to
+lead us too hastily to the conclusion that stone was not
+used as facing for architectural purposes, as after the
+buildings became ruined the stone would eagerly be sought
+for and carried away before the brickwork was touched.
+Bitumen seems to have been employed as a cement. Although
+original buildings of this era cannot be found,
+it has been shown that in all probability we have, in a
+building of a later date&mdash;the Birs-i-Nimrud&mdash;a type of the
+old Babylonian temple. This in its general disposition
+must have resembled that of the Tomb of Cyrus, described
+and figured later on, though on a vastly larger scale. The
+lowest storey appears to have been an exact square of
+272 ft.; each of the higher storeys was 42 ft. less horizontally
+than the one below it, and was placed 30 ft. back
+from the front of the storey below it, but equidistant
+from the two sides, where the platforms were 21 ft. wide.
+The three upper storeys were 45 ft. in height altogether,
+the two below these were 26 ft. each, and the height of
+the lowest is uncertain. The topmost storey probably had
+a tower on it which enclosed the shrine of the temple.
+This edifice was for a long time a bone of contention
+among savants, but Colonel Rawlinson&rsquo;s investigations
+have brought to light the fact that it was a temple dedicated
+to the seven heavenly spheres, viz. Saturn, Jupiter,
+Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon, in the
+order given, starting from the bottom. Access to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+various platforms was obtained by stairs, and the whole
+building was surrounded by a walled enclosure. From
+remains found at Wurkha we may gather that the walls
+of the buildings of this period were covered with elaborate
+plaster ornaments, and that a lavish use was made of
+colour in their decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Of the later Assyrian period several ruins of buildings
+believed to be palaces have been excavated, of which the
+large palace at Khorsabad, the old name of which was
+Hisir-Sargon, now a small village between 10 and 11 miles
+north-east of Nineveh, has been the most completely
+explored, and this consequently is the best adapted to explain
+the general plan of an Assyrian edifice. M. Botta,
+when French Consul at Mosul, and M. Victor Place conducted
+these explorations, and the following details are
+taken from their works. Like all other Assyrian palaces,
+this was reared on a huge artificial mound, the labour
+of forming which must have been enormous. The reason
+for the construction of these mounds is not far to seek.
+Just as the chiefs of a mountainous country choose the
+loftiest peaks for their castles, so in Assyria, which
+was a very flat country, the extra defensive strength
+of elevated buildings was clearly appreciated; and as
+these absolute monarchs ruled over a teeming population
+and had a very large number of slaves, and only had
+to direct their taskmasters to impress labour whenever
+they wanted it, no difficulty existed in forming elevated
+platforms for their palaces. These were frequently close
+to a river, and it is by no means improbable that this was
+turned into the excavation from which the earth for the
+mound was taken, and thus formed a lake or moat as an
+additional defence. A further reason for these terraces
+may be found in the fact that in a hot climate buildings
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+erected some 20 or 30 ft. above the level of the plain
+catch the breezes much more quickly than lower edifices.
+In the case of Khorsabad the terrace was made of sun-dried
+bricks, about 15&middot;7 in. square and 2 in. thick. These
+bricks were made of the most carefully prepared clay.
+The terrace was faced by a retaining wall of coursed
+masonry, nearly 10 ft. in thickness. On this terrace
+the palace was built, and it consisted of a series of open
+courts arranged unsymmetrically, surrounded by state or
+private apartments, storehouses, stables, &amp;c. Great care
+seems to have been exercised in the accurate orientation of
+the building, but in rather a peculiar manner. Instead
+of any one fa&ccedil;ade of the building facing due north,
+the corners face exactly towards the four points of the
+compass. The courts were all entered by magnificent
+portals flanked by gigantic figures, and were approached
+by flights of steps. Fig. <a href="#fig032">32</a> is a plan of the palace of
+Khorsabad, which was placed close to the boundary of the
+city; in fact it was partly outside the city wall proper,
+though surrounded by a wall of its own. The grand
+south-east portals or propyl&aelig;a were adorned with huge
+human-headed bulls and gigantic figures, and gave access
+to a large court, 315 ft. by 280 ft., on the east side of which
+are the stables and out-houses, and on the west side the
+metal stores. On the north of this court, though not
+approached directly from it, was the Seraglio (not to be
+confounded with the Harem), the grand entrance to which
+was from a second large court, access to which was obtained
+from a roadway sloping up from the city. The portals
+to this portion of the palace were also adorned with
+human-headed bulls. From the second court a vaulted
+passage gave access to the state apartments, which appear
+to have had a direct view across the open country, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"><!-- original location of Fig. 32 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+were quite outside the city walls. The Harem has been
+excavated; it stood just outside the palace proper, behind
+the metal stores. The remains of an observatory exist,
+and the outlines of what is supposed to have been a
+temple have also been unearthed, so that we have here a
+complete plan of the palace. Altogether 31 courts and
+198 chambers have been discovered.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig032" id="fig032"></a>
+<img src="images/acec041.jpg" width="600" height="738"
+alt="Plan showing the extent and complexity of the buildings" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="topcapt smcap">Fig. 32.&mdash;Palace of Khorsabad. Built by King Sargon about 710 <small>B.C.</small></p>
+
+<p class="subcapt">A, Steps. B, Chief portal. C, Chief entrance-court. D-H, Women&rsquo;s apartments (Harem). J, Centre
+court of building. K, Chief court of royal residence. L, Portal with carved bulls as guards.
+M, Centre court of royal residence. N, Temple (?). O, Pyramid of steps. S, Entrance to chief court.
+T, Plan of terraces with wall and towers.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that great disproportion exists between
+the length of the various apartments and their breadth, none
+being more than 40 ft. wide; and it is probable that this
+was owing to structural necessities, the Assyrian builders
+finding it impossible, with the materials at their disposal,
+to cover wider spaces than this. The walls of this palace
+vary from 5 to 15 ft. in thickness, and are composed of
+sun-dried bricks, faced in the principal courts and state
+apartments with slabs of alabaster or Mosul gypsum to a
+height of from 9 to 12 ft., above which kiln-burnt bricks
+were used. The alabaster slabs were held together by
+iron, copper, or wooden cramps or plugs, and were covered
+with sculptured pictures representing scenes of peace and
+war, from which, as was the case with the Egyptian
+remains, we are able to reconstruct for ourselves the daily
+life of the monarchs of those early times. Above the
+alabaster slabs plastered decorations were used; in some
+cases painted frescoes have been found, or mosaics formed
+with enamelled bricks of various colours. In the out-buildings
+and the more retired rooms of the palace, the
+alabaster slabs were omitted, and plaster decorations used,
+from the ground upwards. The researches of MM. Botta
+and Place have shown that colour was used with a lavishness
+quite foreign to our notions, as the alabaster statues
+as well as the plaster enrichments were coloured. M. Place
+says that in no case were the plain bricks allowed to face
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+the walls of an apartment, the joint being always concealed
+either by colour or plaster: in fact, he remarks that
+after a time, if he found walls standing showing the brickwork
+joints, he invariably searched with success among
+the d&eacute;bris of the chamber for remains of the sculptured
+decorations which had been used to face the walls.</p>
+
+<p>Not the least interesting of these discoveries was that
+of the drains under the palace, portions of which were
+in very good preservation; and all were vaulted, so that
+there can be no doubt whatever that the Assyrians were
+acquainted with the use of the arch. This was further
+proved by the discovery by M. Place of the great arched
+gates of the city itself, with an archivolt of coloured
+enamelled bricks forming various patterns, with a semicircular
+arch springing from plain jambs. Extreme care
+was taken by the Assyrian builders in laying the pavements
+to ensure their being perfectly level: first a layer
+of kiln-burnt bricks was laid on the ordinary sun-dried
+bricks forming the terrace; then came a layer of fine sand,
+upon which the bricks or slabs of the pavement proper
+were laid, forming in many cases an elegant pattern (see
+Fig. <a href="#fig033">33</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 393px;">
+<a name="fig033" id="fig033"></a>
+<img src="images/acec042.jpg" width="393" height="400"
+alt="One corner, showing central repeated floral designs, with repeated lotus border" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 33.&mdash;Pavement from Khoyunjik.</p>
+
+<p>Great difference of opinion exists as to the manner in
+which the various apartments of the palace were lighted.
+M. Place suggests that the rooms were all vaulted on the
+inside, and the spandrels filled in with earth afterwards to
+form perfectly flat roofs, and he gives a restoration of the
+building on such an arrangement; but if he is correct,
+it is impossible to see how any light at all can have penetrated
+into the interior of many of the apartments, and
+as these apartments are decorated with a profusion of
+paintings it is very difficult to believe that artificial light
+alone was used in them. M. Place thinks, however, that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+in some cylindrical terra-cotta vessels which he found he
+has hit upon a species of skylight which passed completely
+through the vault over the rooms, and thus admitted the
+light from above. This, however, can hardly be considered
+as settled yet. Mr. Fergusson, on the other hand, suggests
+that the thick main walls were carried to a height of about
+18 or 19 ft., and that above this were two rows of dwarf
+columns, one on the inner and the other on the outer edge
+of the wall, these columns supporting a flat terrace roof, and
+the walls thus forming galleries all round the apartments.
+Then to cover the space occupied by the apartments themselves
+it is necessary to assume the existence of rows of
+columns, the capitals of which were at the same level as
+those of the dwarf columns on the walls. Where one
+apartment is surrounded on all sides by others, the roof
+over it may have been carried up to a higher level, forming
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+a sort of clerestory. This theory no doubt accounts for
+many things which are very hard to explain otherwise,
+and derives very strong support from the analogy of Persepolis,
+where slender stone columns exist. Such columns
+of cedar wood would add enormously to the magnificence
+and grandeur of the building; and if, as seems likely, most
+of these Assyrian palaces were destroyed by fire, the
+absence of the remains of columns offers no difficulty.
+On the other hand, in many parts of the palace of Khorsabad
+no trace of fire remains, and yet here no suggestion
+of detached columns can be found, and, moreover, it is
+extremely difficult to arrange columns symmetrically in the
+various apartments so that doorways are not interfered
+with. There is also another difficulty, viz. that if the
+building called the Harem at Khorsabad was built in this
+way, the apartments would have been open to the view of
+any one ascending the lofty building called the observatory.
+It is quite possible that further explorations may tend to
+elucidate this difficult question of roofing, but at present
+all that can be said is that none of the theories that have
+been put forward is wholly satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>As no columns at all exist, we cannot say what capitals
+were employed, but it is probable that those of Persepolis,
+which will be shortly described, were copied from an
+earlier wooden form, which may have been that used by the
+Assyrian builders. There is, however, capping the terrace
+on which the temple was erected at Khorsabad, a good
+example of an Assyrian cornice, which is very similar
+indeed to the forms found in Egypt, and some of the
+sculptured bas-reliefs which have been discovered depict
+rude copies of Assyrian buildings drawn by the people
+themselves; and it is most interesting to notice that just
+as we found in the Egyptian style the proto-Doric column,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+so in the Assyrian we find the proto-Ionic (Figs. <a href="#fig034">34</a>, <a href="#fig034a">34<span class="smcap">a</span></a>),
+and possibly also the proto-Corinthian (Fig. <a href="#fig034b">34<span class="smcap">b</span></a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 88px;">
+<a name="fig034" id="fig034"></a>
+<img src="images/acec043.png" width="88" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 34.&mdash;Proto-Ionic
+Column.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="fig034a" id="fig034a"></a>
+<img src="images/acec044.png" width="150" height="144" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 34a.&mdash;Proto-Ionic
+Capital from Assyrian
+Sculpture.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 128px;">
+<a name="fig034b" id="fig034b"></a>
+<img src="images/acec045.png" width="128" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 34b.&mdash;Proto-Corinthian
+Capital
+from Assyrian
+Sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>The third branch of West Asiatic architecture is the
+Persian, which was developed after Cyrus had conquered
+the older monarchies, and which attained its greatest magnificence
+under Darius and Xerxes. The Persians were
+originally a brave and hardy race inhabiting the mountainous
+region south of Media, which slopes down to the
+Persian Gulf. Until the time of Cyrus, who was the founder
+of the great kingdom of Persia, they inhabited small towns,
+had no architecture, and were simple barbarians. But after
+Cyrus had vanquished the wealthy and luxurious Assyrian
+monarchs, and his warriors had seen and wondered at the
+opulence and splendour of the Assyrian palaces, it was
+natural that his successors should strive to emulate for
+themselves the display of their vassals. Therefore, having
+no indigenous style to fall back upon, the artisans who
+were summoned to build the tomb of the founder of the
+monarchy and the palaces of his successors, simply copied
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+the forms with which they were acquainted. Fortunately,
+the sites for the new palaces were in a locality where building
+stone was good and abundant, and the presence of this
+material had a modifying effect upon the architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig035" id="fig035"></a>
+<img src="images/acec046.jpg" width="600" height="434" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 35.&mdash;Tomb of Cyrus.</p>
+
+<p>The best known of the remains which date as far back
+as the earlier Persian dynasties is the so-called tomb of
+Cyrus at Pasargad&aelig;, near Murghab (Fig. <a href="#fig035">35</a>). This may
+be looked upon as a model in white marble of an old
+Chald&aelig;an temple, such as the Birs-i-Nimrud. There
+are the same platforms diminishing in area as the top is
+approached, and on the topmost platform is a small cella
+or temple with a gabled stone roof, which probably
+originally contained the sarcophagus. It is, however, at
+Persepolis, the real capital of the later Persian kings,
+whose grandeur and wealth were such that Alexander is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+said to have found there treasure to the amount of thirty
+millions of pounds sterling, that we find the most magnificent
+series of ruins. These were carefully measured and
+drawn by Baron Texier in 1835, and his work and that of
+MM. Flandrin and Coste are those from which the best
+information on this subject can be obtained.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig035a" id="fig035a"></a>
+<img src="images/acec047.jpg" width="700" height="590"
+alt="Showing location A at the bottom of the plan, and B at the top" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 35a.&mdash;General Plan of the Buildings at Persepolis.</p>
+
+<p>Persepolis is about 35 miles north-east of Shiraz, close to
+the main highway to Ispahan, at the foot of the mountain
+range which bounds the extensive plain of Nurdusht. The
+modern inhabitants of the district call the ruins Takht-i-Jamshid
+(or the building of Jamshid), but the inscriptions
+that have been deciphered prove that Darius and Xerxes
+were the chief builders. Just as was the case with the
+Assyrian ruins, these stand on an immense platform
+which rises perpendicularly from the plain and abuts in
+the rear against the mountain range. Instead, however,
+of this platform being raised artificially, it was cut out of
+the rock, and levelled into a series of terraces, on which
+the buildings were erected. The platform, whose length
+from north to south is about 1582 ft., and breadth from
+east to west about 938 ft., is approached from the plain
+by a magnificent double staircase of black marble, of very
+easy rise, not more than 4 in. each step. Its general
+height above the level of the plain was originally
+34 ft. 9 in. The retaining wall of the platform is not
+straight, but has in it 40 breaks or set-offs of unequal
+dimensions. At the top of the staircase are the remains of
+a building with four columns in the centre and with large
+portals both back and front, each of which is adorned with
+gigantic bulls, strikingly resembling those found at Khorsabad.
+Those in the front have no wings, but those in the
+rear have wings and human heads. It has been suggested
+that these are the ruins of one of those large covered gates
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+frequently mentioned in the Bible, under the shelter of
+which business was transacted, and which probably formed
+the entrance to the whole range of courts and buildings.
+After passing through this gateway and turning southwards,
+at a distance of 177 feet from it, another terrace
+is reached, 9 ft. 2 in. higher than the first one. This terrace
+also is approached by four flights of steps profusely
+decorated with sculptured bas-reliefs, and on it are the
+remains of the Chehil Minar, the grand hexastyle Hall of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+Xerxes, which must have been one of the most magnificent
+buildings of ancient times. This building is marked A on
+the general plan. It consisted of a central court, containing
+thirty-six columns, the distance from centre to centre
+of the outside columns being 142 ft. 8 in. This court was
+surrounded by walls, of which nothing now remains but
+the jambs of three of the doorways. On three sides of
+this court, to the north, east and west, were porticoes of
+twelve columns each, precisely in a line with those of the
+central court, the distance from centre to centre of the
+columns being 28 ft. 6 in. These columns, both in their
+proportions and shape, suggest an imitation of timber construction.
+On the south the court was probably terminated
+by a wall, and Mr. Fergusson suggests that the
+corners between the porticoes were filled up with small
+chambers. The most striking feature of this hall or palace
+must have been its loftiness, the height of the columns
+varying from 63 ft. 8 in. to 64 feet from bottom of base to
+top of capital. The shafts were slightly tapering and had
+48 flutings, and were 4 ft. 6 in. in diameter in the upper
+part. The bases of the columns show hardly any variations,
+and consist of a series of mouldings such as is shown in
+Fig. <a href="#fig036">36</a>; the lowest part of this moulded base is enriched
+with leaves, and rests on a low circular plinth at the
+bottom: the total height of the base averages 5 feet.
+The capitals show considerable variations. Those of the
+east and west porticoes represent the heads and fore part
+of the bodies of two bulls<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> placed directly on the shaft
+back to back, with their forelegs doubled under them,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"><!-- original location of Figs. 35b and 36 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+the feet resting on the shaft and the knees projecting;
+the total height of these capitals is 7 ft. 4 in. Between
+the necks of the bulls rested the wooden girder which
+supported the cross-bearers of the roof. In the north
+portico and, so far as can be ascertained, in the central
+court, the shaft of the column was much shorter, and
+supported a fantastic elongated capital, consisting of a
+sort of inverted cup, supporting an elegant shape much
+resembling the Egyptian palm-leaf capital, above which,
+on all the four sides, are double spirals resembling the
+ornaments of the Greek Ionic capital known as volutes, but
+placed perpendicularly, and not, as in the Ionic capital,
+horizontally. These volutes again may have supported
+double bulls, which would make the total height of the
+columns the same as those of the east and west porticoes.
+The doorways have cornices enriched with leaves, similar
+to those found at Khorsabad, which have already been
+noticed as bearing a decided resemblance to the Egyptian
+doorways.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 148px;">
+<a name="fig035b" id="fig035b"></a>
+<img src="images/acec048.jpg" width="148" height="600"
+alt="Showing double-headed bull capital on a plain column" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 35b.&mdash;Column from Persepolis,
+East and West Porticoes.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 143px;">
+<a name="fig036" id="fig036"></a>
+<img src="images/acec049.jpg" width="143" height="600"
+alt="Showing double-headed bull capital on a more decorative column" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 36.&mdash;Column from
+Persepolis, North Portico.</p>
+
+<p>On other terraces, slightly raised above the main platform,
+exist the remains, in a more or less ruined condition,
+of numerous other courts and halls, one of which has no
+less than one hundred columns to support its roof, but the
+height of this building was much inferior to that of the
+Chehil Minar. The existence of these columns leaves no
+doubt that these buildings were covered with flat roofs;
+and that over part of them was a raised talar or prayer-platform
+is rendered probable from the introduction of such
+a feature into the sculptured representation of a palace
+fa&ccedil;ade which forms the entrance to the rock-tomb of
+Darius, which was cut out of the mountain at the back
+of the terrace of Persepolis. The position of this tomb
+on the general plan is marked B, and Fig. <a href="#fig037">37</a> is a view
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+of the entrance, which was probably intended as a copy
+of one of the halls. All the walls of the palaces were
+profusely decorated with sculptured pictures, and various
+indications occur which induce the belief that painting
+was used to decorate those portions of the walls that were
+not faced with sculptured slabs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 439px;">
+<a name="fig037" id="fig037"></a>
+<img src="images/acec050.jpg" width="439" height="550"
+alt="Showing the entrance with carvings of figures above it" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 37.&mdash;The Rock-cut Tomb of Darius.</p>
+
+<p>The superior lightness and elegance of the Persepolitan
+ruins to those of an earlier epoch will not fail to be noticed,
+but there is still a certain amount of barbaric clumsiness
+discernible, and it is not till we come to Greek architecture
+that we see how an innate genius for art and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+beauty, such as was possessed by that people, could cull
+from previous styles everything capable of being used
+with effect, and discard or prune off all the unnecessary
+exuberances of those styles which offend a critically artistic
+taste.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.</h3>
+
+
+<h4><i>Plan.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The floor-space of a great Assyrian or Medo-Persian
+building was laid out on a plan quite distinct from that of
+an Egyptian temple; for the rooms are almost always
+grouped round quadrangles. The buildings are also placed
+on terraces, and no doubt would secure external as well
+as internal effects, to which the imposing flights of stairs
+provided would largely contribute. We find in Assyrian
+palaces, halls comparatively narrow in proportion to their
+great length, but still so wide that the roofing of them
+must have been a serious business, and we find them
+arranged side by side, often three deep. In the Persian
+buildings, halls nearly square on plan, and filled by a
+multitude of columns, occur frequently. In the plan of
+detached buildings like the Birs-i-Nimrud, we are reminded
+of the pyramids of Egypt, which no doubt suggested the
+idea of pyramidal monuments to all subsequent building
+peoples.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Walls.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The magnificently worked granite and stones of Egypt
+give place to brick for the material of the walls, with the
+result that a far larger space could be covered with buildings
+by a given number of men in a given time, but of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+course the structures were far more liable to decay.
+Accordingly, sturdy as their walls are, we find them at
+the present day reduced to mere shapeless mounds, but of
+prodigious extent.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Roofs.</i></h4>
+
+<p>We can only judge of the roofs by inference, and it has
+already been stated that a difference of opinion exists
+respecting them. It appears most probable that a large
+proportion of the buildings must have been roofed by
+throwing timber beams from wall to wall and forming
+a thick platform of earth on them, and must have been
+lighted by some sort of clerestory. At any rate the
+stone roofs of the Egyptians seem to have been discarded,
+and with them the necessity for enormous columns and
+piers placed very close together. In some bas-reliefs,
+buildings with roofs of a domical shape are represented.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Openings.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Doorways are the openings chiefly met with, and it is
+not often that the superstructure, whether arch or lintel,
+remains, but it is clear that in some instances, at least,
+openings were arched. Great attention was paid to important
+doorways, and a large amount of magnificent
+sculpture was employed to enrich them.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Columns.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The columns most probably were of wood in Assyrian
+palaces. In some of the Persian ones they were of marble,
+but of a proportion and treatment which point to an imitation
+of forms suitable for wood. The bases and capitals
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+of these slender shafts are beautiful in themselves, and
+very interesting as suggesting the source from which
+some of the forms in Greek architecture were derived,
+and on the bas-reliefs other architectural forms are represented
+which were afterwards used by the Greeks.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Ornaments.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Sculptured slabs, painted wall decorations, and terra-cotta
+ornamentation were used as enrichments of the walls.
+These slabs, which have become familiarly known through
+the attention roused by the discoveries of Sir A. H. Layard
+and the specimens sent by him to the British Museum,
+are objects of the deepest interest; so are the carved bulls
+from gateways. In the smaller and more purely ornamental
+decorations the honeysuckle, and other forms
+familiar to us from their subsequent adoption by Greek
+artists, are met with constantly, executed with great
+taste.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Architectural Character.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A character of lavish and ornate magnificence is the
+quality most strongly displayed by the architectural
+remains of Western Asia, and could we have beheld any
+one of the monuments before it was reduced to ruin, we
+should probably have seen this predominant to an extent
+of which it is almost impossible now to form an adequate
+idea.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> In any such endeavour we should be met by the further difficulty,
+that the writers of antiquity differ widely in the precise limits which they
+give to the Assyrian Kingdom. Some make it include Babylon, other
+writers say that it was bounded on the south by Babylon, and altogether
+the greatest confusion exists in the accounts that have come down to us.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> As a matter of fact there is a marked distinction between the heads
+of the animals of the east and west porticoes: those of the west are undoubtedly
+bulls, but those of the east are grotesque mythological creatures
+somewhat resembling the fabled unicorn.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig038" id="fig038"></a>
+<img src="images/acec051.jpg" width="700" height="156"
+alt="Showing a repeated floral design with bead pattern border at the bottom" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 38.&mdash;Sculptured Ornament at Allahabad.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<h4><i>Hindu Architecture.</i></h4>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">H</span>INDU architecture is not only unfamiliar but uncongenial
+to Western tastes; and as it has exercised no
+direct influence upon the later styles of Europe, it will be
+noticed in far less detail than the magnitude and importance
+of many Indian buildings which have been examined
+and measured during the last few years would otherwise
+claim, although the exuberant wealth of ornament exhibited
+in these buildings denotes an artistic genius of very high
+order, if somewhat uncultured and barbaric. As by far the
+largest number of Hindu buildings are of a date much later
+than the commencement of our era, a strict adherence to
+chronological sequence would scarcely allow the introduction
+of this style so early in the present volume; but
+we know that several centuries before Christ powerful
+kingdoms and wealthy cities existed in India; and as it
+seems clear also that in architecture and art, as well as in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+manners and customs, hardly any change<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> has occurred
+from remote antiquity, it appeared allowable, as well as
+convenient, that the short description we have to offer
+should precede rather than follow that of the classical
+styles properly so called. Here, as always when we
+attempt to penetrate farther back than a certain date,
+all is obscure and mythical. We find lists of kings
+and dynasties going back thousands of years before our
+era, but nothing at all to enable us to judge how much of
+this may be taken as solid fact. Mr. Fergusson believes
+he has discovered in one date, viz. 3101 <small>B.C.</small>, the first Aryan
+settlement; but be this as it may, it is useless to look for
+any architectural remains until after the death of Gotama
+Buddha in 543 <small>B.C.</small>; in fact, it is very doubtful whether
+remains can be authenticated until the reign of King
+Asoka (<small>B.C.</small> 272 to <small>B.C.</small> 236), when Buddhism had spread
+over almost the whole of the country, where it remained
+the predominant cult until Brahmanism again asserted its
+supremacy in the 14th century <small>A.D.</small></p>
+
+<p>The earliest, or among the earliest, architectural remains
+are the inscribed pillars called L&acirc;ts, which are
+found in numerous localities, but have been almost always
+overthrown. Many of these were erected by the above-named
+Asoka: they were ornamented with bands and
+mouldings separating the inscriptions, and crowned by a
+sort of capital, which was generally in the form of an
+animal. One very curious feature in these pillars is the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+constant occurrence of a precise imitation of the well-known
+honeysuckle ornament of the Greeks; this was probably
+derived from the same source whence the Greeks obtained
+it, namely Assyria. It is most probable that these pillars
+served to ornament the approaches to some kind of sacred
+enclosure or temple, of which, however, no remains have
+been found.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 306px;">
+<a name="fig039" id="fig039"></a>
+<img src="images/acec052.jpg" width="306" height="400"
+alt="Showing steps leading up to dome with pinnacle" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 39.&mdash;Dagoba from Ceylon.</p>
+
+<p>Extremely early in date are some of the tumuli or topes
+which exist in large numbers in various parts of India.
+These are of two kinds,&mdash;the topes or stupas proper, which
+were erected to commemorate some striking event or to
+mark a sacred spot; and the dagobas, which were built
+to cover the relics of Buddha himself or some Buddhist
+saint. These topes consist of a slightly stilted hemispherical
+dome surmounting a substructure, circular in
+plan, which forms a sort of terrace, access to which is
+obtained by steps. The domical shape was, however,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+external only, as on the inside the masonry was almost solid,
+a few small cavities only being left for the protection of
+various jewels, &amp;c. The dome was probably surmounted
+by a pinnacle, as shown in Fig. <a href="#fig039">39</a>. In the neighbourhood
+of Bhilsa, in Central India, there are a large number of
+these topes, of which the largest, that of Sanchi, measures
+121 ft. in diameter and 55 ft. in height; it was erected
+by King Asoka.</p>
+
+<p>Two kinds of edifices which are not tombs remain,
+the chaityas (temples or halls of assembly) and viharas
+or monasteries, which were generally attached to the
+chaityas. These erections were either detached or cut
+in the rock, and it is only the rock-cut ones of which
+remains exist of an earlier date than the commencement of
+the Christian era. The earliest specimen of a rock-cut
+chaitya is in the Nigope cave, near Behar, constructed
+about 200 <small>B.C.</small> This consists of two compartments, an
+outer rectangular one 32 ft. 9 in. by 19 ft. 1 in., and
+an inner circular one 19 ft. in diameter. The Lomas
+Rishi cave is of a slightly later date: both of these
+rock-cut temples exhibit in every detail a reproduction
+of wooden forms. In the doorway the stone piers slope
+inwards, just like raking wooden struts, and the upper
+part represents the ends of longitudinal rafters supporting
+a roof. Later on the builders emancipated themselves
+to a certain extent from this servile adhesion to
+older forms, and Fig. <a href="#fig040">40</a> gives a plan and section of a
+later chaitya at Karli, near Poona. This bears a striking
+resemblance to a Christian basilica:<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> there is first the forecourt;
+then a rectangular space divided by columns into
+nave and aisles, and terminated by a semicircular apse.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+The nave is 25 ft. 7 in. wide, and the aisles 10 ft. each,
+the total length is 126 ft. Fifteen columns separate the
+nave from the aisles, and these have bases, octagonal shafts,
+and rich capitals. Round the apse the columns are replaced
+by piers. The side aisles have flat roofs, and the central
+nave a stilted semicircular one, practically a vault, which
+at the apse becomes a semicircular dome, under which
+is the dagoba, the symbol of Buddhism. The screen
+separating the forecourt from the temple itself is richly
+ornamented with sculpture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig040" id="fig040"></a>
+<img src="images/acec053.jpg" width="700" height="504"
+alt="Showing section and plan of the chaitya" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 40.&mdash;Chaitya near Poona.</p>
+
+<p>The older viharas or monasteries were also cut in the rock
+(Figs. <a href="#fig041">41</a>, <a href="#fig042">42</a>), and were divided into cells or chambers;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+they were several storeys in height, and it is probable that
+the cells were used by devout Buddhists as habitations for
+the purposes of meditation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig041" id="fig041"></a>
+<img src="images/acec054.jpg" width="600" height="546"
+alt="Showing a number of decorated buildings and a free-standing ornate column" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 41.&mdash;The Kylas at Ellora. A Rock-cut Monument.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 370px;">
+<a name="fig042" id="fig042"></a>
+<img src="images/acec055.jpg" width="370" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 42.&mdash;Plan of the Kylas at Ellora. A Rock-cut Monument.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most remarkable, and in fact almost unique
+features of Hindu Architecture are the so-called rails
+which form enclosures sometimes round the topes and
+sometimes round sacred trees. Occasionally they are
+found standing alone, though when this is the case it is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+probably on account of the object which was the cause of
+their erection having perished. They are built of stone,
+carved so as to represent a succession of perpendicular and
+horizontal bands or rails, separated by a sort of pierced
+panels. The carving is of the most elaborate description,
+both human and animal forms being depicted with great
+fidelity, and representations occur of various forms of tree
+worship which have been of the greatest use in elucidating
+the history of this phase of religious belief. Occasionally
+the junctions of the rails are carved into a series of discs,
+separated by elaborate scroll-work. These rails are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+frequently of very large dimensions, that at Bharhut&mdash;which
+is one of the most recently discovered&mdash;measuring 275 ft.
+in circumference, with a height of 22 ft. 6 in. The date
+of these erections is frequently very difficult to determine,
+but the chief authorities generally concur in the opinion
+that none are found dating earlier than about 250 <small>B.C.</small>, nor
+later than 500 <small>A.D.</small>, so that it is pretty certain they must
+have been appropriated to some form of Buddhist worship.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 322px;">
+<a name="fig043" id="fig043"></a>
+<img src="images/acec056.jpg" width="322" height="600"
+alt="Showing an edifice of several storeys" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 43.&mdash;Vimana from Manasara.</p>
+
+<p>All the buildings that we have mentioned were devoted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+to the worship of Buddha, but the Jain schism, Brahmanism,
+and other cults had their representative temples and buildings,
+a full description of which would require a volume
+many times larger than the present one. Many of the
+late detached buildings display rich ornamentation and
+elaborate workmanship. They are generally of a pyramidal
+shape, several storeys in height, covered with intricately
+cut mouldings and other fantastic embellishments.</p>
+
+<p>Columns are of all shapes and sizes, brackets frequently
+take the place of capitals, and where capitals exist almost
+every variety of fantastic form is found. It has been
+stated that no fixed laws govern the plan or details of
+Indian buildings, but there exists an essay on Indian
+Architecture by Ram Raz&mdash;himself a Hindoo&mdash;which tends
+to show that such a statement is erroneous, as he quotes
+original works of considerable antiquity which lay down
+stringent rules as to the planning of buildings, their height,
+and the details of the columns. It is probable that a more
+extended acquaintance with Hindu literature will throw
+further light on these rules.</p>
+
+<p>Of the various invasions which have occurred some have
+left traces in the architecture of India. None of these are
+more interesting than certain semi-Greek forms which are
+met with in the Northern Provinces, and which without
+doubt are referable to the influence of the invasion under
+Alexander the Great. A far more conspicuous and widespread
+series of changes followed in the wake of the
+Mohammedan invasions. We shall have an opportunity
+later on of recurring to this subject,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> but it is one to which
+attention should be called at this early stage, lest it should
+be thought that a large and splendid part of Indian architecture
+had been overlooked.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 226px;">
+<a name="fig044" id="fig044"></a>
+<img src="images/acec057.jpg" width="226" height="400"
+alt="Showing two curved brackets branching out from the capital" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 44.&mdash;Bracket Capital.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 289px;">
+<a name="fig045" id="fig045"></a>
+<img src="images/acec058.jpg" width="289" height="500"
+alt="Showing a decorative column" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 45.&mdash;Column from Ajunta.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 296px;">
+<a name="fig046" id="fig046"></a>
+<img src="images/acec059.jpg" width="296" height="500"
+alt="Showing a short decorative column" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 46.&mdash;Column from Ellora.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 194px;">
+<a name="fig047" id="fig047"></a>
+<img src="images/acec060.jpg" width="194" height="500"
+alt="Showing a plain column with curving capital" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 47.&mdash;Column from Ajunta.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Chinese and Japanese Architecture.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Although the Chinese have existed as a nation, continuously
+for between two and three thousand years, if
+not longer, and at a very early period had arrived at a
+high state of artistic and scientific cultivation, yet none
+of their buildings with which we are acquainted has any
+claim on our attention because of its antiquity. Several
+reasons may be assigned for this, the principal being that
+the Chinese seem to be as a race singularly unsusceptible
+to all emotions. Although they reverence their dead
+ancestors, yet this reverence never led them, as did that
+of the Egyptians, Etruscans, and other nations, to a
+lavish expenditure of labour or materials, to render
+their tombs almost as enduring as the everlasting hills.
+Though waves of religious zeal must have flowed over
+the country when Confucius inculcated his simple and
+practical morality and gained an influential following,
+and again when Buddhism was introduced and speedily
+became the religion of the greater portion of the people,
+their religious emotion never led them, as it did the Greeks
+and the Medi&aelig;val builders, to erect grand and lasting
+monuments of sacred art. When most of the Western
+nations were still barbarians, the Chinese had attained a
+settled system of government, and were acquainted with
+numerous scientific truths which we have prided ourselves
+on rediscovering within the last two centuries; but no
+thought ever seems to have occurred to them, as it did to
+the Romans, of commemorating any event connected with
+their life as a nation, or of handing down to posterity a
+record of their great achievements. Peaceful and prosperous,
+they have pursued the even tenor of their way at
+a high level of civilisation certainly, but at a most monotonous
+one.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+The Buddhist temples of China have a strong affinity
+to those of India. The largest is that at Honan, the
+southern suburb of Canton. This is 306 ft. long by 174 ft.
+wide, and consists of a series of courts surrounded by colonnades
+and cells for the <i>bonzes</i> or priests. In the centre
+of the courtyard is a series of pavilions or temples connected
+by passages, and devoted to the worship of the idols
+contained in them. On each side of the main court, against
+the outer wall, is another court, with buildings round it,
+consisting of kitchen and refectories on the one side, and
+hospital wards on the other. It is almost certain that this is
+a reproduction of the earlier forms of chaityas and viharas
+which existed in India, and have been already referred to.
+The temple of Honan is two storeys in height, the building
+itself being of stone, but the colonnade surrounding it is of
+wood on marble bases. On the second storey the columns
+are placed on two sides only, and not all round. The
+columns have no capitals, but have projecting brackets.
+The roof of each storey projects over the columns, and
+has a curved section, which is, in fact, peculiar to Chinese
+roofs, and it is enriched at the corners with carved beasts
+and foliage. This is a very common form of temple
+throughout China.</p>
+
+<p>The Taas or Pagodas are the buildings of China best
+known to Europeans. These are nearly always octagonal
+in plan, and consist generally of nine storeys, diminishing
+both in height and breadth as they approach the top.
+Each storey has a cornice composed of a fillet and large
+hollow moulding, supporting a roof which is turned up
+at every corner and ornamented with leaves and bells.
+On the top of all is a long pole, forming a sort of spire,
+surrounded by iron hoops, and supported by eight chains
+attached to the summit and to each angle of the roof of
+the topmost storey. The best known pagoda is that of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+Nankin, which is 40 ft. in diameter at its base, and is faced
+inside and outside with white glazed porcelain slabs keyed
+into the brick core. The roof tiles are also of porcelain,
+in bands of green and yellow, and at each angle is a moulding
+of larger tiles, red and green alternately. The effect
+of the whole is wonderfully brilliant and dazzling. Apart
+from the coloured porcelain, nearly every portion of a
+Chinese temple or pagoda is painted, colour forming the
+chief means of producing effect; but as nearly everything
+is constructed of wood, there was and is no durability in
+these edifices.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 436px;">
+<a name="fig048" id="fig048"></a>
+<img src="images/acec061.jpg" width="436" height="500"
+alt="A pagoda of three levels, built on a platform" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 48.&mdash;A Small Pagoda.</p>
+
+<p>In public works of utility, such as roads, canals&mdash;one
+of which is nearly 700 miles in length&mdash;and boldly
+designed bridges, the Chinese seem to have shown a
+more enlightened mind; and the Great Wall, which was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+built to protect the northern boundary of the kingdom,
+about 200 <small>B.C.</small>, is a wonderful example of engineering skill.
+This wall, which varies from 15 to 30 ft. in height, is
+about 25 ft. thick at the base, and slopes off to 20 ft. at
+the top. It is defended by bastions placed at stated
+intervals, which are 40 ft. square at the base, and about the
+same in height; the wall is carried altogether through a
+course of about 1400 miles, following all the sinuosities of
+the ground over which it passes. It is a most remarkable
+fact that a nation should have existed 2000 years ago
+capable of originating and completing so great a work; but
+it is still more remarkable that such a nation, possessing
+moreover, as it does, a great faculty in decorative art
+applied to small articles of use and fancy, should be still
+leading a populous and prosperous existence, and yet should
+have so little to show in the way of architecture, properly
+so termed, at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>Japan, like China, possesses an architecture, but one
+exclusively of wood; for although the use of stone for
+bridges, walls, &amp;c., had been general, all houses and temples
+were invariably built of wood until the recent employment
+of foreigners led to the erection of brick and stone buildings.
+The consequence has been that nearly all the old temples
+have been burnt down and rebuilt several times; and though
+it is probable that the older forms were adhered to when
+the buildings were re-erected, it is only by inference that
+we can form an idea of the ancient architecture of the
+country. The heavy curved roofs which are so characteristic
+of Chinese buildings are found also in Japan, but only
+in the Buddhist temples, and this makes it probable that
+this form of roof is not of native origin, but was introduced
+with the Buddhist cult. The earlier Shinto temples have
+a different form of roof, which is without the upward
+curve, but which has nearly as much projection at the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+eaves as the curved roofs. Where the buildings are more
+than one storey in height the upper one is always set somewhat
+back, as we saw was the case in the Chinese pagodas,
+and considerable and pleasing variety is obtained by treating
+the two storeys differently. Very great skill in carving
+is shown, all the posts, brackets, beams, and projecting
+rafters being formed into elaborate representations of animals
+and plants, or quaintly conceived grotesques; and the
+flat surfaces have frequently a shallow incised arabesque
+pattern intertwined with foliage. The roofs are always
+covered with tiles, and a curious effect is produced by
+enriching the hips and ridges with several courses of tiles
+in cement, thus making them rise considerably above
+the other portions of the roof. A peculiar feature of
+Japanese houses is that the walls, whether external or
+internal, are not filled in with plaster, but are constructed
+of movable screens which slide in grooves formed in the
+framing of the partitions. Thus all the rooms can easily
+be thrown together or laid open to the outer air in hot
+weather. All travellers in Japan remark upon the impossibility
+of obtaining privacy in the hotels in consequence
+of this.</p>
+
+<p>The Shinto temples are approached through what might
+be termed an archway, only that the arch does not enter
+into its composition. This erection is called a Torii, and
+is thus described by Professor Conder:<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>&mdash;&ldquo;It is composed
+of two upright posts of great thickness, each consisting
+of the whole trunk of a tree rounded, about 15 ft. high,
+and placed 12 ft. apart. Across the top of these is placed
+a wooden lintel, projecting considerably and curving
+upwards at the ends. Some few feet below this another
+horizontal piece is tenoned into the uprights, having a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+little post in the centre helping to support the upper
+lintel.&rdquo; These erections occasionally occur in front of a
+Buddhist temple, when they are built of stone, exactly
+imitating, however, the wooden originals. This is interesting,
+as offering another proof, were one needed, that the
+curious forms of masonry exhibited in much of the work of
+the early nations, some of which has been described, is the
+result of an imitation of earlier wooden forms.</p>
+
+<p>The chief effect in the buildings of the Japanese is
+intended to be produced by colour, which is profusely
+used; and they have attained to a height of perfection
+in the preparation of varnishes and lacquers that has
+never been equalled. Their lacquer is used all over their
+buildings, besides forming their chief means of decorating
+small objects. It is, however, beginning to be questioned
+whether the old art of lacquering is not becoming lost by
+the Japanese themselves, as the modern work appears by
+no means equal to the old. One curious form of decoration,
+of which the Japanese are much enamoured, consists
+in forming miniature representations of country scenes and
+landscapes; waterfalls, bridges, &amp;c., being reproduced on
+the most diminutive scale. It is much to be feared that
+our small stock of knowledge of ancient Japanese art will
+never be greatly increased, as the whole country and the
+people are becoming modernised and Europeanised to such
+an extent that it appears probable there will soon be little
+indigenous art left in the country.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt smlfont">It has not been thought necessary to append to this chapter
+analyses of the Eastern styles similar to those which are given in the
+case of the great divisions of Western Architecture. The notice of
+these styles must unavoidably be condensed into very small space.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> It is not intended to imply that Hindustan has been without change
+in her ruling dynasties. These have been continually changing; but the
+remarkable fact is that, numerous as have been the nations that have
+poured across the Indus attracted by &ldquo;the wealth of Ind,&rdquo; there has been
+no reflux, as it were: the various peoples, with their arts, religions, and
+manners, have been swallowed up and assimilated, leaving but here and
+there slight traces of their origin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See Chap. <a href="#Page_198">XI.</a> for an illustration of a Christian Basilica.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_252">chapter</a> on Saracenic Architecture.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Paper communicated to the Royal Institute of Architects.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig049" id="fig049"></a>
+<img src="images/acec062.jpg" width="600" height="153"
+alt="Repeated pattern, alternately reversed, forming a linear design" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 49.&mdash;Greek Honeysuckle Ornament.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3>GREEK ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<h4><i>Buildings of the Doric Order.</i></h4>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE architecture of Greece has a value far higher than
+that attaching to any of the styles which preceded
+it, on account of the beauty of the buildings and the
+astonishing refinement which the best of them display.
+This architecture has a further claim on our attention, as
+being virtually the parent of that of all the nations of
+Western Europe. We cannot put a finger upon any features
+of Egyptian, Assyrian, or Persian architecture, the influence
+of which has survived to the present day, except such as
+were adopted by the Greeks. On the other hand, there is
+no feature, no ornament, nor even any principle of design
+which the Greek architects employed, that can be said to
+have now become obsolete. Not only do we find direct
+reproductions of Greek architecture forming part of the
+practice of every European country, but we are able to
+trace to Greek art the parentage of many of the forms and
+features of Roman, Byzantine, and Gothic architecture,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+especially those connected with the column and which grew
+out of its artistic use. Greek architecture did not include
+the arch and all the forms allied to it, such as the vault
+and the dome; and, so far as we know, the Greeks abstained
+from the use of the tower. Examples of both
+these features were, it is almost certain, as fully within
+the knowledge of the Greeks as were those features of
+Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian buildings which they
+employed; consequently it is to deliberate selection that
+we must attribute this exclusion. Within the limits by
+which they confined themselves, the Greeks worked with
+such power, learning, taste, and skill that we may fairly
+claim for their highest achievement&mdash;the Parthenon&mdash;that
+it advanced as near to absolute perfection as any
+work of art ever has been or ever can be carried.</p>
+
+<p>Greek architecture seems to have begun to emerge from
+the stage of archaic simplicity about the beginning of the
+sixth century before the Christian era (600 <small>B.C.</small> is the
+reputed date of the old Doric Temple at Corinth). All
+the finest examples were erected between that date and
+the death of Alexander the Great (333 <small>B.C.</small>), after which
+period it declined and ultimately gave place to Roman.</p>
+
+<p>The domestic and palatial buildings of the Greeks have
+decayed or been destroyed, leaving but few vestiges. We
+know their architecture exclusively from ruins of public
+buildings, and to a limited extent of sepulchral monuments
+remaining in Greece and in Greek colonies. By far the
+most numerous and excellent among these buildings are
+temples. The Greek idea of a temple was different from
+that entertained by the Egyptians. The building was to
+a much greater extent designed for external effect than
+internal. A comparatively small sacred cell was provided
+for the reception of the image of the divinity, usually with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+one other cell behind it, which seems to have served as
+treasury or sacristy; but there were no surrounding
+chambers, gloomy halls, or enclosed courtyards, like those
+of the Egyptian temples, visible only to persons admitted
+within a jealously guarded outer wall. The temple, it is
+true, often stood within some sort of precinct, but it was
+accessible to all. It stood open to the sun and air; it
+invited the admiration of the passer-by; its most telling
+features and best sculpture were on the exterior. Whether
+this may have been, to some extent, the case with Persian
+buildings, we have few means of knowing, but certainly
+the attention paid by the Greeks to the outside of their
+temples offers a striking contrast to the practice of the
+Egyptians, and to what we know of that of the Assyrians.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="fig050" id="fig050"></a>
+<img src="images/acec063.jpg" width="400" height="252"
+alt="Showing a simple building, steps on all sides, and two columns at each end" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 50.&mdash;Plan of a small Greek Temple in Antis.</p>
+
+<p>The temple, however grand, was always of simple form,
+with a gable at each end, and in this respect differed
+entirely from the series of halls, courts, and chambers of
+which a great Egyptian temple consisted. In the very
+smallest temple at least one of the gables was made into a
+portico by the help of columns and two pilasters (Fig. <a href="#fig050">50</a>).
+More important temples had a larger number of columns,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+and often a portico at each end (Figs. <a href="#fig050a">50<span class="smcap">a</span></a> and <a href="#fig055">55</a>). The
+most important had columns on the flanks as well as at the
+front and rear, the sacred cell being, in fact, surrounded
+by them. It will be apparent from this that the column,
+together with the superstructure which rested upon it,
+must have played a very important part in Greek temple-architecture,
+and an inspection of any representations of
+Greek buildings will at once confirm the impression.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 350px;">
+<a name="fig050a" id="fig050a"></a>
+<img src="images/acec064.jpg" width="350" height="258"
+alt="Showing a simple building, with surrounding steps and four columns at each end" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 50a.&mdash;Plan of a small Greek Temple.</p>
+
+<p>We find in Greece three distinct manners, distinguished
+largely by the mode in which the column is dealt with.
+These it would be quite consistent to call &ldquo;styles,&rdquo; were
+it not that another name has been so thoroughly appropriated
+to them, that they would hardly now be recognised
+were they to be spoken of as anything else than
+&ldquo;orders.&rdquo; The Greek orders are named the Doric, Ionic,
+and Corinthian. Each of them presents a different series
+of proportions, mouldings, features, and ornaments, though
+the main forms of the buildings are the same in all. The
+column and its entablature (the technical name for the
+frieze, architrave, and cornice, forming the usual superstructure)
+being the most prominent features in every
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+such building, have come to be regarded as the index or
+characteristic from an inspection of which the order and
+the degree of its development can be recognised, just as
+a botanist recognises plants by their flowers. By reproducing
+the column and entablature, almost all the characteristics
+of either of the orders can be copied; and hence
+a technical and somewhat unfortunate use of the word
+&ldquo;order&rdquo; to signify these features only has crept in, and has
+overshadowed and to a large extent displaced its wider
+meaning. It is difficult in a book on architecture to
+avoid employing the word &ldquo;order&rdquo; when we have to speak
+of a column and its entablature, because it has so often
+been made use of in this sense. The student must, however,
+always bear in mind that this is a restricted and
+artificial sense of the word, and that the column belonging
+to any order is always accompanied by the use throughout
+the building of the appropriate proportions, ornaments,
+and mouldings belonging to that order.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of Greek architecture is a very interesting
+subject for inquiry, but, owing to the disappearance of
+almost all very early examples of the styles, it is necessarily
+obscure. Such information, however, as we possess,
+taken together with the internal evidence afforded by the
+features of the matured style, points to the influence of
+Egypt, to that of Assyria and Persia, and to an early
+manner of timber construction&mdash;the forms proper to
+which were retained in spite of the abandonment of
+timber for marble&mdash;as all contributing to the formation
+of Greek architecture.</p>
+
+<p>In Asia Minor a series of monuments, many of them
+rock-cut, has been discovered, which throw a curious
+light upon the early growth of architecture. We refer
+to tombs found in Lycia, and attributed to about the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+seventh century <small>B.C.</small> In these we obviously have the
+first work in stone of a nation of ship builders. A Lycian
+tomb&mdash;such as the one now to be seen, accurately restored,
+in the British Museum&mdash;represents a structure of beams
+of wood framed together, surmounted by a roof which
+closely resembles a boat turned upside down. The planks,
+the beams to which they were secured, and even a ridge
+similar to the keel of a vessel, all reappear here, showing
+that the material in use for building was so universally
+timber, that when the tomb was to be &ldquo;graven in the rock
+for ever&rdquo; the forms of a timber structure were those that
+presented themselves to the imagination of the sculptor.
+In other instances the resemblance to shipwrights&rsquo; work
+disappears, and that of a carpenter is followed by that of
+the mason. Thus we find imitations of timber beams
+framed together and of overhanging low-pitched roofs,
+in some cases carried on unsquared rafters lying side by
+side, in several of these tombs.</p>
+
+<p>What happened on the Asiatic shore of the Egean must
+have occurred on the Greek shores, and though none of
+the very earliest specimens of reproduction in stone of
+timber structures has come down to us, there are abundant
+traces, as we shall presently see, of timber originals in
+buildings of the Doric order. Timber originals were not,
+however, the only sources from which the early inhabitants
+of Greece drew their inspiration.</p>
+
+<p>Constructions of extreme antiquity, and free from any
+appearance of imitating structures of timber, mark the sites
+of the oldest cities of Greece, Mycen&aelig; and Orchomenos for
+example, the most ancient being Pelasgic city walls of unwrought
+stone (Fig. <a href="#fig051">51</a>). The so-called Treasury of Atreus
+at Mycen&aelig;, a circular underground chamber 48 ft. 6 in.
+in diameter, and with a pointed vault, is a well-known
+specimen of more regular yet archaic building. Its vault
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+is constructed of stones corbelling over one another, and
+is not a true arch (Figs. <a href="#fig052">52</a>, <a href="#fig052a">52<span class="smcap">a</span></a>). The treatment of an
+ornamental column found here, and of the remains of
+sculptured ornaments over a neighbouring gateway called
+the Gate of the Lions, is of very Asiatic character, and
+seems to show that whatever influences had been brought
+to bear on their design were Oriental.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig051" id="fig051"></a>
+<img src="images/acec065.jpg" width="500" height="343" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 51.&mdash;Ancient Greek Wall of Unwrought Stone from Samothrace.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 226px;">
+<a name="fig052" id="fig052"></a>
+<img src="images/acec066.jpg" width="226" height="300"
+alt="Showing entrance leading to round chamber with a side chamber" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 52.&mdash;Plan of the Treasury
+of Atreus at Mycen&aelig;.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig052a" id="fig052a"></a>
+<img src="images/acec067.jpg" width="300" height="213"
+alt="Showing the beehive-shaped round chamber" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 52a.&mdash;Section of the Treasury
+of Atreus at Mycen&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 230px;">
+<a name="fig053" id="fig053"></a>
+<img src="images/acec068.png" width="230" height="275"
+alt="Showing highly curved top" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 53.&mdash;Greek Doric Capital
+from Selinus.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 230px;">
+<a name="fig053a" id="fig053a"></a>
+<img src="images/acec069.png" width="230" height="275"
+alt="Showing slightly curved top" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 53a.&mdash;Greek Doric
+Capital from the Theseum.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 226px;">
+<a name="fig053b" id="fig053b"></a>
+<img src="images/acec070.png" width="226" height="275"
+alt="Showing uncurved top" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 53b.&mdash;Greek Doric Capital from Samothrace.</p>
+
+<p>A wide interval of time and a great contrast in taste
+separate the early works of Pelasgic masonry and even
+the chamber at Mycen&aelig; from even the rudest and most
+archaic of the remaining Hellenic works of Greece. The
+Doric temple at Corinth is attributed, as has been stated,
+to the seventh century <small>B.C.</small> This was a massive masonry
+structure with extremely short, stumpy columns, and
+strong mouldings, but presenting the main features of the
+Doric style, as we know it, in its earliest and rudest form.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+Successive examples (Figs. <a href="#fig053">53</a> to <a href="#fig053b">53<span class="smcap">b</span></a>) show increasing
+slenderness of proportions and refinement of treatment,
+and are accompanied by sculpture which approaches nearer
+and nearer to perfection; but in the later and best buildings,
+as in the earliest and rudest, certain forms are
+retained for which it seems impossible to account, except
+on the supposition that they are reproductions in stone or
+marble of a timber construction. These occur in the entablature,
+while the column is of a type which it is hard to
+believe is not copied from originals in use in Egypt many
+centuries earlier, and already described (chap. <a href="#Page_14">II.</a>).</p>
+
+<p>We will now proceed to examine a fully-developed
+Greek Doric temple of the best period, and in doing so
+we shall be able to recognise the forms referred to in the
+preceding paragraph as we come to them. The most complete
+Greek Doric temple was the Parthenon, the work of
+the architect Ictinus, the temple of the Virgin Goddess
+Athene (Minerva) at Athens, and on many accounts this
+building will be the best to select for our purpose.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig054" id="fig054"></a>
+<img src="images/acec071.jpg" width="700" height="433" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 54.&mdash;Ruins of the Parthenon at Athens.</p>
+
+<p>The Parthenon at Athens stood on the summit of a lofty
+rock, and within an irregularly shaped enclosure, something
+like a cathedral close; entered through a noble gateway.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+The temple itself was of perfectly regular plan, and stood
+quite free from dependencies of any sort. It consisted of
+a cella, or sacred cell, in which stood the statue of the
+goddess, with one chamber (the treasury) behind. In the
+cella, and also in the chamber behind, there were columns.
+A series of columns surrounded this building, and at
+either end was a portico, eight columns wide, and two
+deep. There were two pediments, or gables, of flat
+pitch, one at each end. The whole stood on a basement
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"><!-- original location of Fig. 54 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+of steps; the building, exclusive of the steps, being
+228 ft. long by 101 ft. wide, and 64 ft. high. The columns
+were each 34 ft. 3 in. high, and more than 6 ft. in diameter
+at the base; a portion of the shaft and of the capital of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+one is in the British Museum, and a magnificent reproduction,
+full size, of the column and its entablature may
+be seen at the &Eacute;cole des Beaux Arts, Paris. The ornaments
+consisted almost exclusively of sculpture of the
+very finest quality, executed by or under the superintendence
+of Pheidias. Of this sculpture many specimens
+are now in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 402px;">
+<a name="fig055" id="fig055"></a>
+<img src="images/acec072.jpg" width="402" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 55.&mdash;Plan of the Parthenon at Athens.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig056" id="fig056"></a>
+<img src="images/acec073.jpg" width="500" height="477" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 56.&mdash;The Roof of a Greek Doric Temple, showing the Marble Tiles.</p>
+
+<p>The construction of this temple was of the most solid
+and durable kind, marble being the material used; and
+the workmanship was most careful in every part of which
+remains have come down to us. The roof was, no doubt,
+made of timber and covered with marble tiles (Fig. <a href="#fig056">56</a>),
+carried on a timber framework, all traces of which have entirely
+perished; and the mode in which it was constructed
+is a subject upon which authorities differ, especially as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+to what provision was made for the admission of light.
+The internal columns, found in other temples as well
+as in the Parthenon, were no doubt employed to support
+this roof, as is shown in B&ouml;tticher&rsquo;s restoration of the
+Temple at P&aelig;stum which we reproduce (Fig. <a href="#fig056a">56<span class="smcap">a</span></a>), though
+without pledging ourselves to its accuracy; for, indeed, it
+seems probable that something more or less like the clerestory
+of a Gothic church must have been employed to
+admit light to these buildings, as we know was the case
+in the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. But this structure, if
+it existed, has entirely disappeared.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig056a" id="fig056a"></a>
+<img src="images/acec074.jpg" width="600" height="392"
+alt="Showing internal columns employed to support the roof" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 56a.&mdash;Section of the Greek Doric Temple at P&aelig;stum. As restored by
+B&ouml;tticher.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 288px;">
+<a name="fig057" id="fig057"></a>
+<img src="images/acec075t.jpg" width="288" height="500"
+alt="Showing the different elements of the Doric order" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/acec075.jpg">See larger image.</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 57.&mdash;The Greek Doric Order from the Theseum.</p>
+
+<p>The order of the Parthenon was Doric, and the leading
+proportions were as follows:&mdash;The column was 5&middot;56
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"><!-- original location of Fig. 57 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+diameters high; the whole height, including the stylobate
+or steps, might be divided into nine parts, of which two
+go to the stylobate, six to the column, and one to the
+entablature.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="fig058" id="fig058"></a>
+<img src="images/acec076.png" width="225" height="223" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 58.&mdash;Plan of a Greek
+Doric Column.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="fig059" id="fig059"></a>
+<img src="images/acec077.png" width="200" height="141" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 59.&mdash;The Fillets
+under a Greek Doric
+Capital.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek Doric order is without a base; the shaft of
+the column springs from the top step and tapers towards
+the top, the outline being not, however, straight, but of a
+subtle curve, known technically as the entasis of the
+column. This shaft is channelled with twenty shallow
+channels,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> the ridges separating one from another being
+very fine lines. A little below the moulding of the
+capital, fine sinkings, forming lines round the shaft, exist,
+and above these the channels of the flutes are stopped
+by or near the commencement of the projecting moulding
+of the capital. This moulding, which is of a section
+calculated to convey the idea of powerful support, is
+called the echinus, and its lower portion is encircled by a
+series of fillets (Fig. <a href="#fig059">59</a>), which are cut into it. Above
+the echinus, which is circular, like the shaft, comes the
+highest member&mdash;the abacus, a square stout slab of
+marble, which completes the capital of the column. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+whole is most skilfully designed to convey the idea of
+sturdy support, and yet to clothe the support with grace.
+The strong proportions of the shaft, the slight curve
+of its outline, the lines traced upon its surface by the
+channels, and even the vigorous uncompromising planting
+of it on the square step from which it springs, all contribute
+to make the column look strong. The check given
+to the vigorous upward lines of the channels on the shaft
+by the first sinkings, and their arrest at the point where
+the capital spreads out, intensified as it is by the series of
+horizontal lines drawn round the echinus by the fillets
+cut into it, all seem to convey the idea of spreading the
+supporting energy of the column outwards; and the abacus
+appears naturally fitted, itself inert, to receive a burden
+placed upon it and to transmit its pressure to the capital
+and shaft below.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig060" id="fig060"></a>
+<img src="images/acec078.jpg" width="500" height="310"
+alt="Showing key and leaf patterns" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 60.&mdash;Capital of a Greek Doric Column from &AElig;gina,
+with coloured decoration.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 550px;">
+<a name="fig061" id="fig061"></a>
+<img src="images/acec079.jpg" width="550" height="550" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 61.&mdash;Section of the Entablature of the Greek Doric Order.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig062" id="fig062"></a>
+<img src="images/acec080.jpg" width="500" height="260" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 62.&mdash;Plan looking up of part of a Greek Doric Peristyle.</p>
+
+<p>The entablature which formed the superstructure consisted
+first of a square marble beam&mdash;the architrave,
+which, it may be assumed, represents a square timber
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+beam that occupied the same position in the primitive
+structures. On this rests a second member called the
+frieze, the prominent feature of which is a series of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+slightly projecting features, known as triglyphs (three
+channels) (Fig. <a href="#fig063">63</a>), from the channels running down
+their face. These closely resemble, and no doubt actually
+represent, the ends of massive timber beams, which must
+have connected the colonnade to the wall of the cell in
+earlier buildings. At the bottom of each is a row of
+small pendants, known as gutt&aelig;, which closely resemble
+wooden pins, such as would be used to keep a timber
+beam in place. The panels between the triglyphs are
+usually as wide as they are high. They are termed
+metopes and sculpture commonly occupies them. The
+third division of the entablature, the cornice represents
+the overhanging eaves of the roof.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 350px;">
+<a name="fig063" id="fig063"></a>
+<img src="images/acec081.jpg" width="350" height="281" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 63.&mdash;Details of the Triglyph.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 230px;">
+<a name="fig064" id="fig064"></a>
+<img src="images/acec082.jpg" width="230" height="350" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 64.&mdash;Details of the
+Mutules.</p>
+
+<p>The cornices employed in classic architecture may be
+almost invariably subdivided into three parts: the supporting
+part, which is the lowest,&mdash;the projecting part, which is
+the middle,&mdash;and the crowning part, which is the highest
+division of the cornice. The supporting part in a Greek
+Doric cornice is extremely small. There are no mouldings,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+such as we shall find in almost every other cornice,
+calculated to convey the idea of contributing to sustain
+the projection of the cornice, but there are slabs of marble,
+called mutules (Fig. <a href="#fig064">64</a>), dropping towards the outer end,
+of which one is placed over each triglyph and one between
+every two. These seem to recall, by their shape, their
+position, and their slope alike, the ends of the rafters of
+a timber roof; and their surface is covered with small projections
+which resemble the heads of wooden pins, similar
+to those already alluded to. The projecting part, in this
+as in almost all cornices, is a plain upright face of some
+height, called &ldquo;the corona,&rdquo; and recalling probably a
+&ldquo;facia&rdquo; or flat narrow board such as a carpenter of the
+present day would use in a similar position, secured in the
+original structure to the ends of the rafters and supporting
+the eaves. Lastly, the crowning part is, in the Greek
+Doric, a single convex moulding, not very dissimilar in
+profile to the ovolo of the capital, and forming what we
+commonly call an eaves-gutter.</p>
+
+<p>At the ends of the building the two upper divisions of
+the cornice&mdash;namely, the projecting corona and the crowning
+ovolo&mdash;are made to follow the sloping line of the gable,
+a second corona being also carried across horizontally in a
+manner which can be best understood by inspecting a
+diagram of the corner of a Greek Doric building (Fig. <a href="#fig057">57</a>);
+and the triangular space thus formed was termed a pediment,
+and was the position in which the finest of the sculpture
+with which the building was enriched was placed.</p>
+
+<p>In the Parthenon a continuous band of sculpture ran
+round the exterior of the cell, near the top of the wall.</p>
+
+<p>One other feature was employed in Greek temple-architecture.
+The <i>anta</i> was a square pillar or pier of masonry
+attached to the wall, and corresponded very closely to our
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+pilaster; but its capital always differed from that of the
+columns in the neighbourhood of which it was employed.
+The ant&aelig; of the Greek Doric order, as employed in the
+Parthenon, have a moulded base, which it will be remembered
+is not the case with the column, and their
+capital has for its principal feature an under-cut moulding,
+known as the bird&rsquo;s beak, quite dissimilar from the
+ovolo of the capital of the column (Fig. <a href="#fig065">65</a>). Sometimes
+the portico of a temple consisted of the side walls prolonged,
+and ending in two ant&aelig;, with two or more columns
+standing between them. Such a portico is said to be in
+antis.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="fig065" id="fig065"></a>
+<img src="images/acec083.jpg" width="400" height="120" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 65.&mdash;Elevation and Section of the Capital of a Greek Anta,
+with coloured decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The Parthenon presents examples of the most extraordinary
+refinements in order to correct optical illusions.
+The delicacy and subtlety of these are extreme, but there
+can be no manner of doubt that they existed. The best
+known correction is the diminution in diameter or taper,
+and the <i>entasis</i> or convex curve of the tapered outline of the
+shaft of the column. Without the taper, which is perceptible
+enough in the order of this building, and much
+more marked in the order of earlier buildings, the columns
+would look top-heavy; but the entasis is an additional
+optical correction to prevent their outline from appearing
+hollowed, which it would have done had there been no curve.
+The columns of the Parthenon have shafts that are over
+34 ft. high, and diminish from a diameter of 6&middot;15 ft. at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+the bottom to 4&middot;81 ft. at the top. The outline between
+these points is convex, but so slightly so that the curve
+departs at the point of greatest curvature not more than
+&frac34; in. from the straight line joining the top and bottom.
+This is, however, just sufficient to correct the tendency to
+look hollow in the middle.</p>
+
+<p>A second correction is intended to overcome the apparent
+tendency of a building to spread outwards towards
+the top. This is met by inclining the columns slightly
+inwards. So slight, however, is the inclination, that were
+the axes of two columns on opposite sides of the Parthenon
+continued upwards till they met, the meeting-point
+would be 1952 yards, or, in other words, more than
+one mile from the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Another optical correction is applied to the horizontal
+lines. In order to overcome a tendency which exists in all
+long lines to seem as though they droop in the middle,
+the lines of the architrave, of the top step, and of other
+horizontal features of the building, are all slightly curved.
+The difference between the outline of the top step of the
+Parthenon and a straight line joining its two ends is at
+the greatest only just over 2 inches.</p>
+
+<p>The last correction which it is necessary to name here
+was applied to the vertical proportions of the building.
+The principles upon which this correction rests have been
+demonstrated by Mr. John Pennethorne;<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> and it would
+hardly come within the scope of this volume to attempt
+to state them here: suffice it to say, that small additions,
+amounting in the entire height of the order to less
+than 5 inches, were made to the heights of the various
+members of the order, with a view to secure that from
+one definite point of view the effect of foreshortening
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+should be exactly compensated, and so the building should
+appear to the spectator to be perfectly proportioned.</p>
+
+<p>The Parthenon, like many, if not all Greek buildings,
+was profusely decorated with coloured ornaments, of which
+nearly every trace has now disappeared, but which must
+have contributed largely to the splendid beauty of the
+building as a whole, and must have emphasised and set
+off its parts. The ornaments known as Doric frets were
+largely employed. They consist of patterns made entirely
+of straight lines interlacing, and, while preserving the
+severity which is characteristic of the style, they permit
+of the introduction of considerable richness.</p>
+
+<p>The principal remaining examples or fragments of Greek
+Doric may be enumerated as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="smcap">In Greece.</p>
+
+<p>Temple of (?) Athena, at Corinth, ab. 650 <small>B.C.</small><br />
+Temple of (?) Zeus, in the island of &AElig;gina, ab. 550 <small>B.C.</small><br />
+Temple of Theseus (Theseum), at Athens, 465 <small>B.C.</small><br />
+Temple of Athena (Parthenon), on the Acropolis at Athens, fin. 438 <small>B.C.</small><br />
+The Propyl&aelig;a, on the Acropolis at Athens, 436-431 <small>B.C.</small><br />
+Temple of Zeus at Olympia.<br />
+Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bass&aelig;,<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> in Arcadia (designed by Ictinus).<br />
+Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Phigaleia, in Arcadia (built by Ictinus).<br />
+Temple of Athena, on the rock of Sunium, in Attica.<br />
+Temple of Nemesis, at Rhamnus, in Attica.<br />
+Temple of Demeter (Ceres), at Eleusis, in Attica.</p>
+
+<p class="smcap">In Sicily and South Italy.</p>
+
+<p>Temple of (?) Zeus, at Agrigentum, in Sicily (begun <small>B.C.</small> 480).<br />
+Temple at &AElig;gesta (or Segesta), in Sicily.<br />
+Temple of (?) Zeus, at Selinus, in Sicily (? ab. 410 <small>B.C.</small>).<br />
+Temple of (?) Athena, at Syracuse, in Sicily.<br />
+Temple of Poseidon, at P&aelig;stum, in South of Italy (? ab. 550 <small>B.C.</small>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> See <a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a> and Figs. <a href="#fig054">54</a> and <a href="#fig055">55</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The Propyl&aelig;a.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Mr. Fergusson&rsquo;s investigations, soon, it is understood, to be published
+in a complete form, clearly show that the clerestory and roof can be
+restored with the greatest probability.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> In a few instances a smaller number is found.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> &lsquo;Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture.&rsquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> ? Exterior Doric&mdash;Interior Ionic.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 650px;">
+<a name="fig066" id="fig066"></a>
+<img src="images/acec084.jpg" width="650" height="267"
+alt="Repeated linear design" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 66.&mdash;Palmette and Honeysuckle.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>GREEK ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<h4><i>Buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.</i></h4>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE Doric was the order in which the full strength and
+the complete refinement of the artistic character of
+the Greeks were most completely shown. There was a great
+deal of the spirit of severe dignity proper to Egyptian
+art in its aspect; but other nationalities contributed to
+the formation of the many-sided Greek nature, and we
+must look to some other country than Egypt for the spirit
+which inspired the Ionic order. This seems to have been
+brought into Greece by a distinct race, and shows marks
+of an Asiatic origin. The feature which is most distinctive
+is the one most distinctly Eastern&mdash;the capital of
+the column, ornamented always by volutes, <i>i.e.</i> scrolls,
+which bear a close resemblance to features similarly
+employed in the columns found at Persepolis. The same
+resemblance can be also detected in the moulded bases,
+and even the shafts of the columns, and in many of the
+ornaments employed throughout the buildings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="fig067" id="fig067"></a>
+<img src="images/acec085.png" width="225" height="224" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 67.&mdash;Shaft of Ionic
+Column showing the Flutes.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 425px;">
+<a name="fig068" id="fig068"></a>
+<img src="images/acec086.jpg" width="425" height="298"
+alt="Showing palmette and honeysuckle design" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 68.&mdash;Ionic Capital. Front Elevation.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig069" id="fig069"></a>
+<img src="images/acec087.jpg" width="300" height="292"
+alt="Showing palmette and honeysuckle design" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 69.&mdash;Ionic Capital. Side
+Elevation.</p>
+
+<p>In form and disposition an ordinary Ionic temple was
+similar to one of the Doric order, but the general proportions
+are more slender, and the mouldings of the order
+are more numerous and more profusely enriched. The
+column in the Ionic order had a base, often elaborately
+and sometimes singularly moulded (Figs. <a href="#fig074">74</a>, <a href="#fig075">75</a>). The
+shaft (Figs. <a href="#fig067">67</a>, <a href="#fig070">70</a>) is of more slender proportions than
+the Doric shaft. It was fluted, but its channels are more
+numerous, and are separated from one another by broader
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+fillets than in the Doric. The distinctive feature, as in
+all the orders, is the capital (Figs. <a href="#fig068">68</a>, <a href="#fig069">69</a>), which is
+recognised at a glance by the two remarkable ornaments
+already alluded to as like scrolls, and known as volutes.
