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+Project Gutenberg's Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith and John Slater
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Architecture
+ Classic and Early Christian
+
+Author: Thomas Roger Smith
+ John Slater
+
+Release Date: August 22, 2009 [EBook #29759]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Sam W. and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ _ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS OF ART HISTORY_
+ _OF ALL AGES_
+
+ ARCHITECTURE
+ CLASSIC AND EARLY CHRISTIAN
+
+ BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+ AND
+
+ JOHN SLATER, B.A., F.R.I.B.A.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS, AS IT WAS IN THE TIME OF
+ PERICLES, _circa_ B.C. 438.]
+
+
+
+
+ _ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS OF ART HISTORY_
+
+ ARCHITECTURE
+
+ CLASSIC AND EARLY CHRISTIAN
+
+ BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+ _Professor of Architecture, University Coll. London_
+
+ AND
+
+ JOHN SLATER, B.A., F.R.I.B.A.
+
+
+ [Illustration: ATRIUM OF A ROMAN MANSION.]
+
+
+ LONDON
+ SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON
+ CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET
+ 1882.
+
+
+
+
+[_All rights reserved._]
+
+ LONDON. PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
+ STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This handbook is intended to give such an outline of the Architecture
+of the Ancient World, and of that of Christendom down to the period of
+the Crusades, as, without attempting to supply the minute information
+required by the professional student, may give a general idea of the
+works of the great building nations of Antiquity and the Early
+Christian times. Its chief object has been to place information on the
+subject within the reach of those persons of literary or artistic
+education who desire to become in some degree acquainted with
+Architecture. All technicalities which could be dispensed with have
+been accordingly excluded; and when it has been unavoidable that a
+technical word or phrase should occur, an explanation has been added
+either in the text or in the glossary; but as this volume and the
+companion one on Gothic and Renaissance Architecture are, in effect,
+two divisions of the same work, it has not been thought necessary to
+repeat in the glossary given with this part the words explained in
+that prefixed to the other.
+
+In treating so very wide a field, it has been felt that the chief
+prominence should be given to that great sequence of architectural
+styles which form the links of a chain connecting the architecture of
+modern Europe with the earliest specimens of the art. Egypt, Assyria,
+and Persia combined to furnish the foundation upon which the splendid
+architecture of the Greeks was based. Roman architecture was founded
+on Greek models with the addition of Etruscan construction, and was
+for a time universally prevalent. The break-up of the Roman Empire was
+followed by the appearance of the Basilican, the Byzantine, and the
+Romanesque phases of Christian art; and, later on, by the Saracenic.
+These are the styles on which all mediæval and modern European
+architecture has been based, and these accordingly have furnished the
+subjects to which the reader's attention is chiefly directed. Such
+styles as those of India, China and Japan, which lie quite outside
+this series, are noticed much more briefly; and some matters--such,
+for example, as prehistoric architecture--which in a larger treatise
+it would have been desirable to include, have been entirely left out
+for want of room.
+
+In treating each style the object has not been to mention every phase
+of its development, still less every building, but rather to describe
+the more prominent buildings with some approach to completeness. It is
+true that much is left unnoticed, for which the student who wishes to
+pursue the subject further will have to refer to the writings
+specially devoted to the period or country. But it has been possible
+to describe a considerable number of typical examples, and to do so in
+such a manner as, it is hoped, may make some impression on the
+reader's mind. Had notices of a much greater number of buildings been
+compressed into the same space, each must have been so condensed that
+the volume, though useful as a catalogue for reference, would have, in
+all probability, become uninteresting, and consequently unserviceable
+to the class of readers for whom it is intended.
+
+As far as possible mere matters of opinion have been excluded from
+this handbook. A few of the topics which it has been necessary to
+approach are subjects on which high authorities still more or less
+disagree, and it has been impossible to avoid these in every instance;
+but, as far as practicable, controverted points have been left
+untouched. Controversy is unsuited to the province of such a manual as
+this, in which it is quite sufficient for the authors to deal with the
+ascertained facts of the history which they have to unfold.
+
+It is not proposed here to refer to the authorities for the various
+statements made in these pages, but to this rule it is impossible to
+avoid making one exception. The writers feel bound to acknowledge how
+much they, in common with all students of the art, are indebted to the
+patient research, the profound learning, and the admirable skill in
+marshalling facts displayed by Mr. Fergusson in his various writings.
+Had it been possible to devote a larger space to Eastern architecture,
+Pagan and Mohammedan, the indebtedness to him, in a field where he
+stands all but alone, must of necessity have been still greater.
+
+The earlier chapters of this volume were chiefly written by Mr.
+Slater, who very kindly consented to assist in the preparation of it;
+but I am of course, as editor, jointly responsible with him for the
+contents. The Introduction, Chapters V. to VII., and from Chapter X.
+to the end, have been written by myself: and if our work shall in any
+degree assist the reader to understand, and stimulate him to admire,
+the architecture of the far-off past; above all, if it enables him to
+appreciate our vast indebtedness to Greek art, and in a lesser degree
+to the art of other nations who have occupied the stage of the world,
+the aim which the writers have kept in view will not have been missed.
+
+ T. ROGER SMITH.
+
+ _University College, London._
+ _May, 1882._
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FRIEZE FROM CHURCH AT DENKENDORF.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+ CHAPTER I.
+ PAGE
+ INTRODUCTION. 1
+
+ CHAPTER II.
+
+ EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+ Pyramids. Tombs. Temples. Analysis of Buildings. 14
+
+ CHAPTER III.
+
+ WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+ Babylonian. Assyrian. Persian. Analysis of Buildings. 43
+
+ CHAPTER IV.
+
+ ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+ Hindu. Chinese and Japanese. 64
+
+ CHAPTER V.
+
+ GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+ Buildings of the Doric Order. 80
+
+ CHAPTER VI.
+
+ Buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders. 102
+
+ CHAPTER VII.
+
+ Analysis of Greek Architecture. The Plan. The Walls.
+ The Roof. The Openings. The Columns. The Ornaments.
+ Architectural Character. 117
+
+ CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+ Historical and General Sketch. 138
+
+ CHAPTER IX.
+
+ The Buildings of the Romans. Basilicas. Theatres and
+ Amphitheatres. Baths (Thermæ). Bridges and Aqueducts.
+ Commemorative Monuments. Domestic Architecture. 147
+
+ CHAPTER X.
+
+ Analysis of Roman Architecture. The Plan. The Walls.
+ The Roofs. The Openings. The Columns. The Ornaments.
+ Architectural Character. 182
+
+ CHAPTER XI.
+
+ EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+ Basilicas in Rome and Italy. 198
+
+ CHAPTER XII.
+
+ BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 210
+
+ CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. 222
+
+ CHAPTER XIV.
+
+ CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE.
+
+ Analysis of Basilican, Byzantine, and Romanesque. 240
+
+ CHAPTER XV.
+
+ MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+ Egypt, Syria and Palestine, Sicily and Spain, Persia
+ and India. 252
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+ PAGE
+ THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS, AS IT WAS IN THE TIME OF
+ PERICLES, _circa_ B.C. 438. _Frontispiece_
+
+ ATRIUM OF A ROMAN MANSION. (_on title-page_)
+
+ FRIEZE FROM CHURCH AT DENKENDORF. x
+
+ ROCK-CUT TOMB AT MYRA, IN LYCIA. IMITATION OF
+ TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE. xviii
+
+ THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. xxiv
+
+ 1. OPENING SPANNED BY A LINTEL. ARCH OF THE GOLDSMITHS,
+ ROME. 3
+
+ 2. OPENING SPANNED BY A SEMICIRCULAR ARCH. ROMAN TRIUMPHAL
+ ARCH AT POLA. 4
+
+ 3. OPENINGS SPANNED BY POINTED ARCHES. INTERIOR OF ST.
+ FRONT, PÉRIGUEUX, FRANCE. 5
+
+ 4. TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA. RESTORED ACCORDING TO ADLER. 8
+
+ 5. PART OF THE EXTERIOR OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME. 10
+
+ 6. TIMBER ARCHITECTURE. CHURCH AT BORGUND. 12
+
+ 7. AN EGYPTIAN CORNICE. 14
+
+ 8. SECTION ACROSS THE GREAT PYRAMID (OF CHEOPS OR SUPHIS). 17
+
+ 9. ASCENDING GALLERY IN THE GREAT PYRAMID. 19
+
+ 10. THE SEPULCHRAL CHAMBER IN THE PYRAMID OF CEPHREN AT GIZEH. 19
+
+ 11. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE KING'S CHAMBER IN THE GREAT PYRAMID. 19
+
+ 12. IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE, FROM A TOMB
+ AT MEMPHIS. 21
+
+ 13. IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE, FROM A TOMB
+ AT MEMPHIS. 21
+
+ 14. PLAN AND SECTION OF THE TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN. 23
+
+ 15. ROCK-CUT FAÇADE OF THE TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN. 24
+
+ 16. GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT KARNAK. 26
+
+ 17. THE HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK, SHOWING THE CLERESTORY. 27
+
+ 18. ENTRANCE TO AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE, SHOWING THE PYLONS. 27
+
+ 19. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT EDFOU. 30
+
+ 20. EXAMPLE OF ONE OF THE MAMMISI AT EDFOU. 30
+
+ 21. GROUND-PLAN OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL. 31
+
+ 22. SECTION OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL. 31
+
+ 23. EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS BUD CAPITAL. 33
+
+ 24. EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS FLOWER CAPITAL. 33
+
+ 25. PALM CAPITAL. 34
+
+ 26. SCULPTURED CAPITAL. 34
+
+ 27. ISIS CAPITAL FROM DENDERAH. 35
+
+ 28. FANCIFUL COLUMN FROM PAINTED DECORATION AT THEBES. 35
+
+ 29. CROWNING CORNICE AND BEAD. 36
+
+ 30. PAINTED DECORATION FROM THEBES. 42
+
+ 31. SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT NINEVEH. 43
+
+ 32. PALACE AT KHORSABAD. BUILT BY KING SARGON ABOUT 710 B.C. 48
+
+ 33. PAVEMENT FROM KHOYUNJIK. 51
+
+ 34. PROTO-IONIC COLUMN FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 53
+
+ 34a. PROTO-IONIC CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 53
+
+ 34b. PROTO-CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 53
+
+ 35. TOMB OF CYRUS. 54
+
+ 35a. GENERAL PLAN OF THE BUILDINGS AT PERSEPOLIS. 56
+
+ 35b. COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS--EAST AND WEST PORTICOES. 58
+
+ 36. COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS--NORTH PORTICO. 58
+
+ 37. THE ROCK-CUT TOMB OF DARIUS. 60
+
+ 38. SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT ALLAHABAD. 64
+
+ 39. DAGOBA FROM CEYLON. 66
+
+ 40. CHAITYA NEAR POONA. 68
+
+ 41. THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. A ROCK-CUT MONUMENT. 69
+
+ 42. PLAN OF THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. 70
+
+ 43. VIMANA FROM MANASARA. 71
+
+ 44. BRACKET CAPITAL. 73
+
+ 45. COLUMN FROM AJUNTA. 73
+
+ 46. COLUMN FROM ELLORA. 73
+
+ 47. COLUMN FROM AJUNTA. 73
+
+ 48. A SMALL PAGODA. 76
+
+ 49. GREEK HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT. 80
+
+ 50. PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE IN ANTIS. 82
+
+ 50a. PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE. 83
+
+ 51. ANCIENT GREEK WALL OF UNWROUGHT STONE FROM SAMOTHRACE. 86
+
+ 52. PLAN OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT MYCENÆ. 86
+
+ 52a. SECTION OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT MYCENÆ. 86
+
+ 53. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SELINUS. 87
+
+ 53a. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM THE THESEUM. 87
+
+ 53b. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SAMOTHRACE. 87
+
+ 54. THE RUINS OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS. 89
+
+ 55. PLAN OF THE PARTHENON. 90
+
+ 56. THE ROOF OF A GREEK DORIC TEMPLE, SHOWING THE MARBLE
+ TILES. 91
+
+ 56a. SECTION OF THE GREEK DORIC TEMPLE AT PÆSTUM. AS RESTORED
+ BY BÖTTICHER. 92
+
+ 57. THE GREEK DORIC ORDER FROM THE THESEUM. 93
+
+ 58. PLAN OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN. 94
+
+ 59. THE FILLETS UNDER A GREEK DORIC CAPITAL. 94
+
+ 60. CAPITAL OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN FROM ÆGINA, WITH
+ COLOURED DECORATION. 95
+
+ 61. SECTION OF THE ENTABLATURE OF THE GREEK DORIC ORDER. 96
+
+ 62. PLAN, LOOKING UP, OF PART OF A GREEK DORIC PERISTYLE. 96
+
+ 63. DETAILS OF THE TRIGLYPH. 97
+
+ 64. DETAILS OF THE MUTULES. 97
+
+ 65. ELEVATION AND SECTION OF THE CAPITAL OF A GREEK ANTA,
+ WITH COLOURED DECORATION. 99
+
+ 66. PALMETTE AND HONEYSUCKLE. 102
+
+ 67. SHAFT OF AN IONIC COLUMN, SHOWING THE FLUTES. 103
+
+ 68. IONIC CAPITAL. FRONT ELEVATION. 103
+
+ 69. IONIC CAPITAL. SIDE ELEVATION. 103
+
+ 70. THE IONIC ORDER. FROM PRIENE, ASIA MINOR. 105
+
+ 71. THE IONIC ORDER. FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM, ATHENS. 106
+
+ 72. NORTH-WEST VIEW OF THE ERECHTHEIUM, IN THE TIME OF
+ PERICLES. 107
+
+ 73. PLAN OF THE ERECHTHEIUM. 108
+
+ 74. IONIC BASE FROM THE TEMPLE OF THE WINGLESS VICTORY
+ (NIKÈ APTEROS). 108
+
+ 75. IONIC BASE MOULDINGS FROM PRIENE. 108
+
+ 76. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. FROM THE MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES
+ AT ATHENS. 111
+
+ 77. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM THE MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES. 112
+
+ 78. MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES, AS IN THE TIME OF PERICLES. 113
+
+ 79. CAPITAL OF AN ANTA FROM MILETUS. SIDE VIEW. 114
+
+ 80. RESTORATION OF THE GREEK THEATRE OF SEGESTA. 115
+
+ 81. CAPITAL OF AN ANTA FROM MILETUS. 117
+
+ 82. GREEK DOORWAY, SHOWING CORNICE. 123
+
+ 83. GREEK DOORWAY. FRONT VIEW. (FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM.) 123
+
+ 84. THE ACANTHUS LEAF AND STALK. 128
+
+ 85. THE ACANTHUS LEAF. 129
+
+ 86. METOPE FROM THE PARTHENON. CONFLICT BETWEEN A CENTAUR
+ AND ONE OF THE LAPITHÆ. 130
+
+ 87. MOSAIC FROM THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS, OLYMPIA. 131
+
+ 88. SECTION OF THE PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM. 132
+
+ 89. PLAN OF THE PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM, LOOKING UP. 132
+
+ 90. CAPITAL OF ANTÆ FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM. 133
+
+ 91-96. GREEK ORNAMENTS IN RELIEF. 134
+
+ 97-104. GREEK ORNAMENTS IN RELIEF. 135
+
+ 105-110. GREEK ORNAMENTS IN COLOUR. 136
+
+ 111-113. EXAMPLES OF HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT. 137
+
+ 114. COMBINATION OF THE FRET, THE EGG AND DART, THE BEAD
+ AND FILLET, AND THE HONEYSUCKLE. 137
+
+ 116-120. EXAMPLES OF THE FRET. 137
+
+ 121. ELEVATION OF AN ETRUSCAN TEMPLE (RESTORED FROM
+ DESCRIPTIONS ONLY). 138
+
+ 122. SEPULCHRE AT CORNETO. 140
+
+ 123. THE CLOACA MAXIMA. 142
+
+ 124. "INCANTADA" IN SALONICA. 147
+
+ 125. THE IONIC ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA VIRILIS,
+ ROME. 148
+
+ 126. ROMAN-CORINTHIAN TEMPLE AT NÎMES (MAISON CARRÉE).
+ PROBABLY OF THE TIME OF HADRIAN. 150
+
+ 127. GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. 151
+
+ 128. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. 152
+
+ 129. THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. PLAN, LOOKING UP, AND
+ SECTION OF PART OF THE PERISTYLE. 153
+
+ 130. GROUND-PLAN OF THE BASILICA ULPIA, ROME. 155
+
+ 131. PLAN OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME. 157
+
+ 132. THE COLOSSEUM. SECTION AND ELEVATION. 158
+
+ 133. PLAN OF THE PRINCIPAL BUILDING, BATHS OF CARACALLA, ROME. 163
+
+ 134. INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA DEGLI ANGELI, ROME. 165
+
+ 135. THE PANTHEON, ROME. GROUND-PLAN. 166
+
+ 136. THE PANTHEON. EXTERIOR. 167
+
+ 137. THE PANTHEON. INTERIOR. 168
+
+ 138. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE PANTHEON. 169
+
+ 139. THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME. 172
+
+ 140. GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII. 176
+
+ 141. GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE TRAGIC POET, POMPEII. 177
+
+ 142. THE ATRIUM OF A POMPEIAN HOUSE. 178
+
+ 143. WALL DECORATION FROM POMPEII. 180
+
+ 144. CARVING FROM THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME. 182
+
+ 145. ROMAN-CORINTHIAN CAPITAL AND BASE. FROM THE TEMPLE OF
+ VESTA AT TIVOLI. 188
+
+ 145a. A ROMAN COMPOSITE CAPITAL. 188
+
+ 146. PART OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, ROME. SHOWING THE
+ COMBINATION OF COLUMNS AND ARCHED OPENINGS. 190
+
+ 147. FROM THE RUINS OF THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME. SHOWING
+ THE USE OF AN ATTIC STORY. 191
+
+ 148. FROM THE BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN, ROME. SHOWING A
+ FRAGMENTARY ENTABLATURE AT THE STARTING OF PART
+ OF A VAULT. 192
+
+ 149. FROM THE PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, SPALATRO. SHOWING AN
+ ARCH SPRINGING FROM A COLUMN. 192
+
+ 150. MOULDINGS AND ORNAMENTS FROM VARIOUS ROMAN BUILDINGS. 193
+
+ 151. ROMAN CARVING. AN ACANTHUS LEAF. 194
+
+ 152. THE EGG AND DART ENRICHMENT--ROMAN. 194
+
+ 153. WALL-DECORATION OF (SO-CALLED) ARABESQUE CHARACTER
+ FROM POMPEII. 195
+
+ 154. DECORATION IN RELIEF AND COLOUR OF THE VAULT OF A TOMB
+ IN THE VIA LATINA, NEAR ROME. 197
+
+ 155. BASILICA CHURCH OF SAN MINIATO, FLORENCE. 198
+
+ 156. INTERIOR OF A BASILICA AT POMPEII. RESTORED, FROM
+ DESCRIPTIONS BY VARIOUS AUTHORS. 200
+
+ 156a. BASILICA, OR EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH, OF SANT' AGNESE
+ AT ROME. 202
+
+ 157. SANT' APOLLINARE, RAVENNA. PART OF THE ARCADE AND APSE. 205
+
+ 158. APSE OF THE BASILICA OF SAN PAOLO FUORI LE MURA, ROME. 207
+
+ 158a. FRIEZE FROM THE MONASTERY AT FULDA. 210
+
+ 159. CHURCH OF SANTA SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE. LONGITUDINAL
+ SECTION. 212
+
+ 160. PLAN OF SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. 216
+
+ 161. SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. LONGITUDINAL SECTION. 216
+
+ 162. PLAN OF ST. MARK'S AT VENICE. 217
+
+ 163. SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM THE GOLDEN DOOR OF JERUSALEM. 219
+
+ 164. CHURCH AT TURMANIN IN SYRIA. 220
+
+ 165. TOWER OF A RUSSIAN CHURCH. 221
+
+ 166. TOWER OF EARL'S BARTON CHURCH. 223
+
+ 167. CATHEDRAL AT PIACENZA. 225
+
+ 168. VAULTS OF THE EXCAVATED ROMAN BATHS IN THE MUSÉE
+ DE CLUNY, PARIS. 227
+
+ 169. CHURCH OF ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE. 228
+
+ 170. NAVE ARCADE AT ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE. 229
+
+ 171. ARCHES IN RECEDING PLANES AT ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE. 230
+
+ 172. NORMAN ARCHES IN ST. PETER'S CHURCH, NORTHAMPTON. 234
+
+ 173. NAVE ARCADE, PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL. 236
+
+ 174. DECORATIVE ARCADE FROM CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL. 237
+
+ 175. HEDINGHAM CASTLE. 238
+
+ 176. INTERIOR OF HEDINGHAM CASTLE. 239
+
+ 177. ROUNDED ARCH OF CHURCH AT GELNHAUSEN. 240
+
+ 178. PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES AT COLOGNE. 241
+
+ 179. SPIRE OF SPIRES CATHEDRAL. 242
+
+ 180. CHURCH AT ROSHEIM. UPPER PORTION OF FAÇADE. 244
+
+ 181. CUBIC CAPITAL. 246
+
+ 182. DOORWAY AT TIND, NORWAY. 247
+
+ 183. MOULDINGS OF PORTAL OF ST. JAMES'S CHURCH AT KOESFELD. 248
+
+ 184. BYZANTINE BASKET WORK CAPITAL FROM SAN MICHELE IN
+ AFFRICISCO AT RAVENNA. 251
+
+ 185. ARABIAN CAPITAL. FROM THE ALHAMBRA. 252
+
+ 186. HORSE-SHOE ARCH. 254
+
+ 187. EXTERIOR OF SANTA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE. SHOWING THE
+ MINARETS ADDED AFTER ITS CONVERSION INTO A MOSQUE. 255
+
+ 188. ALHAMBRA. HALL OF THE ABENCERRAGES. 257
+
+ 189. MOSQUE "EL MOYED" AT CAIRO. 259
+
+ 190. ARABIAN WALL DECORATION. 260
+
+ 191. PLAN OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM. 261
+
+ 192. SECTION OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM. 262
+
+ 193. DOORWAY IN THE ALHAMBRA. 264
+
+ 194. GRAND MOSQUE AT DELHI, BUILT BY SHAH JEHAN. 267
+
+ 195. ENTRANCE TO A MOORISH BAZAAR. 269
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: ROCK-CUT TOMB AT MYRA, IN LYCIA.
+ _Imitation of Timber Construction in Stone._]
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY.
+
+
+ ABACUS, a square tablet which crowns the capital of the
+ column.
+
+ ACANTHUS, a plant, the foliage of which was imitated in
+ the ornament of the Corinthian capital.
+
+ AGORA, the place of general assembly in a Greek city.
+
+ ALÆ (_Lat._ wings), recesses opening out of the atrium
+ of a Roman house.
+
+ ALHAMBRA, the palatial fortress of Granada (from _al
+ hamra_--the red).
+
+ AMBO, a fitting of early Christian churches, very
+ similar to a pulpit.
+
+ AMPHITHEATRE, a Roman place of public entertainment in
+ which combats of gladiators, &c., were exhibited.
+
+ ANTÆ, narrow piers used in connection with columns in
+ Greek architecture, for the same purpose as pilasters in
+ Roman.
+
+ ARABESQUE, a style of very light ornamental decoration.
+
+ ARCHAIC, primitive, so ancient as to be rude, or at
+ least extremely simple.
+
+ ARCHIVOLT, the series of mouldings which is carried
+ round an arch.
+
+ ARENA, the space in the centre of an amphitheatre where
+ the combats, &c., took place.
+
+ ARRIS, a sharp edge.
+
+ ASTRAGAL, a small round moulding.
+
+ ATRIUM, the main quadrangle in a Roman dwelling-house;
+ also the enclosed court in front of an early Christian
+ basilican church.
+
+
+ BAPTISTERY, a building, or addition to a building,
+ erected for the purposes of celebrating the rite of
+ Christian baptism.
+
+ BASEMENT, the lowest story of a building, applied also
+ to the lowest part of an architectural design.
+
+ BAS-RELIEF, a piece of sculpture in low relief.
+
+ BIRD'S-BEAK, a moulding in Greek architecture, used in
+ the capitals of Antæ.
+
+ BYZANTINE, the style of Christian architecture which
+ had its origin at Byzantium (Constantinople).
+
+
+ CARCERES, in the ancient racecourses, goals and
+ starting-points.
+
+ CARTOUCHE, in Egyptian buildings, a hieroglyphic
+ signifying the name of a king or other important person.
+
+ CARYATIDÆ, human figures made to carry an entablature,
+ in lieu of columns in some Classic buildings.
+
+ CAVÆDIAM, another name for the atrium of a Roman house.
+
+ CAVEA, the part of an ancient theatre occupied by the
+ audience.
+
+ CAVETTO, in Classic architecture, a hollow moulding.
+
+ CELLA, the principal, often the only, apartment of a
+ Greek or Roman temple.
+
+ CHAITYA, an Indian temple, or hall of assembly.
+
+ CIRCUS, a Roman racecourse.
+
+ CLOACA, a sewer or drain.
+
+ COLUMBARIUM, literally a pigeon-house--a Roman sepulchre
+ built in many compartments.
+
+ COLUMNAR, made with columns.
+
+ COMPLUVIUM, the open space or the middle of the roof of
+ a Roman atrium.
+
+ CORONA, in the cornices of Greek and Roman architecture,
+ the plain unmoulded feature which is supported by the
+ lower part of the cornice, and on which the crowning
+ mouldings rest.
+
+ CORNICE, the horizontal series of mouldings crowning the
+ top of a building or the walls of a room.
+
+ CUNEIFORM, of letters in Assyrian inscriptions,
+ wedge-shaped.
+
+ CYCLOPEAN, applied to masonry constructed of vast
+ stones, usually not hewn or squared.
+
+ CYMA (recta, or reversa), a moulding, in Classic
+ architecture, of an outline partly convex and partly
+ concave.
+
+
+ DAGOBA, an Indian tomb of conical shape.
+
+ DENTIL BAND, in Classic architecture, a series of small
+ blocks resembling square-shaped teeth.
+
+ DOMUS (_Lat._), a house, applied usually to a detached
+ residence.
+
+ DWARF-WALL, a very low wall.
+
+
+ ECHINUS, in Greek Doric architecture, the principal
+ moulding of the capital placed immediately under the
+ abacus.
+
+ ENTABLATURE, the superstructure--comprising architrave,
+ frieze and cornice--above the columns in Classic
+ architecture.
+
+ ENTASIS, in the shaft of a column, a curved outline.
+
+ EPHEBEUM, the large hall in Roman baths in which youths
+ practised gymnastic exercises.
+
+
+ FACIA, in Classic architecture, a narrow flat band or
+ face.
+
+ FAUCES, the passage from the atrium to the peristyle in
+ a Roman house.
+
+ FLUTES, the small channels which run from top to bottom
+ of the shaft of most columns in Classic architecture.
+
+ FORUM, the place of general assembly in a Roman city, as
+ the Agora was in a Greek.
+
+ FRESCO, painting executed upon a plastered wall while
+ the plaster is still wet.
+
+ FRET, an ornament made up of squares and L-shaped lines,
+ in use in Greek architecture.
+
+
+ GARTH, the central space round which a cloister is
+ carried.
+
+ GIRDER, a beam.
+
+ GROUTED, said of masonry or brickwork, treated with
+ liquid mortar to fill up all crevices and interstices.
+
+ GUTTÆ, small pendent features in Greek and Roman Doric
+ cornices, resembling rows of wooden pegs.
+
+
+ HEXASTYLE, of six columns.
+
+ HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT, a decoration constantly introduced
+ into Assyrian and Greek architecture, founded upon the
+ flower of the honeysuckle.
+
+ HORSE-SHOE ARCH, an arch more than a semicircle, and so
+ wider above than at its springing.
+
+ HYPOSTYLE, literally "under columns," but used to mean
+ filled by columns.
+
+
+ IMPLUVIUM, the space into which the rain fell in the
+ centre of the atrium of a Roman house.
+
+ INSULA, a block of building surrounded on all sides by
+ streets, literally an island.
+
+ INTERCOLUMNIATION, the space between two columns.
+
+
+ KEYED, secured closely by interlocking.
+
+ KIBLA, the most sacred part of a Mohammedan mosque.
+
+
+ LÂTS, in Indian architecture, Buddhist inscribed
+ pillars.
+
+
+ MAMMISI, small Egyptian temples.
+
+ MASTABA, the most usual form of Egyptian tomb.
+
+ MAUSOLEUM, a magnificent sepulchral monument or tomb.
+ From the tomb erected to Mausolus, by his wife
+ Artemisia, at Halicarnassus, 379 B.C.
+
+ METOPES, literally faces, the square spaces between
+ triglyphs in Doric architecture; occasionally applied to
+ the sculptures fitted into these spaces.
+
+ MINARET, a slender lofty tower, a usual appendage of a
+ Mohammedan mosque.
+
+ MONOLITH, of one stone.
+
+ MORTISE, a hollow in a stone or timber to receive a
+ corresponding projection.
+
+ MOSQUE, a Mohammedan place of worship.
+
+ MUTULE, a feature in a Classic Doric cornice, somewhat
+ resembling the end of a timber beam.
+
+
+ NARTHEX, in an early Christian church, the space next
+ the entrance.
+
+
+ OBELISK, a tapering stone pillar, a feature of Egyptian
+ architecture.
+
+ OPUS ALEXANDRINUM, the mosaic work used for floors in
+ Byzantine and Romanesque churches.
+
+ OVOLO, a moulding, the profile of which resembles the
+ outline of an egg, used in Classic architecture.
+
+
+ PENDENTIVE, a feature in Byzantine and other domed
+ buildings, employed to enable a circular dome to stand
+ over a square space.
+
+ PERISTYLAR, or PERIPTERAL, with columns all round.
+
+ PERISTYLIUM, or PERISTYLE, in a Roman house, the inner
+ courtyard; also any space or enclosure with columns all
+ round it.
+
+ PISCINA, a small basin usually executed in stone and
+ placed within a sculptured niche, fixed at the side of
+ an altar in a church, with a channel to convey away the
+ water poured into it.
+
+ POLYCHROMY, the use of decorative colours.
+
+ PRECINCTS, the space round a church or religious house,
+ usually enclosed with a wall.
+
+ PRESBYTERY, the eastern part of a church, the chancel.
+
+ PROFILE (of a moulding), the outline which it would
+ present if cut across at right angles to its length.
+
+ PRONAOS, the front portion or vestibule to a temple.
+
+ PROPYLÆA, in Greek architecture, a grand portal or state
+ entrance.
+
+ PROTHYRUM, in a Roman house, the porch or entrance.
+
+ PSEUDO-PERIPTERAL, resembling, but not really being
+ peristylar.
+
+ PYLON, or PRO-PYLON, the portal or front of an Egyptian
+ temple.