+These generally formed the faces of a pair of cushion-shaped
+features, which could be seen in a side view of
+the capital; but sometimes volutes stand in a diagonal
+position, and in almost every building they differ slightly.
+The abacus is less deep than in the Greek Doric, and
+it is always moulded at the edge, which was never the
+case with the Doric abacus. The entablature (Fig. <a href="#fig070">70</a>)
+is, generally speaking, richer than that of the Doric order.
+The architrave, for example, has three facias instead of
+being plain. On the other hand, the frieze has no triglyphs,
+and but rarely sculpture. There are more members in
+the cornice, several mouldings being combined to fortify
+the supporting portion. These have sometimes been
+termed &ldquo;the bed mouldings,&rdquo; and among them occurs one
+which is almost typical of the order, and is termed a
+dentil band. This moulding presents the appearance of
+a plain square band of stone, in which a series of cuts had
+been made dividing it into blocks somewhat resembling
+teeth, whence the name. Such an ornament is more
+naturally constructed in wood than in stone or marble, but
+if the real derivation of the Ionic order, as of the Doric,
+be in fact from timber structures, the dentil band is
+apparently the only feature in which that origin can now
+be traced. The crowning member of the cornice is a
+partly hollow moulding, technically called a &ldquo;cyma recta,&rdquo;
+less vigorous than the convex ovolo, of the Doric: this
+moulding, and some of the bed mouldings, were commonly
+enriched with carving. Altogether more slenderness
+and less vigour, more carved enrichment and less
+painted decoration, more reliance on architectural ornament
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"><!-- original location of Fig. 70 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"><!-- original location of Fig. 71 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+and less on the work of the sculptor, appear to
+distinguish those examples of Greek Ionic which have
+come down to us, as compared with Doric buildings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 407px;">
+<a name="fig070" id="fig070"></a>
+<img src="images/acec088.jpg" width="407" height="700" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 70.&mdash;The Ionic Order. From Priene, Asia Minor.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 280px;">
+<a name="fig071" id="fig071"></a>
+<img src="images/acec089t.jpg" width="280" height="500"
+alt="Diagram showing elements of the Ionic order" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/acec089.jpg">See larger image.</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 71.&mdash;Ionic Order. From the Erechtheium, Athens.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig072" id="fig072"></a>
+<img src="images/acec090.jpg" width="600" height="476" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 72.&mdash;North-west View of the Erechtheium, in the Time of Pericles.</p>
+
+<p>The most numerous examples of the Ionic order of
+which remains exist are found in Asia Minor, but the
+most refined and complete is the Erechtheium at Athens
+(Figs. <a href="#fig072">72</a>, <a href="#fig073">73</a>), a composite structure containing three
+temples built in juxtaposition, but differing from one
+another in scale, levels, dimensions, and treatment. The
+principal order from the Erechtheium (Fig. <a href="#fig071">71</a>) shows a
+large amount of enrichment introduced with the most
+refined and severe taste. Specially remarkable are the
+ornaments (borrowed from the Assyrian honeysuckle)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+which encircle the upper part of the shaft at the point
+where it passes into the capital, and the splendid spirals
+of the volutes (Figs. <a href="#fig068">68</a>, <a href="#fig069">69</a>). The bases of the columns
+in the Erechtheium example are models of elegance and
+beauty. Those of some of the examples from Asia Minor
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+are overloaded with a vast number of mouldings, by no
+means always producing a pleasing effect (Figs. <a href="#fig074">74</a>, <a href="#fig075">75</a>).
+Some of them bear a close resemblance to the bases of the
+columns at Persepolis.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig073" id="fig073"></a>
+<img src="images/acec091.jpg" width="500" height="412"
+alt="Showing position of columns and other features" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 73.&mdash;Plan of the Erechtheium.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 207px;">
+<a name="fig074" id="fig074"></a>
+<img src="images/acec092.png" width="207" height="275"
+alt="Showing layers of mouldings" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 74.&mdash;Ionic Base from the
+Temple of the Wingless Victory
+(Nik&egrave; Apteros).</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 275px;">
+<a name="fig075" id="fig075"></a>
+<img src="images/acec093.png" width="275" height="274"
+alt="Showing many layers of mouldings" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 75.&mdash;Ionic Base Mouldings
+from Priene.</p>
+
+<p>The most famous Greek building which was erected in
+the Ionic style was the Temple of Diana at Ephesus.
+This temple has been all but totally destroyed, and the
+very site of it had been for centuries lost and unknown
+till the energy and sagacity of an English architect (Mr.
+Wood) enabled him to discover and dig out the vestiges
+of the building. Fortunately sufficient traces of the
+foundation have remained to render it possible to recover
+the plan of the temple completely; and the discovery of
+fragments of the order, together with representations on
+ancient coins and a description by Pliny, have rendered
+it possible to make a restoration on paper, of the general
+appearance of this famous temple, which must be very
+nearly, if not absolutely, correct.</p>
+
+<p>The walls of this temple enclosed, as usual, a cella (in
+which was the statue of the goddess), with apparently
+a treasury behind it: they were entirely surrounded by a
+double series of columns, with a pediment at each end.
+The exterior of the building, including these columns, was
+about twice the width of the cella. The whole structure,
+which was of marble, was planted on a spacious platform
+with steps. The account of Pliny refers to thirty-six
+columns, which he describes as &ldquo;<i>column&aelig; celat&aelig;</i>&rdquo; (sculptured
+columns), adding that one was by Scopas, a very
+celebrated artist. The fortunate discovery by Mr. Wood
+of a few fragments of these columns shows that the lower
+part of the shaft immediately above the base was enriched
+by a group of figures&mdash;about life-size&mdash;carved in the
+boldest relief and encircling the column. One of these
+groups has been brought to the British Museum, and its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+beauty and vigour enable the imagination partly to restore
+this splendid feature, which certainly was one of the most
+sumptuous modes of decorating a building by the aid of
+sculpture which has ever been attempted; and the effect
+must have been rich beyond description.</p>
+
+<p>It is worth remark that the Erechtheium, which has
+been already referred to, contains an example of a different,
+and perhaps a not less remarkable, mode of combining
+sculpture with architecture. In one of its three porticoes
+(Fig. <a href="#fig072">72</a>) the columns are replaced by standing female
+figures, known as caryatid&aelig;, and the entablature rests on
+their heads. This device has frequently been repeated in
+ancient and in modern architecture, but, except in some
+comparatively obscure examples, the sculptured columns
+of Ephesus do not appear to have been imitated.</p>
+
+<p>Another famous Greek work of art, the remains of
+which have been, like the Temple of Diana, disinterred by
+the energy and skill of a learned Englishman, belonged
+to the Ionic order. To Mr. Newton we owe the recovery
+of the site, and considerable fragments of the architectural
+features, of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the
+ancient wonders of the world. The general outline of
+this monument must have resembled other Greek tombs
+which have been preserved, such, for example, as the Lion
+Tomb at Cnidus; that is to say, the plan was square:
+there was a basement, above this an order, and above that
+a steep pyramidal roof rising in steps, not carried to a
+point, but stopping short to form a platform, on which
+was placed a quadriga (or four-horsed chariot). This
+building is known to have been richly sculptured, and
+many fragments of great beauty have been recovered.
+Indeed it was probably its elaboration, as well as its
+very unusual height (for the Greek buildings were seldom
+lofty), which led to its being so celebrated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 306px;">
+<a name="fig076" id="fig076"></a>
+<img src="images/acec094.jpg" width="306" height="700"
+alt="Showing columns with decorated frieze above, including figures and inscription" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 76.&mdash;The Corinthian Order. From the Monument of Lysicrates at Athens.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 411px;">
+<a name="fig077" id="fig077"></a>
+<img src="images/acec095.jpg" width="411" height="450"
+alt="Featuring floral and foliage design" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 77.&mdash;Corinthian Capital from the Monument of Lysicrates at Athens.</p>
+
+<p>The Corinthian order, the last to make its appearance,
+was almost as much Roman as Greek, and is hardly found
+in any of the great temples of the best period of which
+remains exist in Greece, though we hear of its use. For
+example, Pausanias states that the Corinthian order was
+employed in the interior of the Temple of Athena Alea at
+Tegea, built by Scopas, to which a date shortly after the
+year 394 <small>B.C.</small> is assigned. The examples which we possess
+are comparatively small works, and in them the order
+resembles the Ionic, but with the important exceptions
+that the capital of the column is quite different, that the
+proportions are altogether a little slenderer, and that the
+enrichments are somewhat more florid.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter padtop" style="width: 267px;">
+<a name="fig078" id="fig078"></a>
+<img src="images/acec096.jpg" width="267" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 78.&mdash;Monument of Lysicrates at Athens, as in the Time of Pericles.</p>
+
+<p>The capital of the Greek Corinthian order, as seen in
+the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates at Athens (Fig. <a href="#fig078">78</a>)&mdash;a
+comparatively miniature example, but the most perfect
+we have&mdash;is a work of art of marvellous beauty (Fig. <a href="#fig077">77</a>).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"><!-- original location of Fig. 78 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+It retains a feature resembling the Ionic volute, but
+reduced to a very small size, set obliquely and appearing
+to spring from the sides of a kind of long bell-shaped
+termination to the column. This bell is clothed with
+foliage, symmetrically arranged and much of it studied,
+but in a conventional manner, from the graceful foliage
+of the acanthus; between the two small volutes appears
+an Assyrian honeysuckle, and tendrils of honeysuckle,
+conventionally treated, occupy part of the upper portion
+of the capital. The abacus is moulded, and is curved on
+plan, and the base of the capital is marked by a very
+unusual turning-down of the flutes of the columns. The
+entire structure to which this belonged is a model of
+elegance, and the large sculptured mass of leaves and
+tendrils with which it is crowned is especially noteworthy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="fig079" id="fig079"></a>
+<img src="images/acec097.jpg" width="250" height="250"
+alt="Showing floral design" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 79.&mdash;Capital of Ant&aelig; from Miletus. Side View.</p>
+
+<p>A somewhat simpler Corinthian capital, and another of
+very rich design, are found in the Temple of Apollo Didym&aelig;us
+at Miletus, where also a very elegant capital for the
+ant&aelig;&mdash;or pilasters&mdash;is employed (Figs. <a href="#fig079">79</a>, <a href="#fig081">81</a>). A more
+ornamental design for a capital could hardly be adopted
+than that of the Lysicrates example, but there was room for
+more elaboration in the entablature, and accordingly large
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"><!-- original location of Fig. 80 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+richly-sculptured brackets seem to have been introduced,
+and a profusion of ornament was employed. The examples
+of this treatment which remain are, however, of Roman
+origin rather than Greek.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig080" id="fig080"></a>
+<img src="images/acec098.jpg" width="700" height="270"
+alt="View looking directly towards the stage" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 80.&mdash;Restoration of the Greek Theatre of Segesta.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek cities must have included structures of
+great beauty and adapted to many purposes, of which in
+most cases few traces, if any, have been preserved. We
+have no remains of a Greek palace, or of Greek dwelling-houses,
+although those at Pompeii were probably erected
+and decorated by Greek artificers, for Roman occupation.
+The agora of a Greek city, which was a place of public
+assembly something like the Roman Forum, is known to
+us only by descriptions in ancient writers, but we possess
+some remains of Greek theatres; and from these, aided by
+Roman examples and written descriptions, can understand
+what these buildings were. The auditory was curved
+in plan, occupying rather more than a semicircle; the
+seats rose in tiers one behind another; a circular space
+was reserved for the chorus in the centre of the seats,
+and behind it was a raised stage, bounded by a wall
+forming its back and sides: a rough notion of the arrangement
+can be obtained from the lecture theatre of many
+modern colleges, and our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig080">80</a>) gives a
+general idea of what must have been the appearance of
+one of these structures. Much of the detail of these
+buildings is, however, a matter of pure speculation, and
+consequently does not enter into the scheme of this
+manual.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig081" id="fig081"></a>
+<img src="images/acec099.jpg" width="500" height="240"
+alt="Showing floral and bead patterns" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 81.&mdash;Capital of Ant&aelig; from Miletus.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>GREEK ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<h4><i>Analysis.</i></h4>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE <strong>Plan</strong> or floor-disposition of a Greek building
+was always simple however great its extent, was
+well judged for effect, and capable of being understood
+at once. The grandest results were obtained by simple
+means, and all confusion, uncertainty, or complication
+were scrupulously avoided. Refined precision, order, symmetry,
+and exactness mark the plan as well as every part
+of the work.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of a Greek temple may be said to present
+many of the same elements as that of an Egyptian temple,
+but, so to speak, turned inside out. Columns are relied on
+by the Greek artist, as they were by the Egyptian artist,
+as a means of giving effect; but they are placed by him
+outside the building instead of within its courts and halls.
+The Greek, starting with a comparatively small nucleus
+formed by the cell and the treasury, encircles them by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+a magnificent girdle of pillars, and so makes a grand
+structure, the first hint or suggestion being in all probability
+to be found in certain small Egyptian buildings to
+which reference has already been made. The disposition
+of these columns and of the great range of steps, or
+stylobate, is the most marked feature in Greek temple
+plans. Columns also existed, it is true, in the interior of
+the building, but these were of smaller size, and seem to
+have been introduced to aid in carrying the roof and the
+clerestory, if there was one. They have in several instances
+disappeared, and there is certainly no ground for
+supposing that in any Greek interior the grand but
+oppressive effect of a hypostyle hall was attempted to be
+reproduced. That was abandoned, together with the
+complication, seclusion, and gloom of the long series of
+chambers, cells, &amp;c., placed one behind another, just as
+the contrasts and surprises of the series of courts and
+halls following in succession were abandoned for the one
+simple but grand mass built to be seen from without
+rather than from within. In the greater number of Greek
+buildings a degree of precision is exhibited, to which the
+Egyptians did not attain. All right angles are absolutely
+true; the setting-out (or spacing) of the different columns,
+piers, openings, &amp;c., is perfectly exact; and, in the Parthenon,
+the patient investigations of Mr. Penrose and other
+skilled observers have disclosed a degree of accuracy as
+well as refinement which resembles the precision with
+which astronomical instruments are adjusted in Europe
+at the present day, rather than the rough-and-ready
+measurements of a modern mason or bricklayer.</p>
+
+<p>What the plans of Greek palaces might have exhibited,
+did any remains exist, is merely matter for inference
+and conjecture, and it is not proposed in this volume to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+pass far beyond ascertained and observed facts. There
+can be, however, little doubt that the palaces of the West
+Asiatic style must have at least contributed suggestions
+as to internal disposition of the later and more magnificent
+Greek mansions. The ordinary dwelling-houses of
+citizens, as described by ancient writers, resembled those
+now visible in the disinterred cities of Pompeii and
+Herculaneum, which will be referred to under Roman
+Architecture.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The chief characteristic of the plan of
+these is that they retain the disposition which in the
+temples was discarded; that is to say, all the doors and
+windows looked into an inner court, and the house was
+as far as possible secluded within an encircling wall.
+The contrast between the openness of the public life
+led by the men in Greek cities, and the seclusion of the
+women and the families when at home, is remarkably
+illustrated by this difference between the public and
+private buildings.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of the triple building called the Erechtheium
+(Fig. <a href="#fig072">72</a>) deserves special mention, as an example of an
+exceptional arrangement which appears to set the ordinary
+laws of symmetry at defiance, and which is calculated to
+produce a result into which the picturesque enters at least
+as much as the beautiful. Though the central temple is
+symmetrical, the two attached porticoes are not so, and
+do not, in position, dimensions, or treatment, balance one
+another. The result is a charming group, and we cannot
+doubt that other examples of freedom of planning would
+have been found, had more remains of the architecture of
+the great cities of Greece come down to our own day.</p>
+
+<p>In public buildings other than temples&mdash;such as the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+theatre, the agora, and the basilica&mdash;the Greek architects
+seem to have had great scope for their genius; the planning
+of the theatres shows skilful and thoroughly complete
+provisions to meet the requirements of the case. A
+circular disposition was here introduced&mdash;not, it is true,
+for the first time, since it is rendered probable by the representations
+on sculptured slabs that some circular buildings
+existed in Assyria, and circular buildings remain in
+the archaic works at Mycen&aelig;; but it was now elaborated
+with remarkable completeness, beauty, and mastery over
+all the difficulties involved. Could we see the great
+theatre of Athens as it was when perfect, we should
+probably find that as an interior it was almost unrivalled,
+alike for convenience and for beauty; and for these excellences
+it was mainly indebted to the elegance of its
+planning. The actual floor of many of the Greek temples
+appears to have been of marble of different colours.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Walls.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The construction of the walls of the Greek temples
+rivalled that of the Egyptians in accuracy and beauty
+of workmanship, and resembled them in the use of solid
+materials. The Greeks had within reach quarries of
+marble, the most beautiful material which nature has
+provided for the use of the builder; and great fineness of
+surface and high finish were attained. Some interesting
+examples of hollow walling occur in the construction of
+the Parthenon. The wall was not an element of the
+building on which the Greek architect seemed to dwell
+with pleasure; much of it is almost invariably overshadowed
+by the lines of columns which form the main
+features of the building.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+The pediment (or gable) of a temple is a grand development
+of the walls, and perhaps the most striking of the
+additions which the Greeks made to the resources of the
+architect. It offers a fine field for sculpture, and adds real
+and apparent height beyond anything that the Egyptians
+ever attempted since the days of the Pyramid-builders;
+and it has remained in constant use to the present hour.</p>
+
+<p>We do not hear of towers being attached to buildings,
+and, although such monumental structures as the Mausoleum
+of Halicarnassus approached the proportions of a
+tower, height does not seem to have commended itself to
+the mind of the Greek architect as necessary to the buildings
+which he designed. It was reserved for Roman and
+Christian art to introduce this element of architectural
+effect in all its power. On the other hand, the Greek,
+like the Persian architect, emphasised the base of his
+building in a remarkable manner, not only by base mouldings,
+but by planting the whole structure on a great
+range of steps which formed an essential part of the
+composition.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Roof.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The construction of the roofs of Greek temples has
+been the subject of much debate. It is almost certain
+that they were in some way so made as to admit light.
+They were framed of timber and covered by tiles, often,
+if not always, of marble. Although all traces of the
+timber framing have disappeared, we can at least know
+that the pitch was not steep, by the slope of the outline
+of the pediments, which formed, as has already been said,
+perhaps the chief glory of a Greek temple. The flat stone
+roofs sometimes used by the Egyptians, and necessitating
+the placing of columns or other supports close together,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+seem to have become disused, with the exception that
+where a temple was surrounded by a range of columns
+the space between the main wall and the columns was so
+covered.</p>
+
+<p>The vaulted stone roofs of the archaic buildings, of
+which the treasury of Atreus (Figs. <a href="#fig052">52</a>, <a href="#fig052a">52<span class="smcap">a</span></a>) was the
+type, do not seem to have prevailed in a later period, or,
+so far as we know, to have been succeeded by any similar
+covering or vault of a more scientific construction.</p>
+
+<p>It is hardly necessary to add that the Greek theatres
+were not roofed. The Romans shaded the spectators in
+their theatres and amphitheatres by means of a velarium
+or awning, but it is extremely doubtful whether even
+this expedient was in use in Greek theatres.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Openings.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The most important characteristic of the openings in
+Greek buildings is that they were flat-topped,&mdash;covered
+by a lintel of stone or marble,&mdash;and never arched. We
+have already<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> shown that this circumstance is really of
+the first importance as determining the architectural
+character of buildings. Doors and window openings were
+often a little narrower at the top than the bottom, and
+were marked by a band of mouldings, known as the architrave,
+on the face of the wall, and, so to speak, framing
+in the opening. There was often also a small cornice over
+each (Figs. <a href="#fig082">82</a>, <a href="#fig083">83</a>). Openings were seldom advanced
+into prominence or employed as features in the exterior
+of a building; in fact, the same effects which windows
+produce in other styles were in Greek buildings created
+by the interspaces between the columns.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>The Columns.</i></h4>
+
+<p>These features, together with the superstructure or
+entablature, which they customarily carried, were the
+prominent parts of Greek architecture, occupying as they
+did the entire height of the building. The development
+of the orders (which we have explained to be really decorative
+systems, each of which involved the use of one sort
+of column, though the term is constantly understood as
+meaning merely the column and entablature) is a very
+interesting subject, and illustrates the acuteness with
+which the Greeks selected from those models which were
+accessible to them, exactly what was suited to their
+purpose, and the skill with which they altered and
+refined, and almost redesigned, everything which they
+so selected.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 119px;">
+<a name="fig082" id="fig082"></a>
+<img src="images/acec100.jpg" width="119" height="375"
+alt="Showing scroll and floral designs" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 82.&mdash;Greek
+Doorway Showing
+Cornice.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 330px;">
+<a name="fig083" id="fig083"></a>
+<img src="images/acec101.jpg" width="330" height="375"
+alt="Showing floral decoration and bead patterns" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 83.&mdash;Greek Doorway. Front View.
+(From the Erechtheium.)</p>
+
+<p>During the whole period when Greek art was being
+developed, the ancient and polished civilisation of Egypt
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+constituted a most powerful and most stable influence,
+always present,&mdash;always, comparatively speaking, within
+reach,&mdash;and always the same. Of all the forms of column
+and capital existing in Egypt, the Greeks, however, only
+selected that straight-sided fluted type of which the
+Beni-Hassan example is the best known, but by no
+means the only instance. We first meet with these fluted
+columns at Corinth, of very sturdy proportions, and
+having a wide, swelling, clumsy moulding under the
+abacus by way of a capital. By degrees the proportions
+of the shaft grew more slender, and the profile of the
+capital more elegant and less bold, till the perfected perfections
+of the Greek Doric column were attained. This
+column is the original to which all columns with moulded
+capitals that have been used in architecture, from the
+age of Pericles to our own, may be directly or indirectly
+referred; while the Egyptian types which the Greeks did
+not select&mdash;such, for example, as the lotus-columns at
+Karnak&mdash;have never been perpetuated.</p>
+
+<p>A different temper or taste, and partly a different
+history, led to the selection of the West Asiatic types
+of column by a section of the Greek people; but great
+alterations in proportion, in the treatment of the capital,
+and in the management of the moulded base from which
+the columns sprang, were made, even in the orders which
+occur in the Ionic buildings of Asia Minor. This was
+carried further when the Ionic order was made use of in
+Athens herself, and as a result the Attic base and the
+perfected Ionic capital are to be found at their best in the
+Erechtheium example. The Ionic order and the Corinthian,
+which soon followed it, are the parents,&mdash;not, it is
+true, of all, but of the greater part of the columns with
+foliated capitals that have been used in all styles and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+periods of architecture since. It will not be forgotten
+that rude types of both orders are found represented on
+Assyrian bas-reliefs, but still the Corinthian capital and
+order must be considered as the natural and, so to speak,
+inevitable development of the Ionic. From the Corinthian
+capital an unbroken series of foliated capitals can be traced
+down to our own day; almost the only new ornamented
+type ever devised since being that which takes its origin
+in the Romanesque block capital, known to us in England
+as the early Norman cushion capital: this was certainly
+the parent of a distinct series, though even these owe not
+a little to Greek originals.</p>
+
+<p>We have alluded to the Ionic base. It was derived
+from a very tall one in use at Persepolis, and we meet
+with it first in the rich but clumsy forms of the bases in
+the Asia Minor examples. In them we find the height of
+the feature as used in Persia compressed, while great, and
+to our eyes eccentric, elaboration marked the mouldings:
+these the refinement of Attic taste afterwards simplified,
+till the profile of the well-known Attic base was produced&mdash;a
+base which has had as wide and lasting an influence
+as either of the original forms of capital.</p>
+
+<p>The Corinthian order, as has been above remarked, is
+the natural sequel of the Ionic. Had Greek architecture
+continued till it fell into decadence, this order would
+have been the badge of it. As it was, the decadence of
+Greek art was Roman art, and the Corinthian order was the
+favourite order of the Romans; in fact all the important
+examples of it which remain are Roman work.</p>
+
+<p>If we remember how invariably use was made of one
+or other of the two great types of the Greek order in all
+the buildings of the best Greek time, with the addition
+towards its close of the Corinthian order, and that these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+orders, a little more subdivided and a good deal modified,
+have formed the substratum of Roman architecture and of
+that in use during the last three centuries; and if we also
+bear in mind that nearly all the columnar architecture of
+Early Christian, Byzantine, Saracenic, and Gothic times,
+owes its forms to the same great source, we may well
+admit that the invention and perfecting of the orders of
+Greek architecture has been&mdash;with one exception&mdash;the
+most important event in the architectural history of the
+world. That exception is, of course, the introduction of
+the Arch.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Ornaments.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Greek Ornaments have exerted the same wide influence
+over the whole course of Western art as Greek columns;
+and in their origin they are equally interesting as specimens
+of Greek skill in adapting existing types, and of
+Greek invention where no existing types would serve.</p>
+
+<p>Few of the mouldings of Greek architecture are to be
+traced to anterior styles. There is nothing like them
+in Egyptian work, and little or nothing in Assyrian; and
+though a suggestion of some of them may no doubt be
+found in Persian examples, we must take them as having
+been substantially originated by Greek genius, which felt
+that they were wanted, designed them, and brought them
+far towards absolute perfection. They were of the most
+refined form, and when enriched were carved with consummate
+skill. They were executed, it must be remembered,
+in white marble,&mdash;a material having the finest
+surface, and capable of responding to the most delicate
+variations in contour by corresponding changes in shade
+or light in a manner and to a degree which no other
+material can equal. In the Doric, mouldings were few,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+and almost always convex; they became much more numerous
+in the later styles, and then included many of
+concave profile. The chief are the <small>OVOLO</small>, which formed
+the curved part of the Doric capital, and the crowning
+moulding of the Doric cornice; the <small>CYMA</small>; the <small>BIRD&rsquo;S BEAK</small>,
+employed in the capitals of the ant&aelig;; the <small>FILLETS</small> under
+the Doric capital; the hollows and <small>TORUS</small> mouldings of
+the Ionic and Corinthian bases.</p>
+
+<p>The profiles of these mouldings were very rarely segments
+of circles, but lines of varying curvature, capable of
+producing the most delicate changes of light and shade,
+and contours of the most subtle grace. Many of them
+correspond to conic sections, but it seems probable that
+the outlines were drawn by hand, and not obtained by
+any mechanical or mathematical method.</p>
+
+<p>The mouldings were some of them enriched, to use the
+technical word, by having such ornaments cut into them
+or carved on them as, though simple in form, lent themselves
+well to repetition.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Where more room for ornament
+existed, and especially in the capitals of the Ionic and
+Corinthian orders, ornaments were freely and most gracefully
+carved, and very symmetrically arranged. Though
+these were very various, yet most of them can be classed
+under three heads. (1.) <span class="smcap">Frets</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig116">116</a> to <a href="#fig120">120</a>). These
+were patterns made up of squares or <img src="images/l.png" width="12" height="15" alt="L" />-shaped lines interlaced
+and made to seem intricate, though originally simple.
+Frequently these patterns are called Doric frets, from
+their having been most used in buildings of the Doric
+order. (2.) <span class="smcap">Honeysuckle</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig094">94</a> and <a href="#fig111">111</a> to <a href="#fig114">114</a>). This
+ornament, admirably conventionalised, had been used
+freely by the Assyrians, and the Greeks only adopted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+what they found ready to their hand when they began
+to use it; but they refined it, at the same time losing no
+whit of its vigour or effectiveness, and the honeysuckle
+has come to be known as a typical Greek decorative
+<i>motif</i>. (3.) <span class="smcap">Acanthus</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig084">84</a> and <a href="#fig085">85</a>). This is a broad-leaved
+plant, the foliage and stems of which, treated in a
+conventional manner, though with but little departure
+from nature, were found admirably adapted for floral
+decorative work, and accordingly were made use of in the
+foliage of the Corinthian capital, and in such ornaments
+as, for example, the great finial which forms the summit
+of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 625px;">
+<a name="fig084" id="fig084"></a>
+<img src="images/acec102.jpg" width="625" height="310" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 84.&mdash;The Acanthus Leaf and Stalk.</p>
+
+<p>The beauty of the carving was, however, eclipsed by
+that highest of all ornaments&mdash;sculpture. In the Doric
+temples, as, for example, in the Parthenon, the architect
+contented himself with providing suitable spaces for the
+sculptor to occupy; and thus the great pediments, the
+metopes (Fig. <a href="#fig086">86</a>) or square panels, and the frieze of the
+Parthenon were occupied by sculpture, in which there
+was no necessity for more conventionalism than the
+amount of artificial arrangement needed in order fitly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+to occupy spaces that were respectively triangular, square,
+or continuous. In the later and more voluptuous style
+of the Ionic temples we find sculpture made into an
+architectural feature, as in the famous statues, known as
+the Caryatides, which support the smallest portico of
+the Erechtheium, and in the enriched columns of the
+Temple of Diana at Ephesus. Sculpture had already
+been so employed in Egypt, and was often so used in later
+times; but the best opportunity for the display of the
+finest qualities of the
+sculptor&rsquo;s art is such an
+one as the pediments, &amp;c.,
+of the great Doric temples
+afforded.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 308px;">
+<a name="fig085" id="fig085"></a>
+<img src="images/acec103.jpg" width="308" height="375" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 85.&mdash;The Acanthus Leaf.</p>
+
+<p>There is little room for
+doubting that all the
+Greek temples were richly
+decorated in colours, but
+traces and indications are
+all that remain: these,
+however, are sufficient to
+prove that a very large
+amount of colour was employed,
+and that probably
+ornaments (Figs. <a href="#fig105">105</a> to <a href="#fig120">120</a>) were painted upon many of
+those surfaces which were left plain by the mason,
+especially on the cornices, and that mosaics (Fig. <a href="#fig087">87</a>) and
+coloured marbles, and even gilding, were freely used.
+There is also ground for believing that as the use of
+carved enrichments increased with the increasing adoption
+of the Ionic and Corinthian styles, less use was made
+of painted decorations.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Architectural Character.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Observations which have been made during the course of
+this and the previous chapters will have gone far to point
+out the characteristics of Greek art. An archaic and
+almost forbidding severity, with heavy proportions and
+more strength than grace, marks the earliest Greek buildings
+of which we have any fragments remaining. Dignity,
+sobriety, refinement, and beauty are the qualities of the
+works of the best period. The latest buildings were
+more rich, more ornate, and more slender in their proportions
+and to a certain extent less severe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 550px;">
+<a name="fig086" id="fig086"></a>
+<img src="images/acec104.png" width="550" height="522" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 86.&mdash;Metope from the Parthenon. Conflict between
+a Centaur and one of the Lapith&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 650px;">
+<a name="fig087" id="fig087"></a>
+<img src="images/acec105.jpg" width="650" height="604"
+alt="Showing central figures with floral design, the whole surrounded by a repeating key pattern" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 87.&mdash;Mosaic from the Temple of Zeus, Olympia.</p>
+
+<p>Most carefully studied proportions prevailed, and were
+wrought out to a pitch of completeness and refinement
+which is truly astounding. Symmetry was the all but
+invariable law of composition. Yet in certain respects&mdash;as,
+for example, the spacing and position of the columns&mdash;a
+degree of freedom was enjoyed which Roman
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"><!-- original location of Figs. 88-89 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+architecture did not possess. Repetition ruled to the almost
+entire suppression of variety. Disclosure of the arrangement
+and construction of the building was almost complete,
+and hardly a trace of concealment can be detected.
+Simplicity reigns in the earliest examples; the elaboration
+of even the most ornamental is very chaste and
+graceful; and the whole effect of Greek architecture is
+one of harmony, unity, and refined power.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig088" id="fig088"></a>
+<img src="images/acec106.jpg" width="600" height="364" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 88.&mdash;Section of the Portico of the Erechtheium.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 575px;">
+<a name="fig089" id="fig089"></a>
+<img src="images/acec107.jpg" width="575" height="556" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="topcapt smcap">Fig. 89.&mdash;Plan of the Portico&mdash;Looking up.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT<br />
+<span class="smcap">In the Northern Portico of the Erechtheium&mdash;showing the Ornamentation
+of the Ceiling.</span></p>
+
+<p>A general principle seldom pointed out which governs
+the application of enrichments to mouldings in Greek
+architecture may be cited as a good instance of the subtle
+yet admirable concord which existed between the different
+features: it is as follows. <em>The outline of each enrichment in
+relief was ordinarily described by the same line as the profile
+of the moulding to which it was applied.</em> The egg enrichment
+(Fig. <a href="#fig091">91</a>) on the ovolo, the water-leaf on the cyma
+reversa (Figs. <a href="#fig092">92</a> and <a href="#fig097">97</a>), the honeysuckle on the cyma
+recta (Fig. <a href="#fig094">94</a>), and the guilloche (Fig. <a href="#fig100">100</a>) on the torus,
+are examples of the application of this rule,&mdash;one which
+obviously tends to produce harmony.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 375px;">
+<a name="fig090" id="fig090"></a>
+<img src="images/acec108.jpg" width="375" height="244"
+alt="Showing floral designs and bead patterns" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 90.&mdash;Capital of Ant&aelig; from the Erechtheium.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="topcapt ipadtop">EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN RELIEF.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;">
+<a name="fig091" id="fig091"></a>
+<img src="images/acec109.jpg" width="375" height="146" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 91.&mdash;Egg and Dart.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;">
+<a name="fig092" id="fig092"></a>
+<img src="images/acec110.jpg" width="325" height="110" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 92.&mdash;Leaf and Dart.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig093" id="fig093"></a>
+<img src="images/acec111.jpg" width="600" height="226"
+alt="Showing section and front view" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 93.&mdash;Honeysuckle.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig094" id="fig094"></a>
+<img src="images/acec112.jpg" width="600" height="258"
+alt="Showing section and front view" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 94.&mdash;Honeysuckle.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;">
+<a name="fig095" id="fig095"></a>
+<img src="images/acec113.jpg" width="325" height="122"
+alt="Coiled stem and foliage pattern" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 95.&mdash;Acanthus.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;">
+<a name="fig096" id="fig096"></a>
+<img src="images/acec114.jpg" width="325" height="120"
+alt="Coiled stem and foliage pattern" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 96.&mdash;Acanthus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;">
+<a name="fig097" id="fig097"></a>
+<img src="images/acec115.jpg" width="325" height="102" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 97.&mdash;Leaf and Tongue.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;">
+<a name="fig098" id="fig098"></a>
+<img src="images/acec116.jpg" width="325" height="104" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 98.&mdash;Leaf and Tongue.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;">
+<a name="fig099" id="fig099"></a>
+<img src="images/acec117.jpg" width="325" height="87"
+alt="A scale pattern, similar to snake skin" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 99.&mdash;Garland.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;">
+<a name="fig100" id="fig100"></a>
+<img src="images/acec118.jpg" width="325" height="142"
+alt="A woven pattern, similar to simple knotwork" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 100.&mdash;Guilloche.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;">
+<a name="fig101" id="fig101"></a>
+<img src="images/acec119.jpg" width="325" height="86"
+alt="Oval beads alternating with pairs of discs set on edge" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 101.&mdash;Bead and Fillet.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;">
+<a name="fig102" id="fig102"></a>
+<img src="images/acec120.jpg" width="325" height="62"
+alt="Round beads alternating with pairs of discs set on edge" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 102.&mdash;Bead and Fillet.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="fig103" id="fig103"></a>
+<img src="images/acec121.jpg" width="225" height="120"
+alt="Showing combined sculpted layers and their relation to a curved form" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 103.&mdash;Torus Moulding.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="fig104" id="fig104"></a>
+<img src="images/acec122.jpg" width="225" height="113"
+alt="Showing fluted effect" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 104.&mdash;Torus Moulding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="topcapt ipadtop">EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN COLOUR.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<a name="fig105" id="fig105"></a>
+<img src="images/acec123.jpg" width="650" height="152"
+alt="Showing section and front view" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 105.&mdash;Honeysuckle.</p>
+
+<p class="topcapt ipadtop smcap">Figs. 106, 108.&mdash;Facias with Bands of Foliage.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 147px; padding-left: 10%;">
+<a name="fig106" id="fig106"></a>
+<img src="images/acec124.jpg" width="147" height="325"
+alt="Paired flowers coming off a central straight stem" />
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 106.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 132px; padding-right: 10%;">
+<a name="fig108" id="fig108"></a>
+<img src="images/acec126.jpg" width="132" height="325"
+alt="Leaves coming off a central curving stem" />
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 108.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="fig107" id="fig107"></a>
+<img src="images/acec125.jpg" width="225" height="224"
+alt="A rotated pattern" />
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 107.&mdash;Honeysuckle.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;">
+<a name="fig109" id="fig109"></a>
+<img src="images/acec127.jpg" width="325" height="123"
+alt="Showing section and front view" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 109.&mdash;Leaf and Dart.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 425px;">
+<a name="fig110" id="fig110"></a>
+<img src="images/acec128.jpg" width="425" height="162"
+alt="Showing section and front view" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 110.&mdash;Egg and Dart.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="topcapt ipadtop smcap">Figs. 111 to 113.&mdash;Examples of the Honeysuckle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;">
+<a name="fig111" id="fig111"></a>
+<img src="images/acec129.jpg" width="325" height="170"
+alt="A repeating design, alternately reversed" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 111.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;">
+<a name="fig112" id="fig112"></a>
+<img src="images/acec130.jpg" width="325" height="170"
+alt="A mirrored repeating design" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 112.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 136px;">
+<a name="fig113" id="fig113"></a>
+<img src="images/acec131.jpg" width="136" height="325"
+alt="A repeating design" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 113.</p>
+
+
+<p class="topcapt ipadtop smcap">Fig. 114.&mdash;Combination of the Fret, the Egg and Dart, the Bead
+and Fillet, and the Honeysuckle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 304px;">
+<a name="fig114" id="fig114"></a>
+<img src="images/acec132.jpg" width="304" height="325"
+alt="Decoration at the top of column and capital" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 114.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 119px;">
+<a name="fig115" id="fig115"></a>
+<img src="images/acec133.jpg" width="119" height="325"
+alt="Central pattern similar to stacked fan shapes, with interwoven curved pattern on each side" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 115.&mdash;Guilloche.</p>
+
+<p class="topcapt ipadtop smcap">Figs. 116 to 120.&mdash;Examples of the Fret.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="fig116" id="fig116"></a>
+<img src="images/acec134.jpg" width="250" height="53"
+alt="Showing proportions of a simple fret pattern" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 116.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="fig117" id="fig117"></a>
+<img src="images/acec135.jpg" width="250" height="56"
+alt="Simple fret pattern" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 117.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="fig118" id="fig118"></a>
+<img src="images/acec136.jpg" width="250" height="80"
+alt="Showing proportions of a more complex fret pattern" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 118.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig119" id="fig119"></a>
+<img src="images/acec137.jpg" width="300" height="79"
+alt="A simple fret pattern with key and circle designs" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 119.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="fig120" id="fig120"></a>
+<img src="images/acec138.jpg" width="225" height="119"
+alt="Showing proportions of a complex fret pattern" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 120.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> See Chap. <a href="#Page_147">IX.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Chap. <a href="#Page_1">I.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> For a statement of the general rule governing such enrichments,
+see page <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 450px;">
+<a name="fig121" id="fig121"></a>
+<img src="images/acec139.jpg" width="450" height="383"
+alt="Showing doors, columns and carved figures" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 121.&mdash;Elevation of an Etruscan Temple (restored from descriptions only).</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<h4><i>Historical and General Sketch.</i></h4>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE few grains of truth that we are able to sift from
+the mass of legend which has accumulated round
+the early history of Rome seem to indicate that at a very
+early period&mdash;which the generally received date of 753 <small>B.C.</small>
+may be taken to fix as nearly as is now possible&mdash;a small
+band of outcasts and marauders settled themselves on
+the Palatine Hill and commenced to carry on depredations
+against the various cities of the tribes whose territories
+were in the immediate neighbourhood, such as
+the Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, Latins, and Etruscans.
+A walled city was built, which from its admirable situation
+succeeded in attracting inhabitants in considerable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+numbers, and speedily began to exercise supremacy over
+its neighbours. The most important of the neighbouring
+nations were the Etruscans, who called themselves
+Rasena, and who must have settled on the west coast of
+Italy, between the rivers Arno and Tiber, at a very early
+period. Their origin is, however, very obscure, some
+authorities believing, upon apparently good grounds, that
+they came from Asia Minor, while others assert that they
+descended from the north over the Rh&aelig;tian Alps. But
+whatever that origin may have been, they had at the time
+of the founding of Rome as a city attained a high degree
+of civilisation, and showed a considerable amount of
+architectural skill; and their arts exercised a very great
+influence upon Roman art.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable remains of the city walls of several Etruscan
+towns still exist. These show that the masonry was
+of what has been termed a Cyclopean character,&mdash;that is
+to say, the separate stones were of an enormous size; in
+the majority of examples these stones were of a polygonal
+shape, though in a few instances they were rectangular,
+while in all cases they were fitted together with the most
+consummate accuracy of workmanship, which, together
+with their great massiveness, has enabled much of this
+masonry to endure to the present day. Cortona, Volterra,
+Fiesole, and other towns exhibit instances of this walling.
+The temples, palaces, or dwelling-houses which went to
+make up the cities so fortified have all disappeared, and
+the only existing structural remains of Etruscan buildings
+are tombs. These are found in large numbers, and
+consist&mdash;as in the earlier instances which have already
+been described&mdash;both of rock-cut and detached erections.
+Of the former, the best known group is at Castel d&rsquo;Asso,
+where we find not only chambers cut into the rock, each
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+resembling an ordinary room with an entrance in the
+face of the rock, but also monuments cut completely
+out and standing clear all round; and we cannot fail to
+detect in the forms into which the rock has been cut,
+especially those of the roof, imitations of wooden buildings,
+heavy square piers being left at intervals supporting
+longitudinal beams which hold up the roof.
+Fig. <a href="#fig122">122</a> is an illustration of the interior of a chamber
+in the rock. Occasionally there were a cornice and pediment
+over the entrance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig122" id="fig122"></a>
+<img src="images/acec140.jpg" width="700" height="560"
+alt="Showing wooden ceiling and decorated walls" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 122.&mdash;Sepulchre at Corneto.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+The other class of tombs are circular tumuli, similar
+to the Pelasgic tombs of Asia Minor; of these large
+numbers exist, but not sufficiently uninjured to enable
+us to restore them completely. They generally consisted
+of a substructure of stone, upon which was raised a
+conical elevation. In the case of the Regulini Galeassi
+tomb there were an inner and an outer tumulus, the
+latter of which covered several small tombs, while the
+inner enclosed one only, which had fortunately never
+been opened till it was lately discovered. This tomb
+was vaulted on the horizontal system&mdash;that is to say,
+its vault was not a true arch, but was formed of courses
+of masonry, each overhanging the one below, as in the
+Treasury of Atreus, and it had a curious recess in the
+roof, in which were found numerous interesting examples
+of Etruscan pottery. It is, however, clear from the city
+gates, sewers, aqueducts, &amp;c., that the Etruscans were
+acquainted with and extensively used the true radiating
+arch composed of wedge-shaped stones (voussoirs), and
+that they constructed it with great care and scientific
+skill. The gate at Perugia, and the Cloac&aelig; or Sewers
+at Rome, constructed during the reign of the Tarquins,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
+at the beginning of the sixth century <small>B.C.</small>, are examples of
+the true arch, and this makes it certain that it was from
+the Etruscans that the Romans learned the arched construction
+which, when combined with the trabeated or
+lintel mode of construction which they copied from the
+Greeks, formed the chief characteristic of Roman architecture.
+The Cloaca Maxima (Fig. <a href="#fig123">123</a>), which is roofed
+over with three concentric semicircular rings of large
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+stones, still exists in many places with not a stone displaced,
+as a proof of the skill of these early builders.
+There are remains of an aqueduct at Tusculum which
+are interesting from the fact of the horizontal being
+combined with the true arch in its construction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 450px;">
+<a name="fig123" id="fig123"></a>
+<img src="images/acec141.jpg" width="450" height="352"
+alt="Showing the mouth of one of the tunnels" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 123.&mdash;Cloaca Maxima.</p>
+
+<p>No Etruscan temples remain now, but we know from
+Vitruvius that they consisted of three cells with one
+or more rows of columns in front, the intercolumniation
+or interval between the columns being excessive. The
+largest Etruscan temple of which any record remains
+was that of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome, which, under
+the Empire, became one of the most splendid temples of
+antiquity. It was commenced by Tarquinius Superbus,
+and is said to have derived its name from the fact of the
+builders, when excavating the foundations, coming upon a
+freshly bleeding head (<i>caput</i>), indicating that the place
+would eventually become the chief city of the world.
+Another form of Etruscan temple is described by Vitruvius,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+consisting of one circular cell only, with a porch.
+This form was probably the origin of the series of circular
+Roman buildings which includes such forms of temples as
+that at Tivoli, and many of the famous mausolea, <i>e.g.</i>
+that of Hadrian, and the culmination of which style is
+seen in the Pantheon. It is interesting to notice that
+the Romans never entirely gave up the circular form, one
+instance of its use in Britain at a late period of the Roman
+occupation having been discovered in the ruins of Silchester
+near Basingstoke; and we shall find that it was
+perpetuated in Christian baptisteries, tombs, and occasionally
+churches.</p>
+
+<p>We know from the traces of such buildings which exist,
+that the Etruscans must have constructed theatres and
+amphitheatres, and it is recorded that the first Tarquin
+laid out the Circus Maximus and instituted the great
+games held there. At Sutri there are ruins of an amphitheatre
+which is nearly a perfect circle, measuring 265 ft.
+in its greatest breadth and 295 ft. in length.</p>
+
+<p>There are no remains of other buildings which would
+enable us to form an opinion as to the civic architecture
+of the Etruscans: they must, however, have attained to a
+considerable skill in sculpture, as in some of the tombs
+figures are represented in high relief which show no
+small power of expression. They, too, like the Egyptians,
+embellished their tombs with mural paintings.
+These are generally in outline, and represent human
+figures and animals in scenes of every-day life, with conventionalised
+foliage, or mythological scenes such as the
+passage of the soul after death to the judgment-seat where
+its actions in life are to be adjudicated upon. In the
+plastic arts the Etruscans made great progress, many
+of their vases showing a delicacy and grace which have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+never been surpassed, and exhibiting in their decorations
+traces of both Greek and Egyptian influence.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">We now reach the last of the classical styles of antiquity,
+the Roman,&mdash;a style which, however, is rather an
+adaptation or amalgamation of other styles than an original
+and independent creation or development. The contrast
+is very great between the &ldquo;lively Grecian,&rdquo; imaginative
+and idealistic in the highest degree&mdash;who seemed to have
+an innate genius for art and beauty, and who was always
+eager to perpetuate in marble his ideal conception of the
+&ldquo;hero from whose loins he sprung,&rdquo; or to immortalise
+with some splendid work of art the name of his mother-city&mdash;and
+the stern, practical Roman, realistic in his every
+pore, eager for conquest, and whose one dominant idea was
+to bring under his sway all the nations who were brought
+into contact with him, and to make his city&mdash;as had been
+foretold&mdash;the capital of the whole world. With this idea
+always before him, it is no wonder that such a typical
+Roman as M. Porcius Cato should look with disdain upon
+the fine arts in all their forms, and should regard a love
+for the beautiful, whether in literature or art, as synonymous
+with effeminacy. Mummius, also, who destroyed
+Corinth, is said to have been so little aware of the value
+of the artistic treasures which he carried away, as to
+stipulate with the carriers who undertook to transport
+them to Rome, that if any of the works of art were lost
+they should be replaced by others of equal value.</p>
+
+<p>When the most prominent statesmen displayed such
+indifference, it is not surprising that for nearly 500 years
+no single trace of any architectural building of any merit
+at all in Rome can now be discovered, and that history is
+silent as to the existence of any monuments worthy of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+being mentioned. Works of public utility of a very extensive
+nature were indeed carried out during this period;
+such, for example, as the Appian Way from Rome to
+Capua, which was the first paved road in Rome, and was
+constructed by the Censor Appius Claudius in <small>B.C.</small> 309.
+This was 14 ft. wide and 3 ft. thick, in three layers:
+1st, of rough stones grouted together; 2nd, of gravel; and
+3rd, of squared stones of various dimensions. The same
+Censor also brought water from Pr&aelig;neste to Rome by a
+subterranean channel 11 miles long. Several bridges were
+also erected, and Cato the Censor is said to have built a
+basilica.</p>
+
+<p>Until about 150 <small>B.C.</small> all the buildings of Rome were
+constructed either of brick or the local stone; and though
+we hear nothing of architecture as a fine art, we
+cannot hesitate to admit that during this period the
+Romans carried the art of construction, and especially
+that of employing materials of small dimensions and
+readily obtainable, in buildings of great size, to a remarkable
+pitch of perfection. It was not till after the fall of
+Carthage and the destruction of Corinth, when Greece
+became a Roman province under the name of Achaia&mdash;both
+which events occurred in the year 146 <small>B.C.</small>&mdash;that
+Rome became desirous of emulating, to a certain extent,
+the older civilisation which she had destroyed; and about
+this time she became so enormously wealthy that vast
+sums of money were expended, both publicly and privately,
+in the erection of monuments, many of which remain to
+the present day, more or less altered. The first marble
+temple in Rome was built by the Consul Q. Metellus
+Macedonicus, who died <small>B.C.</small> 115. Roman architecture from
+this period began to show a wonderful diversity in the
+objects to which it was directed,&mdash;a circumstance perhaps
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+as interesting as its great scientific and structural advance
+upon all preceding styles. In the earlier styles temples,
+tombs, and palaces were the only buildings deemed worthy
+of architectural treatment; but under the Romans baths,
+theatres, amphitheatres, basilicas, aqueducts, triumphal
+arches, &amp;c., were carried out just as elaborately as the
+temples of the gods.</p>
+
+<p>It was under the Emperors that the full magnificence
+of Roman architectural display was reached. The famous
+boast of Augustus, that he found Rome of brick and left
+her of marble, gives expression in a few words to what
+was the great feature of his reign. Succeeding emperors
+lavished vast sums on buildings and public works of all
+kinds; and thus it comes to pass that though the most
+destructive of all agencies, hostile invasions, conflagrations,
+and long periods of neglect, have each in turn done their
+utmost to destroy the vestiges of Imperial Rome, there
+still remain fragments, and in one or two instances whole
+monuments, enough to make Rome, after Athens, the richest
+store of classic architectural antiquities in the world.</p>
+
+<p>But it was not in Rome only that great buildings were
+erected. The whole known civilised world was under
+Roman dominion, and wherever a centre of government
+or even a flourishing town existed there sprang up the
+residences of the dominant race, and their places of
+business, public worship, and public amusement. Consequently,
+we find in our own country, and in France,
+Spain, Germany, Italy, North Africa, and Egypt&mdash;in
+short, in all the countries where Roman rule was
+established&mdash;examples of temples, amphitheatres, theatres,
+triumphal arches, and dwelling-houses, some of them of
+great interest and occasionally in admirable preservation.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> The story of the Tarquins probably points to a period when the
+chief supremacy at Rome was in the hands of an Etruscan family, and is
+interesting for this reason.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 675px;">
+<a name="fig124" id="fig124"></a>
+<img src="images/acec142.jpg" width="675" height="282"
+alt="Showing section and front view" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 124.&mdash;&ldquo;Incantada&rdquo; in Salonica.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE BUILDINGS OF THE ROMANS.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE temples in Rome were not, as in Greece and
+Egypt, the structures upon which the architect
+lavished all the resources of his art and his science. The
+general form of them was copied from that made use
+of by the Greeks, but the spirit in which the original
+idea was carried out was entirely different. In a word,
+the temples of Rome were by no means worthy of her
+size and position as the metropolis of the world, and
+very few remains of them exist.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 333px;">
+<a name="fig125" id="fig125"></a>
+<img src="images/acec143.jpg" width="333" height="700" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 125.&mdash;Ionic Order from the Temple of Fortuna Virilis, Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Ten columns are still standing of the Temple of Antoninus
+and Faustina (now the church of San Lorenzo in
+Miranda): it occupied the site of a previous temple
+and was dedicated by Antoninus Pius to his wife Faustina.
+The Temple (supposed) of Fortuna Virilis, in the
+Ionic style (Fig. <a href="#fig125">125</a>), still exists as the church of Santa
+Maria Egiziaca: this was tetrastyle, with half-columns
+all round it, and this was of the kind called by Vitruvius
+&ldquo;pseudo-peripteral.&rdquo; A few fragmentary remains of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"><!-- original location of Fig. 125 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+other temples exist in Rome, but in some of the Roman
+provinces far finer specimens of temples remain, of
+which perhaps the best is the Maison Carr&eacute;e at N&icirc;mes
+(Fig. <a href="#fig126">126</a>). Here we find the Roman plan of a single
+cell and a deep portico in front, while the sides and
+rear have the columns attached. The intercolumniations
+and the details of the capitals and entablature are,
+however, almost pure Greek. The date of this temple is
+uncertain, but it is most probable that it was erected
+during the reign of Hadrian. The same emperor is
+said to have completed the magnificent Temple of Jupiter
+Olympius at Athens, which was 354 ft. long by 171 ft. wide.
+It consisted of a cell flanked on each side by a double row
+of detached columns; in front was one row of columns in
+antis, and three other rows in front of these, while there
+were also three rows in the rear: as the columns were of
+the Corinthian order, and nearly 60 ft. in height, it may
+be imagined that it was a splendid edifice.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig126" id="fig126"></a>
+<img src="images/acec144.jpg" width="700" height="494" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 126.&mdash;Roman-Corinthian Temple at N&icirc;mes (Maison-Carr&eacute;e). Probably of the Time of Hadrian.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins of another magnificent provincial Roman
+temple exist at Baalbek&mdash;the ancient Heliopolis&mdash;in Syria,
+not far from Damascus. This building was erected during
+the time of the Antonines, probably by Antoninus Pius
+himself, and originally it must have been of very extensive
+dimensions, the portico alone being 180 ft. long
+and about 37 ft. deep. This gives access to a small
+hexagonal court, on the western side of which a triple
+gateway opens into the Great Court, which is a vast
+quadrangle about 450 ft. long by 400 ft. broad, with
+ranges of small chambers or niches on three sides, some
+of which evidently had at one time beautifully groined
+roofs. At the western end of this court, on an artificial
+elevation, stand the remains of what is called the Great
+Temple. This was originally 290 ft. long by 160 ft.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"><!-- original location of Fig. 126 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+wide, and had 54 columns supporting its roof, six only
+of which now remain erect. The height of these columns,
+including base and capital, is 75 ft., and their diameter
+is 7 ft. at base and about 6 ft. 6 in. at top; they are
+of the Corinthian order, and above them rises an elaborately
+moulded entablature, 14 ft. in height. Each of
+the columns is composed of three stones only, secured by
+strong iron cramps; and indeed one of the most striking
+features of this group of buildings is the colossal size
+of the stones used in their construction. The quarries
+from which these stones were hewn are close at hand,
+and in them is one stone surpassing all the others in
+magnitude, its dimensions being 68 ft. by 14 ft. 2 in. by
+13 ft. 11 in. It is difficult to imagine what means can
+have existed for transporting so huge a mass, the weight
+of which has been calculated at 1100 tons.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 290px;">
+<a name="fig127" id="fig127"></a>
+<img src="images/acec145.jpg" width="290" height="375"
+alt="Showing position of steps, doorways and columns" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 127.&mdash;Ground-plan of the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 296px;">
+<a name="fig128" id="fig128"></a>
+<img src="images/acec146.jpg" width="296" height="700"
+alt="Showing decoration on capitals" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 128.&mdash;Corinthian Order from the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</p>
+
+<p>Other smaller temples exist in the vicinity, all of
+which are lavishly decorated, but on the whole the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"><!-- original location of Fig. 128 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+ornamentation shows an exuberance of detail which
+somewhat offends a critical artistic taste.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 450px;">
+<a name="fig129" id="fig129"></a>
+<img src="images/acec147.jpg" width="450" height="700" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 129.&mdash;The Temple of Vesta at Tivoli. Plan (looking up) and Section
+of part of the Peristyle.</p>
+
+<p>Circular temples were an elegant variety, which seems
+to have been originated by the Romans, and of which
+two well-known examples remain&mdash;the Temples of Vesta
+at Rome and at Tivoli. The columns of the temple
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+at Tivoli (Fig. <a href="#fig128">128</a>) form a well-known and pleasing
+variety of the Corinthian order, and the circular form
+of the building as shown on the plan (Fig. <a href="#fig127">127</a>) gives
+excellent opportunities for good decorative treatment,
+as may be judged of by the enlarged diagram of part
+of the peristyle (Fig. <a href="#fig129">129</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Basilicas.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Among the most remarkable of the public buildings of
+Roman times, both in the mother-city and in the provinces,
+were the Basilicas or Halls of Justice, which were also
+used as commercial exchanges. It is also believed that
+Basilicas existed in some Greek cities, but no clue to their
+structural arrangements exists, and whence originated the
+idea of the plan of these buildings we are unable to state;
+their striking similarity to some of the rock-cut halls or
+temples of India has been already pointed out. They
+were generally (though not always) covered halls, oblong
+in shape, divided into three or five aisles by two or more
+rows of columns, the centre aisle being much wider than
+those at the sides: over the latter, galleries were frequently
+erected. At one end was a semicircular recess or apse, the
+floor of which was raised considerably above the level of
+the rest of the building, and here the presiding magistrate
+sat to hear causes tried. Four<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> of these buildings are
+mentioned by ancient writers as having existed in republican
+times, viz. the Basilica Portia, erected in <small>B.C.</small> 184, by
+Cato the Censor; the Basilica Emilia et Fulvia, erected in
+<small>B.C.</small> 179 by the censors M. Fulvius Nobilior and M. &AElig;milius
+Lepidus, and afterwards enlarged and called the Basilica
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+Paulli; the Basilica Sempronia, erected in <small>B.C.</small> 169 by
+Tib. Sempronius Gracchus; and the Basilica Julia, erected
+by Julius C&aelig;sar, <small>B.C.</small> 46. All these buildings had wooden
+roofs, and were of no great architectural merit, and they
+perished at a remote date. Under the Empire, basilicas
+of much greater size and magnificence were erected; and
+remains of that of Trajan, otherwise called the Basilica
+Ulpia, have been excavated in the Forum of Trajan.
+This was about 360 ft. long by 180 ft. wide, had four rows
+of columns inside, and it supposed to have been covered
+by a semicircular wooden roof. Apollodorus of Damascus
+was the architect of this building. Another basilica of
+which remains exist is that of Maxentius, which after his
+overthrow by Constantine in <small>A.D.</small> 312, was known as the
+Basilica Constantiniana. This structure was of stone, and
+had a vaulted roof; it was 195 ft. between the walls, and
+was divided into three aisles by piers with enormous
+columns standing in front of them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 650px;">
+<a name="fig130" id="fig130"></a>
+<img src="images/acec148.jpg" width="650" height="311"
+alt="Showing main oblong building and semicircular apse" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 130.&mdash;Ground-plan of the Basilica Ulpia, Rome.</p>
+
+<p>One provincial basilica, that at Tr&egrave;ves, still stands;
+and although it must have been considerably altered, it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+is by far the best existing example of this kind of
+building. The internal columns do not exist here, and it
+is simply a rectangular hall about 175 ft. by 85 ft., with
+the usual semicircular apse.</p>
+
+<p>The chief interest attaching to these basilicas lies in
+the fact that they formed the first places of Christian
+assembly, and that they served as the model upon which
+the first Christian churches were built.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Theatres and Amphitheatres.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Although dramas and other plays were performed in
+Rome as early as 240 <small>B.C.</small>, there seems to have been a
+strong prejudice against permanent buildings for their
+representation, as it is recorded that a decree was passed
+in <small>B.C.</small> 154 forbidding the construction of such buildings.
+Mummius, the conqueror of Corinth, obtained permission
+to erect a wooden theatre for the performance
+of dramas as one of the shows of his triumph, and
+after this many buildings of the kind were erected, but
+all of a temporary nature; and it was not till <small>B.C.</small> 61
+that the first permanent theatre was built by Pompey.
+This, and the theatres of Balbus and Marcellus, appear
+to have been the only permanent theatres that were
+erected in Imperial Rome; and there are no remains of
+any but the last of these, and this is much altered. So
+that, were it not for the remains of theatres found at
+Pompeii, it would be almost impossible to tell how they
+were arranged; but from these we can see that the stage
+was raised and separated from the part appropriated to
+the spectators by a semicircular area, much like that
+which in Greek theatres was allotted to the chorus: in
+the Roman ones this was assigned for the use of the senators.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+The portion devoted to the spectators&mdash;called the
+Cavea&mdash;was also semicircular on plan, and consisted of
+tiers of steps rising one above the other, and divided at
+intervals by wide passages and converging staircases communicating
+with the porticoes, which ran round the whole
+theatre at every story.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 650px;">
+<a name="fig131" id="fig131"></a>
+<img src="images/acec149.jpg" width="650" height="510"
+alt="Showing the seating and a quarter section of the underlying chambers" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 131.&mdash;Plan of the Colosseum, Rome.</p>
+
+<p>At Orange, in the South of France, are the remains of
+a very fine theatre, similar in plan to that described. The
+great wall which formed the back of the scene in this
+building is still standing, and is one of the most magnificent
+pieces of masonry existing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig132" id="fig132"></a>
+<img src="images/acec150.jpg" width="700" height="597"
+alt="Showing seating and steps; showing arches" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 132.&mdash;The Colosseum. Section and Elevation.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Romans were not particularly addicted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+to dramatic representations, yet they were passionately
+fond of shows and games of all kinds: hence, not only in
+Rome itself, but in almost every Roman settlement, from
+Silchester to Verona, are found traces of their amphitheatres,
+and the mother-city can claim the possession of
+the most stupendous fabric of the kind that was ever
+erected&mdash;the Colosseum or Flavian Amphitheatre, which
+was commenced by Vespasian and finished by his son
+Titus. An amphitheatre is really a double theatre without
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+a stage, and with the space in the centre unoccupied
+by seats. This space, which was sunk several feet below
+the first row of seats, was called the arena, and was
+appropriated to the various exhibitions which took place
+in the building. The plan was elliptical or oval, and
+this shape seems to have been universal.</p>
+
+<p>The Colosseum, whose ruins still remain to attest its
+pristine magnificence&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Arches on arches, as it were that Rome,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Collecting the chief trophies of her line,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Would build up all her triumphs in one dome&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>&mdash;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>was 620 ft. long and 513 wide, and the height was about
+162 ft. It was situated in the hollow between the
+Esquiline and C&aelig;lian hills. The ranges of seats were
+admirably planned so as to enable all the audience to
+have a view of what was going on in the arena, and
+great skill was shown both in the arrangement of the
+approaches to the different tiers and in the structural
+means for supporting the seats, and double corridors ran
+completely round the building on each floor, affording
+ready means of exit. Various estimates have been made
+of the number of spectators that could be accommodated,
+and these range from 50,000 to 100,000, but probably
+80,000 was the maximum. Recent excavations have
+brought to light the communications which existed between
+the arena and the dens where the wild animals
+and human slaves and prisoners were confined, and some
+of the water channels used when mimic sea-fights were
+exhibited. The external fa&ccedil;ade is composed of four stories,
+separated by entablatures that run completely round the
+building without a break. The three lower stories consist
+of a series of semicircular arched openings, eighty
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+in number, separated by piers with attached columns
+in front of them, the Doric order being used in the
+lowest story, the Ionic in the second, and the Corinthian
+in the third; the piers and columns are elevated on
+stylobates; the entablatures have a comparatively slight
+projection, and there are no projecting keystones in the
+arches. In the lowest range these openings are 13 ft. 4 in.
+wide, except the four which are at the ends of the two
+axes of the ellipse, and these are 14 ft. 6 in. wide. The
+diameter of the columns is 2 ft. 8&frac34; in. The topmost
+story, which is considerably more lofty than either of the
+lower ones, was a nearly solid wall enriched by Corinthian
+pilasters. In this story occur two tiers of small
+square openings in the alternate spaces between the
+pilasters. These openings are placed accurately over the
+centres of the arches of the lower stories. Immediately
+above the higher range of square openings are a series
+of corbels&mdash;three between each pair of pilasters&mdash;which
+probably received the ends of the poles carrying the huge
+awning which protected the spectators from the sun&rsquo;s
+rays. The whole is surmounted by a heavy cornice, in
+which, at intervals immediately over each corbel, are
+worked square mortise holes, forming sockets through
+which the poles of the awning passed. The stone of
+which the fa&ccedil;ade of the Colosseum is built is a local stone,
+called travertine, the blocks of which are secured by iron
+cramps without cement. Nearly all the internal portion
+of the building is of brick, and the floors of the corridors,
+&amp;c., are paved with flat bricks covered with hard stucco.
+These amphitheatres were occasionally the scene of imitations
+of marine conflicts, when the arena was flooded
+with water and mimic vessels of war engaged each other.
+Very complete arrangements were made, by means of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+small aqueducts, for leading the water into the arena and
+for carrying it off.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from theatrical representations and gladiatorial
+combats, the Romans had an inordinate passion for chariot
+races. For those the circi were constructed, of which
+class of buildings the Circus Maximus was the largest.
+This, originally laid out by Tarquinius Priscus, was reconstructed
+on a larger scale by Julius C&aelig;sar. It was circular
+at one end and rectangular at the other, at which
+was the entrance. On both sides of the entrance were
+a number of small arched chambers, called <i>carceres</i>, from
+which the chariots started. The course was divided down
+the centre by a low wall, called the <i>spina</i>, which was
+adorned with various sculptures. The seats rose in a
+series of covered porticoes all round the course, except at
+the entrance. As the length of the Circus Maximus was
+nearly 700 yards, and the breadth about 135 yards, it is
+possible that Dionysius may not have formed an exaggerated
+notion of its capacity when he says it would accommodate
+150,000 spectators.</p>
+
+<p>In the Roman provinces amphitheatres were often
+erected; and at Pola in Istria, Verona in Italy, and
+N&icirc;mes and Arles in France, fine examples remain. A
+rude Roman amphitheatre, with seats cut in the turf of a
+hill-side, exists to this day at the old town of Dorchester
+in Dorset, which was anciently a Roman settlement.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Baths (Therm&aelig;).</i></h4>
+
+<p>Nothing can give us a more impressive idea of the
+grandeur and lavish display of Imperial Rome than the
+remains of the huge Therm&aelig;, or bathing establishments,
+which still exist. Between the years 10 <small>A.D.</small>, when
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+Agrippa built the first public baths, and 324 <small>A.D.</small>, when
+those of Constantine were erected, no less than twelve
+of these vast establishments were erected by various
+emperors, and bequeathed to the people. Of the whole
+number, the baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian are the
+only ones which remain in any state of preservation, and
+these were probably the most extensive and magnificent of
+all. All these splendid buildings were really nothing more
+than bribes to secure the favour of the populace; for it seems
+quite clear that the public had practically free entrance
+to them, the only charge mentioned by writers of the time
+being a quadrans, about a farthing of our money. Gibbon
+says, &ldquo;The meanest Roman could purchase with a small
+copper coin the daily enjoyment of a scene of pomp and
+luxury which might excite the envy of the kings of Asia.&rdquo;
+And this language is not exaggerated. Not only were
+there private bath-rooms, swimming-baths, hot baths,
+vapour-baths, and, in fact, all the appurtenances of the
+most approved Turkish baths of modern times, but there
+were also gymnasia, halls for various games, lecture-halls,
+libraries, and theatres in connection with the baths, all
+lavishly ornamented with the finest paintings and sculpture
+that could be obtained. Stone seems to have been
+but sparingly used in the construction of these buildings,
+which were almost entirely of brick faced with stucco:
+this served as the ground for an elaborate series of fresco
+paintings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 650px;">
+<a name="fig133" id="fig133"></a>
+<img src="images/acec151.jpg" width="650" height="467"
+alt="Showing the extent of the huge symmetrical complex" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 133.&mdash;Plan of the Principal Building, Baths of Caracalla, Rome.]</p>
+
+<p>The baths of Caracalla, at the foot of the Aventine hill,
+erected <small>A.D.</small> 217, comprised a quadrangular block of buildings
+of about 1150 ft. (about the fifth of a mile) each way.
+The side facing the street consisted of a portico the whole
+length of the fa&ccedil;ade, behind which were numerous ranges
+of private bath-rooms. The side and rear blocks contained
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+numerous halls and porticoes, the precise object of which
+it is now very difficult to ascertain. As Byron says:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Temples, baths, or halls?<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Pronounce who can.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This belt of buildings surrounded an open courtyard or
+garden, in which was placed the principal bathing establishment
+(Fig. <a href="#fig133">133</a>), a building 730 ft. by 380 ft., which
+contained the large piscina, or swimming-bath, various hot
+baths, dressing-rooms, gymnasia, and other halls for athletic
+exercises. In the centre of one of the longer sides was
+a large semicircular projection, roofed with a dome, which
+was lined with brass: this rotunda was called the solar
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+cell. From the ruins of these baths were taken some of
+the most splendid specimens of antique sculpture, such as
+the Farnese Hercules and the Flora in the Museum of
+Naples.</p>
+
+<p>The baths of Diocletian, erected just at the commencement
+of the fourth century <small>A.D.</small>, were hardly inferior to
+those of Caracalla, but modern and ancient buildings are
+now intermingled to such an extent that the general plan
+of the buildings cannot now be traced with accuracy.
+There are said to have been over 3000 marble seats in
+these baths; the walls were covered with mosaics, and the
+columns were of Egyptian granite and green Numidian
+marble. The Ephebeum, or grand hall, still exists as
+the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, having been
+restored by Michelangelo. It is nearly 300 ft. long by
+90 ft. wide, and is roofed by three magnificent cross
+vaults, supported on eight granite columns 45 ft. in height.
+(Fig. <a href="#fig134">134</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>There is one ancient building in Rome more impressive
+than any other, not only because it is in a better state of
+preservation, but because of the dignity with which it
+has been designed, the perfection with which it has been
+constructed, and the effectiveness of the mode in which
+its interior is lighted. We allude to the Pantheon.
+Opinions differ as to whether this was a Hall attached
+to the therm&aelig; of Agrippa, or whether it was a temple.
+Without attempting to determine this point, we may at
+any rate claim that the interior of this building admirably
+illustrates the boldness and telling power with which
+the large halls forming part of the therm&aelig; were designed;
+and, whether it belonged to such a building or not, it is
+wonderfully well fitted to illustrate this subject.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig134" id="fig134"></a>
+<img src="images/acec152.jpg" width="600" height="411"
+alt="Showing a partial view of the cross vaults" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 134.&mdash;Interior of Santa Maria degli Angeli, Rome.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 375px;">
+<a name="fig135" id="fig135"></a>
+<img src="images/acec153.jpg" width="375" height="600"
+alt="Showing rotunda and portico" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 135.&mdash;The Pantheon, Rome. Ground-plan.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig136" id="fig136"></a>
+<img src="images/acec154.jpg" width="700" height="558"
+alt="Showing entrance to portico and dome of rotunda" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 136.&mdash;The Pantheon, Rome. Exterior.</p>
+
+<p>The Pantheon is the finest example of a domed hall
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"><!-- original location of Fig. 134 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+which we have left. The building, which forms the
+church of Santa Maria ad Martyres, has been considerably
+altered at various times since its erection, and now consists
+of a rotunda with a rectangular portico in front of it. The
+rotunda was most probably erected by Agrippa, the son-in-law
+of Augustus, in <small>B.C.</small> 27, and is a most remarkable
+instance of clever construction at so early a date. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+diameter of the interior is 145 ft. 6 in., and the height
+to the top of the dome is 147 ft. In addition to the entrance,
+the walls are broken up by seven large niches, three
+of which are semicircular on plan, and the others, alternating
+with them, rectangular. The walls are divided
+into two stories by an entablature supported by columns
+and pilasters; but although this is now cut through
+by the arches of the niches, it is at least probable that
+originally this was not the case, and that the entablature
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+ran continuously round the walls, as shown in Fig. <a href="#fig137">137</a>,
+which is a restoration of the Pantheon by Adler. Above
+the attic story rises the huge hemispherical dome, which
+is pierced at its summit by a circular opening 27 ft. in
+diameter, through which a flood of light pours down and
+illuminates the whole of the interior. The dome is enriched
+by boldly recessed panels, and these were formerly
+covered with bronze ornaments, which have been removed
+for the sake of the metal. The marble enrichments of
+the attic have also disappeared, and their place has been
+taken by common and tawdry decorations more adapted
+to the stage of a theatre. But notwithstanding everything
+that has been done to detract from the imposing
+effect of the building by the alteration of its details, there
+is still, taking it as a whole, a simple grandeur in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"><!-- original location of Fig. 138 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+design, a magnificence in the material employed, and a
+quiet harmony in the illumination, that impart to the
+interior a character of sublimity which nothing can impair.
+The rectangular portico was added at some subsequent
+period, and consists of sixteen splendid Corinthian columns
+(Fig. <a href="#fig138">138</a>), eight in front supporting the pediment, and
+the other eight dividing the portico into three bays, in
+precisely the same way as if it formed the pronaos to the
+three cells of an Etruscan temple.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig137" id="fig137"></a>
+<img src="images/acec155.jpg" width="700" height="411"
+alt="Showing portico on the left and rotunda on the right" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 137.&mdash;The Pantheon, Rome. Interior.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 370px;">
+<a name="fig138" id="fig138"></a>
+<img src="images/acec156.jpg" width="370" height="700"
+alt="Showing decorative capitals" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 138.&mdash;The Corinthian Order from the Pantheon, Rome.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Bridges and Aqueducts.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The earliest Roman bridges were of wood, and the
+Pons Sublicius, though often rebuilt, continued to be of
+this material until the time of Pliny, but it was impossible
+for a people who made such use of the arch to avoid
+seeing the great advantage this form gave them in the
+construction of bridges, and several of these formed of
+stone spanned the Tiber even before the time of the
+Empire. The finest Roman bridges, however, were built
+in the provinces. Trajan constructed one over the Danube
+which was 150 ft. high and 60 ft. wide, and the arches
+of which were of no less than 170 ft. span. This splendid
+structure was destroyed by his successor, Hadrian, who
+was probably jealous of it. The bridge over the Tagus at
+Alcantara, which was constructed by Hadrian, is another
+very fine example. There were six arches here, of which
+the two centre ones had a span of 100 ft.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman aqueducts afford striking evidence of the
+building enterprise and architectural skill of the people.
+Pliny says of these works: &ldquo;If any one will carefully consider
+the quantity of water used in the open air, in private
+baths, swimming-baths, houses, gardens, &amp;c., and thinks
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+of the arches that have been built, the hills that have been
+tunnelled, and the valleys that have been levelled for the
+purpose of conducting the water to its destination, he must
+confess that nothing has existed in the world more calculated
+to excite admiration.&rdquo; The same sentiment strikes
+an observer of to-day when looking at the ruins of these
+aqueducts. At the end of the first century <small>A.D.</small> we read of
+nine aqueducts in Rome, and in the time of Procopius
+(<small>A.D.</small> 550) there were fourteen in use. Of these, the Aqua
+Claudia and the Anio Novus were the grandest and most
+costly. Those were constructed about the year 48 <small>A.D.</small>,
+and entered the city upon the same arches, though at
+different levels, the Aqua Claudia being the lower. The
+arches carrying the streams were over nine miles long,
+and in some cases 109 ft. high. They were purely works
+of utility, and had no architectural decorations; but they
+were most admirably adapted for their purpose, and were
+so solidly constructed, that portions of them are still in
+use. Some of the provincial aqueducts, such as those of
+Tarragona and Segovia in Spain, were more ornamental,
+and had a double tier of arches. The Pont du Gard, not
+far from N&icirc;mes, in France, is a well-known and very
+picturesque structure of this character.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Commemorative Monuments.</i></h4>
+
+<p>These comprise triumphal arches, columns, and tombs.
+The former consisted of a rectangular mass of masonry
+having sculptured representations of the historical event
+to be commemorated, enriched with attached columns on
+pedestals, supporting an entablature crowned with a high
+attic, on which there was generally an inscription. In
+the centre was the wide and lofty arched opening. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+Arch of Titus, recording the capture of Jerusalem, is one
+of the finest examples. Later on triumphal arches were
+on a more extended scale, and comprised a small arch on
+each side of the large one; examples of which may be
+seen in the arches of Septimius Severus and of Constantine
+(Fig. <a href="#fig139">139</a>). The large arched gateways which are met
+with in various parts of Europe&mdash;such as the Porte
+d&rsquo;Arroux at Autun, and the Porta Nigra at Tr&egrave;ves&mdash;are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+monuments very similar to triumphal arches. There remain
+also smaller monuments of the same character, such as the
+so-called Arch of the Goldsmiths in Rome (Fig. <a href="#fig001">1</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig139" id="fig139"></a>
+<img src="images/acec157.jpg" width="700" height="555"
+alt="Showing figures and inscription" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 139.&mdash;The Arch of Constantine, Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Columns were erected in great numbers during the time
+of the Emperors as memorials of victory. Of these the
+Column of Trajan and that of Marcus Aurelius are the
+finest. The former was erected in the centre of Trajan&rsquo;s
+Forum, in commemoration of the Emperor&rsquo;s victory over
+the Dacians. It is of the Doric order, 132 ft. 10 in. high,
+including the statue. The shaft is constructed of thirty-four
+pieces of marble joined with bronze cramps. The
+figures on the pedestal are very finely carved, and the
+entire shaft is encircled by a series of elaborate bas-reliefs
+winding round it in a spiral from its base to its capital.
+The beauty of the work on this shaft may be best appreciated
+by a visit to the cast of it set up&mdash;in two
+heights, unfortunately&mdash;at the South Kensington Museum.
+The Column of Marcus Aurelius, generally known as the
+Antonine Column, is similarly enriched, but is not equal
+to the Trajan Column.</p>
+
+<p>The survival of Etruscan habits is clearly seen in the
+construction of Roman tombs, which existed in enormous
+numbers outside the gates of the city. Merivale says:
+&ldquo;The sepulchres of twenty generations lined the sides
+of the high-roads for several miles beyond the gates,
+and many had considerable architectural pretensions.&rdquo;
+That of Cecilia Metella is a typical example. Here we
+find a square basement surmounted by a circular tower-like
+structure, with a frieze and cornice. This was erected
+about <small>B.C.</small> 60, by Crassus. The mausoleum of Augustus
+was on a much more extensive scale, and consisted of four
+cylindrical stories, one above the other, decreasing in
+diameter as they ascended, and the topmost of all was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+crowned with a colossal statue of the Emperor. The
+tomb of Hadrian, on the banks of the Tiber&mdash;now known
+as the Castle of Sant&rsquo; Angelo&mdash;was even more magnificent.
+This comprised a square base, 75 ft. high, the side of
+which measured about 340 ft.; above this was a cylindrical
+building surmounted by a circular peristyle of thirty-four
+Corinthian columns. On the top was a quadriga
+with a statue of the Emperor. These mausolea were occasionally
+octagonal or polygonal in plan, surmounted by
+a dome, and cannot fail to remind us of the Etruscan
+tumuli.</p>
+
+<p>Another kind of tomb, of less magnificence, was the
+columbarium, which was nothing more than a subterranean
+chamber, the walls of which had a number of
+small apertures in them for receiving the cinerary urns
+containing the ashes of the bodies which had been
+cremated. In the eastern portion of the Empire, in rocky
+districts, the tombs were cut in the rock, and the fa&ccedil;ade
+was elaborately decorated with columns and other architectural
+features.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Domestic Architecture.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Of all the palaces which the Roman emperors built for
+themselves, and which we know from historical records to
+have been of the most magnificent description, nothing
+now remains in Rome itself that is not too completely
+ruined to enable any one to restore its plan with accuracy,
+though considerable remains exist of the Palace of the
+C&aelig;sars on the Palatine Hill. In fact, the palace of
+Diocletian at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, is the only remaining
+example in the whole of the Roman empire of the
+dwelling-house of an emperor, and even this was not
+built till after Diocletian had resigned the imperial
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+dignity, so that its date is the early part of the fourth century
+<small>A.D.</small> This palace is a rectangle, measuring about 700 ft.
+one way and 590 ft. the other, and covers an area of nearly
+10 acres. It is surrounded by high walls, broken at intervals
+by square and octagonal towers, and contains
+temples, baths, and extensive galleries, besides the private
+apartments of the Emperor and dwellings for the principal
+officers of the household. The architect of this building
+broke away from classical traditions to a great extent; for
+example, the columns stand on corbels instead of pedestals,
+the entablatures being much broken, and the arches spring
+directly from the capitals of the columns (Fig. <a href="#fig149">149</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The private houses in Borne were of two kinds: the
+<i>insula</i> and the <i>domus</i>. The insula was a block of buildings
+several stories high, frequently let out to different families
+in flats. The ground-floor was generally given up to
+shops, which had no connection with the upper parts of
+the building; and one roof covered the whole. This kind
+of house was generally tenanted by the poorer class of
+tradesmen and artificers. The other kind of house, the
+domus, was a detached mansion. The excavations at
+Pompeii have done much to elucidate a number of points
+in connection with Roman dwellings which had been the
+subject of much discussion by scholars, but we must not
+too hastily assume that the Pompeian houses are the exact
+counterpart of those of ancient Rome, as Pompeii was what
+may be called a Romano-Greek city.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 341px;">
+<a name="fig140" id="fig140"></a>
+<img src="images/acec158.jpg" width="341" height="700"
+alt="Showing layout of an extensive building, including alae and peristylium" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 140.&mdash;Ground-plan of the House of Pansa, Pompeii.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 339px;">
+<a name="fig141" id="fig141"></a>
+<img src="images/acec159.jpg" width="339" height="550"
+alt="A smaller, more simple building than the House of Pansa" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 141.&mdash;Ground-plan of the House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii.</p>
+
+<p>The general arrangements of a Roman house were as
+follows: next the street an open space was frequently
+left, with porticoes on each side of it provided with
+seats: this constituted the vestibule, and was entirely
+outside the house;<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> the entrance-door opened into a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+narrow passage, called the <i>prothyrum</i>, which led to
+the <i>atrium</i>,<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> which in the houses of Republican Rome
+was the principal apartment, though afterwards it served
+as a sort of waiting-room for the clients and retainers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+of the house; it was an open court, roofed in on all the
+four sides, but open to the sky in the centre. The simplest
+form was called the Tuscan atrium, where the roof was
+simply a lean-to sloping towards the centre, the rafters being
+supported on beams, two of which rested on the walls of the
+atrium, and had two other cross-beams trimmed into them.
+The centre opening was called the <i>impluvium</i>, and immediately
+under it a tank, called the <i>compluvium</i>, was formed
+in the pavement to collect the rain-water (Fig. <a href="#fig142">142</a>).
+When the atrium became larger, and the roof had to be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+supported by columns, it was called a <i>cav&aelig;dium</i>.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> At the
+end of this apartment were three others, open in front, the
+largest, in the centre, called <i>tablinum</i>, and the two side ones
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+<i>al&aelig;</i>;<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> these were muniment-rooms, where all the family
+archives were kept, and their position is midway between the
+semi-public part of the house, which lay towards the front,
+and the strictly domestic and private part, which lay in the
+rear. At the sides of the atrium in the larger houses were
+placed small rooms, which served as sleeping chambers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig142" id="fig142"></a>
+<img src="images/acec160.jpg" width="700" height="439"
+alt="A large living area, with extensive decoration on walls and ceiling" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 142.&mdash;The Atrium of a Pompeian House.</p>
+
+<p>From the end of the atrium a passage, or sometimes
+two passages, called the <i>fauces</i>, running by the side of
+the tablinum, led to the <i>peristylium</i>,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> which was the
+grand private reception-room; this also was a court
+open to the sky in the centre, and among the wealthy
+Romans its roof was supported by columns of the rarest
+marbles. Round the peristyle were grouped the various
+private rooms, which varied according to the size of the
+house and the taste of the owner. There was always
+one dining-room (<i>triclinium</i>), and frequently two or
+more, which were arranged with different aspects, for
+use in different seasons of the year. If several dining-rooms
+existed, they were of various sizes and decorated
+with various degrees of magnificence; and a story is told
+of one of the most luxurious Romans of Cicero&rsquo;s time,
+that he had simply to tell his slaves which room he would
+dine in for them to know what kind of banquet he wished to
+be prepared. In the largest houses there were saloons (<i>&aelig;ci</i>),
+parlours (<i>exedr&aelig;</i>), picture galleries (<i>pinacothec&aelig;</i>), chapels
+(<i>lararia</i>), and various other apartments. The kitchen, with
+scullery and bakehouse attached, was generally placed in
+one angle of the peristyle, round which various sleeping-chambers,
+according to the size of the house, were arranged.
+Most of the rooms appear to have been on the ground-floor,
+and probably depended for their light upon the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+doorway only; though in some instances at Pompeii small
+windows exist high up in the walls.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 468px;">
+<a name="fig143" id="fig143"></a>
+<img src="images/acec161.jpg" width="468" height="700"
+alt="Showing architectural elements, animal and human forms and other decoration" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 143.&mdash;Wall Decoration from Pompeii.</p>
+
+<p>In the extreme rear of the larger houses there was
+generally a garden; and in those which were without this,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+the dead walls in the rear were frequently painted so as to
+imitate a garden. The houses of the wealthy Romans
+were decorated with the utmost magnificence: marble
+columns, mosaic pavements, and charming pieces of sculpture
+adorned their apartments, and the walls were in
+all cases richly painted (Fig. <a href="#fig143">143</a>), being divided into
+panels, in the centre of which were represented sometimes
+human figures, sometimes landscapes, and sometimes pictures
+of historical events. All the decoration of Roman
+houses was internal only: the largest and most sumptuous
+mansion had little to distinguish it, next the street,
+from a comparatively humble abode; and, with the exception
+of the space required for the vestibule and
+entrance doorway, nearly the whole of the side of the
+house next the street was most frequently appropriated
+to shops. All that we are able to learn of the architecture
+of Roman private houses, whether from contemporary
+descriptions or from the uncovered remains of
+Pompeii and Herculaneum,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> points to the fact that it,
+even in a greater measure than the public architecture,
+was in no sense of indigenous growth, but was simply
+a copy of Greek arrangement and Greek decoration.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The passage in Varro, which is the sole authority for the Basilica
+Opimia, is generally considered to be corrupt.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Byron.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> This does not occur in the Pompeian houses.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Marked <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, on the plans.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Vitruvius, however, seems to use the terms <i>atrium</i> and <i>cav&aelig;dium</i>
+as quite synonymous.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Marked respectively <i>c</i>, and <i>f</i>, <i>f</i>, on the plan of the House of Pansa.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Marked <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, on the plans.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> At the Crystal Palace can be seen an interesting reproduction of a
+Pompeian house, which was designed by the late Sir Digby Wyatt.
+It gives a very faithful reproduction of the arrangement and the size of
+an average Pompeian house; and though every part is rather more
+fully covered with decoration than was usual in the originals, the
+decorations of each room faithfully reproduce the treatment of some
+original in Pompeii or Herculaneum.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 550px;">
+<a name="fig144" id="fig144"></a>
+<img src="images/acec162.jpg" width="550" height="230"
+alt="Showing detailed foliage patterns" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 144.&mdash;Carving from the Forum of Nerva, Rome.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER X.</h2>
+
+<h3>ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<h4><i>Analysis.</i></h4>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE <strong>Plan</strong> (<strong>or floor-disposition</strong>).&mdash;The plans of Roman
+buildings are striking from their variety and the
+vast extent which in some cases they display, as well
+as from a certain freedom, mastery, and facility of handling
+which are not seen in earlier work. Their variety is
+partly due to the very various purposes which the buildings
+of the Romans were designed to serve: these comprised
+all to which Greek buildings had been appropriated,
+and many others, the product of the complex and luxurious
+civilisation of the Empire. But independent of this circumstance,
+the employment of such various forms in
+the plans of buildings as the ellipse, the circle, and the
+octagon, and their facile use, seem to denote a people
+who could build rapidly, and who looked carefully to
+the general masses and outlines of what they built,
+however carelessly they handled the minute details.
+The freedom with which these new forms were employed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+arises partly also from the fact that the Romans were in
+possession of a system of construction which rendered
+them practically independent of most of the restrictions
+which had fettered the genius of the Egyptians, Assyrians,
+and Greeks. Their vaulted roofs could be supported by a
+comparatively small number of piers of great solidity,
+placed far apart; and accordingly in the great halls of
+the Therm&aelig; and elsewhere we find planning in which, a
+few stable points of support being secured, the outline of
+the spaces between them is varied at the pleasure of the
+architect in the most picturesque and pleasing manner.</p>
+
+<p>The actual floor received a good deal of attention from
+the Romans. It was generally covered with tesselated
+pavement, often with mosaic, and its treatment entered
+into the scheme of the design for most interiors.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Walls.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The construction of these was essentially different from
+that adopted by most earlier nations. The Romans rather
+avoided than cultivated the use of large blocks of stone;
+they invented methods by which very small materials could
+be aggregated together into massive and solid walls. They
+used mortar of great cementing power, so much so that
+many specimens of Roman walling exist in this country
+as well as in Italy or France, where the mortar is as hard
+as the stones which it unites. They also employed a system
+of binding together the small materials so employed by
+introducing, at short distances apart, courses of flat stones
+or bricks, called &ldquo;bond courses,&rdquo; and they further fortified
+such walls by bands of flat materials placed edgeways
+after the manner popularly known as herring-bone
+work. The result of these methods of construction was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+that the Roman architect could build anywhere, no matter
+how unpromising the materials which the locality afforded;
+that he could put the walls of his building together without
+its being requisite to employ exclusively the skilled
+labour of the mason, and that both time and expense were
+thus saved. This economy and speed were not pushed so
+far as to render the work anything but durable; they
+had, however, a bad effect in another direction, for these
+rough rubble walls were habitually encased in some more
+sightly material, in order to make them look as though
+they were something finer than they really were; and
+accordingly, the exterior was often faced with a thin
+skin of masonry, and not infrequently plastered. The
+interior was also almost invariably plastered, but to this
+little exception can be taken. This casing of the exteriors
+was, however, the beginning of a system of what may be
+called false architecture, and one which led to much that
+was degrading to the art.</p>
+
+<p>The walls were in many cases, it has been already observed,
+gathered into strong masses, such as it is customary
+to term piers, in order to support the vaulted roofs at the
+proper points. They were often carried to a much greater
+height than in Greek buildings, and they played altogether
+a far more important part in the design of Roman buildings
+than they had done in that of the Greeks.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Roofs.</i></h4>
+
+<p>As has been already stated, the Romans, in their possession
+of a new system of construction, enjoyed a degree
+of freedom which was unknown before. This system
+was based upon the use of the arch, and arched roofs and
+domes, and it enabled the Romans to produce interiors
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+unapproached before for size and splendour, and such as
+have hardly been surpassed since, except by the vaulted
+churches of the Middle Ages,&mdash;buildings which are themselves
+descended from Roman originals. The art of
+vaulting was, in short, the key to the whole system of
+Roman architecture, just as the Orders were to that of
+the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>The well-known arch over the Cloaca Maxima at Rome
+(Fig. <a href="#fig123">123</a>, p. <a href="#Page_142">142</a>) may be taken as an illustration of the
+most ancient and most simple kind of vault, the one which
+goes by the significant name of &ldquo;barrel or waggon-head
+vault.&rdquo; This is simply a continuous arched vault springing
+from the top of two parallel walls; in fact, like the
+arch of a railway tunnel. Such a vault may be constructed
+of very great span, and affords a means of
+putting a permanent roof over a floor the outline of which
+is a parallelogram; but it is heavy and uninteresting in
+appearance. It was soon found to be possible to introduce
+a cross vault running at right angles to the original one;
+and where such an intersecting vault occurs the side walls
+of the original vault may be dispensed with, for so much
+of their length as the newly-added vault spans.</p>
+
+<p>The next step was to introduce a succession of such cross
+vaults close to one another, so that large portions of the
+original main wall might be dispensed with. What remained
+of the side walls was now only a series of oblong
+masses or piers, suitably fortified so as to carry the great
+weight resting upon them, but leaving the architect free to
+occupy the space between them as his fancy might dictate,
+or to leave it quite open. In this way were constructed the
+great halls of the Therm&aelig;; and the finest halls of modern
+classic architecture&mdash;such, for example, as the Madeleine
+at Paris, or St. George&rsquo;s Hall at Liverpool&mdash;are only a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+reproduction of the splendid structures which such a
+system of vaulting rendered possible.</p>
+
+<p>When the floor of the space to be vaulted was circular,
+the result of covering it with an arched roof was the dome&mdash;a
+familiar feature of Roman architecture, and the
+noblest of all forms of roof. We possess in the dome of
+the Pantheon a specimen, in fairly good preservation, of
+this kind of roof on the grandest scale.</p>
+
+<p>We shall find that in later ages the dome and the vault
+were adopted by the Eastern and the Western schools of
+Christian architecture respectively. In Rome we have the
+origin of both.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Openings.</i></h4>
+
+<p>These were both square-headed and arched; but the
+arched ones occur far more frequently than the others, and,
+when occasion required, could be far bolder. The openings
+became of much greater importance than in earlier
+styles, and soon disputed with the columns the dignity of
+being the feature of the building: this eventually led, as
+will be related under the next head, to various devices for
+the fusion of the two.</p>
+
+<p>The adoption of the arch by the Romans led to a
+great modification in classic architecture; for its influence
+was to be traced in every part of the structure
+where an opening of any sort had to be spanned. Formerly
+the width of such openings was very limited,
+owing to the difficulty of obtaining lintels of great length.
+Now their width and height were pure matters of choice,
+and doorways, windows, and arcades naturally became
+very prominent, and were often very spacious.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>The Columns.</i></h4>
+
+<p>These necessarily took an altered place as soon as buildings
+were carried to such a height that one order could
+not, as in Greek temples, occupy the whole space from
+pavement to roof. The Greek orders were modified by the
+Romans in order to fit these altered circumstances, but
+columnar construction was by no means disused when the
+arch came to play so important a part in building. The
+Roman Doric order, and a very simple variety of it
+called Tuscan, were but rarely used. The chief alteration
+from the Greek Doric, in addition to a general
+degradation of all the mouldings and proportions, was
+the addition of a base, which sometimes consists of a
+square plinth and large torus, sometimes is a slightly
+modified Attic base; the capital has a small moulding
+round the top of the abacus, and under the ovolo are two
+or three small fillets with a necking below; the shaft
+was from 6 to 7 diameters in height, and was not fluted;
+the frieze was ornamented with triglyphs, and the metopes
+between these were frequently enriched with sculptured
+heads of bulls: the metopes were exact squares, and the
+triglyphs at the angles of buildings were placed precisely
+over the centre of the column.</p>
+
+<p>The Ionic order was but slightly modified by the Romans,
+the chief alteration being made in the capital. Instead
+of forming the angular volutes so that they exhibited a
+flat surface on the two opposite sides of the capital, the
+Romans appear to have desired to make the latter uniform
+on all the four sides; they therefore made the sides of the
+abacus concave on plan, and arranged the volutes so that
+they seemed to spring out of the mouldings under the
+abacus and faced anglewise. The capital altogether seems
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+compressed and crowded up, and by no means elegant;
+in fact, both this and the Doric order were decidedly deteriorations
+from the fine forms of Greek architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 298px;">
+<a name="fig145" id="fig145"></a>
+<img src="images/acec163.jpg" width="298" height="425"
+alt="Capital showing extensive floral decoration" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 145.&mdash;Roman Corinthian Capital
+and Base from the Temple of Vesta
+at Tivoli.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 350px;">
+<a name="fig145a" id="fig145a"></a>
+<img src="images/acec164.jpg" width="350" height="336"
+alt="Showing scrolls and extensive foliage decorations" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 145a.&mdash;The Roman Composite Capital.</p>
+
+<p>The Corinthian order was much more in accordance
+with the later Roman taste for magnificence and display,
+and hence we find its use very general both in Rome and
+in other cities of the Empire. Its proportions did not
+greatly differ from those of the Greek Corinthian, but
+the mouldings in general were more elaborate. Numerous
+variations of the capital exist (Figs. <a href="#fig145">145</a>, <a href="#fig145a">145<span class="smcap">a</span></a>), but the
+principal one was an amalgamation of the large Ionic
+volutes in the upper with the acanthus leaves of the lower
+portion of the capital: this is known as the Composite
+order, and the capital thus treated has a strength and vigour
+which was wanting to the Greek order (see Fig. <a href="#fig145a">145<span class="smcap">a</span></a>).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+The shafts of the columns were more often fluted than
+not, though sometimes the lower portion was left plain
+and the upper only fluted. The Attic base was generally
+used, but an example has been found of an adaptation of
+the graceful Persepolitan base to the Corinthian column.
+This was the happiest innovation that the Romans made;
+it seems, however, to have been but an individual attempt,
+and, as it was introduced very shortly before the fall of
+the Empire, the idea was not worked out.</p>
+
+<p>The orders thus changed were employed for the most
+part as mere decorative additions to the walls. In many
+cases they did not even carry the eaves of the roof, as
+they always did in a Greek temple; and it was not
+uncommon for two, three, or more orders to be used one
+above another, marking the different stories of a lofty
+building.</p>
+
+<p>The columns, or pilasters which took their place, being
+reduced to the humble function of ornaments added to the
+wall of a building, it became very usual to combine them
+with arched openings, and to put an arch in the interspace
+between two columns, or, in other words, to add a column
+to the pier between two arches (Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a>). These arched
+openings being often wide, a good deal of disproportion
+between the height of the columns and their distance
+apart was liable to occur; and, partly to correct this, the
+column was often mounted upon a pedestal, to which the
+name of &ldquo;stylobate&rdquo; has been given.</p>
+
+<p>It was also sometimes customary to place above the
+order, or the highest order where more than one was
+employed, what was termed an attic&mdash;a low story ornamented
+with piers or pilasters. The exterior of the
+Colosseum (Fig. <a href="#fig005">5</a>), the triumphal arches of Constantine
+(Fig. <a href="#fig139">139</a>) and Titus, and the fragments of the upper part
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"><!-- original location of Fig. 146 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+of the Forum of Nerva (Fig. <a href="#fig147">147</a>) may be consulted as
+illustrations of the combination of an order and an
+arched opening, and of the use of pedestals and attics.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 481px;">
+<a name="fig146" id="fig146"></a>
+<img src="images/acec165.jpg" width="481" height="700" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 146.&mdash;Part of the Theatre of Marcellus, Rome. Showing the combination of
+Columns and Arched Openings.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig147" id="fig147"></a>
+<img src="images/acec166.jpg" width="700" height="650"
+alt="Features a large carved figure and a frieze of smaller figures" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 147.&mdash;From the Ruins of the Forum of Nerva, Rome. Showing the use
+of an Attic Story. With Plan.</p>
+
+<p>Another peculiarity, of which we give an illustration from
+the baths of Diocletian (Fig. <a href="#fig148">148</a>), was the surmounting a
+column or pilaster with a square pillar of stone, moulded
+in the same way as an entablature, <i>i.e.</i> with the regular
+division into architrave, frieze, and cornice. This was a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+decided perversion of the
+use of the order; it occurs
+in examples of late date.
+So also do various other
+arrangements for making
+an arch spring from the
+capital of a column; one
+of these, from the palace
+of Diocletian at Spalatro,
+we are able to illustrate
+(Fig. <a href="#fig149">149</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 286px;">
+<a name="fig148" id="fig148"></a>
+<img src="images/acec167.jpg" width="286" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 148.&mdash;From the Baths of Diocletian,
+Rome. Showing a fragmentary Entablature
+at the starting of part of a
+Vault.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig149" id="fig149"></a>
+<img src="images/acec168.jpg" width="600" height="342" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 149.&mdash;From the Palace of Diocletian, Spalatro. Showing an Arch springing
+from a Column.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, it may be
+worth while to say that
+the Roman writers and
+architects recognised five
+orders: the Tuscan, Doric,
+Ionic, Corinthian, and
+Composite, the first and
+last in this list being,
+however, really only
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"><!-- original location of Fig. 150 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+variations; and that when they placed the orders above one
+another, they invariably used those of them which they
+selected in the succession in which they have been named;
+that is to say, the Tuscan or Doric lowest, and so on in
+succession.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 472px;">
+<a name="fig150" id="fig150"></a>
+<img src="images/acec169.jpg" width="472" height="700"
+alt="Showing mouldings on capitals and bases" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 150.&mdash;Mouldings and Ornaments from various Roman Buildings.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Ornaments.</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 308px;">
+<a name="fig151" id="fig151"></a>
+<img src="images/acec170.jpg" width="308" height="325" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 151.&mdash;Roman Carving. An Acanthus Leaf.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="fig152" id="fig152"></a>
+<img src="images/acec171.jpg" width="400" height="116" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 152.&mdash;The Egg and Dart Enrichment. Roman.</p>
+
+<p>The mouldings with which Roman buildings are ornamented
+are all derived from Greek originals, but are often
+extremely rough and coarse. It is true that in some old
+Roman work, especially in those of the tombs which are
+executed in marble, mouldings of considerable delicacy
+and refinement of outline occur, but these are exceptional.
+The profiles of the mouldings are, as a rule, segments of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+circles, instead of being more subtle curves, and the result
+is that violent contrasts of light and shade are obtained,
+telling enough at a distance, but devoid of interest if the
+spectator come near.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 475px;">
+<a name="fig153" id="fig153"></a>
+<img src="images/acec172.jpg" width="475" height="374"
+alt="A symmetrical pattern, showing lines, beads and animal figures" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 153.&mdash;Wall Decoration of (so-called) Arabesque character from
+Pompeii.</p>
+
+<p>Carving is executed exactly on the same principles as
+those which govern the mouldings&mdash;that is to say, with
+much more coarseness than in Greek work; not lacking
+in vigour, or in a sort of ostentatious opulence of ornament,
+but often sadly deficient in refinement and grace.</p>
+
+<p>Statues, many of them copies of Greek originals,
+generally executed with a heavy hand, but sometimes
+clearly of Greek work, were employed, as well as bronzes,
+inlaid marbles, mosaics, and various devices to ornament
+the interiors of Greco-Roman buildings; and free use
+was made of ornamental plaster-work, both on walls
+and vaults.</p>
+
+<p>Coloured decoration was much in vogue, and, to judge
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+from what has come down to us, must have been executed
+with great taste and much spirit. The walls of a Roman
+dwelling-house of importance seem to have been all
+painted, partly with that light kind of decoration to
+which the somewhat inappropriate name of arabesque
+has been given, and partly with groups or single figures,
+relieved by dark or black backgrounds. The remains of
+the Palace of the C&aelig;sars in Rome, much of it not now
+accessible, and the decorations visible at Pompeii, give a
+high idea of the skill with which this mural ornamentation
+was executed; our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig154">154</a>) may be
+taken as affording a good example of the combined decorations
+in relief and colour often applied to vaulted ceilings.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, characteristic of the lower level at
+which Roman art stood as compared with Greek that,
+though statues abounded, we find no traces of groups
+of sculpture designed to occupy the pediments of
+temples, or of bas-reliefs fitted to special localities in
+the buildings, such as were all but universal in the best
+Greek works.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Architectural Character.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The nature of this will have been to a large extent
+gathered from the observations already made. Daring,
+energy, readiness, structural skill, and a not too fastidious
+taste were characteristic of the Roman architect and his
+works. We find traces of vast spaces covered, bold construction
+successfully and solidly carried out, convenience
+studied, and a great deal of magnificence attained in those
+buildings the remains of which have come down to us;
+but we do not discover refinement or elegance, a fine
+feeling for proportion, or a close attention to details, to
+a degree at all approaching the extent to which these
+qualities are to be met with in Greek buildings. We
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+are thus sometimes tempted to regret that it was not
+possible to combine a higher degree of refinement with
+the great excellence in construction and contrivance exhibited
+by Roman architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 444px;">
+<a name="fig154" id="fig154"></a>
+<img src="images/acec173t.jpg" width="444" height="500"
+alt="Highly detailed decoration, showing figures, mosaic and floral patterns" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/acec173.jpg">See larger image.</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 154.&mdash;Decoration in Relief and Colour of the Vault of a Tomb
+in the Via Latina, near Rome.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig155" id="fig155"></a>
+<img src="images/acec174.jpg" width="500" height="408"
+alt="Showing front view" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 155.&mdash;Basilica-Church of San Miniato, Florence.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2>
+
+<h3>EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<h4><i>Basilicas in Rome and Italy.</i></h4>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">D</span>URING the first three centuries the Christian
+religion was discredited and persecuted; and
+though many interesting memorials of this time (some
+of them having an indirect bearing upon architectural
+questions) remain in the Catacombs, it is chiefly for their
+paintings that the touching records of the past which
+have been preserved to us in these secluded excavations
+should be studied. Early in the fourth century Constantine
+the Great became Emperor, and in the course of his
+reign (from <small>A.D.</small> 312 to 337) he recognised Christianity,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+and made it the religion of the State. It then, of course,
+became requisite to provide places of public worship.
+Probably the Christians would have been, in many cases,
+reluctant to make use of heathen temples, and few
+temples, if any, were adapted to the assembling of a large
+congregation. But the large halls of the baths and
+the basilicas were free from associations of an objectionable
+character, and well fitted for large assemblages
+of worshippers. These and other such places were accordingly,
+in the first instance, employed as Christian
+churches. The basilica, however, became the model
+which, at least in Italy, was followed, to the exclusion
+of all others, when new buildings were erected for
+the purpose of Christian worship; and during the fourth
+century, and several succeeding ones, the churches of
+the West were all of the basilica type. What occurred
+at Constantinople, the seat of the Eastern Empire and
+the centre of the Eastern Church, will be considered
+presently.</p>
+
+<p>There is probably no basilica actually standing which
+was built during the reign of Constantine, or near his
+time; but there are several basilica churches in Rome,
+such as that of San Clemente, which were founded near
+his time, and which, though they have been partially or
+wholly rebuilt, exhibit what is believed to be the ancient
+disposition without modification.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 478px;">
+<a name="fig156" id="fig156"></a>
+<img src="images/acec175.jpg" width="478" height="700"
+alt="Showing central space edged with columns" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 156.&mdash;Interior of a Basilica at Pompeii.</span><br />
+<i>Restored, from descriptions by various authors.</i></p>
+
+<p>Access is obtained to San Clemente through a forecourt
+to which the name of the atrium is given. This
+is very much like the atrium of a Roman house, being
+covered with a shed roof round all four sides and open in
+the centre, and so resembling a cloister. The side next
+the church was called the narthex or porch; and when an
+atrium did not exist, a narthex at least was usually
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"><!-- original location of Fig. 156 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+provided. The basilica has always a central avenue, or nave,
+and sides or aisles, and was generally entered from the
+narthex by three doors, one to each division. The nave of
+San Clemente is lofty, and covered by a simple wooden
+roof; it is separated from the side aisles by arcades, the
+arches of which spring from the capitals of columns; and
+high up in its side walls we find windows. The side
+aisles, like the nave, have wooden roofs. The nave terminates
+in a semicircular recess called &ldquo;the apse,&rdquo; the floor
+of which is higher than that of the general structure, and
+is approached by steps. A large arch divides this apse
+from the nave. A portion of the nave floor is occupied by
+an enclosed space for the choir, surrounded by marble
+screens, and having a pulpit on either side of it. These
+pulpits are termed &ldquo;ambos.&rdquo; Below the Church of San
+Clemente is a vaulted structure or crypt extending under
+the greater part, but not the whole, of the floor of the
+main building.</p>
+
+<p>The description given above would apply, with very
+slight variations, to any one of the many ancient basilica
+churches in Rome, Milan, Ravenna, and the other older
+cities of Italy; the principal variations being that in
+many instances, including the very ancient basilica of
+St. Peter, now destroyed, the avenues all stopped short of
+the end wall of the basilica, and a wide and clear transverse
+space or transept ran athwart them in front of the
+apse. San Clemente indeed shows some faint traces of
+such a feature. In one or two very large churches five
+avenues occur,&mdash;that is to say, a nave and double aisles;
+and in Santa Agnese (Fig. <a href="#fig156a">156<span class="smcap">a</span></a>) and at least one other, we
+find a gallery over the side aisles opening into the nave,
+or, as Mr. Fergusson puts it, &ldquo;the side aisles in two
+stories.&rdquo; In many instances we should find no atrium,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"><!-- original location of Fig. 156a --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+but in all cases we meet with the nave and aisles, and the
+apse at the end of the nave, with its arch and its elevated
+floor; and the entrances are always at the end of the
+building farthest from the apse, with some sort of porch
+or portal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig156a" id="fig156a"></a>
+<img src="images/acec176.jpg" width="700" height="480"
+alt="Showing a high-roofed area, surrounded with arches supported on columns" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 156a.&mdash;Basilica, or Early Christian Church of Santa Agnese at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The interest of these buildings lies not so much in their
+venerable antiquity as in the fact that the arrangements
+of all Christian churches in Western Europe down to the
+Reformation, and of very many since, are directly derived
+from these originals. If the reader will refer to the
+description of a Gothic cathedral in the companion volume
+of this series,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> it will not be difficult for him to trace the
+correspondence between its plan and its general structure
+and those of the primitive basilica. The atrium no longer
+forms the access to a cathedral, but it still survives in the
+cloister, though in a changed position. The narthex or
+porch is still more or less traceable in the great western
+portals, and in a kind of separation which often, but not
+always, exists between the westernmost bay of a cathedral
+and the rest of the structure. The division into nave and
+aisles remains, and in very large churches and cathedrals
+there are double aisles, as there were in the largest
+basilicas. The nave roof is still higher than the aisles&mdash;the
+arcade, in two stories, survives in the usual arcade
+and triforium; the windows placed high in the nave are
+the present clerestory. The apsidal termination of the
+central avenue is still retained in almost all Continental
+architecture, though in Great Britain, from an early date,
+it was abandoned for a square east end; but square-ended
+or apsidal, a recess with a raised floor and a conspicuous
+arch, marking it off from the nave, always occupies this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+end of the church; and the under church, or crypt, is
+commonly, though not always, met with. The enclosure
+for the choir has, generally speaking, been moved farther
+east than it was in the basilica churches; though in
+Westminster Abbey, and in most Spanish cathedrals, we
+have examples of its occupying a position closely analogous
+to that of the corresponding enclosure at the basilica of San
+Clemente. The cross passage to which we have referred
+as having existed in the old basilica of St. Peter, and
+many others, is the original of the transept which in
+later churches has been made more conspicuous than it
+was in the basilica by being lengthened so as to project
+beyond the side walls of the church, and by being moved
+more westward. Lastly, the two ambos, or pulpits,
+survive in two senses. They are represented by the
+reading desk and the pulpit, and their situation and
+purpose are continued in the epistle and gospel sides of
+the choir.</p>
+
+<p>The one point in which an essential difference occurs is
+the position of the altar, or communion table, and that of
+the Bishop&rsquo;s chair, or throne. In the classic basilica the
+apse was the tribunal, and a raised seat with a tesselated
+pavement occupied the central position in it, and was the
+justice-seat of the presiding judge; and in the sweep of
+the apse, seats right and left, at a lower elevation, were
+provided for assessors or assistant-judges. In front of the
+president was placed a small altar. The whole of these
+arrangements were copied in the basilica churches. The
+seat of the president became the bishop&rsquo;s throne, the seats
+for assessors were appropriated to the clergy, and the
+altar retained substantially its old position in front of the
+apse, generally with a canopy erected over it. This disposition
+continues in basilica churches to the present day.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+At St. Peter&rsquo;s in Rome, for example, the Pope occupies a
+throne in the middle of the apse, and says mass with his
+face turned towards the congregation at the high altar,
+which stands in front of his throne under a vast baldacchino
+or canopy; but in Western Christendom generally
+a change has been made,&mdash;the altar has been placed in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+apse where the bishop&rsquo;s throne formerly stood, and the
+throne of the bishop and stalls of his clergy have been
+displaced, and are to be found at the sides of the choir or
+presbytery.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 504px;">
+<a name="fig157" id="fig157"></a>
+<img src="images/acec177.jpg" width="504" height="700"
+alt="Highly decorated wall and ceiling, with steps leading up" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 157.&mdash;Sant&rsquo; Apollinare, Ravenna. Part of the Arcade and Apse.</p>
+
+<p>Many basilica churches were erected out of fragments
+taken from older buildings, and present a curious mixture
+of columns, capitals, &amp;c.; others, especially those at
+Ravenna, exhibit more care, and are noble specimens of
+ancient and severe architectural work. The illustration
+which we give of part of the nave, arcade, and apse of one
+of these, Sant&rsquo; Apollinare in Classe, shows the dignified
+yet ornate aspect of one of the most carefully executed of
+these buildings (Fig. <a href="#fig157">157</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In some of these churches the decorations are chiefly
+in mosaic, and are extremely striking. Our illustration of
+the apse of the great basilica of St. Paul without the walls
+(Fig. <a href="#fig158">158</a>) may be taken as a fair specimen of the general
+arrangement and treatment of the crowd of sacred figures
+and subjects which it is customary to represent in these
+situations; but it can of course convey no idea of the
+brilliant effect produced by powerful colouring executed
+in mosaic, the most luminous of all methods of enrichment.
+The floor of most of them was formed in the style
+of mosaic known as &ldquo;opus Alexandrinum,&rdquo; and the large
+sweeping, curved bands of coloured material with which
+the main outlines of the patterns are defined, and the
+general harmony of colour among the porphyries and
+other hard stones with which these pavements were executed,
+combine to satisfy the eye. A splendid specimen of
+opus Alexandrinum, the finest north of the Alps, exists in
+the presbytery of Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 518px;">
+<a name="fig158" id="fig158"></a>
+<img src="images/acec178.jpg" width="518" height="700"
+alt="Heavily decorated, with figures and inscriptions" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 158.&mdash;Apse of the Basilica of St. Paul without the Walls, Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Another description of building is customarily met
+with in connection with early Christian churches,&mdash;the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"><!-- original location of Fig. 158 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+baptistery. This is commonly a detached building, and
+almost always circular or polygonal. In some instances
+the baptistery adjoins the atrium or forecourt; but it
+soon became customary to erect detached baptisteries of
+considerable size. These generally have a high central
+portion carried by a ring of columns, and a low aisle running
+round, the receptacle for water being in the centre.
+The origin of these buildings is not so clear as that of
+the basilica churches; they bear some resemblance to the
+Roman circular temples; but it is more probable that
+the form was suggested by buildings similar in general
+arrangement, and forming part of a Roman bath. The
+octagonal building known as the baptistery of Constantine,
+and the circular building now used as a church and
+dedicated to Santa Costanza in Rome, and the celebrated
+baptistery of Ravenna, are early examples of this class of
+structure. Somewhat more recent, and very well known,
+are the great baptisteries of Florence and Pisa.</p>
+
+<p>A few ancient circular or polygonal churches remain
+which do not appear to have been built as baptisteries.
+One of these is at Rome, the church of San Stefano
+Rotondo; but another, more remarkable in every way,
+is at Ravenna, the church of San Vitale. This is an
+octagonal building, with a large vestibule and a small
+apsidal choir. The central portion, carried by eight
+arches springing from as many lofty and solid piers, and
+surmounted by a hemispherical dome, rises high above
+the aisle which surrounds it. Much elegance is produced
+by the arrangement of smaller columns so as to form a
+kind of apsidal recess in each of the interspaces between
+the eight main piers.</p>
+
+<p>Another feature which has become thoroughly identified
+with church architecture is the bell-tower, or campanile.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+This appendage, there can be no doubt, originated with
+the basilicas of Italy. The use of bells as a call to prayer
+is said to have been introduced not later, at any rate, than
+the sixth century, and to this era is attributed a circular
+campanile belonging to Sant&rsquo; Apollinare in Classe at
+Ravenna, a basilica already alluded to. The circular plan
+was, however, exceptional; the ancient campaniles remaining
+in Rome are all square; they are usually built of
+brick, many stories in height, and with a group of arched
+openings in each story, and are generally surmounted by
+a low conical roof.</p>
+
+<p>The type of church which we have described influenced
+church architecture in Italy down to the eleventh century,
+and such buildings as the beautiful church (Fig. <a href="#fig155">155</a>) of
+San Miniato, near Florence (<small>A.D.</small> 1013), and the renowned
+group of Cathedral, Baptistery, Campanile, and Campo
+Santo (a kind of cloistered cemetery) at Pisa, bear a very
+strong resemblance in many respects to these originals;
+though they belong rather to the Romanesque than to
+the Basilican division of early Christian architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> &lsquo;Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,&rsquo; chap. ii. p. 6.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig158a" id="fig158a"></a>
+<img src="images/acec179.jpg" width="600" height="166"
+alt="Repeated fan, leaf and bead pattern" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 158a.&mdash;Frieze from the Monastery at Fulda.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2>
+
+<h3>BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">C</span>ONSTANTINE THE GREAT, who by establishing
+the Christian religion had encouraged the erection
+of basilicas for Christian worship in Rome and Italy,
+effected a great political change, and one destined to exert
+a marked influence upon Christian architecture, when he
+removed the seat of empire from Rome to Byzantium, and
+called the new capital Constantinople,<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> after his own
+name. Byzantium had been an ancient place, but was
+almost in ruins when Constantine, probably attracted by
+the unrivalled advantages of its site,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> rebuilt it, or at least
+re-established it as a city. The solemn inauguration of
+Constantinople as the new capital took place <small>A.D.</small> 330; and
+when, under Theodosius, the empire was divided, this city
+became the capital of the East.</p>
+
+<p>With a new point of departure among a people largely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+of Greek race, we might expect that a new development
+of the church from some other type than the basilica
+might be likely to show itself. This, in fact, is what
+occurred; for while the most ancient churches of Rome
+all present, as we have seen, an almost slavish copy of
+an existing type of building, and do not attempt the use
+of vaulted roofs, in Byzantium buildings of most original
+design sprang up, founded, it is true, on Roman originals,
+but by no means exact copies of them. In the erection
+of these churches the most difficult problems of construction
+were successfully encountered and solved. What
+may have been the course which architecture ran during
+the two centuries between the refounding of Byzantium
+and the building of Santa Sophia under Justinian, we can,
+however, only infer from its outcome. It is doubtful if
+any church older than the sixth century now remains in
+Constantinople; but it is certain that, to attain the power
+of designing and erecting so great a work as Santa Sophia,
+the architects of Constantinople must have continued and
+largely modified the Roman practice of building vaults and
+domes. There is every probability that if some of the
+early churches in Byzantium were domed structures others
+may have been vaulted basilicas; the more so as the very
+ancient churches in Syria, which owed their origin to
+Byzantium rather than to Rome, are most of them of the
+basilica type.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig159" id="fig159"></a>
+<img src="images/acec180.jpg" width="700" height="358"
+alt="Showing rooms, doors, windows dome and other features" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 159.&mdash;Church of Santa Sophia at Constantinople. Long Section.<br />
+Built under Justinian by Anthemios and Isidoros. Completed <small>A.D.</small> 537.</p>
+
+<p>A church which had been erected by Constantine, dedicated
+to Santa Sophia (holy wisdom), was burnt early in
+the reign of Justinian (<small>A.D.</small> 527 to 565); and in rebuilding
+it his architects, Anthemios of Thralles, and Isidoros of
+Miletus, succeeded in erecting one of the most famous
+buildings of the world, and one which is the typical and
+central embodiment of a distinct and very strongly marked
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"><!-- original location of Fig. 159 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+well-defined style. The basis of this style may be said to
+be the adoption of the dome, in preference to the vault or
+the timber roof, as the covering of the space enclosed within
+the walls; with the result that the general disposition of
+the plan is circular or square, rather than oblong, and
+that the structure recalls the Pantheon more than the
+great Hall of the Therm&aelig; of Diocletian, or the Basilica of
+St. Paul. In Santa Sophia one vast flattish dome dominates
+the central space. This dome is circular in plan,
+and the space over which it is placed is a square, the
+sides of which are occupied by four massive semicircular
+arches of 100 ft. span each, springing from four vast
+piers, one at each of the four corners. The four triangular
+spaces between the corners of the square so
+enclosed and the circle or ring resting upon it are filled
+by what are termed &ldquo;pendentives&rdquo;&mdash;features which may,
+perhaps, be best described as portions of a dome, each just
+sufficient to fit into one corner of the square, and the
+four uniting at their upper margin to form a ring. From
+this ring springs the main dome. It rises to a height of
+46 ft., and is 107 ft. in clear diameter. East and west of
+the main dome are two half-domes, each springing from
+a wall apsidal (<i>i.e.</i> semicircular) in plan. Smaller apses
+again, domed over at a lower level, are introduced, and
+vaulted aisles two stories in height occupy the sides of the
+space within the outer walls till the outline of the building
+is brought to very nearly an exact square. Externally this
+church is uninteresting,<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> but its interior is of surpassing
+beauty, and can be better described in the eloquent language
+of Gilbert Scott<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> than in any other: &ldquo;Simple as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+is the primary ideal, the actual effect is one of great intricacy,
+and of continuous gradation of parts, from the
+small arcades up to the stupendous dome, which hangs
+with little apparent support like a vast bubble over the
+centre, or as Procopius, who witnessed its erection, described
+it, &lsquo;as if suspended by a chain from heaven.&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The dome is lighted by forty small windows, which
+pierce it immediately above the cornice which crowns its
+pendentives, and which, by subdividing its lower part
+into narrow piers, increases the feeling of its being supported
+by its own buoyancy.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The interior thus generated, covered almost wholly
+by domes, or portions of them, each rising in succession
+higher and higher towards the floating hemisphere in the
+centre, and so arranged that one shall open out the view
+to others, and that nearly the entire system of vaulting
+may be viewed at a single glance, appears to me to be in
+some respects the noblest which has ever been designed,
+as it was certainly the most daring which, up to that time
+at least, if not absolutely, had ever been constructed.&rdquo;
+After pointing out how the smaller arcades and apsidal
+projections, and the vistas obtained through the various
+arched openings, introduced intricate effects of perspective
+and constant changes of aspect, Scott continues: &ldquo;This
+union of the more palpable with the more mysterious, of
+the vast unbroken expanse with the intricately broken
+perspective, must, as it appears to me, and as I judge
+from representations, produce an impression more astounding
+than that of almost any other building: but when
+we consider the whole as clothed with the richest beauties
+of surface,&mdash;its piers encrusted with inlaid marbles of every
+hue, its arcades of marble gorgeously carved, its domes
+and vaultings resplendent with gold mosaic interspersed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+with solemn figures, and its wide-spreading floors rich
+with marble tesselation, over which the buoyant dome
+floats self-supported, and seems to sail over you as you
+move,&mdash;I cannot conceive of anything more astonishing,
+more solemn, and more magnificent.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The type of church of which this magnificent cathedral
+was the great example has continued in Eastern Christendom
+to the present day, and has undergone surprisingly
+little variation. A certain distinctive character in the
+foliage (Fig. <a href="#fig163">163</a>) employed in capitals and other decorative
+carving, and mosaics of splendid colour but somewhat gaunt
+and archaic design, though often solemn and dignified,
+were typical of the work of Justinian&rsquo;s day, and could long
+afterwards be recognised in Eastern Christian churches.</p>
+
+<p>Between Rome and Constantinople, and well situated for
+receiving influence from both those cities, stood Ravenna,
+and here a series of buildings, all more or less Byzantine,
+were erected. The most interesting of these is the church
+of San Vitale (Figs. <a href="#fig160">160</a>, <a href="#fig161">161</a>). This building is octagonal
+in plan, and thus belongs to the series of round and
+polygonal churches and baptisteries for which the circular
+buildings of the Romans furnished a model; but in its
+high central dome, lighted by windows placed high up,
+its many subsidiary arcades and apses, the latter roofed
+by half-domes, and its vaulted aisles in two stories, it
+recalls Santa Sophia; and its sculpture, carving, and
+mosaic decorations are hardly less famous and no less
+characteristic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 390px;">
+<a name="fig160" id="fig160"></a>
+<img src="images/acec181.jpg" width="390" height="450"
+alt="Showing central octagonal structure with other areas built around the edges" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 160.&mdash;Plan of San Vitale at Ravenna.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig161" id="fig161"></a>
+<img src="images/acec182.jpg" width="700" height="420"
+alt="Showing columns and the dome above the central octagonal structure" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 161.&mdash;San Vitale at Ravenna. Longitudinal Section.</p>
+
+<p>One magnificent specimen of Byzantine architecture,
+more within the reach of ordinary travellers, and consequently
+better known than San Vitale or Santa Sophia,
+must not be omitted, and can be studied easily by means
+of numberless photographic illustrations&mdash;St. Mark&rsquo;s at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"><!-- original location of Figs. 160-161 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+Venice. This cathedral was built between the years
+977-1071, and, it is said, according to a design obtained
+from Constantinople. It has since been altered in external
+appearance by the erection of bulbous domical roofs
+over its domes, and by additions of florid Gothic character;
+but, disregarding these, we have alike in plan, structure,
+and ornament, a Byzantine church of the first class.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 432px;">
+<a name="fig162" id="fig162"></a>
+<img src="images/acec183.jpg" width="432" height="500"
+alt="Showing the Greek cross form and position of the domes" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 162.&mdash;Plan of St. Mark&rsquo;s at Venice.</p>
+
+<p>The ground-plan of St. Mark&rsquo;s (Fig. <a href="#fig162">162</a>) presents a
+Greek cross, <i>i.e.</i> one in which all the arms are equal, and
+it is roofed by five principal domes, one at the crossing
+and one over each of the four limbs of the cross. Aisles at
+a low level, and covered by a series of small flat domes, in
+lieu of vaulting, fill up the angles between the arms of the
+cross, so as to make the outline of the plan nearly square.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+The rich colouring of St. Mark&rsquo;s, due to a profuse employment
+of mosaics and of the most costly marbles, and the
+splendid effects produced by the mode of introducing
+light, which is admitted much as at Santa Sophia, are
+perhaps its greatest charm; but there is beauty in every
+aspect of its interior which has furnished a fit theme for
+the pen of the most eloquent writer on art and architecture
+of the present or perhaps of any day.</p>
+
+<p>From Venice the influence of Byzantine art spread
+to a small extent in North Italy; in that city herself as
+well as in neighbouring towns, such as Padua, buildings
+and fragments of buildings exhibiting the characteristics
+of the style can be found. Remarkable traces of the
+influence of Byzantium as a centre, believed to be due
+to intercourse with Venice, can also be found in France.
+Direct communication with Constantinople by way of the
+Mediterranean has also introduced Byzantine taste into
+Sicily. One famous French church, St. Front in P&eacute;rigueux,
+is identical (or nearly so) with St. Mark&rsquo;s in its plan; but
+all its constructive arches being pointed (Fig. <a href="#fig003">3</a>, page <a href="#Page_5">5</a>),
+its general appearance differs a good deal from that of
+Eastern churches&mdash;a difference which is accentuated by
+the absence of the mosaics and other coloured ornaments
+which enrich the walls of St. Mark&rsquo;s. Many very old
+domed churches and much sculpture of the Byzantine
+type are moreover to be found in Central and Southern
+France&mdash;Anjou, Aquitaine, and Auvergne. These are,
+however, isolated examples of the style having taken root
+in spite of adverse circumstances; it is in those parts of
+Europe where the Greek Church prevails, or did prevail,
+that Byzantine architecture chiefly flourishes. In Greece
+and Asia Minor many ancient churches of Byzantine
+structure remain, while in Russia churches are built to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+present day corresponding to the general type of those
+which have just been described.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 584px;">
+<a name="fig163" id="fig163"></a>
+<img src="images/acec184.jpg" width="584" height="600"
+alt="Showing extensive foliage decoration" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 163.&mdash;From the Golden Door of Jerusalem. Time of Justinian. <small>A.D.</small> 560.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 604px;">
+<a name="fig164" id="fig164"></a>
+<img src="images/acec185.jpg" width="604" height="650"
+alt="Steps lead up to arch at entrance; towers visible on either side at the front" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 164.&mdash;Church at Turmanin in Syria. 4th and 5th Century.</p>
+
+<p>In ancient buildings of Syria the influence of both the
+Roman and the Byzantine models can be traced. No
+more characteristic specimens of Byzantine foliage can
+be desired than some to be found in Palestine, as for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+example the Golden Gate at Jerusalem, which we illustrate
+(Fig. <a href="#fig163">163</a>); but in the deserted cities of Central Syria a
+group of exceptional and most interesting buildings, both
+secular and sacred, exists, which, as described by De Vog&uuml;&eacute;,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>
+seem to display a free and very original treatment based
+upon Roman more than Byzantine ideas. We illustrate
+the exterior of one of these, the church at Turmanin
+(Fig. <a href="#fig164">164</a>). This is a building divided into a nave and
+aisles and with a vestibule. Two low towers flank the
+central gable, and it will be noticed that openings of
+depressed proportion, mostly semicircular headed, and
+with the arches usually springing from square piers,
+mark the building; while the use made of columns
+strongly resembles the manner in which in later times
+they were introduced by the Gothic architects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 193px;">
+<a name="fig165" id="fig165"></a>
+<img src="images/acec186.jpg" width="193" height="350"
+alt="Small towers around a larger central tower" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 165.&mdash;Tower of a Russian Church.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i> the City of Constantine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> &ldquo;The edge of the world: the knot which links together East and
+West; the centre in which all extremes combine,&rdquo; was the not overcharged
+description given of Constantinople by one of her own bishops.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> For an illustration see Fig. <a href="#fig187">187</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> &lsquo;Lectures on Medi&aelig;val Architecture.&rsquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> &lsquo;Syrie Centrale.&rsquo;</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE term Romanesque is here used to indicate a
+style of Christian architecture, founded on Roman
+art, which prevailed throughout Western Europe from the
+close of the period of basilican architecture to the rise of
+Gothic; except in those isolated districts where the influence
+of Byzantium is visible. By some writers the significance
+of the word is restricted within narrower limits;
+but excellent authorities can be adduced for the employment
+of it in the wide sense here indicated. Indeed some
+difficulty exists in deciding what shall and what shall not
+be termed Romanesque, if any more restricted definition
+of its meaning is adopted; while under this general term,
+if applied broadly, many closely allied local varieties&mdash;as,
+for example, Lombard, Rhenish, Romance, Saxon, and
+Norman&mdash;can be conveniently included.</p>
+
+<p>The spectacle which Europe presented after the removal
+of the seat of empire to Byzantium and the incursions
+of the Northern tribes was melancholy in the
+extreme. Nothing but the church retained any semblance
+of organised existence; and when at last some kind of
+order began to emerge from a chaos of universal ruin,
+and churches and monastic buildings began to be built in
+Western Europe, all of them looked to Rome, and not
+to Constantinople, as their common ecclesiastical centre.
+It is not surprising that, as soon as differences between
+the ritual of the Eastern and the Western Church sprang
+up, a contrast between Eastern and Western architecture
+should establish itself, and that the early structures of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+the many countries where the Roman Church flourished
+never wandered far from the Roman type, with the exception
+of localities where circumstances favoured direct
+intercourse with the East. The architecture of the
+Eastern Church, on the other hand, adhered quite as
+closely to the models of Byzantium.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 338px;">
+<a name="fig166" id="fig166"></a>
+<img src="images/acec187.jpg" width="338" height="550"
+alt="A square tower with a door at the base" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 166.&mdash;Tower of Earl&rsquo;s
+Barton Church.</p>
+
+<p>The style, so far as is known, was for a long time almost,
+if not absolutely, the
+same over a very large
+part of Western Christendom,
+and it has received
+from Mr. Freeman
+the appropriate
+designation of Primitive
+Romanesque. It
+was not till the tenth
+century, or later, that
+distinctive varieties began
+to make their appearance;
+and though
+that which was built
+earlier than that date
+has, through rebuildings
+and enlargements
+as well as natural decay,
+been in many
+cases swept away, still
+enough may be met
+with to show us what the buildings of that remote time
+were like.</p>
+
+<p>The churches are usually small, and have an apsidal east
+end. The openings are rude, with round-headed arches
+and small single or two-light windows, and the outer
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+walls are generally marked by flat pilasters of very
+slight projection. Towers are common, and the openings
+in them are often divided into two or more lights by
+rude columns. The plan of these churches was founded
+on the basilica type, but they do not exhibit the same
+internal arrangement; and it is very noteworthy that
+many of them show marks of having been vaulted, or at
+least partly vaulted; and not covered, as the basilicas
+usually were, by timber roofs. Even a country so remote
+as Great Britain possessed in the 10th century many buildings
+of Primitive Romanesque character; and in such Saxon
+churches as those of Worth, Brixworth, Dover, or Bradford,
+and such towers as those of Earl&rsquo;s Barton (Fig. <a href="#fig166">166</a>),
+Trinity Church Colchester, Barnack, or Sompting, we have
+specimens of the style remaining to the present day.</p>
+
+<p>By degrees, as buildings of greater extent and more
+ornament were erected, the local varieties to which reference
+has been made began to develop themselves.
+In Lombardy and North Italy, for example, a Lombard
+Romanesque style can be recognised distinctly; here a
+series of churches were built, many of them vaulted, but
+not many of the largest size. Most of them were on
+substantially the same plan as the basilicas, though a considerable
+number of circular or polygonal churches were
+also built. Sant&rsquo; Ambrogio at Milan, and some of the
+churches at Brescia, Pavia, and Lucca, may be cited as
+well-known examples of early date, and a little later the
+cathedrals of Parma, Modena, and Piacenza (Fig. <a href="#fig167">167</a>),
+and San Zenone at Verona. These churches are all distinguished
+by the free use of small ornamental arches and
+narrow pilaster-strips externally, and the employment of
+piers with half-shafts attached to them, rather than
+columns, in the arcades; they have fine bell-towers;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+circular windows often occupy the gables, and very frequently
+the walls have been built of, or ornamented with,
+coloured materials. The sculpture&mdash;grotesque, vigorous,
+and full of rich variety&mdash;which distinguishes many of these
+buildings, and which is to be found specially enriching
+the doorways, is of great interest, and began early to
+develop a character that is quite distinctive.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 450px;">
+<a name="fig167" id="fig167"></a>
+<img src="images/acec188.jpg" width="450" height="412"
+alt="Showing arches and circular window" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 167.&mdash;Cathedral at Piacenza.</p>
+
+<p>Turning to Germany, we find that a very strong resemblance
+existed between the Romanesque churches of
+that country and those of North Italy. At Aix-la-Chapelle
+a polygonal church exists, built by Charlemagne, and
+which tradition asserts was designed on the model of
+San Vitale at Ravenna. The resemblance is undoubted,
+but the German church is by no means an exact copy
+of Justinian&rsquo;s building. Early examples of German
+Romanesque exist in the cathedrals of Mayence, Worms,
+and Spires, and a steady advance was made till a point
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+was reached (in the twelfth century) at which the style
+may be said to have attained the highest development
+which Romanesque architecture received in any country
+of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The arcaded ornament (the arches being very frequently
+open so as to form a real arcade) which was noticed as
+occurring in Lombard churches, belongs also to German
+ones, though the secondary internal arcade (triforium) is
+absent from some of the early examples. Piers are used
+more frequently than columns in the interiors, and are
+often very plain. From an early date the use of a western
+as well as an eastern apse seems to have been common
+in Germany, and high western fa&ccedil;ades extending between
+two towers were features specially met with in that
+country. For a notice and some illustrations of the
+latest and best phase of German Romanesque, which may
+with propriety be termed &ldquo;round-arched Gothic,&rdquo; the
+reader is referred to the companion volume of this series.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<p>France exhibits more than one variety of Romanesque;
+for not only, as remarked in the <a href="#Page_210">chapter</a> on Byzantine Art,
+is the influence of Greek or Venetian artists traceable in
+the buildings of certain districts, especially P&eacute;rigueux, but
+it is clear that in others the existence of fine examples
+of Roman architecture (Fig. <a href="#fig168">168</a>) affected the design of
+buildings down to and during the eleventh century. This
+influence may, for example, be detected in the use, in the
+churches at Autun, Valence, and Avignon, of capitals,
+pilasters, and other features closely resembling classic
+originals, and in the employment through a great part of
+Central and Northern France of vaulted roofs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 503px;">
+<a name="fig168" id="fig168"></a>
+<img src="images/acec189.jpg" width="503" height="650" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 168.&mdash;Vaults of the excavated Roman Baths, in the
+Mus&eacute;e de Cluny, Paris.</p>
+
+<p>A specially French feature is the chevet, a group of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+apsidal chapels which were built round the apse itself,
+and which combined with it to make of the east end of a
+great cathedral a singularly rich and ornate composition.
+This feature, originating in Romanesque churches, was
+retained in France through the whole of the Gothic
+period, and a good example of it may be seen in the large
+Romanesque church of St. Sernin at Toulouse, which we
+illustrate (Fig. <a href="#fig169">169</a>). The transepts were usually well
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228"><!-- original location of Fig. 169 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+marked. The nave arcades generally sprang from piers
+(Fig. <a href="#fig170">170</a>), more rarely from columns. Arches are constantly
+met with recessed,
+<i>i.e.</i> in receding planes,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> the
+first stage of progress towards
+a Gothic treatment,
+and are occasionally slightly
+moulded (Fig. <a href="#fig171">171</a>). Western
+doorways are often highly
+enriched with sculpture; and
+the carving and sculpture
+generally, though often rude,
+are full of vitality. Towers
+occur, usually square, more
+rarely octagonal. Window-lights
+are frequently grouped
+two or more under one arch.
+Capitals of a basket-shape,
+and with a square abacus,
+often richly sculptured, are
+employed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 599px;">
+<a name="fig169" id="fig169"></a>
+<img src="images/acec190.jpg" width="599" height="700"
+alt="Showing chevet and polygonal spire" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 169.&mdash;Church of St.
+Sernin, Toulouse.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 256px;">
+<a name="fig170" id="fig170"></a>
+<img src="images/acec191.jpg" width="256" height="600"
+alt="Showing a series of arches, with smaller arches above" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 170.&mdash;Nave Arcade at St.
+Sernin, Toulouse.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 472px;">
+<a name="fig171" id="fig171"></a>
+<img src="images/acec192.jpg" width="472" height="650" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 171.&mdash;Arches in receding planes at St. Sernin, Toulouse.</p>
+
+<p>In Normandy, and generally
+in the North of France,
+round-arched architecture
+was excellently carried out,
+and churches remarkable
+both for their extent and
+their great dignity and solidity
+were erected. Generally
+speaking, however, Norman architecture, especially
+as met with in Normandy itself, is less ornate than the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+Romanesque of Southern France; in fact some of the best
+examples seem to suffer from a deficiency of ornament.
+The large and well-known churches at Caen, St. Etienne,
+otherwise the Abbaye aux Hommes&mdash;interesting to Englishmen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+as having been founded by William the Conqueror immediately
+after the Conquest&mdash;and the Trinit&eacute;, or Abbaye
+aux Dames, are excellent examples of early Norman architecture,
+but the student must not forget that additions
+have been made to them, which, if they add to their
+beauty, at the same time alter their character. For example,
+in St. Etienne, the upper part of the western
+towers and the fine spires with which they are crowned
+were built subsequent to the original structure, as was
+also, in all probability, the chevet, or eastern limb. It
+seems probable also that the vaulting may not be what
+was contemplated in the original plan.</p>
+
+<p>St. Etienne is 364 ft. long, and is lofty in its proportions.