+
+
+ QUADRIGA, a four-horse chariot.
+
+
+ ROMANESQUE, the style of Christian architecture which
+ was founded on Roman work.
+
+ ROTUNDA, a building circular in plan.
+
+
+ SACRISTY, the part of a church where the treasures
+ belonging to the church are preserved.
+
+ SHINTO TEMPLES, temples (in Japan) devoted to the Shinto
+ religion.
+
+ SPAN, the space over which an arch or a roof extends.
+
+ SPINA, the central wall of a Roman racecourse.
+
+ STILTED, raised, usually applied to an arch when its
+ centre is above the top of the jambs from which it
+ springs.
+
+ STRUTS, props.
+
+ STUPA, in Indian architecture, a mound or tope.
+
+ STYLOBATE, a series of steps, usually those leading up
+ to a Classic temple.
+
+
+ TAAS, a pagoda.
+
+ TABLINUM, in a Roman house, the room between the atrium
+ and the peristyle.
+
+ TALAR, in Assyrian architecture, an open upper story.
+
+ TENONED, fastened with a projection or tenon.
+
+ TESSELATED, made of small squares of material, applied
+ to coarse mosaic work.
+
+ TETRASTYLE, with four columns.
+
+ THERMÆ, the great bathing establishments of the Romans.
+
+ TOPES, in Indian architecture, artificial mounds.
+
+ TRABEATED, constructed with a beam or beams, a term
+ usually employed in contrast to arches.
+
+ TRICLINIUM, in a Roman house, the dining-room.
+
+ TRIGLYPH, the channelled feature in the frieze of the
+ Doric order.
+
+ TUMULI, mounds, usually sepulchral.
+
+ TYPHONIA, small Egyptian temples.
+
+
+ VELARIUM, a great awning.
+
+ VESTIBULE, the outer hall or ante-room.
+
+ VOLUTES, in Classic architecture, the curled ornaments
+ of the Ionic capital.
+
+ VOUSSOIRS, the wedge-shaped stones of which arches are
+ made.
+
+
+N.B. For the explanation of other technical words found in this
+volume, consult the Glossary given with the companion volume on Gothic
+and Renaissance Architecture.
+
+ [Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Architecture may be described as building at its best, and when we
+talk of the architecture of any city or country we mean its best,
+noblest, or most beautiful buildings; and we imply by the use of the
+word that these buildings possess merits which entitle them to rank as
+works of art.
+
+The architecture of the civilised world can be best understood by
+considering the great buildings of each important nation separately.
+The features, ornaments, and even forms of ancient buildings differed
+just as the speech, or at any rate the literature, differed. Each
+nation wrote in a different language, though the books may have been
+devoted to the same aims; and precisely in the same way each nation
+built in a style of its own, even if the buildings may have been
+similar in the purposes they had to serve. The division of the subject
+into the architecture of Egypt, Greece, Rome, &c., is therefore the
+most natural one to follow.
+
+But certain broad groups, rising out of peculiarities of a physical
+nature, either in the buildings themselves or in the conditions under
+which they were erected, can hardly fail to be suggested by a general
+view of the subject. Such, for example, is the fourfold division to
+which the reader's attention will now be directed.
+
+All buildings, it will be found, can be classed under one or other of
+four great divisions, each distinguished by a distinct mode of
+building, and each also occupying a distinct place in history. The
+first series embraces the buildings of the Egyptians, the Persians,
+and the Greeks, and was brought to a pitch of the highest perfection
+in Greece during the age of Pericles. All the buildings erected in
+these countries during the many centuries which elapsed from the
+earliest Egyptian to the latest Greek works, however they may have
+differed in other respects, agree in this--that the openings, be they
+doors, or be they spaces between columns, were spanned by beams of
+wood or lintels of stone (Fig. 1). Hence this architecture is called
+architecture of the beam, or, in more formal language, trabeated
+architecture. This mode of covering spaces required that in buildings
+of solid masonry, where stone or marble lintels were employed, the
+supports should not be very far apart, and this circumstance led to
+the frequent use of rows of columns. The architecture of this period
+is accordingly sometimes called columnar, but it has no exclusive
+claim to the epithet; the column survived long after the exclusive
+use of the beam had been superseded, and the term columnar must
+accordingly be shared with buildings forming part of the succeeding
+series.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 1.--OPENING SPANNED BY A LINTEL. ARCH OF THE
+ GOLDSMITHS, ROME.]
+
+The second great group of buildings is that in which the semicircular
+arch is introduced into construction, and used either together with
+the beam, or, as mostly happened, instead of the beam, to span the
+openings (Fig. 2). This use of the arch began with the Assyrians, and
+it reappeared in the works of the early Etruscans. The round-arched
+series of styles embraces the buildings of the Romans from their
+earliest beginnings to their decay; it also includes the two great
+schools of Christian architecture which were founded by the Western
+and the Eastern Church respectively,--namely, the Romanesque, which,
+originating in Rome, extended itself through Western Europe, and
+lasted till the time of the Crusades, and the Byzantine, which spread
+from Constantinople over all the countries in which the Eastern (or
+Greek) Church flourished, and which continues to our own day.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 2.--OPENING SPANNED BY A SEMICIRCULAR ARCH. ROMAN
+ TRIUMPHAL ARCH AT POLA.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 3.--OPENINGS SPANNED BY POINTED ARCHES. INTERIOR
+ OF ST. FRONT, PÉRIGUEUX, FRANCE.]
+
+The third group of buildings is that in which the pointed arch is
+employed instead of the semicircular arch to span the openings (Fig.
+3). It began with the rise of Mohammedan architecture in the East, and
+embraces all the buildings of Western Europe, from the time of the
+First Crusade to the revival of art in the fifteenth century. This
+great series of buildings constitutes what is known as Pointed, or,
+more commonly, as Gothic architecture.
+
+The fourth group consists of the buildings erected during or since the
+Renaissance (_i.e._ revival) period, and is marked by a return to the
+styles of past ages or distant countries for the architectural
+features and ornaments of buildings; and by that luxury, complexity,
+and ostentation which, with other qualities, are well comprehended
+under the epithet Modern. This group of buildings forms what is known
+as Renaissance architecture, and extends from the epoch of the revival
+of letters in the fifteenth century, to the present day.
+
+The first two of these styles--namely, the architecture of the beam,
+and that of the round arch--are treated of in this little volume. They
+occupy those remote times of pagan civilisation which may be
+conveniently included under the broad term Ancient; and the better
+known work of the Greeks and Romans--the classic nations--and they
+extend over the time of the establishment of Christianity down to the
+close of that dreary period not incorrectly termed the Dark ages.
+Ancient, Classic, and early Christian architecture is accordingly an
+appropriate title for the main subjects of this volume, though, for
+the sake of convenience, some notices of Oriental architecture have
+been added. Gothic and Renaissance architecture form the subjects of
+the companion volume.
+
+It may excite surprise that what appears to be so small a difference
+as that which exists between a beam, a round arch, or a pointed arch,
+should be employed in order to distinguish three of the four great
+divisions. But in reality this is no pedantic or arbitrary grouping.
+The mode in which spaces or openings are covered lies at the root of
+most of the essential differences between styles of architecture, and
+the distinction thus drawn is one of a real, not of a fanciful nature.
+
+Every building when reduced to its elements, as will be done in both
+these volumes, may be considered as made up of its (1) floor or plan,
+(2) walls, (3) roof, (4) openings, (5) columns, and (6) ornaments, and
+as marked by its distinctive (7) character, and the student must be
+prepared to find that the openings are by no means the least important
+of these elements. In fact, the moment the method of covering openings
+was changed, it would be easy to show, did space permit, that all the
+other elements, except the ornaments, were directly affected by the
+change, and the ornaments indirectly; and we thus find such a
+correspondence between this index feature and the entire structure as
+renders this primary division a scientific though a very broad one.
+The contrast between the trabeated style and the arched style may be
+well understood by comparing the illustration of the Parthenon which
+forms our frontispiece, or that of the great temple of Zeus at Olympia
+(Fig. 4), with the exterior of the Colosseum at Rome (Fig. 5),
+introduced here for the purposes of this comparison.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 4.--TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA. RESTORED ACCORDING
+ TO ADLER.]
+
+A division of buildings into such great series as these cannot,
+however, supersede the more obvious historical and geographical
+divisions. The architecture of every ancient country was partly the
+growth of the soil, _i.e._ adapted to the climate of the country, and
+the materials found there, and partly the outcome of the national
+character of its inhabitants, and of such influences as race,
+colonisation, commerce, or conquest brought to bear upon them. These
+influences produced strong distinctions between the work of different
+peoples, especially before the era of the Roman Empire. Since that
+period of universal dominion all buildings and styles have been
+influenced more or less by Roman art. We accordingly find the
+buildings of the most ancient nations separated from each other by
+strongly marked lines of demarcation, but those since the era of the
+Empire showing a considerable resemblance to one another. The
+circumstance that the remains of those buildings only which received
+the greatest possible attention from their builders have come down to
+us from any remote antiquity, has perhaps served to accentuate the
+differences between different styles, for these foremost buildings
+were not intended to serve the same purpose in all countries. Nothing
+but tombs and temples have survived in Egypt. Palaces only have been
+rescued from the decay of Assyrian and Persian cities; and temples,
+theatres, and places of public assembly are the chief, almost the only
+remains of architecture in Greece.
+
+A strong contrast between the buildings of different ancient nations
+rises also from the differing point of view for which they were
+designed. Thus, in the tombs and, to a large extent, the temples of
+the Egyptians, we find structures chiefly planned for internal effect;
+that is to say, intended to be seen by those admitted to the sacred
+precincts, but only to a limited extent appealing to the admiration of
+those outside. The buildings of the Greeks, on the other hand, were
+chiefly designed to please those who examined them from without, and
+though no doubt some of them, the theatres especially, were from their
+very nature planned for interior effect, by far the greatest works
+which Greek art produced were the exteriors of the temples.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 5.--PART OF THE EXTERIOR OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME.
+ (NOW IN RUINS.)]
+
+The works of the Romans, and, following them, those of almost all
+Western Christian nations, were designed to unite external and
+internal effect; but in many cases external was evidently most sought
+after, and, in the North of Europe, many expedients--such, for
+example, as towers, high-pitched roofs, and steeples--were introduced
+into architecture with the express intention of increasing external
+effect. On the other hand, the Eastern styles, both Mohammedan and
+Christian, especially when practised in sunny climates, show in many
+cases a comparative disregard of external effect, and that their
+architects lavished most of their resources on the interiors of their
+buildings.
+
+Passing allusions have been made to the influence of climate on
+architecture; and the student whose attention has been once called to
+this subject will find many interesting traces of this influence in
+the designs of buildings erected in various countries. Where the power
+of the sun is great, flat terraced roofs, which help to keep buildings
+cool, and thick walls are desirable. Sufficient light is admitted by
+small windows far apart. Overhanging eaves, or horizontal cornices,
+are in such a climate the most effective mode of obtaining
+architectural effect, and accordingly in the styles of all Southern
+peoples these peculiarities appear. The architecture of Egypt, for
+example, exhibited them markedly. Where the sun is still powerful, but
+not so extreme, the terraced roof is generally replaced by a sloping
+roof, steep enough to throw off water, and larger openings are made
+for light and air; but the horizontal cornice still remains the most
+appropriate means of gaining effects of light and shade. This
+description will apply to the architecture of Italy and Greece. When,
+however, we pass to Northern countries, where snow has to be
+encountered, where light is precious, and where the sun is low in the
+heavens for the greater part of the day, a complete change takes
+place. Roofs become much steeper, so as to throw off snow. The
+horizontal cornice is to a large extent disused, but the buttress, the
+turret, and other vertical features, from which a level sun will cast
+shadows, begin to appear; and windows are made numerous and spacious.
+This description applies to Gothic architecture generally--in other
+words, to the styles which rose in Northern Europe.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 6.--TIMBER ARCHITECTURE. CHURCH AT BORGUND.]
+
+The influence of materials on architecture is also worth notice. Where
+granite, which is worked with difficulty, is the material obtainable,
+architecture has invariably been severe and simple; where soft stone
+is obtainable, exuberance of ornament makes its appearance, in
+consequence of the material lending itself readily to the carver's
+chisel. Where, on the other hand, marble is abundant and good,
+refinement is to be met with, for no other building material exists in
+which very delicate mouldings or very slight or slender projections
+may be employed with the certainty that they will be effective. Where
+stone is scarce, brick buildings, with many arches, roughly
+constructed cornices and pilasters, and other peculiarities both of
+structure and ornamentation, make their appearance, as, for example,
+in Lombardy and North Germany. Where materials of many colours abound,
+as is the case, for example, in the volcanic districts of France,
+polychromy is sought as a means of ornamentation. Lastly, where timber
+is available, and stone and brick are both scarce, the result is an
+architecture of which both the forms and the ornamentation are
+entirely dissimilar to those proper to buildings of stone, marble, or
+brick, as may be seen by a glance at our illustration of an early
+Scandinavian church built of timber (Fig. 6), which presents forms
+appropriate to a timber building as being easily constructed of wood,
+but which would hardly be suitable to any other material whatever.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 7.--EGYPTIAN CORNICE.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+The origin of Egyptian architecture, like that of Egyptian history, is
+lost in the mists of antiquity. The remains of all, or almost all,
+other styles of architecture enable us to trace their rude beginnings,
+their development, their gradual progress up to a culminating point,
+and thence their slow but certain decline; but the earliest remains of
+the constructions of the Egyptians show their skill as builders at the
+height of its perfection, their architecture highly developed, and
+their sculpture at its very best, if not indeed at the commencement of
+its decadence; for some of the statuary of the age of the Pyramids was
+never surpassed in artistic effect by the work of a later era. It is
+impossible for us to conceive of such scientific skill as is evidenced
+in the construction of the great pyramids, or such artistic power as
+is displayed on the walls of tombs of the same date, or in the statues
+found in them, as other than the outcome of a vast accumulation of
+experience, the attainment of which must imply the lapse of very long
+periods of time since the nation which produced such works emerged
+from barbarism. It is natural, where so remote an antiquity is in
+question, that we should feel a great difficulty, if not an
+impossibility, in fixing exact dates, but the whole tendency of modern
+exploration and research is rather to push back than to advance the
+dates of Egyptian chronology, and it is by no means impossible that
+the dynasties of Manetho, after being derided as apocryphal for
+centuries, may in the end be accepted as substantially correct.
+Manetho was an Egyptian priest living in the third century B.C., who
+wrote a history of his country, which he compiled from the archives of
+the temples. His work itself is lost, but Josephus quotes extracts
+from it, and Eusebius and Julius Africanus reproduced his lists, in
+which the monarchs of Egypt are grouped into thirty-four dynasties.
+These, however, do not agree with one another, and in many cases it is
+difficult to reconcile them with the records displayed in the
+monuments themselves.
+
+The remains with which we are acquainted indicate four distinct
+periods of great architectural activity in Egyptian history, viz.: (1)
+the period of the fourth dynasty, when the Great Pyramids were erected
+(probably 3500 to 3000 B.C.); (2) the period of the twelfth dynasty,
+to which belong the remains at Beni-Hassan; (3) the period of the
+eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, when Thebes was in its glory,
+which is attested by the ruins of Luxor and Karnak; and (4) the
+Ptolemaic period, of which there are the remains at Denderah, Edfou,
+and Philæ. The monuments that remain are almost exclusively tombs and
+temples. The tombs are, generally speaking, all met with on the east
+or right bank of the Nile: among them must be classed those grandest
+and oldest monuments of Egyptian skill, the Pyramids, which appear to
+have been all designed as royal burying-places. A large number of
+pyramids have been discovered, but those of Gizeh, near Cairo, are the
+largest and the best known, and also probably the oldest which can be
+authenticated.[1] The three largest pyramids are those of Cheops,
+Cephren, and Mycerinus at Gizeh (or, as the names are more correctly
+written, Suphis, Sensuphis, and Moscheris or Mencheris). These
+monarchs all belonged to the fourth dynasty, and the most probable
+date to be assigned to them is about 3000 B.C. The pyramid of Suphis
+is the largest, and is the one familiarly known as the Great Pyramid;
+it has a square base, the side of which is 760 feet long,[2] a height
+of 484 feet, and an area of 577,600 square feet. In this pyramid the
+angle of inclination of the sloping sides to the base is 51° 51', but
+in no two pyramids is this angle the same. There can be no doubt that
+these huge monuments were erected each as the tomb of an individual
+king, whose efforts were directed towards making it everlasting, and
+the greatest pains were taken to render the access to the burial
+chamber extremely hard to discover. This accounts for the vast
+disproportion between the lavish amount of material used for the
+pyramid and the smallness of the cavity enclosed in it (Fig. 8).
+
+The material employed was limestone cased with syenite (granite from
+Syene), and the internal passages were lined with granite. The granite
+of the casing has entirely disappeared, but that employed as linings
+is still in its place, and so skilfully worked that it would not be
+possible to introduce even a sheet of paper between the joints.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 8.--SECTION ACROSS THE GREAT PYRAMID (OF CHEOPS
+ OR SUPHIS).]
+
+The entrance D to this pyramid of Suphis was at a height of 47 ft.
+6 in. above the base, and, as was almost invariably the case, on the
+north face; from the entrance a passage slopes downward at an angle of
+26° 27' to a chamber cut in the rock at a depth of about 90 feet below
+the base of the pyramid. This chamber seems to have been intended as a
+blind, as it was not the place for the deposition of the corpse. From
+the point in the above described passage--marked A on our illustration
+of this pyramid--another gallery starts upwards, till it reaches the
+point C, from which a horizontal passage leads to another small
+chamber. This is called the Queen's Chamber, but no reason has been
+discovered for the name. From this point C the gallery continues
+upwards till, in the heart of the pyramid, the Royal Chamber, B, is
+reached. The walls of these chambers and passages are lined with
+masonry executed in the hardest stone (granite), and with an accuracy
+of fitting and a truth of surface that can hardly be surpassed.
+Extreme care seems to have been taken to prevent the great weight
+overhead from crushing in the galleries and the chamber. The gallery
+from C upwards is of the form shown in Fig. 9, where each layer of
+stones projects slightly beyond the one underneath it. Fig. 11 is a
+section of the chamber itself, and the succession of small chambers
+shown one above the other was evidently formed for the purpose of
+distributing the weight of the superincumbent mass. From the point C a
+narrow well leads almost perpendicularly downwards to a point nearly
+at the bottom of the first-mentioned gallery; and the purpose to be
+served by this well was long a subject of debate. The probability is
+that, after the corpse had been placed in its chamber, the workmen
+completely blocked up the passage from A to C by allowing large blocks
+of granite to slide down it, these blocks having been previously
+prepared and deposited in the larger gallery; the men then let
+themselves down the well, and by means of the lower gallery made their
+exit from the pyramid. The entrances to the chamber and to the pyramid
+itself were formed by huge blocks of stone which exactly fitted into
+grooves prepared for them with the most beautiful mathematical
+accuracy. The chief interest attaching to the pyramids lies in their
+extreme antiquity, and the scientific method of their construction;
+for their effect upon the spectator is by no means proportionate to
+their immense mass and the labour bestowed upon them.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 9.--ASCENDING GALLERY IN THE GREAT PYRAMID.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 10.--THE SEPULCHRAL CHAMBER IN THE PYRAMID OF
+ CEPHREN AT GIZEH.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 11.--THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE KING'S CHAMBER IN
+ THE GREAT PYRAMID.]
+
+In the neighbourhood of the pyramids are found a large number of tombs
+which are supposed to be those of private persons. Their form is
+generally that of a _mastaba_ or truncated pyramid with sloping walls,
+and their construction is evidently copied from a fashion of wooden
+architecture previously existing. The same idea of making an
+everlasting habitation for the body prevailed as in the case of the
+pyramids, and stone was therefore the material employed; but the
+builders seem to have desired to indulge in a decorative style, and as
+they were totally unable to originate a legitimate stone architecture,
+we find carved in stone, rounded beams as lintels, grooved posts,
+and--most curious of all--roofs that are an almost exact copy of the
+early timber huts when unsquared baulks of timber were laid across
+side by side to form a covering. Figs. 12 and 13 show this kind of
+stone-work, which is peculiar to the old dynasties, and seems to have
+had little influence upon succeeding styles.
+
+A remarkable feature of these early private tombs consists in the
+paintings with which the walls are decorated, and which vividly
+portray the ordinary every-day occupations carried on during his
+lifetime by the person who was destined to be the inmate of the tomb.
+These paintings are of immense value in enabling us to form an
+accurate idea of the life of the people at this early age.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 12.--IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE,
+ FROM A TOMB AT MEMPHIS.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 13.--IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE,
+ FROM A TOMB AT MEMPHIS.]
+
+It may possibly be open to doubt whether the dignified appellation of
+architecture should be applied to buildings of the kind we have just
+been describing; but when we come to the series of remains of the
+twelfth dynasty at Beni-Hassan, in middle Egypt, we meet with the
+earliest known examples of that most interesting feature of all
+subsequent styles--the column. Whether the idea of columnar
+architecture originated with the necessities of quarrying--square
+piers being left at intervals to support the superincumbent mass of
+rock as the quarry was gradually driven in--or whether the earliest
+stone piers were imitations of brickwork or of timber posts, we shall
+probably never be able to determine accurately, though the former
+supposition seems the more likely. We have here monuments of a date
+1400 years anterior to the earliest known Greek examples, with
+splendid columns, both exterior and interior, which no reasonable
+person can doubt are the prototypes of the Greek Doric order. Fig. 14
+is a plan with a section, and Fig. 15 an exterior view, of one of
+these tombs, which, it will be seen, consisted of a portico, a chamber
+with its roof supported by columns, and a small space at the farther
+end in which is formed the opening of a sloping passage or well, at
+the bottom of which the vault for the reception of the body was
+constructed. The walls of the large chamber are lavishly decorated
+with scenes of every-day life, and it has even been suggested that
+these places were not erected originally as tombs, but as
+dwelling-places, which after death were appropriated as sepulchres.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 14.--PLAN AND SECTION OF THE TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.
+
+ SECTION.]
+
+The columns are surmounted by a small square slab, technically called
+an abacus, and heavy square beams or architraves span the spaces
+between the columns, while the roof between the architraves has a
+slightly segmental form. The tombs of the later period, viz. of the
+eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, are very different from those of
+the twelfth dynasty, and present few features of architectural
+interest, though they are remarkable for their vast extent and the
+variety of form of their various chambers and galleries. They consist
+of a series of chambers excavated in the rock, and it appears certain
+that the tomb was commenced on the accession of each monarch, and was
+driven farther and farther into the rock during the continuance of his
+reign till his death, when all work abruptly ceased. All the chambers
+are profusely decorated with paintings, but of a kind very different
+from those of the earlier dynasties. Instead of depicting scenes of
+ordinary life, all the paintings refer to the supposed life after
+death, and are thus of very great value as a means of determining the
+religious opinions of the Egyptians at this time. One of the most
+remarkable of these tombs is that of Manephthah or Sethi I., at
+Bab-el-Molouk, and known as Belzoni's tomb, as it was discovered by
+him; from it was taken the alabaster sarcophagus now in the Soane
+Museum in Lincoln's Inn Fields. To this relic a new interest is given
+by the announcement, while these pages are passing through the press,
+of the discovery of the mummy of this very Manephthah, with
+thirty-eight other royal mummies, in the neighbourhood of Thebes.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 15.--ROCK-CUT FAÇADE OF TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.]
+
+Of the Ptolemaic period no tombs, except perhaps a few at Alexandria,
+are known to exist.
+
+
+TEMPLES.
+
+It is very doubtful whether any remains of temples of the time of the
+fourth dynasty--_i.e._ contemporaneous with the pyramids--exist. One,
+constructed on a most extraordinary plan, was supposed to have been
+discovered about a quarter of a century ago, and it was described by
+Professor Donaldson at the Royal Institute of British Architects in
+1861, but later Egyptologists rather incline to the belief that this
+was a tomb and not a temple, as in one of the chambers of the interior
+a number of compartments were discovered one above the other which
+were apparently intended for the reception of bodies. This singular
+building is close to the Great Sphinx; its plan is cruciform, and
+there are in the interior a number of rectangular piers of granite
+supporting very simple architraves, but there are no means of
+determining what kind of roof covered it in. The walls seem to have
+been faced on the interior with polished slabs of granite or
+alabaster, but no sculpture or hieroglyphic inscriptions were found on
+them to explain the purpose of the building. Leaving this
+building--which is of a type quite unique--out of the question,
+Egyptian temples can be generally classed under two heads: (1) the
+large principal temples, and (2) the small subsidiary ones called
+Typhonia or Mammisi. Both kinds of temple vary little, if at all, in
+plan from the time of the twelfth dynasty down to the Roman dominion.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 16.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE PALACE AT KARNAK.]
+
+The large temples consist almost invariably of an entrance gate
+flanked on either side by a large mass of masonry, called a pylon, in
+the shape of a truncated pyramid (Fig. 18). The axis of the
+ground-plan of these pylons is frequently obliquely inclined to the
+axis of the plan of the temple itself; and indeed one of the most
+striking features of Egyptian temples is the lack of regularity and
+symmetry in their construction. The entrance gives access to a large
+courtyard, generally ornamented with columns: beyond this, and
+occasionally approached by steps, is another court, smaller than the
+first, but much more splendidly adorned with columns and colossi;
+beyond this again, in the finest examples, occurs what is called the
+Hypostyle Hall, _i.e._ a hall with two rows of lofty columns down the
+centre, and at the sides other rows, more or less in number, of lower
+columns; the object of this arrangement being that the central portion
+might be lighted by a kind of clerestory above the roof of the side
+portions. Fig. 17 shows this arrangement. This hypostyle hall stood
+with its greatest length transverse to the general axis of the temple,
+so that it was entered from the side. Beyond it were other chambers,
+all of small size, the innermost being generally the sanctuary, while
+the others were probably used as residences by the priests. Homer's
+hundred-gated Thebes, which was for so long the capital of Egypt,
+offers at Karnak and Luxor the finest remains of temples; what is left
+of the former evidently showing that it must have been one of the most
+magnificent buildings ever erected in any country. Fig. 16 is a plan
+of the temple of Karnak, which was about 1200 feet long and 348 feet
+wide. A is the entrance between the two enormous pylons giving access
+to a large courtyard, in which is a small detached temple, and another
+larger one breaking into the courtyard obliquely. A gateway between a
+second pair of pylons admits to B, the grand Hypostyle Hall, 334 feet
+by 167 feet. Beyond this are additional gateways with pylons,
+separated by a sort of gallery, C, in which were two gigantic
+obelisks; D, another grand hall, is called the Hall of the Caryatides,
+and beyond is the Hall of the eighteen columns, through which access
+is gained to a number of smaller halls grouped round the central
+chamber E. Beyond this is a large courtyard, in the centre of which
+stood the original sanctuary, which has disappeared down to its
+foundations, nothing but some broken shafts of columns remaining. At
+the extreme east is another hall supported partly by columns and
+partly by square piers, and a second series of pillared courts and
+chambers. The pylons and buildings generally decrease in height as we
+proceed from the entrance eastwards. This is due to the fact that, the
+building grew by successive additions, each one more magnificent than
+the last, all being added on the side from which the temple was
+entered, leaving the original sanctuary unchanged and undisturbed.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 17.--THE HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK, SHOWING THE
+ CLERESTORY.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 18.--ENTRANCE TO AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE, SHOWING THE
+ PYLONS.]
+
+Besides the buildings shown on the plan there were many other temples
+to the north, south, and east, entered by pylons and some of them
+connected together by avenues of sphinxes, obelisks, and colossi,
+which altogether made up the most wonderful agglomeration of buildings
+that can be conceived. It must not be imagined that this temple of
+Karnak, together with the series of connected temples is the result,
+of one clearly conceived plan; on the contrary, just as has been
+frequently the case with our own cathedrals and baronial halls,
+alterations were made here and additions there by successive kings one
+after the other without much regard to connection or congruity, the
+only feeling that probably influenced them being that of emulation to
+excel in size and grandeur the erections of their predecessors, as the
+largest buildings are almost always of latest date. The original
+sanctuary, or nucleus of the temple, was built by Usertesen I., the
+second or third king of the twelfth dynasty. Omenophis, the first king
+of the Shepherd dynasties, built a temple round the sanctuary, which
+has disappeared. Thothmes I. built the Hall of the Caryatides and
+commenced the next Hall of the eighteen columns, which was finished by
+Thothmes II. Thothmes III. built that portion surrounding the
+sanctuary, and he also built the courts on the extreme east. The pylon
+at C was built by Omenophis III., and formed the façade of the temple
+before the erection of the grand hall. Sethi I. built the Hypostyle
+Hall, which had probably been originated by Rhamses I., who commenced
+the pylon west of it. Sethi II. built the small detached temple, and
+Rhamses III. the intersecting temple. The Bubastites constructed the
+large front court by building walls round it, and the Ptolemies
+commenced the huge western pylon. The colonnade in the centre of the
+court was erected by Tahraka.
+
+Extensive remains of temples exist at Luxor, Edfou (Fig. 19), and
+Philæ, but it will not be necessary to give a detailed description of
+them, as, if smaller in size, they are very similar in arrangement to
+those already described. It should be noticed that all these large
+temples have the mastaba form, _i.e._ the outer walls are not
+perpendicular on the outside, but slope inwards as they rise, thus
+giving the buildings an air of great solidity.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 19.--PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT EDFOU.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 20.--PLAN OF ONE OF THE MAMMISI AT EDFOU.]
+
+The Mammisi exhibit quite a different form of temple from those
+previously described, and are generally found in close proximity to
+the large temples. They are generally erected on a raised terrace,
+rectangular on plan and nearly twice as long as it was wide,
+approached by a flight of steps opposite the entrance; they consist of
+oblong buildings, usually divided by a wall into two chambers, and
+surrounded on all sides by a colonnade composed of circular columns or
+square piers placed at intervals, and the whole is roofed in. A dwarf
+wall is frequently found between the piers and columns, about half the
+height of the shaft. These temples differ from the larger ones in
+having their outer walls perpendicular. Fig. 20 is a plan of one of
+these small temples, and no one can fail to remark the striking
+likeness to some of the Greek temples; there can indeed be little
+doubt that this nation borrowed the peristylar form of its temples
+from the Ancient Egyptians.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 21.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT
+ IPSAMBOUL.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 22.--SECTION OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT
+ IPSAMBOUL.]
+
+Although no rock-cut temples have been discovered in Egypt proper,
+Nubia is very rich in such remains. The arrangement of these temples
+hewn out of the rock is closely analogous to that of the detached
+ones. Figs. 21 and 22 show a plan and section of the largest of the
+rock-cut temples at Ipsamboul, which consists of two extensive courts,
+with smaller chambers beyond, all connected by galleries. The roof of
+the large court is supported by eight huge piers, the faces of which
+are sculptured into the form of standing colossi, and the entrance is
+adorned by four splendid seated colossi, 68 ft. 6 in. high. As was the
+case with the detached temples, it will be noticed that the height of
+the various chambers decreases towards the extremity of the
+excavation.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 23.--EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS BUD CAPITAL.
+
+ PLAN.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 24.--EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS FLOWER CAPITAL.]
+
+The constructional system pursued by the Egyptians, which consisted in
+roofing over spaces with large horizontal blocks of stone, led of
+necessity to a columnar arrangement in the interiors, as it was
+impossible to cover large areas without frequent upright supports.
+Hence the column became the chief means of obtaining effect, and the
+varieties of form which it exhibits are very numerous. The earliest
+form is that at Beni-Hassan, which has already been noticed as the
+prototype of the Doric order. Figs. 23 and 24 are views of two columns
+of a type more commonly employed. In these the sculptors appear to
+have imitated as closely as possible the forms of the plant-world
+around them, as is shown in Fig. 23, which represents a bundle of
+reeds or lotus stalks, and is the earliest type known of the lotus
+column, which was afterwards developed into a number of forms, one of
+which will be observed on turning to our section of the Hypostyle Hall
+at Karnak (Fig. 17), as employed for the lateral columns. The stalks
+are bound round with several belts, and the capital is formed by the
+slightly bulging unopened bud of the flower, above which is a small
+abacus with the architrave resting upon it: the base is nothing but a
+low circular plinth. The square piers also have frequently a lotus bud
+carved on them. At the bottom of the shaft is frequently found a
+decoration imitated from the sheath of leaves from which the plant
+springs. As a further development of this capital we have the opened
+lotus flower of a very graceful bell-like shape, ornamented with a
+similar sheath-like decoration to that at the base of the shaft (Fig.
+24). This decoration was originally painted only, not sculptured, but
+at a later period we find these sheaths and buds worked in stone. Even
+more graceful is the palm capital, which also had its leading lines of
+decoration painted on it at first (Fig. 25), and afterwards sculptured
+(Fig. 26). At a later period of the style we find the plant forms
+abandoned, and capitals were formed of a fantastic combination of the
+head of Isis with a pylon resting upon it (Fig. 27). Considerable
+ingenuity was exercised in adapting the capitals of the columns to the
+positions in which they were placed: thus in the hypostyle halls, the
+lofty central row of columns generally had capitals of the form shown
+in Fig. 24, as the light here was sufficient to illuminate thoroughly
+the underside of the overhanging bell; but those columns which were
+farther removed from the light had their capitals of the unopened bud
+form, which was narrower at the top than at bottom. In one part of the
+temple at Karnak is found a very curious capital resembling the open
+lotus flower inverted. The proportion which the height of Egyptian
+columns bears to their diameter differs so much in various cases that
+there was evidently no regular standard adhered to, but as a general
+rule they have a heavy and massive character. The wall-paintings of
+the Egyptian buildings show many curious forms of columns (Fig. 28),
+but we have no reason for thinking that these fantastic shapes were
+really executed in stone.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 25.--PALM CAPITAL.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 26.--SCULPTURED CAPITAL.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 27.--ISIS CAPITAL FROM DENDERAH.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 28.--FANCIFUL COLUMN FROM PAINTED DECORATION AT
+ THEBES.]
+
+Almost the only sculptured ornaments worked on the exteriors of
+buildings were the curious astragal or bead at all the angles, and the
+cornice, which consisted of a very large cavetto, or hollow moulding,
+surmounted by a fillet. These features are almost invariable from the
+earliest to the latest period of the style. This cavetto was generally
+enriched, over the doorways, with an ornament representing a circular
+boss with a wing at each side of it (Fig. 29).
+
+One other feature of Egyptian architecture which was peculiar to it
+must be mentioned; namely, the obelisk. Obelisks were nearly always
+erected in pairs in front of the pylons of the temples, and added to
+the dignity of the entrance. They were invariably monoliths, slightly
+tapering in outline, carved with the most perfect accuracy; they must
+have existed originally in very large numbers. Not a few of these have
+been transported to Europe, and at least twelve are standing in Rome,
+one is in Paris, and one in London.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 29.--CROWNING CORNICE AND BEAD.]
+
+The most striking features, and the most artistic, in the decoration
+of Egyptian buildings, are the mural paintings and sculptured
+pictures, which are found in the most lavish profusion, and which
+exhibit the highest skill in conventionalising the human figure and
+other objects.[3] Tombs and temples, columns and obelisks are
+completely covered with graphic representations of peaceful home
+pursuits, warlike expeditions and battle scenes, and--though not till
+a late period--descriptions of ritual and mythological delineations of
+the supposed spirit-world which the soul has entered after death.
+These pictures, together with the hieroglyphic inscriptions--which
+are in themselves a series of pictures--not only relieve the bare wall
+surface, but, what is far more important, enable us to realise the
+kind of existence which was led by this ancient people; and as in
+nearly every case the cartouche (or symbol representing the name) of
+the monarch under whose reign the building was erected was added, we
+should be able to fix the dates of the buildings with exactness, were
+the chronology of the kings made out beyond doubt.
+
+The following description of the manner in which the Egyptian
+paintings and sculptures were executed--from the pen of Owen
+Jones--will be read with interest:--"The wall was first chiselled as
+smooth as possible, the imperfections of the stone were filled up with
+cement or plaster, and the whole was rubbed smooth and covered with a
+coloured wash; lines were then ruled perpendicularly and horizontally
+with red colour, forming squares all over the wall corresponding with
+the proportions of the figure to be drawn upon it. The subjects of the
+painting and of the hieroglyphics were then drawn on the wall with a
+red line, most probably by the priest or chief scribe, or by some
+inferior artist, from a document divided into similar squares; then
+came the chief artist, who went over every figure and hieroglyphic
+with a black line, and a firm and steady hand, giving expression to
+each curve, deviating here and confirming there the red line. The line
+thus traced was then followed by the sculptor. The next process was to
+paint the figure in the prescribed colours."
+
+Although Egyptian architecture was essentially a trabeated
+style,--that is to say, a style in which beams or lintels were usually
+employed to cover openings,--there is strong ground for the belief
+that the builders of that time were acquainted with the nature of the
+arch. Dr. Birch mentions a rudimentary arch of the time of the fifth
+dynasty: at Abydos there are also remains of vaulted tombs of the
+sixth dynasty; and in a tomb in the neighbourhood of the Pyramids
+there is an elementary arch of three stones surmounted by a true arch
+constructed in four courses. The probability is that true brick arches
+were built at a very early period, but in the construction of their
+tombs, where heavy masses of superincumbent masonry or rock had to be
+supported, the Egyptians seem to have been afraid to risk even the
+remote possibility of their arches decaying; and hence, even when they
+preserved the form of the arch in masonry, they constructed it with
+horizontal courses of stones projecting one over the other, and then
+cut away the lower angles. One dominating idea seems to have
+influenced them in the whole of their work--_esto perpetua_ was their
+motto; and though they have been excelled by later peoples in grace
+and beauty, it is a question whether they have ever been surpassed in
+the skill with which they adapted their means to the end which they
+always kept in view.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+
+_Plan._
+
+_Floor_ (technically _Plan_).--The early rock-cut tombs were, of
+course, only capable of producing internal effects; their floor
+presents a series of halls and galleries, varying in size and shape,
+leading one out of the other, and intended by their contrast or
+combination to produce architectural effect. To this was added in the
+later rock-cut tombs a façade to be seen directly in front. Much the
+same account can be given of the disposition of the built temples.
+They possess one front, which the spectator approaches, and they are
+disposed so as to produce varied and impressive interiors, but not to
+give rise to external display. The supports, such as walls, columns,
+piers, are all very massive and very close together, so that the only
+wide open spaces are courtyards.
+
+The circle, or octagon, or other polygonal forms do not appear in the
+plans of Egyptian buildings; but though all the lines are straight,
+there is a good deal of irregularity in spacing, walls which face one
+another are not always parallel, and angles which appear to be right
+angles very often are not so.
+
+The later buildings extend over much space. The adjuncts to these
+buildings, especially the avenues of sphinxes, are planned so as to
+produce an air of stately grandeur, and in them some degree of
+external effect is aimed at.
+
+
+_Walls._
+
+The walls are uniformly thick, and often of granite or of stone,
+though brick is also met with; _e.g._ some of the smaller pyramids are
+built entirely of brick. In all probability the walls of domestic
+buildings were to a great extent of brick, and less thick than those
+of the temples; hence they have all disappeared.
+
+The surface of walls, even when of granite, was usually plastered with
+a thin fine plaster, which was covered by the profuse decoration in
+colour already alluded to.
+
+The walls of the propylons tapered from the base towards the top, and
+the same thing sometimes occurred in other walls. In almost all cases
+the stone walls are built of very large blocks, and they show an
+unrivalled skill in masonry.
+
+
+_Roofs._
+
+The roofing which remains is executed entirely in stone, but not
+arched or vaulted. The rock-cut tombs, however, as has been stated,
+contain ceilings of an arched shape, and in some cases forms which
+seem to be an imitation of timber roofing. The roofing of the
+Hypostyle Hall at Karnak provides an arrangement for admitting light
+very similar to the clerestory of Gothic cathedrals.
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+The openings were all covered by a stone lintel, and consequently were
+uniformly square-headed. The interspaces between columns were
+similarly covered, and hence Egyptian architecture has been, and
+correctly, classed as the first among the styles of trabeated
+architecture. Window-openings seldom occur.
+
+
+_Columns._
+
+The columns have been already described to some extent. They are
+almost always circular in plan, but the shaft is sometimes channelled.
+They are for the most part of sturdy proportions, but great grace and
+elegance are shown in the profile given to shafts and capitals. The
+design of the capitals especially is full of variety, and admirably
+adapts forms obtained from the vegetable kingdom. The general effect
+of the Egyptian column, wherever it is used, is that it appears to
+have, as it really has, a great deal more strength than is required.
+The fact that the abacus (the square block of stone introduced between
+the moulded part of the capital and what it carries) is often smaller
+in width than the diameter of the column aids very much to produce
+this effect.
+
+
+_Ornaments._
+
+Mouldings are very rarely employed; in fact, the large bead running up
+the angles of the pylons, &c., and a heavy hollow moulding doing duty
+as a cornice, are all that are usually met with. Sculpture and carving
+occur occasionally, and are freely introduced in later works, where we
+sometimes find statues incorporated into the design of the fronts of
+temples. Decoration in colour, in the shape of hieroglyphic
+inscriptions and paintings of all sorts, was profusely employed (Figs.
+27-30), and is executed with a truth of drawing and a beauty of
+colouring that have never been surpassed. As has been pointed out,
+almost every object drawn is partly conventionalised, in the most
+skilful manner, so as to make it fit its place as a piece of a
+decorative system.
+
+
+_Architectural Character._
+
+This is gloomy, and to a certain extent forbidding, owing to the heavy
+walls and piers and columns, and the great masses supported by them;
+but when in its freshness and quite uninjured by decay or violence,
+the exquisite colouring of the walls and ceilings and columns must
+have added a great deal of beauty: this must have very much diminished
+the oppressive effect inseparable from such massive construction and
+from the gloomy darkness of many portions of the buildings. It is also
+noteworthy that the expenditure of materials and labour is greater in
+proportion to the effect attained than in any other style. The
+pyramids are the most conspicuous example of this prodigality. Before
+condemning this as a defect in the style, it must be remembered that a
+stability which should defy enemies, earthquakes, and the tooth of
+time, was far more aimed at than architectural character; and that,
+had any mode of construction less lavish of material, and less perfect
+in workmanship, been adopted, the buildings of Egypt might have all
+disappeared ere this.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 30.--PAINTED DECORATION FROM THEBES.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Some Egyptologists incline to the opinion that the pyramid of
+Saqqára is the most ancient, while others think it much more recent
+than those of Gizeh.
+
+[2] Strictly speaking, the base is not an exact square, the four sides
+measuring, according to the Royal Engineers, north, 760 ft. 7·5 in.;
+south, 761 ft. 8·5 in.; east, 760 ft. 9·5 in.; and west, 764 ft. 1 in.
+
+[3] Conventionalising may be described as representing a part only of
+the visible qualities or features of an object, omitting the remainder
+or very slightly indicating them. A black silhouette portrait is an
+extreme instance of convention, as it displays absolutely nothing but
+the outline of a profile. For decorative purposes it is almost always
+necessary to conventionalise to a greater or less extent whatever is
+represented.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 31.--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT NINEVEH.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+The architectural styles of the ancient nations which ruled over the
+countries of Western Asia watered by the Tigris and the Euphrates,
+from a period about 2200 B.C. down to 330 B.C., are so intimately
+connected one with another, and so dependent one upon the other, that
+it is almost impossible to attempt an accurate discrimination between
+the Babylonian, or ancient Chaldæan, the Assyrian and the Persian. A
+more intelligible idea of the architecture of this long period will be
+gained by regarding the three styles as modifications and developments
+of one original style, than by endeavouring to separate them.[4] Their
+sequence can, however, be accurately determined. First comes the old
+Chaldæan period, next the Assyrian, during which the great city of
+Nineveh was built, and finally the Persian, after Cyrus had subdued
+the older monarchies; and remains exist of all these periods. As to
+the origin of the Chaldæan Kingdom, however, all is obscure; and the
+earliest date which can be fixed with the slightest approach to
+probability is 2234 B.C., when Nimrod is supposed to have founded the
+old Chaldæan dynasty. This seems to have lasted about 700 years, and
+was then overthrown by a conquering nation of which no record or even
+tradition remains, the next two and a half centuries being a complete
+blank till the rise of the great Assyrian Monarchy about 1290 B.C.,
+which lasted till its destruction by Cyrus about 538 B.C. The Persian
+Monarchy then endured till the death of Alexander the Great, in 333
+B.C., after which great confusion arose, the empire being broken up
+among his generals and rapidly falling to pieces.
+
+It is only within a comparatively recent period that we have had any
+knowledge of the architecture of these countries; but the explorations
+of M. Botta, commenced in 1843 and continued by M. Place, and those of
+Mr. (now Sir A. H.) Layard in 1845, combined with the successful
+attempts of Prof. Grotefend, Prof. Lassen, and Col. Rawlinson at
+deciphering the cuneiform inscriptions, have disclosed a new world to
+the architectural student, without which some of the developments of
+Greek architecture must have remained obscure. The authentic remains
+of buildings of the early Chaldæan period are too few and in too
+ruinous a condition to allow of a reproduction of their architectural
+features with any certainty. The buildings, whether palaces or
+temples, appear to have been constructed on terraces, and to have been
+several storeys in height; and in one instance, at Mugheyr, the walls
+sloped inwards in a similar manner to those of Egyptian buildings, a
+peculiarity which is not met with in other examples of West Asiatic
+architecture. The materials employed were bricks, both sun-dried and
+kiln-burnt, which seem to have been coated with a vitreous enamel for
+purposes of interior decoration. Fragments of carved limestone were
+discovered by Sir A. H. Layard, but the fact that the fragments found
+have been so few ought not to lead us too hastily to the conclusion
+that stone was not used as facing for architectural purposes, as after
+the buildings became ruined the stone would eagerly be sought for and
+carried away before the brickwork was touched. Bitumen seems to have
+been employed as a cement. Although original buildings of this era
+cannot be found, it has been shown that in all probability we have, in
+a building of a later date--the Birs-i-Nimrud--a type of the old
+Babylonian temple. This in its general disposition must have resembled
+that of the Tomb of Cyrus, described and figured later on, though on a
+vastly larger scale. The lowest storey appears to have been an exact
+square of 272 ft.; each of the higher storeys was 42 ft. less
+horizontally than the one below it, and was placed 30 ft. back from
+the front of the storey below it, but equidistant from the two sides,
+where the platforms were 21 ft. wide. The three upper storeys were
+45 ft. in height altogether, the two below these were 26 ft. each, and
+the height of the lowest is uncertain. The topmost storey probably had
+a tower on it which enclosed the shrine of the temple. This edifice
+was for a long time a bone of contention among savants, but Colonel
+Rawlinson's investigations have brought to light the fact that it was
+a temple dedicated to the seven heavenly spheres, viz. Saturn,
+Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon, in the order
+given, starting from the bottom. Access to the various platforms was
+obtained by stairs, and the whole building was surrounded by a walled
+enclosure. From remains found at Wurkha we may gather that the walls
+of the buildings of this period were covered with elaborate plaster
+ornaments, and that a lavish use was made of colour in their
+decoration.
+
+Of the later Assyrian period several ruins of buildings believed to be
+palaces have been excavated, of which the large palace at Khorsabad,
+the old name of which was Hisir-Sargon, now a small village between 10
+and 11 miles north-east of Nineveh, has been the most completely
+explored, and this consequently is the best adapted to explain the
+general plan of an Assyrian edifice. M. Botta, when French Consul at
+Mosul, and M. Victor Place conducted these explorations, and the
+following details are taken from their works. Like all other Assyrian
+palaces, this was reared on a huge artificial mound, the labour of
+forming which must have been enormous. The reason for the construction
+of these mounds is not far to seek. Just as the chiefs of a
+mountainous country choose the loftiest peaks for their castles, so in
+Assyria, which was a very flat country, the extra defensive strength
+of elevated buildings was clearly appreciated; and as these absolute
+monarchs ruled over a teeming population and had a very large number
+of slaves, and only had to direct their taskmasters to impress labour
+whenever they wanted it, no difficulty existed in forming elevated
+platforms for their palaces. These were frequently close to a river,
+and it is by no means improbable that this was turned into the
+excavation from which the earth for the mound was taken, and thus
+formed a lake or moat as an additional defence. A further reason for
+these terraces may be found in the fact that in a hot climate
+buildings erected some 20 or 30 ft. above the level of the plain
+catch the breezes much more quickly than lower edifices. In the case
+of Khorsabad the terrace was made of sun-dried bricks, about 15·7 in.
+square and 2 in. thick. These bricks were made of the most carefully
+prepared clay. The terrace was faced by a retaining wall of coursed
+masonry, nearly 10 ft. in thickness. On this terrace the palace was
+built, and it consisted of a series of open courts arranged
+unsymmetrically, surrounded by state or private apartments,
+storehouses, stables, &c. Great care seems to have been exercised in
+the accurate orientation of the building, but in rather a peculiar
+manner. Instead of any one façade of the building facing due north,
+the corners face exactly towards the four points of the compass. The
+courts were all entered by magnificent portals flanked by gigantic
+figures, and were approached by flights of steps. Fig. 32 is a plan of
+the palace of Khorsabad, which was placed close to the boundary of the
+city; in fact it was partly outside the city wall proper, though
+surrounded by a wall of its own. The grand south-east portals or
+propylæa were adorned with huge human-headed bulls and gigantic
+figures, and gave access to a large court, 315 ft. by 280 ft., on the
+east side of which are the stables and out-houses, and on the west
+side the metal stores. On the north of this court, though not
+approached directly from it, was the Seraglio (not to be confounded
+with the Harem), the grand entrance to which was from a second large
+court, access to which was obtained from a roadway sloping up from the
+city. The portals to this portion of the palace were also adorned with
+human-headed bulls. From the second court a vaulted passage gave
+access to the state apartments, which appear to have had a direct view
+across the open country, and were quite outside the city walls. The
+Harem has been excavated; it stood just outside the palace proper,
+behind the metal stores. The remains of an observatory exist, and the
+outlines of what is supposed to have been a temple have also been
+unearthed, so that we have here a complete plan of the palace.
+Altogether 31 courts and 198 chambers have been discovered.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 32.--PALACE OF KHORSABAD. BUILT BY KING SARGON
+ ABOUT 710 B.C.
+
+ A, Steps. B, Chief portal. C, Chief entrance-court. D-H, Women's
+ apartments (Harem). J, Centre court of building. K, Chief court
+ of royal residence. L, Portal with carved bulls as guards. M,
+ Centre court of royal residence. N, Temple (?). O, Pyramid of
+ steps. S, Entrance to chief court. T, Plan of terraces with wall
+ and towers.]
+
+It will be noticed that great disproportion exists between the length
+of the various apartments and their breadth, none being more than
+40 ft. wide; and it is probable that this was owing to structural
+necessities, the Assyrian builders finding it impossible, with the
+materials at their disposal, to cover wider spaces than this. The walls
+of this palace vary from 5 to 15 ft. in thickness, and are composed of
+sun-dried bricks, faced in the principal courts and state apartments
+with slabs of alabaster or Mosul gypsum to a height of from 9 to 12 ft.,
+above which kiln-burnt bricks were used. The alabaster slabs were
+held together by iron, copper, or wooden cramps or plugs, and were
+covered with sculptured pictures representing scenes of peace and war,
+from which, as was the case with the Egyptian remains, we are able to
+reconstruct for ourselves the daily life of the monarchs of those early
+times. Above the alabaster slabs plastered decorations were used; in
+some cases painted frescoes have been found, or mosaics formed with
+enamelled bricks of various colours. In the out-buildings and the more
+retired rooms of the palace, the alabaster slabs were omitted, and
+plaster decorations used, from the ground upwards. The researches of
+MM. Botta and Place have shown that colour was used with a lavishness
+quite foreign to our notions, as the alabaster statues as well as the
+plaster enrichments were coloured. M. Place says that in no case were
+the plain bricks allowed to face the walls of an apartment, the joint
+being always concealed either by colour or plaster: in fact, he remarks
+that after a time, if he found walls standing showing the brickwork
+joints, he invariably searched with success among the débris of the
+chamber for remains of the sculptured decorations which had been used
+to face the walls.
+
+Not the least interesting of these discoveries was that of the drains
+under the palace, portions of which were in very good preservation;
+and all were vaulted, so that there can be no doubt whatever that the
+Assyrians were acquainted with the use of the arch. This was further
+proved by the discovery by M. Place of the great arched gates of the
+city itself, with an archivolt of coloured enamelled bricks forming
+various patterns, with a semicircular arch springing from plain jambs.
+Extreme care was taken by the Assyrian builders in laying the
+pavements to ensure their being perfectly level: first a layer of
+kiln-burnt bricks was laid on the ordinary sun-dried bricks forming
+the terrace; then came a layer of fine sand, upon which the bricks or
+slabs of the pavement proper were laid, forming in many cases an
+elegant pattern (see Fig. 33).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 33.--PAVEMENT FROM KHOYUNJIK.]
+
+Great difference of opinion exists as to the manner in which the
+various apartments of the palace were lighted. M. Place suggests that
+the rooms were all vaulted on the inside, and the spandrels filled in
+with earth afterwards to form perfectly flat roofs, and he gives a
+restoration of the building on such an arrangement; but if he is
+correct, it is impossible to see how any light at all can have
+penetrated into the interior of many of the apartments, and as these
+apartments are decorated with a profusion of paintings it is very
+difficult to believe that artificial light alone was used in them. M.
+Place thinks, however, that in some cylindrical terra-cotta vessels
+which he found he has hit upon a species of skylight which passed
+completely through the vault over the rooms, and thus admitted the
+light from above. This, however, can hardly be considered as settled
+yet. Mr. Fergusson, on the other hand, suggests that the thick main
+walls were carried to a height of about 18 or 19 ft., and that above
+this were two rows of dwarf columns, one on the inner and the other on
+the outer edge of the wall, these columns supporting a flat terrace
+roof, and the walls thus forming galleries all round the apartments.
+Then to cover the space occupied by the apartments themselves it is
+necessary to assume the existence of rows of columns, the capitals of
+which were at the same level as those of the dwarf columns on the
+walls. Where one apartment is surrounded on all sides by others, the
+roof over it may have been carried up to a higher level, forming a
+sort of clerestory. This theory no doubt accounts for many things
+which are very hard to explain otherwise, and derives very strong
+support from the analogy of Persepolis, where slender stone columns
+exist. Such columns of cedar wood would add enormously to the
+magnificence and grandeur of the building; and if, as seems likely,
+most of these Assyrian palaces were destroyed by fire, the absence of
+the remains of columns offers no difficulty. On the other hand, in
+many parts of the palace of Khorsabad no trace of fire remains, and
+yet here no suggestion of detached columns can be found, and,
+moreover, it is extremely difficult to arrange columns symmetrically
+in the various apartments so that doorways are not interfered with.
+There is also another difficulty, viz. that if the building called the
+Harem at Khorsabad was built in this way, the apartments would have
+been open to the view of any one ascending the lofty building called
+the observatory. It is quite possible that further explorations may
+tend to elucidate this difficult question of roofing, but at present
+all that can be said is that none of the theories that have been put
+forward is wholly satisfactory.
+
+As no columns at all exist, we cannot say what capitals were employed,
+but it is probable that those of Persepolis, which will be shortly
+described, were copied from an earlier wooden form, which may have
+been that used by the Assyrian builders. There is, however, capping
+the terrace on which the temple was erected at Khorsabad, a good
+example of an Assyrian cornice, which is very similar indeed to the
+forms found in Egypt, and some of the sculptured bas-reliefs which
+have been discovered depict rude copies of Assyrian buildings drawn by
+the people themselves; and it is most interesting to notice that just
+as we found in the Egyptian style the proto-Doric column, so in the
+Assyrian we find the proto-Ionic (Figs. 34, 34a), and possibly also
+the proto-Corinthian (Fig. 34b).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 34.--PROTO-IONIC COLUMN.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 34a.--PROTO-IONIC CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN
+ SCULPTURE.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 34b.--PROTO-CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN
+ SCULPTURE.]
+
+The third branch of West Asiatic architecture is the Persian, which
+was developed after Cyrus had conquered the older monarchies, and
+which attained its greatest magnificence under Darius and Xerxes. The
+Persians were originally a brave and hardy race inhabiting the
+mountainous region south of Media, which slopes down to the Persian
+Gulf. Until the time of Cyrus, who was the founder of the great
+kingdom of Persia, they inhabited small towns, had no architecture,
+and were simple barbarians. But after Cyrus had vanquished the wealthy
+and luxurious Assyrian monarchs, and his warriors had seen and
+wondered at the opulence and splendour of the Assyrian palaces, it was
+natural that his successors should strive to emulate for themselves
+the display of their vassals. Therefore, having no indigenous style to
+fall back upon, the artisans who were summoned to build the tomb of
+the founder of the monarchy and the palaces of his successors, simply
+copied the forms with which they were acquainted. Fortunately, the
+sites for the new palaces were in a locality where building stone was
+good and abundant, and the presence of this material had a modifying
+effect upon the architecture.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 35.--TOMB OF CYRUS.]
+
+The best known of the remains which date as far back as the earlier
+Persian dynasties is the so-called tomb of Cyrus at Pasargadæ, near
+Murghab (Fig. 35). This may be looked upon as a model in white marble
+of an old Chaldæan temple, such as the Birs-i-Nimrud. There are the
+same platforms diminishing in area as the top is approached, and on
+the topmost platform is a small cella or temple with a gabled stone
+roof, which probably originally contained the sarcophagus. It is,
+however, at Persepolis, the real capital of the later Persian kings,
+whose grandeur and wealth were such that Alexander is said to have
+found there treasure to the amount of thirty millions of pounds
+sterling, that we find the most magnificent series of ruins. These
+were carefully measured and drawn by Baron Texier in 1835, and his
+work and that of MM. Flandrin and Coste are those from which the best
+information on this subject can be obtained.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 35a.--GENERAL PLAN OF THE BUILDINGS AT
+ PERSEPOLIS.]
+
+Persepolis is about 35 miles north-east of Shiraz, close to the main
+highway to Ispahan, at the foot of the mountain range which bounds the
+extensive plain of Nurdusht. The modern inhabitants of the district
+call the ruins Takht-i-Jamshid (or the building of Jamshid), but the
+inscriptions that have been deciphered prove that Darius and Xerxes
+were the chief builders. Just as was the case with the Assyrian ruins,
+these stand on an immense platform which rises perpendicularly from
+the plain and abuts in the rear against the mountain range. Instead,
+however, of this platform being raised artificially, it was cut out of
+the rock, and levelled into a series of terraces, on which the
+buildings were erected. The platform, whose length from north to south
+is about 1582 ft., and breadth from east to west about 938 ft., is
+approached from the plain by a magnificent double staircase of black
+marble, of very easy rise, not more than 4 in. each step. Its general
+height above the level of the plain was originally 34 ft. 9 in. The
+retaining wall of the platform is not straight, but has in it 40
+breaks or set-offs of unequal dimensions. At the top of the staircase
+are the remains of a building with four columns in the centre and with
+large portals both back and front, each of which is adorned with
+gigantic bulls, strikingly resembling those found at Khorsabad. Those
+in the front have no wings, but those in the rear have wings and human
+heads. It has been suggested that these are the ruins of one of those
+large covered gates frequently mentioned in the Bible, under the
+shelter of which business was transacted, and which probably formed
+the entrance to the whole range of courts and buildings. After passing
+through this gateway and turning southwards, at a distance of 177 feet
+from it, another terrace is reached, 9 ft. 2 in. higher than the first
+one. This terrace also is approached by four flights of steps
+profusely decorated with sculptured bas-reliefs, and on it are the
+remains of the Chehil Minar, the grand hexastyle Hall of Xerxes,
+which must have been one of the most magnificent buildings of ancient
+times. This building is marked A on the general plan. It consisted of
+a central court, containing thirty-six columns, the distance from
+centre to centre of the outside columns being 142 ft. 8 in. This court
+was surrounded by walls, of which nothing now remains but the jambs of
+three of the doorways. On three sides of this court, to the north,
+east and west, were porticoes of twelve columns each, precisely in a
+line with those of the central court, the distance from centre to
+centre of the columns being 28 ft. 6 in. These columns, both in their
+proportions and shape, suggest an imitation of timber construction. On
+the south the court was probably terminated by a wall, and Mr.
+Fergusson suggests that the corners between the porticoes were filled
+up with small chambers. The most striking feature of this hall or
+palace must have been its loftiness, the height of the columns varying
+from 63 ft. 8 in. to 64 feet from bottom of base to top of capital.
+The shafts were slightly tapering and had 48 flutings, and were 4 ft.
+6 in. in diameter in the upper part. The bases of the columns show
+hardly any variations, and consist of a series of mouldings such as is
+shown in Fig. 36; the lowest part of this moulded base is enriched
+with leaves, and rests on a low circular plinth at the bottom: the
+total height of the base averages 5 feet. The capitals show
+considerable variations. Those of the east and west porticoes
+represent the heads and fore part of the bodies of two bulls[5] placed
+directly on the shaft back to back, with their forelegs doubled under
+them, the feet resting on the shaft and the knees projecting; the
+total height of these capitals is 7 ft. 4 in. Between the necks of the
+bulls rested the wooden girder which supported the cross-bearers of
+the roof. In the north portico and, so far as can be ascertained, in
+the central court, the shaft of the column was much shorter, and
+supported a fantastic elongated capital, consisting of a sort of
+inverted cup, supporting an elegant shape much resembling the Egyptian
+palm-leaf capital, above which, on all the four sides, are double
+spirals resembling the ornaments of the Greek Ionic capital known as
+volutes, but placed perpendicularly, and not, as in the Ionic capital,
+horizontally. These volutes again may have supported double bulls,
+which would make the total height of the columns the same as those of
+the east and west porticoes. The doorways have cornices enriched with
+leaves, similar to those found at Khorsabad, which have already been
+noticed as bearing a decided resemblance to the Egyptian doorways.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 35b.--COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS, EAST AND WEST
+ PORTICOES.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 36.--COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS, NORTH PORTICO.]