+It has a nave and aisles, arcades resting on
+piers, and strongly-marked transepts, and has two western
+towers with the gable of the nave between them. The
+west front is well designed in three stories, having
+strongly-marked vertical divisions in the buttresses of
+the towers, and equally distinct horizontal divisions in
+the three doorways below, and two ranges of windows,
+each of five lights, above. There is no circular west
+window. The nave and aisles are vaulted.</p>
+
+<p>Besides other cathedral churches, such for example as
+those of Bayeux and Evreux, in which considerable parts
+of the original structures remain, there exist throughout
+Normandy and Brittany many parochial churches and
+monastic buildings, exhibiting, at least in some portions
+of their structure, the same characteristics as those of
+St. Etienne; and it is clear that an immense number of
+buildings, the beauty and even refinement of which are
+conspicuous, must have been erected in Northern France
+during the eleventh and the early years of the twelfth
+centuries, the period to which Norman architecture in
+France may be said to belong.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+In Great Britain, as has been already pointed out,
+enough traces of Saxon&mdash;that is to say, Primitive Romanesque&mdash;architecture
+remain to show that many simple,
+though comparatively rude, buildings must have been
+erected previous to the Norman Conquest. Traces exist
+also of an influence which the rapid advance that had been
+made by the art of building as practised in Normandy
+was exerting in our island. The buildings at Westminster
+Abbey raised by Edward the Confessor, though they have
+been almost all rebuilt, have left just sufficient traces
+behind to enable us to recognise that they were of bold
+design. The plan of the Confessor&rsquo;s church was laid out
+upon a scale almost as large as that of the present
+structure. The monastic buildings were extensive. The
+details of the work were, some of them, refined and delicate,
+and resembled closely those employed in Norman
+buildings at that time. Thus it appears that, even had the
+Conquest not taken place, no small influence would have
+been exerted upon buildings in England by the advance
+then being made in France; but instead of a gradual
+improvement being so produced, a sudden and rapid
+revolution was effected by the complete conquest of the
+country and its occupation by nobles and ecclesiastics from
+Normandy, who, enriched by the plunder of the conquered
+country, were eager to establish themselves in permanent
+buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after the Conquest distinctive features began to
+show themselves. Norman architecture in England soon
+became essentially different from what it was in Normandy,
+and we possess in this country a large series of fine works
+showing the growth of this imported style, from the early
+simplicity of the chapel in the Tower of London to such
+elaboration as that of the later parts of Durham Cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>The number of churches founded or rebuilt soon after
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+the Norman Conquest must have been enormous, for in
+examining churches of every date and in every part of
+England it is common to find some fragment of Norman
+work remaining from a former church: this is very
+frequently a doorway left standing or built into walls of
+later date: and, in addition to these fragments, no small
+number of churches, and more than one cathedral,
+together with numerous castles, remain in whole or in
+part as they were erected by the original builders.</p>
+
+<p>Norman architecture is considered to have prevailed in
+England for more than a century; that is to say, from the
+Conquest (1066) to the accession of Richard I. (1189).
+For some details of the marks by which Norman work
+can be recognised the reader is referred to the companion
+volume;<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> we propose here to give an account of the
+broader characteristics of the buildings erected during the
+prevalence of the style.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">The oldest remaining parts of Canterbury Cathedral are
+specimens of Norman architecture executed in England
+immediately after the Conquest. This great church was
+rebuilt by Archbishop Lanfranc (whose episcopate lasted
+from 1070 to 1089), and in extent as laid out by him was
+very nearly identical with the existing structure; almost
+every portion has, however, been rebuilt, so that of his
+work only the towers forming transepts to the choir, and
+some other fragments, now remain. More complete and
+equally ancient is the chapel in the Tower of London,
+which consists of a small apsidal church with nave and
+aisles, vaulted throughout, and in excellent preservation.
+This building, though very charming, is almost destitute
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+of ornament. A little more ornate, and still a good
+example of early Norman, is St. Peter&rsquo;s Church, Northampton
+(Fig. <a href="#fig172">172</a>), the interior of which we illustrate.
+To these examples of early Norman we may add a large part
+of Rochester Cathedral, and the transepts of Winchester.
+The transepts of Exeter present a specimen of rather more
+advanced Norman work; and in the cathedrals of Peterborough
+and Durham the style can be seen at its best.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig172" id="fig172"></a>
+<img src="images/acec193.jpg" width="600" height="469"
+alt="Showing decorated staggered arches on columns" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 172.&mdash;Norman Arches in St. Peter&rsquo;s Church, Northampton.</p>
+
+<p>In most Norman buildings we find very excellent
+masonry and massive construction. The exteriors of west
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+fronts, transepts, and towers show great skill and care in
+their composition, the openings being always well grouped,
+and contrasted with plain wall-spaces; and a keen sense
+of proportion is perceptible. The Norman architects had
+at command a rich, if perhaps a rather rude, ornamentation,
+which they generally confined to individual features,
+especially doorways; on these they lavished mouldings
+and sculpture, the elaboration of which was set off by the
+plainness of the general structure. In the interior of
+the churches we usually meet with piers of massive proportion,
+sometimes round, sometimes octagonal, sometimes
+rectangular, and a shaft is sometimes carried up the face
+of the piers; as, for example, in Peterborough Cathedral
+(Fig. <a href="#fig173">173</a>). The capitals of the columns and piers have a
+square abacus, and, generally speaking, are of the cushion-shaped
+sort, commonly known as basket-capitals, and are
+profusely carved. The larger churches have the nave
+roofed with a timber roof, and at Peterborough there
+is a wooden ceiling; in these cases the aisles only are
+vaulted, but in some small churches the whole building has
+been so covered. Buttresses are seldom required, owing
+to the great mass of the walls; when employed they have
+a very slight projection, but the same strips or pilasters
+which are used in German Romanesque occur here also.
+Low towers were common, and have been not unfrequently
+preserved in cases where the rest of the building has been
+removed. As the style advanced, the proportions of arcades
+became more lofty, and shafts became more slender, decorative
+arcades (Fig. <a href="#fig174">174</a>) became more common, and in
+these and many other changes the approaching transition
+to Gothic may be easily detected.</p>
+
+<p>We have already alluded to the many Norman doorways
+remaining in parish churches of which all other parts
+have been rebuilt. These doorways are generally very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+rich; they possess a series of mouldings sometimes
+springing from
+shafts, sometimes
+running
+not only round
+the arched head,
+but also up the
+jambs of the
+opening; and
+each moulding
+is richly carved,
+very often with
+a repetition of
+the same ornament
+on each
+voussoir of the
+arch. Occasionally,
+but not frequently,
+large
+portions of wall-surface
+are
+covered by a
+diaper; that is
+to say, an ornament
+constantly
+repeated so as
+to produce a
+general sense of
+enrichment.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 284px;">
+<a name="fig173" id="fig173"></a>
+<img src="images/acec194.jpg" width="284" height="600"
+alt="Showing large single arches below and smaller double arches above" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 173.&mdash;Nave Arcade, Peterborough Cathedral.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 368px;">
+<a name="fig174"></a>
+<img src="images/acec195.jpg" width="368" height="500"
+alt="Showing altenate plain and decorated capitals on columns and interwoven arches in relief" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 174.&mdash;Decorative Arcade from Canterbury Cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>Norman castles,
+as well as
+churches, were
+built in great
+numbers shortly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+after the Conquest, and not a few remain. The stronghold
+which a follower of the Conqueror built in order to
+establish himself on the lands granted him was always
+a very sturdy massive square tower, low in proportion
+to its width, built very strongly, and with every provision
+for sustaining an attack or even a siege. Such a
+tower is called &ldquo;a keep;&rdquo; and in many famous castles, as
+for example the Tower of London, the keep forms the
+nucleus round which buildings and courtyards of later
+date have clustered. In some few instances, however, as
+for example at Colchester, the keep is the only part now
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+standing, and it is probable that when originally built
+these Norman castles were not much encumbered with out-buildings.
+Rochester Castle is a fine example of a Norman
+keep, though it has suffered much from decay and injury.
+The very large Norman keep of the Tower of London,
+known as the White Tower, and containing the chapel
+already described, has been much modernised and altered,
+but retains the fine mass of its original construction.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+Perhaps the best (and best-preserved) example is Hedingham
+Castle in Essex, which we illustrate (Figs. <a href="#fig175">175</a>
+and <a href="#fig176">176</a>). From the remains of this building some idea
+of the interior of the hall&mdash;the chief room within a
+Norman keep&mdash;may be obtained, as well as of the general
+external appearance of such a structure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 463px;">
+<a name="fig175" id="fig175"></a>
+<img src="images/acec196.jpg" width="463" height="600"
+alt="A square building with a tower on one corner" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 175.&mdash;Hedingham Castle.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig176" id="fig176"></a>
+<img src="images/acec197.jpg" width="600" height="448"
+alt="Showing large central arch and wooden ceiling; windows set into smaller arches" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 176.&mdash;Interior of Hedingham Castle.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> &lsquo;Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,&rsquo; chap. vii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> &lsquo;Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,&rsquo; chap. v. p. 62.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> &lsquo;Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,&rsquo; chap. ii. p. 23.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig177"></a>
+<img src="images/acec198.jpg" width="600" height="284"
+alt="Stylised floral design set in decorated squares" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 177.&mdash;Rounded Arch of Church at Gelnhausen.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV.</h2>
+
+<h3>CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<h4><i>Analysis.</i></h4>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">N</span>OTWITHSTANDING very wide differences which
+undoubtedly exist, there is a sufficient bond of
+union between the Basilican, the Byzantine, and the
+Romanesque styles, to render it possible for us to include
+the characteristics of the three in an analysis of Christian
+round-arched architecture.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Plan or floor-disposition</strong> of the basilican churches, as
+has been pointed out, was distinctive. The atrium, or
+forecourt, the porch, the division into nave and aisles;
+the transept, the great arch, and the apse beyond it with
+the episcopal seat at the back behind the altar; the
+ambos; and the enclosure for the choir, were typical features.
+Detached towers sometimes occurred. The plan
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+of Romanesque churches was based upon that of the
+basilica; the atrium was often omitted, so was the transept
+sometimes; but, when retained, the transept was generally
+made more prominent than in the basilica. The position
+of the altar and of the enclosure for the choir were changed,
+but in other respects the basilica plan was continued.
+In Germany, however, apsidal transepts (Fig. <a href="#fig178">178</a>) were
+built. Towers were common, occasionally detached, but
+more frequently joined to the main building.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 294px;">
+<a name="fig178" id="fig178"></a>
+<img src="images/acec199.jpg" width="294" height="550" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 178.&mdash;Plan of the Church of the Apostles at Cologne.</p>
+
+<p>Circular and polygonal buildings for use as baptisteries,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+and sometimes as churches, existed both in the basilican
+and the Romanesque time.</p>
+
+<p>Byzantine church plans are all distinguished by their
+great central square space, covered by the central dome,
+flanked usually by four arms, comparatively short, and
+all of equal length; and the plan of the buildings is
+generally square, or nearly so, in outline. Circular and
+polygonal buildings sometimes occur.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 220px;">
+<a name="fig179" id="fig179"></a>
+<img src="images/acec200.jpg" width="220" height="500"
+alt="Showing arches in the walls climbing up to the spire" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 179.&mdash;Spire of Spires
+Cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>Few traces of the arrangement of military, secular,
+or domestic buildings earlier
+than the twelfth century remain,
+but some examples of a
+cloister at the side of the nave
+(generally the south side) of a
+church, giving or intended to
+give access to monastic buildings,
+still exist.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Walls</strong> of such buildings
+as have come down to us are, it
+may be well understood, strong,
+since the most recent of this
+round-arched series of buildings
+must be about seven hundred
+years old. Fine masonry was
+not much employed till the time
+of the Normans, but the Roman
+plan of building with bricks or
+rubble and casing the face of the
+walls with marble or mosaic, or
+at least plaster, was generally
+followed. The walls are carried
+up as gables and towers to a considerable extent (Fig. <a href="#fig179">179</a>),
+especially in Western countries.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+<strong>The Roof.</strong>&mdash;In a basilica this was of timber, in a Byzantine
+church it consisted of a series of domes; in a Romanesque
+church it was sometimes of timber as in the basilica,
+but not unfrequently vaulted. As a general rule the vault
+prevailed in the West and the dome in the East; and
+such examples of either sort of roof as occur in those
+provinces where the other was usual, like the domed
+churches in parts of France, must be looked upon as
+exceptional.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Openings</strong> are almost invariably arched, and seldom, if
+ever, covered by a lintel. It is hardly necessary to add
+that the arches are always round. Almost always they
+are semicircular, but instances of the employment of a
+segmental arch, or of one the outline of which is a little
+more than half a circle, may be occasionally met with.</p>
+
+<p>Door openings are often made important both by size
+and decoration. Window openings are usually small; and
+the grouping of two or more lights under one head, which
+was so conspicuous a feature in Gothic architecture, first
+appears in Byzantine buildings, and is met with also in
+Romanesque ones. The mode of introducing light is to
+a certain extent characteristic. The basilican churches
+always possess a clerestory, and usually side windows in
+the aisles; and this arrangement is generally followed in
+Romanesque buildings, though sometimes, in Germany,
+the clerestory is omitted. The gable ends of the nave
+and transepts are not usually pierced by many or large
+lights (Fig. <a href="#fig180">180</a>); and when there is a central feature, as
+a tower, or even a dome, little or no light is introduced
+through it. On the other hand, the Byzantine churches
+depend largely for light upon the ring of windows which
+commonly encircles the base of the central dome, and sometimes
+that of the subsidiary domes; and the gables are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"><!-- original location of Fig. 180 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+pierced so as to supply any additional light required, so
+that windows are infrequent in the lower walls. Broadly
+speaking, therefore, the Western churches have side-lighting
+and the Eastern top-lighting.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig180" id="fig180"></a>
+<img src="images/acec201.jpg" width="700" height="510"
+alt="Showing small number of windows and statuary on roof" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 180.&mdash;Church at Rosheim. Upper portion of Fa&ccedil;ade.</p>
+
+<p>The great arches which carry the main domes form a
+notable feature in Eastern churches, and are of very bold
+construction. In the basilican churches one great arch,
+called &ldquo;the arch of triumph,&rdquo; occurs, and only one; this
+gives access to the apse: and a similar arch, which we
+now denominate &ldquo;the chancel arch,&rdquo; usually occupies a
+corresponding position in all Romanesque churches. The
+arches of the arcade separating the nave from the aisles
+in all Western churches are usually of moderate span.
+In some ancient basilicas these arches are replaced by
+a horizontal beam.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Columns.</strong>&mdash;In basilicas these were of antique type;
+very often they had actually been obtained by the demolition
+of older buildings, and when made purposely they
+were as a rule of the same general character. The same
+might be said of those introduced into Byzantine buildings,
+though a divergence from the classic type soon
+manifested itself, and small columns began to appear as
+decorative features. In Romanesque buildings the columns
+are very varied indeed, and shafts are frequently introduced
+into the decoration of other features. They occur
+in the jambs of doorways with mouldings or sub-arches
+springing from them; long shafts and short ones, frequently
+supporting ornamental arcades, are employed
+both internally and externally; and altogether that use
+of the column as a means of decoration, of which Gothic
+architecture presents so many examples, first began in the
+Romanesque style.</p>
+
+<p>The capitals employed in Romanesque buildings
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+generally depart considerably from the classic type, being based
+on the primitive cube capital (Fig. <a href="#fig181">181</a>), but, as a rule,
+in Eastern as well as in basilican
+churches, they bear a
+tolerably close resemblance to
+classic ones.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="fig181" id="fig181"></a>
+<img src="images/acec202.jpg" width="250" height="225" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 181.&mdash;Cubic Capital.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Ornaments</strong> throughout
+the whole of the Christian
+round-arched period are a very
+interesting subject of study,
+and will repay close attention.
+In the basilican style mouldings
+occur but seldom: where
+met with, they are all of the profiles common in Roman
+architecture, but often rudely and clumsily worked.
+Carving partakes also of classic character, though it is
+not difficult to detect the commencement of that metamorphosis
+which was effected in Byzantium, and which
+can hardly be better described than in the following
+paragraph from the pen of Sir Digby Wyatt:&mdash;&ldquo;The
+foliage is founded on ancient Greek rather than on
+Roman traditions, and is characterised by a peculiarly
+sharp outline. All ornamental sculpture is in comparatively
+low relief, and the absence of human and other
+figures is very marked. Enrichments were almost invariably
+so carved, by sinking portions only of the surfaces
+and leaving the arrises and principal places untouched, as
+to preserve the original constructive forms given by the
+mason (Fig. <a href="#fig184">184</a>). The employment of the drill instead
+of the chisel, so common in debased Roman work, was
+retained as a very general practice by the Greek carvers,
+and very often with excellent effect. The foliage of the
+acanthus, although imitated from the antique, quite
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+changed its character, becoming more geometrical and
+conventional in its form. That which particularly distinguishes
+Lombard from Byzantine art is its sculpture
+abounding with grotesque imagery, with illustrations of
+every-day life, of a fanciful
+mythology not yet
+quite extinct, and allusions,
+no longer symbolic
+but direct, to the Christian
+creed; the latter
+quality a striking evidence
+of the triumph of
+the Roman Church over
+all iconoclastic adversaries
+in Greece.&rdquo; What
+is here asserted of Lombard
+carving is true of
+that in the Romanesque
+buildings in Germany,
+Scandinavia (Fig. <a href="#fig182">182</a>),
+France, and to a certain
+extent in Great Britain,
+though in our own country
+a large proportion of
+the ornamental carving
+consists simply of decorative
+patterns, such as
+the chevron, billet, and
+zig-zag; and sculpture containing figures and animals is
+less common.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 302px;">
+<a name="fig182" id="fig182"></a>
+<img src="images/acec203.jpg" width="302" height="550"
+alt="Showing extensive interwoven leaf and stem forms and animals" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 182.&mdash;Doorway at Tind, Norway.
+(End of 12th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>The mouldings of Romanesque buildings are simple, and
+at first were few in number, but by degrees they become
+more conspicuous, and before the transition to Gothic they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+assumed considerable importance (Fig. <a href="#fig183">183</a>) and added not
+a little to the architectural character of the buildings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 467px;">
+<a name="fig183" id="fig183"></a>
+<img src="images/acec204.jpg" width="467" height="650"
+alt="Showing ornate shell-shaped, floral and leaf patterns, and figures" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 183.&mdash;Mouldings of Portal of St. James&rsquo;s Church at Koesfeld.</p>
+
+<p>Coloured decoration, especially in mosaic, was a conspicuous
+feature in basilican churches, and still more so
+in those of the Byzantine style; such decoration in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+Romanesque churches was not infrequent, but it was
+more commonly painted in fresco or tempera. The glass
+mosaic-work to be found on the walls of Early Christian
+churches, both basilican and Byzantine, but less frequently
+Romanesque, is most interesting and beautiful: &ldquo;it
+was,&rdquo; says the high authority already quoted, &ldquo;employed
+only to represent and reproduce the forms of existing
+objects, such as figures, architectural forms and conventional
+foliage, which were generally relieved with some
+slight indication of shading upon a gold ground&mdash;the
+whole being bedded in the cement covering the walls and
+vaults of the basilicas and churches.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The design of both figures and ornaments was,
+generally speaking, very rude, though not without an
+occasional rising in some of the figures to a certain sublimity,
+derivable principally from the great simplicity
+of the forms and draperies and the earnest grandiose
+expression depicted on their countenances. The pieces
+of glass employed in the formation of this work are very
+irregular in shapes and sizes, of all colours and tones of
+colour, and the ground tint almost invariably prevailing is
+gold. The manner of execution is always large and coarse,
+and rarely approaches in neatness of joint and regularity
+of bedding to the (ancient Roman) &lsquo;opus majus vermiculatus;&rsquo;
+yet, notwithstanding these blemishes, the effect of
+gorgeous, luxurious, and at the same time solemn decoration
+produced is unattainable by any other means as yet
+employed as structural embellishment. How noble and
+truly ecclesiastical in character are the gold-clad interiors
+of Monreale Cathedral, of the Capella Palatina at Palermo,
+of St. Mark at Venice, San Miniato at Florence, or Santi
+Apollinare and Vitale at Ravenna, the concurrent testimony
+of all travellers attests.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+A finer kind of glass mosaic arranged in geometrical
+patterns was made use of to enrich the ambos, screens,
+episcopal chairs, sepulchral ornaments, and other similar
+fittings of churches, and was often of great beauty. A
+third sort of mosaic&mdash;the Alexandrine work (opus Alexandrinum)&mdash;used
+for pavements, has been already alluded
+to; this was extremely effective, but its use appears to
+have been less general than that of the glass mosaics for
+the walls.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Architectural Character</strong> of the basilican churches may
+be briefly characterised as venerable and dignified, but
+yet cheerful and bright rather than forbidding; they are,
+as interiors, impressive but not oppressive, solemn but not
+gloomy. Comparatively little attention was paid to external
+effect, and there is not often much in them to strike
+the passer-by. The character of Byzantine interiors is
+far more rich, and even splendid; but it is more gloomy,
+and often is solemn and grand to the last degree. In
+many cases these churches possess fine exteriors; and for
+the level sky-line produced by the long straight roofs of the
+basilica, a more or less pyramidal composition, showing
+curved outlines rather than straight ones, is substituted.
+The architectural character of the Romanesque buildings
+varies extremely with the districts in which they are
+erected; but, generally speaking, it may be described as
+picturesque, and even sometimes romantic; the appearance
+of towers, prominent transepts, and many smaller decorative
+features serves to render the exteriors telling and
+varied, though often somewhat rude and primitive. A solid
+and somewhat heavy character distinguishes the interiors
+of some varieties of Romanesque buildings&mdash;such, for
+example, as our own Early Norman; but in our fully-developed
+and late Norman, and still more in the latest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+German Romanesque churches, this disappears almost
+entirely, and much beauty and even lightness of effect
+is obtained, without any loss of that richness which is
+characteristic of more ancient examples.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 408px;">
+<a name="fig184" id="fig184"></a>
+<img src="images/acec205.jpg" width="408" height="550"
+alt="Showing ornate interwoven leaf and stem patterns" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 184.&mdash;Byzantine Basket-work Capital from San Michele in Affricisco
+at Ravenna.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 296px;">
+<a name="fig185" id="fig185"></a>
+<img src="images/acec206.jpg" width="296" height="350"
+alt="Showing extensive scroll-edged decoration in a flowing form" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 185.&mdash;Arabian Capital. From the Alhambra.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XV.</h2>
+
+<h3>MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">F</span>EW revolutions more sudden, more signal, and more
+widespread are recorded in history than that which
+covered not only the East but part of the West with the
+Mohammedan religion and dominion. Mohammed was born
+either in the year 569 or 570 of the Christian era, and
+died <small>A.D.</small> 652. The year of the Hegira, the era from
+which Mohammedans compute their chronology, is <small>A.D.</small>
+622, and within little more than a century from this era
+the Prophet was acknowledged, and the suzerainty of the
+Caliph recognised eastwards, in Arabia, Syria, Palestine,
+Egypt, and Persia, and in India as far as to the Ganges;
+and westwards along the north coast of Africa, in Sicily,
+and in Spain. It was only to be expected that such a
+wonderful tide of conquest and such a widespread change
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+of religion should before long leave its impress on the
+architecture of the continents thus revolutionised; and
+accordingly a Mohammedan style soon rose. This style
+did not displace or override the indigenous art of the
+various countries where it prevailed, as Roman architecture
+did in the age of universal dominion under the
+Empire; it assimilated the peculiarities of each country,
+and so transmuted them, that although wherever the
+religion of Mohammed prevails the architecture will at
+a glance confess the fact, still the local or national
+peculiarities of each country remain prominent.</p>
+
+<p>The Arabs, a nomadic race who lived in tents, do not
+seem to have been great builders even in their cities. We
+have no authentic accounts or existing remains of very
+early buildings even in Mecca or Medina, as the oldest
+mosques in those cities have been completely rebuilt. It
+is to Egypt and Syria that we must turn for the most
+ancient remaining examples of Saracenic architecture.
+These consist of mosques and tombs.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Egypt.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A mosque&mdash;or Mohammedan place of worship&mdash;has
+two forms. The earlier mosques are all of them of a
+type the arrangement of which is simplicity itself. A
+large open courtyard, resembling the garth of a cloister,
+with a fountain in it, is surrounded cloister-wise by
+arcades supporting timber roofs. On the side nearest
+Mecca the arcades are increased to several rows in depth,
+so as to cover a considerable space. This is the part in
+which the congregation chiefly assembles; here a niche or
+recess (termed Kibla), more or less enriched, is formed
+in which the Koran is to be kept, and hard by a pulpit
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+is erected. For many centuries past, though not, it is
+believed, from the very earliest times, a minaret or high
+tower, from the top of which the call to prayer is given,
+has also been an indispensable adjunct to a mosque.</p>
+
+<p>The second sort of mosque is a domed, and sometimes
+vaulted building of a form chiefly suggested by the
+Byzantine domed churches, with a central space and four
+short arms. This sort of mosque became almost universal
+in Turkey and Egypt after the capture of Constantinople
+by the Turks, and the appropriation to Moslem worship of
+Santa Sophia itself. The tombs are ornate and monumental
+buildings, or sanctuaries, of the same general character
+as the domed mosques, and often attached to them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 295px;">
+<a name="fig186" id="fig186"></a>
+<img src="images/acec207.jpg" width="295" height="425"
+alt="The top of the arch forms a horse-shoe shape, with extensive decoration above" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 186.&mdash;Horse-shoe Arch.</p>
+
+<p>From very early times
+the arches, in the arcades
+which have been described
+as virtually constituting
+the whole structure of the
+simpler sort of mosque,
+were pointed. Lubke claims
+as the earliest known and
+dated example of the
+pointed arch in a Saracenic
+building, the Nilometer, a
+small structure on an island
+near Cairo, which contains
+pointed arches that must
+have been built either at
+the date of its original construction
+in <small>A.D.</small> 719, or at
+latest, when it was restored <small>A.D.</small> 821. The Mosque of
+Amrou, however, which was founded very soon after the
+conquest of Egypt in <small>A.D.</small> 643, and is largely made up of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255"><!-- original location of Fig. 187 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+materials obtained from older buildings, exhibits pointed
+arches, not only in the arcades, which probably have been
+rebuilt since they were originally formed, but in the outer
+walls, which are likely, in part at least, to be original.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig187" id="fig187"></a>
+<img src="images/acec208.jpg" width="700" height="450"
+alt="Mainly curved walls on the buildings; four minarets are visible" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 187.&mdash;Exterior of Santa Sophia, Constantinople. Showing the Minarets added after its conversion into a Mosque.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever uncertainty may rest upon these very remote
+specimens of pointed architecture, there is little if any
+about the Mosque of Ibn Tulun, also at Cairo, and built
+<small>A.D.</small> 885, or, according to another authority, <small>A.D.</small> 879.
+Here arcades of bold pointed arches spring from piers,
+and the effect of the whole structure is noble and full
+of character. From that time the pointed arch was
+constantly used in Saracenic buildings along with the
+semicircular and the horse-shoe arch (Fig. <a href="#fig186">186</a>).</p>
+
+<p>From the ninth century, then, the pointed arch was
+in constant use. It prevailed in Palestine as well as in
+the adjacent countries for two centuries before it reached
+the West, and there can be no doubt that it was there
+seen by the Western Crusaders, and a knowledge of its
+use and an appreciation of its beauty and convenience
+were brought back to Western Europe by the returning
+ecclesiastics and others at the end of the First Crusade.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the eleventh century the splendid Tombs of the
+Caliphs at Cairo were erected,&mdash;buildings crowned with
+domes of a graceful pointed form, and remarkable for the
+external decoration which usually covers the whole surface
+of those domes. By this time also, if not earlier, the
+minaret had become universal. This is a lofty tower
+of slender proportions, passing from a square base below
+to a circular form above (Fig. <a href="#fig187">187</a>). A minaret is
+often divided into several stages. Each stage is then
+marked by a balcony, and is, generally speaking, a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"><!-- original location of Fig. 188 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+polygon of a greater number of sides than the stage
+below it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 507px;">
+<a name="fig188" id="fig188"></a>
+<img src="images/acec209.jpg" width="507" height="700"
+alt="Showing extensive and complex decoration on the walls and vaulted ceiling" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 188.&mdash;Alhambra. Hall of the Abencerrages.</p>
+
+<p>In the interiors of Saracenic buildings what is generally
+known as honeycomb corbelling is constantly employed
+to fill up corners and effect a change of plan from a square
+below to a circle or octagon above. This ornament is
+formed by the use of a series of small brackets, each
+course of them overhanging those below, and produces
+an effect some idea of which may be gathered from our
+illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig188">188</a>) of the Hall of the Abencerrages in
+the Alhambra. The interiors when not domed are often
+covered by wooden or plaster ceilings, more or less richly
+decorated, such as are shown in the view of one of the
+arcades of the Mosque &ldquo;El Moyed,&rdquo; Cairo (Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a>),
+where the horse-shoe and pointed arches can both be seen.
+This illustration also shows timber ties, at the feet of
+the arches, such as were commonly used by the earlier
+Saracenic builders.</p>
+
+<p>The surfaces of the interiors of most Mohammedan
+buildings in all countries are covered with the most
+exquisite decorations in colour. Imitations of natural
+objects being forbidden by the Koran (a prohibition occasionally,
+but very rarely, infringed), the Saracenic artists,
+whose instincts as decorators seem to have been unrivalled,
+fell back upon geometrical and flowing patterns
+and inscriptions, and upon the use of tiles (Fig. <a href="#fig190">190</a>),
+mosaics, inlays, patterns impressed on plaster, and every
+possible device for harmoniously enriching the surfaces
+with which they had to deal. Several of our illustrations
+give indications of the presence of these unrivalled decorations
+in the buildings which they represent (Fig. <a href="#fig195">195</a>).
+Windows are commonly filled by tracery executed in
+stone or in plaster, and glazed with stained glass, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259"><!-- original location of Fig. 189 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+many of the open spaces in buildings are occupied by
+grilles, executed in wood, and most effective and rich in
+design.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 520px;">
+<a name="fig189" id="fig189"></a>
+<img src="images/acec210.jpg" width="520" height="700"
+alt="Arches leading up to a high ceiling; this and the walls are heavily decorated" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 189.&mdash;Mosque &lsquo;El Moyed&rsquo; at Cairo.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 410px;">
+<a name="fig190" id="fig190"></a>
+<img src="images/acec211.jpg" width="410" height="500"
+alt="Showing complex interwoven geometric design" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 190.&mdash;Arabian Wall Decoration.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 340px;">
+<a name="fig191" id="fig191"></a>
+<img src="images/acec212.jpg" width="340" height="350"
+alt="An octagonal building containing centered octagonal and circular divisions" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 191.&mdash;Plan of the Sakhra Mosque at Jerusalem.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Syria and Palestine.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Syria was one of the countries earliest overrun by the
+Arab propaganda, and Jerusalem was taken by the Caliph
+Omar as early as <small>A.D.</small> 637. He there built a small mosque,
+though not the one which commonly goes by his name. Two
+mosques of great antiquity and importance, but the origin
+of which is a matter of dispute among authorities, stand
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+in the Haram enclosure at Jerusalem. One of these is
+the octagonal building called the Sakhra (Figs. <a href="#fig191">191-2</a>),
+known in the Moslem world as the Dome of the Rock,
+popularly called the Mosque of Omar, and occupying, as
+is all but universally admitted, part of the site of the
+Temple itself. Whether this is a &ldquo;nearly unaltered
+Christian building of the fourth century,&rdquo; or a construction
+of Abd-el-Malek, the second Caliph, erected in the
+year 688, has been debated keenly; but what is beyond
+debate is that this structure is very Byzantine, or, to
+speak with more exactness, very like some of the buildings
+of Justinian in plan and section, and that from
+early times it was in the possession of the Saracens, and
+was regarded by them as the next most venerable and
+sacred spot in the world after Mecca. Much the same
+difference of opinion prevails as to the origin of the
+neighbouring mosque, El Aksah, which bears an undoubted
+general resemblance to an ancient basilica,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"><!-- original location of Fig. 192 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+though having no fewer than seven parallel avenues.
+This building has with equal confidence been attributed to
+the fourth and the seventh century. It is fortunately
+quite unnecessary here to do more than point out that
+these mosques, whatever their origin, were in use at least
+as early as the eighth century, and that the beautiful
+Dome of the Rock must have exercised a great influence
+on Mohammedan art, and, notwithstanding some differences
+of plan, may be fairly regarded as the prototype
+of many of the domed mosques and tombs to which
+allusion has been made. The decorations shown in our
+illustration of the Sakhra are, it is right to observe,
+most of them of a date centuries later than the time
+of the original construction of the building.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 538px;">
+<a name="fig192" id="fig192"></a>
+<img src="images/acec213.jpg" width="538" height="700"
+alt="Showing extensive decoration to interior and dome" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 192.&mdash;Section of the Sakhra Mosque at Jerusalem.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Sicily and Spain.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The spread of Mohammedan architecture westward
+next claims our notice; but want of space will only
+permit us to mention a small though interesting group of
+Saracenic buildings which still remains in Sicily; the
+numerous specimens of the style which exist on the north
+coast of Africa; and the works erected by the Saracens
+during their long rule in Spain. The most celebrated
+Spanish example is the fortress and palace of the Alhambra,
+begun in 1248, and finished in 1314. This building
+(Fig. <a href="#fig188">188</a>) has been measured, drawn, and fully illustrated
+in an elaborate monograph by our countryman Owen
+Jones, and has become popularly known by the beautiful
+reproduction of portions of it which he executed at the
+Crystal Palace, and of which he wrote an admirable description
+in his &lsquo;Guide-book to the Alhambra Court.&rsquo; The
+Mohammedan architecture of Spain is here to be seen at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+its best; most of its features are those of Arab art, but
+with a distinguishing character (Fig. <a href="#fig193">193</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 404px;">
+<a name="fig193" id="fig193"></a>
+<img src="images/acec214.jpg" width="404" height="650"
+alt="Showing arched entrance surrounded with extensive decoration" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 193.&mdash;Doorway in the Alhambra.</p>
+
+<p>Two other well-known examples are, the Giralda<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+Seville, and the Mosque at Cordova. The Giralda is
+a square tower, in fact a minaret on a magnificent scale,
+divided into panels and richly decorated, and shows a
+masculine though beautiful treatment wholly different
+from that of the minarets in Cairo. The well-known
+Mosque at Cordova is of the simplest sort of plan, but
+of very great extent, and contains no less than nineteen
+parallel avenues separated from one another by arcades
+at two heights springing from 850 columns. The Kibla
+in this mosque is a picturesque domed structure higher
+than the rest of the building. The columns employed
+throughout are antique ones from other buildings, but
+the whole effect of the structure, which abounds with
+curiously cusped arches and coloured decoration, is described
+as most picturesque and fantastic.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Persia and India.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Turning eastwards, we find in Turkey, as has been said,
+a close adherence to the forms of Byzantine architecture.
+In Persia, where the people are now fire-worshippers, the
+Mohammedan buildings are mostly ruined, and probably
+many have disappeared, but enough remains to show that
+mosques and palaces of great grandeur were built. Lofty
+doorways are a somewhat distinctive feature of Persian
+buildings of this style; and the use of coloured tiles of
+singular beauty for linings to the walls, in the heads of
+these great portals, and in other situations to which such
+decoration is appropriate, is very common: these decorations
+afford opportunity for the Persian instinct for colour,
+probably the truest in the whole world, to make itself seen.</p>
+
+<p>In India the wealth of material is such that an almost
+unlimited series of fine buildings could be brought
+forward, were space and illustrations available. A large
+part of that vast country became Mohammedan, and in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
+buildings erected for mosques and tombs a complete blending
+of the decorative forms in use among Hindu and Jaina
+sculptors with the main lines of Mohammedan art is
+generally to be found. The great open quadrangle, the
+pointed arch, the dome, the minaret, all appear, but they
+are all made out of Indian materials. Perhaps not the
+least noteworthy feature of mosques and tombs in India
+is the introduction of perforated slabs of marble in the
+place of the bar-tracery which filled the heads of openings
+in Cairo or Damascus. These are works of the greatest
+and most refined beauty: sometimes panels of thin marble,
+each pierced with a different pattern, are fitted into a
+framework prepared for their reception; at others we meet
+with window-heads where upon a background of twining
+stems and leaves there grow up palms or banian-trees,
+their lithe branches and leaves wreathed into lines of
+admirable grace, and every part standing out, owing to
+the fine piercings of the marble, as distinctly as a tree
+of Jesse on a painted window in a Gothic cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>The dome at Bijapur, a tomb larger than the Pantheon
+at Rome, and the Kutub at Delhi, a tower not unfit to
+be compared with Giotto&rsquo;s campanile at Florence, are conspicuous
+among this series of monuments, and at Delhi
+one of the grandest mosques in India (Fig. <a href="#fig194">194</a>) is
+also to be found. The series of mosques and tombs at
+Ahmedabad, however, form the most beautiful group of
+buildings in India, and are the only ones of which a
+complete series of illustrations has been published.
+These mosques are remarkable for the great skill with
+which they are roofed and lighted. This is done by
+means of a series of domes raised on columns sufficiently
+above the general level of the stone ceilings, which cover
+the intervening spaces, to admit light under the line
+of their springing. The beauty of the marble tracery
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"><!-- original location of Fig. 194 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
+and surface decoration is very great. Pointed arches
+occur here almost invariably, and in most cases the
+outline of the opening is very slightly turned upwards
+at the apex so as to give a slight increase of emphasis to
+the summit of the arch. The buildings are not as a
+rule lofty; and though plain walls and piers occur and
+contrast well with the arched features, pains have been
+taken to avoid anything like massive or heavy construction.
+Great extent, skilful distribution, extreme lightness,
+and admirably combined groupings of the features
+and masses, are among the fine qualities which lend to
+Mohammedan architecture in Ahmedabad a rare charm.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig194" id="fig194"></a>
+<img src="images/acec215.jpg" width="700" height="520"
+alt="Showing domed building and minarets" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 194.&mdash;Grand Mosque at Delhi, built by Shah Jehan.</p>
+
+<p>The religion and the art of Islam seem destined to live
+and die together. Nothing (with the one exception of the
+suggestion of the pointed arch to Western Europe at the
+very moment when Romanesque art was ripe for a change)
+has developed itself or appears likely to grow out of
+Mohammedan architecture in any part of the wide field
+to which the attention of the reader has been directed;
+and in this respect the art of the Mohammedan is as exclusive,
+as intolerant, and as infertile as his religion. The
+interest which it must possess in the eyes of a Western
+student will rise less from its own charms than from
+the fact that it first employed the pointed arch&mdash;that
+feature from which sprang the glorious series of Western
+Christian styles to which we give the name of Gothic.
+This arch, indeed, appears to have been discovered by
+the very beginners of Mohammedan architecture, at a
+time when the style was still plastic and in course of
+growth, and the beauty of Saracenic art is due to no
+small extent to the use of it; but in the employment
+of this feature the Western architect advanced much
+further than the Saracen even at his best could go.
+The pointed architecture of the Middle Ages, with its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>
+daring construction, its comprehensive design, its elaborate
+mouldings, and its magnificent sculptures, is far more
+highly developed and more beautiful than that of the
+countries which we have been describing, though in its
+treatment of the walls it cannot surpass, and indeed did
+not often equal, the unrivalled decoration of plane surfaces
+which forms the chief glory of Mohammedan art.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 480px;">
+<a name="fig195" id="fig195"></a>
+<img src="images/acec216.jpg" width="480" height="600"
+alt="Showing large archway surrounded with decoration" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 195.&mdash;Entrance to a Moorish Bazaar.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> The First Crusade lasted from <small>A.D.</small> 1095 to <small>A.D.</small> 1099.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> &lsquo;Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,&rsquo; p. 141.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Abbaye aux Dames, Caen, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br />
+<span class="space210"> &rdquo; </span>Hommes, Caen, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></p>
+
+<p>Abbey, Westminster, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></p>
+
+<p>Agora, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></p>
+
+<p>Alhambra, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></p>
+
+<p>Amphitheatre at Arles, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+<span class="space280"> &rdquo; </span>N&icirc;mes, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+<span class="space280"> &rdquo; </span>Pola, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+<span class="space280"> &rdquo; </span>Rome (Coloss.), <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<span class="space280"> &rdquo; </span>Sutri, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<span class="space280"> &rdquo; </span>Verona, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></p>
+
+<p>Anthemios of Thralles, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></p>
+
+<p>Appian Way, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></p>
+
+<p>Apollodorus of Damascus, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></p>
+
+<p>Aqueduct at N&icirc;mes (Pont du Gard), <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>from Pr&aelig;neste to Rome, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>at Rome (Aqua Claudia), <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space140"> &rdquo; </span>(Anio Novus), <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>at Segovia, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>at Tarragona, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></p>
+
+<p>Arch at Autun (Porte d&rsquo;Arroux), <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<span class="space125"> &rdquo; </span>Jerusalem (Golden Gate), <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
+<span class="space125"> &rdquo; </span>Rome (of Constantine), <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<span class="space125"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>(of the Goldsmiths), <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<span class="space125"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>(of Sept. Severus), <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<span class="space125"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>(of Titus), <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<span class="space125"> &rdquo; </span>Tr&egrave;ves (Porta Nigra), <a href="#Page_172">172</a></p>
+
+<p>Asoka, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Baalbek, ruins at, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></p>
+
+<p>Basilica at Rome (Constantiniana), <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>(Emilia), <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>(Julia), <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>(Portia), <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>(Sempronia), <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>(Ulpia), <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Tr&egrave;ves, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></p>
+
+<p>Basilica-church at Florence (S. Miniato), <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space110"> &rdquo; </span>Ravenna (S. Apollinare in Classe), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space110"> &rdquo; </span>Rome (S. Agnese), <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space110"> &rdquo; </span>Rome (S. Clemente), <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space110"> &rdquo; </span>Rome (S. Paul without the walls), <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space110"> &rdquo; </span>Rome (S. Pietro), <a href="#Page_201">201</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="baths" id="baths"></a>Baths of Agrippa, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br />
+<span class="space140"> &rdquo; </span>Caracalla, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br />
+<span class="space140"> &rdquo; </span>Diocletian, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></p>
+
+<p>Bharhut, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></p>
+
+<p>Birs-i-Nimrud, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></p>
+
+<p>Bridge over the Danube (Trajan&rsquo;s), <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br />
+<span class="space275"> &rdquo; </span>Tagus (Hadrian&rsquo;s), <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br />
+<span class="space275"> &rdquo; </span>Tiber (Pons Sublicius), <a href="#Page_170">170</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Campo Santo, Pisa, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></p>
+
+<p>Castle of S. Angelo, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></p>
+
+<p>Cathedral at Canterbury, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br />
+<span class="space220"> &rdquo; </span>Durham, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+<span class="space220"> &rdquo; </span>Exeter, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+<span class="space220"> &rdquo; </span>Monreale, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<span class="space220"> &rdquo; </span>Peterborough, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br />
+<span class="space220"> &rdquo; </span>Piacenza, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
+<span class="space220"> &rdquo; </span>Pisa, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<span class="space220"> &rdquo; </span>Rochester, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+<span class="space220"> &rdquo; </span>Rome (S. Peter&rsquo;s), <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br />
+<span class="space220"> &rdquo; </span>Venice (S. Mark&rsquo;s), <a href="#Page_217">217</a><br />
+<span class="space220"> &rdquo; </span>Winchester, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></p>
+
+<p>Chaitya, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></p>
+
+<p>Chapel in Tower of London, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p>
+
+<p>Chehil Minar, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></p>
+
+<p>Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Church at Aix-la-Chapelle, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>Caen (Abb. aux Hommes), <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space090"> &rdquo; </span> (Abb. aux Dames), <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>Constantinople (S. Sophia), <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>Earl&rsquo;s Barton, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>Milan (S. Ambrogio), <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>Northampton (S. Peter&rsquo;s), <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>Paris (Madeleine), <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>P&eacute;rigueux (S. Front), <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>Ravenna (S. Vitale), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>Rome (S. Maria degli Angeli), <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span> (S. Maria ad Martyres), <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>Rome (S. Stefano Rot.), <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>Toulouse (S. Sernin), <a href="#Page_227">227</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>Turmanin, Syria, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>Verona (S. Zenone), <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p>
+
+<p>Circus Maximus, Rome, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></p>
+
+<p>Cloaca Maxima, Rome, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></p>
+
+<p>Cnidus, Lion tomb at, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></p>
+
+<p>Colosseum, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></p>
+
+<p>Column of Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<span class="space180"> &rdquo; </span>Trajan, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Decoration of Egyptian buildings, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Erechtheium, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Forum of Nerva, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Gate, Golden, at Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></p>
+
+<p>Gate at Perugia, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></p>
+
+<p>Giralda, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Hall, S. George&rsquo;s, Liverpool, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Ictinus, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></p>
+
+<p>Isidoros of Miletus, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Keep at Colchester, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
+<span class="space140"> &rdquo; </span>Hedingham Castle, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
+<span class="space140"> &rdquo; </span>Rochester Castle, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br />
+<span class="space140"> &rdquo; </span>Tower of London, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></p>
+
+<p>Kutub, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">L&acirc;ts, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></p>
+
+<p>Lotus Column, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></p>
+
+<p>Lysicrates, Choragic Monument of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Maison Carr&eacute;e, N&icirc;mes, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></p>
+
+<p>Mammisi, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></p>
+
+<p>Manephthah, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></p>
+
+<p>Manetho, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></p>
+
+<p>Mastaba, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></p>
+
+<p>Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></p>
+
+<p>Mosque at Ahmedabad, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+<span class="space180"> &rdquo; </span>Cairo (of Amrou), <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br />
+<span class="space180"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space090"> &rdquo; </span>(&ldquo;El Moyed&rdquo;), <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br />
+<span class="space180"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space090"> &rdquo; </span>(of Ibn Tulun), <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br />
+<span class="space180"> &rdquo; </span>Cordova, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+<span class="space180"> &rdquo; </span>Delhi, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+<span class="space180"> &rdquo; </span>Jerusalem (El Aksah), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br />
+<span class="space180"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>(Sakhra), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br />
+<span class="space180"> &rdquo; </span>(the Nilometer), <a href="#Page_254">254</a></p>
+
+<p>Mugheyr, buildings at, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></p>
+
+<p>Mycen&aelig;, Treasury of Atreus, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+<span class="space165"> &rdquo; </span>Gate of the Lions, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Obelisks, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Pagoda at Nankin, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></p>
+
+<p>Palace at Khorsabad, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<span class="space155"> &rdquo; </span>Rome (of the C&aelig;sars), <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<span class="space155"> &rdquo; </span>Spalatro (of Diocletian), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+Pantheon, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></p>
+
+<p>Parthenon, <a href="#Page_88">88-91</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99-101</a></p>
+
+<p>Persepolis, buildings at, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></p>
+
+<p>Persian columns, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></p>
+
+<p>Pheidias, <i>Sculptor</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></p>
+
+<p>Pont du Gard, N&icirc;mes, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></p>
+
+<p>Porta Nigra, Tr&egrave;ves, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></p>
+
+<p>Pylon, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></p>
+
+<p>Pyramid of Cephren, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<span class="space190"> &rdquo; </span>Cheops, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<span class="space190"> &rdquo; </span>Mycerinus, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Ram Raz, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></p>
+
+<p>Rome, Cloac&aelig; at, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Scopas, <i>Sculptor and Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Silchester, ruins at, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></p>
+
+<p>Sutri, ruins of an amphitheatre, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Temple at Athens (Erechtheium), <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space110"> &rdquo; </span> (Parthenon), <a href="#Page_88">88-91</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99-101</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space110"> &rdquo; </span>(of Jupiter Olym.), <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Baalbek, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Corinth, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Ephesus (of Diana), <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Honan, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Ipsamboul, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Karli (Chaitya), <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Karnak, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Lomas Rishi cave, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Nigope cave (Chaitya), <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>N&icirc;mes (Maison Carr&eacute;e), <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Orange (ruins), <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>P&aelig;stum, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Rome (of Jupiter Capitolinus), <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>(of Q. Metellus Macedonicus), <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>(of Antoninus and Faustina), <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>(of Fortuna Vir.), <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>(of Vesta), <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>(Pantheon), <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Sanchi (Tope), <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Tegea (of Athena Alea), <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
+<span class="space175"> &rdquo; </span>Tivoli (of Vesta), <a href="#Page_153">153</a></p>
+
+<p>Temples, Egyptian, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+ <span class="space155"> &rdquo; </span>Shinto, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></p>
+
+<p>Theatre of Balbus, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<span class="space140"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space010"> &rdquo; </span>Marcellus, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<span class="space140"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space010"> &rdquo; </span>Mummius, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<span class="space140"> &rdquo; </span>at Orange, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<span class="space140"> &rdquo; </span>of Pompey, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></p>
+
+<p>Therm&aelig;, <i>see</i> <a href="#baths">Baths</a></p>
+
+<p>Tomb at Ahmedabad, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+<span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space010"> &rdquo; </span>Bab-el-Molouk (Belzoni&rsquo;s), <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+<span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space010"> &rdquo; </span>Bijapur, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+<span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space010"> &rdquo; </span>Castel d&rsquo;Asso, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span>of Cecilia Metella, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space010"> &rdquo; </span>Cyrus, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space010"> &rdquo; </span>Darius, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space010"> &rdquo; </span>Hadrian, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<span class="space100"> &rdquo; </span> <span class="space010"> &rdquo; </span>Regulini Galeassi, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></p>
+
+<p>Tombs, Egyptian, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<span class="space125"> &rdquo; </span>Lycian, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+<span class="space125"> &rdquo; </span>Cnidus (Lion), <a href="#Page_110">110</a></p>
+
+<p>Tope at Sanchi, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></p>
+
+<p>Tower at Delhi (Kutub), <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+<span class="space155"> &rdquo; </span>Seville (Giralda), <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p>
+
+<p>Treasury of Atreus, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></p>
+
+<p>Typhonia, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Usertesen I., <a href="#Page_29">29</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Wall of China, Great, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></p>
+
+<p>Way, Appian, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></p>
+
+<p>Westminster Abbey, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></p>
+
+<p>Wurkha, ruins at, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="center smlfont padtop">LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,<br />
+STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="center padtop lrgfont">ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS</p>
+
+<p class="center smlfont">OF</p>
+
+<p class="center xlrgfont">ART HISTORY OF ALL AGES</p>
+
+<p class="center">Each Volume contains numerous Illustrations, and is strongly bound<br />
+for the use of Students. Price 5<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center smlpadt"><i>NOW READY.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center smcap">By Professor T. ROGER SMITH and JOHN SLATER, B.A.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>ARCHITECTURE: CLASSIC and EARLY CHRISTIAN.</b></span> Comprising
+the Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine and Early Christian.
+Illustrated with upwards of 200 Engravings, including the Parthenon, the Erechtheium,
+the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, the Colosseum, the Baths of Diocletian, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center smcap">By Professor T. ROGER SMITH and EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>ARCHITECTURE: GOTHIC and RENAISSANCE.</b></span> Showing
+the progress of Gothic Architecture in England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain,
+and of Renaissance Architecture in the same Countries. Illustrated with more than
+100 Engravings, including many of the principal Cathedrals, Churches, Palaces, and
+Domestic Buildings in England, and on the Continent.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center smcap">By GEORGE REDFORD, F.R.C.S.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>SCULPTURE: EGYPTIAN, ASSYRIAN, GREEK and ROMAN.</b></span>
+With 160 Illustrations, including Examples of the Works of the most celebrated
+Greek Sculptors, a Map of Ancient Greece, and a Chronological List of Ancient
+Sculptors and their Works.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center smcap">By EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A., and PERCY R. HEAD, B.A.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>PAINTING: CLASSIC and ITALIAN.</b></span> Including Painting in Egypt,
+Greece, Rome, and Pompeii; the Renaissance in Italy; Schools of Florence, Siena,
+Rome, Padua, Venice, Perugia, Ferrara, Parma, Naples and Bologna. Illustrated
+with 80 Engravings of many of the finest Pictures of Italy.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center smcap">By H. J. WILMOT-BUXTON, M.A., and EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>PAINTING: GERMAN, FLEMISH and DUTCH.</b></span> Including an
+Account of the Works of Albrecht D&uuml;rer, Cranach, and Holbein; Van Eyck, Van der
+Weyden, and Memling; Rubens, Snyders, and Van Dyck; Rembrandt, Hals, and
+Jan Steen; Wynants, Ruisdael, and Hobbema; Cuyp, Potter, and Berchem; Bakhuisen,
+Van de Velde, Van Huysum, and many other celebrated painters.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center smcap">By H. J. WILMOT-BUXTON, M.A.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>PAINTING: ENGLISH and AMERICAN.</b></span> Including an account
+of the Earliest Paintings known in England; the works of Holbein, Antonio Moro,
+Lucas de Heere, Zuccaro, and Marc Garrard; the Hilliards and Olivers; Van Dyck,
+Lely, and Kneller; Hogarth, Reynolds, and Gainsborough; West, Romney, and
+Lawrence; Constable, Turner, and Wilkie; Maclise, Mulready, and Landseer, and
+many other celebrated painters.<br /></p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Nearly ready.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center smcap">By GERARD SMITH, Exeter Coll. Oxford.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>PAINTING: SPANISH and FRENCH.</b></span> Including the Works of
+Ribera, Zurbaran, Velazquez, and Murillo; Poussin, Claude Lorrain, Le Sueur, Watteau,
+Chardin, Greuze, David, and Prud&rsquo;hon; Ingres, Vernet, Delaroche, and Delacroix;
+Corot, Diaz, and Millet; Courbet, Regnault, Troyon, and many other celebrated artists.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>In preparation.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<p><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>Archaic spelling has been preserved as printed, for example, Egean instead of &AElig;gean.</p>
+
+<p>Minor punctuation errors have been repaired.</p>
+
+<p>The following amendments have been made:</p>
+
+<div class="amends">
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, footnote&mdash;X. amended to XI.&mdash;"See Chap. <a href="#Page_198">XI.</a> for an illustration of a
+Christian Basilica."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_101">101</a>&mdash;Theseium amended to Theseum&mdash;"Temple of Theseus (Theseum), at Athens, 465
+<small>B.C.</small>"</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_211">211</a>&mdash;Isodoros amended to Isidoros&mdash;"... Anthemius of Thralles, and Isidoros of
+Miletus, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_270">270</a>&mdash;114 amended to 116&mdash;"Agora, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>"</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_270">270</a>&mdash;148 amended to 143&mdash;"Amphitheatre at Sutri, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>"</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_270">270</a>&mdash;205 amended to 206&mdash;"Basilica-church
+at Rome (S. Paul without the walls), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>"</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Discrepancies between items in the List of Illustrations and actual
+captions have been preserved as printed.</p>
+
+<p>Figure <a href="#fig115">115</a>&mdash;Guilloche is missing from the List
+of Illustrations in the original text. This omission has been preserved in this
+e-text.</p>
+
+<p>Figures <a href="#fig116">116</a> and <a href="#fig117">117</a> were out of sequence on page <a href="#Page_136">136</a> (with Figures <a href="#fig105">105-110</a>). They have
+been moved to their proper place in the sequence of Figures. Other illustrations have
+been moved where necessary so that they are not in the middle of a paragraph.
+Omitted page numbers relate to full page illustrations or blank pages in the original.</p>
+
+<p>The advertising material has been moved to the end of the book.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith and John Slater
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,7420 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith and John Slater
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Architecture
+       Classic and Early Christian
+
+Author: Thomas Roger Smith
+        John Slater
+
+Release Date: August 22, 2009 [EBook #29759]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Sam W. and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+     _ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS OF ART HISTORY_
+                  _OF ALL AGES_
+
+                  ARCHITECTURE
+          CLASSIC AND EARLY CHRISTIAN
+
+    BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+                      AND
+
+         JOHN SLATER, B.A., F.R.I.B.A.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS, AS IT WAS IN THE TIME OF
+      PERICLES, _circa_ B.C. 438.]
+
+
+
+
+         _ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS OF ART HISTORY_
+
+                      ARCHITECTURE
+
+               CLASSIC AND EARLY CHRISTIAN
+
+              BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+   _Professor of Architecture, University Coll. London_
+
+                           AND
+
+              JOHN SLATER, B.A., F.R.I.B.A.
+
+
+        [Illustration: ATRIUM OF A ROMAN MANSION.]
+
+
+                         LONDON
+         SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON
+           CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET
+                          1882.
+
+
+
+
+[_All rights reserved._]
+
+  LONDON. PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
+            STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This handbook is intended to give such an outline of the Architecture
+of the Ancient World, and of that of Christendom down to the period of
+the Crusades, as, without attempting to supply the minute information
+required by the professional student, may give a general idea of the
+works of the great building nations of Antiquity and the Early
+Christian times. Its chief object has been to place information on the
+subject within the reach of those persons of literary or artistic
+education who desire to become in some degree acquainted with
+Architecture. All technicalities which could be dispensed with have
+been accordingly excluded; and when it has been unavoidable that a
+technical word or phrase should occur, an explanation has been added
+either in the text or in the glossary; but as this volume and the
+companion one on Gothic and Renaissance Architecture are, in effect,
+two divisions of the same work, it has not been thought necessary to
+repeat in the glossary given with this part the words explained in
+that prefixed to the other.
+
+In treating so very wide a field, it has been felt that the chief
+prominence should be given to that great sequence of architectural
+styles which form the links of a chain connecting the architecture of
+modern Europe with the earliest specimens of the art. Egypt, Assyria,
+and Persia combined to furnish the foundation upon which the splendid
+architecture of the Greeks was based. Roman architecture was founded
+on Greek models with the addition of Etruscan construction, and was
+for a time universally prevalent. The break-up of the Roman Empire was
+followed by the appearance of the Basilican, the Byzantine, and the
+Romanesque phases of Christian art; and, later on, by the Saracenic.
+These are the styles on which all mediaeval and modern European
+architecture has been based, and these accordingly have furnished the
+subjects to which the reader's attention is chiefly directed. Such
+styles as those of India, China and Japan, which lie quite outside
+this series, are noticed much more briefly; and some matters--such,
+for example, as prehistoric architecture--which in a larger treatise
+it would have been desirable to include, have been entirely left out
+for want of room.
+
+In treating each style the object has not been to mention every phase
+of its development, still less every building, but rather to describe
+the more prominent buildings with some approach to completeness. It is
+true that much is left unnoticed, for which the student who wishes to
+pursue the subject further will have to refer to the writings
+specially devoted to the period or country. But it has been possible
+to describe a considerable number of typical examples, and to do so in
+such a manner as, it is hoped, may make some impression on the
+reader's mind. Had notices of a much greater number of buildings been
+compressed into the same space, each must have been so condensed that
+the volume, though useful as a catalogue for reference, would have, in
+all probability, become uninteresting, and consequently unserviceable
+to the class of readers for whom it is intended.
+
+As far as possible mere matters of opinion have been excluded from
+this handbook. A few of the topics which it has been necessary to
+approach are subjects on which high authorities still more or less
+disagree, and it has been impossible to avoid these in every instance;
+but, as far as practicable, controverted points have been left
+untouched. Controversy is unsuited to the province of such a manual as
+this, in which it is quite sufficient for the authors to deal with the
+ascertained facts of the history which they have to unfold.
+
+It is not proposed here to refer to the authorities for the various
+statements made in these pages, but to this rule it is impossible to
+avoid making one exception. The writers feel bound to acknowledge how
+much they, in common with all students of the art, are indebted to the
+patient research, the profound learning, and the admirable skill in
+marshalling facts displayed by Mr. Fergusson in his various writings.
+Had it been possible to devote a larger space to Eastern architecture,
+Pagan and Mohammedan, the indebtedness to him, in a field where he
+stands all but alone, must of necessity have been still greater.
+
+The earlier chapters of this volume were chiefly written by Mr.
+Slater, who very kindly consented to assist in the preparation of it;
+but I am of course, as editor, jointly responsible with him for the
+contents. The Introduction, Chapters V. to VII., and from Chapter X.
+to the end, have been written by myself: and if our work shall in any
+degree assist the reader to understand, and stimulate him to admire,
+the architecture of the far-off past; above all, if it enables him to
+appreciate our vast indebtedness to Greek art, and in a lesser degree
+to the art of other nations who have occupied the stage of the world,
+the aim which the writers have kept in view will not have been missed.
+
+                                             T. ROGER SMITH.
+
+    _University College, London._
+        _May, 1882._
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FRIEZE FROM CHURCH AT DENKENDORF.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+                                                                  PAGE
+    INTRODUCTION.                                                    1
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+    EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Pyramids. Tombs. Temples. Analysis of Buildings.            14
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+    WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Babylonian. Assyrian. Persian. Analysis of Buildings.       43
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+    ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Hindu. Chinese and Japanese.                                64
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+    GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Buildings of the Doric Order.                               80
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+        Buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.              102
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+        Analysis of Greek Architecture. The Plan. The Walls.
+          The Roof. The Openings. The Columns. The Ornaments.
+          Architectural Character.                                 117
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+    ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Historical and General Sketch.                             138
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+
+        The Buildings of the Romans. Basilicas. Theatres and
+          Amphitheatres. Baths (Thermae). Bridges and Aqueducts.
+          Commemorative Monuments. Domestic Architecture.          147
+
+  CHAPTER X.
+
+        Analysis of Roman Architecture. The Plan. The Walls.
+          The Roofs. The Openings. The Columns. The Ornaments.
+          Architectural Character.                                 182
+
+  CHAPTER XI.
+
+    EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Basilicas in Rome and Italy.                               198
+
+  CHAPTER XII.
+
+    BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.                                        210
+
+  CHAPTER XIII.
+
+    ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.                                       222
+
+  CHAPTER XIV.
+
+    CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Analysis of Basilican, Byzantine, and Romanesque.          240
+
+  CHAPTER XV.
+
+    MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+        Egypt, Syria and Palestine, Sicily and Spain, Persia
+          and India.                                               252
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+  THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS, AS IT WAS IN THE TIME OF
+      PERICLES, _circa_ B.C. 438.                       _Frontispiece_
+
+  ATRIUM OF A ROMAN MANSION.                         (_on title-page_)
+
+  FRIEZE FROM CHURCH AT DENKENDORF.                                  x
+
+  ROCK-CUT TOMB AT MYRA, IN LYCIA. IMITATION OF
+  TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE.                                  xviii
+
+  THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI.                                  xxiv
+
+  1. OPENING SPANNED BY A LINTEL. ARCH OF THE GOLDSMITHS,
+     ROME.                                                           3
+
+  2. OPENING SPANNED BY A SEMICIRCULAR ARCH. ROMAN TRIUMPHAL
+     ARCH AT POLA.                                                   4
+
+  3. OPENINGS SPANNED BY POINTED ARCHES. INTERIOR OF ST.
+     FRONT, PERIGUEUX, FRANCE.                                       5
+
+  4. TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA. RESTORED ACCORDING TO ADLER.         8
+
+  5. PART OF THE EXTERIOR OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME.                   10
+
+  6. TIMBER ARCHITECTURE. CHURCH AT BORGUND.                        12
+
+  7. AN EGYPTIAN CORNICE.                                           14
+
+  8. SECTION ACROSS THE GREAT PYRAMID (OF CHEOPS OR SUPHIS).        17
+
+  9. ASCENDING GALLERY IN THE GREAT PYRAMID.                        19
+
+  10. THE SEPULCHRAL CHAMBER IN THE PYRAMID OF CEPHREN AT GIZEH.    19
+
+  11. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE KING'S CHAMBER IN THE GREAT PYRAMID.  19
+
+  12. IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE, FROM A TOMB
+      AT MEMPHIS.                                                   21
+
+  13. IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE, FROM A TOMB
+      AT MEMPHIS.                                                   21
+
+  14. PLAN AND SECTION OF THE TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.                  23
+
+  15. ROCK-CUT FACADE OF THE TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.                   24
+
+  16. GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT KARNAK.                          26
+
+  17. THE HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK, SHOWING THE CLERESTORY.         27
+
+  18. ENTRANCE TO AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE, SHOWING THE PYLONS.           27
+
+  19. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT EDFOU.                                  30
+
+  20. EXAMPLE OF ONE OF THE MAMMISI AT EDFOU.                       30
+
+  21. GROUND-PLAN OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL.              31
+
+  22. SECTION OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL.                  31
+
+  23. EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS BUD CAPITAL.                       33
+
+  24. EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS FLOWER CAPITAL.                    33
+
+  25. PALM CAPITAL.                                                 34
+
+  26. SCULPTURED CAPITAL.                                           34
+
+  27. ISIS CAPITAL FROM DENDERAH.                                   35
+
+  28. FANCIFUL COLUMN FROM PAINTED DECORATION AT THEBES.            35
+
+  29. CROWNING CORNICE AND BEAD.                                    36
+
+  30. PAINTED DECORATION FROM THEBES.                               42
+
+  31. SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT NINEVEH.                               43
+
+  32. PALACE AT KHORSABAD. BUILT BY KING SARGON ABOUT 710 B.C.      48
+
+  33. PAVEMENT FROM KHOYUNJIK.                                      51
+
+  34. PROTO-IONIC COLUMN FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE.                   53
+
+  34a. PROTO-IONIC CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE.                 53
+
+  34b. PROTO-CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE.            53
+
+  35. TOMB OF CYRUS.                                                54
+
+  35a. GENERAL PLAN OF THE BUILDINGS AT PERSEPOLIS.                 56
+
+  35b. COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS--EAST AND WEST PORTICOES.             58
+
+  36. COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS--NORTH PORTICO.                        58
+
+  37. THE ROCK-CUT TOMB OF DARIUS.                                  60
+
+  38. SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT ALLAHABAD.                             64
+
+  39. DAGOBA FROM CEYLON.                                           66
+
+  40. CHAITYA NEAR POONA.                                           68
+
+  41. THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. A ROCK-CUT MONUMENT.                     69
+
+  42. PLAN OF THE KYLAS AT ELLORA.                                  70
+
+  43. VIMANA FROM MANASARA.                                         71
+
+  44. BRACKET CAPITAL.                                              73
+
+  45. COLUMN FROM AJUNTA.                                           73
+
+  46. COLUMN FROM ELLORA.                                           73
+
+  47. COLUMN FROM AJUNTA.                                           73
+
+  48. A SMALL PAGODA.                                               76
+
+  49. GREEK HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT.                                   80
+
+  50. PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE IN ANTIS.                        82
+
+  50a. PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE.                                83
+
+  51. ANCIENT GREEK WALL OF UNWROUGHT STONE FROM SAMOTHRACE.        86
+
+  52. PLAN OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT MYCENAE.                     86
+
+  52a. SECTION OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT MYCENAE.                 86
+
+  53. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SELINUS.                             87
+
+  53a. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM THE THESEUM.                        87
+
+  53b. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SAMOTHRACE.                         87
+
+  54. THE RUINS OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS.                         89
+
+  55. PLAN OF THE PARTHENON.                                        90
+
+  56. THE ROOF OF A GREEK DORIC TEMPLE, SHOWING THE MARBLE
+      TILES.                                                        91
+
+  56a. SECTION OF THE GREEK DORIC TEMPLE AT PAESTUM. AS RESTORED
+       BY BOeTTICHER.                                                92
+
+  57. THE GREEK DORIC ORDER FROM THE THESEUM.                       93
+
+  58. PLAN OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN.                                 94
+
+  59. THE FILLETS UNDER A GREEK DORIC CAPITAL.                      94
+
+  60. CAPITAL OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN FROM AEGINA, WITH
+      COLOURED DECORATION.                                          95
+
+  61. SECTION OF THE ENTABLATURE OF THE GREEK DORIC ORDER.          96
+
+  62. PLAN, LOOKING UP, OF PART OF A GREEK DORIC PERISTYLE.         96
+
+  63. DETAILS OF THE TRIGLYPH.                                      97
+
+  64. DETAILS OF THE MUTULES.                                       97
+
+  65. ELEVATION AND SECTION OF THE CAPITAL OF A GREEK ANTA,
+      WITH COLOURED DECORATION.                                     99
+
+  66. PALMETTE AND HONEYSUCKLE.                                    102
+
+  67. SHAFT OF AN IONIC COLUMN, SHOWING THE FLUTES.                103
+
+  68. IONIC CAPITAL. FRONT ELEVATION.                              103
+
+  69. IONIC CAPITAL. SIDE ELEVATION.                               103
+
+  70. THE IONIC ORDER. FROM PRIENE, ASIA MINOR.                    105
+
+  71. THE IONIC ORDER. FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM, ATHENS.               106
+
+  72. NORTH-WEST VIEW OF THE ERECHTHEIUM, IN THE TIME OF
+      PERICLES.                                                    107
+
+  73. PLAN OF THE ERECHTHEIUM.                                     108
+
+  74. IONIC BASE FROM THE TEMPLE OF THE WINGLESS VICTORY
+      (NIKE APTEROS).                                              108
+
+  75. IONIC BASE MOULDINGS FROM PRIENE.                            108
+
+  76. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. FROM THE MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES
+      AT ATHENS.                                                   111
+
+  77. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM THE MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES.          112
+
+  78. MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES, AS IN THE TIME OF PERICLES.          113
+
+  79. CAPITAL OF AN ANTA FROM MILETUS. SIDE VIEW.                  114
+
+  80. RESTORATION OF THE GREEK THEATRE OF SEGESTA.                 115
+
+  81. CAPITAL OF AN ANTA FROM MILETUS.                             117
+
+  82. GREEK DOORWAY, SHOWING CORNICE.                              123
+
+  83. GREEK DOORWAY. FRONT VIEW. (FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM.)           123
+
+  84. THE ACANTHUS LEAF AND STALK.                                 128
+
+  85. THE ACANTHUS LEAF.                                           129
+
+  86. METOPE FROM THE PARTHENON. CONFLICT BETWEEN A CENTAUR
+      AND ONE OF THE LAPITHAE.                                      130
+
+  87. MOSAIC FROM THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS, OLYMPIA.                     131
+
+  88. SECTION OF THE PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM.                   132
+
+  89. PLAN OF THE PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM, LOOKING UP.          132
+
+  90. CAPITAL OF ANTAE FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM.                        133
+
+  91-96. GREEK ORNAMENTS IN RELIEF.                                134
+
+  97-104. GREEK ORNAMENTS IN RELIEF.                               135
+
+  105-110. GREEK ORNAMENTS IN COLOUR.                              136
+
+  111-113. EXAMPLES OF HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT.                       137
+
+  114. COMBINATION OF THE FRET, THE EGG AND DART, THE BEAD
+       AND FILLET, AND THE HONEYSUCKLE.                            137
+
+  116-120. EXAMPLES OF THE FRET.                                   137
+
+  121. ELEVATION OF AN ETRUSCAN TEMPLE (RESTORED FROM
+       DESCRIPTIONS ONLY).                                         138
+
+  122. SEPULCHRE AT CORNETO.                                       140
+
+  123. THE CLOACA MAXIMA.                                          142
+
+  124. "INCANTADA" IN SALONICA.                                    147
+
+  125. THE IONIC ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA VIRILIS,
+       ROME.                                                       148
+
+  126. ROMAN-CORINTHIAN TEMPLE AT NIMES (MAISON CARREE).