+
+On other terraces, slightly raised above the main platform, exist the
+remains, in a more or less ruined condition, of numerous other courts
+and halls, one of which has no less than one hundred columns to
+support its roof, but the height of this building was much inferior to
+that of the Chehil Minar. The existence of these columns leaves no
+doubt that these buildings were covered with flat roofs; and that over
+part of them was a raised talar or prayer-platform is rendered
+probable from the introduction of such a feature into the sculptured
+representation of a palace façade which forms the entrance to the
+rock-tomb of Darius, which was cut out of the mountain at the back of
+the terrace of Persepolis. The position of this tomb on the general
+plan is marked B, and Fig. 37 is a view of the entrance, which was
+probably intended as a copy of one of the halls. All the walls of the
+palaces were profusely decorated with sculptured pictures, and various
+indications occur which induce the belief that painting was used to
+decorate those portions of the walls that were not faced with
+sculptured slabs.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 37.--THE ROCK-CUT TOMB OF DARIUS.]
+
+The superior lightness and elegance of the Persepolitan ruins to those
+of an earlier epoch will not fail to be noticed, but there is still a
+certain amount of barbaric clumsiness discernible, and it is not till
+we come to Greek architecture that we see how an innate genius for art
+and beauty, such as was possessed by that people, could cull from
+previous styles everything capable of being used with effect, and
+discard or prune off all the unnecessary exuberances of those styles
+which offend a critically artistic taste.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+
+_Plan._
+
+The floor-space of a great Assyrian or Medo-Persian building was laid
+out on a plan quite distinct from that of an Egyptian temple; for the
+rooms are almost always grouped round quadrangles. The buildings are
+also placed on terraces, and no doubt would secure external as well as
+internal effects, to which the imposing flights of stairs provided
+would largely contribute. We find in Assyrian palaces, halls
+comparatively narrow in proportion to their great length, but still so
+wide that the roofing of them must have been a serious business, and
+we find them arranged side by side, often three deep. In the Persian
+buildings, halls nearly square on plan, and filled by a multitude of
+columns, occur frequently. In the plan of detached buildings like the
+Birs-i-Nimrud, we are reminded of the pyramids of Egypt, which no
+doubt suggested the idea of pyramidal monuments to all subsequent
+building peoples.
+
+
+_Walls._
+
+The magnificently worked granite and stones of Egypt give place to
+brick for the material of the walls, with the result that a far larger
+space could be covered with buildings by a given number of men in a
+given time, but of course the structures were far more liable to
+decay. Accordingly, sturdy as their walls are, we find them at the
+present day reduced to mere shapeless mounds, but of prodigious
+extent.
+
+
+_Roofs._
+
+We can only judge of the roofs by inference, and it has already been
+stated that a difference of opinion exists respecting them. It appears
+most probable that a large proportion of the buildings must have been
+roofed by throwing timber beams from wall to wall and forming a thick
+platform of earth on them, and must have been lighted by some sort of
+clerestory. At any rate the stone roofs of the Egyptians seem to have
+been discarded, and with them the necessity for enormous columns and
+piers placed very close together. In some bas-reliefs, buildings with
+roofs of a domical shape are represented.
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+Doorways are the openings chiefly met with, and it is not often that
+the superstructure, whether arch or lintel, remains, but it is clear
+that in some instances, at least, openings were arched. Great
+attention was paid to important doorways, and a large amount of
+magnificent sculpture was employed to enrich them.
+
+
+_Columns._
+
+The columns most probably were of wood in Assyrian palaces. In some of
+the Persian ones they were of marble, but of a proportion and
+treatment which point to an imitation of forms suitable for wood. The
+bases and capitals of these slender shafts are beautiful in
+themselves, and very interesting as suggesting the source from which
+some of the forms in Greek architecture were derived, and on the
+bas-reliefs other architectural forms are represented which were
+afterwards used by the Greeks.
+
+
+_Ornaments._
+
+Sculptured slabs, painted wall decorations, and terra-cotta
+ornamentation were used as enrichments of the walls. These slabs,
+which have become familiarly known through the attention roused by the
+discoveries of Sir A. H. Layard and the specimens sent by him to the
+British Museum, are objects of the deepest interest; so are the carved
+bulls from gateways. In the smaller and more purely ornamental
+decorations the honeysuckle, and other forms familiar to us from their
+subsequent adoption by Greek artists, are met with constantly,
+executed with great taste.
+
+
+_Architectural Character._
+
+A character of lavish and ornate magnificence is the quality most
+strongly displayed by the architectural remains of Western Asia, and
+could we have beheld any one of the monuments before it was reduced to
+ruin, we should probably have seen this predominant to an extent of
+which it is almost impossible now to form an adequate idea.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] In any such endeavour we should be met by the further difficulty,
+that the writers of antiquity differ widely in the precise limits
+which they give to the Assyrian Kingdom. Some make it include Babylon,
+other writers say that it was bounded on the south by Babylon, and
+altogether the greatest confusion exists in the accounts that have
+come down to us.
+
+[5] As a matter of fact there is a marked distinction between the
+heads of the animals of the east and west porticoes: those of the west
+are undoubtedly bulls, but those of the east are grotesque
+mythological creatures somewhat resembling the fabled unicorn.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 38.--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT ALLAHABAD.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Hindu Architecture._
+
+Hindu architecture is not only unfamiliar but uncongenial to Western
+tastes; and as it has exercised no direct influence upon the later
+styles of Europe, it will be noticed in far less detail than the
+magnitude and importance of many Indian buildings which have been
+examined and measured during the last few years would otherwise claim,
+although the exuberant wealth of ornament exhibited in these buildings
+denotes an artistic genius of very high order, if somewhat uncultured
+and barbaric. As by far the largest number of Hindu buildings are of a
+date much later than the commencement of our era, a strict adherence
+to chronological sequence would scarcely allow the introduction of
+this style so early in the present volume; but we know that several
+centuries before Christ powerful kingdoms and wealthy cities existed
+in India; and as it seems clear also that in architecture and art, as
+well as in manners and customs, hardly any change[6] has occurred
+from remote antiquity, it appeared allowable, as well as convenient,
+that the short description we have to offer should precede rather than
+follow that of the classical styles properly so called. Here, as
+always when we attempt to penetrate farther back than a certain date,
+all is obscure and mythical. We find lists of kings and dynasties
+going back thousands of years before our era, but nothing at all to
+enable us to judge how much of this may be taken as solid fact. Mr.
+Fergusson believes he has discovered in one date, viz. 3101 B.C., the
+first Aryan settlement; but be this as it may, it is useless to look
+for any architectural remains until after the death of Gotama Buddha
+in 543 B.C.; in fact, it is very doubtful whether remains can be
+authenticated until the reign of King Asoka (B.C. 272 to B.C. 236),
+when Buddhism had spread over almost the whole of the country, where
+it remained the predominant cult until Brahmanism again asserted its
+supremacy in the 14th century A.D.
+
+The earliest, or among the earliest, architectural remains are the
+inscribed pillars called Lâts, which are found in numerous localities,
+but have been almost always overthrown. Many of these were erected by
+the above-named Asoka: they were ornamented with bands and mouldings
+separating the inscriptions, and crowned by a sort of capital, which
+was generally in the form of an animal. One very curious feature in
+these pillars is the constant occurrence of a precise imitation of
+the well-known honeysuckle ornament of the Greeks; this was probably
+derived from the same source whence the Greeks obtained it, namely
+Assyria. It is most probable that these pillars served to ornament the
+approaches to some kind of sacred enclosure or temple, of which,
+however, no remains have been found.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 39.--DAGOBA FROM CEYLON.]
+
+Extremely early in date are some of the tumuli or topes which exist in
+large numbers in various parts of India. These are of two kinds,--the
+topes or stupas proper, which were erected to commemorate some
+striking event or to mark a sacred spot; and the dagobas, which were
+built to cover the relics of Buddha himself or some Buddhist saint.
+These topes consist of a slightly stilted hemispherical dome
+surmounting a substructure, circular in plan, which forms a sort of
+terrace, access to which is obtained by steps. The domical shape was,
+however, external only, as on the inside the masonry was almost
+solid, a few small cavities only being left for the protection of
+various jewels, &c. The dome was probably surmounted by a pinnacle, as
+shown in Fig. 39. In the neighbourhood of Bhilsa, in Central India,
+there are a large number of these topes, of which the largest, that of
+Sanchi, measures 121 ft. in diameter and 55 ft. in height; it was
+erected by King Asoka.
+
+Two kinds of edifices which are not tombs remain, the chaityas
+(temples or halls of assembly) and viharas or monasteries, which were
+generally attached to the chaityas. These erections were either
+detached or cut in the rock, and it is only the rock-cut ones of which
+remains exist of an earlier date than the commencement of the
+Christian era. The earliest specimen of a rock-cut chaitya is in the
+Nigope cave, near Behar, constructed about 200 B.C. This consists of
+two compartments, an outer rectangular one 32 ft. 9 in. by 19 ft.
+1 in., and an inner circular one 19 ft. in diameter. The Lomas Rishi
+cave is of a slightly later date: both of these rock-cut temples
+exhibit in every detail a reproduction of wooden forms. In the doorway
+the stone piers slope inwards, just like raking wooden struts, and the
+upper part represents the ends of longitudinal rafters supporting a
+roof. Later on the builders emancipated themselves to a certain extent
+from this servile adhesion to older forms, and Fig. 40 gives a plan
+and section of a later chaitya at Karli, near Poona. This bears a
+striking resemblance to a Christian basilica:[7] there is first the
+forecourt; then a rectangular space divided by columns into nave and
+aisles, and terminated by a semicircular apse. The nave is 25 ft.
+7 in. wide, and the aisles 10 ft. each, the total length is 126 ft.
+Fifteen columns separate the nave from the aisles, and these have
+bases, octagonal shafts, and rich capitals. Round the apse the columns
+are replaced by piers. The side aisles have flat roofs, and the
+central nave a stilted semicircular one, practically a vault, which at
+the apse becomes a semicircular dome, under which is the dagoba, the
+symbol of Buddhism. The screen separating the forecourt from the
+temple itself is richly ornamented with sculpture.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 40.--CHAITYA NEAR POONA.]
+
+The older viharas or monasteries were also cut in the rock (Figs. 41,
+42), and were divided into cells or chambers; they were several
+storeys in height, and it is probable that the cells were used by
+devout Buddhists as habitations for the purposes of meditation.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 41.--THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. A ROCK-CUT MONUMENT.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 42.--PLAN OF THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. A ROCK-CUT
+ MONUMENT.]
+
+Among the most remarkable, and in fact almost unique features of
+Hindu Architecture are the so-called rails which form enclosures
+sometimes round the topes and sometimes round sacred trees.
+Occasionally they are found standing alone, though when this is the
+case it is probably on account of the object which was the cause of
+their erection having perished. They are built of stone, carved so as
+to represent a succession of perpendicular and horizontal bands or
+rails, separated by a sort of pierced panels. The carving is of the
+most elaborate description, both human and animal forms being
+depicted with great fidelity, and representations occur of various
+forms of tree worship which have been of the greatest use in
+elucidating the history of this phase of religious belief.
+Occasionally the junctions of the rails are carved into a series of
+discs, separated by elaborate scroll-work. These rails are
+frequently of very large dimensions, that at Bharhut--which is one of
+the most recently discovered--measuring 275 ft. in circumference,
+with a height of 22 ft. 6 in. The date of these erections is
+frequently very difficult to determine, but the chief authorities
+generally concur in the opinion that none are found dating earlier
+than about 250 B.C., nor later than 500 A.D., so that it is pretty
+certain they must have been appropriated to some form of Buddhist
+worship.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 43.--VIMANA FROM MANASARA.]
+
+All the buildings that we have mentioned were devoted to the worship
+of Buddha, but the Jain schism, Brahmanism, and other cults had their
+representative temples and buildings, a full description of which
+would require a volume many times larger than the present one. Many of
+the late detached buildings display rich ornamentation and elaborate
+workmanship. They are generally of a pyramidal shape, several storeys
+in height, covered with intricately cut mouldings and other fantastic
+embellishments.
+
+Columns are of all shapes and sizes, brackets frequently take the
+place of capitals, and where capitals exist almost every variety of
+fantastic form is found. It has been stated that no fixed laws govern
+the plan or details of Indian buildings, but there exists an essay on
+Indian Architecture by Ram Raz--himself a Hindoo--which tends to show
+that such a statement is erroneous, as he quotes original works of
+considerable antiquity which lay down stringent rules as to the
+planning of buildings, their height, and the details of the columns.
+It is probable that a more extended acquaintance with Hindu literature
+will throw further light on these rules.
+
+Of the various invasions which have occurred some have left traces in
+the architecture of India. None of these are more interesting than
+certain semi-Greek forms which are met with in the Northern Provinces,
+and which without doubt are referable to the influence of the invasion
+under Alexander the Great. A far more conspicuous and widespread
+series of changes followed in the wake of the Mohammedan invasions. We
+shall have an opportunity later on of recurring to this subject,[8]
+but it is one to which attention should be called at this early stage,
+lest it should be thought that a large and splendid part of Indian
+architecture had been overlooked.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 44.--BRACKET CAPITAL.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 45.--COLUMN FROM AJUNTA.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 46.--COLUMN FROM ELLORA.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 47.--COLUMN FROM AJUNTA.]
+
+
+_Chinese and Japanese Architecture._
+
+Although the Chinese have existed as a nation, continuously for
+between two and three thousand years, if not longer, and at a very
+early period had arrived at a high state of artistic and scientific
+cultivation, yet none of their buildings with which we are acquainted
+has any claim on our attention because of its antiquity. Several
+reasons may be assigned for this, the principal being that the Chinese
+seem to be as a race singularly unsusceptible to all emotions.
+Although they reverence their dead ancestors, yet this reverence never
+led them, as did that of the Egyptians, Etruscans, and other nations,
+to a lavish expenditure of labour or materials, to render their tombs
+almost as enduring as the everlasting hills. Though waves of religious
+zeal must have flowed over the country when Confucius inculcated his
+simple and practical morality and gained an influential following, and
+again when Buddhism was introduced and speedily became the religion of
+the greater portion of the people, their religious emotion never led
+them, as it did the Greeks and the Mediæval builders, to erect grand
+and lasting monuments of sacred art. When most of the Western nations
+were still barbarians, the Chinese had attained a settled system of
+government, and were acquainted with numerous scientific truths which
+we have prided ourselves on rediscovering within the last two
+centuries; but no thought ever seems to have occurred to them, as it
+did to the Romans, of commemorating any event connected with their
+life as a nation, or of handing down to posterity a record of their
+great achievements. Peaceful and prosperous, they have pursued the
+even tenor of their way at a high level of civilisation certainly, but
+at a most monotonous one.
+
+The Buddhist temples of China have a strong affinity to those of
+India. The largest is that at Honan, the southern suburb of Canton.
+This is 306 ft. long by 174 ft. wide, and consists of a series of
+courts surrounded by colonnades and cells for the _bonzes_ or priests.
+In the centre of the courtyard is a series of pavilions or temples
+connected by passages, and devoted to the worship of the idols
+contained in them. On each side of the main court, against the outer
+wall, is another court, with buildings round it, consisting of kitchen
+and refectories on the one side, and hospital wards on the other. It
+is almost certain that this is a reproduction of the earlier forms of
+chaityas and viharas which existed in India, and have been already
+referred to. The temple of Honan is two storeys in height, the
+building itself being of stone, but the colonnade surrounding it is of
+wood on marble bases. On the second storey the columns are placed on
+two sides only, and not all round. The columns have no capitals, but
+have projecting brackets. The roof of each storey projects over the
+columns, and has a curved section, which is, in fact, peculiar to
+Chinese roofs, and it is enriched at the corners with carved beasts
+and foliage. This is a very common form of temple throughout China.
+
+The Taas or Pagodas are the buildings of China best known to
+Europeans. These are nearly always octagonal in plan, and consist
+generally of nine storeys, diminishing both in height and breadth as
+they approach the top. Each storey has a cornice composed of a fillet
+and large hollow moulding, supporting a roof which is turned up at
+every corner and ornamented with leaves and bells. On the top of all
+is a long pole, forming a sort of spire, surrounded by iron hoops, and
+supported by eight chains attached to the summit and to each angle of
+the roof of the topmost storey. The best known pagoda is that of
+Nankin, which is 40 ft. in diameter at its base, and is faced inside
+and outside with white glazed porcelain slabs keyed into the brick
+core. The roof tiles are also of porcelain, in bands of green and
+yellow, and at each angle is a moulding of larger tiles, red and green
+alternately. The effect of the whole is wonderfully brilliant and
+dazzling. Apart from the coloured porcelain, nearly every portion of a
+Chinese temple or pagoda is painted, colour forming the chief means of
+producing effect; but as nearly everything is constructed of wood,
+there was and is no durability in these edifices.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 48.--A SMALL PAGODA.]
+
+In public works of utility, such as roads, canals--one of which is
+nearly 700 miles in length--and boldly designed bridges, the Chinese
+seem to have shown a more enlightened mind; and the Great Wall, which
+was built to protect the northern boundary of the kingdom, about 200
+B.C., is a wonderful example of engineering skill. This wall, which
+varies from 15 to 30 ft. in height, is about 25 ft. thick at the base,
+and slopes off to 20 ft. at the top. It is defended by bastions placed
+at stated intervals, which are 40 ft. square at the base, and about
+the same in height; the wall is carried altogether through a course of
+about 1400 miles, following all the sinuosities of the ground over
+which it passes. It is a most remarkable fact that a nation should
+have existed 2000 years ago capable of originating and completing so
+great a work; but it is still more remarkable that such a nation,
+possessing moreover, as it does, a great faculty in decorative art
+applied to small articles of use and fancy, should be still leading a
+populous and prosperous existence, and yet should have so little to
+show in the way of architecture, properly so termed, at the present
+time.
+
+Japan, like China, possesses an architecture, but one exclusively of
+wood; for although the use of stone for bridges, walls, &c., had been
+general, all houses and temples were invariably built of wood until
+the recent employment of foreigners led to the erection of brick and
+stone buildings. The consequence has been that nearly all the old
+temples have been burnt down and rebuilt several times; and though it
+is probable that the older forms were adhered to when the buildings
+were re-erected, it is only by inference that we can form an idea of
+the ancient architecture of the country. The heavy curved roofs which
+are so characteristic of Chinese buildings are found also in Japan,
+but only in the Buddhist temples, and this makes it probable that this
+form of roof is not of native origin, but was introduced with the
+Buddhist cult. The earlier Shinto temples have a different form of
+roof, which is without the upward curve, but which has nearly as much
+projection at the eaves as the curved roofs. Where the buildings are
+more than one storey in height the upper one is always set somewhat
+back, as we saw was the case in the Chinese pagodas, and considerable
+and pleasing variety is obtained by treating the two storeys
+differently. Very great skill in carving is shown, all the posts,
+brackets, beams, and projecting rafters being formed into elaborate
+representations of animals and plants, or quaintly conceived
+grotesques; and the flat surfaces have frequently a shallow incised
+arabesque pattern intertwined with foliage. The roofs are always
+covered with tiles, and a curious effect is produced by enriching the
+hips and ridges with several courses of tiles in cement, thus making
+them rise considerably above the other portions of the roof. A
+peculiar feature of Japanese houses is that the walls, whether
+external or internal, are not filled in with plaster, but are
+constructed of movable screens which slide in grooves formed in the
+framing of the partitions. Thus all the rooms can easily be thrown
+together or laid open to the outer air in hot weather. All travellers
+in Japan remark upon the impossibility of obtaining privacy in the
+hotels in consequence of this.
+
+The Shinto temples are approached through what might be termed an
+archway, only that the arch does not enter into its composition. This
+erection is called a Torii, and is thus described by Professor
+Conder:[9]--"It is composed of two upright posts of great thickness,
+each consisting of the whole trunk of a tree rounded, about 15 ft.
+high, and placed 12 ft. apart. Across the top of these is placed a
+wooden lintel, projecting considerably and curving upwards at the
+ends. Some few feet below this another horizontal piece is tenoned
+into the uprights, having a little post in the centre helping to
+support the upper lintel." These erections occasionally occur in front
+of a Buddhist temple, when they are built of stone, exactly imitating,
+however, the wooden originals. This is interesting, as offering
+another proof, were one needed, that the curious forms of masonry
+exhibited in much of the work of the early nations, some of which has
+been described, is the result of an imitation of earlier wooden forms.
+
+The chief effect in the buildings of the Japanese is intended to be
+produced by colour, which is profusely used; and they have attained to
+a height of perfection in the preparation of varnishes and lacquers
+that has never been equalled. Their lacquer is used all over their
+buildings, besides forming their chief means of decorating small
+objects. It is, however, beginning to be questioned whether the old
+art of lacquering is not becoming lost by the Japanese themselves, as
+the modern work appears by no means equal to the old. One curious form
+of decoration, of which the Japanese are much enamoured, consists in
+forming miniature representations of country scenes and landscapes;
+waterfalls, bridges, &c., being reproduced on the most diminutive
+scale. It is much to be feared that our small stock of knowledge of
+ancient Japanese art will never be greatly increased, as the whole
+country and the people are becoming modernised and Europeanised to
+such an extent that it appears probable there will soon be little
+indigenous art left in the country.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+It has not been thought necessary to append to this chapter analyses
+of the Eastern styles similar to those which are given in the case of
+the great divisions of Western Architecture. The notice of these
+styles must unavoidably be condensed into very small space.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] It is not intended to imply that Hindustan has been without change
+in her ruling dynasties. These have been continually changing; but the
+remarkable fact is that, numerous as have been the nations that have
+poured across the Indus attracted by "the wealth of Ind," there has
+been no reflux, as it were: the various peoples, with their arts,
+religions, and manners, have been swallowed up and assimilated,
+leaving but here and there slight traces of their origin.
+
+[7] See Chap. X. for an illustration of a Christian Basilica.
+
+[8] See chapter on Saracenic Architecture.
+
+[9] Paper communicated to the Royal Institute of Architects.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 49.--GREEK HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Buildings of the Doric Order._
+
+The architecture of Greece has a value far higher than that attaching
+to any of the styles which preceded it, on account of the beauty of
+the buildings and the astonishing refinement which the best of them
+display. This architecture has a further claim on our attention, as
+being virtually the parent of that of all the nations of Western
+Europe. We cannot put a finger upon any features of Egyptian,
+Assyrian, or Persian architecture, the influence of which has survived
+to the present day, except such as were adopted by the Greeks. On the
+other hand, there is no feature, no ornament, nor even any principle
+of design which the Greek architects employed, that can be said to
+have now become obsolete. Not only do we find direct reproductions of
+Greek architecture forming part of the practice of every European
+country, but we are able to trace to Greek art the parentage of many
+of the forms and features of Roman, Byzantine, and Gothic
+architecture, especially those connected with the column and which
+grew out of its artistic use. Greek architecture did not include the
+arch and all the forms allied to it, such as the vault and the dome;
+and, so far as we know, the Greeks abstained from the use of the
+tower. Examples of both these features were, it is almost certain, as
+fully within the knowledge of the Greeks as were those features of
+Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian buildings which they employed;
+consequently it is to deliberate selection that we must attribute this
+exclusion. Within the limits by which they confined themselves, the
+Greeks worked with such power, learning, taste, and skill that we may
+fairly claim for their highest achievement--the Parthenon--that it
+advanced as near to absolute perfection as any work of art ever has
+been or ever can be carried.
+
+Greek architecture seems to have begun to emerge from the stage of
+archaic simplicity about the beginning of the sixth century before the
+Christian era (600 B.C. is the reputed date of the old Doric Temple at
+Corinth). All the finest examples were erected between that date and
+the death of Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), after which period it
+declined and ultimately gave place to Roman.
+
+The domestic and palatial buildings of the Greeks have decayed or been
+destroyed, leaving but few vestiges. We know their architecture
+exclusively from ruins of public buildings, and to a limited extent of
+sepulchral monuments remaining in Greece and in Greek colonies. By far
+the most numerous and excellent among these buildings are temples. The
+Greek idea of a temple was different from that entertained by the
+Egyptians. The building was to a much greater extent designed for
+external effect than internal. A comparatively small sacred cell was
+provided for the reception of the image of the divinity, usually with
+one other cell behind it, which seems to have served as treasury or
+sacristy; but there were no surrounding chambers, gloomy halls, or
+enclosed courtyards, like those of the Egyptian temples, visible only
+to persons admitted within a jealously guarded outer wall. The temple,
+it is true, often stood within some sort of precinct, but it was
+accessible to all. It stood open to the sun and air; it invited the
+admiration of the passer-by; its most telling features and best
+sculpture were on the exterior. Whether this may have been, to some
+extent, the case with Persian buildings, we have few means of knowing,
+but certainly the attention paid by the Greeks to the outside of their
+temples offers a striking contrast to the practice of the Egyptians,
+and to what we know of that of the Assyrians.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 50.--PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE IN ANTIS.]
+
+The temple, however grand, was always of simple form, with a gable at
+each end, and in this respect differed entirely from the series of
+halls, courts, and chambers of which a great Egyptian temple
+consisted. In the very smallest temple at least one of the gables was
+made into a portico by the help of columns and two pilasters (Fig.
+50). More important temples had a larger number of columns, and
+often a portico at each end (Figs. 50a and 55). The most important
+had columns on the flanks as well as at the front and rear, the
+sacred cell being, in fact, surrounded by them. It will be apparent
+from this that the column, together with the superstructure which
+rested upon it, must have played a very important part in Greek
+temple-architecture, and an inspection of any representations of
+Greek buildings will at once confirm the impression.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 50a.--PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE.]
+
+We find in Greece three distinct manners, distinguished largely by the
+mode in which the column is dealt with. These it would be quite
+consistent to call "styles," were it not that another name has been so
+thoroughly appropriated to them, that they would hardly now be
+recognised were they to be spoken of as anything else than "orders."
+The Greek orders are named the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each of
+them presents a different series of proportions, mouldings, features,
+and ornaments, though the main forms of the buildings are the same in
+all. The column and its entablature (the technical name for the
+frieze, architrave, and cornice, forming the usual superstructure)
+being the most prominent features in every such building, have come
+to be regarded as the index or characteristic from an inspection of
+which the order and the degree of its development can be recognised,
+just as a botanist recognises plants by their flowers. By reproducing
+the column and entablature, almost all the characteristics of either
+of the orders can be copied; and hence a technical and somewhat
+unfortunate use of the word "order" to signify these features only has
+crept in, and has overshadowed and to a large extent displaced its
+wider meaning. It is difficult in a book on architecture to avoid
+employing the word "order" when we have to speak of a column and its
+entablature, because it has so often been made use of in this sense.
+The student must, however, always bear in mind that this is a
+restricted and artificial sense of the word, and that the column
+belonging to any order is always accompanied by the use throughout the
+building of the appropriate proportions, ornaments, and mouldings
+belonging to that order.
+
+The origin of Greek architecture is a very interesting subject for
+inquiry, but, owing to the disappearance of almost all very early
+examples of the styles, it is necessarily obscure. Such information,
+however, as we possess, taken together with the internal evidence
+afforded by the features of the matured style, points to the influence
+of Egypt, to that of Assyria and Persia, and to an early manner of
+timber construction--the forms proper to which were retained in spite
+of the abandonment of timber for marble--as all contributing to the
+formation of Greek architecture.
+
+In Asia Minor a series of monuments, many of them rock-cut, has been
+discovered, which throw a curious light upon the early growth of
+architecture. We refer to tombs found in Lycia, and attributed to
+about the seventh century B.C. In these we obviously have the first
+work in stone of a nation of ship builders. A Lycian tomb--such as the
+one now to be seen, accurately restored, in the British
+Museum--represents a structure of beams of wood framed together,
+surmounted by a roof which closely resembles a boat turned upside
+down. The planks, the beams to which they were secured, and even a
+ridge similar to the keel of a vessel, all reappear here, showing that
+the material in use for building was so universally timber, that when
+the tomb was to be "graven in the rock for ever" the forms of a timber
+structure were those that presented themselves to the imagination of
+the sculptor. In other instances the resemblance to shipwrights' work
+disappears, and that of a carpenter is followed by that of the mason.
+Thus we find imitations of timber beams framed together and of
+overhanging low-pitched roofs, in some cases carried on unsquared
+rafters lying side by side, in several of these tombs.
+
+What happened on the Asiatic shore of the Egean must have occurred on
+the Greek shores, and though none of the very earliest specimens of
+reproduction in stone of timber structures has come down to us, there
+are abundant traces, as we shall presently see, of timber originals in
+buildings of the Doric order. Timber originals were not, however, the
+only sources from which the early inhabitants of Greece drew their
+inspiration.
+
+Constructions of extreme antiquity, and free from any appearance of
+imitating structures of timber, mark the sites of the oldest cities of
+Greece, Mycenæ and Orchomenos for example, the most ancient being
+Pelasgic city walls of unwrought stone (Fig. 51). The so-called
+Treasury of Atreus at Mycenæ, a circular underground chamber 48 ft.
+6 in. in diameter, and with a pointed vault, is a well-known specimen
+of more regular yet archaic building. Its vault is constructed of stones
+corbelling over one another, and is not a true arch (Figs. 52, 52a).
+The treatment of an ornamental column found here, and of the remains
+of sculptured ornaments over a neighbouring gateway called the Gate of
+the Lions, is of very Asiatic character, and seems to show that
+whatever influences had been brought to bear on their design were
+Oriental.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 51.--ANCIENT GREEK WALL OF UNWROUGHT STONE FROM
+ SAMOTHRACE.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 52.--PLAN OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT MYCENÆ.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 52a.--SECTION OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT
+ MYCENÆ.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 53.--GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SELINUS.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 53a.--GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM THE THESEUM.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 53b.--GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SAMOTHRACE.]
+
+A wide interval of time and a great contrast in taste separate the
+early works of Pelasgic masonry and even the chamber at Mycenæ from
+even the rudest and most archaic of the remaining Hellenic works of
+Greece. The Doric temple at Corinth is attributed, as has been stated,
+to the seventh century B.C. This was a massive masonry structure with
+extremely short, stumpy columns, and strong mouldings, but presenting
+the main features of the Doric style, as we know it, in its earliest
+and rudest form. Successive examples (Figs. 53 to 53b) show
+increasing slenderness of proportions and refinement of treatment, and
+are accompanied by sculpture which approaches nearer and nearer to
+perfection; but in the later and best buildings, as in the earliest
+and rudest, certain forms are retained for which it seems impossible
+to account, except on the supposition that they are reproductions in
+stone or marble of a timber construction. These occur in the
+entablature, while the column is of a type which it is hard to believe
+is not copied from originals in use in Egypt many centuries earlier,
+and already described (chap. II.).
+
+We will now proceed to examine a fully-developed Greek Doric temple of
+the best period, and in doing so we shall be able to recognise the
+forms referred to in the preceding paragraph as we come to them. The
+most complete Greek Doric temple was the Parthenon, the work of the
+architect Ictinus, the temple of the Virgin Goddess Athene (Minerva)
+at Athens, and on many accounts this building will be the best to
+select for our purpose.[10]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 54.--RUINS OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS.]
+
+The Parthenon at Athens stood on the summit of a lofty rock, and
+within an irregularly shaped enclosure, something like a cathedral
+close; entered through a noble gateway.[11] The temple itself was of
+perfectly regular plan, and stood quite free from dependencies of any
+sort. It consisted of a cella, or sacred cell, in which stood the
+statue of the goddess, with one chamber (the treasury) behind. In the
+cella, and also in the chamber behind, there were columns. A series of
+columns surrounded this building, and at either end was a portico,
+eight columns wide, and two deep. There were two pediments, or gables,
+of flat pitch, one at each end. The whole stood on a basement of
+steps; the building, exclusive of the steps, being 228 ft. long by
+101 ft. wide, and 64 ft. high. The columns were each 34 ft. 3 in. high,
+and more than 6 ft. in diameter at the base; a portion of the shaft
+and of the capital of one is in the British Museum, and a magnificent
+reproduction, full size, of the column and its entablature may be seen
+at the École des Beaux Arts, Paris. The ornaments consisted almost
+exclusively of sculpture of the very finest quality, executed by or
+under the superintendence of Pheidias. Of this sculpture many
+specimens are now in the British Museum.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 55.--PLAN OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 56.--THE ROOF OF A GREEK DORIC TEMPLE, SHOWING
+ THE MARBLE TILES.]
+
+The construction of this temple was of the most solid and durable
+kind, marble being the material used; and the workmanship was most
+careful in every part of which remains have come down to us. The roof
+was, no doubt, made of timber and covered with marble tiles (Fig. 56),
+carried on a timber framework, all traces of which have entirely
+perished; and the mode in which it was constructed is a subject upon
+which authorities differ, especially as to what provision was made
+for the admission of light. The internal columns, found in other
+temples as well as in the Parthenon, were no doubt employed to support
+this roof, as is shown in Bötticher's restoration of the Temple at
+Pæstum which we reproduce (Fig. 56a), though without pledging
+ourselves to its accuracy; for, indeed, it seems probable that
+something more or less like the clerestory of a Gothic church must
+have been employed to admit light to these buildings, as we know was
+the case in the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. But this structure, if it
+existed, has entirely disappeared.[12]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 56a.--SECTION OF THE GREEK DORIC TEMPLE AT
+ PÆSTUM. AS RESTORED BY BÖTTICHER.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 57.--THE GREEK DORIC ORDER FROM THE THESEUM.]
+
+The order of the Parthenon was Doric, and the leading proportions were
+as follows:--The column was 5·56 diameters high; the whole height,
+including the stylobate or steps, might be divided into nine parts, of
+which two go to the stylobate, six to the column, and one to the
+entablature.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 58.--PLAN OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 59.--THE FILLETS UNDER A GREEK DORIC CAPITAL.]
+
+The Greek Doric order is without a base; the shaft of the column
+springs from the top step and tapers towards the top, the outline
+being not, however, straight, but of a subtle curve, known technically
+as the entasis of the column. This shaft is channelled with twenty
+shallow channels,[13] the ridges separating one from another being
+very fine lines. A little below the moulding of the capital, fine
+sinkings, forming lines round the shaft, exist, and above these the
+channels of the flutes are stopped by or near the commencement of the
+projecting moulding of the capital. This moulding, which is of a
+section calculated to convey the idea of powerful support, is called
+the echinus, and its lower portion is encircled by a series of fillets
+(Fig. 59), which are cut into it. Above the echinus, which is
+circular, like the shaft, comes the highest member--the abacus, a
+square stout slab of marble, which completes the capital of the
+column. The whole is most skilfully designed to convey the idea of
+sturdy support, and yet to clothe the support with grace. The strong
+proportions of the shaft, the slight curve of its outline, the lines
+traced upon its surface by the channels, and even the vigorous
+uncompromising planting of it on the square step from which it
+springs, all contribute to make the column look strong. The check
+given to the vigorous upward lines of the channels on the shaft by the
+first sinkings, and their arrest at the point where the capital
+spreads out, intensified as it is by the series of horizontal lines
+drawn round the echinus by the fillets cut into it, all seem to convey
+the idea of spreading the supporting energy of the column outwards;
+and the abacus appears naturally fitted, itself inert, to receive a
+burden placed upon it and to transmit its pressure to the capital and
+shaft below.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 60.--CAPITAL OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN FROM ÆGINA,
+ WITH COLOURED DECORATION.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 61.--SECTION OF THE ENTABLATURE OF THE GREEK
+ DORIC ORDER.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 62.--PLAN LOOKING UP OF PART OF A GREEK DORIC
+ PERISTYLE.]
+
+The entablature which formed the superstructure consisted first of a
+square marble beam--the architrave, which, it may be assumed,
+represents a square timber beam that occupied the same position in
+the primitive structures. On this rests a second member called the
+frieze, the prominent feature of which is a series of slightly
+projecting features, known as triglyphs (three channels) (Fig. 63),
+from the channels running down their face. These closely resemble, and
+no doubt actually represent, the ends of massive timber beams, which
+must have connected the colonnade to the wall of the cell in earlier
+buildings. At the bottom of each is a row of small pendants, known as
+guttæ, which closely resemble wooden pins, such as would be used to
+keep a timber beam in place. The panels between the triglyphs are
+usually as wide as they are high. They are termed metopes and
+sculpture commonly occupies them. The third division of the
+entablature, the cornice represents the overhanging eaves of the roof.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 63.--DETAILS OF THE TRIGLYPH.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 64.--DETAILS OF THE MUTULES.]
+
+The cornices employed in classic architecture may be almost invariably
+subdivided into three parts: the supporting part, which is the
+lowest,--the projecting part, which is the middle,--and the crowning
+part, which is the highest division of the cornice. The supporting
+part in a Greek Doric cornice is extremely small. There are no
+mouldings, such as we shall find in almost every other cornice,
+calculated to convey the idea of contributing to sustain the
+projection of the cornice, but there are slabs of marble, called
+mutules (Fig. 64), dropping towards the outer end, of which one is
+placed over each triglyph and one between every two. These seem to
+recall, by their shape, their position, and their slope alike, the
+ends of the rafters of a timber roof; and their surface is covered
+with small projections which resemble the heads of wooden pins,
+similar to those already alluded to. The projecting part, in this as
+in almost all cornices, is a plain upright face of some height, called
+"the corona," and recalling probably a "facia" or flat narrow board
+such as a carpenter of the present day would use in a similar
+position, secured in the original structure to the ends of the rafters
+and supporting the eaves. Lastly, the crowning part is, in the Greek
+Doric, a single convex moulding, not very dissimilar in profile to the
+ovolo of the capital, and forming what we commonly call an
+eaves-gutter.
+
+At the ends of the building the two upper divisions of the
+cornice--namely, the projecting corona and the crowning ovolo--are
+made to follow the sloping line of the gable, a second corona being
+also carried across horizontally in a manner which can be best
+understood by inspecting a diagram of the corner of a Greek Doric
+building (Fig. 57); and the triangular space thus formed was termed a
+pediment, and was the position in which the finest of the sculpture
+with which the building was enriched was placed.
+
+In the Parthenon a continuous band of sculpture ran round the exterior
+of the cell, near the top of the wall.
+
+One other feature was employed in Greek temple-architecture. The
+_anta_ was a square pillar or pier of masonry attached to the wall,
+and corresponded very closely to our pilaster; but its capital always
+differed from that of the columns in the neighbourhood of which it was
+employed. The antæ of the Greek Doric order, as employed in the
+Parthenon, have a moulded base, which it will be remembered is not the
+case with the column, and their capital has for its principal feature
+an under-cut moulding, known as the bird's beak, quite dissimilar from
+the ovolo of the capital of the column (Fig. 65). Sometimes the
+portico of a temple consisted of the side walls prolonged, and ending
+in two antæ, with two or more columns standing between them. Such a
+portico is said to be in antis.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 65.--ELEVATION AND SECTION OF THE CAPITAL OF A
+ GREEK ANTA, WITH COLOURED DECORATION.]
+
+The Parthenon presents examples of the most extraordinary refinements
+in order to correct optical illusions. The delicacy and subtlety of
+these are extreme, but there can be no manner of doubt that they
+existed. The best known correction is the diminution in diameter or
+taper, and the _entasis_ or convex curve of the tapered outline of the
+shaft of the column. Without the taper, which is perceptible enough in
+the order of this building, and much more marked in the order of
+earlier buildings, the columns would look top-heavy; but the entasis
+is an additional optical correction to prevent their outline from
+appearing hollowed, which it would have done had there been no curve.
+The columns of the Parthenon have shafts that are over 34 ft. high,
+and diminish from a diameter of 6·15 ft. at the bottom to 4·81 ft. at
+the top. The outline between these points is convex, but so slightly
+so that the curve departs at the point of greatest curvature not more
+than Ÿ in. from the straight line joining the top and bottom. This
+is, however, just sufficient to correct the tendency to look hollow in
+the middle.
+
+A second correction is intended to overcome the apparent tendency of a
+building to spread outwards towards the top. This is met by inclining
+the columns slightly inwards. So slight, however, is the inclination,
+that were the axes of two columns on opposite sides of the Parthenon
+continued upwards till they met, the meeting-point would be 1952
+yards, or, in other words, more than one mile from the ground.
+
+Another optical correction is applied to the horizontal lines. In
+order to overcome a tendency which exists in all long lines to seem as
+though they droop in the middle, the lines of the architrave, of the
+top step, and of other horizontal features of the building, are all
+slightly curved. The difference between the outline of the top step of
+the Parthenon and a straight line joining its two ends is at the
+greatest only just over 2 inches.
+
+The last correction which it is necessary to name here was applied to
+the vertical proportions of the building. The principles upon which
+this correction rests have been demonstrated by Mr. John
+Pennethorne;[14] and it would hardly come within the scope of this
+volume to attempt to state them here: suffice it to say, that small
+additions, amounting in the entire height of the order to less than 5
+inches, were made to the heights of the various members of the order,
+with a view to secure that from one definite point of view the effect
+of foreshortening should be exactly compensated, and so the building
+should appear to the spectator to be perfectly proportioned.
+
+The Parthenon, like many, if not all Greek buildings, was profusely
+decorated with coloured ornaments, of which nearly every trace has now
+disappeared, but which must have contributed largely to the splendid
+beauty of the building as a whole, and must have emphasised and set
+off its parts. The ornaments known as Doric frets were largely
+employed. They consist of patterns made entirely of straight lines
+interlacing, and, while preserving the severity which is
+characteristic of the style, they permit of the introduction of
+considerable richness.
+
+The principal remaining examples or fragments of Greek Doric may be
+enumerated as follows:--
+
+IN GREECE.
+
+ Temple of (?) Athena, at Corinth, ab. 650 B.C.
+ Temple of (?) Zeus, in the island of Ægina, ab. 550 B.C.
+ Temple of Theseus (Theseum), at Athens, 465 B.C.
+ Temple of Athena (Parthenon), on the Acropolis at Athens, fin. 438 B.C.
+ The Propylæa, on the Acropolis at Athens, 436-431 B.C.
+ Temple of Zeus at Olympia.
+ Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bassæ,[15] in Arcadia (designed by
+ Ictinus).
+ Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Phigaleia, in Arcadia (built by
+ Ictinus).
+ Temple of Athena, on the rock of Sunium, in Attica.
+ Temple of Nemesis, at Rhamnus, in Attica.
+ Temple of Demeter (Ceres), at Eleusis, in Attica.
+
+IN SICILY AND SOUTH ITALY.
+
+ Temple of (?) Zeus, at Agrigentum, in Sicily (begun B.C. 480).
+ Temple at Ægesta (or Segesta), in Sicily.
+ Temple of (?) Zeus, at Selinus, in Sicily (? ab. 410 B.C.).
+ Temple of (?) Athena, at Syracuse, in Sicily.
+ Temple of Poseidon, at Pæstum, in South of Italy (? ab. 550 B.C.).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] See Frontispiece and Figs. 54 and 55.
+
+[11] The Propylæa.
+
+[12] Mr. Fergusson's investigations, soon, it is understood, to be
+published in a complete form, clearly show that the clerestory and
+roof can be restored with the greatest probability.
+
+[13] In a few instances a smaller number is found.
+
+[14] 'Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture.'
+
+[15] ? Exterior Doric--Interior Ionic.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 66.--PALMETTE AND HONEYSUCKLE.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders._
+
+The Doric was the order in which the full strength and the complete
+refinement of the artistic character of the Greeks were most
+completely shown. There was a great deal of the spirit of severe
+dignity proper to Egyptian art in its aspect; but other nationalities
+contributed to the formation of the many-sided Greek nature, and we
+must look to some other country than Egypt for the spirit which
+inspired the Ionic order. This seems to have been brought into Greece
+by a distinct race, and shows marks of an Asiatic origin. The feature
+which is most distinctive is the one most distinctly Eastern--the
+capital of the column, ornamented always by volutes, _i.e._ scrolls,
+which bear a close resemblance to features similarly employed in the
+columns found at Persepolis. The same resemblance can be also detected
+in the moulded bases, and even the shafts of the columns, and in many
+of the ornaments employed throughout the buildings.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 67.--SHAFT OF IONIC COLUMN SHOWING THE FLUTES.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 68.--IONIC CAPITAL. FRONT ELEVATION.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 69.--IONIC CAPITAL. SIDE ELEVATION.]
+
+In form and disposition an ordinary Ionic temple was similar to one of
+the Doric order, but the general proportions are more slender, and the
+mouldings of the order are more numerous and more profusely enriched.
+The column in the Ionic order had a base, often elaborately and
+sometimes singularly moulded (Figs. 74, 75). The shaft (Figs. 67, 70)
+is of more slender proportions than the Doric shaft. It was fluted,
+but its channels are more numerous, and are separated from one another
+by broader fillets than in the Doric. The distinctive feature, as in
+all the orders, is the capital (Figs. 68, 69), which is recognised at
+a glance by the two remarkable ornaments already alluded to as like
+scrolls, and known as volutes. These generally formed the faces of a
+pair of cushion-shaped features, which could be seen in a side view of
+the capital; but sometimes volutes stand in a diagonal position, and
+in almost every building they differ slightly. The abacus is less deep
+than in the Greek Doric, and it is always moulded at the edge, which
+was never the case with the Doric abacus. The entablature (Fig. 70)
+is, generally speaking, richer than that of the Doric order. The
+architrave, for example, has three facias instead of being plain. On
+the other hand, the frieze has no triglyphs, and but rarely sculpture.
+There are more members in the cornice, several mouldings being
+combined to fortify the supporting portion. These have sometimes been
+termed "the bed mouldings," and among them occurs one which is almost
+typical of the order, and is termed a dentil band. This moulding
+presents the appearance of a plain square band of stone, in which a
+series of cuts had been made dividing it into blocks somewhat
+resembling teeth, whence the name. Such an ornament is more naturally
+constructed in wood than in stone or marble, but if the real
+derivation of the Ionic order, as of the Doric, be in fact from timber
+structures, the dentil band is apparently the only feature in which
+that origin can now be traced. The crowning member of the cornice is a
+partly hollow moulding, technically called a "cyma recta," less
+vigorous than the convex ovolo, of the Doric: this moulding, and some
+of the bed mouldings, were commonly enriched with carving. Altogether
+more slenderness and less vigour, more carved enrichment and less
+painted decoration, more reliance on architectural ornament and
+less on the work of the sculptor, appear to distinguish those examples
+of Greek Ionic which have come down to us, as compared with Doric
+buildings.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 70.--THE IONIC ORDER. FROM PRIENE, ASIA MINOR.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 71.--IONIC ORDER. FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM, ATHENS.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 72.--NORTH-WEST VIEW OF THE ERECHTHEIUM, IN THE
+ TIME OF PERICLES.]
+
+The most numerous examples of the Ionic order of which remains exist
+are found in Asia Minor, but the most refined and complete is the
+Erechtheium at Athens (Figs. 72, 73), a composite structure containing
+three temples built in juxtaposition, but differing from one another
+in scale, levels, dimensions, and treatment. The principal order from
+the Erechtheium (Fig. 71) shows a large amount of enrichment
+introduced with the most refined and severe taste. Specially
+remarkable are the ornaments (borrowed from the Assyrian honeysuckle)
+which encircle the upper part of the shaft at the point where it
+passes into the capital, and the splendid spirals of the volutes
+(Figs. 68, 69). The bases of the columns in the Erechtheium example
+are models of elegance and beauty. Those of some of the examples from
+Asia Minor are overloaded with a vast number of mouldings, by no
+means always producing a pleasing effect (Figs. 74, 75). Some of them
+bear a close resemblance to the bases of the columns at Persepolis.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 73.--PLAN OF THE ERECHTHEIUM.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 74.--IONIC BASE FROM THE TEMPLE OF THE WINGLESS
+ VICTORY (NIKÈ APTEROS).]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 75.--IONIC BASE MOULDINGS FROM PRIENE.]
+
+The most famous Greek building which was erected in the Ionic style
+was the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. This temple has been all but
+totally destroyed, and the very site of it had been for centuries lost
+and unknown till the energy and sagacity of an English architect (Mr.
+Wood) enabled him to discover and dig out the vestiges of the
+building. Fortunately sufficient traces of the foundation have
+remained to render it possible to recover the plan of the temple
+completely; and the discovery of fragments of the order, together with
+representations on ancient coins and a description by Pliny, have
+rendered it possible to make a restoration on paper, of the general
+appearance of this famous temple, which must be very nearly, if not
+absolutely, correct.
+
+The walls of this temple enclosed, as usual, a cella (in which was the
+statue of the goddess), with apparently a treasury behind it: they
+were entirely surrounded by a double series of columns, with a
+pediment at each end. The exterior of the building, including these
+columns, was about twice the width of the cella. The whole structure,
+which was of marble, was planted on a spacious platform with steps.
+The account of Pliny refers to thirty-six columns, which he describes
+as "_columnæ celatæ_" (sculptured columns), adding that one was by
+Scopas, a very celebrated artist. The fortunate discovery by Mr. Wood
+of a few fragments of these columns shows that the lower part of the
+shaft immediately above the base was enriched by a group of
+figures--about life-size--carved in the boldest relief and encircling
+the column. One of these groups has been brought to the British
+Museum, and its beauty and vigour enable the imagination partly to
+restore this splendid feature, which certainly was one of the most
+sumptuous modes of decorating a building by the aid of sculpture which
+has ever been attempted; and the effect must have been rich beyond
+description.
+
+It is worth remark that the Erechtheium, which has been already
+referred to, contains an example of a different, and perhaps a not
+less remarkable, mode of combining sculpture with architecture. In one
+of its three porticoes (Fig. 72) the columns are replaced by standing
+female figures, known as caryatidæ, and the entablature rests on their
+heads. This device has frequently been repeated in ancient and in
+modern architecture, but, except in some comparatively obscure
+examples, the sculptured columns of Ephesus do not appear to have been
+imitated.
+
+Another famous Greek work of art, the remains of which have been, like
+the Temple of Diana, disinterred by the energy and skill of a learned
+Englishman, belonged to the Ionic order. To Mr. Newton we owe the
+recovery of the site, and considerable fragments of the architectural
+features, of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the ancient
+wonders of the world. The general outline of this monument must have
+resembled other Greek tombs which have been preserved, such, for
+example, as the Lion Tomb at Cnidus; that is to say, the plan was
+square: there was a basement, above this an order, and above that a
+steep pyramidal roof rising in steps, not carried to a point, but
+stopping short to form a platform, on which was placed a quadriga (or
+four-horsed chariot). This building is known to have been richly
+sculptured, and many fragments of great beauty have been recovered.
+Indeed it was probably its elaboration, as well as its very unusual
+height (for the Greek buildings were seldom lofty), which led to its
+being so celebrated.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 76.--THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. FROM THE MONUMENT OF
+ LYSICRATES AT ATHENS.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 77.--CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM THE MONUMENT OF
+ LYSICRATES AT ATHENS.]
+
+The Corinthian order, the last to make its appearance, was almost as
+much Roman as Greek, and is hardly found in any of the great temples
+of the best period of which remains exist in Greece, though we hear of
+its use. For example, Pausanias states that the Corinthian order was
+employed in the interior of the Temple of Athena Alea at Tegea, built
+by Scopas, to which a date shortly after the year 394 B.C. is
+assigned. The examples which we possess are comparatively small works,
+and in them the order resembles the Ionic, but with the important
+exceptions that the capital of the column is quite different, that the
+proportions are altogether a little slenderer, and that the
+enrichments are somewhat more florid.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 78.--MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES AT ATHENS, AS IN THE
+ TIME OF PERICLES.]
+
+The capital of the Greek Corinthian order, as seen in the Choragic
+Monument of Lysicrates at Athens (Fig. 78)--a comparatively miniature
+example, but the most perfect we have--is a work of art of marvellous
+beauty (Fig. 77). It retains a feature resembling the Ionic volute,
+but reduced to a very small size, set obliquely and appearing to
+spring from the sides of a kind of long bell-shaped termination to the
+column. This bell is clothed with foliage, symmetrically arranged and
+much of it studied, but in a conventional manner, from the graceful
+foliage of the acanthus; between the two small volutes appears an
+Assyrian honeysuckle, and tendrils of honeysuckle, conventionally
+treated, occupy part of the upper portion of the capital. The abacus
+is moulded, and is curved on plan, and the base of the capital is
+marked by a very unusual turning-down of the flutes of the columns.
+The entire structure to which this belonged is a model of elegance,
+and the large sculptured mass of leaves and tendrils with which it is
+crowned is especially noteworthy.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 79.--CAPITAL OF ANTÆ FROM MILETUS. SIDE VIEW.]
+
+A somewhat simpler Corinthian capital, and another of very rich
+design, are found in the Temple of Apollo Didymæus at Miletus, where
+also a very elegant capital for the antæ--or pilasters--is employed
+(Figs. 79, 81). A more ornamental design for a capital could hardly be
+adopted than that of the Lysicrates example, but there was room for
+more elaboration in the entablature, and accordingly large
+richly-sculptured brackets seem to have been introduced, and a
+profusion of ornament was employed. The examples of this treatment
+which remain are, however, of Roman origin rather than Greek.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 80.--RESTORATION OF THE GREEK THEATRE OF
+ SEGESTA.]
+
+The Greek cities must have included structures of great beauty and
+adapted to many purposes, of which in most cases few traces, if any,
+have been preserved. We have no remains of a Greek palace, or of Greek
+dwelling-houses, although those at Pompeii were probably erected and
+decorated by Greek artificers, for Roman occupation. The agora of a
+Greek city, which was a place of public assembly something like the
+Roman Forum, is known to us only by descriptions in ancient writers,
+but we possess some remains of Greek theatres; and from these, aided
+by Roman examples and written descriptions, can understand what these
+buildings were. The auditory was curved in plan, occupying rather more
+than a semicircle; the seats rose in tiers one behind another; a
+circular space was reserved for the chorus in the centre of the seats,
+and behind it was a raised stage, bounded by a wall forming its back
+and sides: a rough notion of the arrangement can be obtained from the
+lecture theatre of many modern colleges, and our illustration (Fig.
+80) gives a general idea of what must have been the appearance of one
+of these structures. Much of the detail of these buildings is,
+however, a matter of pure speculation, and consequently does not enter
+into the scheme of this manual.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 81.--CAPITAL OF ANTÆ FROM MILETUS.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Analysis._
+
+The _Plan_ or floor-disposition of a Greek building was always simple
+however great its extent, was well judged for effect, and capable of
+being understood at once. The grandest results were obtained by simple
+means, and all confusion, uncertainty, or complication were
+scrupulously avoided. Refined precision, order, symmetry, and
+exactness mark the plan as well as every part of the work.
+
+The plan of a Greek temple may be said to present many of the same
+elements as that of an Egyptian temple, but, so to speak, turned
+inside out. Columns are relied on by the Greek artist, as they were by
+the Egyptian artist, as a means of giving effect; but they are placed
+by him outside the building instead of within its courts and halls.
+The Greek, starting with a comparatively small nucleus formed by the
+cell and the treasury, encircles them by a magnificent girdle of
+pillars, and so makes a grand structure, the first hint or suggestion
+being in all probability to be found in certain small Egyptian
+buildings to which reference has already been made. The disposition of
+these columns and of the great range of steps, or stylobate, is the
+most marked feature in Greek temple plans. Columns also existed, it is
+true, in the interior of the building, but these were of smaller size,
+and seem to have been introduced to aid in carrying the roof and the
+clerestory, if there was one. They have in several instances
+disappeared, and there is certainly no ground for supposing that in
+any Greek interior the grand but oppressive effect of a hypostyle hall
+was attempted to be reproduced. That was abandoned, together with the
+complication, seclusion, and gloom of the long series of chambers,
+cells, &c., placed one behind another, just as the contrasts and
+surprises of the series of courts and halls following in succession
+were abandoned for the one simple but grand mass built to be seen from
+without rather than from within. In the greater number of Greek
+buildings a degree of precision is exhibited, to which the Egyptians
+did not attain. All right angles are absolutely true; the setting-out
+(or spacing) of the different columns, piers, openings, &c., is
+perfectly exact; and, in the Parthenon, the patient investigations of
+Mr. Penrose and other skilled observers have disclosed a degree of
+accuracy as well as refinement which resembles the precision with
+which astronomical instruments are adjusted in Europe at the present
+day, rather than the rough-and-ready measurements of a modern mason or
+bricklayer.
+
+What the plans of Greek palaces might have exhibited, did any remains
+exist, is merely matter for inference and conjecture, and it is not
+proposed in this volume to pass far beyond ascertained and observed
+facts. There can be, however, little doubt that the palaces of the
+West Asiatic style must have at least contributed suggestions as to
+internal disposition of the later and more magnificent Greek mansions.
+The ordinary dwelling-houses of citizens, as described by ancient
+writers, resembled those now visible in the disinterred cities of
+Pompeii and Herculaneum, which will be referred to under Roman
+Architecture.[16] The chief characteristic of the plan of these is
+that they retain the disposition which in the temples was discarded;
+that is to say, all the doors and windows looked into an inner court,
+and the house was as far as possible secluded within an encircling
+wall. The contrast between the openness of the public life led by the
+men in Greek cities, and the seclusion of the women and the families
+when at home, is remarkably illustrated by this difference between the
+public and private buildings.
+
+The plan of the triple building called the Erechtheium (Fig. 72)
+deserves special mention, as an example of an exceptional arrangement
+which appears to set the ordinary laws of symmetry at defiance, and
+which is calculated to produce a result into which the picturesque
+enters at least as much as the beautiful. Though the central temple is
+symmetrical, the two attached porticoes are not so, and do not, in
+position, dimensions, or treatment, balance one another. The result is
+a charming group, and we cannot doubt that other examples of freedom
+of planning would have been found, had more remains of the
+architecture of the great cities of Greece come down to our own day.
+
+In public buildings other than temples--such as the theatre, the
+agora, and the basilica--the Greek architects seem to have had great
+scope for their genius; the planning of the theatres shows skilful and
+thoroughly complete provisions to meet the requirements of the case. A
+circular disposition was here introduced--not, it is true, for the
+first time, since it is rendered probable by the representations on
+sculptured slabs that some circular buildings existed in Assyria, and
+circular buildings remain in the archaic works at Mycenæ; but it was
+now elaborated with remarkable completeness, beauty, and mastery over
+all the difficulties involved. Could we see the great theatre of
+Athens as it was when perfect, we should probably find that as an
+interior it was almost unrivalled, alike for convenience and for
+beauty; and for these excellences it was mainly indebted to the
+elegance of its planning. The actual floor of many of the Greek
+temples appears to have been of marble of different colours.
+
+
+_The Walls._
+
+The construction of the walls of the Greek temples rivalled that of
+the Egyptians in accuracy and beauty of workmanship, and resembled
+them in the use of solid materials. The Greeks had within reach
+quarries of marble, the most beautiful material which nature has
+provided for the use of the builder; and great fineness of surface and
+high finish were attained. Some interesting examples of hollow walling
+occur in the construction of the Parthenon. The wall was not an
+element of the building on which the Greek architect seemed to dwell
+with pleasure; much of it is almost invariably overshadowed by the
+lines of columns which form the main features of the building.
+
+The pediment (or gable) of a temple is a grand development of the
+walls, and perhaps the most striking of the additions which the Greeks
+made to the resources of the architect. It offers a fine field for
+sculpture, and adds real and apparent height beyond anything that the
+Egyptians ever attempted since the days of the Pyramid-builders; and
+it has remained in constant use to the present hour.
+
+We do not hear of towers being attached to buildings, and, although
+such monumental structures as the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus
+approached the proportions of a tower, height does not seem to have
+commended itself to the mind of the Greek architect as necessary to
+the buildings which he designed. It was reserved for Roman and
+Christian art to introduce this element of architectural effect in all
+its power. On the other hand, the Greek, like the Persian architect,
+emphasised the base of his building in a remarkable manner, not only
+by base mouldings, but by planting the whole structure on a great
+range of steps which formed an essential part of the composition.
+
+
+_The Roof._
+
+The construction of the roofs of Greek temples has been the subject of
+much debate. It is almost certain that they were in some way so made
+as to admit light. They were framed of timber and covered by tiles,
+often, if not always, of marble. Although all traces of the timber
+framing have disappeared, we can at least know that the pitch was not
+steep, by the slope of the outline of the pediments, which formed, as
+has already been said, perhaps the chief glory of a Greek temple. The
+flat stone roofs sometimes used by the Egyptians, and necessitating
+the placing of columns or other supports close together, seem to have
+become disused, with the exception that where a temple was surrounded
+by a range of columns the space between the main wall and the columns
+was so covered.
+
+The vaulted stone roofs of the archaic buildings, of which the
+treasury of Atreus (Figs. 52, 52a) was the type, do not seem to have
+prevailed in a later period, or, so far as we know, to have been
+succeeded by any similar covering or vault of a more scientific
+construction.
+
+It is hardly necessary to add that the Greek theatres were not roofed.
+The Romans shaded the spectators in their theatres and amphitheatres
+by means of a velarium or awning, but it is extremely doubtful whether
+even this expedient was in use in Greek theatres.