+       PROBABLY OF THE TIME OF HADRIAN.                            150
+
+  127. GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI.               151
+
+  128. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI.    152
+
+  129. THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. PLAN, LOOKING UP, AND
+       SECTION OF PART OF THE PERISTYLE.                           153
+
+  130. GROUND-PLAN OF THE BASILICA ULPIA, ROME.                    155
+
+  131. PLAN OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME.                                157
+
+  132. THE COLOSSEUM. SECTION AND ELEVATION.                       158
+
+  133. PLAN OF THE PRINCIPAL BUILDING, BATHS OF CARACALLA, ROME.   163
+
+  134. INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA DEGLI ANGELI, ROME.                 165
+
+  135. THE PANTHEON, ROME. GROUND-PLAN.                            166
+
+  136. THE PANTHEON. EXTERIOR.                                     167
+
+  137. THE PANTHEON. INTERIOR.                                     168
+
+  138. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE PANTHEON.                     169
+
+  139. THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME.                              172
+
+  140. GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII.                 176
+
+  141. GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE TRAGIC POET, POMPEII.       177
+
+  142. THE ATRIUM OF A POMPEIAN HOUSE.                             178
+
+  143. WALL DECORATION FROM POMPEII.                               180
+
+  144. CARVING FROM THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME.                      182
+
+  145. ROMAN-CORINTHIAN CAPITAL AND BASE. FROM THE TEMPLE OF
+       VESTA AT TIVOLI.                                            188
+
+  145a. A ROMAN COMPOSITE CAPITAL.                                 188
+
+  146. PART OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, ROME. SHOWING THE
+       COMBINATION OF COLUMNS AND ARCHED OPENINGS.                 190
+
+  147. FROM THE RUINS OF THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME. SHOWING
+       THE USE OF AN ATTIC STORY.                                  191
+
+  148. FROM THE BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN, ROME. SHOWING A
+       FRAGMENTARY ENTABLATURE AT THE STARTING OF PART
+       OF A VAULT.                                                 192
+
+  149. FROM THE PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, SPALATRO. SHOWING AN
+       ARCH SPRINGING FROM A COLUMN.                               192
+
+  150. MOULDINGS AND ORNAMENTS FROM VARIOUS ROMAN BUILDINGS.       193
+
+  151. ROMAN CARVING. AN ACANTHUS LEAF.                            194
+
+  152. THE EGG AND DART ENRICHMENT--ROMAN.                         194
+
+  153. WALL-DECORATION OF (SO-CALLED) ARABESQUE CHARACTER
+       FROM POMPEII.                                               195
+
+  154. DECORATION IN RELIEF AND COLOUR OF THE VAULT OF A TOMB
+       IN THE VIA LATINA, NEAR ROME.                               197
+
+  155. BASILICA CHURCH OF SAN MINIATO, FLORENCE.                   198
+
+  156. INTERIOR OF A BASILICA AT POMPEII. RESTORED, FROM
+       DESCRIPTIONS BY VARIOUS AUTHORS.                            200
+
+  156a. BASILICA, OR EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH, OF SANT' AGNESE
+        AT ROME.                                                   202
+
+  157. SANT' APOLLINARE, RAVENNA. PART OF THE ARCADE AND APSE.     205
+
+  158. APSE OF THE BASILICA OF SAN PAOLO FUORI LE MURA, ROME.      207
+
+  158a. FRIEZE FROM THE MONASTERY AT FULDA.                        210
+
+  159. CHURCH OF SANTA SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE. LONGITUDINAL
+       SECTION.                                                    212
+
+  160. PLAN OF SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA.                              216
+
+  161. SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. LONGITUDINAL SECTION.                216
+
+  162. PLAN OF ST. MARK'S AT VENICE.                               217
+
+  163. SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM THE GOLDEN DOOR OF JERUSALEM.      219
+
+  164. CHURCH AT TURMANIN IN SYRIA.                                220
+
+  165. TOWER OF A RUSSIAN CHURCH.                                  221
+
+  166. TOWER OF EARL'S BARTON CHURCH.                              223
+
+  167. CATHEDRAL AT PIACENZA.                                      225
+
+  168. VAULTS OF THE EXCAVATED ROMAN BATHS IN THE MUSEE
+       DE CLUNY, PARIS.                                            227
+
+  169. CHURCH OF ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE.                             228
+
+  170. NAVE ARCADE AT ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE.                        229
+
+  171. ARCHES IN RECEDING PLANES AT ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE.          230
+
+  172. NORMAN ARCHES IN ST. PETER'S CHURCH, NORTHAMPTON.           234
+
+  173. NAVE ARCADE, PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL.                        236
+
+  174. DECORATIVE ARCADE FROM CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL.                237
+
+  175. HEDINGHAM CASTLE.                                           238
+
+  176. INTERIOR OF HEDINGHAM CASTLE.                               239
+
+  177. ROUNDED ARCH OF CHURCH AT GELNHAUSEN.                       240
+
+  178. PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES AT COLOGNE.              241
+
+  179. SPIRE OF SPIRES CATHEDRAL.                                  242
+
+  180. CHURCH AT ROSHEIM. UPPER PORTION OF FACADE.                 244
+
+  181. CUBIC CAPITAL.                                              246
+
+  182. DOORWAY AT TIND, NORWAY.                                    247
+
+  183. MOULDINGS OF PORTAL OF ST. JAMES'S CHURCH AT KOESFELD.      248
+
+  184. BYZANTINE BASKET WORK CAPITAL FROM SAN MICHELE IN
+       AFFRICISCO AT RAVENNA.                                      251
+
+  185. ARABIAN CAPITAL. FROM THE ALHAMBRA.                         252
+
+  186. HORSE-SHOE ARCH.                                            254
+
+  187. EXTERIOR OF SANTA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE. SHOWING THE
+       MINARETS ADDED AFTER ITS CONVERSION INTO A MOSQUE.          255
+
+  188. ALHAMBRA. HALL OF THE ABENCERRAGES.                         257
+
+  189. MOSQUE "EL MOYED" AT CAIRO.                                 259
+
+  190. ARABIAN WALL DECORATION.                                    260
+
+  191. PLAN OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM.                     261
+
+  192. SECTION OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM.                  262
+
+  193. DOORWAY IN THE ALHAMBRA.                                    264
+
+  194. GRAND MOSQUE AT DELHI, BUILT BY SHAH JEHAN.                 267
+
+  195. ENTRANCE TO A MOORISH BAZAAR.                               269
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: ROCK-CUT TOMB AT MYRA, IN LYCIA.
+      _Imitation of Timber Construction in Stone._]
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY.
+
+
+    ABACUS, a square tablet which crowns the capital of the
+    column.
+
+    ACANTHUS, a plant, the foliage of which was imitated in
+    the ornament of the Corinthian capital.
+
+    AGORA, the place of general assembly in a Greek city.
+
+    ALAE (_Lat._ wings), recesses opening out of the atrium
+    of a Roman house.
+
+    ALHAMBRA, the palatial fortress of Granada (from _al
+    hamra_--the red).
+
+    AMBO, a fitting of early Christian churches, very
+    similar to a pulpit.
+
+    AMPHITHEATRE, a Roman place of public entertainment in
+    which combats of gladiators, &c., were exhibited.
+
+    ANTAE, narrow piers used in connection with columns in
+    Greek architecture, for the same purpose as pilasters in
+    Roman.
+
+    ARABESQUE, a style of very light ornamental decoration.
+
+    ARCHAIC, primitive, so ancient as to be rude, or at
+    least extremely simple.
+
+    ARCHIVOLT, the series of mouldings which is carried
+    round an arch.
+
+    ARENA, the space in the centre of an amphitheatre where
+    the combats, &c., took place.
+
+    ARRIS, a sharp edge.
+
+    ASTRAGAL, a small round moulding.
+
+    ATRIUM, the main quadrangle in a Roman dwelling-house;
+    also the enclosed court in front of an early Christian
+    basilican church.
+
+
+    BAPTISTERY, a building, or addition to a building,
+    erected for the purposes of celebrating the rite of
+    Christian baptism.
+
+    BASEMENT, the lowest story of a building, applied also
+    to the lowest part of an architectural design.
+
+    BAS-RELIEF, a piece of sculpture in low relief.
+
+    BIRD'S-BEAK, a moulding in Greek architecture, used in
+    the capitals of Antae.
+
+    BYZANTINE, the style of Christian architecture which
+    had its origin at Byzantium (Constantinople).
+
+
+    CARCERES, in the ancient racecourses, goals and
+    starting-points.
+
+    CARTOUCHE, in Egyptian buildings, a hieroglyphic
+    signifying the name of a king or other important person.
+
+    CARYATIDAE, human figures made to carry an entablature,
+    in lieu of columns in some Classic buildings.
+
+    CAVAEDIAM, another name for the atrium of a Roman house.
+
+    CAVEA, the part of an ancient theatre occupied by the
+    audience.
+
+    CAVETTO, in Classic architecture, a hollow moulding.
+
+    CELLA, the principal, often the only, apartment of a
+    Greek or Roman temple.
+
+    CHAITYA, an Indian temple, or hall of assembly.
+
+    CIRCUS, a Roman racecourse.
+
+    CLOACA, a sewer or drain.
+
+    COLUMBARIUM, literally a pigeon-house--a Roman sepulchre
+    built in many compartments.
+
+    COLUMNAR, made with columns.
+
+    COMPLUVIUM, the open space or the middle of the roof of
+    a Roman atrium.
+
+    CORONA, in the cornices of Greek and Roman architecture,
+    the plain unmoulded feature which is supported by the
+    lower part of the cornice, and on which the crowning
+    mouldings rest.
+
+    CORNICE, the horizontal series of mouldings crowning the
+    top of a building or the walls of a room.
+
+    CUNEIFORM, of letters in Assyrian inscriptions,
+    wedge-shaped.
+
+    CYCLOPEAN, applied to masonry constructed of vast
+    stones, usually not hewn or squared.
+
+    CYMA (recta, or reversa), a moulding, in Classic
+    architecture, of an outline partly convex and partly
+    concave.
+
+
+    DAGOBA, an Indian tomb of conical shape.
+
+    DENTIL BAND, in Classic architecture, a series of small
+    blocks resembling square-shaped teeth.
+
+    DOMUS (_Lat._), a house, applied usually to a detached
+    residence.
+
+    DWARF-WALL, a very low wall.
+
+
+    ECHINUS, in Greek Doric architecture, the principal
+    moulding of the capital placed immediately under the
+    abacus.
+
+    ENTABLATURE, the superstructure--comprising architrave,
+    frieze and cornice--above the columns in Classic
+    architecture.
+
+    ENTASIS, in the shaft of a column, a curved outline.
+
+    EPHEBEUM, the large hall in Roman baths in which youths
+    practised gymnastic exercises.
+
+
+    FACIA, in Classic architecture, a narrow flat band or
+    face.
+
+    FAUCES, the passage from the atrium to the peristyle in
+    a Roman house.
+
+    FLUTES, the small channels which run from top to bottom
+    of the shaft of most columns in Classic architecture.
+
+    FORUM, the place of general assembly in a Roman city, as
+    the Agora was in a Greek.
+
+    FRESCO, painting executed upon a plastered wall while
+    the plaster is still wet.
+
+    FRET, an ornament made up of squares and L-shaped lines,
+    in use in Greek architecture.
+
+
+    GARTH, the central space round which a cloister is
+    carried.
+
+    GIRDER, a beam.
+
+    GROUTED, said of masonry or brickwork, treated with
+    liquid mortar to fill up all crevices and interstices.
+
+    GUTTAE, small pendent features in Greek and Roman Doric
+    cornices, resembling rows of wooden pegs.
+
+
+    HEXASTYLE, of six columns.
+
+    HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT, a decoration constantly introduced
+    into Assyrian and Greek architecture, founded upon the
+    flower of the honeysuckle.
+
+    HORSE-SHOE ARCH, an arch more than a semicircle, and so
+    wider above than at its springing.
+
+    HYPOSTYLE, literally "under columns," but used to mean
+    filled by columns.
+
+
+    IMPLUVIUM, the space into which the rain fell in the
+    centre of the atrium of a Roman house.
+
+    INSULA, a block of building surrounded on all sides by
+    streets, literally an island.
+
+    INTERCOLUMNIATION, the space between two columns.
+
+
+    KEYED, secured closely by interlocking.
+
+    KIBLA, the most sacred part of a Mohammedan mosque.
+
+
+    LATS, in Indian architecture, Buddhist inscribed
+    pillars.
+
+
+    MAMMISI, small Egyptian temples.
+
+    MASTABA, the most usual form of Egyptian tomb.
+
+    MAUSOLEUM, a magnificent sepulchral monument or tomb.
+    From the tomb erected to Mausolus, by his wife
+    Artemisia, at Halicarnassus, 379 B.C.
+
+    METOPES, literally faces, the square spaces between
+    triglyphs in Doric architecture; occasionally applied to
+    the sculptures fitted into these spaces.
+
+    MINARET, a slender lofty tower, a usual appendage of a
+    Mohammedan mosque.
+
+    MONOLITH, of one stone.
+
+    MORTISE, a hollow in a stone or timber to receive a
+    corresponding projection.
+
+    MOSQUE, a Mohammedan place of worship.
+
+    MUTULE, a feature in a Classic Doric cornice, somewhat
+    resembling the end of a timber beam.
+
+
+    NARTHEX, in an early Christian church, the space next
+    the entrance.
+
+
+    OBELISK, a tapering stone pillar, a feature of Egyptian
+    architecture.
+
+    OPUS ALEXANDRINUM, the mosaic work used for floors in
+    Byzantine and Romanesque churches.
+
+    OVOLO, a moulding, the profile of which resembles the
+    outline of an egg, used in Classic architecture.
+
+
+    PENDENTIVE, a feature in Byzantine and other domed
+    buildings, employed to enable a circular dome to stand
+    over a square space.
+
+    PERISTYLAR, or PERIPTERAL, with columns all round.
+
+    PERISTYLIUM, or PERISTYLE, in a Roman house, the inner
+    courtyard; also any space or enclosure with columns all
+    round it.
+
+    PISCINA, a small basin usually executed in stone and
+    placed within a sculptured niche, fixed at the side of
+    an altar in a church, with a channel to convey away the
+    water poured into it.
+
+    POLYCHROMY, the use of decorative colours.
+
+    PRECINCTS, the space round a church or religious house,
+    usually enclosed with a wall.
+
+    PRESBYTERY, the eastern part of a church, the chancel.
+
+    PROFILE (of a moulding), the outline which it would
+    present if cut across at right angles to its length.
+
+    PRONAOS, the front portion or vestibule to a temple.
+
+    PROPYLAEA, in Greek architecture, a grand portal or state
+    entrance.
+
+    PROTHYRUM, in a Roman house, the porch or entrance.
+
+    PSEUDO-PERIPTERAL, resembling, but not really being
+    peristylar.
+
+    PYLON, or PRO-PYLON, the portal or front of an Egyptian
+    temple.
+
+
+    QUADRIGA, a four-horse chariot.
+
+
+    ROMANESQUE, the style of Christian architecture which
+    was founded on Roman work.
+
+    ROTUNDA, a building circular in plan.
+
+
+    SACRISTY, the part of a church where the treasures
+    belonging to the church are preserved.
+
+    SHINTO TEMPLES, temples (in Japan) devoted to the Shinto
+    religion.
+
+    SPAN, the space over which an arch or a roof extends.
+
+    SPINA, the central wall of a Roman racecourse.
+
+    STILTED, raised, usually applied to an arch when its
+    centre is above the top of the jambs from which it
+    springs.
+
+    STRUTS, props.
+
+    STUPA, in Indian architecture, a mound or tope.
+
+    STYLOBATE, a series of steps, usually those leading up
+    to a Classic temple.
+
+
+    TAAS, a pagoda.
+
+    TABLINUM, in a Roman house, the room between the atrium
+    and the peristyle.
+
+    TALAR, in Assyrian architecture, an open upper story.
+
+    TENONED, fastened with a projection or tenon.
+
+    TESSELATED, made of small squares of material, applied
+    to coarse mosaic work.
+
+    TETRASTYLE, with four columns.
+
+    THERMAE, the great bathing establishments of the Romans.
+
+    TOPES, in Indian architecture, artificial mounds.
+
+    TRABEATED, constructed with a beam or beams, a term
+    usually employed in contrast to arches.
+
+    TRICLINIUM, in a Roman house, the dining-room.
+
+    TRIGLYPH, the channelled feature in the frieze of the
+    Doric order.
+
+    TUMULI, mounds, usually sepulchral.
+
+    TYPHONIA, small Egyptian temples.
+
+
+    VELARIUM, a great awning.
+
+    VESTIBULE, the outer hall or ante-room.
+
+    VOLUTES, in Classic architecture, the curled ornaments
+    of the Ionic capital.
+
+    VOUSSOIRS, the wedge-shaped stones of which arches are
+    made.
+
+
+N.B. For the explanation of other technical words found in this
+volume, consult the Glossary given with the companion volume on Gothic
+and Renaissance Architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI.]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Architecture may be described as building at its best, and when we
+talk of the architecture of any city or country we mean its best,
+noblest, or most beautiful buildings; and we imply by the use of the
+word that these buildings possess merits which entitle them to rank as
+works of art.
+
+The architecture of the civilised world can be best understood by
+considering the great buildings of each important nation separately.
+The features, ornaments, and even forms of ancient buildings differed
+just as the speech, or at any rate the literature, differed. Each
+nation wrote in a different language, though the books may have been
+devoted to the same aims; and precisely in the same way each nation
+built in a style of its own, even if the buildings may have been
+similar in the purposes they had to serve. The division of the subject
+into the architecture of Egypt, Greece, Rome, &c., is therefore the
+most natural one to follow.
+
+But certain broad groups, rising out of peculiarities of a physical
+nature, either in the buildings themselves or in the conditions under
+which they were erected, can hardly fail to be suggested by a general
+view of the subject. Such, for example, is the fourfold division to
+which the reader's attention will now be directed.
+
+All buildings, it will be found, can be classed under one or other of
+four great divisions, each distinguished by a distinct mode of
+building, and each also occupying a distinct place in history. The
+first series embraces the buildings of the Egyptians, the Persians,
+and the Greeks, and was brought to a pitch of the highest perfection
+in Greece during the age of Pericles. All the buildings erected in
+these countries during the many centuries which elapsed from the
+earliest Egyptian to the latest Greek works, however they may have
+differed in other respects, agree in this--that the openings, be they
+doors, or be they spaces between columns, were spanned by beams of
+wood or lintels of stone (Fig. 1). Hence this architecture is called
+architecture of the beam, or, in more formal language, trabeated
+architecture. This mode of covering spaces required that in buildings
+of solid masonry, where stone or marble lintels were employed, the
+supports should not be very far apart, and this circumstance led to
+the frequent use of rows of columns. The architecture of this period
+is accordingly sometimes called columnar, but it has no exclusive
+claim to the epithet; the column survived long after the exclusive
+use of the beam had been superseded, and the term columnar must
+accordingly be shared with buildings forming part of the succeeding
+series.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--OPENING SPANNED BY A LINTEL. ARCH OF THE
+      GOLDSMITHS, ROME.]
+
+The second great group of buildings is that in which the semicircular
+arch is introduced into construction, and used either together with
+the beam, or, as mostly happened, instead of the beam, to span the
+openings (Fig. 2). This use of the arch began with the Assyrians, and
+it reappeared in the works of the early Etruscans. The round-arched
+series of styles embraces the buildings of the Romans from their
+earliest beginnings to their decay; it also includes the two great
+schools of Christian architecture which were founded by the Western
+and the Eastern Church respectively,--namely, the Romanesque, which,
+originating in Rome, extended itself through Western Europe, and
+lasted till the time of the Crusades, and the Byzantine, which spread
+from Constantinople over all the countries in which the Eastern (or
+Greek) Church flourished, and which continues to our own day.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--OPENING SPANNED BY A SEMICIRCULAR ARCH. ROMAN
+      TRIUMPHAL ARCH AT POLA.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--OPENINGS SPANNED BY POINTED ARCHES. INTERIOR
+      OF ST. FRONT, PERIGUEUX, FRANCE.]
+
+The third group of buildings is that in which the pointed arch is
+employed instead of the semicircular arch to span the openings (Fig.
+3). It began with the rise of Mohammedan architecture in the East, and
+embraces all the buildings of Western Europe, from the time of the
+First Crusade to the revival of art in the fifteenth century. This
+great series of buildings constitutes what is known as Pointed, or,
+more commonly, as Gothic architecture.
+
+The fourth group consists of the buildings erected during or since the
+Renaissance (_i.e._ revival) period, and is marked by a return to the
+styles of past ages or distant countries for the architectural
+features and ornaments of buildings; and by that luxury, complexity,
+and ostentation which, with other qualities, are well comprehended
+under the epithet Modern. This group of buildings forms what is known
+as Renaissance architecture, and extends from the epoch of the revival
+of letters in the fifteenth century, to the present day.
+
+The first two of these styles--namely, the architecture of the beam,
+and that of the round arch--are treated of in this little volume. They
+occupy those remote times of pagan civilisation which may be
+conveniently included under the broad term Ancient; and the better
+known work of the Greeks and Romans--the classic nations--and they
+extend over the time of the establishment of Christianity down to the
+close of that dreary period not incorrectly termed the Dark ages.
+Ancient, Classic, and early Christian architecture is accordingly an
+appropriate title for the main subjects of this volume, though, for
+the sake of convenience, some notices of Oriental architecture have
+been added. Gothic and Renaissance architecture form the subjects of
+the companion volume.
+
+It may excite surprise that what appears to be so small a difference
+as that which exists between a beam, a round arch, or a pointed arch,
+should be employed in order to distinguish three of the four great
+divisions. But in reality this is no pedantic or arbitrary grouping.
+The mode in which spaces or openings are covered lies at the root of
+most of the essential differences between styles of architecture, and
+the distinction thus drawn is one of a real, not of a fanciful nature.
+
+Every building when reduced to its elements, as will be done in both
+these volumes, may be considered as made up of its (1) floor or plan,
+(2) walls, (3) roof, (4) openings, (5) columns, and (6) ornaments, and
+as marked by its distinctive (7) character, and the student must be
+prepared to find that the openings are by no means the least important
+of these elements. In fact, the moment the method of covering openings
+was changed, it would be easy to show, did space permit, that all the
+other elements, except the ornaments, were directly affected by the
+change, and the ornaments indirectly; and we thus find such a
+correspondence between this index feature and the entire structure as
+renders this primary division a scientific though a very broad one.
+The contrast between the trabeated style and the arched style may be
+well understood by comparing the illustration of the Parthenon which
+forms our frontispiece, or that of the great temple of Zeus at Olympia
+(Fig. 4), with the exterior of the Colosseum at Rome (Fig. 5),
+introduced here for the purposes of this comparison.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA. RESTORED ACCORDING
+      TO ADLER.]
+
+A division of buildings into such great series as these cannot,
+however, supersede the more obvious historical and geographical
+divisions. The architecture of every ancient country was partly the
+growth of the soil, _i.e._ adapted to the climate of the country, and
+the materials found there, and partly the outcome of the national
+character of its inhabitants, and of such influences as race,
+colonisation, commerce, or conquest brought to bear upon them. These
+influences produced strong distinctions between the work of different
+peoples, especially before the era of the Roman Empire. Since that
+period of universal dominion all buildings and styles have been
+influenced more or less by Roman art. We accordingly find the
+buildings of the most ancient nations separated from each other by
+strongly marked lines of demarcation, but those since the era of the
+Empire showing a considerable resemblance to one another. The
+circumstance that the remains of those buildings only which received
+the greatest possible attention from their builders have come down to
+us from any remote antiquity, has perhaps served to accentuate the
+differences between different styles, for these foremost buildings
+were not intended to serve the same purpose in all countries. Nothing
+but tombs and temples have survived in Egypt. Palaces only have been
+rescued from the decay of Assyrian and Persian cities; and temples,
+theatres, and places of public assembly are the chief, almost the only
+remains of architecture in Greece.
+
+A strong contrast between the buildings of different ancient nations
+rises also from the differing point of view for which they were
+designed. Thus, in the tombs and, to a large extent, the temples of
+the Egyptians, we find structures chiefly planned for internal effect;
+that is to say, intended to be seen by those admitted to the sacred
+precincts, but only to a limited extent appealing to the admiration of
+those outside. The buildings of the Greeks, on the other hand, were
+chiefly designed to please those who examined them from without, and
+though no doubt some of them, the theatres especially, were from their
+very nature planned for interior effect, by far the greatest works
+which Greek art produced were the exteriors of the temples.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--PART OF THE EXTERIOR OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME.
+      (NOW IN RUINS.)]
+
+The works of the Romans, and, following them, those of almost all
+Western Christian nations, were designed to unite external and
+internal effect; but in many cases external was evidently most sought
+after, and, in the North of Europe, many expedients--such, for
+example, as towers, high-pitched roofs, and steeples--were introduced
+into architecture with the express intention of increasing external
+effect. On the other hand, the Eastern styles, both Mohammedan and
+Christian, especially when practised in sunny climates, show in many
+cases a comparative disregard of external effect, and that their
+architects lavished most of their resources on the interiors of their
+buildings.
+
+Passing allusions have been made to the influence of climate on
+architecture; and the student whose attention has been once called to
+this subject will find many interesting traces of this influence in
+the designs of buildings erected in various countries. Where the power
+of the sun is great, flat terraced roofs, which help to keep buildings
+cool, and thick walls are desirable. Sufficient light is admitted by
+small windows far apart. Overhanging eaves, or horizontal cornices,
+are in such a climate the most effective mode of obtaining
+architectural effect, and accordingly in the styles of all Southern
+peoples these peculiarities appear. The architecture of Egypt, for
+example, exhibited them markedly. Where the sun is still powerful, but
+not so extreme, the terraced roof is generally replaced by a sloping
+roof, steep enough to throw off water, and larger openings are made
+for light and air; but the horizontal cornice still remains the most
+appropriate means of gaining effects of light and shade. This
+description will apply to the architecture of Italy and Greece. When,
+however, we pass to Northern countries, where snow has to be
+encountered, where light is precious, and where the sun is low in the
+heavens for the greater part of the day, a complete change takes
+place. Roofs become much steeper, so as to throw off snow. The
+horizontal cornice is to a large extent disused, but the buttress, the
+turret, and other vertical features, from which a level sun will cast
+shadows, begin to appear; and windows are made numerous and spacious.
+This description applies to Gothic architecture generally--in other
+words, to the styles which rose in Northern Europe.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--TIMBER ARCHITECTURE. CHURCH AT BORGUND.]
+
+The influence of materials on architecture is also worth notice. Where
+granite, which is worked with difficulty, is the material obtainable,
+architecture has invariably been severe and simple; where soft stone
+is obtainable, exuberance of ornament makes its appearance, in
+consequence of the material lending itself readily to the carver's
+chisel. Where, on the other hand, marble is abundant and good,
+refinement is to be met with, for no other building material exists in
+which very delicate mouldings or very slight or slender projections
+may be employed with the certainty that they will be effective. Where
+stone is scarce, brick buildings, with many arches, roughly
+constructed cornices and pilasters, and other peculiarities both of
+structure and ornamentation, make their appearance, as, for example,
+in Lombardy and North Germany. Where materials of many colours abound,
+as is the case, for example, in the volcanic districts of France,
+polychromy is sought as a means of ornamentation. Lastly, where timber
+is available, and stone and brick are both scarce, the result is an
+architecture of which both the forms and the ornamentation are
+entirely dissimilar to those proper to buildings of stone, marble, or
+brick, as may be seen by a glance at our illustration of an early
+Scandinavian church built of timber (Fig. 6), which presents forms
+appropriate to a timber building as being easily constructed of wood,
+but which would hardly be suitable to any other material whatever.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--EGYPTIAN CORNICE.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+The origin of Egyptian architecture, like that of Egyptian history, is
+lost in the mists of antiquity. The remains of all, or almost all,
+other styles of architecture enable us to trace their rude beginnings,
+their development, their gradual progress up to a culminating point,
+and thence their slow but certain decline; but the earliest remains of
+the constructions of the Egyptians show their skill as builders at the
+height of its perfection, their architecture highly developed, and
+their sculpture at its very best, if not indeed at the commencement of
+its decadence; for some of the statuary of the age of the Pyramids was
+never surpassed in artistic effect by the work of a later era. It is
+impossible for us to conceive of such scientific skill as is evidenced
+in the construction of the great pyramids, or such artistic power as
+is displayed on the walls of tombs of the same date, or in the statues
+found in them, as other than the outcome of a vast accumulation of
+experience, the attainment of which must imply the lapse of very long
+periods of time since the nation which produced such works emerged
+from barbarism. It is natural, where so remote an antiquity is in
+question, that we should feel a great difficulty, if not an
+impossibility, in fixing exact dates, but the whole tendency of modern
+exploration and research is rather to push back than to advance the
+dates of Egyptian chronology, and it is by no means impossible that
+the dynasties of Manetho, after being derided as apocryphal for
+centuries, may in the end be accepted as substantially correct.
+Manetho was an Egyptian priest living in the third century B.C., who
+wrote a history of his country, which he compiled from the archives of
+the temples. His work itself is lost, but Josephus quotes extracts
+from it, and Eusebius and Julius Africanus reproduced his lists, in
+which the monarchs of Egypt are grouped into thirty-four dynasties.
+These, however, do not agree with one another, and in many cases it is
+difficult to reconcile them with the records displayed in the
+monuments themselves.
+
+The remains with which we are acquainted indicate four distinct
+periods of great architectural activity in Egyptian history, viz.: (1)
+the period of the fourth dynasty, when the Great Pyramids were erected
+(probably 3500 to 3000 B.C.); (2) the period of the twelfth dynasty,
+to which belong the remains at Beni-Hassan; (3) the period of the
+eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, when Thebes was in its glory,
+which is attested by the ruins of Luxor and Karnak; and (4) the
+Ptolemaic period, of which there are the remains at Denderah, Edfou,
+and Philae. The monuments that remain are almost exclusively tombs and
+temples. The tombs are, generally speaking, all met with on the east
+or right bank of the Nile: among them must be classed those grandest
+and oldest monuments of Egyptian skill, the Pyramids, which appear to
+have been all designed as royal burying-places. A large number of
+pyramids have been discovered, but those of Gizeh, near Cairo, are the
+largest and the best known, and also probably the oldest which can be
+authenticated.[1] The three largest pyramids are those of Cheops,
+Cephren, and Mycerinus at Gizeh (or, as the names are more correctly
+written, Suphis, Sensuphis, and Moscheris or Mencheris). These
+monarchs all belonged to the fourth dynasty, and the most probable
+date to be assigned to them is about 3000 B.C. The pyramid of Suphis
+is the largest, and is the one familiarly known as the Great Pyramid;
+it has a square base, the side of which is 760 feet long,[2] a height
+of 484 feet, and an area of 577,600 square feet. In this pyramid the
+angle of inclination of the sloping sides to the base is 51 deg. 51', but
+in no two pyramids is this angle the same. There can be no doubt that
+these huge monuments were erected each as the tomb of an individual
+king, whose efforts were directed towards making it everlasting, and
+the greatest pains were taken to render the access to the burial
+chamber extremely hard to discover. This accounts for the vast
+disproportion between the lavish amount of material used for the
+pyramid and the smallness of the cavity enclosed in it (Fig. 8).
+
+The material employed was limestone cased with syenite (granite from
+Syene), and the internal passages were lined with granite. The granite
+of the casing has entirely disappeared, but that employed as linings
+is still in its place, and so skilfully worked that it would not be
+possible to introduce even a sheet of paper between the joints.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--SECTION ACROSS THE GREAT PYRAMID (OF CHEOPS
+      OR SUPHIS).]
+
+The entrance D to this pyramid of Suphis was at a height of 47 ft.
+6 in. above the base, and, as was almost invariably the case, on the
+north face; from the entrance a passage slopes downward at an angle of
+26 deg. 27' to a chamber cut in the rock at a depth of about 90 feet below
+the base of the pyramid. This chamber seems to have been intended as a
+blind, as it was not the place for the deposition of the corpse. From
+the point in the above described passage--marked A on our illustration
+of this pyramid--another gallery starts upwards, till it reaches the
+point C, from which a horizontal passage leads to another small
+chamber. This is called the Queen's Chamber, but no reason has been
+discovered for the name. From this point C the gallery continues
+upwards till, in the heart of the pyramid, the Royal Chamber, B, is
+reached. The walls of these chambers and passages are lined with
+masonry executed in the hardest stone (granite), and with an accuracy
+of fitting and a truth of surface that can hardly be surpassed.
+Extreme care seems to have been taken to prevent the great weight
+overhead from crushing in the galleries and the chamber. The gallery
+from C upwards is of the form shown in Fig. 9, where each layer of
+stones projects slightly beyond the one underneath it. Fig. 11 is a
+section of the chamber itself, and the succession of small chambers
+shown one above the other was evidently formed for the purpose of
+distributing the weight of the superincumbent mass. From the point C a
+narrow well leads almost perpendicularly downwards to a point nearly
+at the bottom of the first-mentioned gallery; and the purpose to be
+served by this well was long a subject of debate. The probability is
+that, after the corpse had been placed in its chamber, the workmen
+completely blocked up the passage from A to C by allowing large blocks
+of granite to slide down it, these blocks having been previously
+prepared and deposited in the larger gallery; the men then let
+themselves down the well, and by means of the lower gallery made their
+exit from the pyramid. The entrances to the chamber and to the pyramid
+itself were formed by huge blocks of stone which exactly fitted into
+grooves prepared for them with the most beautiful mathematical
+accuracy. The chief interest attaching to the pyramids lies in their
+extreme antiquity, and the scientific method of their construction;
+for their effect upon the spectator is by no means proportionate to
+their immense mass and the labour bestowed upon them.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--ASCENDING GALLERY IN THE GREAT PYRAMID.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--THE SEPULCHRAL CHAMBER IN THE PYRAMID OF
+      CEPHREN AT GIZEH.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE KING'S CHAMBER IN
+      THE GREAT PYRAMID.]
+
+In the neighbourhood of the pyramids are found a large number of tombs
+which are supposed to be those of private persons. Their form is
+generally that of a _mastaba_ or truncated pyramid with sloping walls,
+and their construction is evidently copied from a fashion of wooden
+architecture previously existing. The same idea of making an
+everlasting habitation for the body prevailed as in the case of the
+pyramids, and stone was therefore the material employed; but the
+builders seem to have desired to indulge in a decorative style, and as
+they were totally unable to originate a legitimate stone architecture,
+we find carved in stone, rounded beams as lintels, grooved posts,
+and--most curious of all--roofs that are an almost exact copy of the
+early timber huts when unsquared baulks of timber were laid across
+side by side to form a covering. Figs. 12 and 13 show this kind of
+stone-work, which is peculiar to the old dynasties, and seems to have
+had little influence upon succeeding styles.
+
+A remarkable feature of these early private tombs consists in the
+paintings with which the walls are decorated, and which vividly
+portray the ordinary every-day occupations carried on during his
+lifetime by the person who was destined to be the inmate of the tomb.
+These paintings are of immense value in enabling us to form an
+accurate idea of the life of the people at this early age.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE,
+      FROM A TOMB AT MEMPHIS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE,
+      FROM A TOMB AT MEMPHIS.]
+
+It may possibly be open to doubt whether the dignified appellation of
+architecture should be applied to buildings of the kind we have just
+been describing; but when we come to the series of remains of the
+twelfth dynasty at Beni-Hassan, in middle Egypt, we meet with the
+earliest known examples of that most interesting feature of all
+subsequent styles--the column. Whether the idea of columnar
+architecture originated with the necessities of quarrying--square
+piers being left at intervals to support the superincumbent mass of
+rock as the quarry was gradually driven in--or whether the earliest
+stone piers were imitations of brickwork or of timber posts, we shall
+probably never be able to determine accurately, though the former
+supposition seems the more likely. We have here monuments of a date
+1400 years anterior to the earliest known Greek examples, with
+splendid columns, both exterior and interior, which no reasonable
+person can doubt are the prototypes of the Greek Doric order. Fig. 14
+is a plan with a section, and Fig. 15 an exterior view, of one of
+these tombs, which, it will be seen, consisted of a portico, a chamber
+with its roof supported by columns, and a small space at the farther
+end in which is formed the opening of a sloping passage or well, at
+the bottom of which the vault for the reception of the body was
+constructed. The walls of the large chamber are lavishly decorated
+with scenes of every-day life, and it has even been suggested that
+these places were not erected originally as tombs, but as
+dwelling-places, which after death were appropriated as sepulchres.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--PLAN AND SECTION OF THE TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.
+
+      SECTION.]
+
+The columns are surmounted by a small square slab, technically called
+an abacus, and heavy square beams or architraves span the spaces
+between the columns, while the roof between the architraves has a
+slightly segmental form. The tombs of the later period, viz. of the
+eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, are very different from those of
+the twelfth dynasty, and present few features of architectural
+interest, though they are remarkable for their vast extent and the
+variety of form of their various chambers and galleries. They consist
+of a series of chambers excavated in the rock, and it appears certain
+that the tomb was commenced on the accession of each monarch, and was
+driven farther and farther into the rock during the continuance of his
+reign till his death, when all work abruptly ceased. All the chambers
+are profusely decorated with paintings, but of a kind very different
+from those of the earlier dynasties. Instead of depicting scenes of
+ordinary life, all the paintings refer to the supposed life after
+death, and are thus of very great value as a means of determining the
+religious opinions of the Egyptians at this time. One of the most
+remarkable of these tombs is that of Manephthah or Sethi I., at
+Bab-el-Molouk, and known as Belzoni's tomb, as it was discovered by
+him; from it was taken the alabaster sarcophagus now in the Soane
+Museum in Lincoln's Inn Fields. To this relic a new interest is given
+by the announcement, while these pages are passing through the press,
+of the discovery of the mummy of this very Manephthah, with
+thirty-eight other royal mummies, in the neighbourhood of Thebes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--ROCK-CUT FACADE OF TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.]
+
+Of the Ptolemaic period no tombs, except perhaps a few at Alexandria,
+are known to exist.
+
+
+TEMPLES.
+
+It is very doubtful whether any remains of temples of the time of the
+fourth dynasty--_i.e._ contemporaneous with the pyramids--exist. One,
+constructed on a most extraordinary plan, was supposed to have been
+discovered about a quarter of a century ago, and it was described by
+Professor Donaldson at the Royal Institute of British Architects in
+1861, but later Egyptologists rather incline to the belief that this
+was a tomb and not a temple, as in one of the chambers of the interior
+a number of compartments were discovered one above the other which
+were apparently intended for the reception of bodies. This singular
+building is close to the Great Sphinx; its plan is cruciform, and
+there are in the interior a number of rectangular piers of granite
+supporting very simple architraves, but there are no means of
+determining what kind of roof covered it in. The walls seem to have
+been faced on the interior with polished slabs of granite or
+alabaster, but no sculpture or hieroglyphic inscriptions were found on
+them to explain the purpose of the building. Leaving this
+building--which is of a type quite unique--out of the question,
+Egyptian temples can be generally classed under two heads: (1) the
+large principal temples, and (2) the small subsidiary ones called
+Typhonia or Mammisi. Both kinds of temple vary little, if at all, in
+plan from the time of the twelfth dynasty down to the Roman dominion.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE PALACE AT KARNAK.]
+
+The large temples consist almost invariably of an entrance gate
+flanked on either side by a large mass of masonry, called a pylon, in
+the shape of a truncated pyramid (Fig. 18). The axis of the
+ground-plan of these pylons is frequently obliquely inclined to the
+axis of the plan of the temple itself; and indeed one of the most
+striking features of Egyptian temples is the lack of regularity and
+symmetry in their construction. The entrance gives access to a large
+courtyard, generally ornamented with columns: beyond this, and
+occasionally approached by steps, is another court, smaller than the
+first, but much more splendidly adorned with columns and colossi;
+beyond this again, in the finest examples, occurs what is called the
+Hypostyle Hall, _i.e._ a hall with two rows of lofty columns down the
+centre, and at the sides other rows, more or less in number, of lower
+columns; the object of this arrangement being that the central portion
+might be lighted by a kind of clerestory above the roof of the side
+portions. Fig. 17 shows this arrangement. This hypostyle hall stood
+with its greatest length transverse to the general axis of the temple,
+so that it was entered from the side. Beyond it were other chambers,
+all of small size, the innermost being generally the sanctuary, while
+the others were probably used as residences by the priests. Homer's
+hundred-gated Thebes, which was for so long the capital of Egypt,
+offers at Karnak and Luxor the finest remains of temples; what is left
+of the former evidently showing that it must have been one of the most
+magnificent buildings ever erected in any country. Fig. 16 is a plan
+of the temple of Karnak, which was about 1200 feet long and 348 feet
+wide. A is the entrance between the two enormous pylons giving access
+to a large courtyard, in which is a small detached temple, and another
+larger one breaking into the courtyard obliquely. A gateway between a
+second pair of pylons admits to B, the grand Hypostyle Hall, 334 feet
+by 167 feet. Beyond this are additional gateways with pylons,
+separated by a sort of gallery, C, in which were two gigantic
+obelisks; D, another grand hall, is called the Hall of the Caryatides,
+and beyond is the Hall of the eighteen columns, through which access
+is gained to a number of smaller halls grouped round the central
+chamber E. Beyond this is a large courtyard, in the centre of which
+stood the original sanctuary, which has disappeared down to its
+foundations, nothing but some broken shafts of columns remaining. At
+the extreme east is another hall supported partly by columns and
+partly by square piers, and a second series of pillared courts and
+chambers. The pylons and buildings generally decrease in height as we
+proceed from the entrance eastwards. This is due to the fact that, the
+building grew by successive additions, each one more magnificent than
+the last, all being added on the side from which the temple was
+entered, leaving the original sanctuary unchanged and undisturbed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--THE HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK, SHOWING THE
+      CLERESTORY.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--ENTRANCE TO AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE, SHOWING THE
+      PYLONS.]
+
+Besides the buildings shown on the plan there were many other temples
+to the north, south, and east, entered by pylons and some of them
+connected together by avenues of sphinxes, obelisks, and colossi,
+which altogether made up the most wonderful agglomeration of buildings
+that can be conceived. It must not be imagined that this temple of
+Karnak, together with the series of connected temples is the result,
+of one clearly conceived plan; on the contrary, just as has been
+frequently the case with our own cathedrals and baronial halls,
+alterations were made here and additions there by successive kings one
+after the other without much regard to connection or congruity, the
+only feeling that probably influenced them being that of emulation to
+excel in size and grandeur the erections of their predecessors, as the
+largest buildings are almost always of latest date. The original
+sanctuary, or nucleus of the temple, was built by Usertesen I., the
+second or third king of the twelfth dynasty. Omenophis, the first king
+of the Shepherd dynasties, built a temple round the sanctuary, which
+has disappeared. Thothmes I. built the Hall of the Caryatides and
+commenced the next Hall of the eighteen columns, which was finished by
+Thothmes II. Thothmes III. built that portion surrounding the
+sanctuary, and he also built the courts on the extreme east. The pylon
+at C was built by Omenophis III., and formed the facade of the temple
+before the erection of the grand hall. Sethi I. built the Hypostyle
+Hall, which had probably been originated by Rhamses I., who commenced
+the pylon west of it. Sethi II. built the small detached temple, and
+Rhamses III. the intersecting temple. The Bubastites constructed the
+large front court by building walls round it, and the Ptolemies
+commenced the huge western pylon. The colonnade in the centre of the
+court was erected by Tahraka.
+
+Extensive remains of temples exist at Luxor, Edfou (Fig. 19), and
+Philae, but it will not be necessary to give a detailed description of
+them, as, if smaller in size, they are very similar in arrangement to
+those already described. It should be noticed that all these large
+temples have the mastaba form, _i.e._ the outer walls are not
+perpendicular on the outside, but slope inwards as they rise, thus
+giving the buildings an air of great solidity.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT EDFOU.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--PLAN OF ONE OF THE MAMMISI AT EDFOU.]
+
+The Mammisi exhibit quite a different form of temple from those
+previously described, and are generally found in close proximity to
+the large temples. They are generally erected on a raised terrace,
+rectangular on plan and nearly twice as long as it was wide,
+approached by a flight of steps opposite the entrance; they consist of
+oblong buildings, usually divided by a wall into two chambers, and
+surrounded on all sides by a colonnade composed of circular columns or
+square piers placed at intervals, and the whole is roofed in. A dwarf
+wall is frequently found between the piers and columns, about half the
+height of the shaft. These temples differ from the larger ones in
+having their outer walls perpendicular. Fig. 20 is a plan of one of
+these small temples, and no one can fail to remark the striking
+likeness to some of the Greek temples; there can indeed be little
+doubt that this nation borrowed the peristylar form of its temples
+from the Ancient Egyptians.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT
+      IPSAMBOUL.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--SECTION OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT
+      IPSAMBOUL.]
+
+Although no rock-cut temples have been discovered in Egypt proper,
+Nubia is very rich in such remains. The arrangement of these temples
+hewn out of the rock is closely analogous to that of the detached
+ones. Figs. 21 and 22 show a plan and section of the largest of the
+rock-cut temples at Ipsamboul, which consists of two extensive courts,
+with smaller chambers beyond, all connected by galleries. The roof of
+the large court is supported by eight huge piers, the faces of which
+are sculptured into the form of standing colossi, and the entrance is
+adorned by four splendid seated colossi, 68 ft. 6 in. high. As was the
+case with the detached temples, it will be noticed that the height of
+the various chambers decreases towards the extremity of the
+excavation.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS BUD CAPITAL.
+
+      PLAN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS FLOWER CAPITAL.]
+
+The constructional system pursued by the Egyptians, which consisted in
+roofing over spaces with large horizontal blocks of stone, led of
+necessity to a columnar arrangement in the interiors, as it was
+impossible to cover large areas without frequent upright supports.
+Hence the column became the chief means of obtaining effect, and the
+varieties of form which it exhibits are very numerous. The earliest
+form is that at Beni-Hassan, which has already been noticed as the
+prototype of the Doric order. Figs. 23 and 24 are views of two columns
+of a type more commonly employed. In these the sculptors appear to
+have imitated as closely as possible the forms of the plant-world
+around them, as is shown in Fig. 23, which represents a bundle of
+reeds or lotus stalks, and is the earliest type known of the lotus
+column, which was afterwards developed into a number of forms, one of
+which will be observed on turning to our section of the Hypostyle Hall
+at Karnak (Fig. 17), as employed for the lateral columns. The stalks
+are bound round with several belts, and the capital is formed by the
+slightly bulging unopened bud of the flower, above which is a small
+abacus with the architrave resting upon it: the base is nothing but a
+low circular plinth. The square piers also have frequently a lotus bud
+carved on them. At the bottom of the shaft is frequently found a
+decoration imitated from the sheath of leaves from which the plant
+springs. As a further development of this capital we have the opened
+lotus flower of a very graceful bell-like shape, ornamented with a
+similar sheath-like decoration to that at the base of the shaft (Fig.
+24). This decoration was originally painted only, not sculptured, but
+at a later period we find these sheaths and buds worked in stone. Even
+more graceful is the palm capital, which also had its leading lines of
+decoration painted on it at first (Fig. 25), and afterwards sculptured
+(Fig. 26). At a later period of the style we find the plant forms
+abandoned, and capitals were formed of a fantastic combination of the
+head of Isis with a pylon resting upon it (Fig. 27). Considerable
+ingenuity was exercised in adapting the capitals of the columns to the
+positions in which they were placed: thus in the hypostyle halls, the
+lofty central row of columns generally had capitals of the form shown
+in Fig. 24, as the light here was sufficient to illuminate thoroughly
+the underside of the overhanging bell; but those columns which were
+farther removed from the light had their capitals of the unopened bud
+form, which was narrower at the top than at bottom. In one part of the
+temple at Karnak is found a very curious capital resembling the open
+lotus flower inverted. The proportion which the height of Egyptian
+columns bears to their diameter differs so much in various cases that
+there was evidently no regular standard adhered to, but as a general
+rule they have a heavy and massive character. The wall-paintings of
+the Egyptian buildings show many curious forms of columns (Fig. 28),
+but we have no reason for thinking that these fantastic shapes were
+really executed in stone.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--PALM CAPITAL.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--SCULPTURED CAPITAL.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--ISIS CAPITAL FROM DENDERAH.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--FANCIFUL COLUMN FROM PAINTED DECORATION AT
+      THEBES.]
+
+Almost the only sculptured ornaments worked on the exteriors of
+buildings were the curious astragal or bead at all the angles, and the
+cornice, which consisted of a very large cavetto, or hollow moulding,
+surmounted by a fillet. These features are almost invariable from the
+earliest to the latest period of the style. This cavetto was generally
+enriched, over the doorways, with an ornament representing a circular
+boss with a wing at each side of it (Fig. 29).
+
+One other feature of Egyptian architecture which was peculiar to it
+must be mentioned; namely, the obelisk. Obelisks were nearly always
+erected in pairs in front of the pylons of the temples, and added to
+the dignity of the entrance. They were invariably monoliths, slightly
+tapering in outline, carved with the most perfect accuracy; they must
+have existed originally in very large numbers. Not a few of these have
+been transported to Europe, and at least twelve are standing in Rome,
+one is in Paris, and one in London.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--CROWNING CORNICE AND BEAD.]
+
+The most striking features, and the most artistic, in the decoration
+of Egyptian buildings, are the mural paintings and sculptured
+pictures, which are found in the most lavish profusion, and which
+exhibit the highest skill in conventionalising the human figure and
+other objects.[3] Tombs and temples, columns and obelisks are
+completely covered with graphic representations of peaceful home
+pursuits, warlike expeditions and battle scenes, and--though not till
+a late period--descriptions of ritual and mythological delineations of
+the supposed spirit-world which the soul has entered after death.
+These pictures, together with the hieroglyphic inscriptions--which
+are in themselves a series of pictures--not only relieve the bare wall
+surface, but, what is far more important, enable us to realise the
+kind of existence which was led by this ancient people; and as in
+nearly every case the cartouche (or symbol representing the name) of
+the monarch under whose reign the building was erected was added, we
+should be able to fix the dates of the buildings with exactness, were
+the chronology of the kings made out beyond doubt.
+
+The following description of the manner in which the Egyptian
+paintings and sculptures were executed--from the pen of Owen
+Jones--will be read with interest:--"The wall was first chiselled as
+smooth as possible, the imperfections of the stone were filled up with
+cement or plaster, and the whole was rubbed smooth and covered with a
+coloured wash; lines were then ruled perpendicularly and horizontally
+with red colour, forming squares all over the wall corresponding with
+the proportions of the figure to be drawn upon it. The subjects of the
+painting and of the hieroglyphics were then drawn on the wall with a
+red line, most probably by the priest or chief scribe, or by some
+inferior artist, from a document divided into similar squares; then
+came the chief artist, who went over every figure and hieroglyphic
+with a black line, and a firm and steady hand, giving expression to
+each curve, deviating here and confirming there the red line. The line
+thus traced was then followed by the sculptor. The next process was to
+paint the figure in the prescribed colours."
+
+Although Egyptian architecture was essentially a trabeated
+style,--that is to say, a style in which beams or lintels were usually
+employed to cover openings,--there is strong ground for the belief
+that the builders of that time were acquainted with the nature of the
+arch. Dr. Birch mentions a rudimentary arch of the time of the fifth
+dynasty: at Abydos there are also remains of vaulted tombs of the
+sixth dynasty; and in a tomb in the neighbourhood of the Pyramids
+there is an elementary arch of three stones surmounted by a true arch
+constructed in four courses. The probability is that true brick arches
+were built at a very early period, but in the construction of their
+tombs, where heavy masses of superincumbent masonry or rock had to be
+supported, the Egyptians seem to have been afraid to risk even the
+remote possibility of their arches decaying; and hence, even when they
+preserved the form of the arch in masonry, they constructed it with
+horizontal courses of stones projecting one over the other, and then
+cut away the lower angles. One dominating idea seems to have
+influenced them in the whole of their work--_esto perpetua_ was their
+motto; and though they have been excelled by later peoples in grace
+and beauty, it is a question whether they have ever been surpassed in
+the skill with which they adapted their means to the end which they
+always kept in view.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+
+_Plan._
+
+_Floor_ (technically _Plan_).--The early rock-cut tombs were, of
+course, only capable of producing internal effects; their floor
+presents a series of halls and galleries, varying in size and shape,
+leading one out of the other, and intended by their contrast or
+combination to produce architectural effect. To this was added in the
+later rock-cut tombs a facade to be seen directly in front. Much the
+same account can be given of the disposition of the built temples.
+They possess one front, which the spectator approaches, and they are
+disposed so as to produce varied and impressive interiors, but not to
+give rise to external display. The supports, such as walls, columns,
+piers, are all very massive and very close together, so that the only
+wide open spaces are courtyards.
+
+The circle, or octagon, or other polygonal forms do not appear in the
+plans of Egyptian buildings; but though all the lines are straight,
+there is a good deal of irregularity in spacing, walls which face one
+another are not always parallel, and angles which appear to be right
+angles very often are not so.
+
+The later buildings extend over much space. The adjuncts to these
+buildings, especially the avenues of sphinxes, are planned so as to
+produce an air of stately grandeur, and in them some degree of
+external effect is aimed at.
+
+
+_Walls._
+
+The walls are uniformly thick, and often of granite or of stone,
+though brick is also met with; _e.g._ some of the smaller pyramids are
+built entirely of brick. In all probability the walls of domestic
+buildings were to a great extent of brick, and less thick than those
+of the temples; hence they have all disappeared.
+
+The surface of walls, even when of granite, was usually plastered with
+a thin fine plaster, which was covered by the profuse decoration in
+colour already alluded to.
+
+The walls of the propylons tapered from the base towards the top, and
+the same thing sometimes occurred in other walls. In almost all cases
+the stone walls are built of very large blocks, and they show an
+unrivalled skill in masonry.
+
+
+_Roofs._
+
+The roofing which remains is executed entirely in stone, but not
+arched or vaulted. The rock-cut tombs, however, as has been stated,
+contain ceilings of an arched shape, and in some cases forms which
+seem to be an imitation of timber roofing. The roofing of the
+Hypostyle Hall at Karnak provides an arrangement for admitting light
+very similar to the clerestory of Gothic cathedrals.
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+The openings were all covered by a stone lintel, and consequently were
+uniformly square-headed. The interspaces between columns were
+similarly covered, and hence Egyptian architecture has been, and
+correctly, classed as the first among the styles of trabeated
+architecture. Window-openings seldom occur.
+
+
+_Columns._
+
+The columns have been already described to some extent. They are
+almost always circular in plan, but the shaft is sometimes channelled.
+They are for the most part of sturdy proportions, but great grace and
+elegance are shown in the profile given to shafts and capitals. The
+design of the capitals especially is full of variety, and admirably
+adapts forms obtained from the vegetable kingdom. The general effect
+of the Egyptian column, wherever it is used, is that it appears to
+have, as it really has, a great deal more strength than is required.
+The fact that the abacus (the square block of stone introduced between
+the moulded part of the capital and what it carries) is often smaller
+in width than the diameter of the column aids very much to produce
+this effect.
+
+
+_Ornaments._
+
+Mouldings are very rarely employed; in fact, the large bead running up
+the angles of the pylons, &c., and a heavy hollow moulding doing duty
+as a cornice, are all that are usually met with. Sculpture and carving
+occur occasionally, and are freely introduced in later works, where we
+sometimes find statues incorporated into the design of the fronts of
+temples. Decoration in colour, in the shape of hieroglyphic
+inscriptions and paintings of all sorts, was profusely employed (Figs.
+27-30), and is executed with a truth of drawing and a beauty of
+colouring that have never been surpassed. As has been pointed out,
+almost every object drawn is partly conventionalised, in the most
+skilful manner, so as to make it fit its place as a piece of a
+decorative system.
+
+
+_Architectural Character._
+
+This is gloomy, and to a certain extent forbidding, owing to the heavy
+walls and piers and columns, and the great masses supported by them;
+but when in its freshness and quite uninjured by decay or violence,
+the exquisite colouring of the walls and ceilings and columns must
+have added a great deal of beauty: this must have very much diminished
+the oppressive effect inseparable from such massive construction and
+from the gloomy darkness of many portions of the buildings. It is also
+noteworthy that the expenditure of materials and labour is greater in
+proportion to the effect attained than in any other style. The
+pyramids are the most conspicuous example of this prodigality. Before
+condemning this as a defect in the style, it must be remembered that a
+stability which should defy enemies, earthquakes, and the tooth of
+time, was far more aimed at than architectural character; and that,
+had any mode of construction less lavish of material, and less perfect
+in workmanship, been adopted, the buildings of Egypt might have all
+disappeared ere this.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--PAINTED DECORATION FROM THEBES.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Some Egyptologists incline to the opinion that the pyramid of
+Saqqara is the most ancient, while others think it much more recent
+than those of Gizeh.
+
+[2] Strictly speaking, the base is not an exact square, the four sides
+measuring, according to the Royal Engineers, north, 760 ft. 7.5 in.;
+south, 761 ft. 8.5 in.; east, 760 ft. 9.5 in.; and west, 764 ft. 1 in.
+
+[3] Conventionalising may be described as representing a part only of
+the visible qualities or features of an object, omitting the remainder
+or very slightly indicating them. A black silhouette portrait is an
+extreme instance of convention, as it displays absolutely nothing but
+the outline of a profile. For decorative purposes it is almost always
+necessary to conventionalise to a greater or less extent whatever is
+represented.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31.--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT NINEVEH.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+The architectural styles of the ancient nations which ruled over the
+countries of Western Asia watered by the Tigris and the Euphrates,
+from a period about 2200 B.C. down to 330 B.C., are so intimately
+connected one with another, and so dependent one upon the other, that
+it is almost impossible to attempt an accurate discrimination between
+the Babylonian, or ancient Chaldaean, the Assyrian and the Persian. A
+more intelligible idea of the architecture of this long period will be
+gained by regarding the three styles as modifications and developments
+of one original style, than by endeavouring to separate them.[4] Their
+sequence can, however, be accurately determined. First comes the old
+Chaldaean period, next the Assyrian, during which the great city of
+Nineveh was built, and finally the Persian, after Cyrus had subdued
+the older monarchies; and remains exist of all these periods. As to
+the origin of the Chaldaean Kingdom, however, all is obscure; and the
+earliest date which can be fixed with the slightest approach to
+probability is 2234 B.C., when Nimrod is supposed to have founded the
+old Chaldaean dynasty. This seems to have lasted about 700 years, and
+was then overthrown by a conquering nation of which no record or even
+tradition remains, the next two and a half centuries being a complete
+blank till the rise of the great Assyrian Monarchy about 1290 B.C.,
+which lasted till its destruction by Cyrus about 538 B.C. The Persian
+Monarchy then endured till the death of Alexander the Great, in 333
+B.C., after which great confusion arose, the empire being broken up
+among his generals and rapidly falling to pieces.
+
+It is only within a comparatively recent period that we have had any
+knowledge of the architecture of these countries; but the explorations
+of M. Botta, commenced in 1843 and continued by M. Place, and those of
+Mr. (now Sir A. H.) Layard in 1845, combined with the successful
+attempts of Prof. Grotefend, Prof. Lassen, and Col. Rawlinson at
+deciphering the cuneiform inscriptions, have disclosed a new world to
+the architectural student, without which some of the developments of
+Greek architecture must have remained obscure. The authentic remains
+of buildings of the early Chaldaean period are too few and in too
+ruinous a condition to allow of a reproduction of their architectural
+features with any certainty. The buildings, whether palaces or
+temples, appear to have been constructed on terraces, and to have been
+several storeys in height; and in one instance, at Mugheyr, the walls
+sloped inwards in a similar manner to those of Egyptian buildings, a
+peculiarity which is not met with in other examples of West Asiatic
+architecture. The materials employed were bricks, both sun-dried and
+kiln-burnt, which seem to have been coated with a vitreous enamel for
+purposes of interior decoration. Fragments of carved limestone were
+discovered by Sir A. H. Layard, but the fact that the fragments found
+have been so few ought not to lead us too hastily to the conclusion
+that stone was not used as facing for architectural purposes, as after
+the buildings became ruined the stone would eagerly be sought for and
+carried away before the brickwork was touched. Bitumen seems to have
+been employed as a cement. Although original buildings of this era
+cannot be found, it has been shown that in all probability we have, in
+a building of a later date--the Birs-i-Nimrud--a type of the old
+Babylonian temple. This in its general disposition must have resembled
+that of the Tomb of Cyrus, described and figured later on, though on a
+vastly larger scale. The lowest storey appears to have been an exact
+square of 272 ft.; each of the higher storeys was 42 ft. less
+horizontally than the one below it, and was placed 30 ft. back from
+the front of the storey below it, but equidistant from the two sides,
+where the platforms were 21 ft. wide. The three upper storeys were
+45 ft. in height altogether, the two below these were 26 ft. each, and
+the height of the lowest is uncertain. The topmost storey probably had
+a tower on it which enclosed the shrine of the temple. This edifice
+was for a long time a bone of contention among savants, but Colonel
+Rawlinson's investigations have brought to light the fact that it was
+a temple dedicated to the seven heavenly spheres, viz. Saturn,
+Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon, in the order
+given, starting from the bottom. Access to the various platforms was
+obtained by stairs, and the whole building was surrounded by a walled
+enclosure. From remains found at Wurkha we may gather that the walls
+of the buildings of this period were covered with elaborate plaster
+ornaments, and that a lavish use was made of colour in their
+decoration.
+
+Of the later Assyrian period several ruins of buildings believed to be
+palaces have been excavated, of which the large palace at Khorsabad,
+the old name of which was Hisir-Sargon, now a small village between 10
+and 11 miles north-east of Nineveh, has been the most completely
+explored, and this consequently is the best adapted to explain the
+general plan of an Assyrian edifice. M. Botta, when French Consul at
+Mosul, and M. Victor Place conducted these explorations, and the
+following details are taken from their works. Like all other Assyrian
+palaces, this was reared on a huge artificial mound, the labour of
+forming which must have been enormous. The reason for the construction
+of these mounds is not far to seek. Just as the chiefs of a
+mountainous country choose the loftiest peaks for their castles, so in
+Assyria, which was a very flat country, the extra defensive strength
+of elevated buildings was clearly appreciated; and as these absolute
+monarchs ruled over a teeming population and had a very large number
+of slaves, and only had to direct their taskmasters to impress labour
+whenever they wanted it, no difficulty existed in forming elevated
+platforms for their palaces. These were frequently close to a river,
+and it is by no means improbable that this was turned into the
+excavation from which the earth for the mound was taken, and thus
+formed a lake or moat as an additional defence. A further reason for
+these terraces may be found in the fact that in a hot climate
+buildings erected some 20 or 30 ft. above the level of the plain
+catch the breezes much more quickly than lower edifices. In the case
+of Khorsabad the terrace was made of sun-dried bricks, about 15.7 in.
+square and 2 in. thick. These bricks were made of the most carefully
+prepared clay. The terrace was faced by a retaining wall of coursed
+masonry, nearly 10 ft. in thickness. On this terrace the palace was
+built, and it consisted of a series of open courts arranged
+unsymmetrically, surrounded by state or private apartments,
+storehouses, stables, &c. Great care seems to have been exercised in
+the accurate orientation of the building, but in rather a peculiar
+manner. Instead of any one facade of the building facing due north,
+the corners face exactly towards the four points of the compass. The
+courts were all entered by magnificent portals flanked by gigantic
+figures, and were approached by flights of steps. Fig. 32 is a plan of
+the palace of Khorsabad, which was placed close to the boundary of the
+city; in fact it was partly outside the city wall proper, though
+surrounded by a wall of its own. The grand south-east portals or
+propylaea were adorned with huge human-headed bulls and gigantic
+figures, and gave access to a large court, 315 ft. by 280 ft., on the
+east side of which are the stables and out-houses, and on the west
+side the metal stores. On the north of this court, though not
+approached directly from it, was the Seraglio (not to be confounded
+with the Harem), the grand entrance to which was from a second large
+court, access to which was obtained from a roadway sloping up from the
+city. The portals to this portion of the palace were also adorned with
+human-headed bulls. From the second court a vaulted passage gave
+access to the state apartments, which appear to have had a direct view
+across the open country, and were quite outside the city walls. The
+Harem has been excavated; it stood just outside the palace proper,
+behind the metal stores. The remains of an observatory exist, and the
+outlines of what is supposed to have been a temple have also been
+unearthed, so that we have here a complete plan of the palace.
+Altogether 31 courts and 198 chambers have been discovered.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--PALACE OF KHORSABAD. BUILT BY KING SARGON
+      ABOUT 710 B.C.
+
+      A, Steps. B, Chief portal. C, Chief entrance-court. D-H, Women's
+      apartments (Harem). J, Centre court of building. K, Chief court
+      of royal residence. L, Portal with carved bulls as guards. M,
+      Centre court of royal residence. N, Temple (?). O, Pyramid of
+      steps. S, Entrance to chief court. T, Plan of terraces with wall
+      and towers.]
+
+It will be noticed that great disproportion exists between the length
+of the various apartments and their breadth, none being more than
+40 ft. wide; and it is probable that this was owing to structural
+necessities, the Assyrian builders finding it impossible, with the
+materials at their disposal, to cover wider spaces than this. The walls
+of this palace vary from 5 to 15 ft. in thickness, and are composed of
+sun-dried bricks, faced in the principal courts and state apartments
+with slabs of alabaster or Mosul gypsum to a height of from 9 to 12 ft.,
+above which kiln-burnt bricks were used. The alabaster slabs were
+held together by iron, copper, or wooden cramps or plugs, and were
+covered with sculptured pictures representing scenes of peace and war,
+from which, as was the case with the Egyptian remains, we are able to
+reconstruct for ourselves the daily life of the monarchs of those early
+times. Above the alabaster slabs plastered decorations were used; in
+some cases painted frescoes have been found, or mosaics formed with
+enamelled bricks of various colours. In the out-buildings and the more
+retired rooms of the palace, the alabaster slabs were omitted, and
+plaster decorations used, from the ground upwards. The researches of
+MM. Botta and Place have shown that colour was used with a lavishness
+quite foreign to our notions, as the alabaster statues as well as the
+plaster enrichments were coloured. M. Place says that in no case were
+the plain bricks allowed to face the walls of an apartment, the joint
+being always concealed either by colour or plaster: in fact, he remarks
+that after a time, if he found walls standing showing the brickwork
+joints, he invariably searched with success among the debris of the
+chamber for remains of the sculptured decorations which had been used
+to face the walls.
+
+Not the least interesting of these discoveries was that of the drains
+under the palace, portions of which were in very good preservation;
+and all were vaulted, so that there can be no doubt whatever that the
+Assyrians were acquainted with the use of the arch. This was further
+proved by the discovery by M. Place of the great arched gates of the
+city itself, with an archivolt of coloured enamelled bricks forming
+various patterns, with a semicircular arch springing from plain jambs.
+Extreme care was taken by the Assyrian builders in laying the
+pavements to ensure their being perfectly level: first a layer of
+kiln-burnt bricks was laid on the ordinary sun-dried bricks forming
+the terrace; then came a layer of fine sand, upon which the bricks or
+slabs of the pavement proper were laid, forming in many cases an
+elegant pattern (see Fig. 33).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--PAVEMENT FROM KHOYUNJIK.]
+
+Great difference of opinion exists as to the manner in which the
+various apartments of the palace were lighted. M. Place suggests that
+the rooms were all vaulted on the inside, and the spandrels filled in
+with earth afterwards to form perfectly flat roofs, and he gives a
+restoration of the building on such an arrangement; but if he is
+correct, it is impossible to see how any light at all can have
+penetrated into the interior of many of the apartments, and as these
+apartments are decorated with a profusion of paintings it is very
+difficult to believe that artificial light alone was used in them. M.
+Place thinks, however, that in some cylindrical terra-cotta vessels
+which he found he has hit upon a species of skylight which passed
+completely through the vault over the rooms, and thus admitted the
+light from above. This, however, can hardly be considered as settled
+yet. Mr. Fergusson, on the other hand, suggests that the thick main
+walls were carried to a height of about 18 or 19 ft., and that above
+this were two rows of dwarf columns, one on the inner and the other on
+the outer edge of the wall, these columns supporting a flat terrace
+roof, and the walls thus forming galleries all round the apartments.
+Then to cover the space occupied by the apartments themselves it is
+necessary to assume the existence of rows of columns, the capitals of
+which were at the same level as those of the dwarf columns on the
+walls. Where one apartment is surrounded on all sides by others, the
+roof over it may have been carried up to a higher level, forming a
+sort of clerestory. This theory no doubt accounts for many things
+which are very hard to explain otherwise, and derives very strong
+support from the analogy of Persepolis, where slender stone columns
+exist. Such columns of cedar wood would add enormously to the
+magnificence and grandeur of the building; and if, as seems likely,
+most of these Assyrian palaces were destroyed by fire, the absence of
+the remains of columns offers no difficulty. On the other hand, in
+many parts of the palace of Khorsabad no trace of fire remains, and
+yet here no suggestion of detached columns can be found, and,
+moreover, it is extremely difficult to arrange columns symmetrically
+in the various apartments so that doorways are not interfered with.
+There is also another difficulty, viz. that if the building called the
+Harem at Khorsabad was built in this way, the apartments would have
+been open to the view of any one ascending the lofty building called
+the observatory. It is quite possible that further explorations may
+tend to elucidate this difficult question of roofing, but at present
+all that can be said is that none of the theories that have been put
+forward is wholly satisfactory.
+
+As no columns at all exist, we cannot say what capitals were employed,
+but it is probable that those of Persepolis, which will be shortly
+described, were copied from an earlier wooden form, which may have
+been that used by the Assyrian builders. There is, however, capping
+the terrace on which the temple was erected at Khorsabad, a good
+example of an Assyrian cornice, which is very similar indeed to the
+forms found in Egypt, and some of the sculptured bas-reliefs which
+have been discovered depict rude copies of Assyrian buildings drawn by
+the people themselves; and it is most interesting to notice that just
+as we found in the Egyptian style the proto-Doric column, so in the
+Assyrian we find the proto-Ionic (Figs. 34, 34a), and possibly also
+the proto-Corinthian (Fig. 34b).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--PROTO-IONIC COLUMN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34a.--PROTO-IONIC CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN
+      SCULPTURE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34b.--PROTO-CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN
+      SCULPTURE.]