+
+
+_The Openings._
+
+The most important characteristic of the openings in Greek buildings
+is that they were flat-topped,--covered by a lintel of stone or
+marble,--and never arched. We have already[17] shown that this
+circumstance is really of the first importance as determining the
+architectural character of buildings. Doors and window openings were
+often a little narrower at the top than the bottom, and were marked by
+a band of mouldings, known as the architrave, on the face of the wall,
+and, so to speak, framing in the opening. There was often also a small
+cornice over each (Figs. 82, 83). Openings were seldom advanced into
+prominence or employed as features in the exterior of a building; in
+fact, the same effects which windows produce in other styles were in
+Greek buildings created by the interspaces between the columns.
+
+
+_The Columns._
+
+These features, together with the superstructure or entablature, which
+they customarily carried, were the prominent parts of Greek
+architecture, occupying as they did the entire height of the building.
+The development of the orders (which we have explained to be really
+decorative systems, each of which involved the use of one sort of
+column, though the term is constantly understood as meaning merely the
+column and entablature) is a very interesting subject, and illustrates
+the acuteness with which the Greeks selected from those models which
+were accessible to them, exactly what was suited to their purpose, and
+the skill with which they altered and refined, and almost redesigned,
+everything which they so selected.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 82.--GREEK DOORWAY SHOWING CORNICE.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 83.--GREEK DOORWAY. FRONT VIEW. (FROM THE
+ ERECHTHEIUM.)]
+
+During the whole period when Greek art was being developed, the
+ancient and polished civilisation of Egypt constituted a most
+powerful and most stable influence, always present,--always,
+comparatively speaking, within reach,--and always the same. Of all the
+forms of column and capital existing in Egypt, the Greeks, however,
+only selected that straight-sided fluted type of which the Beni-Hassan
+example is the best known, but by no means the only instance. We first
+meet with these fluted columns at Corinth, of very sturdy proportions,
+and having a wide, swelling, clumsy moulding under the abacus by way
+of a capital. By degrees the proportions of the shaft grew more
+slender, and the profile of the capital more elegant and less bold,
+till the perfected perfections of the Greek Doric column were
+attained. This column is the original to which all columns with
+moulded capitals that have been used in architecture, from the age of
+Pericles to our own, may be directly or indirectly referred; while the
+Egyptian types which the Greeks did not select--such, for example, as
+the lotus-columns at Karnak--have never been perpetuated.
+
+A different temper or taste, and partly a different history, led to
+the selection of the West Asiatic types of column by a section of the
+Greek people; but great alterations in proportion, in the treatment of
+the capital, and in the management of the moulded base from which the
+columns sprang, were made, even in the orders which occur in the Ionic
+buildings of Asia Minor. This was carried further when the Ionic order
+was made use of in Athens herself, and as a result the Attic base and
+the perfected Ionic capital are to be found at their best in the
+Erechtheium example. The Ionic order and the Corinthian, which soon
+followed it, are the parents,--not, it is true, of all, but of the
+greater part of the columns with foliated capitals that have been used
+in all styles and periods of architecture since. It will not be
+forgotten that rude types of both orders are found represented on
+Assyrian bas-reliefs, but still the Corinthian capital and order must
+be considered as the natural and, so to speak, inevitable development
+of the Ionic. From the Corinthian capital an unbroken series of
+foliated capitals can be traced down to our own day; almost the only
+new ornamented type ever devised since being that which takes its
+origin in the Romanesque block capital, known to us in England as the
+early Norman cushion capital: this was certainly the parent of a
+distinct series, though even these owe not a little to Greek
+originals.
+
+We have alluded to the Ionic base. It was derived from a very tall one
+in use at Persepolis, and we meet with it first in the rich but clumsy
+forms of the bases in the Asia Minor examples. In them we find the
+height of the feature as used in Persia compressed, while great, and
+to our eyes eccentric, elaboration marked the mouldings: these the
+refinement of Attic taste afterwards simplified, till the profile of
+the well-known Attic base was produced--a base which has had as wide
+and lasting an influence as either of the original forms of capital.
+
+The Corinthian order, as has been above remarked, is the natural
+sequel of the Ionic. Had Greek architecture continued till it fell
+into decadence, this order would have been the badge of it. As it was,
+the decadence of Greek art was Roman art, and the Corinthian order was
+the favourite order of the Romans; in fact all the important examples
+of it which remain are Roman work.
+
+If we remember how invariably use was made of one or other of the two
+great types of the Greek order in all the buildings of the best Greek
+time, with the addition towards its close of the Corinthian order, and
+that these orders, a little more subdivided and a good deal modified,
+have formed the substratum of Roman architecture and of that in use
+during the last three centuries; and if we also bear in mind that
+nearly all the columnar architecture of Early Christian, Byzantine,
+Saracenic, and Gothic times, owes its forms to the same great source,
+we may well admit that the invention and perfecting of the orders of
+Greek architecture has been--with one exception--the most important
+event in the architectural history of the world. That exception is, of
+course, the introduction of the Arch.
+
+
+_The Ornaments._
+
+Greek Ornaments have exerted the same wide influence over the whole
+course of Western art as Greek columns; and in their origin they are
+equally interesting as specimens of Greek skill in adapting existing
+types, and of Greek invention where no existing types would serve.
+
+Few of the mouldings of Greek architecture are to be traced to
+anterior styles. There is nothing like them in Egyptian work, and
+little or nothing in Assyrian; and though a suggestion of some of them
+may no doubt be found in Persian examples, we must take them as having
+been substantially originated by Greek genius, which felt that they
+were wanted, designed them, and brought them far towards absolute
+perfection. They were of the most refined form, and when enriched were
+carved with consummate skill. They were executed, it must be
+remembered, in white marble,--a material having the finest surface,
+and capable of responding to the most delicate variations in contour
+by corresponding changes in shade or light in a manner and to a degree
+which no other material can equal. In the Doric, mouldings were few,
+and almost always convex; they became much more numerous in the later
+styles, and then included many of concave profile. The chief are the
+OVOLO, which formed the curved part of the Doric capital, and the
+crowning moulding of the Doric cornice; the CYMA; the BIRD'S BEAK,
+employed in the capitals of the antæ; the FILLETS under the Doric
+capital; the hollows and TORUS mouldings of the Ionic and Corinthian
+bases.
+
+The profiles of these mouldings were very rarely segments of circles,
+but lines of varying curvature, capable of producing the most delicate
+changes of light and shade, and contours of the most subtle grace.
+Many of them correspond to conic sections, but it seems probable that
+the outlines were drawn by hand, and not obtained by any mechanical or
+mathematical method.
+
+The mouldings were some of them enriched, to use the technical word,
+by having such ornaments cut into them or carved on them as, though
+simple in form, lent themselves well to repetition.[18] Where more
+room for ornament existed, and especially in the capitals of the Ionic
+and Corinthian orders, ornaments were freely and most gracefully
+carved, and very symmetrically arranged. Though these were very
+various, yet most of them can be classed under three heads. (1.) FRETS
+(Figs. 116 to 120). These were patterns made up of squares or L-shaped
+lines interlaced and made to seem intricate, though originally simple.
+Frequently these patterns are called Doric frets, from their having
+been most used in buildings of the Doric order. (2.) HONEYSUCKLE
+(Figs. 94 and 111 to 114). This ornament, admirably conventionalised,
+had been used freely by the Assyrians, and the Greeks only adopted
+what they found ready to their hand when they began to use it; but
+they refined it, at the same time losing no whit of its vigour or
+effectiveness, and the honeysuckle has come to be known as a typical
+Greek decorative _motif_. (3.) ACANTHUS (Figs. 84 and 85). This is a
+broad-leaved plant, the foliage and stems of which, treated in a
+conventional manner, though with but little departure from nature,
+were found admirably adapted for floral decorative work, and
+accordingly were made use of in the foliage of the Corinthian capital,
+and in such ornaments as, for example, the great finial which forms
+the summit of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE ACANTHUS LEAF AND STALK.]
+
+The beauty of the carving was, however, eclipsed by that highest of
+all ornaments--sculpture. In the Doric temples, as, for example, in
+the Parthenon, the architect contented himself with providing suitable
+spaces for the sculptor to occupy; and thus the great pediments, the
+metopes (Fig. 86) or square panels, and the frieze of the Parthenon
+were occupied by sculpture, in which there was no necessity for more
+conventionalism than the amount of artificial arrangement needed in
+order fitly to occupy spaces that were respectively triangular,
+square, or continuous. In the later and more voluptuous style of the
+Ionic temples we find sculpture made into an architectural feature, as
+in the famous statues, known as the Caryatides, which support the
+smallest portico of the Erechtheium, and in the enriched columns of
+the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. Sculpture had already been so employed
+in Egypt, and was often so used in later times; but the best
+opportunity for the display of the finest qualities of the sculptor's
+art is such an one as the pediments, &c., of the great Doric temples
+afforded.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 85.--THE ACANTHUS LEAF.]
+
+There is little room for doubting that all the Greek temples were
+richly decorated in colours, but traces and indications are all that
+remain: these, however, are sufficient to prove that a very large
+amount of colour was employed, and that probably ornaments (Figs. 105
+to 120) were painted upon many of those surfaces which were left plain
+by the mason, especially on the cornices, and that mosaics (Fig. 87)
+and coloured marbles, and even gilding, were freely used. There is
+also ground for believing that as the use of carved enrichments
+increased with the increasing adoption of the Ionic and Corinthian
+styles, less use was made of painted decorations.
+
+
+_Architectural Character._
+
+Observations which have been made during the course of this and the
+previous chapters will have gone far to point out the characteristics
+of Greek art. An archaic and almost forbidding severity, with heavy
+proportions and more strength than grace, marks the earliest Greek
+buildings of which we have any fragments remaining. Dignity, sobriety,
+refinement, and beauty are the qualities of the works of the best
+period. The latest buildings were more rich, more ornate, and more
+slender in their proportions and to a certain extent less severe.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 86.--METOPE FROM THE PARTHENON. CONFLICT BETWEEN
+ A CENTAUR AND ONE OF THE LAPITHÆ.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 87.--MOSAIC FROM THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS, OLYMPIA.]
+
+Most carefully studied proportions prevailed, and were wrought out to
+a pitch of completeness and refinement which is truly astounding.
+Symmetry was the all but invariable law of composition. Yet in certain
+respects--as, for example, the spacing and position of the columns--a
+degree of freedom was enjoyed which Roman architecture did not
+possess. Repetition ruled to the almost entire suppression of variety.
+Disclosure of the arrangement and construction of the building was
+almost complete, and hardly a trace of concealment can be detected.
+Simplicity reigns in the earliest examples; the elaboration of even
+the most ornamental is very chaste and graceful; and the whole effect
+of Greek architecture is one of harmony, unity, and refined power.
+
+ [Illustration: EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT
+
+ IN THE NORTHERN PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM--SHOWING THE
+ ORNAMENTATION OF THE CEILING.
+
+ FIG. 88.--SECTION OF THE PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM.
+
+ FIG. 89.--PLAN OF THE PORTICO--LOOKING UP.]
+
+A general principle seldom pointed out which governs the application
+of enrichments to mouldings in Greek architecture may be cited as a
+good instance of the subtle yet admirable concord which existed
+between the different features: it is as follows. _The outline of each
+enrichment in relief was ordinarily described by the same line as the
+profile of the moulding to which it was applied._ The egg enrichment
+(Fig. 91) on the ovolo, the water-leaf on the cyma reversa (Figs. 92
+and 97), the honeysuckle on the cyma recta (Fig. 94), and the
+guilloche (Fig. 100) on the torus, are examples of the application of
+this rule,--one which obviously tends to produce harmony.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 90.--CAPITAL OF ANTÆ FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM.]
+
+ [Illustration: EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN RELIEF.
+
+ FIG. 91.--EGG AND DART.
+
+ FIG. 92.--LEAF AND DART.
+
+ FIG. 93.--HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+ FIG. 94.--HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+ FIG. 95.--ACANTHUS.
+
+ FIG. 96.--ACANTHUS.
+
+ FIG. 97.--LEAF AND TONGUE.
+
+ FIG. 98.--LEAF AND TONGUE.
+
+ FIG. 99.--GARLAND.
+
+ FIG. 100.--GUILLOCHE.
+
+ FIG. 101.--BEAD AND FILLET.
+
+ FIG. 102.--BEAD AND FILLET.
+
+ FIG. 103.--TORUS MOULDING.
+
+ FIG. 104.--TORUS MOULDING.]
+
+ [Illustration: EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN COLOUR.
+
+ FIG. 105.--HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+ FIGS. 106, 108.--FACIAS WITH BANDS OF FOLIAGE.
+
+ FIG. 106.
+
+ FIG. 107.--HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+ FIG. 108.
+
+ FIG. 109.--LEAF AND DART.
+
+ FIG. 110.--EGG AND DART.
+
+ FIGS. 111 TO 113.--EXAMPLES OF THE HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+ FIG. 111.
+
+ FIG. 112.
+
+ FIG. 113.
+
+ FIG. 114.--COMBINATION OF THE FRET, THE EGG AND DART, THE BEAD
+ AND FILLET, AND THE HONEYSUCKLE.
+
+ FIG. 114.
+
+ FIG. 115.--GUILLOCHE.
+
+ FIGS. 116 TO 120.--EXAMPLES OF THE FRET.
+
+ FIG. 116.
+
+ FIG. 117.
+
+ FIG. 118.
+
+ FIG. 119.
+
+ FIG. 120.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[16] See Chap. IX.
+
+[17] Chap. I.
+
+[18] For a statement of the general rule governing such enrichments,
+see page 133.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 121.--ELEVATION OF AN ETRUSCAN TEMPLE (RESTORED
+ FROM DESCRIPTIONS ONLY).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Historical and General Sketch._
+
+The few grains of truth that we are able to sift from the mass of
+legend which has accumulated round the early history of Rome seem to
+indicate that at a very early period--which the generally received
+date of 753 B.C. may be taken to fix as nearly as is now possible--a
+small band of outcasts and marauders settled themselves on the
+Palatine Hill and commenced to carry on depredations against the
+various cities of the tribes whose territories were in the immediate
+neighbourhood, such as the Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, Latins, and
+Etruscans. A walled city was built, which from its admirable situation
+succeeded in attracting inhabitants in considerable numbers, and
+speedily began to exercise supremacy over its neighbours. The most
+important of the neighbouring nations were the Etruscans, who called
+themselves Rasena, and who must have settled on the west coast of
+Italy, between the rivers Arno and Tiber, at a very early period.
+Their origin is, however, very obscure, some authorities believing,
+upon apparently good grounds, that they came from Asia Minor, while
+others assert that they descended from the north over the Rhætian
+Alps. But whatever that origin may have been, they had at the time of
+the founding of Rome as a city attained a high degree of civilisation,
+and showed a considerable amount of architectural skill; and their
+arts exercised a very great influence upon Roman art.
+
+Considerable remains of the city walls of several Etruscan towns still
+exist. These show that the masonry was of what has been termed a
+Cyclopean character,--that is to say, the separate stones were of an
+enormous size; in the majority of examples these stones were of a
+polygonal shape, though in a few instances they were rectangular,
+while in all cases they were fitted together with the most consummate
+accuracy of workmanship, which, together with their great massiveness,
+has enabled much of this masonry to endure to the present day.
+Cortona, Volterra, Fiesole, and other towns exhibit instances of this
+walling. The temples, palaces, or dwelling-houses which went to make
+up the cities so fortified have all disappeared, and the only existing
+structural remains of Etruscan buildings are tombs. These are found in
+large numbers, and consist--as in the earlier instances which have
+already been described--both of rock-cut and detached erections. Of
+the former, the best known group is at Castel d'Asso, where we find
+not only chambers cut into the rock, each resembling an ordinary room
+with an entrance in the face of the rock, but also monuments cut
+completely out and standing clear all round; and we cannot fail to
+detect in the forms into which the rock has been cut, especially those
+of the roof, imitations of wooden buildings, heavy square piers being
+left at intervals supporting longitudinal beams which hold up the
+roof. Fig. 122 is an illustration of the interior of a chamber in the
+rock. Occasionally there were a cornice and pediment over the
+entrance.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 122.--SEPULCHRE AT CORNETO.]
+
+The other class of tombs are circular tumuli, similar to the Pelasgic
+tombs of Asia Minor; of these large numbers exist, but not
+sufficiently uninjured to enable us to restore them completely. They
+generally consisted of a substructure of stone, upon which was raised
+a conical elevation. In the case of the Regulini Galeassi tomb there
+were an inner and an outer tumulus, the latter of which covered
+several small tombs, while the inner enclosed one only, which had
+fortunately never been opened till it was lately discovered. This tomb
+was vaulted on the horizontal system--that is to say, its vault was
+not a true arch, but was formed of courses of masonry, each
+overhanging the one below, as in the Treasury of Atreus, and it had a
+curious recess in the roof, in which were found numerous interesting
+examples of Etruscan pottery. It is, however, clear from the city
+gates, sewers, aqueducts, &c., that the Etruscans were acquainted with
+and extensively used the true radiating arch composed of wedge-shaped
+stones (voussoirs), and that they constructed it with great care and
+scientific skill. The gate at Perugia, and the Cloacæ or Sewers at
+Rome, constructed during the reign of the Tarquins,[19] at the
+beginning of the sixth century B.C., are examples of the true arch,
+and this makes it certain that it was from the Etruscans that the
+Romans learned the arched construction which, when combined with the
+trabeated or lintel mode of construction which they copied from the
+Greeks, formed the chief characteristic of Roman architecture. The
+Cloaca Maxima (Fig. 123), which is roofed over with three concentric
+semicircular rings of large stones, still exists in many places with
+not a stone displaced, as a proof of the skill of these early
+builders. There are remains of an aqueduct at Tusculum which are
+interesting from the fact of the horizontal being combined with the
+true arch in its construction.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 123.--CLOACA MAXIMA.]
+
+No Etruscan temples remain now, but we know from Vitruvius that they
+consisted of three cells with one or more rows of columns in front,
+the intercolumniation or interval between the columns being excessive.
+The largest Etruscan temple of which any record remains was that of
+Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome, which, under the Empire, became one of
+the most splendid temples of antiquity. It was commenced by Tarquinius
+Superbus, and is said to have derived its name from the fact of the
+builders, when excavating the foundations, coming upon a freshly
+bleeding head (_caput_), indicating that the place would eventually
+become the chief city of the world. Another form of Etruscan temple is
+described by Vitruvius, consisting of one circular cell only, with a
+porch. This form was probably the origin of the series of circular
+Roman buildings which includes such forms of temples as that at
+Tivoli, and many of the famous mausolea, _e.g._ that of Hadrian, and
+the culmination of which style is seen in the Pantheon. It is
+interesting to notice that the Romans never entirely gave up the
+circular form, one instance of its use in Britain at a late period of
+the Roman occupation having been discovered in the ruins of Silchester
+near Basingstoke; and we shall find that it was perpetuated in
+Christian baptisteries, tombs, and occasionally churches.
+
+We know from the traces of such buildings which exist, that the
+Etruscans must have constructed theatres and amphitheatres, and it is
+recorded that the first Tarquin laid out the Circus Maximus and
+instituted the great games held there. At Sutri there are ruins of an
+amphitheatre which is nearly a perfect circle, measuring 265 ft. in
+its greatest breadth and 295 ft. in length.
+
+There are no remains of other buildings which would enable us to form
+an opinion as to the civic architecture of the Etruscans: they must,
+however, have attained to a considerable skill in sculpture, as in
+some of the tombs figures are represented in high relief which show no
+small power of expression. They, too, like the Egyptians, embellished
+their tombs with mural paintings. These are generally in outline, and
+represent human figures and animals in scenes of every-day life, with
+conventionalised foliage, or mythological scenes such as the passage
+of the soul after death to the judgment-seat where its actions in life
+are to be adjudicated upon. In the plastic arts the Etruscans made
+great progress, many of their vases showing a delicacy and grace which
+have never been surpassed, and exhibiting in their decorations traces
+of both Greek and Egyptian influence.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We now reach the last of the classical styles of antiquity, the
+Roman,--a style which, however, is rather an adaptation or
+amalgamation of other styles than an original and independent creation
+or development. The contrast is very great between the "lively
+Grecian," imaginative and idealistic in the highest degree--who seemed
+to have an innate genius for art and beauty, and who was always eager
+to perpetuate in marble his ideal conception of the "hero from whose
+loins he sprung," or to immortalise with some splendid work of art the
+name of his mother-city--and the stern, practical Roman, realistic in
+his every pore, eager for conquest, and whose one dominant idea was to
+bring under his sway all the nations who were brought into contact
+with him, and to make his city--as had been foretold--the capital of
+the whole world. With this idea always before him, it is no wonder
+that such a typical Roman as M. Porcius Cato should look with disdain
+upon the fine arts in all their forms, and should regard a love for
+the beautiful, whether in literature or art, as synonymous with
+effeminacy. Mummius, also, who destroyed Corinth, is said to have been
+so little aware of the value of the artistic treasures which he
+carried away, as to stipulate with the carriers who undertook to
+transport them to Rome, that if any of the works of art were lost they
+should be replaced by others of equal value.
+
+When the most prominent statesmen displayed such indifference, it is
+not surprising that for nearly 500 years no single trace of any
+architectural building of any merit at all in Rome can now be
+discovered, and that history is silent as to the existence of any
+monuments worthy of being mentioned. Works of public utility of a
+very extensive nature were indeed carried out during this period;
+such, for example, as the Appian Way from Rome to Capua, which was the
+first paved road in Rome, and was constructed by the Censor Appius
+Claudius in B.C. 309. This was 14 ft. wide and 3 ft. thick, in three
+layers: 1st, of rough stones grouted together; 2nd, of gravel; and
+3rd, of squared stones of various dimensions. The same Censor also
+brought water from Præneste to Rome by a subterranean channel 11 miles
+long. Several bridges were also erected, and Cato the Censor is said
+to have built a basilica.
+
+Until about 150 B.C. all the buildings of Rome were constructed either
+of brick or the local stone; and though we hear nothing of
+architecture as a fine art, we cannot hesitate to admit that during
+this period the Romans carried the art of construction, and especially
+that of employing materials of small dimensions and readily
+obtainable, in buildings of great size, to a remarkable pitch of
+perfection. It was not till after the fall of Carthage and the
+destruction of Corinth, when Greece became a Roman province under the
+name of Achaia--both which events occurred in the year 146 B.C.--that
+Rome became desirous of emulating, to a certain extent, the older
+civilisation which she had destroyed; and about this time she became
+so enormously wealthy that vast sums of money were expended, both
+publicly and privately, in the erection of monuments, many of which
+remain to the present day, more or less altered. The first marble
+temple in Rome was built by the Consul Q. Metellus Macedonicus, who
+died B.C. 115. Roman architecture from this period began to show a
+wonderful diversity in the objects to which it was directed,--a
+circumstance perhaps as interesting as its great scientific and
+structural advance upon all preceding styles. In the earlier styles
+temples, tombs, and palaces were the only buildings deemed worthy of
+architectural treatment; but under the Romans baths, theatres,
+amphitheatres, basilicas, aqueducts, triumphal arches, &c., were
+carried out just as elaborately as the temples of the gods.
+
+It was under the Emperors that the full magnificence of Roman
+architectural display was reached. The famous boast of Augustus, that
+he found Rome of brick and left her of marble, gives expression in a
+few words to what was the great feature of his reign. Succeeding
+emperors lavished vast sums on buildings and public works of all
+kinds; and thus it comes to pass that though the most destructive of
+all agencies, hostile invasions, conflagrations, and long periods of
+neglect, have each in turn done their utmost to destroy the vestiges
+of Imperial Rome, there still remain fragments, and in one or two
+instances whole monuments, enough to make Rome, after Athens, the
+richest store of classic architectural antiquities in the world.
+
+But it was not in Rome only that great buildings were erected. The
+whole known civilised world was under Roman dominion, and wherever a
+centre of government or even a flourishing town existed there sprang
+up the residences of the dominant race, and their places of business,
+public worship, and public amusement. Consequently, we find in our own
+country, and in France, Spain, Germany, Italy, North Africa, and
+Egypt--in short, in all the countries where Roman rule was
+established--examples of temples, amphitheatres, theatres, triumphal
+arches, and dwelling-houses, some of them of great interest and
+occasionally in admirable preservation.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[19] The story of the Tarquins probably points to a period when the
+chief supremacy at Rome was in the hands of an Etruscan family, and is
+interesting for this reason.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 124.--"INCANTADA" IN SALONICA.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE BUILDINGS OF THE ROMANS.
+
+
+The temples in Rome were not, as in Greece and Egypt, the structures
+upon which the architect lavished all the resources of his art and his
+science. The general form of them was copied from that made use of by
+the Greeks, but the spirit in which the original idea was carried out
+was entirely different. In a word, the temples of Rome were by no
+means worthy of her size and position as the metropolis of the world,
+and very few remains of them exist.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 125.--IONIC ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA
+ VIRILIS, ROME.]
+
+Ten columns are still standing of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina
+(now the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda): it occupied the site of a
+previous temple and was dedicated by Antoninus Pius to his wife
+Faustina. The Temple (supposed) of Fortuna Virilis, in the Ionic style
+(Fig. 125), still exists as the church of Santa Maria Egiziaca: this
+was tetrastyle, with half-columns all round it, and this was of the
+kind called by Vitruvius "pseudo-peripteral." A few fragmentary
+remains of other temples exist in Rome, but in some of the Roman
+provinces far finer specimens of temples remain, of which perhaps the
+best is the Maison Carrée at Nîmes (Fig. 126). Here we find the Roman
+plan of a single cell and a deep portico in front, while the sides and
+rear have the columns attached. The intercolumniations and the details
+of the capitals and entablature are, however, almost pure Greek. The
+date of this temple is uncertain, but it is most probable that it was
+erected during the reign of Hadrian. The same emperor is said to have
+completed the magnificent Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, which
+was 354 ft. long by 171 ft. wide. It consisted of a cell flanked on
+each side by a double row of detached columns; in front was one row of
+columns in antis, and three other rows in front of these, while there
+were also three rows in the rear: as the columns were of the
+Corinthian order, and nearly 60 ft. in height, it may be imagined that
+it was a splendid edifice.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 126.--ROMAN-CORINTHIAN TEMPLE AT NÎMES
+ (MAISON-CARRÉE). PROBABLY OF THE TIME OF HADRIAN.]
+
+The ruins of another magnificent provincial Roman temple exist at
+Baalbek--the ancient Heliopolis--in Syria, not far from Damascus. This
+building was erected during the time of the Antonines, probably by
+Antoninus Pius himself, and originally it must have been of very
+extensive dimensions, the portico alone being 180 ft. long and about
+37 ft. deep. This gives access to a small hexagonal court, on the
+western side of which a triple gateway opens into the Great Court,
+which is a vast quadrangle about 450 ft. long by 400 ft. broad, with
+ranges of small chambers or niches on three sides, some of which
+evidently had at one time beautifully groined roofs. At the western
+end of this court, on an artificial elevation, stand the remains of
+what is called the Great Temple. This was originally 290 ft. long by
+160 ft. wide, and had 54 columns supporting its roof, six only of
+which now remain erect. The height of these columns, including base
+and capital, is 75 ft., and their diameter is 7 ft. at base and about
+6 ft. 6 in. at top; they are of the Corinthian order, and above them
+rises an elaborately moulded entablature, 14 ft. in height. Each of
+the columns is composed of three stones only, secured by strong iron
+cramps; and indeed one of the most striking features of this group of
+buildings is the colossal size of the stones used in their
+construction. The quarries from which these stones were hewn are close
+at hand, and in them is one stone surpassing all the others in
+magnitude, its dimensions being 68 ft. by 14 ft. 2 in. by 13 ft.
+11 in. It is difficult to imagine what means can have existed for
+transporting so huge a mass, the weight of which has been calculated
+at 1100 tons.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 127.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT
+ TIVOLI.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 128.--CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF VESTA
+ AT TIVOLI.]
+
+Other smaller temples exist in the vicinity, all of which are lavishly
+decorated, but on the whole the ornamentation shows an exuberance of
+detail which somewhat offends a critical artistic taste.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 129.--THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. PLAN
+ (LOOKING UP) AND SECTION OF PART OF THE PERISTYLE.]
+
+Circular temples were an elegant variety, which seems to have been
+originated by the Romans, and of which two well-known examples
+remain--the Temples of Vesta at Rome and at Tivoli. The columns of the
+temple at Tivoli (Fig. 128) form a well-known and pleasing variety of
+the Corinthian order, and the circular form of the building as shown
+on the plan (Fig. 127) gives excellent opportunities for good
+decorative treatment, as may be judged of by the enlarged diagram of
+part of the peristyle (Fig. 129).
+
+
+_Basilicas._
+
+Among the most remarkable of the public buildings of Roman times, both
+in the mother-city and in the provinces, were the Basilicas or Halls
+of Justice, which were also used as commercial exchanges. It is also
+believed that Basilicas existed in some Greek cities, but no clue to
+their structural arrangements exists, and whence originated the idea
+of the plan of these buildings we are unable to state; their striking
+similarity to some of the rock-cut halls or temples of India has been
+already pointed out. They were generally (though not always) covered
+halls, oblong in shape, divided into three or five aisles by two or
+more rows of columns, the centre aisle being much wider than those at
+the sides: over the latter, galleries were frequently erected. At one
+end was a semicircular recess or apse, the floor of which was raised
+considerably above the level of the rest of the building, and here the
+presiding magistrate sat to hear causes tried. Four[20] of these
+buildings are mentioned by ancient writers as having existed in
+republican times, viz. the Basilica Portia, erected in B.C. 184, by
+Cato the Censor; the Basilica Emilia et Fulvia, erected in B.C. 179 by
+the censors M. Fulvius Nobilior and M. Æmilius Lepidus, and afterwards
+enlarged and called the Basilica Paulli; the Basilica Sempronia,
+erected in B.C. 169 by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus; and the Basilica
+Julia, erected by Julius Cæsar, B.C. 46. All these buildings had
+wooden roofs, and were of no great architectural merit, and they
+perished at a remote date. Under the Empire, basilicas of much greater
+size and magnificence were erected; and remains of that of Trajan,
+otherwise called the Basilica Ulpia, have been excavated in the Forum
+of Trajan. This was about 360 ft. long by 180 ft. wide, had four rows
+of columns inside, and it supposed to have been covered by a
+semicircular wooden roof. Apollodorus of Damascus was the architect of
+this building. Another basilica of which remains exist is that of
+Maxentius, which after his overthrow by Constantine in A.D. 312, was
+known as the Basilica Constantiniana. This structure was of stone, and
+had a vaulted roof; it was 195 ft. between the walls, and was divided
+into three aisles by piers with enormous columns standing in front of
+them.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 130.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE BASILICA ULPIA, ROME.]
+
+One provincial basilica, that at Trèves, still stands; and although it
+must have been considerably altered, it is by far the best existing
+example of this kind of building. The internal columns do not exist
+here, and it is simply a rectangular hall about 175 ft. by 85 ft.,
+with the usual semicircular apse.
+
+The chief interest attaching to these basilicas lies in the fact that
+they formed the first places of Christian assembly, and that they
+served as the model upon which the first Christian churches were
+built.