+
+The third branch of West Asiatic architecture is the Persian, which
+was developed after Cyrus had conquered the older monarchies, and
+which attained its greatest magnificence under Darius and Xerxes. The
+Persians were originally a brave and hardy race inhabiting the
+mountainous region south of Media, which slopes down to the Persian
+Gulf. Until the time of Cyrus, who was the founder of the great
+kingdom of Persia, they inhabited small towns, had no architecture,
+and were simple barbarians. But after Cyrus had vanquished the wealthy
+and luxurious Assyrian monarchs, and his warriors had seen and
+wondered at the opulence and splendour of the Assyrian palaces, it was
+natural that his successors should strive to emulate for themselves
+the display of their vassals. Therefore, having no indigenous style to
+fall back upon, the artisans who were summoned to build the tomb of
+the founder of the monarchy and the palaces of his successors, simply
+copied the forms with which they were acquainted. Fortunately, the
+sites for the new palaces were in a locality where building stone was
+good and abundant, and the presence of this material had a modifying
+effect upon the architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--TOMB OF CYRUS.]
+
+The best known of the remains which date as far back as the earlier
+Persian dynasties is the so-called tomb of Cyrus at Pasargadae, near
+Murghab (Fig. 35). This may be looked upon as a model in white marble
+of an old Chaldaean temple, such as the Birs-i-Nimrud. There are the
+same platforms diminishing in area as the top is approached, and on
+the topmost platform is a small cella or temple with a gabled stone
+roof, which probably originally contained the sarcophagus. It is,
+however, at Persepolis, the real capital of the later Persian kings,
+whose grandeur and wealth were such that Alexander is said to have
+found there treasure to the amount of thirty millions of pounds
+sterling, that we find the most magnificent series of ruins. These
+were carefully measured and drawn by Baron Texier in 1835, and his
+work and that of MM. Flandrin and Coste are those from which the best
+information on this subject can be obtained.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35a.--GENERAL PLAN OF THE BUILDINGS AT
+      PERSEPOLIS.]
+
+Persepolis is about 35 miles north-east of Shiraz, close to the main
+highway to Ispahan, at the foot of the mountain range which bounds the
+extensive plain of Nurdusht. The modern inhabitants of the district
+call the ruins Takht-i-Jamshid (or the building of Jamshid), but the
+inscriptions that have been deciphered prove that Darius and Xerxes
+were the chief builders. Just as was the case with the Assyrian ruins,
+these stand on an immense platform which rises perpendicularly from
+the plain and abuts in the rear against the mountain range. Instead,
+however, of this platform being raised artificially, it was cut out of
+the rock, and levelled into a series of terraces, on which the
+buildings were erected. The platform, whose length from north to south
+is about 1582 ft., and breadth from east to west about 938 ft., is
+approached from the plain by a magnificent double staircase of black
+marble, of very easy rise, not more than 4 in. each step. Its general
+height above the level of the plain was originally 34 ft. 9 in. The
+retaining wall of the platform is not straight, but has in it 40
+breaks or set-offs of unequal dimensions. At the top of the staircase
+are the remains of a building with four columns in the centre and with
+large portals both back and front, each of which is adorned with
+gigantic bulls, strikingly resembling those found at Khorsabad. Those
+in the front have no wings, but those in the rear have wings and human
+heads. It has been suggested that these are the ruins of one of those
+large covered gates frequently mentioned in the Bible, under the
+shelter of which business was transacted, and which probably formed
+the entrance to the whole range of courts and buildings. After passing
+through this gateway and turning southwards, at a distance of 177 feet
+from it, another terrace is reached, 9 ft. 2 in. higher than the first
+one. This terrace also is approached by four flights of steps
+profusely decorated with sculptured bas-reliefs, and on it are the
+remains of the Chehil Minar, the grand hexastyle Hall of Xerxes,
+which must have been one of the most magnificent buildings of ancient
+times. This building is marked A on the general plan. It consisted of
+a central court, containing thirty-six columns, the distance from
+centre to centre of the outside columns being 142 ft. 8 in. This court
+was surrounded by walls, of which nothing now remains but the jambs of
+three of the doorways. On three sides of this court, to the north,
+east and west, were porticoes of twelve columns each, precisely in a
+line with those of the central court, the distance from centre to
+centre of the columns being 28 ft. 6 in. These columns, both in their
+proportions and shape, suggest an imitation of timber construction. On
+the south the court was probably terminated by a wall, and Mr.
+Fergusson suggests that the corners between the porticoes were filled
+up with small chambers. The most striking feature of this hall or
+palace must have been its loftiness, the height of the columns varying
+from 63 ft. 8 in. to 64 feet from bottom of base to top of capital.
+The shafts were slightly tapering and had 48 flutings, and were 4 ft.
+6 in. in diameter in the upper part. The bases of the columns show
+hardly any variations, and consist of a series of mouldings such as is
+shown in Fig. 36; the lowest part of this moulded base is enriched
+with leaves, and rests on a low circular plinth at the bottom: the
+total height of the base averages 5 feet. The capitals show
+considerable variations. Those of the east and west porticoes
+represent the heads and fore part of the bodies of two bulls[5] placed
+directly on the shaft back to back, with their forelegs doubled under
+them, the feet resting on the shaft and the knees projecting; the
+total height of these capitals is 7 ft. 4 in. Between the necks of the
+bulls rested the wooden girder which supported the cross-bearers of
+the roof. In the north portico and, so far as can be ascertained, in
+the central court, the shaft of the column was much shorter, and
+supported a fantastic elongated capital, consisting of a sort of
+inverted cup, supporting an elegant shape much resembling the Egyptian
+palm-leaf capital, above which, on all the four sides, are double
+spirals resembling the ornaments of the Greek Ionic capital known as
+volutes, but placed perpendicularly, and not, as in the Ionic capital,
+horizontally. These volutes again may have supported double bulls,
+which would make the total height of the columns the same as those of
+the east and west porticoes. The doorways have cornices enriched with
+leaves, similar to those found at Khorsabad, which have already been
+noticed as bearing a decided resemblance to the Egyptian doorways.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35b.--COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS, EAST AND WEST
+      PORTICOES.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS, NORTH PORTICO.]
+
+On other terraces, slightly raised above the main platform, exist the
+remains, in a more or less ruined condition, of numerous other courts
+and halls, one of which has no less than one hundred columns to
+support its roof, but the height of this building was much inferior to
+that of the Chehil Minar. The existence of these columns leaves no
+doubt that these buildings were covered with flat roofs; and that over
+part of them was a raised talar or prayer-platform is rendered
+probable from the introduction of such a feature into the sculptured
+representation of a palace facade which forms the entrance to the
+rock-tomb of Darius, which was cut out of the mountain at the back of
+the terrace of Persepolis. The position of this tomb on the general
+plan is marked B, and Fig. 37 is a view of the entrance, which was
+probably intended as a copy of one of the halls. All the walls of the
+palaces were profusely decorated with sculptured pictures, and various
+indications occur which induce the belief that painting was used to
+decorate those portions of the walls that were not faced with
+sculptured slabs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--THE ROCK-CUT TOMB OF DARIUS.]
+
+The superior lightness and elegance of the Persepolitan ruins to those
+of an earlier epoch will not fail to be noticed, but there is still a
+certain amount of barbaric clumsiness discernible, and it is not till
+we come to Greek architecture that we see how an innate genius for art
+and beauty, such as was possessed by that people, could cull from
+previous styles everything capable of being used with effect, and
+discard or prune off all the unnecessary exuberances of those styles
+which offend a critically artistic taste.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+
+_Plan._
+
+The floor-space of a great Assyrian or Medo-Persian building was laid
+out on a plan quite distinct from that of an Egyptian temple; for the
+rooms are almost always grouped round quadrangles. The buildings are
+also placed on terraces, and no doubt would secure external as well as
+internal effects, to which the imposing flights of stairs provided
+would largely contribute. We find in Assyrian palaces, halls
+comparatively narrow in proportion to their great length, but still so
+wide that the roofing of them must have been a serious business, and
+we find them arranged side by side, often three deep. In the Persian
+buildings, halls nearly square on plan, and filled by a multitude of
+columns, occur frequently. In the plan of detached buildings like the
+Birs-i-Nimrud, we are reminded of the pyramids of Egypt, which no
+doubt suggested the idea of pyramidal monuments to all subsequent
+building peoples.
+
+
+_Walls._
+
+The magnificently worked granite and stones of Egypt give place to
+brick for the material of the walls, with the result that a far larger
+space could be covered with buildings by a given number of men in a
+given time, but of course the structures were far more liable to
+decay. Accordingly, sturdy as their walls are, we find them at the
+present day reduced to mere shapeless mounds, but of prodigious
+extent.
+
+
+_Roofs._
+
+We can only judge of the roofs by inference, and it has already been
+stated that a difference of opinion exists respecting them. It appears
+most probable that a large proportion of the buildings must have been
+roofed by throwing timber beams from wall to wall and forming a thick
+platform of earth on them, and must have been lighted by some sort of
+clerestory. At any rate the stone roofs of the Egyptians seem to have
+been discarded, and with them the necessity for enormous columns and
+piers placed very close together. In some bas-reliefs, buildings with
+roofs of a domical shape are represented.
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+Doorways are the openings chiefly met with, and it is not often that
+the superstructure, whether arch or lintel, remains, but it is clear
+that in some instances, at least, openings were arched. Great
+attention was paid to important doorways, and a large amount of
+magnificent sculpture was employed to enrich them.
+
+
+_Columns._
+
+The columns most probably were of wood in Assyrian palaces. In some of
+the Persian ones they were of marble, but of a proportion and
+treatment which point to an imitation of forms suitable for wood. The
+bases and capitals of these slender shafts are beautiful in
+themselves, and very interesting as suggesting the source from which
+some of the forms in Greek architecture were derived, and on the
+bas-reliefs other architectural forms are represented which were
+afterwards used by the Greeks.
+
+
+_Ornaments._
+
+Sculptured slabs, painted wall decorations, and terra-cotta
+ornamentation were used as enrichments of the walls. These slabs,
+which have become familiarly known through the attention roused by the
+discoveries of Sir A. H. Layard and the specimens sent by him to the
+British Museum, are objects of the deepest interest; so are the carved
+bulls from gateways. In the smaller and more purely ornamental
+decorations the honeysuckle, and other forms familiar to us from their
+subsequent adoption by Greek artists, are met with constantly,
+executed with great taste.
+
+
+_Architectural Character._
+
+A character of lavish and ornate magnificence is the quality most
+strongly displayed by the architectural remains of Western Asia, and
+could we have beheld any one of the monuments before it was reduced to
+ruin, we should probably have seen this predominant to an extent of
+which it is almost impossible now to form an adequate idea.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] In any such endeavour we should be met by the further difficulty,
+that the writers of antiquity differ widely in the precise limits
+which they give to the Assyrian Kingdom. Some make it include Babylon,
+other writers say that it was bounded on the south by Babylon, and
+altogether the greatest confusion exists in the accounts that have
+come down to us.
+
+[5] As a matter of fact there is a marked distinction between the
+heads of the animals of the east and west porticoes: those of the west
+are undoubtedly bulls, but those of the east are grotesque
+mythological creatures somewhat resembling the fabled unicorn.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT ALLAHABAD.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Hindu Architecture._
+
+Hindu architecture is not only unfamiliar but uncongenial to Western
+tastes; and as it has exercised no direct influence upon the later
+styles of Europe, it will be noticed in far less detail than the
+magnitude and importance of many Indian buildings which have been
+examined and measured during the last few years would otherwise claim,
+although the exuberant wealth of ornament exhibited in these buildings
+denotes an artistic genius of very high order, if somewhat uncultured
+and barbaric. As by far the largest number of Hindu buildings are of a
+date much later than the commencement of our era, a strict adherence
+to chronological sequence would scarcely allow the introduction of
+this style so early in the present volume; but we know that several
+centuries before Christ powerful kingdoms and wealthy cities existed
+in India; and as it seems clear also that in architecture and art, as
+well as in manners and customs, hardly any change[6] has occurred
+from remote antiquity, it appeared allowable, as well as convenient,
+that the short description we have to offer should precede rather than
+follow that of the classical styles properly so called. Here, as
+always when we attempt to penetrate farther back than a certain date,
+all is obscure and mythical. We find lists of kings and dynasties
+going back thousands of years before our era, but nothing at all to
+enable us to judge how much of this may be taken as solid fact. Mr.
+Fergusson believes he has discovered in one date, viz. 3101 B.C., the
+first Aryan settlement; but be this as it may, it is useless to look
+for any architectural remains until after the death of Gotama Buddha
+in 543 B.C.; in fact, it is very doubtful whether remains can be
+authenticated until the reign of King Asoka (B.C. 272 to B.C. 236),
+when Buddhism had spread over almost the whole of the country, where
+it remained the predominant cult until Brahmanism again asserted its
+supremacy in the 14th century A.D.
+
+The earliest, or among the earliest, architectural remains are the
+inscribed pillars called Lats, which are found in numerous localities,
+but have been almost always overthrown. Many of these were erected by
+the above-named Asoka: they were ornamented with bands and mouldings
+separating the inscriptions, and crowned by a sort of capital, which
+was generally in the form of an animal. One very curious feature in
+these pillars is the constant occurrence of a precise imitation of
+the well-known honeysuckle ornament of the Greeks; this was probably
+derived from the same source whence the Greeks obtained it, namely
+Assyria. It is most probable that these pillars served to ornament the
+approaches to some kind of sacred enclosure or temple, of which,
+however, no remains have been found.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--DAGOBA FROM CEYLON.]
+
+Extremely early in date are some of the tumuli or topes which exist in
+large numbers in various parts of India. These are of two kinds,--the
+topes or stupas proper, which were erected to commemorate some
+striking event or to mark a sacred spot; and the dagobas, which were
+built to cover the relics of Buddha himself or some Buddhist saint.
+These topes consist of a slightly stilted hemispherical dome
+surmounting a substructure, circular in plan, which forms a sort of
+terrace, access to which is obtained by steps. The domical shape was,
+however, external only, as on the inside the masonry was almost
+solid, a few small cavities only being left for the protection of
+various jewels, &c. The dome was probably surmounted by a pinnacle, as
+shown in Fig. 39. In the neighbourhood of Bhilsa, in Central India,
+there are a large number of these topes, of which the largest, that of
+Sanchi, measures 121 ft. in diameter and 55 ft. in height; it was
+erected by King Asoka.
+
+Two kinds of edifices which are not tombs remain, the chaityas
+(temples or halls of assembly) and viharas or monasteries, which were
+generally attached to the chaityas. These erections were either
+detached or cut in the rock, and it is only the rock-cut ones of which
+remains exist of an earlier date than the commencement of the
+Christian era. The earliest specimen of a rock-cut chaitya is in the
+Nigope cave, near Behar, constructed about 200 B.C. This consists of
+two compartments, an outer rectangular one 32 ft. 9 in. by 19 ft.
+1 in., and an inner circular one 19 ft. in diameter. The Lomas Rishi
+cave is of a slightly later date: both of these rock-cut temples
+exhibit in every detail a reproduction of wooden forms. In the doorway
+the stone piers slope inwards, just like raking wooden struts, and the
+upper part represents the ends of longitudinal rafters supporting a
+roof. Later on the builders emancipated themselves to a certain extent
+from this servile adhesion to older forms, and Fig. 40 gives a plan
+and section of a later chaitya at Karli, near Poona. This bears a
+striking resemblance to a Christian basilica:[7] there is first the
+forecourt; then a rectangular space divided by columns into nave and
+aisles, and terminated by a semicircular apse. The nave is 25 ft.
+7 in. wide, and the aisles 10 ft. each, the total length is 126 ft.
+Fifteen columns separate the nave from the aisles, and these have
+bases, octagonal shafts, and rich capitals. Round the apse the columns
+are replaced by piers. The side aisles have flat roofs, and the
+central nave a stilted semicircular one, practically a vault, which at
+the apse becomes a semicircular dome, under which is the dagoba, the
+symbol of Buddhism. The screen separating the forecourt from the
+temple itself is richly ornamented with sculpture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--CHAITYA NEAR POONA.]
+
+The older viharas or monasteries were also cut in the rock (Figs. 41,
+42), and were divided into cells or chambers; they were several
+storeys in height, and it is probable that the cells were used by
+devout Buddhists as habitations for the purposes of meditation.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. A ROCK-CUT MONUMENT.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.--PLAN OF THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. A ROCK-CUT
+      MONUMENT.]
+
+Among the most remarkable, and in fact almost unique features of
+Hindu Architecture are the so-called rails which form enclosures
+sometimes round the topes and sometimes round sacred trees.
+Occasionally they are found standing alone, though when this is the
+case it is probably on account of the object which was the cause of
+their erection having perished. They are built of stone, carved so as
+to represent a succession of perpendicular and horizontal bands or
+rails, separated by a sort of pierced panels. The carving is of the
+most elaborate description, both human and animal forms being
+depicted with great fidelity, and representations occur of various
+forms of tree worship which have been of the greatest use in
+elucidating the history of this phase of religious belief.
+Occasionally the junctions of the rails are carved into a series of
+discs, separated by elaborate scroll-work. These rails are
+frequently of very large dimensions, that at Bharhut--which is one of
+the most recently discovered--measuring 275 ft. in circumference,
+with a height of 22 ft. 6 in. The date of these erections is
+frequently very difficult to determine, but the chief authorities
+generally concur in the opinion that none are found dating earlier
+than about 250 B.C., nor later than 500 A.D., so that it is pretty
+certain they must have been appropriated to some form of Buddhist
+worship.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.--VIMANA FROM MANASARA.]
+
+All the buildings that we have mentioned were devoted to the worship
+of Buddha, but the Jain schism, Brahmanism, and other cults had their
+representative temples and buildings, a full description of which
+would require a volume many times larger than the present one. Many of
+the late detached buildings display rich ornamentation and elaborate
+workmanship. They are generally of a pyramidal shape, several storeys
+in height, covered with intricately cut mouldings and other fantastic
+embellishments.
+
+Columns are of all shapes and sizes, brackets frequently take the
+place of capitals, and where capitals exist almost every variety of
+fantastic form is found. It has been stated that no fixed laws govern
+the plan or details of Indian buildings, but there exists an essay on
+Indian Architecture by Ram Raz--himself a Hindoo--which tends to show
+that such a statement is erroneous, as he quotes original works of
+considerable antiquity which lay down stringent rules as to the
+planning of buildings, their height, and the details of the columns.
+It is probable that a more extended acquaintance with Hindu literature
+will throw further light on these rules.
+
+Of the various invasions which have occurred some have left traces in
+the architecture of India. None of these are more interesting than
+certain semi-Greek forms which are met with in the Northern Provinces,
+and which without doubt are referable to the influence of the invasion
+under Alexander the Great. A far more conspicuous and widespread
+series of changes followed in the wake of the Mohammedan invasions. We
+shall have an opportunity later on of recurring to this subject,[8]
+but it is one to which attention should be called at this early stage,
+lest it should be thought that a large and splendid part of Indian
+architecture had been overlooked.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 44.--BRACKET CAPITAL.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 45.--COLUMN FROM AJUNTA.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 46.--COLUMN FROM ELLORA.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 47.--COLUMN FROM AJUNTA.]
+
+
+_Chinese and Japanese Architecture._
+
+Although the Chinese have existed as a nation, continuously for
+between two and three thousand years, if not longer, and at a very
+early period had arrived at a high state of artistic and scientific
+cultivation, yet none of their buildings with which we are acquainted
+has any claim on our attention because of its antiquity. Several
+reasons may be assigned for this, the principal being that the Chinese
+seem to be as a race singularly unsusceptible to all emotions.
+Although they reverence their dead ancestors, yet this reverence never
+led them, as did that of the Egyptians, Etruscans, and other nations,
+to a lavish expenditure of labour or materials, to render their tombs
+almost as enduring as the everlasting hills. Though waves of religious
+zeal must have flowed over the country when Confucius inculcated his
+simple and practical morality and gained an influential following, and
+again when Buddhism was introduced and speedily became the religion of
+the greater portion of the people, their religious emotion never led
+them, as it did the Greeks and the Mediaeval builders, to erect grand
+and lasting monuments of sacred art. When most of the Western nations
+were still barbarians, the Chinese had attained a settled system of
+government, and were acquainted with numerous scientific truths which
+we have prided ourselves on rediscovering within the last two
+centuries; but no thought ever seems to have occurred to them, as it
+did to the Romans, of commemorating any event connected with their
+life as a nation, or of handing down to posterity a record of their
+great achievements. Peaceful and prosperous, they have pursued the
+even tenor of their way at a high level of civilisation certainly, but
+at a most monotonous one.
+
+The Buddhist temples of China have a strong affinity to those of
+India. The largest is that at Honan, the southern suburb of Canton.
+This is 306 ft. long by 174 ft. wide, and consists of a series of
+courts surrounded by colonnades and cells for the _bonzes_ or priests.
+In the centre of the courtyard is a series of pavilions or temples
+connected by passages, and devoted to the worship of the idols
+contained in them. On each side of the main court, against the outer
+wall, is another court, with buildings round it, consisting of kitchen
+and refectories on the one side, and hospital wards on the other. It
+is almost certain that this is a reproduction of the earlier forms of
+chaityas and viharas which existed in India, and have been already
+referred to. The temple of Honan is two storeys in height, the
+building itself being of stone, but the colonnade surrounding it is of
+wood on marble bases. On the second storey the columns are placed on
+two sides only, and not all round. The columns have no capitals, but
+have projecting brackets. The roof of each storey projects over the
+columns, and has a curved section, which is, in fact, peculiar to
+Chinese roofs, and it is enriched at the corners with carved beasts
+and foliage. This is a very common form of temple throughout China.
+
+The Taas or Pagodas are the buildings of China best known to
+Europeans. These are nearly always octagonal in plan, and consist
+generally of nine storeys, diminishing both in height and breadth as
+they approach the top. Each storey has a cornice composed of a fillet
+and large hollow moulding, supporting a roof which is turned up at
+every corner and ornamented with leaves and bells. On the top of all
+is a long pole, forming a sort of spire, surrounded by iron hoops, and
+supported by eight chains attached to the summit and to each angle of
+the roof of the topmost storey. The best known pagoda is that of
+Nankin, which is 40 ft. in diameter at its base, and is faced inside
+and outside with white glazed porcelain slabs keyed into the brick
+core. The roof tiles are also of porcelain, in bands of green and
+yellow, and at each angle is a moulding of larger tiles, red and green
+alternately. The effect of the whole is wonderfully brilliant and
+dazzling. Apart from the coloured porcelain, nearly every portion of a
+Chinese temple or pagoda is painted, colour forming the chief means of
+producing effect; but as nearly everything is constructed of wood,
+there was and is no durability in these edifices.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 48.--A SMALL PAGODA.]
+
+In public works of utility, such as roads, canals--one of which is
+nearly 700 miles in length--and boldly designed bridges, the Chinese
+seem to have shown a more enlightened mind; and the Great Wall, which
+was built to protect the northern boundary of the kingdom, about 200
+B.C., is a wonderful example of engineering skill. This wall, which
+varies from 15 to 30 ft. in height, is about 25 ft. thick at the base,
+and slopes off to 20 ft. at the top. It is defended by bastions placed
+at stated intervals, which are 40 ft. square at the base, and about
+the same in height; the wall is carried altogether through a course of
+about 1400 miles, following all the sinuosities of the ground over
+which it passes. It is a most remarkable fact that a nation should
+have existed 2000 years ago capable of originating and completing so
+great a work; but it is still more remarkable that such a nation,
+possessing moreover, as it does, a great faculty in decorative art
+applied to small articles of use and fancy, should be still leading a
+populous and prosperous existence, and yet should have so little to
+show in the way of architecture, properly so termed, at the present
+time.
+
+Japan, like China, possesses an architecture, but one exclusively of
+wood; for although the use of stone for bridges, walls, &c., had been
+general, all houses and temples were invariably built of wood until
+the recent employment of foreigners led to the erection of brick and
+stone buildings. The consequence has been that nearly all the old
+temples have been burnt down and rebuilt several times; and though it
+is probable that the older forms were adhered to when the buildings
+were re-erected, it is only by inference that we can form an idea of
+the ancient architecture of the country. The heavy curved roofs which
+are so characteristic of Chinese buildings are found also in Japan,
+but only in the Buddhist temples, and this makes it probable that this
+form of roof is not of native origin, but was introduced with the
+Buddhist cult. The earlier Shinto temples have a different form of
+roof, which is without the upward curve, but which has nearly as much
+projection at the eaves as the curved roofs. Where the buildings are
+more than one storey in height the upper one is always set somewhat
+back, as we saw was the case in the Chinese pagodas, and considerable
+and pleasing variety is obtained by treating the two storeys
+differently. Very great skill in carving is shown, all the posts,
+brackets, beams, and projecting rafters being formed into elaborate
+representations of animals and plants, or quaintly conceived
+grotesques; and the flat surfaces have frequently a shallow incised
+arabesque pattern intertwined with foliage. The roofs are always
+covered with tiles, and a curious effect is produced by enriching the
+hips and ridges with several courses of tiles in cement, thus making
+them rise considerably above the other portions of the roof. A
+peculiar feature of Japanese houses is that the walls, whether
+external or internal, are not filled in with plaster, but are
+constructed of movable screens which slide in grooves formed in the
+framing of the partitions. Thus all the rooms can easily be thrown
+together or laid open to the outer air in hot weather. All travellers
+in Japan remark upon the impossibility of obtaining privacy in the
+hotels in consequence of this.
+
+The Shinto temples are approached through what might be termed an
+archway, only that the arch does not enter into its composition. This
+erection is called a Torii, and is thus described by Professor
+Conder:[9]--"It is composed of two upright posts of great thickness,
+each consisting of the whole trunk of a tree rounded, about 15 ft.
+high, and placed 12 ft. apart. Across the top of these is placed a
+wooden lintel, projecting considerably and curving upwards at the
+ends. Some few feet below this another horizontal piece is tenoned
+into the uprights, having a little post in the centre helping to
+support the upper lintel." These erections occasionally occur in front
+of a Buddhist temple, when they are built of stone, exactly imitating,
+however, the wooden originals. This is interesting, as offering
+another proof, were one needed, that the curious forms of masonry
+exhibited in much of the work of the early nations, some of which has
+been described, is the result of an imitation of earlier wooden forms.
+
+The chief effect in the buildings of the Japanese is intended to be
+produced by colour, which is profusely used; and they have attained to
+a height of perfection in the preparation of varnishes and lacquers
+that has never been equalled. Their lacquer is used all over their
+buildings, besides forming their chief means of decorating small
+objects. It is, however, beginning to be questioned whether the old
+art of lacquering is not becoming lost by the Japanese themselves, as
+the modern work appears by no means equal to the old. One curious form
+of decoration, of which the Japanese are much enamoured, consists in
+forming miniature representations of country scenes and landscapes;
+waterfalls, bridges, &c., being reproduced on the most diminutive
+scale. It is much to be feared that our small stock of knowledge of
+ancient Japanese art will never be greatly increased, as the whole
+country and the people are becoming modernised and Europeanised to
+such an extent that it appears probable there will soon be little
+indigenous art left in the country.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It has not been thought necessary to append to this chapter analyses
+of the Eastern styles similar to those which are given in the case of
+the great divisions of Western Architecture. The notice of these
+styles must unavoidably be condensed into very small space.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] It is not intended to imply that Hindustan has been without change
+in her ruling dynasties. These have been continually changing; but the
+remarkable fact is that, numerous as have been the nations that have
+poured across the Indus attracted by "the wealth of Ind," there has
+been no reflux, as it were: the various peoples, with their arts,
+religions, and manners, have been swallowed up and assimilated,
+leaving but here and there slight traces of their origin.
+
+[7] See Chap. X. for an illustration of a Christian Basilica.
+
+[8] See chapter on Saracenic Architecture.
+
+[9] Paper communicated to the Royal Institute of Architects.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 49.--GREEK HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Buildings of the Doric Order._
+
+The architecture of Greece has a value far higher than that attaching
+to any of the styles which preceded it, on account of the beauty of
+the buildings and the astonishing refinement which the best of them
+display. This architecture has a further claim on our attention, as
+being virtually the parent of that of all the nations of Western
+Europe. We cannot put a finger upon any features of Egyptian,
+Assyrian, or Persian architecture, the influence of which has survived
+to the present day, except such as were adopted by the Greeks. On the
+other hand, there is no feature, no ornament, nor even any principle
+of design which the Greek architects employed, that can be said to
+have now become obsolete. Not only do we find direct reproductions of
+Greek architecture forming part of the practice of every European
+country, but we are able to trace to Greek art the parentage of many
+of the forms and features of Roman, Byzantine, and Gothic
+architecture, especially those connected with the column and which
+grew out of its artistic use. Greek architecture did not include the
+arch and all the forms allied to it, such as the vault and the dome;
+and, so far as we know, the Greeks abstained from the use of the
+tower. Examples of both these features were, it is almost certain, as
+fully within the knowledge of the Greeks as were those features of
+Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian buildings which they employed;
+consequently it is to deliberate selection that we must attribute this
+exclusion. Within the limits by which they confined themselves, the
+Greeks worked with such power, learning, taste, and skill that we may
+fairly claim for their highest achievement--the Parthenon--that it
+advanced as near to absolute perfection as any work of art ever has
+been or ever can be carried.
+
+Greek architecture seems to have begun to emerge from the stage of
+archaic simplicity about the beginning of the sixth century before the
+Christian era (600 B.C. is the reputed date of the old Doric Temple at
+Corinth). All the finest examples were erected between that date and
+the death of Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), after which period it
+declined and ultimately gave place to Roman.
+
+The domestic and palatial buildings of the Greeks have decayed or been
+destroyed, leaving but few vestiges. We know their architecture
+exclusively from ruins of public buildings, and to a limited extent of
+sepulchral monuments remaining in Greece and in Greek colonies. By far
+the most numerous and excellent among these buildings are temples. The
+Greek idea of a temple was different from that entertained by the
+Egyptians. The building was to a much greater extent designed for
+external effect than internal. A comparatively small sacred cell was
+provided for the reception of the image of the divinity, usually with
+one other cell behind it, which seems to have served as treasury or
+sacristy; but there were no surrounding chambers, gloomy halls, or
+enclosed courtyards, like those of the Egyptian temples, visible only
+to persons admitted within a jealously guarded outer wall. The temple,
+it is true, often stood within some sort of precinct, but it was
+accessible to all. It stood open to the sun and air; it invited the
+admiration of the passer-by; its most telling features and best
+sculpture were on the exterior. Whether this may have been, to some
+extent, the case with Persian buildings, we have few means of knowing,
+but certainly the attention paid by the Greeks to the outside of their
+temples offers a striking contrast to the practice of the Egyptians,
+and to what we know of that of the Assyrians.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50.--PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE IN ANTIS.]
+
+The temple, however grand, was always of simple form, with a gable at
+each end, and in this respect differed entirely from the series of
+halls, courts, and chambers of which a great Egyptian temple
+consisted. In the very smallest temple at least one of the gables was
+made into a portico by the help of columns and two pilasters (Fig.
+50). More important temples had a larger number of columns, and
+often a portico at each end (Figs. 50a and 55). The most important
+had columns on the flanks as well as at the front and rear, the
+sacred cell being, in fact, surrounded by them. It will be apparent
+from this that the column, together with the superstructure which
+rested upon it, must have played a very important part in Greek
+temple-architecture, and an inspection of any representations of
+Greek buildings will at once confirm the impression.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50a.--PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE.]
+
+We find in Greece three distinct manners, distinguished largely by the
+mode in which the column is dealt with. These it would be quite
+consistent to call "styles," were it not that another name has been so
+thoroughly appropriated to them, that they would hardly now be
+recognised were they to be spoken of as anything else than "orders."
+The Greek orders are named the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each of
+them presents a different series of proportions, mouldings, features,
+and ornaments, though the main forms of the buildings are the same in
+all. The column and its entablature (the technical name for the
+frieze, architrave, and cornice, forming the usual superstructure)
+being the most prominent features in every such building, have come
+to be regarded as the index or characteristic from an inspection of
+which the order and the degree of its development can be recognised,
+just as a botanist recognises plants by their flowers. By reproducing
+the column and entablature, almost all the characteristics of either
+of the orders can be copied; and hence a technical and somewhat
+unfortunate use of the word "order" to signify these features only has
+crept in, and has overshadowed and to a large extent displaced its
+wider meaning. It is difficult in a book on architecture to avoid
+employing the word "order" when we have to speak of a column and its
+entablature, because it has so often been made use of in this sense.
+The student must, however, always bear in mind that this is a
+restricted and artificial sense of the word, and that the column
+belonging to any order is always accompanied by the use throughout the
+building of the appropriate proportions, ornaments, and mouldings
+belonging to that order.
+
+The origin of Greek architecture is a very interesting subject for
+inquiry, but, owing to the disappearance of almost all very early
+examples of the styles, it is necessarily obscure. Such information,
+however, as we possess, taken together with the internal evidence
+afforded by the features of the matured style, points to the influence
+of Egypt, to that of Assyria and Persia, and to an early manner of
+timber construction--the forms proper to which were retained in spite
+of the abandonment of timber for marble--as all contributing to the
+formation of Greek architecture.
+
+In Asia Minor a series of monuments, many of them rock-cut, has been
+discovered, which throw a curious light upon the early growth of
+architecture. We refer to tombs found in Lycia, and attributed to
+about the seventh century B.C. In these we obviously have the first
+work in stone of a nation of ship builders. A Lycian tomb--such as the
+one now to be seen, accurately restored, in the British
+Museum--represents a structure of beams of wood framed together,
+surmounted by a roof which closely resembles a boat turned upside
+down. The planks, the beams to which they were secured, and even a
+ridge similar to the keel of a vessel, all reappear here, showing that
+the material in use for building was so universally timber, that when
+the tomb was to be "graven in the rock for ever" the forms of a timber
+structure were those that presented themselves to the imagination of
+the sculptor. In other instances the resemblance to shipwrights' work
+disappears, and that of a carpenter is followed by that of the mason.
+Thus we find imitations of timber beams framed together and of
+overhanging low-pitched roofs, in some cases carried on unsquared
+rafters lying side by side, in several of these tombs.
+
+What happened on the Asiatic shore of the Egean must have occurred on
+the Greek shores, and though none of the very earliest specimens of
+reproduction in stone of timber structures has come down to us, there
+are abundant traces, as we shall presently see, of timber originals in
+buildings of the Doric order. Timber originals were not, however, the
+only sources from which the early inhabitants of Greece drew their
+inspiration.
+
+Constructions of extreme antiquity, and free from any appearance of
+imitating structures of timber, mark the sites of the oldest cities of
+Greece, Mycenae and Orchomenos for example, the most ancient being
+Pelasgic city walls of unwrought stone (Fig. 51). The so-called
+Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae, a circular underground chamber 48 ft.
+6 in. in diameter, and with a pointed vault, is a well-known specimen
+of more regular yet archaic building. Its vault is constructed of stones
+corbelling over one another, and is not a true arch (Figs. 52, 52a).
+The treatment of an ornamental column found here, and of the remains
+of sculptured ornaments over a neighbouring gateway called the Gate of
+the Lions, is of very Asiatic character, and seems to show that
+whatever influences had been brought to bear on their design were
+Oriental.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 51.--ANCIENT GREEK WALL OF UNWROUGHT STONE FROM
+      SAMOTHRACE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 52.--PLAN OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT MYCENAE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 52a.--SECTION OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT
+      MYCENAE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53.--GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SELINUS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53a.--GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM THE THESEUM.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53b.--GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SAMOTHRACE.]
+
+A wide interval of time and a great contrast in taste separate the
+early works of Pelasgic masonry and even the chamber at Mycenae from
+even the rudest and most archaic of the remaining Hellenic works of
+Greece. The Doric temple at Corinth is attributed, as has been stated,
+to the seventh century B.C. This was a massive masonry structure with
+extremely short, stumpy columns, and strong mouldings, but presenting
+the main features of the Doric style, as we know it, in its earliest
+and rudest form. Successive examples (Figs. 53 to 53b) show
+increasing slenderness of proportions and refinement of treatment, and
+are accompanied by sculpture which approaches nearer and nearer to
+perfection; but in the later and best buildings, as in the earliest
+and rudest, certain forms are retained for which it seems impossible
+to account, except on the supposition that they are reproductions in
+stone or marble of a timber construction. These occur in the
+entablature, while the column is of a type which it is hard to believe
+is not copied from originals in use in Egypt many centuries earlier,
+and already described (chap. II.).
+
+We will now proceed to examine a fully-developed Greek Doric temple of
+the best period, and in doing so we shall be able to recognise the
+forms referred to in the preceding paragraph as we come to them. The
+most complete Greek Doric temple was the Parthenon, the work of the
+architect Ictinus, the temple of the Virgin Goddess Athene (Minerva)
+at Athens, and on many accounts this building will be the best to
+select for our purpose.[10]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 54.--RUINS OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS.]
+
+The Parthenon at Athens stood on the summit of a lofty rock, and
+within an irregularly shaped enclosure, something like a cathedral
+close; entered through a noble gateway.[11] The temple itself was of
+perfectly regular plan, and stood quite free from dependencies of any
+sort. It consisted of a cella, or sacred cell, in which stood the
+statue of the goddess, with one chamber (the treasury) behind. In the
+cella, and also in the chamber behind, there were columns. A series of
+columns surrounded this building, and at either end was a portico,
+eight columns wide, and two deep. There were two pediments, or gables,
+of flat pitch, one at each end. The whole stood on a basement of
+steps; the building, exclusive of the steps, being 228 ft. long by
+101 ft. wide, and 64 ft. high. The columns were each 34 ft. 3 in. high,
+and more than 6 ft. in diameter at the base; a portion of the shaft
+and of the capital of one is in the British Museum, and a magnificent
+reproduction, full size, of the column and its entablature may be seen
+at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. The ornaments consisted almost
+exclusively of sculpture of the very finest quality, executed by or
+under the superintendence of Pheidias. Of this sculpture many
+specimens are now in the British Museum.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 55.--PLAN OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--THE ROOF OF A GREEK DORIC TEMPLE, SHOWING
+      THE MARBLE TILES.]
+
+The construction of this temple was of the most solid and durable
+kind, marble being the material used; and the workmanship was most
+careful in every part of which remains have come down to us. The roof
+was, no doubt, made of timber and covered with marble tiles (Fig. 56),
+carried on a timber framework, all traces of which have entirely
+perished; and the mode in which it was constructed is a subject upon
+which authorities differ, especially as to what provision was made
+for the admission of light. The internal columns, found in other
+temples as well as in the Parthenon, were no doubt employed to support
+this roof, as is shown in Boetticher's restoration of the Temple at
+Paestum which we reproduce (Fig. 56a), though without pledging
+ourselves to its accuracy; for, indeed, it seems probable that
+something more or less like the clerestory of a Gothic church must
+have been employed to admit light to these buildings, as we know was
+the case in the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. But this structure, if it
+existed, has entirely disappeared.[12]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56a.--SECTION OF THE GREEK DORIC TEMPLE AT
+      PAESTUM. AS RESTORED BY BOeTTICHER.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 57.--THE GREEK DORIC ORDER FROM THE THESEUM.]
+
+The order of the Parthenon was Doric, and the leading proportions were
+as follows:--The column was 5.56 diameters high; the whole height,
+including the stylobate or steps, might be divided into nine parts, of
+which two go to the stylobate, six to the column, and one to the
+entablature.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 58.--PLAN OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 59.--THE FILLETS UNDER A GREEK DORIC CAPITAL.]
+
+The Greek Doric order is without a base; the shaft of the column
+springs from the top step and tapers towards the top, the outline
+being not, however, straight, but of a subtle curve, known technically
+as the entasis of the column. This shaft is channelled with twenty
+shallow channels,[13] the ridges separating one from another being
+very fine lines. A little below the moulding of the capital, fine
+sinkings, forming lines round the shaft, exist, and above these the
+channels of the flutes are stopped by or near the commencement of the
+projecting moulding of the capital. This moulding, which is of a
+section calculated to convey the idea of powerful support, is called
+the echinus, and its lower portion is encircled by a series of fillets
+(Fig. 59), which are cut into it. Above the echinus, which is
+circular, like the shaft, comes the highest member--the abacus, a
+square stout slab of marble, which completes the capital of the
+column. The whole is most skilfully designed to convey the idea of
+sturdy support, and yet to clothe the support with grace. The strong
+proportions of the shaft, the slight curve of its outline, the lines
+traced upon its surface by the channels, and even the vigorous
+uncompromising planting of it on the square step from which it
+springs, all contribute to make the column look strong. The check
+given to the vigorous upward lines of the channels on the shaft by the
+first sinkings, and their arrest at the point where the capital
+spreads out, intensified as it is by the series of horizontal lines
+drawn round the echinus by the fillets cut into it, all seem to convey
+the idea of spreading the supporting energy of the column outwards;
+and the abacus appears naturally fitted, itself inert, to receive a
+burden placed upon it and to transmit its pressure to the capital and
+shaft below.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 60.--CAPITAL OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN FROM AEGINA,
+      WITH COLOURED DECORATION.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 61.--SECTION OF THE ENTABLATURE OF THE GREEK
+      DORIC ORDER.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 62.--PLAN LOOKING UP OF PART OF A GREEK DORIC
+      PERISTYLE.]
+
+The entablature which formed the superstructure consisted first of a
+square marble beam--the architrave, which, it may be assumed,
+represents a square timber beam that occupied the same position in
+the primitive structures. On this rests a second member called the
+frieze, the prominent feature of which is a series of slightly
+projecting features, known as triglyphs (three channels) (Fig. 63),
+from the channels running down their face. These closely resemble, and
+no doubt actually represent, the ends of massive timber beams, which
+must have connected the colonnade to the wall of the cell in earlier
+buildings. At the bottom of each is a row of small pendants, known as
+guttae, which closely resemble wooden pins, such as would be used to
+keep a timber beam in place. The panels between the triglyphs are
+usually as wide as they are high. They are termed metopes and
+sculpture commonly occupies them. The third division of the
+entablature, the cornice represents the overhanging eaves of the roof.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 63.--DETAILS OF THE TRIGLYPH.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 64.--DETAILS OF THE MUTULES.]
+
+The cornices employed in classic architecture may be almost invariably
+subdivided into three parts: the supporting part, which is the
+lowest,--the projecting part, which is the middle,--and the crowning
+part, which is the highest division of the cornice. The supporting
+part in a Greek Doric cornice is extremely small. There are no
+mouldings, such as we shall find in almost every other cornice,
+calculated to convey the idea of contributing to sustain the
+projection of the cornice, but there are slabs of marble, called
+mutules (Fig. 64), dropping towards the outer end, of which one is
+placed over each triglyph and one between every two. These seem to
+recall, by their shape, their position, and their slope alike, the
+ends of the rafters of a timber roof; and their surface is covered
+with small projections which resemble the heads of wooden pins,
+similar to those already alluded to. The projecting part, in this as
+in almost all cornices, is a plain upright face of some height, called
+"the corona," and recalling probably a "facia" or flat narrow board
+such as a carpenter of the present day would use in a similar
+position, secured in the original structure to the ends of the rafters
+and supporting the eaves. Lastly, the crowning part is, in the Greek
+Doric, a single convex moulding, not very dissimilar in profile to the
+ovolo of the capital, and forming what we commonly call an
+eaves-gutter.
+
+At the ends of the building the two upper divisions of the
+cornice--namely, the projecting corona and the crowning ovolo--are
+made to follow the sloping line of the gable, a second corona being
+also carried across horizontally in a manner which can be best
+understood by inspecting a diagram of the corner of a Greek Doric
+building (Fig. 57); and the triangular space thus formed was termed a
+pediment, and was the position in which the finest of the sculpture
+with which the building was enriched was placed.
+
+In the Parthenon a continuous band of sculpture ran round the exterior
+of the cell, near the top of the wall.
+
+One other feature was employed in Greek temple-architecture. The
+_anta_ was a square pillar or pier of masonry attached to the wall,
+and corresponded very closely to our pilaster; but its capital always
+differed from that of the columns in the neighbourhood of which it was
+employed. The antae of the Greek Doric order, as employed in the
+Parthenon, have a moulded base, which it will be remembered is not the
+case with the column, and their capital has for its principal feature
+an under-cut moulding, known as the bird's beak, quite dissimilar from
+the ovolo of the capital of the column (Fig. 65). Sometimes the
+portico of a temple consisted of the side walls prolonged, and ending
+in two antae, with two or more columns standing between them. Such a
+portico is said to be in antis.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 65.--ELEVATION AND SECTION OF THE CAPITAL OF A
+      GREEK ANTA, WITH COLOURED DECORATION.]
+
+The Parthenon presents examples of the most extraordinary refinements
+in order to correct optical illusions. The delicacy and subtlety of
+these are extreme, but there can be no manner of doubt that they
+existed. The best known correction is the diminution in diameter or
+taper, and the _entasis_ or convex curve of the tapered outline of the
+shaft of the column. Without the taper, which is perceptible enough in
+the order of this building, and much more marked in the order of
+earlier buildings, the columns would look top-heavy; but the entasis
+is an additional optical correction to prevent their outline from
+appearing hollowed, which it would have done had there been no curve.
+The columns of the Parthenon have shafts that are over 34 ft. high,
+and diminish from a diameter of 6.15 ft. at the bottom to 4.81 ft. at
+the top. The outline between these points is convex, but so slightly
+so that the curve departs at the point of greatest curvature not more
+than 3/4 in. from the straight line joining the top and bottom. This
+is, however, just sufficient to correct the tendency to look hollow in
+the middle.
+
+A second correction is intended to overcome the apparent tendency of a
+building to spread outwards towards the top. This is met by inclining
+the columns slightly inwards. So slight, however, is the inclination,
+that were the axes of two columns on opposite sides of the Parthenon
+continued upwards till they met, the meeting-point would be 1952
+yards, or, in other words, more than one mile from the ground.
+
+Another optical correction is applied to the horizontal lines. In
+order to overcome a tendency which exists in all long lines to seem as
+though they droop in the middle, the lines of the architrave, of the
+top step, and of other horizontal features of the building, are all
+slightly curved. The difference between the outline of the top step of
+the Parthenon and a straight line joining its two ends is at the
+greatest only just over 2 inches.
+
+The last correction which it is necessary to name here was applied to
+the vertical proportions of the building. The principles upon which
+this correction rests have been demonstrated by Mr. John
+Pennethorne;[14] and it would hardly come within the scope of this
+volume to attempt to state them here: suffice it to say, that small
+additions, amounting in the entire height of the order to less than 5
+inches, were made to the heights of the various members of the order,
+with a view to secure that from one definite point of view the effect
+of foreshortening should be exactly compensated, and so the building
+should appear to the spectator to be perfectly proportioned.
+
+The Parthenon, like many, if not all Greek buildings, was profusely
+decorated with coloured ornaments, of which nearly every trace has now
+disappeared, but which must have contributed largely to the splendid
+beauty of the building as a whole, and must have emphasised and set
+off its parts. The ornaments known as Doric frets were largely
+employed. They consist of patterns made entirely of straight lines
+interlacing, and, while preserving the severity which is
+characteristic of the style, they permit of the introduction of
+considerable richness.
+
+The principal remaining examples or fragments of Greek Doric may be
+enumerated as follows:--
+
+IN GREECE.
+
+  Temple of (?) Athena, at Corinth, ab. 650 B.C.
+  Temple of (?) Zeus, in the island of AEgina, ab. 550 B.C.
+  Temple of Theseus (Theseum), at Athens, 465 B.C.
+  Temple of Athena (Parthenon), on the Acropolis at Athens, fin. 438 B.C.
+  The Propylaea, on the Acropolis at Athens, 436-431 B.C.
+  Temple of Zeus at Olympia.
+  Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bassae,[15] in Arcadia (designed by
+      Ictinus).
+  Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Phigaleia, in Arcadia (built by
+      Ictinus).
+  Temple of Athena, on the rock of Sunium, in Attica.
+  Temple of Nemesis, at Rhamnus, in Attica.
+  Temple of Demeter (Ceres), at Eleusis, in Attica.
+
+IN SICILY AND SOUTH ITALY.
+
+  Temple of (?) Zeus, at Agrigentum, in Sicily (begun B.C. 480).
+  Temple at AEgesta (or Segesta), in Sicily.
+  Temple of (?) Zeus, at Selinus, in Sicily (? ab. 410 B.C.).
+  Temple of (?) Athena, at Syracuse, in Sicily.
+  Temple of Poseidon, at Paestum, in South of Italy (? ab. 550 B.C.).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] See Frontispiece and Figs. 54 and 55.
+
+[11] The Propylaea.
+
+[12] Mr. Fergusson's investigations, soon, it is understood, to be
+published in a complete form, clearly show that the clerestory and
+roof can be restored with the greatest probability.
+
+[13] In a few instances a smaller number is found.
+
+[14] 'Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture.'
+
+[15] ? Exterior Doric--Interior Ionic.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 66.--PALMETTE AND HONEYSUCKLE.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders._
+
+The Doric was the order in which the full strength and the complete
+refinement of the artistic character of the Greeks were most
+completely shown. There was a great deal of the spirit of severe
+dignity proper to Egyptian art in its aspect; but other nationalities
+contributed to the formation of the many-sided Greek nature, and we
+must look to some other country than Egypt for the spirit which
+inspired the Ionic order. This seems to have been brought into Greece
+by a distinct race, and shows marks of an Asiatic origin. The feature
+which is most distinctive is the one most distinctly Eastern--the
+capital of the column, ornamented always by volutes, _i.e._ scrolls,
+which bear a close resemblance to features similarly employed in the
+columns found at Persepolis. The same resemblance can be also detected
+in the moulded bases, and even the shafts of the columns, and in many
+of the ornaments employed throughout the buildings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 67.--SHAFT OF IONIC COLUMN SHOWING THE FLUTES.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 68.--IONIC CAPITAL. FRONT ELEVATION.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 69.--IONIC CAPITAL. SIDE ELEVATION.]
+
+In form and disposition an ordinary Ionic temple was similar to one of
+the Doric order, but the general proportions are more slender, and the
+mouldings of the order are more numerous and more profusely enriched.
+The column in the Ionic order had a base, often elaborately and
+sometimes singularly moulded (Figs. 74, 75). The shaft (Figs. 67, 70)
+is of more slender proportions than the Doric shaft. It was fluted,
+but its channels are more numerous, and are separated from one another
+by broader fillets than in the Doric. The distinctive feature, as in
+all the orders, is the capital (Figs. 68, 69), which is recognised at
+a glance by the two remarkable ornaments already alluded to as like
+scrolls, and known as volutes. These generally formed the faces of a
+pair of cushion-shaped features, which could be seen in a side view of
+the capital; but sometimes volutes stand in a diagonal position, and
+in almost every building they differ slightly. The abacus is less deep
+than in the Greek Doric, and it is always moulded at the edge, which
+was never the case with the Doric abacus. The entablature (Fig. 70)
+is, generally speaking, richer than that of the Doric order. The
+architrave, for example, has three facias instead of being plain. On
+the other hand, the frieze has no triglyphs, and but rarely sculpture.
+There are more members in the cornice, several mouldings being
+combined to fortify the supporting portion. These have sometimes been
+termed "the bed mouldings," and among them occurs one which is almost
+typical of the order, and is termed a dentil band. This moulding
+presents the appearance of a plain square band of stone, in which a
+series of cuts had been made dividing it into blocks somewhat
+resembling teeth, whence the name. Such an ornament is more naturally
+constructed in wood than in stone or marble, but if the real
+derivation of the Ionic order, as of the Doric, be in fact from timber
+structures, the dentil band is apparently the only feature in which
+that origin can now be traced. The crowning member of the cornice is a
+partly hollow moulding, technically called a "cyma recta," less
+vigorous than the convex ovolo, of the Doric: this moulding, and some
+of the bed mouldings, were commonly enriched with carving. Altogether
+more slenderness and less vigour, more carved enrichment and less
+painted decoration, more reliance on architectural ornament and
+less on the work of the sculptor, appear to distinguish those examples
+of Greek Ionic which have come down to us, as compared with Doric
+buildings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 70.--THE IONIC ORDER. FROM PRIENE, ASIA MINOR.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 71.--IONIC ORDER. FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM, ATHENS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 72.--NORTH-WEST VIEW OF THE ERECHTHEIUM, IN THE
+      TIME OF PERICLES.]
+
+The most numerous examples of the Ionic order of which remains exist
+are found in Asia Minor, but the most refined and complete is the
+Erechtheium at Athens (Figs. 72, 73), a composite structure containing
+three temples built in juxtaposition, but differing from one another
+in scale, levels, dimensions, and treatment. The principal order from
+the Erechtheium (Fig. 71) shows a large amount of enrichment
+introduced with the most refined and severe taste. Specially
+remarkable are the ornaments (borrowed from the Assyrian honeysuckle)
+which encircle the upper part of the shaft at the point where it
+passes into the capital, and the splendid spirals of the volutes
+(Figs. 68, 69). The bases of the columns in the Erechtheium example
+are models of elegance and beauty. Those of some of the examples from
+Asia Minor are overloaded with a vast number of mouldings, by no
+means always producing a pleasing effect (Figs. 74, 75). Some of them
+bear a close resemblance to the bases of the columns at Persepolis.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 73.--PLAN OF THE ERECHTHEIUM.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 74.--IONIC BASE FROM THE TEMPLE OF THE WINGLESS
+      VICTORY (NIKE APTEROS).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 75.--IONIC BASE MOULDINGS FROM PRIENE.]
+
+The most famous Greek building which was erected in the Ionic style
+was the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. This temple has been all but
+totally destroyed, and the very site of it had been for centuries lost
+and unknown till the energy and sagacity of an English architect (Mr.
+Wood) enabled him to discover and dig out the vestiges of the
+building. Fortunately sufficient traces of the foundation have
+remained to render it possible to recover the plan of the temple
+completely; and the discovery of fragments of the order, together with
+representations on ancient coins and a description by Pliny, have
+rendered it possible to make a restoration on paper, of the general
+appearance of this famous temple, which must be very nearly, if not
+absolutely, correct.
+
+The walls of this temple enclosed, as usual, a cella (in which was the
+statue of the goddess), with apparently a treasury behind it: they
+were entirely surrounded by a double series of columns, with a
+pediment at each end. The exterior of the building, including these
+columns, was about twice the width of the cella. The whole structure,
+which was of marble, was planted on a spacious platform with steps.
+The account of Pliny refers to thirty-six columns, which he describes
+as "_columnae celatae_" (sculptured columns), adding that one was by
+Scopas, a very celebrated artist. The fortunate discovery by Mr. Wood
+of a few fragments of these columns shows that the lower part of the
+shaft immediately above the base was enriched by a group of
+figures--about life-size--carved in the boldest relief and encircling
+the column. One of these groups has been brought to the British
+Museum, and its beauty and vigour enable the imagination partly to
+restore this splendid feature, which certainly was one of the most
+sumptuous modes of decorating a building by the aid of sculpture which
+has ever been attempted; and the effect must have been rich beyond
+description.
+
+It is worth remark that the Erechtheium, which has been already
+referred to, contains an example of a different, and perhaps a not
+less remarkable, mode of combining sculpture with architecture. In one
+of its three porticoes (Fig. 72) the columns are replaced by standing
+female figures, known as caryatidae, and the entablature rests on their
+heads. This device has frequently been repeated in ancient and in
+modern architecture, but, except in some comparatively obscure
+examples, the sculptured columns of Ephesus do not appear to have been
+imitated.
+
+Another famous Greek work of art, the remains of which have been, like
+the Temple of Diana, disinterred by the energy and skill of a learned
+Englishman, belonged to the Ionic order. To Mr. Newton we owe the
+recovery of the site, and considerable fragments of the architectural
+features, of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the ancient
+wonders of the world. The general outline of this monument must have
+resembled other Greek tombs which have been preserved, such, for
+example, as the Lion Tomb at Cnidus; that is to say, the plan was
+square: there was a basement, above this an order, and above that a
+steep pyramidal roof rising in steps, not carried to a point, but
+stopping short to form a platform, on which was placed a quadriga (or
+four-horsed chariot). This building is known to have been richly
+sculptured, and many fragments of great beauty have been recovered.
+Indeed it was probably its elaboration, as well as its very unusual
+height (for the Greek buildings were seldom lofty), which led to its
+being so celebrated.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 76.--THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. FROM THE MONUMENT OF
+      LYSICRATES AT ATHENS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 77.--CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM THE MONUMENT OF
+      LYSICRATES AT ATHENS.]
+
+The Corinthian order, the last to make its appearance, was almost as
+much Roman as Greek, and is hardly found in any of the great temples
+of the best period of which remains exist in Greece, though we hear of
+its use. For example, Pausanias states that the Corinthian order was
+employed in the interior of the Temple of Athena Alea at Tegea, built
+by Scopas, to which a date shortly after the year 394 B.C. is
+assigned. The examples which we possess are comparatively small works,
+and in them the order resembles the Ionic, but with the important
+exceptions that the capital of the column is quite different, that the
+proportions are altogether a little slenderer, and that the
+enrichments are somewhat more florid.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 78.--MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES AT ATHENS, AS IN THE
+      TIME OF PERICLES.]
+
+The capital of the Greek Corinthian order, as seen in the Choragic
+Monument of Lysicrates at Athens (Fig. 78)--a comparatively miniature
+example, but the most perfect we have--is a work of art of marvellous
+beauty (Fig. 77). It retains a feature resembling the Ionic volute,
+but reduced to a very small size, set obliquely and appearing to
+spring from the sides of a kind of long bell-shaped termination to the
+column. This bell is clothed with foliage, symmetrically arranged and
+much of it studied, but in a conventional manner, from the graceful
+foliage of the acanthus; between the two small volutes appears an
+Assyrian honeysuckle, and tendrils of honeysuckle, conventionally
+treated, occupy part of the upper portion of the capital. The abacus
+is moulded, and is curved on plan, and the base of the capital is
+marked by a very unusual turning-down of the flutes of the columns.
+The entire structure to which this belonged is a model of elegance,
+and the large sculptured mass of leaves and tendrils with which it is
+crowned is especially noteworthy.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 79.--CAPITAL OF ANTAE FROM MILETUS. SIDE VIEW.]
+
+A somewhat simpler Corinthian capital, and another of very rich
+design, are found in the Temple of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus, where
+also a very elegant capital for the antae--or pilasters--is employed
+(Figs. 79, 81). A more ornamental design for a capital could hardly be
+adopted than that of the Lysicrates example, but there was room for
+more elaboration in the entablature, and accordingly large
+richly-sculptured brackets seem to have been introduced, and a
+profusion of ornament was employed. The examples of this treatment
+which remain are, however, of Roman origin rather than Greek.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 80.--RESTORATION OF THE GREEK THEATRE OF
+      SEGESTA.]
+
+The Greek cities must have included structures of great beauty and
+adapted to many purposes, of which in most cases few traces, if any,
+have been preserved. We have no remains of a Greek palace, or of Greek
+dwelling-houses, although those at Pompeii were probably erected and
+decorated by Greek artificers, for Roman occupation. The agora of a
+Greek city, which was a place of public assembly something like the
+Roman Forum, is known to us only by descriptions in ancient writers,
+but we possess some remains of Greek theatres; and from these, aided
+by Roman examples and written descriptions, can understand what these
+buildings were. The auditory was curved in plan, occupying rather more
+than a semicircle; the seats rose in tiers one behind another; a
+circular space was reserved for the chorus in the centre of the seats,
+and behind it was a raised stage, bounded by a wall forming its back
+and sides: a rough notion of the arrangement can be obtained from the
+lecture theatre of many modern colleges, and our illustration (Fig.
+80) gives a general idea of what must have been the appearance of one
+of these structures. Much of the detail of these buildings is,
+however, a matter of pure speculation, and consequently does not enter
+into the scheme of this manual.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 81.--CAPITAL OF ANTAE FROM MILETUS.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Analysis._
+
+The _Plan_ or floor-disposition of a Greek building was always simple
+however great its extent, was well judged for effect, and capable of
+being understood at once. The grandest results were obtained by simple
+means, and all confusion, uncertainty, or complication were
+scrupulously avoided. Refined precision, order, symmetry, and
+exactness mark the plan as well as every part of the work.
+
+The plan of a Greek temple may be said to present many of the same
+elements as that of an Egyptian temple, but, so to speak, turned
+inside out. Columns are relied on by the Greek artist, as they were by
+the Egyptian artist, as a means of giving effect; but they are placed
+by him outside the building instead of within its courts and halls.
+The Greek, starting with a comparatively small nucleus formed by the
+cell and the treasury, encircles them by a magnificent girdle of
+pillars, and so makes a grand structure, the first hint or suggestion
+being in all probability to be found in certain small Egyptian
+buildings to which reference has already been made. The disposition of
+these columns and of the great range of steps, or stylobate, is the
+most marked feature in Greek temple plans. Columns also existed, it is
+true, in the interior of the building, but these were of smaller size,
+and seem to have been introduced to aid in carrying the roof and the
+clerestory, if there was one. They have in several instances
+disappeared, and there is certainly no ground for supposing that in
+any Greek interior the grand but oppressive effect of a hypostyle hall
+was attempted to be reproduced. That was abandoned, together with the
+complication, seclusion, and gloom of the long series of chambers,
+cells, &c., placed one behind another, just as the contrasts and
+surprises of the series of courts and halls following in succession
+were abandoned for the one simple but grand mass built to be seen from
+without rather than from within. In the greater number of Greek
+buildings a degree of precision is exhibited, to which the Egyptians
+did not attain. All right angles are absolutely true; the setting-out
+(or spacing) of the different columns, piers, openings, &c., is
+perfectly exact; and, in the Parthenon, the patient investigations of
+Mr. Penrose and other skilled observers have disclosed a degree of
+accuracy as well as refinement which resembles the precision with
+which astronomical instruments are adjusted in Europe at the present
+day, rather than the rough-and-ready measurements of a modern mason or
+bricklayer.
+
+What the plans of Greek palaces might have exhibited, did any remains
+exist, is merely matter for inference and conjecture, and it is not
+proposed in this volume to pass far beyond ascertained and observed
+facts. There can be, however, little doubt that the palaces of the
+West Asiatic style must have at least contributed suggestions as to
+internal disposition of the later and more magnificent Greek mansions.
+The ordinary dwelling-houses of citizens, as described by ancient
+writers, resembled those now visible in the disinterred cities of
+Pompeii and Herculaneum, which will be referred to under Roman
+Architecture.[16] The chief characteristic of the plan of these is
+that they retain the disposition which in the temples was discarded;
+that is to say, all the doors and windows looked into an inner court,
+and the house was as far as possible secluded within an encircling
+wall. The contrast between the openness of the public life led by the
+men in Greek cities, and the seclusion of the women and the families
+when at home, is remarkably illustrated by this difference between the
+public and private buildings.
+
+The plan of the triple building called the Erechtheium (Fig. 72)
+deserves special mention, as an example of an exceptional arrangement
+which appears to set the ordinary laws of symmetry at defiance, and
+which is calculated to produce a result into which the picturesque
+enters at least as much as the beautiful. Though the central temple is
+symmetrical, the two attached porticoes are not so, and do not, in
+position, dimensions, or treatment, balance one another. The result is
+a charming group, and we cannot doubt that other examples of freedom
+of planning would have been found, had more remains of the
+architecture of the great cities of Greece come down to our own day.
+
+In public buildings other than temples--such as the theatre, the
+agora, and the basilica--the Greek architects seem to have had great
+scope for their genius; the planning of the theatres shows skilful and
+thoroughly complete provisions to meet the requirements of the case. A
+circular disposition was here introduced--not, it is true, for the
+first time, since it is rendered probable by the representations on
+sculptured slabs that some circular buildings existed in Assyria, and
+circular buildings remain in the archaic works at Mycenae; but it was
+now elaborated with remarkable completeness, beauty, and mastery over
+all the difficulties involved. Could we see the great theatre of
+Athens as it was when perfect, we should probably find that as an
+interior it was almost unrivalled, alike for convenience and for
+beauty; and for these excellences it was mainly indebted to the
+elegance of its planning. The actual floor of many of the Greek
+temples appears to have been of marble of different colours.
+
+
+_The Walls._
+
+The construction of the walls of the Greek temples rivalled that of
+the Egyptians in accuracy and beauty of workmanship, and resembled
+them in the use of solid materials. The Greeks had within reach
+quarries of marble, the most beautiful material which nature has
+provided for the use of the builder; and great fineness of surface and
+high finish were attained. Some interesting examples of hollow walling
+occur in the construction of the Parthenon. The wall was not an
+element of the building on which the Greek architect seemed to dwell
+with pleasure; much of it is almost invariably overshadowed by the
+lines of columns which form the main features of the building.
+
+The pediment (or gable) of a temple is a grand development of the
+walls, and perhaps the most striking of the additions which the Greeks
+made to the resources of the architect. It offers a fine field for
+sculpture, and adds real and apparent height beyond anything that the
+Egyptians ever attempted since the days of the Pyramid-builders; and
+it has remained in constant use to the present hour.
+
+We do not hear of towers being attached to buildings, and, although
+such monumental structures as the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus
+approached the proportions of a tower, height does not seem to have
+commended itself to the mind of the Greek architect as necessary to
+the buildings which he designed. It was reserved for Roman and
+Christian art to introduce this element of architectural effect in all
+its power. On the other hand, the Greek, like the Persian architect,
+emphasised the base of his building in a remarkable manner, not only
+by base mouldings, but by planting the whole structure on a great
+range of steps which formed an essential part of the composition.
+
+
+_The Roof._
+
+The construction of the roofs of Greek temples has been the subject of
+much debate. It is almost certain that they were in some way so made
+as to admit light. They were framed of timber and covered by tiles,
+often, if not always, of marble. Although all traces of the timber
+framing have disappeared, we can at least know that the pitch was not
+steep, by the slope of the outline of the pediments, which formed, as
+has already been said, perhaps the chief glory of a Greek temple. The
+flat stone roofs sometimes used by the Egyptians, and necessitating
+the placing of columns or other supports close together, seem to have
+become disused, with the exception that where a temple was surrounded
+by a range of columns the space between the main wall and the columns
+was so covered.
+
+The vaulted stone roofs of the archaic buildings, of which the
+treasury of Atreus (Figs. 52, 52a) was the type, do not seem to have
+prevailed in a later period, or, so far as we know, to have been
+succeeded by any similar covering or vault of a more scientific
+construction.
+
+It is hardly necessary to add that the Greek theatres were not roofed.
+The Romans shaded the spectators in their theatres and amphitheatres
+by means of a velarium or awning, but it is extremely doubtful whether
+even this expedient was in use in Greek theatres.
+
+
+_The Openings._
+
+The most important characteristic of the openings in Greek buildings
+is that they were flat-topped,--covered by a lintel of stone or
+marble,--and never arched. We have already[17] shown that this
+circumstance is really of the first importance as determining the
+architectural character of buildings. Doors and window openings were
+often a little narrower at the top than the bottom, and were marked by
+a band of mouldings, known as the architrave, on the face of the wall,
+and, so to speak, framing in the opening. There was often also a small
+cornice over each (Figs. 82, 83). Openings were seldom advanced into
+prominence or employed as features in the exterior of a building; in
+fact, the same effects which windows produce in other styles were in
+Greek buildings created by the interspaces between the columns.
+
+
+_The Columns._
+
+These features, together with the superstructure or entablature, which
+they customarily carried, were the prominent parts of Greek
+architecture, occupying as they did the entire height of the building.
+The development of the orders (which we have explained to be really
+decorative systems, each of which involved the use of one sort of
+column, though the term is constantly understood as meaning merely the
+column and entablature) is a very interesting subject, and illustrates
+the acuteness with which the Greeks selected from those models which
+were accessible to them, exactly what was suited to their purpose, and
+the skill with which they altered and refined, and almost redesigned,
+everything which they so selected.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 82.--GREEK DOORWAY SHOWING CORNICE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 83.--GREEK DOORWAY. FRONT VIEW. (FROM THE
+      ERECHTHEIUM.)]
+
+During the whole period when Greek art was being developed, the
+ancient and polished civilisation of Egypt constituted a most
+powerful and most stable influence, always present,--always,
+comparatively speaking, within reach,--and always the same. Of all the
+forms of column and capital existing in Egypt, the Greeks, however,
+only selected that straight-sided fluted type of which the Beni-Hassan
+example is the best known, but by no means the only instance. We first
+meet with these fluted columns at Corinth, of very sturdy proportions,
+and having a wide, swelling, clumsy moulding under the abacus by way
+of a capital. By degrees the proportions of the shaft grew more
+slender, and the profile of the capital more elegant and less bold,
+till the perfected perfections of the Greek Doric column were
+attained. This column is the original to which all columns with
+moulded capitals that have been used in architecture, from the age of
+Pericles to our own, may be directly or indirectly referred; while the
+Egyptian types which the Greeks did not select--such, for example, as
+the lotus-columns at Karnak--have never been perpetuated.
+
+A different temper or taste, and partly a different history, led to
+the selection of the West Asiatic types of column by a section of the
+Greek people; but great alterations in proportion, in the treatment of
+the capital, and in the management of the moulded base from which the
+columns sprang, were made, even in the orders which occur in the Ionic
+buildings of Asia Minor. This was carried further when the Ionic order
+was made use of in Athens herself, and as a result the Attic base and
+the perfected Ionic capital are to be found at their best in the
+Erechtheium example. The Ionic order and the Corinthian, which soon
+followed it, are the parents,--not, it is true, of all, but of the
+greater part of the columns with foliated capitals that have been used
+in all styles and periods of architecture since. It will not be
+forgotten that rude types of both orders are found represented on
+Assyrian bas-reliefs, but still the Corinthian capital and order must
+be considered as the natural and, so to speak, inevitable development
+of the Ionic. From the Corinthian capital an unbroken series of
+foliated capitals can be traced down to our own day; almost the only
+new ornamented type ever devised since being that which takes its
+origin in the Romanesque block capital, known to us in England as the
+early Norman cushion capital: this was certainly the parent of a
+distinct series, though even these owe not a little to Greek
+originals.
+
+We have alluded to the Ionic base. It was derived from a very tall one
+in use at Persepolis, and we meet with it first in the rich but clumsy
+forms of the bases in the Asia Minor examples. In them we find the
+height of the feature as used in Persia compressed, while great, and
+to our eyes eccentric, elaboration marked the mouldings: these the
+refinement of Attic taste afterwards simplified, till the profile of
+the well-known Attic base was produced--a base which has had as wide
+and lasting an influence as either of the original forms of capital.
+
+The Corinthian order, as has been above remarked, is the natural
+sequel of the Ionic. Had Greek architecture continued till it fell
+into decadence, this order would have been the badge of it. As it was,
+the decadence of Greek art was Roman art, and the Corinthian order was
+the favourite order of the Romans; in fact all the important examples
+of it which remain are Roman work.