+
+
+_Theatres and Amphitheatres._
+
+Although dramas and other plays were performed in Rome as early as 240
+B.C., there seems to have been a strong prejudice against permanent
+buildings for their representation, as it is recorded that a decree
+was passed in B.C. 154 forbidding the construction of such buildings.
+Mummius, the conqueror of Corinth, obtained permission to erect a
+wooden theatre for the performance of dramas as one of the shows of
+his triumph, and after this many buildings of the kind were erected,
+but all of a temporary nature; and it was not till B.C. 61 that the
+first permanent theatre was built by Pompey. This, and the theatres of
+Balbus and Marcellus, appear to have been the only permanent theatres
+that were erected in Imperial Rome; and there are no remains of any
+but the last of these, and this is much altered. So that, were it not
+for the remains of theatres found at Pompeii, it would be almost
+impossible to tell how they were arranged; but from these we can see
+that the stage was raised and separated from the part appropriated to
+the spectators by a semicircular area, much like that which in Greek
+theatres was allotted to the chorus: in the Roman ones this was
+assigned for the use of the senators. The portion devoted to the
+spectators--called the Cavea--was also semicircular on plan, and
+consisted of tiers of steps rising one above the other, and divided at
+intervals by wide passages and converging staircases communicating
+with the porticoes, which ran round the whole theatre at every story.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 131.--PLAN OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME.]
+
+At Orange, in the South of France, are the remains of a very fine
+theatre, similar in plan to that described. The great wall which
+formed the back of the scene in this building is still standing, and
+is one of the most magnificent pieces of masonry existing.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 132.--THE COLOSSEUM. SECTION AND ELEVATION.]
+
+Although the Romans were not particularly addicted to dramatic
+representations, yet they were passionately fond of shows and games of
+all kinds: hence, not only in Rome itself, but in almost every Roman
+settlement, from Silchester to Verona, are found traces of their
+amphitheatres, and the mother-city can claim the possession of the
+most stupendous fabric of the kind that was ever erected--the
+Colosseum or Flavian Amphitheatre, which was commenced by Vespasian
+and finished by his son Titus. An amphitheatre is really a double
+theatre without a stage, and with the space in the centre unoccupied
+by seats. This space, which was sunk several feet below the first row
+of seats, was called the arena, and was appropriated to the various
+exhibitions which took place in the building. The plan was elliptical
+or oval, and this shape seems to have been universal.
+
+The Colosseum, whose ruins still remain to attest its pristine
+magnificence--
+
+ "Arches on arches, as it were that Rome,
+ Collecting the chief trophies of her line,
+ Would build up all her triumphs in one dome"[21]--
+
+was 620 ft. long and 513 wide, and the height was about 162 ft. It was
+situated in the hollow between the Esquiline and Cælian hills. The
+ranges of seats were admirably planned so as to enable all the
+audience to have a view of what was going on in the arena, and great
+skill was shown both in the arrangement of the approaches to the
+different tiers and in the structural means for supporting the seats,
+and double corridors ran completely round the building on each floor,
+affording ready means of exit. Various estimates have been made of the
+number of spectators that could be accommodated, and these range from
+50,000 to 100,000, but probably 80,000 was the maximum. Recent
+excavations have brought to light the communications which existed
+between the arena and the dens where the wild animals and human slaves
+and prisoners were confined, and some of the water channels used when
+mimic sea-fights were exhibited. The external façade is composed of
+four stories, separated by entablatures that run completely round the
+building without a break. The three lower stories consist of a series
+of semicircular arched openings, eighty in number, separated by piers
+with attached columns in front of them, the Doric order being used in
+the lowest story, the Ionic in the second, and the Corinthian in the
+third; the piers and columns are elevated on stylobates; the
+entablatures have a comparatively slight projection, and there are no
+projecting keystones in the arches. In the lowest range these openings
+are 13 ft. 4 in. wide, except the four which are at the ends of the
+two axes of the ellipse, and these are 14 ft. 6 in. wide. The diameter
+of the columns is 2 ft. 8Ÿ in. The topmost story, which is
+considerably more lofty than either of the lower ones, was a nearly
+solid wall enriched by Corinthian pilasters. In this story occur two
+tiers of small square openings in the alternate spaces between the
+pilasters. These openings are placed accurately over the centres of
+the arches of the lower stories. Immediately above the higher range of
+square openings are a series of corbels--three between each pair of
+pilasters--which probably received the ends of the poles carrying the
+huge awning which protected the spectators from the sun's rays. The
+whole is surmounted by a heavy cornice, in which, at intervals
+immediately over each corbel, are worked square mortise holes, forming
+sockets through which the poles of the awning passed. The stone of
+which the façade of the Colosseum is built is a local stone, called
+travertine, the blocks of which are secured by iron cramps without
+cement. Nearly all the internal portion of the building is of brick,
+and the floors of the corridors, &c., are paved with flat bricks
+covered with hard stucco. These amphitheatres were occasionally the
+scene of imitations of marine conflicts, when the arena was flooded
+with water and mimic vessels of war engaged each other. Very complete
+arrangements were made, by means of small aqueducts, for leading the
+water into the arena and for carrying it off.
+
+Apart from theatrical representations and gladiatorial combats, the
+Romans had an inordinate passion for chariot races. For those the
+circi were constructed, of which class of buildings the Circus Maximus
+was the largest. This, originally laid out by Tarquinius Priscus, was
+reconstructed on a larger scale by Julius Cæsar. It was circular at
+one end and rectangular at the other, at which was the entrance. On
+both sides of the entrance were a number of small arched chambers,
+called _carceres_, from which the chariots started. The course was
+divided down the centre by a low wall, called the _spina_, which was
+adorned with various sculptures. The seats rose in a series of covered
+porticoes all round the course, except at the entrance. As the length
+of the Circus Maximus was nearly 700 yards, and the breadth about 135
+yards, it is possible that Dionysius may not have formed an
+exaggerated notion of its capacity when he says it would accommodate
+150,000 spectators.
+
+In the Roman provinces amphitheatres were often erected; and at Pola
+in Istria, Verona in Italy, and Nîmes and Arles in France, fine
+examples remain. A rude Roman amphitheatre, with seats cut in the turf
+of a hill-side, exists to this day at the old town of Dorchester in
+Dorset, which was anciently a Roman settlement.
+
+
+_Baths (Thermæ)._
+
+Nothing can give us a more impressive idea of the grandeur and lavish
+display of Imperial Rome than the remains of the huge Thermæ, or
+bathing establishments, which still exist. Between the years 10 A.D.,
+when Agrippa built the first public baths, and 324 A.D., when those
+of Constantine were erected, no less than twelve of these vast
+establishments were erected by various emperors, and bequeathed to the
+people. Of the whole number, the baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian
+are the only ones which remain in any state of preservation, and these
+were probably the most extensive and magnificent of all. All these
+splendid buildings were really nothing more than bribes to secure the
+favour of the populace; for it seems quite clear that the public had
+practically free entrance to them, the only charge mentioned by
+writers of the time being a quadrans, about a farthing of our money.
+Gibbon says, "The meanest Roman could purchase with a small copper
+coin the daily enjoyment of a scene of pomp and luxury which might
+excite the envy of the kings of Asia." And this language is not
+exaggerated. Not only were there private bath-rooms, swimming-baths,
+hot baths, vapour-baths, and, in fact, all the appurtenances of the
+most approved Turkish baths of modern times, but there were also
+gymnasia, halls for various games, lecture-halls, libraries, and
+theatres in connection with the baths, all lavishly ornamented with
+the finest paintings and sculpture that could be obtained. Stone seems
+to have been but sparingly used in the construction of these
+buildings, which were almost entirely of brick faced with stucco: this
+served as the ground for an elaborate series of fresco paintings.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 133.--PLAN OF THE PRINCIPAL BUILDING, BATHS OF
+ CARACALLA, ROME.]
+
+The baths of Caracalla, at the foot of the Aventine hill, erected A.D.
+217, comprised a quadrangular block of buildings of about 1150 ft.
+(about the fifth of a mile) each way. The side facing the street
+consisted of a portico the whole length of the façade, behind which
+were numerous ranges of private bath-rooms. The side and rear blocks
+contained numerous halls and porticoes, the precise object of which
+it is now very difficult to ascertain. As Byron says:
+
+ "Temples, baths, or halls?
+ Pronounce who can."
+
+This belt of buildings surrounded an open courtyard or garden, in
+which was placed the principal bathing establishment (Fig. 133), a
+building 730 ft. by 380 ft., which contained the large piscina, or
+swimming-bath, various hot baths, dressing-rooms, gymnasia, and other
+halls for athletic exercises. In the centre of one of the longer sides
+was a large semicircular projection, roofed with a dome, which was
+lined with brass: this rotunda was called the solar cell. From the
+ruins of these baths were taken some of the most splendid specimens of
+antique sculpture, such as the Farnese Hercules and the Flora in the
+Museum of Naples.
+
+The baths of Diocletian, erected just at the commencement of the
+fourth century A.D., were hardly inferior to those of Caracalla, but
+modern and ancient buildings are now intermingled to such an extent
+that the general plan of the buildings cannot now be traced with
+accuracy. There are said to have been over 3000 marble seats in these
+baths; the walls were covered with mosaics, and the columns were of
+Egyptian granite and green Numidian marble. The Ephebeum, or grand
+hall, still exists as the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, having
+been restored by Michelangelo. It is nearly 300 ft. long by 90 ft.
+wide, and is roofed by three magnificent cross vaults, supported on
+eight granite columns 45 ft. in height. (Fig. 134.)
+
+There is one ancient building in Rome more impressive than any other,
+not only because it is in a better state of preservation, but because
+of the dignity with which it has been designed, the perfection with
+which it has been constructed, and the effectiveness of the mode in
+which its interior is lighted. We allude to the Pantheon. Opinions
+differ as to whether this was a Hall attached to the thermæ of
+Agrippa, or whether it was a temple. Without attempting to determine
+this point, we may at any rate claim that the interior of this
+building admirably illustrates the boldness and telling power with
+which the large halls forming part of the thermæ were designed; and,
+whether it belonged to such a building or not, it is wonderfully well
+fitted to illustrate this subject.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 134.--INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA DEGLI ANGELI,
+ ROME.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 135.--THE PANTHEON, ROME. GROUND-PLAN.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 136.--THE PANTHEON, ROME. EXTERIOR.]
+
+The Pantheon is the finest example of a domed hall which we have
+left. The building, which forms the church of Santa Maria ad Martyres,
+has been considerably altered at various times since its erection, and
+now consists of a rotunda with a rectangular portico in front of it.
+The rotunda was most probably erected by Agrippa, the son-in-law of
+Augustus, in B.C. 27, and is a most remarkable instance of clever
+construction at so early a date. The diameter of the interior is
+145 ft. 6 in., and the height to the top of the dome is 147 ft. In
+addition to the entrance, the walls are broken up by seven large
+niches, three of which are semicircular on plan, and the others,
+alternating with them, rectangular. The walls are divided into two
+stories by an entablature supported by columns and pilasters; but
+although this is now cut through by the arches of the niches, it is at
+least probable that originally this was not the case, and that the
+entablature ran continuously round the walls, as shown in Fig. 137,
+which is a restoration of the Pantheon by Adler. Above the attic story
+rises the huge hemispherical dome, which is pierced at its summit by a
+circular opening 27 ft. in diameter, through which a flood of light
+pours down and illuminates the whole of the interior. The dome is
+enriched by boldly recessed panels, and these were formerly covered
+with bronze ornaments, which have been removed for the sake of the
+metal. The marble enrichments of the attic have also disappeared, and
+their place has been taken by common and tawdry decorations more
+adapted to the stage of a theatre. But notwithstanding everything that
+has been done to detract from the imposing effect of the building by
+the alteration of its details, there is still, taking it as a whole, a
+simple grandeur in the design, a magnificence in the material
+employed, and a quiet harmony in the illumination, that impart to the
+interior a character of sublimity which nothing can impair. The
+rectangular portico was added at some subsequent period, and consists
+of sixteen splendid Corinthian columns (Fig. 138), eight in front
+supporting the pediment, and the other eight dividing the portico into
+three bays, in precisely the same way as if it formed the pronaos to
+the three cells of an Etruscan temple.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 137.--THE PANTHEON, ROME. INTERIOR.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 138.--THE CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE PANTHEON,
+ ROME.]
+
+
+_Bridges and Aqueducts._
+
+The earliest Roman bridges were of wood, and the Pons Sublicius,
+though often rebuilt, continued to be of this material until the time
+of Pliny, but it was impossible for a people who made such use of the
+arch to avoid seeing the great advantage this form gave them in the
+construction of bridges, and several of these formed of stone spanned
+the Tiber even before the time of the Empire. The finest Roman
+bridges, however, were built in the provinces. Trajan constructed one
+over the Danube which was 150 ft. high and 60 ft. wide, and the arches
+of which were of no less than 170 ft. span. This splendid structure
+was destroyed by his successor, Hadrian, who was probably jealous of
+it. The bridge over the Tagus at Alcantara, which was constructed by
+Hadrian, is another very fine example. There were six arches here, of
+which the two centre ones had a span of 100 ft.
+
+The Roman aqueducts afford striking evidence of the building
+enterprise and architectural skill of the people. Pliny says of these
+works: "If any one will carefully consider the quantity of water used
+in the open air, in private baths, swimming-baths, houses, gardens,
+&c., and thinks of the arches that have been built, the hills that
+have been tunnelled, and the valleys that have been levelled for the
+purpose of conducting the water to its destination, he must confess
+that nothing has existed in the world more calculated to excite
+admiration." The same sentiment strikes an observer of to-day when
+looking at the ruins of these aqueducts. At the end of the first
+century A.D. we read of nine aqueducts in Rome, and in the time of
+Procopius (A.D. 550) there were fourteen in use. Of these, the Aqua
+Claudia and the Anio Novus were the grandest and most costly. Those
+were constructed about the year 48 A.D., and entered the city upon the
+same arches, though at different levels, the Aqua Claudia being the
+lower. The arches carrying the streams were over nine miles long, and
+in some cases 109 ft. high. They were purely works of utility, and had
+no architectural decorations; but they were most admirably adapted for
+their purpose, and were so solidly constructed, that portions of them
+are still in use. Some of the provincial aqueducts, such as those of
+Tarragona and Segovia in Spain, were more ornamental, and had a double
+tier of arches. The Pont du Gard, not far from Nîmes, in France, is a
+well-known and very picturesque structure of this character.
+
+
+_Commemorative Monuments._
+
+These comprise triumphal arches, columns, and tombs. The former
+consisted of a rectangular mass of masonry having sculptured
+representations of the historical event to be commemorated, enriched
+with attached columns on pedestals, supporting an entablature crowned
+with a high attic, on which there was generally an inscription. In the
+centre was the wide and lofty arched opening. The Arch of Titus,
+recording the capture of Jerusalem, is one of the finest examples.
+Later on triumphal arches were on a more extended scale, and comprised
+a small arch on each side of the large one; examples of which may be
+seen in the arches of Septimius Severus and of Constantine (Fig. 139).
+The large arched gateways which are met with in various parts of
+Europe--such as the Porte d'Arroux at Autun, and the Porta Nigra at
+Trèves--are monuments very similar to triumphal arches. There remain
+also smaller monuments of the same character, such as the so-called
+Arch of the Goldsmiths in Rome (Fig. 1).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 139.--THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME.]
+
+Columns were erected in great numbers during the time of the Emperors
+as memorials of victory. Of these the Column of Trajan and that of
+Marcus Aurelius are the finest. The former was erected in the centre
+of Trajan's Forum, in commemoration of the Emperor's victory over the
+Dacians. It is of the Doric order, 132 ft. 10 in. high, including the
+statue. The shaft is constructed of thirty-four pieces of marble
+joined with bronze cramps. The figures on the pedestal are very finely
+carved, and the entire shaft is encircled by a series of elaborate
+bas-reliefs winding round it in a spiral from its base to its capital.
+The beauty of the work on this shaft may be best appreciated by a
+visit to the cast of it set up--in two heights, unfortunately--at the
+South Kensington Museum. The Column of Marcus Aurelius, generally
+known as the Antonine Column, is similarly enriched, but is not equal
+to the Trajan Column.
+
+The survival of Etruscan habits is clearly seen in the construction of
+Roman tombs, which existed in enormous numbers outside the gates of
+the city. Merivale says: "The sepulchres of twenty generations lined
+the sides of the high-roads for several miles beyond the gates, and
+many had considerable architectural pretensions." That of Cecilia
+Metella is a typical example. Here we find a square basement
+surmounted by a circular tower-like structure, with a frieze and
+cornice. This was erected about B.C. 60, by Crassus. The mausoleum of
+Augustus was on a much more extensive scale, and consisted of four
+cylindrical stories, one above the other, decreasing in diameter as
+they ascended, and the topmost of all was crowned with a colossal
+statue of the Emperor. The tomb of Hadrian, on the banks of the
+Tiber--now known as the Castle of Sant' Angelo--was even more
+magnificent. This comprised a square base, 75 ft. high, the side of
+which measured about 340 ft.; above this was a cylindrical building
+surmounted by a circular peristyle of thirty-four Corinthian columns.
+On the top was a quadriga with a statue of the Emperor. These mausolea
+were occasionally octagonal or polygonal in plan, surmounted by a
+dome, and cannot fail to remind us of the Etruscan tumuli.
+
+Another kind of tomb, of less magnificence, was the columbarium, which
+was nothing more than a subterranean chamber, the walls of which had a
+number of small apertures in them for receiving the cinerary urns
+containing the ashes of the bodies which had been cremated. In the
+eastern portion of the Empire, in rocky districts, the tombs were cut
+in the rock, and the façade was elaborately decorated with columns and
+other architectural features.
+
+
+_Domestic Architecture._
+
+Of all the palaces which the Roman emperors built for themselves, and
+which we know from historical records to have been of the most
+magnificent description, nothing now remains in Rome itself that is
+not too completely ruined to enable any one to restore its plan with
+accuracy, though considerable remains exist of the Palace of the
+Cæsars on the Palatine Hill. In fact, the palace of Diocletian at
+Spalatro, in Dalmatia, is the only remaining example in the whole of
+the Roman empire of the dwelling-house of an emperor, and even this
+was not built till after Diocletian had resigned the imperial
+dignity, so that its date is the early part of the fourth century A.D.
+This palace is a rectangle, measuring about 700 ft. one way and 590 ft.
+the other, and covers an area of nearly 10 acres. It is surrounded
+by high walls, broken at intervals by square and octagonal towers, and
+contains temples, baths, and extensive galleries, besides the private
+apartments of the Emperor and dwellings for the principal officers of
+the household. The architect of this building broke away from
+classical traditions to a great extent; for example, the columns stand
+on corbels instead of pedestals, the entablatures being much broken,
+and the arches spring directly from the capitals of the columns (Fig.
+149).
+
+The private houses in Borne were of two kinds: the _insula_ and the
+_domus_. The insula was a block of buildings several stories high,
+frequently let out to different families in flats. The ground-floor
+was generally given up to shops, which had no connection with the
+upper parts of the building; and one roof covered the whole. This kind
+of house was generally tenanted by the poorer class of tradesmen and
+artificers. The other kind of house, the domus, was a detached
+mansion. The excavations at Pompeii have done much to elucidate a
+number of points in connection with Roman dwellings which had been the
+subject of much discussion by scholars, but we must not too hastily
+assume that the Pompeian houses are the exact counterpart of those of
+ancient Rome, as Pompeii was what may be called a Romano-Greek city.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 140.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 141.--GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE TRAGIC POET,
+ POMPEII.]
+
+The general arrangements of a Roman house were as follows: next the
+street an open space was frequently left, with porticoes on each side
+of it provided with seats: this constituted the vestibule, and was
+entirely outside the house;[22] the entrance-door opened into a
+narrow passage, called the _prothyrum_, which led to the _atrium_,[23]
+which in the houses of Republican Rome was the principal apartment,
+though afterwards it served as a sort of waiting-room for the clients
+and retainers of the house; it was an open court, roofed in on all
+the four sides, but open to the sky in the centre. The simplest form
+was called the Tuscan atrium, where the roof was simply a lean-to
+sloping towards the centre, the rafters being supported on beams, two
+of which rested on the walls of the atrium, and had two other
+cross-beams trimmed into them. The centre opening was called the
+_impluvium_, and immediately under it a tank, called the _compluvium_,
+was formed in the pavement to collect the rain-water (Fig. 142). When
+the atrium became larger, and the roof had to be supported by
+columns, it was called a _cavædium_.[24] At the end of this apartment
+were three others, open in front, the largest, in the centre, called
+_tablinum_, and the two side ones _alæ_;[25] these were
+muniment-rooms, where all the family archives were kept, and their
+position is midway between the semi-public part of the house, which
+lay towards the front, and the strictly domestic and private part,
+which lay in the rear. At the sides of the atrium in the larger houses
+were placed small rooms, which served as sleeping chambers.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 142.--THE ATRIUM OF A POMPEIAN HOUSE.]
+
+From the end of the atrium a passage, or sometimes two passages,
+called the _fauces_, running by the side of the tablinum, led to the
+_peristylium_,[26] which was the grand private reception-room; this
+also was a court open to the sky in the centre, and among the wealthy
+Romans its roof was supported by columns of the rarest marbles. Round
+the peristyle were grouped the various private rooms, which varied
+according to the size of the house and the taste of the owner. There
+was always one dining-room (_triclinium_), and frequently two or more,
+which were arranged with different aspects, for use in different
+seasons of the year. If several dining-rooms existed, they were of
+various sizes and decorated with various degrees of magnificence; and
+a story is told of one of the most luxurious Romans of Cicero's time,
+that he had simply to tell his slaves which room he would dine in for
+them to know what kind of banquet he wished to be prepared. In the
+largest houses there were saloons (_æci_), parlours (_exedræ_),
+picture galleries (_pinacothecæ_), chapels (_lararia_), and various
+other apartments. The kitchen, with scullery and bakehouse attached,
+was generally placed in one angle of the peristyle, round which
+various sleeping-chambers, according to the size of the house, were
+arranged. Most of the rooms appear to have been on the ground-floor,
+and probably depended for their light upon the doorway only; though
+in some instances at Pompeii small windows exist high up in the walls.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 143.--WALL DECORATION FROM POMPEII.]
+
+In the extreme rear of the larger houses there was generally a garden;
+and in those which were without this, the dead walls in the rear were
+frequently painted so as to imitate a garden. The houses of the
+wealthy Romans were decorated with the utmost magnificence: marble
+columns, mosaic pavements, and charming pieces of sculpture adorned
+their apartments, and the walls were in all cases richly painted (Fig.
+143), being divided into panels, in the centre of which were
+represented sometimes human figures, sometimes landscapes, and
+sometimes pictures of historical events. All the decoration of Roman
+houses was internal only: the largest and most sumptuous mansion had
+little to distinguish it, next the street, from a comparatively humble
+abode; and, with the exception of the space required for the vestibule
+and entrance doorway, nearly the whole of the side of the house next
+the street was most frequently appropriated to shops. All that we are
+able to learn of the architecture of Roman private houses, whether
+from contemporary descriptions or from the uncovered remains of
+Pompeii and Herculaneum,[27] points to the fact that it, even in a
+greater measure than the public architecture, was in no sense of
+indigenous growth, but was simply a copy of Greek arrangement and
+Greek decoration.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] The passage in Varro, which is the sole authority for the
+Basilica Opimia, is generally considered to be corrupt.
+
+[21] Byron.
+
+[22] This does not occur in the Pompeian houses.
+
+[23] Marked _a_, _a_, on the plans.
+
+[24] Vitruvius, however, seems to use the terms _atrium_ and
+_cavædium_ as quite synonymous.
+
+[25] Marked respectively _c_, and _f_, _f_, on the plan of the House
+of Pansa.
+
+[26] Marked _b_, _b_, on the plans.
+
+[27] At the Crystal Palace can be seen an interesting reproduction of
+a Pompeian house, which was designed by the late Sir Digby Wyatt. It
+gives a very faithful reproduction of the arrangement and the size of
+an average Pompeian house; and though every part is rather more fully
+covered with decoration than was usual in the originals, the
+decorations of each room faithfully reproduce the treatment of some
+original in Pompeii or Herculaneum.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 144.--CARVING FROM THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Analysis._
+
+_The Plan_ (_or floor-disposition_).--The plans of Roman buildings are
+striking from their variety and the vast extent which in some cases
+they display, as well as from a certain freedom, mastery, and facility
+of handling which are not seen in earlier work. Their variety is
+partly due to the very various purposes which the buildings of the
+Romans were designed to serve: these comprised all to which Greek
+buildings had been appropriated, and many others, the product of the
+complex and luxurious civilisation of the Empire. But independent of
+this circumstance, the employment of such various forms in the plans
+of buildings as the ellipse, the circle, and the octagon, and their
+facile use, seem to denote a people who could build rapidly, and who
+looked carefully to the general masses and outlines of what they
+built, however carelessly they handled the minute details. The freedom
+with which these new forms were employed arises partly also from the
+fact that the Romans were in possession of a system of construction
+which rendered them practically independent of most of the
+restrictions which had fettered the genius of the Egyptians,
+Assyrians, and Greeks. Their vaulted roofs could be supported by a
+comparatively small number of piers of great solidity, placed far
+apart; and accordingly in the great halls of the Thermæ and elsewhere
+we find planning in which, a few stable points of support being
+secured, the outline of the spaces between them is varied at the
+pleasure of the architect in the most picturesque and pleasing manner.
+
+The actual floor received a good deal of attention from the Romans. It
+was generally covered with tesselated pavement, often with mosaic, and
+its treatment entered into the scheme of the design for most
+interiors.
+
+
+_The Walls._
+
+The construction of these was essentially different from that adopted
+by most earlier nations. The Romans rather avoided than cultivated the
+use of large blocks of stone; they invented methods by which very
+small materials could be aggregated together into massive and solid
+walls. They used mortar of great cementing power, so much so that many
+specimens of Roman walling exist in this country as well as in Italy
+or France, where the mortar is as hard as the stones which it unites.
+They also employed a system of binding together the small materials so
+employed by introducing, at short distances apart, courses of flat
+stones or bricks, called "bond courses," and they further fortified
+such walls by bands of flat materials placed edgeways after the manner
+popularly known as herring-bone work. The result of these methods of
+construction was that the Roman architect could build anywhere, no
+matter how unpromising the materials which the locality afforded; that
+he could put the walls of his building together without its being
+requisite to employ exclusively the skilled labour of the mason, and
+that both time and expense were thus saved. This economy and speed
+were not pushed so far as to render the work anything but durable;
+they had, however, a bad effect in another direction, for these rough
+rubble walls were habitually encased in some more sightly material, in
+order to make them look as though they were something finer than they
+really were; and accordingly, the exterior was often faced with a thin
+skin of masonry, and not infrequently plastered. The interior was also
+almost invariably plastered, but to this little exception can be
+taken. This casing of the exteriors was, however, the beginning of a
+system of what may be called false architecture, and one which led to
+much that was degrading to the art.
+
+The walls were in many cases, it has been already observed, gathered
+into strong masses, such as it is customary to term piers, in order to
+support the vaulted roofs at the proper points. They were often
+carried to a much greater height than in Greek buildings, and they
+played altogether a far more important part in the design of Roman
+buildings than they had done in that of the Greeks.
+
+
+_The Roofs._
+
+As has been already stated, the Romans, in their possession of a new
+system of construction, enjoyed a degree of freedom which was unknown
+before. This system was based upon the use of the arch, and arched
+roofs and domes, and it enabled the Romans to produce interiors
+unapproached before for size and splendour, and such as have hardly
+been surpassed since, except by the vaulted churches of the Middle
+Ages,--buildings which are themselves descended from Roman originals.
+The art of vaulting was, in short, the key to the whole system of
+Roman architecture, just as the Orders were to that of the Greeks.
+
+The well-known arch over the Cloaca Maxima at Rome (Fig. 123, p. 142)
+may be taken as an illustration of the most ancient and most simple
+kind of vault, the one which goes by the significant name of "barrel
+or waggon-head vault." This is simply a continuous arched vault
+springing from the top of two parallel walls; in fact, like the arch
+of a railway tunnel. Such a vault may be constructed of very great
+span, and affords a means of putting a permanent roof over a floor the
+outline of which is a parallelogram; but it is heavy and uninteresting
+in appearance. It was soon found to be possible to introduce a cross
+vault running at right angles to the original one; and where such an
+intersecting vault occurs the side walls of the original vault may be
+dispensed with, for so much of their length as the newly-added vault
+spans.
+
+The next step was to introduce a succession of such cross vaults close
+to one another, so that large portions of the original main wall might
+be dispensed with. What remained of the side walls was now only a
+series of oblong masses or piers, suitably fortified so as to carry
+the great weight resting upon them, but leaving the architect free to
+occupy the space between them as his fancy might dictate, or to leave
+it quite open. In this way were constructed the great halls of the
+Thermæ; and the finest halls of modern classic architecture--such, for
+example, as the Madeleine at Paris, or St. George's Hall at
+Liverpool--are only a reproduction of the splendid structures which
+such a system of vaulting rendered possible.
+
+When the floor of the space to be vaulted was circular, the result of
+covering it with an arched roof was the dome--a familiar feature of
+Roman architecture, and the noblest of all forms of roof. We possess
+in the dome of the Pantheon a specimen, in fairly good preservation,
+of this kind of roof on the grandest scale.
+
+We shall find that in later ages the dome and the vault were adopted
+by the Eastern and the Western schools of Christian architecture
+respectively. In Rome we have the origin of both.
+
+
+_The Openings._
+
+These were both square-headed and arched; but the arched ones occur
+far more frequently than the others, and, when occasion required,
+could be far bolder. The openings became of much greater importance
+than in earlier styles, and soon disputed with the columns the dignity
+of being the feature of the building: this eventually led, as will be
+related under the next head, to various devices for the fusion of the
+two.
+
+The adoption of the arch by the Romans led to a great modification in
+classic architecture; for its influence was to be traced in every part
+of the structure where an opening of any sort had to be spanned.
+Formerly the width of such openings was very limited, owing to the
+difficulty of obtaining lintels of great length. Now their width and
+height were pure matters of choice, and doorways, windows, and arcades
+naturally became very prominent, and were often very spacious.
+
+
+_The Columns._
+
+These necessarily took an altered place as soon as buildings were
+carried to such a height that one order could not, as in Greek
+temples, occupy the whole space from pavement to roof. The Greek
+orders were modified by the Romans in order to fit these altered
+circumstances, but columnar construction was by no means disused when
+the arch came to play so important a part in building. The Roman Doric
+order, and a very simple variety of it called Tuscan, were but rarely
+used. The chief alteration from the Greek Doric, in addition to a
+general degradation of all the mouldings and proportions, was the
+addition of a base, which sometimes consists of a square plinth and
+large torus, sometimes is a slightly modified Attic base; the capital
+has a small moulding round the top of the abacus, and under the ovolo
+are two or three small fillets with a necking below; the shaft was
+from 6 to 7 diameters in height, and was not fluted; the frieze was
+ornamented with triglyphs, and the metopes between these were
+frequently enriched with sculptured heads of bulls: the metopes were
+exact squares, and the triglyphs at the angles of buildings were
+placed precisely over the centre of the column.