+
+If we remember how invariably use was made of one or other of the two
+great types of the Greek order in all the buildings of the best Greek
+time, with the addition towards its close of the Corinthian order, and
+that these orders, a little more subdivided and a good deal modified,
+have formed the substratum of Roman architecture and of that in use
+during the last three centuries; and if we also bear in mind that
+nearly all the columnar architecture of Early Christian, Byzantine,
+Saracenic, and Gothic times, owes its forms to the same great source,
+we may well admit that the invention and perfecting of the orders of
+Greek architecture has been--with one exception--the most important
+event in the architectural history of the world. That exception is, of
+course, the introduction of the Arch.
+
+
+_The Ornaments._
+
+Greek Ornaments have exerted the same wide influence over the whole
+course of Western art as Greek columns; and in their origin they are
+equally interesting as specimens of Greek skill in adapting existing
+types, and of Greek invention where no existing types would serve.
+
+Few of the mouldings of Greek architecture are to be traced to
+anterior styles. There is nothing like them in Egyptian work, and
+little or nothing in Assyrian; and though a suggestion of some of them
+may no doubt be found in Persian examples, we must take them as having
+been substantially originated by Greek genius, which felt that they
+were wanted, designed them, and brought them far towards absolute
+perfection. They were of the most refined form, and when enriched were
+carved with consummate skill. They were executed, it must be
+remembered, in white marble,--a material having the finest surface,
+and capable of responding to the most delicate variations in contour
+by corresponding changes in shade or light in a manner and to a degree
+which no other material can equal. In the Doric, mouldings were few,
+and almost always convex; they became much more numerous in the later
+styles, and then included many of concave profile. The chief are the
+OVOLO, which formed the curved part of the Doric capital, and the
+crowning moulding of the Doric cornice; the CYMA; the BIRD'S BEAK,
+employed in the capitals of the antae; the FILLETS under the Doric
+capital; the hollows and TORUS mouldings of the Ionic and Corinthian
+bases.
+
+The profiles of these mouldings were very rarely segments of circles,
+but lines of varying curvature, capable of producing the most delicate
+changes of light and shade, and contours of the most subtle grace.
+Many of them correspond to conic sections, but it seems probable that
+the outlines were drawn by hand, and not obtained by any mechanical or
+mathematical method.
+
+The mouldings were some of them enriched, to use the technical word,
+by having such ornaments cut into them or carved on them as, though
+simple in form, lent themselves well to repetition.[18] Where more
+room for ornament existed, and especially in the capitals of the Ionic
+and Corinthian orders, ornaments were freely and most gracefully
+carved, and very symmetrically arranged. Though these were very
+various, yet most of them can be classed under three heads. (1.) FRETS
+(Figs. 116 to 120). These were patterns made up of squares or L-shaped
+lines interlaced and made to seem intricate, though originally simple.
+Frequently these patterns are called Doric frets, from their having
+been most used in buildings of the Doric order. (2.) HONEYSUCKLE
+(Figs. 94 and 111 to 114). This ornament, admirably conventionalised,
+had been used freely by the Assyrians, and the Greeks only adopted
+what they found ready to their hand when they began to use it; but
+they refined it, at the same time losing no whit of its vigour or
+effectiveness, and the honeysuckle has come to be known as a typical
+Greek decorative _motif_. (3.) ACANTHUS (Figs. 84 and 85). This is a
+broad-leaved plant, the foliage and stems of which, treated in a
+conventional manner, though with but little departure from nature,
+were found admirably adapted for floral decorative work, and
+accordingly were made use of in the foliage of the Corinthian capital,
+and in such ornaments as, for example, the great finial which forms
+the summit of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE ACANTHUS LEAF AND STALK.]
+
+The beauty of the carving was, however, eclipsed by that highest of
+all ornaments--sculpture. In the Doric temples, as, for example, in
+the Parthenon, the architect contented himself with providing suitable
+spaces for the sculptor to occupy; and thus the great pediments, the
+metopes (Fig. 86) or square panels, and the frieze of the Parthenon
+were occupied by sculpture, in which there was no necessity for more
+conventionalism than the amount of artificial arrangement needed in
+order fitly to occupy spaces that were respectively triangular,
+square, or continuous. In the later and more voluptuous style of the
+Ionic temples we find sculpture made into an architectural feature, as
+in the famous statues, known as the Caryatides, which support the
+smallest portico of the Erechtheium, and in the enriched columns of
+the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. Sculpture had already been so employed
+in Egypt, and was often so used in later times; but the best
+opportunity for the display of the finest qualities of the sculptor's
+art is such an one as the pediments, &c., of the great Doric temples
+afforded.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 85.--THE ACANTHUS LEAF.]
+
+There is little room for doubting that all the Greek temples were
+richly decorated in colours, but traces and indications are all that
+remain: these, however, are sufficient to prove that a very large
+amount of colour was employed, and that probably ornaments (Figs. 105
+to 120) were painted upon many of those surfaces which were left plain
+by the mason, especially on the cornices, and that mosaics (Fig. 87)
+and coloured marbles, and even gilding, were freely used. There is
+also ground for believing that as the use of carved enrichments
+increased with the increasing adoption of the Ionic and Corinthian
+styles, less use was made of painted decorations.
+
+
+_Architectural Character._
+
+Observations which have been made during the course of this and the
+previous chapters will have gone far to point out the characteristics
+of Greek art. An archaic and almost forbidding severity, with heavy
+proportions and more strength than grace, marks the earliest Greek
+buildings of which we have any fragments remaining. Dignity, sobriety,
+refinement, and beauty are the qualities of the works of the best
+period. The latest buildings were more rich, more ornate, and more
+slender in their proportions and to a certain extent less severe.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 86.--METOPE FROM THE PARTHENON. CONFLICT BETWEEN
+      A CENTAUR AND ONE OF THE LAPITHAE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 87.--MOSAIC FROM THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS, OLYMPIA.]
+
+Most carefully studied proportions prevailed, and were wrought out to
+a pitch of completeness and refinement which is truly astounding.
+Symmetry was the all but invariable law of composition. Yet in certain
+respects--as, for example, the spacing and position of the columns--a
+degree of freedom was enjoyed which Roman architecture did not
+possess. Repetition ruled to the almost entire suppression of variety.
+Disclosure of the arrangement and construction of the building was
+almost complete, and hardly a trace of concealment can be detected.
+Simplicity reigns in the earliest examples; the elaboration of even
+the most ornamental is very chaste and graceful; and the whole effect
+of Greek architecture is one of harmony, unity, and refined power.
+
+  [Illustration: EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT
+
+      IN THE NORTHERN PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM--SHOWING THE
+      ORNAMENTATION OF THE CEILING.
+
+      FIG. 88.--SECTION OF THE PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM.
+
+      FIG. 89.--PLAN OF THE PORTICO--LOOKING UP.]
+
+A general principle seldom pointed out which governs the application
+of enrichments to mouldings in Greek architecture may be cited as a
+good instance of the subtle yet admirable concord which existed
+between the different features: it is as follows. _The outline of each
+enrichment in relief was ordinarily described by the same line as the
+profile of the moulding to which it was applied._ The egg enrichment
+(Fig. 91) on the ovolo, the water-leaf on the cyma reversa (Figs. 92
+and 97), the honeysuckle on the cyma recta (Fig. 94), and the
+guilloche (Fig. 100) on the torus, are examples of the application of
+this rule,--one which obviously tends to produce harmony.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 90.--CAPITAL OF ANTAE FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM.]
+
+  [Illustration: EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN RELIEF.
+
+      FIG. 91.--EGG AND DART.
+
+      FIG. 92.--LEAF AND DART.
+
+      FIG. 93.--HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+      FIG. 94.--HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+      FIG. 95.--ACANTHUS.
+
+      FIG. 96.--ACANTHUS.
+
+      FIG. 97.--LEAF AND TONGUE.
+
+      FIG. 98.--LEAF AND TONGUE.
+
+      FIG. 99.--GARLAND.
+
+      FIG. 100.--GUILLOCHE.
+
+      FIG. 101.--BEAD AND FILLET.
+
+      FIG. 102.--BEAD AND FILLET.
+
+      FIG. 103.--TORUS MOULDING.
+
+      FIG. 104.--TORUS MOULDING.]
+
+  [Illustration: EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN COLOUR.
+
+      FIG. 105.--HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+      FIGS. 106, 108.--FACIAS WITH BANDS OF FOLIAGE.
+
+      FIG. 106.
+
+      FIG. 107.--HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+      FIG. 108.
+
+      FIG. 109.--LEAF AND DART.
+
+      FIG. 110.--EGG AND DART.
+
+      FIGS. 111 TO 113.--EXAMPLES OF THE HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+      FIG. 111.
+
+      FIG. 112.
+
+      FIG. 113.
+
+      FIG. 114.--COMBINATION OF THE FRET, THE EGG AND DART, THE BEAD
+      AND FILLET, AND THE HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+      FIG. 114.
+
+      FIG. 115.--GUILLOCHE.
+
+      FIGS. 116 TO 120.--EXAMPLES OF THE FRET.
+
+      FIG. 116.
+
+      FIG. 117.
+
+      FIG. 118.
+
+      FIG. 119.
+
+      FIG. 120.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[16] See Chap. IX.
+
+[17] Chap. I.
+
+[18] For a statement of the general rule governing such enrichments,
+see page 133.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 121.--ELEVATION OF AN ETRUSCAN TEMPLE (RESTORED
+      FROM DESCRIPTIONS ONLY).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Historical and General Sketch._
+
+The few grains of truth that we are able to sift from the mass of
+legend which has accumulated round the early history of Rome seem to
+indicate that at a very early period--which the generally received
+date of 753 B.C. may be taken to fix as nearly as is now possible--a
+small band of outcasts and marauders settled themselves on the
+Palatine Hill and commenced to carry on depredations against the
+various cities of the tribes whose territories were in the immediate
+neighbourhood, such as the Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, Latins, and
+Etruscans. A walled city was built, which from its admirable situation
+succeeded in attracting inhabitants in considerable numbers, and
+speedily began to exercise supremacy over its neighbours. The most
+important of the neighbouring nations were the Etruscans, who called
+themselves Rasena, and who must have settled on the west coast of
+Italy, between the rivers Arno and Tiber, at a very early period.
+Their origin is, however, very obscure, some authorities believing,
+upon apparently good grounds, that they came from Asia Minor, while
+others assert that they descended from the north over the Rhaetian
+Alps. But whatever that origin may have been, they had at the time of
+the founding of Rome as a city attained a high degree of civilisation,
+and showed a considerable amount of architectural skill; and their
+arts exercised a very great influence upon Roman art.
+
+Considerable remains of the city walls of several Etruscan towns still
+exist. These show that the masonry was of what has been termed a
+Cyclopean character,--that is to say, the separate stones were of an
+enormous size; in the majority of examples these stones were of a
+polygonal shape, though in a few instances they were rectangular,
+while in all cases they were fitted together with the most consummate
+accuracy of workmanship, which, together with their great massiveness,
+has enabled much of this masonry to endure to the present day.
+Cortona, Volterra, Fiesole, and other towns exhibit instances of this
+walling. The temples, palaces, or dwelling-houses which went to make
+up the cities so fortified have all disappeared, and the only existing
+structural remains of Etruscan buildings are tombs. These are found in
+large numbers, and consist--as in the earlier instances which have
+already been described--both of rock-cut and detached erections. Of
+the former, the best known group is at Castel d'Asso, where we find
+not only chambers cut into the rock, each resembling an ordinary room
+with an entrance in the face of the rock, but also monuments cut
+completely out and standing clear all round; and we cannot fail to
+detect in the forms into which the rock has been cut, especially those
+of the roof, imitations of wooden buildings, heavy square piers being
+left at intervals supporting longitudinal beams which hold up the
+roof. Fig. 122 is an illustration of the interior of a chamber in the
+rock. Occasionally there were a cornice and pediment over the
+entrance.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 122.--SEPULCHRE AT CORNETO.]
+
+The other class of tombs are circular tumuli, similar to the Pelasgic
+tombs of Asia Minor; of these large numbers exist, but not
+sufficiently uninjured to enable us to restore them completely. They
+generally consisted of a substructure of stone, upon which was raised
+a conical elevation. In the case of the Regulini Galeassi tomb there
+were an inner and an outer tumulus, the latter of which covered
+several small tombs, while the inner enclosed one only, which had
+fortunately never been opened till it was lately discovered. This tomb
+was vaulted on the horizontal system--that is to say, its vault was
+not a true arch, but was formed of courses of masonry, each
+overhanging the one below, as in the Treasury of Atreus, and it had a
+curious recess in the roof, in which were found numerous interesting
+examples of Etruscan pottery. It is, however, clear from the city
+gates, sewers, aqueducts, &c., that the Etruscans were acquainted with
+and extensively used the true radiating arch composed of wedge-shaped
+stones (voussoirs), and that they constructed it with great care and
+scientific skill. The gate at Perugia, and the Cloacae or Sewers at
+Rome, constructed during the reign of the Tarquins,[19] at the
+beginning of the sixth century B.C., are examples of the true arch,
+and this makes it certain that it was from the Etruscans that the
+Romans learned the arched construction which, when combined with the
+trabeated or lintel mode of construction which they copied from the
+Greeks, formed the chief characteristic of Roman architecture. The
+Cloaca Maxima (Fig. 123), which is roofed over with three concentric
+semicircular rings of large stones, still exists in many places with
+not a stone displaced, as a proof of the skill of these early
+builders. There are remains of an aqueduct at Tusculum which are
+interesting from the fact of the horizontal being combined with the
+true arch in its construction.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 123.--CLOACA MAXIMA.]
+
+No Etruscan temples remain now, but we know from Vitruvius that they
+consisted of three cells with one or more rows of columns in front,
+the intercolumniation or interval between the columns being excessive.
+The largest Etruscan temple of which any record remains was that of
+Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome, which, under the Empire, became one of
+the most splendid temples of antiquity. It was commenced by Tarquinius
+Superbus, and is said to have derived its name from the fact of the
+builders, when excavating the foundations, coming upon a freshly
+bleeding head (_caput_), indicating that the place would eventually
+become the chief city of the world. Another form of Etruscan temple is
+described by Vitruvius, consisting of one circular cell only, with a
+porch. This form was probably the origin of the series of circular
+Roman buildings which includes such forms of temples as that at
+Tivoli, and many of the famous mausolea, _e.g._ that of Hadrian, and
+the culmination of which style is seen in the Pantheon. It is
+interesting to notice that the Romans never entirely gave up the
+circular form, one instance of its use in Britain at a late period of
+the Roman occupation having been discovered in the ruins of Silchester
+near Basingstoke; and we shall find that it was perpetuated in
+Christian baptisteries, tombs, and occasionally churches.
+
+We know from the traces of such buildings which exist, that the
+Etruscans must have constructed theatres and amphitheatres, and it is
+recorded that the first Tarquin laid out the Circus Maximus and
+instituted the great games held there. At Sutri there are ruins of an
+amphitheatre which is nearly a perfect circle, measuring 265 ft. in
+its greatest breadth and 295 ft. in length.
+
+There are no remains of other buildings which would enable us to form
+an opinion as to the civic architecture of the Etruscans: they must,
+however, have attained to a considerable skill in sculpture, as in
+some of the tombs figures are represented in high relief which show no
+small power of expression. They, too, like the Egyptians, embellished
+their tombs with mural paintings. These are generally in outline, and
+represent human figures and animals in scenes of every-day life, with
+conventionalised foliage, or mythological scenes such as the passage
+of the soul after death to the judgment-seat where its actions in life
+are to be adjudicated upon. In the plastic arts the Etruscans made
+great progress, many of their vases showing a delicacy and grace which
+have never been surpassed, and exhibiting in their decorations traces
+of both Greek and Egyptian influence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We now reach the last of the classical styles of antiquity, the
+Roman,--a style which, however, is rather an adaptation or
+amalgamation of other styles than an original and independent creation
+or development. The contrast is very great between the "lively
+Grecian," imaginative and idealistic in the highest degree--who seemed
+to have an innate genius for art and beauty, and who was always eager
+to perpetuate in marble his ideal conception of the "hero from whose
+loins he sprung," or to immortalise with some splendid work of art the
+name of his mother-city--and the stern, practical Roman, realistic in
+his every pore, eager for conquest, and whose one dominant idea was to
+bring under his sway all the nations who were brought into contact
+with him, and to make his city--as had been foretold--the capital of
+the whole world. With this idea always before him, it is no wonder
+that such a typical Roman as M. Porcius Cato should look with disdain
+upon the fine arts in all their forms, and should regard a love for
+the beautiful, whether in literature or art, as synonymous with
+effeminacy. Mummius, also, who destroyed Corinth, is said to have been
+so little aware of the value of the artistic treasures which he
+carried away, as to stipulate with the carriers who undertook to
+transport them to Rome, that if any of the works of art were lost they
+should be replaced by others of equal value.
+
+When the most prominent statesmen displayed such indifference, it is
+not surprising that for nearly 500 years no single trace of any
+architectural building of any merit at all in Rome can now be
+discovered, and that history is silent as to the existence of any
+monuments worthy of being mentioned. Works of public utility of a
+very extensive nature were indeed carried out during this period;
+such, for example, as the Appian Way from Rome to Capua, which was the
+first paved road in Rome, and was constructed by the Censor Appius
+Claudius in B.C. 309. This was 14 ft. wide and 3 ft. thick, in three
+layers: 1st, of rough stones grouted together; 2nd, of gravel; and
+3rd, of squared stones of various dimensions. The same Censor also
+brought water from Praeneste to Rome by a subterranean channel 11 miles
+long. Several bridges were also erected, and Cato the Censor is said
+to have built a basilica.
+
+Until about 150 B.C. all the buildings of Rome were constructed either
+of brick or the local stone; and though we hear nothing of
+architecture as a fine art, we cannot hesitate to admit that during
+this period the Romans carried the art of construction, and especially
+that of employing materials of small dimensions and readily
+obtainable, in buildings of great size, to a remarkable pitch of
+perfection. It was not till after the fall of Carthage and the
+destruction of Corinth, when Greece became a Roman province under the
+name of Achaia--both which events occurred in the year 146 B.C.--that
+Rome became desirous of emulating, to a certain extent, the older
+civilisation which she had destroyed; and about this time she became
+so enormously wealthy that vast sums of money were expended, both
+publicly and privately, in the erection of monuments, many of which
+remain to the present day, more or less altered. The first marble
+temple in Rome was built by the Consul Q. Metellus Macedonicus, who
+died B.C. 115. Roman architecture from this period began to show a
+wonderful diversity in the objects to which it was directed,--a
+circumstance perhaps as interesting as its great scientific and
+structural advance upon all preceding styles. In the earlier styles
+temples, tombs, and palaces were the only buildings deemed worthy of
+architectural treatment; but under the Romans baths, theatres,
+amphitheatres, basilicas, aqueducts, triumphal arches, &c., were
+carried out just as elaborately as the temples of the gods.
+
+It was under the Emperors that the full magnificence of Roman
+architectural display was reached. The famous boast of Augustus, that
+he found Rome of brick and left her of marble, gives expression in a
+few words to what was the great feature of his reign. Succeeding
+emperors lavished vast sums on buildings and public works of all
+kinds; and thus it comes to pass that though the most destructive of
+all agencies, hostile invasions, conflagrations, and long periods of
+neglect, have each in turn done their utmost to destroy the vestiges
+of Imperial Rome, there still remain fragments, and in one or two
+instances whole monuments, enough to make Rome, after Athens, the
+richest store of classic architectural antiquities in the world.
+
+But it was not in Rome only that great buildings were erected. The
+whole known civilised world was under Roman dominion, and wherever a
+centre of government or even a flourishing town existed there sprang
+up the residences of the dominant race, and their places of business,
+public worship, and public amusement. Consequently, we find in our own
+country, and in France, Spain, Germany, Italy, North Africa, and
+Egypt--in short, in all the countries where Roman rule was
+established--examples of temples, amphitheatres, theatres, triumphal
+arches, and dwelling-houses, some of them of great interest and
+occasionally in admirable preservation.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[19] The story of the Tarquins probably points to a period when the
+chief supremacy at Rome was in the hands of an Etruscan family, and is
+interesting for this reason.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 124.--"INCANTADA" IN SALONICA.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE BUILDINGS OF THE ROMANS.
+
+
+The temples in Rome were not, as in Greece and Egypt, the structures
+upon which the architect lavished all the resources of his art and his
+science. The general form of them was copied from that made use of by
+the Greeks, but the spirit in which the original idea was carried out
+was entirely different. In a word, the temples of Rome were by no
+means worthy of her size and position as the metropolis of the world,
+and very few remains of them exist.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 125.--IONIC ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA
+      VIRILIS, ROME.]
+
+Ten columns are still standing of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina
+(now the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda): it occupied the site of a
+previous temple and was dedicated by Antoninus Pius to his wife
+Faustina. The Temple (supposed) of Fortuna Virilis, in the Ionic style
+(Fig. 125), still exists as the church of Santa Maria Egiziaca: this
+was tetrastyle, with half-columns all round it, and this was of the
+kind called by Vitruvius "pseudo-peripteral." A few fragmentary
+remains of other temples exist in Rome, but in some of the Roman
+provinces far finer specimens of temples remain, of which perhaps the
+best is the Maison Carree at Nimes (Fig. 126). Here we find the Roman
+plan of a single cell and a deep portico in front, while the sides and
+rear have the columns attached. The intercolumniations and the details
+of the capitals and entablature are, however, almost pure Greek. The
+date of this temple is uncertain, but it is most probable that it was
+erected during the reign of Hadrian. The same emperor is said to have
+completed the magnificent Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, which
+was 354 ft. long by 171 ft. wide. It consisted of a cell flanked on
+each side by a double row of detached columns; in front was one row of
+columns in antis, and three other rows in front of these, while there
+were also three rows in the rear: as the columns were of the
+Corinthian order, and nearly 60 ft. in height, it may be imagined that
+it was a splendid edifice.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 126.--ROMAN-CORINTHIAN TEMPLE AT NIMES
+      (MAISON-CARREE). PROBABLY OF THE TIME OF HADRIAN.]
+
+The ruins of another magnificent provincial Roman temple exist at
+Baalbek--the ancient Heliopolis--in Syria, not far from Damascus. This
+building was erected during the time of the Antonines, probably by
+Antoninus Pius himself, and originally it must have been of very
+extensive dimensions, the portico alone being 180 ft. long and about
+37 ft. deep. This gives access to a small hexagonal court, on the
+western side of which a triple gateway opens into the Great Court,
+which is a vast quadrangle about 450 ft. long by 400 ft. broad, with
+ranges of small chambers or niches on three sides, some of which
+evidently had at one time beautifully groined roofs. At the western
+end of this court, on an artificial elevation, stand the remains of
+what is called the Great Temple. This was originally 290 ft. long by
+160 ft. wide, and had 54 columns supporting its roof, six only of
+which now remain erect. The height of these columns, including base
+and capital, is 75 ft., and their diameter is 7 ft. at base and about
+6 ft. 6 in. at top; they are of the Corinthian order, and above them
+rises an elaborately moulded entablature, 14 ft. in height. Each of
+the columns is composed of three stones only, secured by strong iron
+cramps; and indeed one of the most striking features of this group of
+buildings is the colossal size of the stones used in their
+construction. The quarries from which these stones were hewn are close
+at hand, and in them is one stone surpassing all the others in
+magnitude, its dimensions being 68 ft. by 14 ft. 2 in. by 13 ft.
+11 in. It is difficult to imagine what means can have existed for
+transporting so huge a mass, the weight of which has been calculated
+at 1100 tons.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 127.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT
+      TIVOLI.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 128.--CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF VESTA
+      AT TIVOLI.]
+
+Other smaller temples exist in the vicinity, all of which are lavishly
+decorated, but on the whole the ornamentation shows an exuberance of
+detail which somewhat offends a critical artistic taste.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 129.--THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. PLAN
+      (LOOKING UP) AND SECTION OF PART OF THE PERISTYLE.]
+
+Circular temples were an elegant variety, which seems to have been
+originated by the Romans, and of which two well-known examples
+remain--the Temples of Vesta at Rome and at Tivoli. The columns of the
+temple at Tivoli (Fig. 128) form a well-known and pleasing variety of
+the Corinthian order, and the circular form of the building as shown
+on the plan (Fig. 127) gives excellent opportunities for good
+decorative treatment, as may be judged of by the enlarged diagram of
+part of the peristyle (Fig. 129).
+
+
+_Basilicas._
+
+Among the most remarkable of the public buildings of Roman times, both
+in the mother-city and in the provinces, were the Basilicas or Halls
+of Justice, which were also used as commercial exchanges. It is also
+believed that Basilicas existed in some Greek cities, but no clue to
+their structural arrangements exists, and whence originated the idea
+of the plan of these buildings we are unable to state; their striking
+similarity to some of the rock-cut halls or temples of India has been
+already pointed out. They were generally (though not always) covered
+halls, oblong in shape, divided into three or five aisles by two or
+more rows of columns, the centre aisle being much wider than those at
+the sides: over the latter, galleries were frequently erected. At one
+end was a semicircular recess or apse, the floor of which was raised
+considerably above the level of the rest of the building, and here the
+presiding magistrate sat to hear causes tried. Four[20] of these
+buildings are mentioned by ancient writers as having existed in
+republican times, viz. the Basilica Portia, erected in B.C. 184, by
+Cato the Censor; the Basilica Emilia et Fulvia, erected in B.C. 179 by
+the censors M. Fulvius Nobilior and M. AEmilius Lepidus, and afterwards
+enlarged and called the Basilica Paulli; the Basilica Sempronia,
+erected in B.C. 169 by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus; and the Basilica
+Julia, erected by Julius Caesar, B.C. 46. All these buildings had
+wooden roofs, and were of no great architectural merit, and they
+perished at a remote date. Under the Empire, basilicas of much greater
+size and magnificence were erected; and remains of that of Trajan,
+otherwise called the Basilica Ulpia, have been excavated in the Forum
+of Trajan. This was about 360 ft. long by 180 ft. wide, had four rows
+of columns inside, and it supposed to have been covered by a
+semicircular wooden roof. Apollodorus of Damascus was the architect of
+this building. Another basilica of which remains exist is that of
+Maxentius, which after his overthrow by Constantine in A.D. 312, was
+known as the Basilica Constantiniana. This structure was of stone, and
+had a vaulted roof; it was 195 ft. between the walls, and was divided
+into three aisles by piers with enormous columns standing in front of
+them.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 130.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE BASILICA ULPIA, ROME.]
+
+One provincial basilica, that at Treves, still stands; and although it
+must have been considerably altered, it is by far the best existing
+example of this kind of building. The internal columns do not exist
+here, and it is simply a rectangular hall about 175 ft. by 85 ft.,
+with the usual semicircular apse.
+
+The chief interest attaching to these basilicas lies in the fact that
+they formed the first places of Christian assembly, and that they
+served as the model upon which the first Christian churches were
+built.
+
+
+_Theatres and Amphitheatres._
+
+Although dramas and other plays were performed in Rome as early as 240
+B.C., there seems to have been a strong prejudice against permanent
+buildings for their representation, as it is recorded that a decree
+was passed in B.C. 154 forbidding the construction of such buildings.
+Mummius, the conqueror of Corinth, obtained permission to erect a
+wooden theatre for the performance of dramas as one of the shows of
+his triumph, and after this many buildings of the kind were erected,
+but all of a temporary nature; and it was not till B.C. 61 that the
+first permanent theatre was built by Pompey. This, and the theatres of
+Balbus and Marcellus, appear to have been the only permanent theatres
+that were erected in Imperial Rome; and there are no remains of any
+but the last of these, and this is much altered. So that, were it not
+for the remains of theatres found at Pompeii, it would be almost
+impossible to tell how they were arranged; but from these we can see
+that the stage was raised and separated from the part appropriated to
+the spectators by a semicircular area, much like that which in Greek
+theatres was allotted to the chorus: in the Roman ones this was
+assigned for the use of the senators. The portion devoted to the
+spectators--called the Cavea--was also semicircular on plan, and
+consisted of tiers of steps rising one above the other, and divided at
+intervals by wide passages and converging staircases communicating
+with the porticoes, which ran round the whole theatre at every story.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 131.--PLAN OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME.]
+
+At Orange, in the South of France, are the remains of a very fine
+theatre, similar in plan to that described. The great wall which
+formed the back of the scene in this building is still standing, and
+is one of the most magnificent pieces of masonry existing.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 132.--THE COLOSSEUM. SECTION AND ELEVATION.]
+
+Although the Romans were not particularly addicted to dramatic
+representations, yet they were passionately fond of shows and games of
+all kinds: hence, not only in Rome itself, but in almost every Roman
+settlement, from Silchester to Verona, are found traces of their
+amphitheatres, and the mother-city can claim the possession of the
+most stupendous fabric of the kind that was ever erected--the
+Colosseum or Flavian Amphitheatre, which was commenced by Vespasian
+and finished by his son Titus. An amphitheatre is really a double
+theatre without a stage, and with the space in the centre unoccupied
+by seats. This space, which was sunk several feet below the first row
+of seats, was called the arena, and was appropriated to the various
+exhibitions which took place in the building. The plan was elliptical
+or oval, and this shape seems to have been universal.
+
+The Colosseum, whose ruins still remain to attest its pristine
+magnificence--
+
+    "Arches on arches, as it were that Rome,
+    Collecting the chief trophies of her line,
+    Would build up all her triumphs in one dome"[21]--
+
+was 620 ft. long and 513 wide, and the height was about 162 ft. It was
+situated in the hollow between the Esquiline and Caelian hills. The
+ranges of seats were admirably planned so as to enable all the
+audience to have a view of what was going on in the arena, and great
+skill was shown both in the arrangement of the approaches to the
+different tiers and in the structural means for supporting the seats,
+and double corridors ran completely round the building on each floor,
+affording ready means of exit. Various estimates have been made of the
+number of spectators that could be accommodated, and these range from
+50,000 to 100,000, but probably 80,000 was the maximum. Recent
+excavations have brought to light the communications which existed
+between the arena and the dens where the wild animals and human slaves
+and prisoners were confined, and some of the water channels used when
+mimic sea-fights were exhibited. The external facade is composed of
+four stories, separated by entablatures that run completely round the
+building without a break. The three lower stories consist of a series
+of semicircular arched openings, eighty in number, separated by piers
+with attached columns in front of them, the Doric order being used in
+the lowest story, the Ionic in the second, and the Corinthian in the
+third; the piers and columns are elevated on stylobates; the
+entablatures have a comparatively slight projection, and there are no
+projecting keystones in the arches. In the lowest range these openings
+are 13 ft. 4 in. wide, except the four which are at the ends of the
+two axes of the ellipse, and these are 14 ft. 6 in. wide. The diameter
+of the columns is 2 ft. 83/4 in. The topmost story, which is
+considerably more lofty than either of the lower ones, was a nearly
+solid wall enriched by Corinthian pilasters. In this story occur two
+tiers of small square openings in the alternate spaces between the
+pilasters. These openings are placed accurately over the centres of
+the arches of the lower stories. Immediately above the higher range of
+square openings are a series of corbels--three between each pair of
+pilasters--which probably received the ends of the poles carrying the
+huge awning which protected the spectators from the sun's rays. The
+whole is surmounted by a heavy cornice, in which, at intervals
+immediately over each corbel, are worked square mortise holes, forming
+sockets through which the poles of the awning passed. The stone of
+which the facade of the Colosseum is built is a local stone, called
+travertine, the blocks of which are secured by iron cramps without
+cement. Nearly all the internal portion of the building is of brick,
+and the floors of the corridors, &c., are paved with flat bricks
+covered with hard stucco. These amphitheatres were occasionally the
+scene of imitations of marine conflicts, when the arena was flooded
+with water and mimic vessels of war engaged each other. Very complete
+arrangements were made, by means of small aqueducts, for leading the
+water into the arena and for carrying it off.
+
+Apart from theatrical representations and gladiatorial combats, the
+Romans had an inordinate passion for chariot races. For those the
+circi were constructed, of which class of buildings the Circus Maximus
+was the largest. This, originally laid out by Tarquinius Priscus, was
+reconstructed on a larger scale by Julius Caesar. It was circular at
+one end and rectangular at the other, at which was the entrance. On
+both sides of the entrance were a number of small arched chambers,
+called _carceres_, from which the chariots started. The course was
+divided down the centre by a low wall, called the _spina_, which was
+adorned with various sculptures. The seats rose in a series of covered
+porticoes all round the course, except at the entrance. As the length
+of the Circus Maximus was nearly 700 yards, and the breadth about 135
+yards, it is possible that Dionysius may not have formed an
+exaggerated notion of its capacity when he says it would accommodate
+150,000 spectators.
+
+In the Roman provinces amphitheatres were often erected; and at Pola
+in Istria, Verona in Italy, and Nimes and Arles in France, fine
+examples remain. A rude Roman amphitheatre, with seats cut in the turf
+of a hill-side, exists to this day at the old town of Dorchester in
+Dorset, which was anciently a Roman settlement.
+
+
+_Baths (Thermae)._
+
+Nothing can give us a more impressive idea of the grandeur and lavish
+display of Imperial Rome than the remains of the huge Thermae, or
+bathing establishments, which still exist. Between the years 10 A.D.,
+when Agrippa built the first public baths, and 324 A.D., when those
+of Constantine were erected, no less than twelve of these vast
+establishments were erected by various emperors, and bequeathed to the
+people. Of the whole number, the baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian
+are the only ones which remain in any state of preservation, and these
+were probably the most extensive and magnificent of all. All these
+splendid buildings were really nothing more than bribes to secure the
+favour of the populace; for it seems quite clear that the public had
+practically free entrance to them, the only charge mentioned by
+writers of the time being a quadrans, about a farthing of our money.
+Gibbon says, "The meanest Roman could purchase with a small copper
+coin the daily enjoyment of a scene of pomp and luxury which might
+excite the envy of the kings of Asia." And this language is not
+exaggerated. Not only were there private bath-rooms, swimming-baths,
+hot baths, vapour-baths, and, in fact, all the appurtenances of the
+most approved Turkish baths of modern times, but there were also
+gymnasia, halls for various games, lecture-halls, libraries, and
+theatres in connection with the baths, all lavishly ornamented with
+the finest paintings and sculpture that could be obtained. Stone seems
+to have been but sparingly used in the construction of these
+buildings, which were almost entirely of brick faced with stucco: this
+served as the ground for an elaborate series of fresco paintings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 133.--PLAN OF THE PRINCIPAL BUILDING, BATHS OF
+      CARACALLA, ROME.]
+
+The baths of Caracalla, at the foot of the Aventine hill, erected A.D.
+217, comprised a quadrangular block of buildings of about 1150 ft.
+(about the fifth of a mile) each way. The side facing the street
+consisted of a portico the whole length of the facade, behind which
+were numerous ranges of private bath-rooms. The side and rear blocks
+contained numerous halls and porticoes, the precise object of which
+it is now very difficult to ascertain. As Byron says:
+
+    "Temples, baths, or halls?
+      Pronounce who can."
+
+This belt of buildings surrounded an open courtyard or garden, in
+which was placed the principal bathing establishment (Fig. 133), a
+building 730 ft. by 380 ft., which contained the large piscina, or
+swimming-bath, various hot baths, dressing-rooms, gymnasia, and other
+halls for athletic exercises. In the centre of one of the longer sides
+was a large semicircular projection, roofed with a dome, which was
+lined with brass: this rotunda was called the solar cell. From the
+ruins of these baths were taken some of the most splendid specimens of
+antique sculpture, such as the Farnese Hercules and the Flora in the
+Museum of Naples.
+
+The baths of Diocletian, erected just at the commencement of the
+fourth century A.D., were hardly inferior to those of Caracalla, but
+modern and ancient buildings are now intermingled to such an extent
+that the general plan of the buildings cannot now be traced with
+accuracy. There are said to have been over 3000 marble seats in these
+baths; the walls were covered with mosaics, and the columns were of
+Egyptian granite and green Numidian marble. The Ephebeum, or grand
+hall, still exists as the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, having
+been restored by Michelangelo. It is nearly 300 ft. long by 90 ft.
+wide, and is roofed by three magnificent cross vaults, supported on
+eight granite columns 45 ft. in height. (Fig. 134.)
+
+There is one ancient building in Rome more impressive than any other,
+not only because it is in a better state of preservation, but because
+of the dignity with which it has been designed, the perfection with
+which it has been constructed, and the effectiveness of the mode in
+which its interior is lighted. We allude to the Pantheon. Opinions
+differ as to whether this was a Hall attached to the thermae of
+Agrippa, or whether it was a temple. Without attempting to determine
+this point, we may at any rate claim that the interior of this
+building admirably illustrates the boldness and telling power with
+which the large halls forming part of the thermae were designed; and,
+whether it belonged to such a building or not, it is wonderfully well
+fitted to illustrate this subject.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 134.--INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA DEGLI ANGELI,
+      ROME.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 135.--THE PANTHEON, ROME. GROUND-PLAN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 136.--THE PANTHEON, ROME. EXTERIOR.]
+
+The Pantheon is the finest example of a domed hall which we have
+left. The building, which forms the church of Santa Maria ad Martyres,
+has been considerably altered at various times since its erection, and
+now consists of a rotunda with a rectangular portico in front of it.
+The rotunda was most probably erected by Agrippa, the son-in-law of
+Augustus, in B.C. 27, and is a most remarkable instance of clever
+construction at so early a date. The diameter of the interior is
+145 ft. 6 in., and the height to the top of the dome is 147 ft. In
+addition to the entrance, the walls are broken up by seven large
+niches, three of which are semicircular on plan, and the others,
+alternating with them, rectangular. The walls are divided into two
+stories by an entablature supported by columns and pilasters; but
+although this is now cut through by the arches of the niches, it is at
+least probable that originally this was not the case, and that the
+entablature ran continuously round the walls, as shown in Fig. 137,
+which is a restoration of the Pantheon by Adler. Above the attic story
+rises the huge hemispherical dome, which is pierced at its summit by a
+circular opening 27 ft. in diameter, through which a flood of light
+pours down and illuminates the whole of the interior. The dome is
+enriched by boldly recessed panels, and these were formerly covered
+with bronze ornaments, which have been removed for the sake of the
+metal. The marble enrichments of the attic have also disappeared, and
+their place has been taken by common and tawdry decorations more
+adapted to the stage of a theatre. But notwithstanding everything that
+has been done to detract from the imposing effect of the building by
+the alteration of its details, there is still, taking it as a whole, a
+simple grandeur in the design, a magnificence in the material
+employed, and a quiet harmony in the illumination, that impart to the
+interior a character of sublimity which nothing can impair. The
+rectangular portico was added at some subsequent period, and consists
+of sixteen splendid Corinthian columns (Fig. 138), eight in front
+supporting the pediment, and the other eight dividing the portico into
+three bays, in precisely the same way as if it formed the pronaos to
+the three cells of an Etruscan temple.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 137.--THE PANTHEON, ROME. INTERIOR.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 138.--THE CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE PANTHEON,
+      ROME.]
+
+
+_Bridges and Aqueducts._
+
+The earliest Roman bridges were of wood, and the Pons Sublicius,
+though often rebuilt, continued to be of this material until the time
+of Pliny, but it was impossible for a people who made such use of the
+arch to avoid seeing the great advantage this form gave them in the
+construction of bridges, and several of these formed of stone spanned
+the Tiber even before the time of the Empire. The finest Roman
+bridges, however, were built in the provinces. Trajan constructed one
+over the Danube which was 150 ft. high and 60 ft. wide, and the arches
+of which were of no less than 170 ft. span. This splendid structure
+was destroyed by his successor, Hadrian, who was probably jealous of
+it. The bridge over the Tagus at Alcantara, which was constructed by
+Hadrian, is another very fine example. There were six arches here, of
+which the two centre ones had a span of 100 ft.
+
+The Roman aqueducts afford striking evidence of the building
+enterprise and architectural skill of the people. Pliny says of these
+works: "If any one will carefully consider the quantity of water used
+in the open air, in private baths, swimming-baths, houses, gardens,
+&c., and thinks of the arches that have been built, the hills that
+have been tunnelled, and the valleys that have been levelled for the
+purpose of conducting the water to its destination, he must confess
+that nothing has existed in the world more calculated to excite
+admiration." The same sentiment strikes an observer of to-day when
+looking at the ruins of these aqueducts. At the end of the first
+century A.D. we read of nine aqueducts in Rome, and in the time of
+Procopius (A.D. 550) there were fourteen in use. Of these, the Aqua
+Claudia and the Anio Novus were the grandest and most costly. Those
+were constructed about the year 48 A.D., and entered the city upon the
+same arches, though at different levels, the Aqua Claudia being the
+lower. The arches carrying the streams were over nine miles long, and
+in some cases 109 ft. high. They were purely works of utility, and had
+no architectural decorations; but they were most admirably adapted for
+their purpose, and were so solidly constructed, that portions of them
+are still in use. Some of the provincial aqueducts, such as those of
+Tarragona and Segovia in Spain, were more ornamental, and had a double
+tier of arches. The Pont du Gard, not far from Nimes, in France, is a
+well-known and very picturesque structure of this character.
+
+
+_Commemorative Monuments._
+
+These comprise triumphal arches, columns, and tombs. The former
+consisted of a rectangular mass of masonry having sculptured
+representations of the historical event to be commemorated, enriched
+with attached columns on pedestals, supporting an entablature crowned
+with a high attic, on which there was generally an inscription. In the
+centre was the wide and lofty arched opening. The Arch of Titus,
+recording the capture of Jerusalem, is one of the finest examples.
+Later on triumphal arches were on a more extended scale, and comprised
+a small arch on each side of the large one; examples of which may be
+seen in the arches of Septimius Severus and of Constantine (Fig. 139).
+The large arched gateways which are met with in various parts of
+Europe--such as the Porte d'Arroux at Autun, and the Porta Nigra at
+Treves--are monuments very similar to triumphal arches. There remain
+also smaller monuments of the same character, such as the so-called
+Arch of the Goldsmiths in Rome (Fig. 1).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 139.--THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME.]
+
+Columns were erected in great numbers during the time of the Emperors
+as memorials of victory. Of these the Column of Trajan and that of
+Marcus Aurelius are the finest. The former was erected in the centre
+of Trajan's Forum, in commemoration of the Emperor's victory over the
+Dacians. It is of the Doric order, 132 ft. 10 in. high, including the
+statue. The shaft is constructed of thirty-four pieces of marble
+joined with bronze cramps. The figures on the pedestal are very finely
+carved, and the entire shaft is encircled by a series of elaborate
+bas-reliefs winding round it in a spiral from its base to its capital.
+The beauty of the work on this shaft may be best appreciated by a
+visit to the cast of it set up--in two heights, unfortunately--at the
+South Kensington Museum. The Column of Marcus Aurelius, generally
+known as the Antonine Column, is similarly enriched, but is not equal
+to the Trajan Column.
+
+The survival of Etruscan habits is clearly seen in the construction of
+Roman tombs, which existed in enormous numbers outside the gates of
+the city. Merivale says: "The sepulchres of twenty generations lined
+the sides of the high-roads for several miles beyond the gates, and
+many had considerable architectural pretensions." That of Cecilia
+Metella is a typical example. Here we find a square basement
+surmounted by a circular tower-like structure, with a frieze and
+cornice. This was erected about B.C. 60, by Crassus. The mausoleum of
+Augustus was on a much more extensive scale, and consisted of four
+cylindrical stories, one above the other, decreasing in diameter as
+they ascended, and the topmost of all was crowned with a colossal
+statue of the Emperor. The tomb of Hadrian, on the banks of the
+Tiber--now known as the Castle of Sant' Angelo--was even more
+magnificent. This comprised a square base, 75 ft. high, the side of
+which measured about 340 ft.; above this was a cylindrical building
+surmounted by a circular peristyle of thirty-four Corinthian columns.
+On the top was a quadriga with a statue of the Emperor. These mausolea
+were occasionally octagonal or polygonal in plan, surmounted by a
+dome, and cannot fail to remind us of the Etruscan tumuli.
+
+Another kind of tomb, of less magnificence, was the columbarium, which
+was nothing more than a subterranean chamber, the walls of which had a
+number of small apertures in them for receiving the cinerary urns
+containing the ashes of the bodies which had been cremated. In the
+eastern portion of the Empire, in rocky districts, the tombs were cut
+in the rock, and the facade was elaborately decorated with columns and
+other architectural features.
+
+
+_Domestic Architecture._
+
+Of all the palaces which the Roman emperors built for themselves, and
+which we know from historical records to have been of the most
+magnificent description, nothing now remains in Rome itself that is
+not too completely ruined to enable any one to restore its plan with
+accuracy, though considerable remains exist of the Palace of the
+Caesars on the Palatine Hill. In fact, the palace of Diocletian at
+Spalatro, in Dalmatia, is the only remaining example in the whole of
+the Roman empire of the dwelling-house of an emperor, and even this
+was not built till after Diocletian had resigned the imperial
+dignity, so that its date is the early part of the fourth century A.D.
+This palace is a rectangle, measuring about 700 ft. one way and 590 ft.
+the other, and covers an area of nearly 10 acres. It is surrounded
+by high walls, broken at intervals by square and octagonal towers, and
+contains temples, baths, and extensive galleries, besides the private
+apartments of the Emperor and dwellings for the principal officers of
+the household. The architect of this building broke away from
+classical traditions to a great extent; for example, the columns stand
+on corbels instead of pedestals, the entablatures being much broken,
+and the arches spring directly from the capitals of the columns (Fig.
+149).
+
+The private houses in Borne were of two kinds: the _insula_ and the
+_domus_. The insula was a block of buildings several stories high,
+frequently let out to different families in flats. The ground-floor
+was generally given up to shops, which had no connection with the
+upper parts of the building; and one roof covered the whole. This kind
+of house was generally tenanted by the poorer class of tradesmen and
+artificers. The other kind of house, the domus, was a detached
+mansion. The excavations at Pompeii have done much to elucidate a
+number of points in connection with Roman dwellings which had been the
+subject of much discussion by scholars, but we must not too hastily
+assume that the Pompeian houses are the exact counterpart of those of
+ancient Rome, as Pompeii was what may be called a Romano-Greek city.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 140.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 141.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE TRAGIC POET,
+      POMPEII.]
+
+The general arrangements of a Roman house were as follows: next the
+street an open space was frequently left, with porticoes on each side
+of it provided with seats: this constituted the vestibule, and was
+entirely outside the house;[22] the entrance-door opened into a
+narrow passage, called the _prothyrum_, which led to the _atrium_,[23]
+which in the houses of Republican Rome was the principal apartment,
+though afterwards it served as a sort of waiting-room for the clients
+and retainers of the house; it was an open court, roofed in on all
+the four sides, but open to the sky in the centre. The simplest form
+was called the Tuscan atrium, where the roof was simply a lean-to
+sloping towards the centre, the rafters being supported on beams, two
+of which rested on the walls of the atrium, and had two other
+cross-beams trimmed into them. The centre opening was called the
+_impluvium_, and immediately under it a tank, called the _compluvium_,
+was formed in the pavement to collect the rain-water (Fig. 142). When
+the atrium became larger, and the roof had to be supported by
+columns, it was called a _cavaedium_.[24] At the end of this apartment
+were three others, open in front, the largest, in the centre, called
+_tablinum_, and the two side ones _alae_;[25] these were
+muniment-rooms, where all the family archives were kept, and their
+position is midway between the semi-public part of the house, which
+lay towards the front, and the strictly domestic and private part,
+which lay in the rear. At the sides of the atrium in the larger houses
+were placed small rooms, which served as sleeping chambers.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 142.--THE ATRIUM OF A POMPEIAN HOUSE.]
+
+From the end of the atrium a passage, or sometimes two passages,
+called the _fauces_, running by the side of the tablinum, led to the
+_peristylium_,[26] which was the grand private reception-room; this
+also was a court open to the sky in the centre, and among the wealthy
+Romans its roof was supported by columns of the rarest marbles. Round
+the peristyle were grouped the various private rooms, which varied
+according to the size of the house and the taste of the owner. There
+was always one dining-room (_triclinium_), and frequently two or more,
+which were arranged with different aspects, for use in different
+seasons of the year. If several dining-rooms existed, they were of
+various sizes and decorated with various degrees of magnificence; and
+a story is told of one of the most luxurious Romans of Cicero's time,
+that he had simply to tell his slaves which room he would dine in for
+them to know what kind of banquet he wished to be prepared. In the
+largest houses there were saloons (_aeci_), parlours (_exedrae_),
+picture galleries (_pinacothecae_), chapels (_lararia_), and various
+other apartments. The kitchen, with scullery and bakehouse attached,
+was generally placed in one angle of the peristyle, round which
+various sleeping-chambers, according to the size of the house, were
+arranged. Most of the rooms appear to have been on the ground-floor,
+and probably depended for their light upon the doorway only; though
+in some instances at Pompeii small windows exist high up in the walls.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 143.--WALL DECORATION FROM POMPEII.]
+
+In the extreme rear of the larger houses there was generally a garden;
+and in those which were without this, the dead walls in the rear were
+frequently painted so as to imitate a garden. The houses of the
+wealthy Romans were decorated with the utmost magnificence: marble
+columns, mosaic pavements, and charming pieces of sculpture adorned
+their apartments, and the walls were in all cases richly painted (Fig.
+143), being divided into panels, in the centre of which were
+represented sometimes human figures, sometimes landscapes, and
+sometimes pictures of historical events. All the decoration of Roman
+houses was internal only: the largest and most sumptuous mansion had
+little to distinguish it, next the street, from a comparatively humble
+abode; and, with the exception of the space required for the vestibule
+and entrance doorway, nearly the whole of the side of the house next
+the street was most frequently appropriated to shops. All that we are
+able to learn of the architecture of Roman private houses, whether
+from contemporary descriptions or from the uncovered remains of
+Pompeii and Herculaneum,[27] points to the fact that it, even in a
+greater measure than the public architecture, was in no sense of
+indigenous growth, but was simply a copy of Greek arrangement and
+Greek decoration.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] The passage in Varro, which is the sole authority for the
+Basilica Opimia, is generally considered to be corrupt.
+
+[21] Byron.
+
+[22] This does not occur in the Pompeian houses.
+
+[23] Marked _a_, _a_, on the plans.
+
+[24] Vitruvius, however, seems to use the terms _atrium_ and
+_cavaedium_ as quite synonymous.
+
+[25] Marked respectively _c_, and _f_, _f_, on the plan of the House
+of Pansa.
+
+[26] Marked _b_, _b_, on the plans.
+
+[27] At the Crystal Palace can be seen an interesting reproduction of
+a Pompeian house, which was designed by the late Sir Digby Wyatt. It
+gives a very faithful reproduction of the arrangement and the size of
+an average Pompeian house; and though every part is rather more fully
+covered with decoration than was usual in the originals, the
+decorations of each room faithfully reproduce the treatment of some
+original in Pompeii or Herculaneum.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 144.--CARVING FROM THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Analysis._
+
+_The Plan_ (_or floor-disposition_).--The plans of Roman buildings are
+striking from their variety and the vast extent which in some cases
+they display, as well as from a certain freedom, mastery, and facility
+of handling which are not seen in earlier work. Their variety is
+partly due to the very various purposes which the buildings of the
+Romans were designed to serve: these comprised all to which Greek
+buildings had been appropriated, and many others, the product of the
+complex and luxurious civilisation of the Empire. But independent of
+this circumstance, the employment of such various forms in the plans
+of buildings as the ellipse, the circle, and the octagon, and their
+facile use, seem to denote a people who could build rapidly, and who
+looked carefully to the general masses and outlines of what they
+built, however carelessly they handled the minute details. The freedom
+with which these new forms were employed arises partly also from the
+fact that the Romans were in possession of a system of construction
+which rendered them practically independent of most of the
+restrictions which had fettered the genius of the Egyptians,
+Assyrians, and Greeks. Their vaulted roofs could be supported by a
+comparatively small number of piers of great solidity, placed far
+apart; and accordingly in the great halls of the Thermae and elsewhere
+we find planning in which, a few stable points of support being
+secured, the outline of the spaces between them is varied at the
+pleasure of the architect in the most picturesque and pleasing manner.
+
+The actual floor received a good deal of attention from the Romans. It
+was generally covered with tesselated pavement, often with mosaic, and
+its treatment entered into the scheme of the design for most
+interiors.
+
+
+_The Walls._
+
+The construction of these was essentially different from that adopted
+by most earlier nations. The Romans rather avoided than cultivated the
+use of large blocks of stone; they invented methods by which very
+small materials could be aggregated together into massive and solid
+walls. They used mortar of great cementing power, so much so that many
+specimens of Roman walling exist in this country as well as in Italy
+or France, where the mortar is as hard as the stones which it unites.
+They also employed a system of binding together the small materials so
+employed by introducing, at short distances apart, courses of flat
+stones or bricks, called "bond courses," and they further fortified
+such walls by bands of flat materials placed edgeways after the manner
+popularly known as herring-bone work. The result of these methods of
+construction was that the Roman architect could build anywhere, no
+matter how unpromising the materials which the locality afforded; that
+he could put the walls of his building together without its being
+requisite to employ exclusively the skilled labour of the mason, and
+that both time and expense were thus saved. This economy and speed
+were not pushed so far as to render the work anything but durable;
+they had, however, a bad effect in another direction, for these rough
+rubble walls were habitually encased in some more sightly material, in
+order to make them look as though they were something finer than they
+really were; and accordingly, the exterior was often faced with a thin
+skin of masonry, and not infrequently plastered. The interior was also
+almost invariably plastered, but to this little exception can be
+taken. This casing of the exteriors was, however, the beginning of a
+system of what may be called false architecture, and one which led to
+much that was degrading to the art.
+
+The walls were in many cases, it has been already observed, gathered
+into strong masses, such as it is customary to term piers, in order to
+support the vaulted roofs at the proper points. They were often
+carried to a much greater height than in Greek buildings, and they
+played altogether a far more important part in the design of Roman
+buildings than they had done in that of the Greeks.
+
+
+_The Roofs._
+
+As has been already stated, the Romans, in their possession of a new
+system of construction, enjoyed a degree of freedom which was unknown
+before. This system was based upon the use of the arch, and arched
+roofs and domes, and it enabled the Romans to produce interiors
+unapproached before for size and splendour, and such as have hardly
+been surpassed since, except by the vaulted churches of the Middle
+Ages,--buildings which are themselves descended from Roman originals.
+The art of vaulting was, in short, the key to the whole system of
+Roman architecture, just as the Orders were to that of the Greeks.
+
+The well-known arch over the Cloaca Maxima at Rome (Fig. 123, p. 142)
+may be taken as an illustration of the most ancient and most simple
+kind of vault, the one which goes by the significant name of "barrel
+or waggon-head vault." This is simply a continuous arched vault
+springing from the top of two parallel walls; in fact, like the arch
+of a railway tunnel. Such a vault may be constructed of very great
+span, and affords a means of putting a permanent roof over a floor the
+outline of which is a parallelogram; but it is heavy and uninteresting
+in appearance. It was soon found to be possible to introduce a cross
+vault running at right angles to the original one; and where such an
+intersecting vault occurs the side walls of the original vault may be
+dispensed with, for so much of their length as the newly-added vault
+spans.
+
+The next step was to introduce a succession of such cross vaults close
+to one another, so that large portions of the original main wall might
+be dispensed with. What remained of the side walls was now only a
+series of oblong masses or piers, suitably fortified so as to carry
+the great weight resting upon them, but leaving the architect free to
+occupy the space between them as his fancy might dictate, or to leave
+it quite open. In this way were constructed the great halls of the
+Thermae; and the finest halls of modern classic architecture--such, for
+example, as the Madeleine at Paris, or St. George's Hall at
+Liverpool--are only a reproduction of the splendid structures which
+such a system of vaulting rendered possible.
+
+When the floor of the space to be vaulted was circular, the result of
+covering it with an arched roof was the dome--a familiar feature of
+Roman architecture, and the noblest of all forms of roof. We possess
+in the dome of the Pantheon a specimen, in fairly good preservation,
+of this kind of roof on the grandest scale.
+
+We shall find that in later ages the dome and the vault were adopted
+by the Eastern and the Western schools of Christian architecture
+respectively. In Rome we have the origin of both.
+
+
+_The Openings._
+
+These were both square-headed and arched; but the arched ones occur
+far more frequently than the others, and, when occasion required,
+could be far bolder. The openings became of much greater importance
+than in earlier styles, and soon disputed with the columns the dignity
+of being the feature of the building: this eventually led, as will be
+related under the next head, to various devices for the fusion of the
+two.
+
+The adoption of the arch by the Romans led to a great modification in
+classic architecture; for its influence was to be traced in every part
+of the structure where an opening of any sort had to be spanned.
+Formerly the width of such openings was very limited, owing to the
+difficulty of obtaining lintels of great length. Now their width and
+height were pure matters of choice, and doorways, windows, and arcades
+naturally became very prominent, and were often very spacious.
+
+
+_The Columns._
+
+These necessarily took an altered place as soon as buildings were
+carried to such a height that one order could not, as in Greek
+temples, occupy the whole space from pavement to roof. The Greek
+orders were modified by the Romans in order to fit these altered
+circumstances, but columnar construction was by no means disused when
+the arch came to play so important a part in building. The Roman Doric
+order, and a very simple variety of it called Tuscan, were but rarely
+used. The chief alteration from the Greek Doric, in addition to a
+general degradation of all the mouldings and proportions, was the
+addition of a base, which sometimes consists of a square plinth and
+large torus, sometimes is a slightly modified Attic base; the capital
+has a small moulding round the top of the abacus, and under the ovolo
+are two or three small fillets with a necking below; the shaft was
+from 6 to 7 diameters in height, and was not fluted; the frieze was
+ornamented with triglyphs, and the metopes between these were
+frequently enriched with sculptured heads of bulls: the metopes were
+exact squares, and the triglyphs at the angles of buildings were
+placed precisely over the centre of the column.
+
+The Ionic order was but slightly modified by the Romans, the chief
+alteration being made in the capital. Instead of forming the angular
+volutes so that they exhibited a flat surface on the two opposite
+sides of the capital, the Romans appear to have desired to make the
+latter uniform on all the four sides; they therefore made the sides of
+the abacus concave on plan, and arranged the volutes so that they
+seemed to spring out of the mouldings under the abacus and faced
+anglewise. The capital altogether seems compressed and crowded up,
+and by no means elegant; in fact, both this and the Doric order were
+decidedly deteriorations from the fine forms of Greek architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 145.--ROMAN CORINTHIAN CAPITAL AND BASE FROM THE
+      TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 145a.--THE ROMAN COMPOSITE CAPITAL.]
+
+The Corinthian order was much more in accordance with the later Roman
+taste for magnificence and display, and hence we find its use very
+general both in Rome and in other cities of the Empire. Its
+proportions did not greatly differ from those of the Greek Corinthian,
+but the mouldings in general were more elaborate. Numerous variations
+of the capital exist (Figs. 145, 145a), but the principal one was an
+amalgamation of the large Ionic volutes in the upper with the acanthus
+leaves of the lower portion of the capital: this is known as the
+Composite order, and the capital thus treated has a strength and
+vigour which was wanting to the Greek order (see Fig. 145a). The
+shafts of the columns were more often fluted than not, though
+sometimes the lower portion was left plain and the upper only fluted.
+The Attic base was generally used, but an example has been found of an
+adaptation of the graceful Persepolitan base to the Corinthian column.
+This was the happiest innovation that the Romans made; it seems,
+however, to have been but an individual attempt, and, as it was
+introduced very shortly before the fall of the Empire, the idea was
+not worked out.
+
+The orders thus changed were employed for the most part as mere
+decorative additions to the walls. In many cases they did not even
+carry the eaves of the roof, as they always did in a Greek temple; and
+it was not uncommon for two, three, or more orders to be used one
+above another, marking the different stories of a lofty building.
+
+The columns, or pilasters which took their place, being reduced to the
+humble function of ornaments added to the wall of a building, it
+became very usual to combine them with arched openings, and to put an
+arch in the interspace between two columns, or, in other words, to add
+a column to the pier between two arches (Fig. 146). These arched
+openings being often wide, a good deal of disproportion between the
+height of the columns and their distance apart was liable to occur;
+and, partly to correct this, the column was often mounted upon a
+pedestal, to which the name of "stylobate" has been given.
+
+It was also sometimes customary to place above the order, or the
+highest order where more than one was employed, what was termed an
+attic--a low story ornamented with piers or pilasters. The exterior of
+the Colosseum (Fig. 5), the triumphal arches of Constantine (Fig. 139)
+and Titus, and the fragments of the upper part of the Forum of Nerva
+(Fig. 147) may be consulted as illustrations of the combination of an
+order and an arched opening, and of the use of pedestals and attics.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 146.--PART OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, ROME.
+      SHOWING THE COMBINATION OF COLUMNS AND ARCHED OPENINGS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 147.--FROM THE RUINS OF THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME.
+      SHOWING THE USE OF AN ATTIC STORY. WITH PLAN.]
+
+Another peculiarity, of which we give an illustration from the baths
+of Diocletian (Fig. 148), was the surmounting a column or pilaster
+with a square pillar of stone, moulded in the same way as an
+entablature, _i.e._ with the regular division into architrave, frieze,
+and cornice. This was a decided perversion of the use of the order;
+it occurs in examples of late date. So also do various other
+arrangements for making an arch spring from the capital of a column;
+one of these, from the palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, we are able
+to illustrate (Fig. 149).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 148.--FROM THE BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN, ROME. SHOWING
+      A FRAGMENTARY ENTABLATURE AT THE STARTING OF PART OF A VAULT.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 149.--FROM THE PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, SPALATRO.
+      SHOWING AN ARCH SPRINGING FROM A COLUMN.]
+
+In conclusion, it may be worth while to say that the Roman writers and
+architects recognised five orders: the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic,
+Corinthian, and Composite, the first and last in this list being,
+however, really only variations; and that when they placed the
+orders above one another, they invariably used those of them which
+they selected in the succession in which they have been named; that is
+to say, the Tuscan or Doric lowest, and so on in succession.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 150.--MOULDINGS AND ORNAMENTS FROM VARIOUS ROMAN
+      BUILDINGS.]
+
+
+_The Ornaments._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 151.--ROMAN CARVING. AN ACANTHUS LEAF.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 152.--THE EGG AND DART ENRICHMENT. ROMAN.]
+
+The mouldings with which Roman buildings are ornamented are all
+derived from Greek originals, but are often extremely rough and
+coarse. It is true that in some old Roman work, especially in those of
+the tombs which are executed in marble, mouldings of considerable
+delicacy and refinement of outline occur, but these are exceptional.
+The profiles of the mouldings are, as a rule, segments of circles,
+instead of being more subtle curves, and the result is that violent
+contrasts of light and shade are obtained, telling enough at a
+distance, but devoid of interest if the spectator come near.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 153.--WALL DECORATION OF (SO-CALLED) ARABESQUE
+      CHARACTER FROM POMPEII.]
+
+Carving is executed exactly on the same principles as those which
+govern the mouldings--that is to say, with much more coarseness than
+in Greek work; not lacking in vigour, or in a sort of ostentatious
+opulence of ornament, but often sadly deficient in refinement and
+grace.
+
+Statues, many of them copies of Greek originals, generally executed
+with a heavy hand, but sometimes clearly of Greek work, were employed,
+as well as bronzes, inlaid marbles, mosaics, and various devices to
+ornament the interiors of Greco-Roman buildings; and free use was made
+of ornamental plaster-work, both on walls and vaults.
+
+Coloured decoration was much in vogue, and, to judge from what has
+come down to us, must have been executed with great taste and much
+spirit. The walls of a Roman dwelling-house of importance seem to have
+been all painted, partly with that light kind of decoration to which
+the somewhat inappropriate name of arabesque has been given, and
+partly with groups or single figures, relieved by dark or black
+backgrounds. The remains of the Palace of the Caesars in Rome, much of
+it not now accessible, and the decorations visible at Pompeii, give a
+high idea of the skill with which this mural ornamentation was
+executed; our illustration (Fig. 154) may be taken as affording a good
+example of the combined decorations in relief and colour often applied
+to vaulted ceilings.
+
+It is, however, characteristic of the lower level at which Roman art
+stood as compared with Greek that, though statues abounded, we find no
+traces of groups of sculpture designed to occupy the pediments of
+temples, or of bas-reliefs fitted to special localities in the
+buildings, such as were all but universal in the best Greek works.
+
+
+_Architectural Character._
+
+The nature of this will have been to a large extent gathered from the
+observations already made. Daring, energy, readiness, structural
+skill, and a not too fastidious taste were characteristic of the Roman
+architect and his works. We find traces of vast spaces covered, bold
+construction successfully and solidly carried out, convenience
+studied, and a great deal of magnificence attained in those buildings
+the remains of which have come down to us; but we do not discover
+refinement or elegance, a fine feeling for proportion, or a close
+attention to details, to a degree at all approaching the extent to
+which these qualities are to be met with in Greek buildings. We are
+thus sometimes tempted to regret that it was not possible to combine a
+higher degree of refinement with the great excellence in construction
+and contrivance exhibited by Roman architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 154.--DECORATION IN RELIEF AND COLOUR OF THE
+      VAULT OF A TOMB IN THE VIA LATINA, NEAR ROME.]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 155.--BASILICA-CHURCH OF SAN MINIATO, FLORENCE.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Basilicas in Rome and Italy._
+
+During the first three centuries the Christian religion was
+discredited and persecuted; and though many interesting memorials of
+this time (some of them having an indirect bearing upon architectural
+questions) remain in the Catacombs, it is chiefly for their paintings
+that the touching records of the past which have been preserved to us
+in these secluded excavations should be studied. Early in the fourth
+century Constantine the Great became Emperor, and in the course of his
+reign (from A.D. 312 to 337) he recognised Christianity, and made it
+the religion of the State. It then, of course, became requisite to
+provide places of public worship. Probably the Christians would have
+been, in many cases, reluctant to make use of heathen temples, and few
+temples, if any, were adapted to the assembling of a large
+congregation. But the large halls of the baths and the basilicas were
+free from associations of an objectionable character, and well fitted
+for large assemblages of worshippers. These and other such places were
+accordingly, in the first instance, employed as Christian churches.
+The basilica, however, became the model which, at least in Italy, was
+followed, to the exclusion of all others, when new buildings were
+erected for the purpose of Christian worship; and during the fourth
+century, and several succeeding ones, the churches of the West were
+all of the basilica type. What occurred at Constantinople, the seat of
+the Eastern Empire and the centre of the Eastern Church, will be
+considered presently.
+
+There is probably no basilica actually standing which was built during
+the reign of Constantine, or near his time; but there are several
+basilica churches in Rome, such as that of San Clemente, which were
+founded near his time, and which, though they have been partially or
+wholly rebuilt, exhibit what is believed to be the ancient disposition
+without modification.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 156.--INTERIOR OF A BASILICA AT POMPEII.
+      _Restored, from descriptions by various authors._]
+
+Access is obtained to San Clemente through a forecourt to which the
+name of the atrium is given. This is very much like the atrium of a
+Roman house, being covered with a shed roof round all four sides and
+open in the centre, and so resembling a cloister. The side next the
+church was called the narthex or porch; and when an atrium did not
+exist, a narthex at least was usually provided. The basilica has
+always a central avenue, or nave, and sides or aisles, and was
+generally entered from the narthex by three doors, one to each
+division. The nave of San Clemente is lofty, and covered by a simple
+wooden roof; it is separated from the side aisles by arcades, the
+arches of which spring from the capitals of columns; and high up in
+its side walls we find windows. The side aisles, like the nave, have
+wooden roofs. The nave terminates in a semicircular recess called "the
+apse," the floor of which is higher than that of the general
+structure, and is approached by steps. A large arch divides this apse
+from the nave. A portion of the nave floor is occupied by an enclosed
+space for the choir, surrounded by marble screens, and having a pulpit
+on either side of it. These pulpits are termed "ambos." Below the
+Church of San Clemente is a vaulted structure or crypt extending under
+the greater part, but not the whole, of the floor of the main
+building.
+
+The description given above would apply, with very slight variations,
+to any one of the many ancient basilica churches in Rome, Milan,
+Ravenna, and the other older cities of Italy; the principal variations
+being that in many instances, including the very ancient basilica of
+St. Peter, now destroyed, the avenues all stopped short of the end
+wall of the basilica, and a wide and clear transverse space or
+transept ran athwart them in front of the apse. San Clemente indeed
+shows some faint traces of such a feature. In one or two very large
+churches five avenues occur,--that is to say, a nave and double
+aisles; and in Santa Agnese (Fig. 156a) and at least one other, we
+find a gallery over the side aisles opening into the nave, or, as Mr.
+Fergusson puts it, "the side aisles in two stories." In many instances
+we should find no atrium, but in all cases we meet with the nave and
+aisles, and the apse at the end of the nave, with its arch and its
+elevated floor; and the entrances are always at the end of the
+building farthest from the apse, with some sort of porch or portal.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 156a.--BASILICA, OR EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH OF
+      SANTA AGNESE AT ROME.]
+
+The interest of these buildings lies not so much in their venerable
+antiquity as in the fact that the arrangements of all Christian
+churches in Western Europe down to the Reformation, and of very many
+since, are directly derived from these originals. If the reader will
+refer to the description of a Gothic cathedral in the companion volume
+of this series,[28] it will not be difficult for him to trace the
+correspondence between its plan and its general structure and those of
+the primitive basilica. The atrium no longer forms the access to a
+cathedral, but it still survives in the cloister, though in a changed
+position. The narthex or porch is still more or less traceable in the
+great western portals, and in a kind of separation which often, but
+not always, exists between the westernmost bay of a cathedral and the
+rest of the structure. The division into nave and aisles remains, and
+in very large churches and cathedrals there are double aisles, as
+there were in the largest basilicas. The nave roof is still higher
+than the aisles--the arcade, in two stories, survives in the usual
+arcade and triforium; the windows placed high in the nave are the
+present clerestory. The apsidal termination of the central avenue is
+still retained in almost all Continental architecture, though in Great
+Britain, from an early date, it was abandoned for a square east end;
+but square-ended or apsidal, a recess with a raised floor and a
+conspicuous arch, marking it off from the nave, always occupies this
+end of the church; and the under church, or crypt, is commonly, though
+not always, met with. The enclosure for the choir has, generally
+speaking, been moved farther east than it was in the basilica
+churches; though in Westminster Abbey, and in most Spanish cathedrals,
+we have examples of its occupying a position closely analogous to that
+of the corresponding enclosure at the basilica of San Clemente. The
+cross passage to which we have referred as having existed in the old
+basilica of St. Peter, and many others, is the original of the
+transept which in later churches has been made more conspicuous than
+it was in the basilica by being lengthened so as to project beyond the
+side walls of the church, and by being moved more westward. Lastly,
+the two ambos, or pulpits, survive in two senses. They are represented
+by the reading desk and the pulpit, and their situation and purpose
+are continued in the epistle and gospel sides of the choir.
+
+The one point in which an essential difference occurs is the position
+of the altar, or communion table, and that of the Bishop's chair, or
+throne. In the classic basilica the apse was the tribunal, and a
+raised seat with a tesselated pavement occupied the central position
+in it, and was the justice-seat of the presiding judge; and in the
+sweep of the apse, seats right and left, at a lower elevation, were
+provided for assessors or assistant-judges. In front of the president
+was placed a small altar. The whole of these arrangements were copied
+in the basilica churches. The seat of the president became the
+bishop's throne, the seats for assessors were appropriated to the
+clergy, and the altar retained substantially its old position in front
+of the apse, generally with a canopy erected over it. This disposition
+continues in basilica churches to the present day. At St. Peter's in
+Rome, for example, the Pope occupies a throne in the middle of the
+apse, and says mass with his face turned towards the congregation at
+the high altar, which stands in front of his throne under a vast
+baldacchino or canopy; but in Western Christendom generally a change
+has been made,--the altar has been placed in the apse where the
+bishop's throne formerly stood, and the throne of the bishop and
+stalls of his clergy have been displaced, and are to be found at the
+sides of the choir or presbytery.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 157.--SANT' APOLLINARE, RAVENNA. PART OF THE
+      ARCADE AND APSE.]
+
+Many basilica churches were erected out of fragments taken from older
+buildings, and present a curious mixture of columns, capitals, &c.;
+others, especially those at Ravenna, exhibit more care, and are noble
+specimens of ancient and severe architectural work. The illustration
+which we give of part of the nave, arcade, and apse of one of these,
+Sant' Apollinare in Classe, shows the dignified yet ornate aspect of
+one of the most carefully executed of these buildings (Fig. 157).
+
+In some of these churches the decorations are chiefly in mosaic, and
+are extremely striking. Our illustration of the apse of the great
+basilica of St. Paul without the walls (Fig. 158) may be taken as a
+fair specimen of the general arrangement and treatment of the crowd of
+sacred figures and subjects which it is customary to represent in
+these situations; but it can of course convey no idea of the brilliant
+effect produced by powerful colouring executed in mosaic, the most
+luminous of all methods of enrichment. The floor of most of them was
+formed in the style of mosaic known as "opus Alexandrinum," and the
+large sweeping, curved bands of coloured material with which the main
+outlines of the patterns are defined, and the general harmony of
+colour among the porphyries and other hard stones with which these
+pavements were executed, combine to satisfy the eye. A splendid
+specimen of opus Alexandrinum, the finest north of the Alps, exists in
+the presbytery of Westminster Abbey.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 158.--APSE OF THE BASILICA OF ST. PAUL WITHOUT
+      THE WALLS, ROME.]
+
+Another description of building is customarily met with in connection
+with early Christian churches,--the baptistery. This is commonly a
+detached building, and almost always circular or polygonal. In some
+instances the baptistery adjoins the atrium or forecourt; but it soon
+became customary to erect detached baptisteries of considerable size.
+These generally have a high central portion carried by a ring of
+columns, and a low aisle running round, the receptacle for water being
+in the centre. The origin of these buildings is not so clear as that
+of the basilica churches; they bear some resemblance to the Roman
+circular temples; but it is more probable that the form was suggested
+by buildings similar in general arrangement, and forming part of a
+Roman bath. The octagonal building known as the baptistery of
+Constantine, and the circular building now used as a church and
+dedicated to Santa Costanza in Rome, and the celebrated baptistery of
+Ravenna, are early examples of this class of structure. Somewhat more
+recent, and very well known, are the great baptisteries of Florence
+and Pisa.
+
+A few ancient circular or polygonal churches remain which do not
+appear to have been built as baptisteries. One of these is at Rome,
+the church of San Stefano Rotondo; but another, more remarkable in
+every way, is at Ravenna, the church of San Vitale. This is an
+octagonal building, with a large vestibule and a small apsidal choir.
+The central portion, carried by eight arches springing from as many
+lofty and solid piers, and surmounted by a hemispherical dome, rises
+high above the aisle which surrounds it. Much elegance is produced by
+the arrangement of smaller columns so as to form a kind of apsidal
+recess in each of the interspaces between the eight main piers.
+
+Another feature which has become thoroughly identified with church
+architecture is the bell-tower, or campanile. This appendage, there
+can be no doubt, originated with the basilicas of Italy. The use of
+bells as a call to prayer is said to have been introduced not later,
+at any rate, than the sixth century, and to this era is attributed a
+circular campanile belonging to Sant' Apollinare in Classe at Ravenna,
+a basilica already alluded to. The circular plan was, however,
+exceptional; the ancient campaniles remaining in Rome are all square;
+they are usually built of brick, many stories in height, and with a
+group of arched openings in each story, and are generally surmounted
+by a low conical roof.
+
+The type of church which we have described influenced church
+architecture in Italy down to the eleventh century, and such buildings
+as the beautiful church (Fig. 155) of San Miniato, near Florence (A.D.
+1013), and the renowned group of Cathedral, Baptistery, Campanile, and
+Campo Santo (a kind of cloistered cemetery) at Pisa, bear a very
+strong resemblance in many respects to these originals; though they
+belong rather to the Romanesque than to the Basilican division of
+early Christian architecture.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[28] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' chap. ii. p. 6.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 158a.--FRIEZE FROM THE MONASTERY AT FULDA.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+Constantine the Great, who by establishing the Christian religion had
+encouraged the erection of basilicas for Christian worship in Rome and
+Italy, effected a great political change, and one destined to exert a
+marked influence upon Christian architecture, when he removed the seat
+of empire from Rome to Byzantium, and called the new capital
+Constantinople,[29] after his own name. Byzantium had been an ancient
+place, but was almost in ruins when Constantine, probably attracted by
+the unrivalled advantages of its site,[30] rebuilt it, or at least
+re-established it as a city. The solemn inauguration of Constantinople
+as the new capital took place A.D. 330; and when, under Theodosius,
+the empire was divided, this city became the capital of the East.
+
+With a new point of departure among a people largely of Greek race,
+we might expect that a new development of the church from some other
+type than the basilica might be likely to show itself. This, in fact,
+is what occurred; for while the most ancient churches of Rome all
+present, as we have seen, an almost slavish copy of an existing type
+of building, and do not attempt the use of vaulted roofs, in Byzantium
+buildings of most original design sprang up, founded, it is true, on
+Roman originals, but by no means exact copies of them. In the erection
+of these churches the most difficult problems of construction were
+successfully encountered and solved. What may have been the course
+which architecture ran during the two centuries between the refounding
+of Byzantium and the building of Santa Sophia under Justinian, we can,
+however, only infer from its outcome. It is doubtful if any church
+older than the sixth century now remains in Constantinople; but it is
+certain that, to attain the power of designing and erecting so great a
+work as Santa Sophia, the architects of Constantinople must have
+continued and largely modified the Roman practice of building vaults
+and domes. There is every probability that if some of the early
+churches in Byzantium were domed structures others may have been
+vaulted basilicas; the more so as the very ancient churches in Syria,
+which owed their origin to Byzantium rather than to Rome, are most of
+them of the basilica type.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 159.--CHURCH OF SANTA SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE.
+      LONG SECTION. BUILT UNDER JUSTINIAN BY ANTHEMIOS AND ISIDOROS.
+      COMPLETED A.D. 537.]
+
+A church which had been erected by Constantine, dedicated to Santa
+Sophia (holy wisdom), was burnt early in the reign of Justinian (A.D.
+527 to 565); and in rebuilding it his architects, Anthemios of
+Thralles, and Isidoros of Miletus, succeeded in erecting one of the
+most famous buildings of the world, and one which is the typical and
+central embodiment of a distinct and very strongly marked
+well-defined style. The basis of this style may be said to be the
+adoption of the dome, in preference to the vault or the timber roof,
+as the covering of the space enclosed within the walls; with the
+result that the general disposition of the plan is circular or square,
+rather than oblong, and that the structure recalls the Pantheon more
+than the great Hall of the Thermae of Diocletian, or the Basilica of
+St. Paul. In Santa Sophia one vast flattish dome dominates the central
+space. This dome is circular in plan, and the space over which it is
+placed is a square, the sides of which are occupied by four massive
+semicircular arches of 100 ft. span each, springing from four vast
+piers, one at each of the four corners. The four triangular spaces
+between the corners of the square so enclosed and the circle or ring
+resting upon it are filled by what are termed "pendentives"--features
+which may, perhaps, be best described as portions of a dome, each just
+sufficient to fit into one corner of the square, and the four uniting
+at their upper margin to form a ring. From this ring springs the main
+dome. It rises to a height of 46 ft., and is 107 ft. in clear
+diameter. East and west of the main dome are two half-domes, each
+springing from a wall apsidal (_i.e._ semicircular) in plan. Smaller
+apses again, domed over at a lower level, are introduced, and vaulted
+aisles two stories in height occupy the sides of the space within the
+outer walls till the outline of the building is brought to very nearly
+an exact square. Externally this church is uninteresting,[31] but its
+interior is of surpassing beauty, and can be better described in the
+eloquent language of Gilbert Scott[32] than in any other: "Simple as
+is the primary ideal, the actual effect is one of great intricacy, and
+of continuous gradation of parts, from the small arcades up to the
+stupendous dome, which hangs with little apparent support like a vast
+bubble over the centre, or as Procopius, who witnessed its erection,
+described it, 'as if suspended by a chain from heaven.'
+
+"The dome is lighted by forty small windows, which pierce it
+immediately above the cornice which crowns its pendentives, and which,
+by subdividing its lower part into narrow piers, increases the feeling
+of its being supported by its own buoyancy.
+
+"The interior thus generated, covered almost wholly by domes, or
+portions of them, each rising in succession higher and higher towards
+the floating hemisphere in the centre, and so arranged that one shall
+open out the view to others, and that nearly the entire system of
+vaulting may be viewed at a single glance, appears to me to be in some
+respects the noblest which has ever been designed, as it was certainly
+the most daring which, up to that time at least, if not absolutely,
+had ever been constructed." After pointing out how the smaller arcades
+and apsidal projections, and the vistas obtained through the various
+arched openings, introduced intricate effects of perspective and
+constant changes of aspect, Scott continues: "This union of the more
+palpable with the more mysterious, of the vast unbroken expanse with
+the intricately broken perspective, must, as it appears to me, and as
+I judge from representations, produce an impression more astounding
+than that of almost any other building: but when we consider the whole
+as clothed with the richest beauties of surface,--its piers encrusted
+with inlaid marbles of every hue, its arcades of marble gorgeously
+carved, its domes and vaultings resplendent with gold mosaic
+interspersed with solemn figures, and its wide-spreading floors rich
+with marble tesselation, over which the buoyant dome floats
+self-supported, and seems to sail over you as you move,--I cannot
+conceive of anything more astonishing, more solemn, and more
+magnificent."
+
+The type of church of which this magnificent cathedral was the great
+example has continued in Eastern Christendom to the present day, and
+has undergone surprisingly little variation. A certain distinctive
+character in the foliage (Fig. 163) employed in capitals and other
+decorative carving, and mosaics of splendid colour but somewhat gaunt
+and archaic design, though often solemn and dignified, were typical of
+the work of Justinian's day, and could long afterwards be recognised
+in Eastern Christian churches.
+
+Between Rome and Constantinople, and well situated for receiving
+influence from both those cities, stood Ravenna, and here a series of
+buildings, all more or less Byzantine, were erected. The most
+interesting of these is the church of San Vitale (Figs. 160, 161).
+This building is octagonal in plan, and thus belongs to the series of
+round and polygonal churches and baptisteries for which the circular
+buildings of the Romans furnished a model; but in its high central
+dome, lighted by windows placed high up, its many subsidiary arcades
+and apses, the latter roofed by half-domes, and its vaulted aisles in
+two stories, it recalls Santa Sophia; and its sculpture, carving, and
+mosaic decorations are hardly less famous and no less characteristic.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 160.--PLAN OF SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 161.--SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. LONGITUDINAL
+      SECTION.]
+
+One magnificent specimen of Byzantine architecture, more within the
+reach of ordinary travellers, and consequently better known than San
+Vitale or Santa Sophia, must not be omitted, and can be studied easily
+by means of numberless photographic illustrations--St. Mark's at
+Venice. This cathedral was built between the years 977-1071, and, it
+is said, according to a design obtained from Constantinople. It has
+since been altered in external appearance by the erection of bulbous
+domical roofs over its domes, and by additions of florid Gothic
+character; but, disregarding these, we have alike in plan, structure,
+and ornament, a Byzantine church of the first class.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 162.--PLAN OF ST. MARK'S AT VENICE.]
+
+The ground-plan of St. Mark's (Fig. 162) presents a Greek cross,
+_i.e._ one in which all the arms are equal, and it is roofed by five
+principal domes, one at the crossing and one over each of the four
+limbs of the cross. Aisles at a low level, and covered by a series of
+small flat domes, in lieu of vaulting, fill up the angles between the
+arms of the cross, so as to make the outline of the plan nearly
+square.
+
+The rich colouring of St. Mark's, due to a profuse employment of
+mosaics and of the most costly marbles, and the splendid effects
+produced by the mode of introducing light, which is admitted much as
+at Santa Sophia, are perhaps its greatest charm; but there is beauty
+in every aspect of its interior which has furnished a fit theme for
+the pen of the most eloquent writer on art and architecture of the
+present or perhaps of any day.
+
+From Venice the influence of Byzantine art spread to a small extent in
+North Italy; in that city herself as well as in neighbouring towns,
+such as Padua, buildings and fragments of buildings exhibiting the
+characteristics of the style can be found. Remarkable traces of the
+influence of Byzantium as a centre, believed to be due to intercourse
+with Venice, can also be found in France. Direct communication with
+Constantinople by way of the Mediterranean has also introduced
+Byzantine taste into Sicily. One famous French church, St. Front in
+Perigueux, is identical (or nearly so) with St. Mark's in its plan;
+but all its constructive arches being pointed (Fig. 3, page 5), its
+general appearance differs a good deal from that of Eastern
+churches--a difference which is accentuated by the absence of the
+mosaics and other coloured ornaments which enrich the walls of St.
+Mark's. Many very old domed churches and much sculpture of the
+Byzantine type are moreover to be found in Central and Southern
+France--Anjou, Aquitaine, and Auvergne. These are, however, isolated
+examples of the style having taken root in spite of adverse
+circumstances; it is in those parts of Europe where the Greek Church
+prevails, or did prevail, that Byzantine architecture chiefly
+flourishes. In Greece and Asia Minor many ancient churches of
+Byzantine structure remain, while in Russia churches are built to the
+present day corresponding to the general type of those which have just
+been described.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 163.--FROM THE GOLDEN DOOR OF JERUSALEM. TIME OF
+      JUSTINIAN. A.D. 560.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 164.--CHURCH AT TURMANIN IN SYRIA. 4TH AND 5TH
+      CENTURY.]
+
+In ancient buildings of Syria the influence of both the Roman and the
+Byzantine models can be traced. No more characteristic specimens of
+Byzantine foliage can be desired than some to be found in Palestine,
+as for example the Golden Gate at Jerusalem, which we illustrate
+(Fig. 163); but in the deserted cities of Central Syria a group of
+exceptional and most interesting buildings, both secular and sacred,
+exists, which, as described by De Voguee,[33] seem to display a free
+and very original treatment based upon Roman more than Byzantine
+ideas. We illustrate the exterior of one of these, the church at
+Turmanin (Fig. 164). This is a building divided into a nave and aisles
+and with a vestibule. Two low towers flank the central gable, and it
+will be noticed that openings of depressed proportion, mostly
+semicircular headed, and with the arches usually springing from square
+piers, mark the building; while the use made of columns strongly
+resembles the manner in which in later times they were introduced by
+the Gothic architects.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 165.--TOWER OF A RUSSIAN CHURCH.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[29] _I.e._ the City of Constantine.
+
+[30] "The edge of the world: the knot which links together East and
+West; the centre in which all extremes combine," was the not
+overcharged description given of Constantinople by one of her own
+bishops.
+
+[31] For an illustration see Fig. 187.
+
+[32] 'Lectures on Mediaeval Architecture.'
+
+[33] 'Syrie Centrale.'
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+The term Romanesque is here used to indicate a style of Christian
+architecture, founded on Roman art, which prevailed throughout Western
+Europe from the close of the period of basilican architecture to the
+rise of Gothic; except in those isolated districts where the influence
+of Byzantium is visible. By some writers the significance of the word
+is restricted within narrower limits; but excellent authorities can be
+adduced for the employment of it in the wide sense here indicated.
+Indeed some difficulty exists in deciding what shall and what shall
+not be termed Romanesque, if any more restricted definition of its
+meaning is adopted; while under this general term, if applied broadly,
+many closely allied local varieties--as, for example, Lombard,
+Rhenish, Romance, Saxon, and Norman--can be conveniently included.
+
+The spectacle which Europe presented after the removal of the seat of
+empire to Byzantium and the incursions of the Northern tribes was
+melancholy in the extreme. Nothing but the church retained any
+semblance of organised existence; and when at last some kind of order
+began to emerge from a chaos of universal ruin, and churches and
+monastic buildings began to be built in Western Europe, all of them
+looked to Rome, and not to Constantinople, as their common
+ecclesiastical centre. It is not surprising that, as soon as
+differences between the ritual of the Eastern and the Western Church
+sprang up, a contrast between Eastern and Western architecture should
+establish itself, and that the early structures of the many countries
+where the Roman Church flourished never wandered far from the Roman
+type, with the exception of localities where circumstances favoured
+direct intercourse with the East. The architecture of the Eastern
+Church, on the other hand, adhered quite as closely to the models of
+Byzantium.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 166.--TOWER OF EARL'S BARTON CHURCH.]
+
+The style, so far as is known, was for a long time almost, if not
+absolutely, the same over a very large part of Western Christendom,
+and it has received from Mr. Freeman the appropriate designation of
+Primitive Romanesque. It was not till the tenth century, or later,
+that distinctive varieties began to make their appearance; and though
+that which was built earlier than that date has, through rebuildings
+and enlargements as well as natural decay, been in many cases swept
+away, still enough may be met with to show us what the buildings of
+that remote time were like.
+
+The churches are usually small, and have an apsidal east end. The
+openings are rude, with round-headed arches and small single or
+two-light windows, and the outer walls are generally marked by flat
+pilasters of very slight projection. Towers are common, and the
+openings in them are often divided into two or more lights by rude
+columns. The plan of these churches was founded on the basilica type,
+but they do not exhibit the same internal arrangement; and it is very
+noteworthy that many of them show marks of having been vaulted, or at
+least partly vaulted; and not covered, as the basilicas usually were,
+by timber roofs. Even a country so remote as Great Britain possessed
+in the 10th century many buildings of Primitive Romanesque character;
+and in such Saxon churches as those of Worth, Brixworth, Dover, or
+Bradford, and such towers as those of Earl's Barton (Fig. 166),
+Trinity Church Colchester, Barnack, or Sompting, we have specimens of
+the style remaining to the present day.
+
+By degrees, as buildings of greater extent and more ornament were
+erected, the local varieties to which reference has been made began to
+develop themselves. In Lombardy and North Italy, for example, a
+Lombard Romanesque style can be recognised distinctly; here a series
+of churches were built, many of them vaulted, but not many of the
+largest size. Most of them were on substantially the same plan as the
+basilicas, though a considerable number of circular or polygonal
+churches were also built. Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, and some of the
+churches at Brescia, Pavia, and Lucca, may be cited as well-known
+examples of early date, and a little later the cathedrals of Parma,
+Modena, and Piacenza (Fig. 167), and San Zenone at Verona. These
+churches are all distinguished by the free use of small ornamental
+arches and narrow pilaster-strips externally, and the employment of
+piers with half-shafts attached to them, rather than columns, in the
+arcades; they have fine bell-towers; circular windows often occupy
+the gables, and very frequently the walls have been built of, or
+ornamented with, coloured materials. The sculpture--grotesque,
+vigorous, and full of rich variety--which distinguishes many of these
+buildings, and which is to be found specially enriching the doorways,
+is of great interest, and began early to develop a character that is
+quite distinctive.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 167.--CATHEDRAL AT PIACENZA.]
+
+Turning to Germany, we find that a very strong resemblance existed
+between the Romanesque churches of that country and those of North
+Italy. At Aix-la-Chapelle a polygonal church exists, built by
+Charlemagne, and which tradition asserts was designed on the model of
+San Vitale at Ravenna. The resemblance is undoubted, but the German
+church is by no means an exact copy of Justinian's building. Early
+examples of German Romanesque exist in the cathedrals of Mayence,
+Worms, and Spires, and a steady advance was made till a point was
+reached (in the twelfth century) at which the style may be said to
+have attained the highest development which Romanesque architecture
+received in any country of Europe.
+
+The arcaded ornament (the arches being very frequently open so as to
+form a real arcade) which was noticed as occurring in Lombard
+churches, belongs also to German ones, though the secondary internal
+arcade (triforium) is absent from some of the early examples. Piers
+are used more frequently than columns in the interiors, and are often
+very plain. From an early date the use of a western as well as an
+eastern apse seems to have been common in Germany, and high western
+facades extending between two towers were features specially met with
+in that country. For a notice and some illustrations of the latest and
+best phase of German Romanesque, which may with propriety be termed
+"round-arched Gothic," the reader is referred to the companion volume
+of this series.[34]
+
+France exhibits more than one variety of Romanesque; for not only, as
+remarked in the chapter on Byzantine Art, is the influence of Greek or
+Venetian artists traceable in the buildings of certain districts,
+especially Perigueux, but it is clear that in others the existence of
+fine examples of Roman architecture (Fig. 168) affected the design of
+buildings down to and during the eleventh century. This influence may,
+for example, be detected in the use, in the churches at Autun,
+Valence, and Avignon, of capitals, pilasters, and other features
+closely resembling classic originals, and in the employment through a
+great part of Central and Northern France of vaulted roofs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 168.--VAULTS OF THE EXCAVATED ROMAN BATHS, IN
+      THE MUSEE DE CLUNY, PARIS.]
+
+A specially French feature is the chevet, a group of apsidal chapels
+which were built round the apse itself, and which combined with it to
+make of the east end of a great cathedral a singularly rich and ornate
+composition. This feature, originating in Romanesque churches, was
+retained in France through the whole of the Gothic period, and a good
+example of it may be seen in the large Romanesque church of St. Sernin
+at Toulouse, which we illustrate (Fig. 169). The transepts were
+usually well marked. The nave arcades generally sprang from piers
+(Fig. 170), more rarely from columns. Arches are constantly met with
+recessed, _i.e._ in receding planes,[35] the first stage of progress
+towards a Gothic treatment, and are occasionally slightly moulded
+(Fig. 171). Western doorways are often highly enriched with sculpture;
+and the carving and sculpture generally, though often rude, are full
+of vitality. Towers occur, usually square, more rarely octagonal.
+Window-lights are frequently grouped two or more under one arch.
+Capitals of a basket-shape, and with a square abacus, often richly
+sculptured, are employed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 169.--CHURCH OF ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 170.--NAVE ARCADE AT ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 171.--ARCHES IN RECEDING PLANES AT ST. SERNIN,
+      TOULOUSE.]
+
+In Normandy, and generally in the North of France, round-arched
+architecture was excellently carried out, and churches remarkable both
+for their extent and their great dignity and solidity were erected.
+Generally speaking, however, Norman architecture, especially as met
+with in Normandy itself, is less ornate than the Romanesque of
+Southern France; in fact some of the best examples seem to suffer from
+a deficiency of ornament. The large and well-known churches at Caen,
+St. Etienne, otherwise the Abbaye aux Hommes--interesting to
+Englishmen as having been founded by William the Conqueror
+immediately after the Conquest--and the Trinite, or Abbaye aux Dames,
+are excellent examples of early Norman architecture, but the student
+must not forget that additions have been made to them, which, if they
+add to their beauty, at the same time alter their character. For
+example, in St. Etienne, the upper part of the western towers and the
+fine spires with which they are crowned were built subsequent to the
+original structure, as was also, in all probability, the chevet, or
+eastern limb. It seems probable also that the vaulting may not be what
+was contemplated in the original plan.
+
+St. Etienne is 364 ft. long, and is lofty in its proportions. It has a
+nave and aisles, arcades resting on piers, and strongly-marked
+transepts, and has two western towers with the gable of the nave
+between them. The west front is well designed in three stories, having
+strongly-marked vertical divisions in the buttresses of the towers,
+and equally distinct horizontal divisions in the three doorways below,
+and two ranges of windows, each of five lights, above. There is no
+circular west window. The nave and aisles are vaulted.
+
+Besides other cathedral churches, such for example as those of Bayeux
+and Evreux, in which considerable parts of the original structures
+remain, there exist throughout Normandy and Brittany many parochial
+churches and monastic buildings, exhibiting, at least in some portions
+of their structure, the same characteristics as those of St. Etienne;
+and it is clear that an immense number of buildings, the beauty and
+even refinement of which are conspicuous, must have been erected in
+Northern France during the eleventh and the early years of the twelfth
+centuries, the period to which Norman architecture in France may be
+said to belong.
+
+In Great Britain, as has been already pointed out, enough traces of
+Saxon--that is to say, Primitive Romanesque--architecture remain to
+show that many simple, though comparatively rude, buildings must have
+been erected previous to the Norman Conquest. Traces exist also of an
+influence which the rapid advance that had been made by the art of
+building as practised in Normandy was exerting in our island. The
+buildings at Westminster Abbey raised by Edward the Confessor, though
+they have been almost all rebuilt, have left just sufficient traces
+behind to enable us to recognise that they were of bold design. The
+plan of the Confessor's church was laid out upon a scale almost as
+large as that of the present structure. The monastic buildings were
+extensive. The details of the work were, some of them, refined and
+delicate, and resembled closely those employed in Norman buildings at
+that time. Thus it appears that, even had the Conquest not taken
+place, no small influence would have been exerted upon buildings in
+England by the advance then being made in France; but instead of a
+gradual improvement being so produced, a sudden and rapid revolution
+was effected by the complete conquest of the country and its
+occupation by nobles and ecclesiastics from Normandy, who, enriched by
+the plunder of the conquered country, were eager to establish
+themselves in permanent buildings.
+
+Shortly after the Conquest distinctive features began to show
+themselves. Norman architecture in England soon became essentially
+different from what it was in Normandy, and we possess in this country
+a large series of fine works showing the growth of this imported
+style, from the early simplicity of the chapel in the Tower of London
+to such elaboration as that of the later parts of Durham Cathedral.
+
+The number of churches founded or rebuilt soon after the Norman
+Conquest must have been enormous, for in examining churches of every
+date and in every part of England it is common to find some fragment
+of Norman work remaining from a former church: this is very frequently
+a doorway left standing or built into walls of later date: and, in
+addition to these fragments, no small number of churches, and more
+than one cathedral, together with numerous castles, remain in whole or
+in part as they were erected by the original builders.
+
+Norman architecture is considered to have prevailed in England for
+more than a century; that is to say, from the Conquest (1066) to the
+accession of Richard I. (1189). For some details of the marks by which
+Norman work can be recognised the reader is referred to the companion
+volume;[36] we propose here to give an account of the broader
+characteristics of the buildings erected during the prevalence of the
+style.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The oldest remaining parts of Canterbury Cathedral are specimens of
+Norman architecture executed in England immediately after the
+Conquest. This great church was rebuilt by Archbishop Lanfranc (whose
+episcopate lasted from 1070 to 1089), and in extent as laid out by him
+was very nearly identical with the existing structure; almost every
+portion has, however, been rebuilt, so that of his work only the
+towers forming transepts to the choir, and some other fragments, now
+remain. More complete and equally ancient is the chapel in the Tower
+of London, which consists of a small apsidal church with nave and
+aisles, vaulted throughout, and in excellent preservation. This
+building, though very charming, is almost destitute of ornament. A
+little more ornate, and still a good example of early Norman, is St.
+Peter's Church, Northampton (Fig. 172), the interior of which we
+illustrate. To these examples of early Norman we may add a large part
+of Rochester Cathedral, and the transepts of Winchester. The transepts
+of Exeter present a specimen of rather more advanced Norman work; and
+in the cathedrals of Peterborough and Durham the style can be seen at
+its best.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 172.--NORMAN ARCHES IN ST. PETER'S CHURCH,
+      NORTHAMPTON.]
+
+In most Norman buildings we find very excellent masonry and massive
+construction. The exteriors of west fronts, transepts, and towers
+show great skill and care in their composition, the openings being
+always well grouped, and contrasted with plain wall-spaces; and a keen
+sense of proportion is perceptible. The Norman architects had at
+command a rich, if perhaps a rather rude, ornamentation, which they
+generally confined to individual features, especially doorways; on
+these they lavished mouldings and sculpture, the elaboration of which
+was set off by the plainness of the general structure. In the interior
+of the churches we usually meet with piers of massive proportion,
+sometimes round, sometimes octagonal, sometimes rectangular, and a
+shaft is sometimes carried up the face of the piers; as, for example,
+in Peterborough Cathedral (Fig. 173). The capitals of the columns and
+piers have a square abacus, and, generally speaking, are of the
+cushion-shaped sort, commonly known as basket-capitals, and are
+profusely carved. The larger churches have the nave roofed with a
+timber roof, and at Peterborough there is a wooden ceiling; in these
+cases the aisles only are vaulted, but in some small churches the
+whole building has been so covered. Buttresses are seldom required,
+owing to the great mass of the walls; when employed they have a very
+slight projection, but the same strips or pilasters which are used in
+German Romanesque occur here also. Low towers were common, and have
+been not unfrequently preserved in cases where the rest of the
+building has been removed. As the style advanced, the proportions of
+arcades became more lofty, and shafts became more slender, decorative
+arcades (Fig. 174) became more common, and in these and many other
+changes the approaching transition to Gothic may be easily detected.
+
+We have already alluded to the many Norman doorways remaining in
+parish churches of which all other parts have been rebuilt. These
+doorways are generally very rich; they possess a series of mouldings
+sometimes springing from shafts, sometimes running not only round the
+arched head, but also up the jambs of the opening; and each moulding
+is richly carved, very often with a repetition of the same ornament on
+each voussoir of the arch. Occasionally, but not frequently, large
+portions of wall-surface are covered by a diaper; that is to say, an
+ornament constantly repeated so as to produce a general sense of
+enrichment.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 173.--NAVE ARCADE, PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 174.--DECORATIVE ARCADE FROM CANTERBURY
+      CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Norman castles, as well as churches, were built in great numbers
+shortly after the Conquest, and not a few remain. The stronghold
+which a follower of the Conqueror built in order to establish himself
+on the lands granted him was always a very sturdy massive square
+tower, low in proportion to its width, built very strongly, and with
+every provision for sustaining an attack or even a siege. Such a tower
+is called "a keep;" and in many famous castles, as for example the
+Tower of London, the keep forms the nucleus round which buildings and
+courtyards of later date have clustered. In some few instances,
+however, as for example at Colchester, the keep is the only part now
+standing, and it is probable that when originally built these Norman
+castles were not much encumbered with out-buildings. Rochester Castle
+is a fine example of a Norman keep, though it has suffered much from
+decay and injury. The very large Norman keep of the Tower of London,
+known as the White Tower, and containing the chapel already described,
+has been much modernised and altered, but retains the fine mass of its
+original construction. Perhaps the best (and best-preserved) example
+is Hedingham Castle in Essex, which we illustrate (Figs. 175 and 176).
+From the remains of this building some idea of the interior of the
+hall--the chief room within a Norman keep--may be obtained, as well as
+of the general external appearance of such a structure.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 175.--HEDINGHAM CASTLE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 176.--INTERIOR OF HEDINGHAM CASTLE.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[34] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' chap. vii.
+
+[35] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' chap. v. p. 62.
+
+[36] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' chap. ii. p. 23.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 177.--ROUNDED ARCH OF CHURCH AT GELNHAUSEN.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Analysis._
+
+Notwithstanding very wide differences which undoubtedly exist, there
+is a sufficient bond of union between the Basilican, the Byzantine,
+and the Romanesque styles, to render it possible for us to include the
+characteristics of the three in an analysis of Christian round-arched
+architecture.
+
+_The Plan or floor-disposition_ of the basilican churches, as has been
+pointed out, was distinctive. The atrium, or forecourt, the porch, the
+division into nave and aisles; the transept, the great arch, and the
+apse beyond it with the episcopal seat at the back behind the altar;
+the ambos; and the enclosure for the choir, were typical features.
+Detached towers sometimes occurred. The plan of Romanesque churches
+was based upon that of the basilica; the atrium was often omitted, so
+was the transept sometimes; but, when retained, the transept was
+generally made more prominent than in the basilica. The position of
+the altar and of the enclosure for the choir were changed, but in
+other respects the basilica plan was continued. In Germany, however,
+apsidal transepts (Fig. 178) were built. Towers were common,
+occasionally detached, but more frequently joined to the main
+building.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 178.--PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES AT
+      COLOGNE.]
+
+Circular and polygonal buildings for use as baptisteries, and
+sometimes as churches, existed both in the basilican and the
+Romanesque time.
+
+Byzantine church plans are all distinguished by their great central
+square space, covered by the central dome, flanked usually by four
+arms, comparatively short, and all of equal length; and the plan of
+the buildings is generally square, or nearly so, in outline. Circular
+and polygonal buildings sometimes occur.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 179.--SPIRE OF SPIRES CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Few traces of the arrangement of military, secular, or domestic
+buildings earlier than the twelfth century remain, but some examples
+of a cloister at the side of the nave (generally the south side) of a
+church, giving or intended to give access to monastic buildings, still
+exist.
+
+_The Walls_ of such buildings as have come down to us are, it may be
+well understood, strong, since the most recent of this round-arched
+series of buildings must be about seven hundred years old. Fine
+masonry was not much employed till the time of the Normans, but the
+Roman plan of building with bricks or rubble and casing the face of
+the walls with marble or mosaic, or at least plaster, was generally
+followed. The walls are carried up as gables and towers to a
+considerable extent (Fig. 179), especially in Western countries.
+
+_The Roof._--In a basilica this was of timber, in a Byzantine church
+it consisted of a series of domes; in a Romanesque church it was
+sometimes of timber as in the basilica, but not unfrequently vaulted.
+As a general rule the vault prevailed in the West and the dome in the
+East; and such examples of either sort of roof as occur in those
+provinces where the other was usual, like the domed churches in parts
+of France, must be looked upon as exceptional.
+
+_The Openings_ are almost invariably arched, and seldom, if ever,
+covered by a lintel. It is hardly necessary to add that the arches are
+always round. Almost always they are semicircular, but instances of
+the employment of a segmental arch, or of one the outline of which is
+a little more than half a circle, may be occasionally met with.
+
+Door openings are often made important both by size and decoration.
+Window openings are usually small; and the grouping of two or more
+lights under one head, which was so conspicuous a feature in Gothic
+architecture, first appears in Byzantine buildings, and is met with
+also in Romanesque ones. The mode of introducing light is to a certain
+extent characteristic. The basilican churches always possess a
+clerestory, and usually side windows in the aisles; and this
+arrangement is generally followed in Romanesque buildings, though
+sometimes, in Germany, the clerestory is omitted. The gable ends of
+the nave and transepts are not usually pierced by many or large lights
+(Fig. 180); and when there is a central feature, as a tower, or even a
+dome, little or no light is introduced through it. On the other hand,
+the Byzantine churches depend largely for light upon the ring of
+windows which commonly encircles the base of the central dome, and
+sometimes that of the subsidiary domes; and the gables are pierced
+so as to supply any additional light required, so that windows are
+infrequent in the lower walls. Broadly speaking, therefore, the
+Western churches have side-lighting and the Eastern top-lighting.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 180.--CHURCH AT ROSHEIM. UPPER PORTION OF
+      FACADE.]
+
+The great arches which carry the main domes form a notable feature in
+Eastern churches, and are of very bold construction. In the basilican
+churches one great arch, called "the arch of triumph," occurs, and
+only one; this gives access to the apse: and a similar arch, which we
+now denominate "the chancel arch," usually occupies a corresponding
+position in all Romanesque churches. The arches of the arcade
+separating the nave from the aisles in all Western churches are
+usually of moderate span. In some ancient basilicas these arches are
+replaced by a horizontal beam.
+
+_The Columns._--In basilicas these were of antique type; very often
+they had actually been obtained by the demolition of older buildings,
+and when made purposely they were as a rule of the same general
+character. The same might be said of those introduced into Byzantine
+buildings, though a divergence from the classic type soon manifested
+itself, and small columns began to appear as decorative features. In
+Romanesque buildings the columns are very varied indeed, and shafts
+are frequently introduced into the decoration of other features. They
+occur in the jambs of doorways with mouldings or sub-arches springing
+from them; long shafts and short ones, frequently supporting
+ornamental arcades, are employed both internally and externally; and
+altogether that use of the column as a means of decoration, of which
+Gothic architecture presents so many examples, first began in the
+Romanesque style.
+
+The capitals employed in Romanesque buildings generally depart
+considerably from the classic type, being based on the primitive cube
+capital (Fig. 181), but, as a rule, in Eastern as well as in basilican
+churches, they bear a tolerably close resemblance to classic ones.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 181.--CUBIC CAPITAL.]
+
+_The Ornaments_ throughout the whole of the Christian round-arched
+period are a very interesting subject of study, and will repay close
+attention. In the basilican style mouldings occur but seldom: where
+met with, they are all of the profiles common in Roman architecture,
+but often rudely and clumsily worked. Carving partakes also of classic
+character, though it is not difficult to detect the commencement of
+that metamorphosis which was effected in Byzantium, and which can
+hardly be better described than in the following paragraph from the
+pen of Sir Digby Wyatt:--"The foliage is founded on ancient Greek
+rather than on Roman traditions, and is characterised by a peculiarly
+sharp outline. All ornamental sculpture is in comparatively low
+relief, and the absence of human and other figures is very marked.
+Enrichments were almost invariably so carved, by sinking portions only
+of the surfaces and leaving the arrises and principal places
+untouched, as to preserve the original constructive forms given by the
+mason (Fig. 184). The employment of the drill instead of the chisel,
+so common in debased Roman work, was retained as a very general
+practice by the Greek carvers, and very often with excellent effect.
+The foliage of the acanthus, although imitated from the antique,
+quite changed its character, becoming more geometrical and
+conventional in its form. That which particularly distinguishes
+Lombard from Byzantine art is its sculpture abounding with grotesque
+imagery, with illustrations of every-day life, of a fanciful mythology
+not yet quite extinct, and allusions, no longer symbolic but direct,
+to the Christian creed; the latter quality a striking evidence of the
+triumph of the Roman Church over all iconoclastic adversaries in
+Greece." What is here asserted of Lombard carving is true of that in
+the Romanesque buildings in Germany, Scandinavia (Fig. 182), France,
+and to a certain extent in Great Britain, though in our own country a
+large proportion of the ornamental carving consists simply of
+decorative patterns, such as the chevron, billet, and zig-zag; and
+sculpture containing figures and animals is less common.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 182.--DOORWAY AT TIND, NORWAY. (END OF 12TH
+      CENTURY.)]
+
+The mouldings of Romanesque buildings are simple, and at first were
+few in number, but by degrees they become more conspicuous, and before
+the transition to Gothic they assumed considerable importance (Fig.
+183) and added not a little to the architectural character of the
+buildings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 183.--MOULDINGS OF PORTAL OF ST. JAMES'S CHURCH
+      AT KOESFELD.]
+
+Coloured decoration, especially in mosaic, was a conspicuous feature
+in basilican churches, and still more so in those of the Byzantine
+style; such decoration in Romanesque churches was not infrequent, but
+it was more commonly painted in fresco or tempera. The glass
+mosaic-work to be found on the walls of Early Christian churches, both
+basilican and Byzantine, but less frequently Romanesque, is most
+interesting and beautiful: "it was," says the high authority already
+quoted, "employed only to represent and reproduce the forms of
+existing objects, such as figures, architectural forms and
+conventional foliage, which were generally relieved with some slight
+indication of shading upon a gold ground--the whole being bedded in
+the cement covering the walls and vaults of the basilicas and
+churches."
+
+"The design of both figures and ornaments was, generally speaking,
+very rude, though not without an occasional rising in some of the
+figures to a certain sublimity, derivable principally from the great
+simplicity of the forms and draperies and the earnest grandiose
+expression depicted on their countenances. The pieces of glass
+employed in the formation of this work are very irregular in shapes
+and sizes, of all colours and tones of colour, and the ground tint
+almost invariably prevailing is gold. The manner of execution is
+always large and coarse, and rarely approaches in neatness of joint
+and regularity of bedding to the (ancient Roman) 'opus majus
+vermiculatus;' yet, notwithstanding these blemishes, the effect of
+gorgeous, luxurious, and at the same time solemn decoration produced
+is unattainable by any other means as yet employed as structural
+embellishment. How noble and truly ecclesiastical in character are the
+gold-clad interiors of Monreale Cathedral, of the Capella Palatina at
+Palermo, of St. Mark at Venice, San Miniato at Florence, or Santi
+Apollinare and Vitale at Ravenna, the concurrent testimony of all
+travellers attests."
+
+A finer kind of glass mosaic arranged in geometrical patterns was
+made use of to enrich the ambos, screens, episcopal chairs, sepulchral
+ornaments, and other similar fittings of churches, and was often of
+great beauty. A third sort of mosaic--the Alexandrine work (opus
+Alexandrinum)--used for pavements, has been already alluded to; this
+was extremely effective, but its use appears to have been less general
+than that of the glass mosaics for the walls.
+
+_The Architectural Character_ of the basilican churches may be briefly
+characterised as venerable and dignified, but yet cheerful and bright
+rather than forbidding; they are, as interiors, impressive but not
+oppressive, solemn but not gloomy. Comparatively little attention was
+paid to external effect, and there is not often much in them to strike
+the passer-by. The character of Byzantine interiors is far more rich,
+and even splendid; but it is more gloomy, and often is solemn and
+grand to the last degree. In many cases these churches possess fine
+exteriors; and for the level sky-line produced by the long straight
+roofs of the basilica, a more or less pyramidal composition, showing
+curved outlines rather than straight ones, is substituted. The
+architectural character of the Romanesque buildings varies extremely
+with the districts in which they are erected; but, generally speaking,
+it may be described as picturesque, and even sometimes romantic; the
+appearance of towers, prominent transepts, and many smaller decorative
+features serves to render the exteriors telling and varied, though
+often somewhat rude and primitive. A solid and somewhat heavy
+character distinguishes the interiors of some varieties of Romanesque
+buildings--such, for example, as our own Early Norman; but in our
+fully-developed and late Norman, and still more in the latest German
+Romanesque churches, this disappears almost entirely, and much beauty
+and even lightness of effect is obtained, without any loss of that
+richness which is characteristic of more ancient examples.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 184.--BYZANTINE BASKET-WORK CAPITAL FROM SAN
+      MICHELE IN AFFRICISCO AT RAVENNA.]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 185.--ARABIAN CAPITAL. FROM THE ALHAMBRA.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+Few revolutions more sudden, more signal, and more widespread are
+recorded in history than that which covered not only the East but part
+of the West with the Mohammedan religion and dominion. Mohammed was
+born either in the year 569 or 570 of the Christian era, and died A.D.
+652. The year of the Hegira, the era from which Mohammedans compute
+their chronology, is A.D. 622, and within little more than a century
+from this era the Prophet was acknowledged, and the suzerainty of the
+Caliph recognised eastwards, in Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and
+Persia, and in India as far as to the Ganges; and westwards along the
+north coast of Africa, in Sicily, and in Spain. It was only to be
+expected that such a wonderful tide of conquest and such a widespread
+change of religion should before long leave its impress on the
+architecture of the continents thus revolutionised; and accordingly a
+Mohammedan style soon rose. This style did not displace or override
+the indigenous art of the various countries where it prevailed, as
+Roman architecture did in the age of universal dominion under the
+Empire; it assimilated the peculiarities of each country, and so
+transmuted them, that although wherever the religion of Mohammed
+prevails the architecture will at a glance confess the fact, still the
+local or national peculiarities of each country remain prominent.
+
+The Arabs, a nomadic race who lived in tents, do not seem to have been
+great builders even in their cities. We have no authentic accounts or
+existing remains of very early buildings even in Mecca or Medina, as
+the oldest mosques in those cities have been completely rebuilt. It is
+to Egypt and Syria that we must turn for the most ancient remaining
+examples of Saracenic architecture. These consist of mosques and
+tombs.
+
+
+_Egypt._
+
+A mosque--or Mohammedan place of worship--has two forms. The earlier
+mosques are all of them of a type the arrangement of which is
+simplicity itself. A large open courtyard, resembling the garth of a
+cloister, with a fountain in it, is surrounded cloister-wise by
+arcades supporting timber roofs. On the side nearest Mecca the arcades
+are increased to several rows in depth, so as to cover a considerable
+space. This is the part in which the congregation chiefly assembles;
+here a niche or recess (termed Kibla), more or less enriched, is
+formed in which the Koran is to be kept, and hard by a pulpit is
+erected. For many centuries past, though not, it is believed, from the
+very earliest times, a minaret or high tower, from the top of which
+the call to prayer is given, has also been an indispensable adjunct to
+a mosque.
+
+The second sort of mosque is a domed, and sometimes vaulted building
+of a form chiefly suggested by the Byzantine domed churches, with a
+central space and four short arms. This sort of mosque became almost
+universal in Turkey and Egypt after the capture of Constantinople by
+the Turks, and the appropriation to Moslem worship of Santa Sophia
+itself. The tombs are ornate and monumental buildings, or sanctuaries,
+of the same general character as the domed mosques, and often attached
+to them.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 186.--HORSE-SHOE ARCH.]
+
+From very early times the arches, in the arcades which have been
+described as virtually constituting the whole structure of the simpler
+sort of mosque, were pointed. Lubke claims as the earliest known and
+dated example of the pointed arch in a Saracenic building, the
+Nilometer, a small structure on an island near Cairo, which contains
+pointed arches that must have been built either at the date of its
+original construction in A.D. 719, or at latest, when it was restored
+A.D. 821. The Mosque of Amrou, however, which was founded very soon
+after the conquest of Egypt in A.D. 643, and is largely made up of
+materials obtained from older buildings, exhibits pointed arches, not
+only in the arcades, which probably have been rebuilt since they were
+originally formed, but in the outer walls, which are likely, in part
+at least, to be original.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 187.--EXTERIOR OF SANTA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE.
+      SHOWING THE MINARETS ADDED AFTER ITS CONVERSION INTO A MOSQUE.]
+
+Whatever uncertainty may rest upon these very remote specimens of
+pointed architecture, there is little if any about the Mosque of Ibn
+Tulun, also at Cairo, and built A.D. 885, or, according to another
+authority, A.D. 879. Here arcades of bold pointed arches spring from
+piers, and the effect of the whole structure is noble and full of
+character. From that time the pointed arch was constantly used in
+Saracenic buildings along with the semicircular and the horse-shoe
+arch (Fig. 186).
+
+From the ninth century, then, the pointed arch was in constant use. It
+prevailed in Palestine as well as in the adjacent countries for two
+centuries before it reached the West, and there can be no doubt that
+it was there seen by the Western Crusaders, and a knowledge of its use
+and an appreciation of its beauty and convenience were brought back to
+Western Europe by the returning ecclesiastics and others at the end of
+the First Crusade.[37]
+
+In the eleventh century the splendid Tombs of the Caliphs at Cairo
+were erected,--buildings crowned with domes of a graceful pointed
+form, and remarkable for the external decoration which usually covers
+the whole surface of those domes. By this time also, if not earlier,
+the minaret had become universal. This is a lofty tower of slender
+proportions, passing from a square base below to a circular form above
+(Fig. 187). A minaret is often divided into several stages. Each stage
+is then marked by a balcony, and is, generally speaking, a polygon
+of a greater number of sides than the stage below it.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 188.--ALHAMBRA. HALL OF THE ABENCERRAGES.]
+
+In the interiors of Saracenic buildings what is generally known as
+honeycomb corbelling is constantly employed to fill up corners and
+effect a change of plan from a square below to a circle or octagon
+above. This ornament is formed by the use of a series of small
+brackets, each course of them overhanging those below, and produces an
+effect some idea of which may be gathered from our illustration (Fig.
+188) of the Hall of the Abencerrages in the Alhambra. The interiors
+when not domed are often covered by wooden or plaster ceilings, more
+or less richly decorated, such as are shown in the view of one of the
+arcades of the Mosque "El Moyed," Cairo (Fig. 189), where the
+horse-shoe and pointed arches can both be seen. This illustration also
+shows timber ties, at the feet of the arches, such as were commonly
+used by the earlier Saracenic builders.
+
+The surfaces of the interiors of most Mohammedan buildings in all
+countries are covered with the most exquisite decorations in colour.
+Imitations of natural objects being forbidden by the Koran (a
+prohibition occasionally, but very rarely, infringed), the Saracenic
+artists, whose instincts as decorators seem to have been unrivalled,
+fell back upon geometrical and flowing patterns and inscriptions, and
+upon the use of tiles (Fig. 190), mosaics, inlays, patterns impressed
+on plaster, and every possible device for harmoniously enriching the
+surfaces with which they had to deal. Several of our illustrations
+give indications of the presence of these unrivalled decorations in
+the buildings which they represent (Fig. 195). Windows are commonly
+filled by tracery executed in stone or in plaster, and glazed with
+stained glass, and many of the open spaces in buildings are occupied
+by grilles, executed in wood, and most effective and rich in design.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 189.--MOSQUE 'EL MOYED' AT CAIRO.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 190.--ARABIAN WALL DECORATION.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 191.--PLAN OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM.]
+
+
+_Syria and Palestine._
+
+Syria was one of the countries earliest overrun by the Arab
+propaganda, and Jerusalem was taken by the Caliph Omar as early as
+A.D. 637. He there built a small mosque, though not the one which
+commonly goes by his name. Two mosques of great antiquity and
+importance, but the origin of which is a matter of dispute among
+authorities, stand in the Haram enclosure at Jerusalem. One of these
+is the octagonal building called the Sakhra (Figs. 191-2), known in
+the Moslem world as the Dome of the Rock, popularly called the Mosque
+of Omar, and occupying, as is all but universally admitted, part of
+the site of the Temple itself. Whether this is a "nearly unaltered
+Christian building of the fourth century," or a construction of
+Abd-el-Malek, the second Caliph, erected in the year 688, has been
+debated keenly; but what is beyond debate is that this structure is
+very Byzantine, or, to speak with more exactness, very like some of
+the buildings of Justinian in plan and section, and that from early
+times it was in the possession of the Saracens, and was regarded by
+them as the next most venerable and sacred spot in the world after
+Mecca. Much the same difference of opinion prevails as to the origin
+of the neighbouring mosque, El Aksah, which bears an undoubted general
+resemblance to an ancient basilica, though having no fewer than
+seven parallel avenues. This building has with equal confidence been
+attributed to the fourth and the seventh century. It is fortunately
+quite unnecessary here to do more than point out that these mosques,
+whatever their origin, were in use at least as early as the eighth
+century, and that the beautiful Dome of the Rock must have exercised a
+great influence on Mohammedan art, and, notwithstanding some
+differences of plan, may be fairly regarded as the prototype of many
+of the domed mosques and tombs to which allusion has been made. The
+decorations shown in our illustration of the Sakhra are, it is right
+to observe, most of them of a date centuries later than the time of
+the original construction of the building.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 192.--SECTION OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM.]
+
+
+_Sicily and Spain._
+
+The spread of Mohammedan architecture westward next claims our notice;
+but want of space will only permit us to mention a small though
+interesting group of Saracenic buildings which still remains in
+Sicily; the numerous specimens of the style which exist on the north
+coast of Africa; and the works erected by the Saracens during their
+long rule in Spain. The most celebrated Spanish example is the
+fortress and palace of the Alhambra, begun in 1248, and finished in
+1314. This building (Fig. 188) has been measured, drawn, and fully
+illustrated in an elaborate monograph by our countryman Owen Jones,
+and has become popularly known by the beautiful reproduction of
+portions of it which he executed at the Crystal Palace, and of which
+he wrote an admirable description in his 'Guide-book to the Alhambra
+Court.' The Mohammedan architecture of Spain is here to be seen at
+its best; most of its features are those of Arab art, but with a
+distinguishing character (Fig. 193).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 193.--DOORWAY IN THE ALHAMBRA.]
+
+Two other well-known examples are, the Giralda[38] at Seville, and
+the Mosque at Cordova. The Giralda is a square tower, in fact a
+minaret on a magnificent scale, divided into panels and richly
+decorated, and shows a masculine though beautiful treatment wholly
+different from that of the minarets in Cairo. The well-known Mosque at
+Cordova is of the simplest sort of plan, but of very great extent, and
+contains no less than nineteen parallel avenues separated from one
+another by arcades at two heights springing from 850 columns. The
+Kibla in this mosque is a picturesque domed structure higher than the
+rest of the building. The columns employed throughout are antique ones
+from other buildings, but the whole effect of the structure, which
+abounds with curiously cusped arches and coloured decoration, is
+described as most picturesque and fantastic.
+
+
+_Persia and India._
+
+Turning eastwards, we find in Turkey, as has been said, a close
+adherence to the forms of Byzantine architecture. In Persia, where the
+people are now fire-worshippers, the Mohammedan buildings are mostly
+ruined, and probably many have disappeared, but enough remains to show
+that mosques and palaces of great grandeur were built. Lofty doorways
+are a somewhat distinctive feature of Persian buildings of this style;
+and the use of coloured tiles of singular beauty for linings to the
+walls, in the heads of these great portals, and in other situations to
+which such decoration is appropriate, is very common: these
+decorations afford opportunity for the Persian instinct for colour,
+probably the truest in the whole world, to make itself seen.
+
+In India the wealth of material is such that an almost unlimited
+series of fine buildings could be brought forward, were space and
+illustrations available. A large part of that vast country became
+Mohammedan, and in the buildings erected for mosques and tombs a
+complete blending of the decorative forms in use among Hindu and Jaina
+sculptors with the main lines of Mohammedan art is generally to be
+found. The great open quadrangle, the pointed arch, the dome, the
+minaret, all appear, but they are all made out of Indian materials.
+Perhaps not the least noteworthy feature of mosques and tombs in India
+is the introduction of perforated slabs of marble in the place of the
+bar-tracery which filled the heads of openings in Cairo or Damascus.
+These are works of the greatest and most refined beauty: sometimes
+panels of thin marble, each pierced with a different pattern, are
+fitted into a framework prepared for their reception; at others we
+meet with window-heads where upon a background of twining stems and
+leaves there grow up palms or banian-trees, their lithe branches and
+leaves wreathed into lines of admirable grace, and every part standing
+out, owing to the fine piercings of the marble, as distinctly as a
+tree of Jesse on a painted window in a Gothic cathedral.
+
+The dome at Bijapur, a tomb larger than the Pantheon at Rome, and the
+Kutub at Delhi, a tower not unfit to be compared with Giotto's
+campanile at Florence, are conspicuous among this series of monuments,
+and at Delhi one of the grandest mosques in India (Fig. 194) is also
+to be found. The series of mosques and tombs at Ahmedabad, however,
+form the most beautiful group of buildings in India, and are the only
+ones of which a complete series of illustrations has been published.
+These mosques are remarkable for the great skill with which they are
+roofed and lighted. This is done by means of a series of domes raised
+on columns sufficiently above the general level of the stone ceilings,
+which cover the intervening spaces, to admit light under the line of
+their springing. The beauty of the marble tracery and surface
+decoration is very great. Pointed arches occur here almost invariably,
+and in most cases the outline of the opening is very slightly turned
+upwards at the apex so as to give a slight increase of emphasis to the
+summit of the arch. The buildings are not as a rule lofty; and though
+plain walls and piers occur and contrast well with the arched
+features, pains have been taken to avoid anything like massive or
+heavy construction. Great extent, skilful distribution, extreme
+lightness, and admirably combined groupings of the features and
+masses, are among the fine qualities which lend to Mohammedan
+architecture in Ahmedabad a rare charm.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 194.--GRAND MOSQUE AT DELHI, BUILT BY SHAH JEHAN.]
+
+The religion and the art of Islam seem destined to live and die
+together. Nothing (with the one exception of the suggestion of the
+pointed arch to Western Europe at the very moment when Romanesque art
+was ripe for a change) has developed itself or appears likely to grow
+out of Mohammedan architecture in any part of the wide field to which
+the attention of the reader has been directed; and in this respect the
+art of the Mohammedan is as exclusive, as intolerant, and as infertile
+as his religion. The interest which it must possess in the eyes of a
+Western student will rise less from its own charms than from the fact
+that it first employed the pointed arch--that feature from which
+sprang the glorious series of Western Christian styles to which we
+give the name of Gothic. This arch, indeed, appears to have been
+discovered by the very beginners of Mohammedan architecture, at a time
+when the style was still plastic and in course of growth, and the
+beauty of Saracenic art is due to no small extent to the use of it;
+but in the employment of this feature the Western architect advanced
+much further than the Saracen even at his best could go. The pointed
+architecture of the Middle Ages, with its daring construction, its
+comprehensive design, its elaborate mouldings, and its magnificent
+sculptures, is far more highly developed and more beautiful than that
+of the countries which we have been describing, though in its
+treatment of the walls it cannot surpass, and indeed did not often
+equal, the unrivalled decoration of plane surfaces which forms the
+chief glory of Mohammedan art.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 195.--ENTRANCE TO A MOORISH BAZAAR.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[37] The First Crusade lasted from A.D. 1095 to A.D. 1099.
+
+[38] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' p. 141.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Abbaye aux Dames, Caen, 231
+       "     Hommes, Caen, 230
+
+  Abbey, Westminster, 204
+
+  Agora, 114
+
+  Alhambra, 258, 263
+
+  Amphitheatre at Arles, 161
+          "       Nimes, 161
+          "       Pola, 161
+          "       Rome (Coloss.), 158
+          "       Sutri, 148
+          "       Verona, 161
+
+  Anthemios of Thralles, _Architect_, 211
+
+  Appian Way, 145
+
+  Apollodorus of Damascus, _Architect_, 155
+
+  Aqueduct at Nimes (Pont du Gard), 171
+      "    from Praeneste to Rome, 145
+      "    at Rome (Aqua Claudia), 171
+      "        "   (Anio Novus), 171
+      "    at Segovia, 171
+      "    at Tarragona, 171
+
+  Arch at Autun (Porte d'Arroux), 172
+      "   Jerusalem (Golden Gate), 220
+      "   Rome (of Constantine), 172
+      "    "   (of the Goldsmiths), 173
+      "    "   (of Sept. Severus), 172
+      "    "   (of Titus), 172
+      "   Treves (Porta Nigra), 172
+
+  Asoka, 65
+
+
+  Baalbek, ruins at, 149
+
+  Basilica at Rome (Constantiniana), 155
+        "      "   (Emilia), 154
+        "      "   (Julia), 155
+        "      "   (Portia), 154
+        "      "   (Sempronia), 155
+        "      "   (Ulpia), 155
+        "     Treves, 155
+
+  Basilica-church at Florence (S. Miniato), 209
+      "       "      Ravenna (S. Apollinare in Classe), 206, 209
+      "       "      Rome (S. Agnese), 201
+      "       "      Rome (S. Clemente), 199
+      "       "      Rome (S. Paul without the walls), 205
+      "       "      Rome (S. Pietro), 201
+
+  Baths of Agrippa, 162
+      "    Caracalla, 162
+      "    Diocletian, 164, 191
+
+  Bharhut, 71
+
+  Birs-i-Nimrud, 45
+
+  Bridge over the Danube (Trajan's), 170
+          "       Tagus (Hadrian's), 170
+          "       Tiber (Pons Sublicius), 170
+
+
+  Campo Santo, Pisa, 209
+
+  Castle of S. Angelo, 174
+
+  Cathedral at Canterbury, 233
+         "     Durham, 234
+         "     Exeter, 234
+         "     Monreale, 249
+         "     Peterborough, 234, 235
+         "     Piacenza, 224
+         "     Pisa, 209
+         "     Rochester, 234
+         "     Rome (S. Peter's), 205
+         "     Venice (S. Mark's), 217
+         "     Winchester, 234
+
+  Chaitya, 67
+
+  Chapel in Tower of London, 232, 233
+
+  Chehil Minar, 56
+
+  Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, 112
+
+  Church at Aix-la-Chapelle, 225
+       "    Caen (Abb. aux Hommes), 230
+       "     "   (Abb. aux Dames), 231
+       "    Constantinople (S. Sophia), 211
+       "    Earl's Barton, 224
+       "    Milan (S. Ambrogio), 224
+       "    Northampton (S. Peter's), 234
+       "    Paris (Madeleine), 185
+       "    Perigueux (S. Front), 218
+       "    Ravenna (S. Vitale), 208, 215
+       "    Rome (S. Maria degli Angeli), 164
+       "     "   (S. Maria ad Martyres), 166
+       "    Rome (S. Stefano Rot.), 208
+       "    Toulouse (S. Sernin), 227
+       "    Turmanin, Syria, 221
+       "    Verona (S. Zenone), 224
+
+  Circus Maximus, Rome, 143, 161
+
+  Cloaca Maxima, Rome, 141
+
+  Cnidus, Lion tomb at, 110
+
+  Colosseum, 158
+
+  Column of Marcus Aurelius, 173
+       "    Trajan, 173
+
+
+  Decoration of Egyptian buildings, 37
+
+
+  Erechtheium, 107
+
+
+  Forum of Nerva, 191
+
+
+  Gate, Golden, at Jerusalem, 220
+
+  Gate at Perugia, 141
+
+  Giralda, 265
+
+
+  Hall, S. George's, Liverpool, 185
+
+
+  Ictinus, _Architect_, 88
+
+  Isidoros of Miletus, _Architect_, 211
+
+
+  Keep at Colchester, 237
+      "   Hedingham Castle, 239
+      "   Rochester Castle, 238
+      "   Tower of London, 237, 239
+
+  Kutub, 266
+
+
+  Lats, 65
+
+  Lotus Column, 32
+
+  Lysicrates, Choragic Monument of, 112
+
+
+  Maison Carree, Nimes, 149
+
+  Mammisi, 25
+
+  Manephthah, 24
+
+  Manetho, 15
+
+  Mastaba, 20
+
+  Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, 110
+
+  Mosque at Ahmedabad, 266
+       "    Cairo (of Amrou), 254
+       "      "   ("El Moyed"), 258
+       "      "   (of Ibn Tulun), 256
+       "    Cordova, 265
+       "    Delhi, 266
+       "    Jerusalem (El Aksah), 261
+       "        "     (Sakhra), 261
+       "    (the Nilometer), 254
+
+  Mugheyr, buildings at, 44
+
+  Mycenae, Treasury of Atreus, 85
+     "    Gate of the Lions, 86
+
+
+  Obelisks, 36
+
+
+  Pagoda at Nankin, 76
+
+  Palace at Khorsabad, 46
+       "    Rome (of the Caesars), 174
+       "    Spalatro (of Diocletian), 174, 192
+
+  Pantheon, 164
+
+  Parthenon, 88-91, 99-101
+
+  Persepolis, buildings at, 55
+
+  Persian columns, 57
+
+  Pheidias, _Sculptor_, 91
+
+  Pont du Gard, Nimes, 171
+
+  Porta Nigra, Treves, 172
+
+  Pylon, 25
+
+  Pyramid of Cephren, 16
+        "    Cheops, 16
+        "    Mycerinus, 16
+
+
+  Ram Raz, 72
+
+  Rome, Cloacae at, 141
+
+
+  Scopas, _Sculptor and Architect_, 109, 112
+
+  Silchester, ruins at, 143
+
+  Sutri, ruins of an amphitheatre, 143
+
+
+  Temple at Athens (Erechtheium), 107
+       "      "    (Parthenon), 88-91, 99-101
+       "      "    (of Jupiter Olym.), 149
+       "    Baalbek, 149
+       "    Corinth, 81, 87
+       "    Ephesus (of Diana), 109
+       "    Honan, 75
+       "    Ipsamboul, 31
+       "    Karli (Chaitya), 67
+       "    Karnak, 26
+       "    Lomas Rishi cave, 67
+       "    Nigope cave (Chaitya), 67
+       "    Nimes (Maison Carree), 149
+       "    Orange (ruins), 157
+       "    Paestum, 92
+       "    Rome (of Jupiter Capitolinus), 142
+       "     "   (of Q. Metellus Macedonicus), 145
+       "     "   (of Antoninus and Faustina), 147
+       "     "   (of Fortuna Vir.), 147
+       "     "   (of Vesta), 153
+       "     "   (Pantheon), 164
+       "    Sanchi (Tope), 67
+       "    Tegea (of Athena Alea), 112
+       "    Tivoli (of Vesta), 153
+
+  Temples, Egyptian, 25
+     "     Shinto, 77
+
+  Theatre of Balbus, 156
+     "    "  Marcellus, 156
+     "    "  Mummius, 156
+     "    at Orange, 157
+     "    of Pompey, 156
+
+  Thermae, _see_ Baths
+
+  Tomb at Ahmedabad, 266
+    "  "  Bab-el-Molouk (Belzoni's), 24
+    "  "  Bijapur, 266
+    "  "  Castel d'Asso, 139
+    "  of Cecilia Metella, 173
+    "  "  Cyrus, 54
+    "  "  Darius, 59
+    "  "  Hadrian, 174
+    "  "  Regulini Galeassi, 141
+
+  Tombs, Egyptian, 20
+    "    Lycian, 85
+    "    Cnidus (Lion), 110
+
+  Tope at Sanchi, 67
+
+  Tower at Delhi (Kutub), 266
+      "    Seville (Giralda), 265
+
+  Treasury of Atreus, 85
+
+  Typhonia, 25
+
+
+  Usertesen I., 29
+
+
+  Wall of China, Great, 76
+
+  Way, Appian, 145
+
+  Westminster Abbey, 204
+
+  Wurkha, ruins at, 46
+
+
+  LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
+          STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS
+
+OF
+
+ART HISTORY OF ALL AGES
+
+Each Volume contains numerous Illustrations, and is strongly bound for
+the use of Students. Price 5_s._
+
+_NOW READY._
+
+BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH AND JOHN SLATER, B.A.
+
+    ARCHITECTURE: CLASSIC and EARLY CHRISTIAN. Comprising
+    the Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine and
+    Early Christian. Illustrated with upwards of 200
+    Engravings, including the Parthenon, the Erechtheium,
+    the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, the Colosseum, the Baths
+    of Diocletian, &c.
+
+BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH AND EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.
+
+    ARCHITECTURE: GOTHIC and RENAISSANCE. Showing the
+    progress of Gothic Architecture in England, France,
+    Germany, Italy, and Spain, and of Renaissance
+    Architecture in the same Countries. Illustrated with
+    more than 100 Engravings, including many of the
+    principal Cathedrals, Churches, Palaces, and Domestic
+    Buildings in England, and on the Continent.
+
+BY GEORGE REDFORD, F.R.C.S.
+
+    SCULPTURE: EGYPTIAN, ASSYRIAN, GREEK and ROMAN. With 160
+    Illustrations, including Examples of the Works of the
+    most celebrated Greek Sculptors, a Map of Ancient
+    Greece, and a Chronological List of Ancient Sculptors
+    and their Works.
+
+BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A., AND PERCY R. HEAD, B.A.
+
+    PAINTING: CLASSIC and ITALIAN. Including Painting in
+    Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Pompeii; the Renaissance in
+    Italy; Schools of Florence, Siena, Rome, Padua, Venice,
+    Perugia, Ferrara, Parma, Naples and Bologna. Illustrated
+    with 80 Engravings of many of the finest Pictures of
+    Italy.
+
+BY H. J. WILMOT-BUXTON, M.A., AND EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.
+
+    PAINTING: GERMAN, FLEMISH and DUTCH. Including an
+    Account of the Works of Albrecht Duerer, Cranach, and
+    Holbein; Van Eyck, Van der Weyden, and Memling; Rubens,
+    Snyders, and Van Dyck; Rembrandt, Hals, and Jan Steen;
+    Wynants, Ruisdael, and Hobbema; Cuyp, Potter, and
+    Berchem; Bakhuisen, Van de Velde, Van Huysum, and many
+    other celebrated painters.
+
+BY H. J. WILMOT-BUXTON, M.A.
+
+    PAINTING: ENGLISH and AMERICAN. Including an account of
+    the Earliest Paintings known in England; the works of
+    Holbein, Antonio Moro, Lucas de Heere, Zuccaro, and Marc
+    Garrard; the Hilliards and Olivers; Van Dyck, Lely, and
+    Kneller; Hogarth, Reynolds, and Gainsborough; West,
+    Romney, and Lawrence; Constable, Turner, and Wilkie;
+    Maclise, Mulready, and Landseer, and many other
+    celebrated painters.
+                                             _Nearly ready._
+
+BY GERARD SMITH, EXETER COLL. OXFORD.
+
+    PAINTING: SPANISH and FRENCH. Including the Works of
+    Ribera, Zurbaran, Velazquez, and Murillo; Poussin,
+    Claude Lorrain, Le Sueur, Watteau, Chardin, Greuze,
+    David, and Prud'hon; Ingres, Vernet, Delaroche, and
+    Delacroix; Corot, Diaz, and Millet; Courbet, Regnault,
+    Troyon, and many other celebrated artists.
+                                           _In preparation._
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Archaic spelling has been preserved as printed, for example, Egean
+instead of AEgean.
+
+Minor punctuation errors have been repaired.
+
+The following amendments have been made:
+
+    Page 67, footnote--X. amended to XI.--"See Chap. XI. for
+    an illustration of a Christian Basilica."
+
+    Page 101--Theseium amended to Theseum--"Temple of Theseus
+    (Theseum), at Athens, 465 B.C."
+
+    Page 211--Isodoros amended to Isidoros--"... Anthemius of
+    Thralles, and Isidoros of Miletus, ..."
+
+    Page 270--114 amended to 116--"Agora, 116"
+
+    Page 270--148 amended to 143--"Amphitheatre at Sutri, 143"
+
+    Page 270--205 amended to 206--"Basilica-church at Rome
+    (S. Paul without the walls), 206"
+
+Discrepancies between items in the List of Illustrations and actual
+captions have been preserved as printed.
+
+Figure 115--Guilloche is missing from the List of Illustrations in the
+original text. This omission has been preserved in this e-text.
+
+Figures 116 and 117 were out of sequence on page 136 (with Figures
+105-110). They have been moved to their proper place in the sequence
+of Figures. Other illustrations have been moved where necessary so
+that they are not in the middle of a paragraph.
+
+The advertising material has been moved to the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith and John Slater
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