+
+The Ionic order was but slightly modified by the Romans, the chief
+alteration being made in the capital. Instead of forming the angular
+volutes so that they exhibited a flat surface on the two opposite
+sides of the capital, the Romans appear to have desired to make the
+latter uniform on all the four sides; they therefore made the sides of
+the abacus concave on plan, and arranged the volutes so that they
+seemed to spring out of the mouldings under the abacus and faced
+anglewise. The capital altogether seems compressed and crowded up,
+and by no means elegant; in fact, both this and the Doric order were
+decidedly deteriorations from the fine forms of Greek architecture.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 145.--ROMAN CORINTHIAN CAPITAL AND BASE FROM THE
+ TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 145a.--THE ROMAN COMPOSITE CAPITAL.]
+
+The Corinthian order was much more in accordance with the later Roman
+taste for magnificence and display, and hence we find its use very
+general both in Rome and in other cities of the Empire. Its
+proportions did not greatly differ from those of the Greek Corinthian,
+but the mouldings in general were more elaborate. Numerous variations
+of the capital exist (Figs. 145, 145a), but the principal one was an
+amalgamation of the large Ionic volutes in the upper with the acanthus
+leaves of the lower portion of the capital: this is known as the
+Composite order, and the capital thus treated has a strength and
+vigour which was wanting to the Greek order (see Fig. 145a). The
+shafts of the columns were more often fluted than not, though
+sometimes the lower portion was left plain and the upper only fluted.
+The Attic base was generally used, but an example has been found of an
+adaptation of the graceful Persepolitan base to the Corinthian column.
+This was the happiest innovation that the Romans made; it seems,
+however, to have been but an individual attempt, and, as it was
+introduced very shortly before the fall of the Empire, the idea was
+not worked out.
+
+The orders thus changed were employed for the most part as mere
+decorative additions to the walls. In many cases they did not even
+carry the eaves of the roof, as they always did in a Greek temple; and
+it was not uncommon for two, three, or more orders to be used one
+above another, marking the different stories of a lofty building.
+
+The columns, or pilasters which took their place, being reduced to the
+humble function of ornaments added to the wall of a building, it
+became very usual to combine them with arched openings, and to put an
+arch in the interspace between two columns, or, in other words, to add
+a column to the pier between two arches (Fig. 146). These arched
+openings being often wide, a good deal of disproportion between the
+height of the columns and their distance apart was liable to occur;
+and, partly to correct this, the column was often mounted upon a
+pedestal, to which the name of "stylobate" has been given.
+
+It was also sometimes customary to place above the order, or the
+highest order where more than one was employed, what was termed an
+attic--a low story ornamented with piers or pilasters. The exterior of
+the Colosseum (Fig. 5), the triumphal arches of Constantine (Fig. 139)
+and Titus, and the fragments of the upper part of the Forum of Nerva
+(Fig. 147) may be consulted as illustrations of the combination of an
+order and an arched opening, and of the use of pedestals and attics.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 146.--PART OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, ROME.
+ SHOWING THE COMBINATION OF COLUMNS AND ARCHED OPENINGS.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 147.--FROM THE RUINS OF THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME.
+ SHOWING THE USE OF AN ATTIC STORY. WITH PLAN.]
+
+Another peculiarity, of which we give an illustration from the baths
+of Diocletian (Fig. 148), was the surmounting a column or pilaster
+with a square pillar of stone, moulded in the same way as an
+entablature, _i.e._ with the regular division into architrave, frieze,
+and cornice. This was a decided perversion of the use of the order;
+it occurs in examples of late date. So also do various other
+arrangements for making an arch spring from the capital of a column;
+one of these, from the palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, we are able
+to illustrate (Fig. 149).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 148.--FROM THE BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN, ROME. SHOWING
+ A FRAGMENTARY ENTABLATURE AT THE STARTING OF PART OF A VAULT.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 149.--FROM THE PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, SPALATRO.
+ SHOWING AN ARCH SPRINGING FROM A COLUMN.]
+
+In conclusion, it may be worth while to say that the Roman writers and
+architects recognised five orders: the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic,
+Corinthian, and Composite, the first and last in this list being,
+however, really only variations; and that when they placed the
+orders above one another, they invariably used those of them which
+they selected in the succession in which they have been named; that is
+to say, the Tuscan or Doric lowest, and so on in succession.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 150.--MOULDINGS AND ORNAMENTS FROM VARIOUS ROMAN
+ BUILDINGS.]
+
+
+_The Ornaments._
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 151.--ROMAN CARVING. AN ACANTHUS LEAF.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 152.--THE EGG AND DART ENRICHMENT. ROMAN.]
+
+The mouldings with which Roman buildings are ornamented are all
+derived from Greek originals, but are often extremely rough and
+coarse. It is true that in some old Roman work, especially in those of
+the tombs which are executed in marble, mouldings of considerable
+delicacy and refinement of outline occur, but these are exceptional.
+The profiles of the mouldings are, as a rule, segments of circles,
+instead of being more subtle curves, and the result is that violent
+contrasts of light and shade are obtained, telling enough at a
+distance, but devoid of interest if the spectator come near.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 153.--WALL DECORATION OF (SO-CALLED) ARABESQUE
+ CHARACTER FROM POMPEII.]
+
+Carving is executed exactly on the same principles as those which
+govern the mouldings--that is to say, with much more coarseness than
+in Greek work; not lacking in vigour, or in a sort of ostentatious
+opulence of ornament, but often sadly deficient in refinement and
+grace.
+
+Statues, many of them copies of Greek originals, generally executed
+with a heavy hand, but sometimes clearly of Greek work, were employed,
+as well as bronzes, inlaid marbles, mosaics, and various devices to
+ornament the interiors of Greco-Roman buildings; and free use was made
+of ornamental plaster-work, both on walls and vaults.
+
+Coloured decoration was much in vogue, and, to judge from what has
+come down to us, must have been executed with great taste and much
+spirit. The walls of a Roman dwelling-house of importance seem to have
+been all painted, partly with that light kind of decoration to which
+the somewhat inappropriate name of arabesque has been given, and
+partly with groups or single figures, relieved by dark or black
+backgrounds. The remains of the Palace of the Cæsars in Rome, much of
+it not now accessible, and the decorations visible at Pompeii, give a
+high idea of the skill with which this mural ornamentation was
+executed; our illustration (Fig. 154) may be taken as affording a good
+example of the combined decorations in relief and colour often applied
+to vaulted ceilings.
+
+It is, however, characteristic of the lower level at which Roman art
+stood as compared with Greek that, though statues abounded, we find no
+traces of groups of sculpture designed to occupy the pediments of
+temples, or of bas-reliefs fitted to special localities in the
+buildings, such as were all but universal in the best Greek works.
+
+
+_Architectural Character._
+
+The nature of this will have been to a large extent gathered from the
+observations already made. Daring, energy, readiness, structural
+skill, and a not too fastidious taste were characteristic of the Roman
+architect and his works. We find traces of vast spaces covered, bold
+construction successfully and solidly carried out, convenience
+studied, and a great deal of magnificence attained in those buildings
+the remains of which have come down to us; but we do not discover
+refinement or elegance, a fine feeling for proportion, or a close
+attention to details, to a degree at all approaching the extent to
+which these qualities are to be met with in Greek buildings. We are
+thus sometimes tempted to regret that it was not possible to combine a
+higher degree of refinement with the great excellence in construction
+and contrivance exhibited by Roman architecture.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 154.--DECORATION IN RELIEF AND COLOUR OF THE
+ VAULT OF A TOMB IN THE VIA LATINA, NEAR ROME.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 155.--BASILICA-CHURCH OF SAN MINIATO, FLORENCE.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Basilicas in Rome and Italy._
+
+During the first three centuries the Christian religion was
+discredited and persecuted; and though many interesting memorials of
+this time (some of them having an indirect bearing upon architectural
+questions) remain in the Catacombs, it is chiefly for their paintings
+that the touching records of the past which have been preserved to us
+in these secluded excavations should be studied. Early in the fourth
+century Constantine the Great became Emperor, and in the course of his
+reign (from A.D. 312 to 337) he recognised Christianity, and made it
+the religion of the State. It then, of course, became requisite to
+provide places of public worship. Probably the Christians would have
+been, in many cases, reluctant to make use of heathen temples, and few
+temples, if any, were adapted to the assembling of a large
+congregation. But the large halls of the baths and the basilicas were
+free from associations of an objectionable character, and well fitted
+for large assemblages of worshippers. These and other such places were
+accordingly, in the first instance, employed as Christian churches.
+The basilica, however, became the model which, at least in Italy, was
+followed, to the exclusion of all others, when new buildings were
+erected for the purpose of Christian worship; and during the fourth
+century, and several succeeding ones, the churches of the West were
+all of the basilica type. What occurred at Constantinople, the seat of
+the Eastern Empire and the centre of the Eastern Church, will be
+considered presently.
+
+There is probably no basilica actually standing which was built during
+the reign of Constantine, or near his time; but there are several
+basilica churches in Rome, such as that of San Clemente, which were
+founded near his time, and which, though they have been partially or
+wholly rebuilt, exhibit what is believed to be the ancient disposition
+without modification.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 156.--INTERIOR OF A BASILICA AT POMPEII.
+ _Restored, from descriptions by various authors._]
+
+Access is obtained to San Clemente through a forecourt to which the
+name of the atrium is given. This is very much like the atrium of a
+Roman house, being covered with a shed roof round all four sides and
+open in the centre, and so resembling a cloister. The side next the
+church was called the narthex or porch; and when an atrium did not
+exist, a narthex at least was usually provided. The basilica has
+always a central avenue, or nave, and sides or aisles, and was
+generally entered from the narthex by three doors, one to each
+division. The nave of San Clemente is lofty, and covered by a simple
+wooden roof; it is separated from the side aisles by arcades, the
+arches of which spring from the capitals of columns; and high up in
+its side walls we find windows. The side aisles, like the nave, have
+wooden roofs. The nave terminates in a semicircular recess called "the
+apse," the floor of which is higher than that of the general
+structure, and is approached by steps. A large arch divides this apse
+from the nave. A portion of the nave floor is occupied by an enclosed
+space for the choir, surrounded by marble screens, and having a pulpit
+on either side of it. These pulpits are termed "ambos." Below the
+Church of San Clemente is a vaulted structure or crypt extending under
+the greater part, but not the whole, of the floor of the main
+building.
+
+The description given above would apply, with very slight variations,
+to any one of the many ancient basilica churches in Rome, Milan,
+Ravenna, and the other older cities of Italy; the principal variations
+being that in many instances, including the very ancient basilica of
+St. Peter, now destroyed, the avenues all stopped short of the end
+wall of the basilica, and a wide and clear transverse space or
+transept ran athwart them in front of the apse. San Clemente indeed
+shows some faint traces of such a feature. In one or two very large
+churches five avenues occur,--that is to say, a nave and double
+aisles; and in Santa Agnese (Fig. 156a) and at least one other, we
+find a gallery over the side aisles opening into the nave, or, as Mr.
+Fergusson puts it, "the side aisles in two stories." In many instances
+we should find no atrium, but in all cases we meet with the nave and
+aisles, and the apse at the end of the nave, with its arch and its
+elevated floor; and the entrances are always at the end of the
+building farthest from the apse, with some sort of porch or portal.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 156a.--BASILICA, OR EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH OF
+ SANTA AGNESE AT ROME.]
+
+The interest of these buildings lies not so much in their venerable
+antiquity as in the fact that the arrangements of all Christian
+churches in Western Europe down to the Reformation, and of very many
+since, are directly derived from these originals. If the reader will
+refer to the description of a Gothic cathedral in the companion volume
+of this series,[28] it will not be difficult for him to trace the
+correspondence between its plan and its general structure and those of
+the primitive basilica. The atrium no longer forms the access to a
+cathedral, but it still survives in the cloister, though in a changed
+position. The narthex or porch is still more or less traceable in the
+great western portals, and in a kind of separation which often, but
+not always, exists between the westernmost bay of a cathedral and the
+rest of the structure. The division into nave and aisles remains, and
+in very large churches and cathedrals there are double aisles, as
+there were in the largest basilicas. The nave roof is still higher
+than the aisles--the arcade, in two stories, survives in the usual
+arcade and triforium; the windows placed high in the nave are the
+present clerestory. The apsidal termination of the central avenue is
+still retained in almost all Continental architecture, though in Great
+Britain, from an early date, it was abandoned for a square east end;
+but square-ended or apsidal, a recess with a raised floor and a
+conspicuous arch, marking it off from the nave, always occupies this
+end of the church; and the under church, or crypt, is commonly, though
+not always, met with. The enclosure for the choir has, generally
+speaking, been moved farther east than it was in the basilica
+churches; though in Westminster Abbey, and in most Spanish cathedrals,
+we have examples of its occupying a position closely analogous to that
+of the corresponding enclosure at the basilica of San Clemente. The
+cross passage to which we have referred as having existed in the old
+basilica of St. Peter, and many others, is the original of the
+transept which in later churches has been made more conspicuous than
+it was in the basilica by being lengthened so as to project beyond the
+side walls of the church, and by being moved more westward. Lastly,
+the two ambos, or pulpits, survive in two senses. They are represented
+by the reading desk and the pulpit, and their situation and purpose
+are continued in the epistle and gospel sides of the choir.
+
+The one point in which an essential difference occurs is the position
+of the altar, or communion table, and that of the Bishop's chair, or
+throne. In the classic basilica the apse was the tribunal, and a
+raised seat with a tesselated pavement occupied the central position
+in it, and was the justice-seat of the presiding judge; and in the
+sweep of the apse, seats right and left, at a lower elevation, were
+provided for assessors or assistant-judges. In front of the president
+was placed a small altar. The whole of these arrangements were copied
+in the basilica churches. The seat of the president became the
+bishop's throne, the seats for assessors were appropriated to the
+clergy, and the altar retained substantially its old position in front
+of the apse, generally with a canopy erected over it. This disposition
+continues in basilica churches to the present day. At St. Peter's in
+Rome, for example, the Pope occupies a throne in the middle of the
+apse, and says mass with his face turned towards the congregation at
+the high altar, which stands in front of his throne under a vast
+baldacchino or canopy; but in Western Christendom generally a change
+has been made,--the altar has been placed in the apse where the
+bishop's throne formerly stood, and the throne of the bishop and
+stalls of his clergy have been displaced, and are to be found at the
+sides of the choir or presbytery.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 157.--SANT' APOLLINARE, RAVENNA. PART OF THE
+ ARCADE AND APSE.]
+
+Many basilica churches were erected out of fragments taken from older
+buildings, and present a curious mixture of columns, capitals, &c.;
+others, especially those at Ravenna, exhibit more care, and are noble
+specimens of ancient and severe architectural work. The illustration
+which we give of part of the nave, arcade, and apse of one of these,
+Sant' Apollinare in Classe, shows the dignified yet ornate aspect of
+one of the most carefully executed of these buildings (Fig. 157).
+
+In some of these churches the decorations are chiefly in mosaic, and
+are extremely striking. Our illustration of the apse of the great
+basilica of St. Paul without the walls (Fig. 158) may be taken as a
+fair specimen of the general arrangement and treatment of the crowd of
+sacred figures and subjects which it is customary to represent in
+these situations; but it can of course convey no idea of the brilliant
+effect produced by powerful colouring executed in mosaic, the most
+luminous of all methods of enrichment. The floor of most of them was
+formed in the style of mosaic known as "opus Alexandrinum," and the
+large sweeping, curved bands of coloured material with which the main
+outlines of the patterns are defined, and the general harmony of
+colour among the porphyries and other hard stones with which these
+pavements were executed, combine to satisfy the eye. A splendid
+specimen of opus Alexandrinum, the finest north of the Alps, exists in
+the presbytery of Westminster Abbey.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 158.--APSE OF THE BASILICA OF ST. PAUL WITHOUT
+ THE WALLS, ROME.]
+
+Another description of building is customarily met with in connection
+with early Christian churches,--the baptistery. This is commonly a
+detached building, and almost always circular or polygonal. In some
+instances the baptistery adjoins the atrium or forecourt; but it soon
+became customary to erect detached baptisteries of considerable size.
+These generally have a high central portion carried by a ring of
+columns, and a low aisle running round, the receptacle for water being
+in the centre. The origin of these buildings is not so clear as that
+of the basilica churches; they bear some resemblance to the Roman
+circular temples; but it is more probable that the form was suggested
+by buildings similar in general arrangement, and forming part of a
+Roman bath. The octagonal building known as the baptistery of
+Constantine, and the circular building now used as a church and
+dedicated to Santa Costanza in Rome, and the celebrated baptistery of
+Ravenna, are early examples of this class of structure. Somewhat more
+recent, and very well known, are the great baptisteries of Florence
+and Pisa.
+
+A few ancient circular or polygonal churches remain which do not
+appear to have been built as baptisteries. One of these is at Rome,
+the church of San Stefano Rotondo; but another, more remarkable in
+every way, is at Ravenna, the church of San Vitale. This is an
+octagonal building, with a large vestibule and a small apsidal choir.
+The central portion, carried by eight arches springing from as many
+lofty and solid piers, and surmounted by a hemispherical dome, rises
+high above the aisle which surrounds it. Much elegance is produced by
+the arrangement of smaller columns so as to form a kind of apsidal
+recess in each of the interspaces between the eight main piers.
+
+Another feature which has become thoroughly identified with church
+architecture is the bell-tower, or campanile. This appendage, there
+can be no doubt, originated with the basilicas of Italy. The use of
+bells as a call to prayer is said to have been introduced not later,
+at any rate, than the sixth century, and to this era is attributed a
+circular campanile belonging to Sant' Apollinare in Classe at Ravenna,
+a basilica already alluded to. The circular plan was, however,
+exceptional; the ancient campaniles remaining in Rome are all square;
+they are usually built of brick, many stories in height, and with a
+group of arched openings in each story, and are generally surmounted
+by a low conical roof.
+
+The type of church which we have described influenced church
+architecture in Italy down to the eleventh century, and such buildings
+as the beautiful church (Fig. 155) of San Miniato, near Florence (A.D.
+1013), and the renowned group of Cathedral, Baptistery, Campanile, and
+Campo Santo (a kind of cloistered cemetery) at Pisa, bear a very
+strong resemblance in many respects to these originals; though they
+belong rather to the Romanesque than to the Basilican division of
+early Christian architecture.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[28] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' chap. ii. p. 6.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 158a.--FRIEZE FROM THE MONASTERY AT FULDA.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+Constantine the Great, who by establishing the Christian religion had
+encouraged the erection of basilicas for Christian worship in Rome and
+Italy, effected a great political change, and one destined to exert a
+marked influence upon Christian architecture, when he removed the seat
+of empire from Rome to Byzantium, and called the new capital
+Constantinople,[29] after his own name. Byzantium had been an ancient
+place, but was almost in ruins when Constantine, probably attracted by
+the unrivalled advantages of its site,[30] rebuilt it, or at least
+re-established it as a city. The solemn inauguration of Constantinople
+as the new capital took place A.D. 330; and when, under Theodosius,
+the empire was divided, this city became the capital of the East.
+
+With a new point of departure among a people largely of Greek race,
+we might expect that a new development of the church from some other
+type than the basilica might be likely to show itself. This, in fact,
+is what occurred; for while the most ancient churches of Rome all
+present, as we have seen, an almost slavish copy of an existing type
+of building, and do not attempt the use of vaulted roofs, in Byzantium
+buildings of most original design sprang up, founded, it is true, on
+Roman originals, but by no means exact copies of them. In the erection
+of these churches the most difficult problems of construction were
+successfully encountered and solved. What may have been the course
+which architecture ran during the two centuries between the refounding
+of Byzantium and the building of Santa Sophia under Justinian, we can,
+however, only infer from its outcome. It is doubtful if any church
+older than the sixth century now remains in Constantinople; but it is
+certain that, to attain the power of designing and erecting so great a
+work as Santa Sophia, the architects of Constantinople must have
+continued and largely modified the Roman practice of building vaults
+and domes. There is every probability that if some of the early
+churches in Byzantium were domed structures others may have been
+vaulted basilicas; the more so as the very ancient churches in Syria,
+which owed their origin to Byzantium rather than to Rome, are most of
+them of the basilica type.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 159.--CHURCH OF SANTA SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE.
+ LONG SECTION. BUILT UNDER JUSTINIAN BY ANTHEMIOS AND ISIDOROS.
+ COMPLETED A.D. 537.]
+
+A church which had been erected by Constantine, dedicated to Santa
+Sophia (holy wisdom), was burnt early in the reign of Justinian (A.D.
+527 to 565); and in rebuilding it his architects, Anthemios of
+Thralles, and Isidoros of Miletus, succeeded in erecting one of the
+most famous buildings of the world, and one which is the typical and
+central embodiment of a distinct and very strongly marked
+well-defined style. The basis of this style may be said to be the
+adoption of the dome, in preference to the vault or the timber roof,
+as the covering of the space enclosed within the walls; with the
+result that the general disposition of the plan is circular or square,
+rather than oblong, and that the structure recalls the Pantheon more
+than the great Hall of the Thermæ of Diocletian, or the Basilica of
+St. Paul. In Santa Sophia one vast flattish dome dominates the central
+space. This dome is circular in plan, and the space over which it is
+placed is a square, the sides of which are occupied by four massive
+semicircular arches of 100 ft. span each, springing from four vast
+piers, one at each of the four corners. The four triangular spaces
+between the corners of the square so enclosed and the circle or ring
+resting upon it are filled by what are termed "pendentives"--features
+which may, perhaps, be best described as portions of a dome, each just
+sufficient to fit into one corner of the square, and the four uniting
+at their upper margin to form a ring. From this ring springs the main
+dome. It rises to a height of 46 ft., and is 107 ft. in clear
+diameter. East and west of the main dome are two half-domes, each
+springing from a wall apsidal (_i.e._ semicircular) in plan. Smaller
+apses again, domed over at a lower level, are introduced, and vaulted
+aisles two stories in height occupy the sides of the space within the
+outer walls till the outline of the building is brought to very nearly
+an exact square. Externally this church is uninteresting,[31] but its
+interior is of surpassing beauty, and can be better described in the
+eloquent language of Gilbert Scott[32] than in any other: "Simple as
+is the primary ideal, the actual effect is one of great intricacy, and
+of continuous gradation of parts, from the small arcades up to the
+stupendous dome, which hangs with little apparent support like a vast
+bubble over the centre, or as Procopius, who witnessed its erection,
+described it, 'as if suspended by a chain from heaven.'
+
+"The dome is lighted by forty small windows, which pierce it
+immediately above the cornice which crowns its pendentives, and which,
+by subdividing its lower part into narrow piers, increases the feeling
+of its being supported by its own buoyancy.
+
+"The interior thus generated, covered almost wholly by domes, or
+portions of them, each rising in succession higher and higher towards
+the floating hemisphere in the centre, and so arranged that one shall
+open out the view to others, and that nearly the entire system of
+vaulting may be viewed at a single glance, appears to me to be in some
+respects the noblest which has ever been designed, as it was certainly
+the most daring which, up to that time at least, if not absolutely,
+had ever been constructed." After pointing out how the smaller arcades
+and apsidal projections, and the vistas obtained through the various
+arched openings, introduced intricate effects of perspective and
+constant changes of aspect, Scott continues: "This union of the more
+palpable with the more mysterious, of the vast unbroken expanse with
+the intricately broken perspective, must, as it appears to me, and as
+I judge from representations, produce an impression more astounding
+than that of almost any other building: but when we consider the whole
+as clothed with the richest beauties of surface,--its piers encrusted
+with inlaid marbles of every hue, its arcades of marble gorgeously
+carved, its domes and vaultings resplendent with gold mosaic
+interspersed with solemn figures, and its wide-spreading floors rich
+with marble tesselation, over which the buoyant dome floats
+self-supported, and seems to sail over you as you move,--I cannot
+conceive of anything more astonishing, more solemn, and more
+magnificent."
+
+The type of church of which this magnificent cathedral was the great
+example has continued in Eastern Christendom to the present day, and
+has undergone surprisingly little variation. A certain distinctive
+character in the foliage (Fig. 163) employed in capitals and other
+decorative carving, and mosaics of splendid colour but somewhat gaunt
+and archaic design, though often solemn and dignified, were typical of
+the work of Justinian's day, and could long afterwards be recognised
+in Eastern Christian churches.
+
+Between Rome and Constantinople, and well situated for receiving
+influence from both those cities, stood Ravenna, and here a series of
+buildings, all more or less Byzantine, were erected. The most
+interesting of these is the church of San Vitale (Figs. 160, 161).
+This building is octagonal in plan, and thus belongs to the series of
+round and polygonal churches and baptisteries for which the circular
+buildings of the Romans furnished a model; but in its high central
+dome, lighted by windows placed high up, its many subsidiary arcades
+and apses, the latter roofed by half-domes, and its vaulted aisles in
+two stories, it recalls Santa Sophia; and its sculpture, carving, and
+mosaic decorations are hardly less famous and no less characteristic.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 160.--PLAN OF SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 161.--SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. LONGITUDINAL
+ SECTION.]
+
+One magnificent specimen of Byzantine architecture, more within the
+reach of ordinary travellers, and consequently better known than San
+Vitale or Santa Sophia, must not be omitted, and can be studied easily
+by means of numberless photographic illustrations--St. Mark's at
+Venice. This cathedral was built between the years 977-1071, and, it
+is said, according to a design obtained from Constantinople. It has
+since been altered in external appearance by the erection of bulbous
+domical roofs over its domes, and by additions of florid Gothic
+character; but, disregarding these, we have alike in plan, structure,
+and ornament, a Byzantine church of the first class.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 162.--PLAN OF ST. MARK'S AT VENICE.]
+
+The ground-plan of St. Mark's (Fig. 162) presents a Greek cross,
+_i.e._ one in which all the arms are equal, and it is roofed by five
+principal domes, one at the crossing and one over each of the four
+limbs of the cross. Aisles at a low level, and covered by a series of
+small flat domes, in lieu of vaulting, fill up the angles between the
+arms of the cross, so as to make the outline of the plan nearly
+square.
+
+The rich colouring of St. Mark's, due to a profuse employment of
+mosaics and of the most costly marbles, and the splendid effects
+produced by the mode of introducing light, which is admitted much as
+at Santa Sophia, are perhaps its greatest charm; but there is beauty
+in every aspect of its interior which has furnished a fit theme for
+the pen of the most eloquent writer on art and architecture of the
+present or perhaps of any day.
+
+From Venice the influence of Byzantine art spread to a small extent in
+North Italy; in that city herself as well as in neighbouring towns,
+such as Padua, buildings and fragments of buildings exhibiting the
+characteristics of the style can be found. Remarkable traces of the
+influence of Byzantium as a centre, believed to be due to intercourse
+with Venice, can also be found in France. Direct communication with
+Constantinople by way of the Mediterranean has also introduced
+Byzantine taste into Sicily. One famous French church, St. Front in
+Périgueux, is identical (or nearly so) with St. Mark's in its plan;
+but all its constructive arches being pointed (Fig. 3, page 5), its
+general appearance differs a good deal from that of Eastern
+churches--a difference which is accentuated by the absence of the
+mosaics and other coloured ornaments which enrich the walls of St.
+Mark's. Many very old domed churches and much sculpture of the
+Byzantine type are moreover to be found in Central and Southern
+France--Anjou, Aquitaine, and Auvergne. These are, however, isolated
+examples of the style having taken root in spite of adverse
+circumstances; it is in those parts of Europe where the Greek Church
+prevails, or did prevail, that Byzantine architecture chiefly
+flourishes. In Greece and Asia Minor many ancient churches of
+Byzantine structure remain, while in Russia churches are built to the
+present day corresponding to the general type of those which have just
+been described.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 163.--FROM THE GOLDEN DOOR OF JERUSALEM. TIME OF
+ JUSTINIAN. A.D. 560.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 164.--CHURCH AT TURMANIN IN SYRIA. 4TH AND 5TH
+ CENTURY.]
+
+In ancient buildings of Syria the influence of both the Roman and the
+Byzantine models can be traced. No more characteristic specimens of
+Byzantine foliage can be desired than some to be found in Palestine,
+as for example the Golden Gate at Jerusalem, which we illustrate
+(Fig. 163); but in the deserted cities of Central Syria a group of
+exceptional and most interesting buildings, both secular and sacred,
+exists, which, as described by De Vogüé,[33] seem to display a free
+and very original treatment based upon Roman more than Byzantine
+ideas. We illustrate the exterior of one of these, the church at
+Turmanin (Fig. 164). This is a building divided into a nave and aisles
+and with a vestibule. Two low towers flank the central gable, and it
+will be noticed that openings of depressed proportion, mostly
+semicircular headed, and with the arches usually springing from square
+piers, mark the building; while the use made of columns strongly
+resembles the manner in which in later times they were introduced by
+the Gothic architects.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 165.--TOWER OF A RUSSIAN CHURCH.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[29] _I.e._ the City of Constantine.
+
+[30] "The edge of the world: the knot which links together East and
+West; the centre in which all extremes combine," was the not
+overcharged description given of Constantinople by one of her own
+bishops.
+
+[31] For an illustration see Fig. 187.
+
+[32] 'Lectures on Mediæval Architecture.'
+
+[33] 'Syrie Centrale.'
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+The term Romanesque is here used to indicate a style of Christian
+architecture, founded on Roman art, which prevailed throughout Western
+Europe from the close of the period of basilican architecture to the
+rise of Gothic; except in those isolated districts where the influence
+of Byzantium is visible. By some writers the significance of the word
+is restricted within narrower limits; but excellent authorities can be
+adduced for the employment of it in the wide sense here indicated.
+Indeed some difficulty exists in deciding what shall and what shall
+not be termed Romanesque, if any more restricted definition of its
+meaning is adopted; while under this general term, if applied broadly,
+many closely allied local varieties--as, for example, Lombard,
+Rhenish, Romance, Saxon, and Norman--can be conveniently included.
+
+The spectacle which Europe presented after the removal of the seat of
+empire to Byzantium and the incursions of the Northern tribes was
+melancholy in the extreme. Nothing but the church retained any
+semblance of organised existence; and when at last some kind of order
+began to emerge from a chaos of universal ruin, and churches and
+monastic buildings began to be built in Western Europe, all of them
+looked to Rome, and not to Constantinople, as their common
+ecclesiastical centre. It is not surprising that, as soon as
+differences between the ritual of the Eastern and the Western Church
+sprang up, a contrast between Eastern and Western architecture should
+establish itself, and that the early structures of the many countries
+where the Roman Church flourished never wandered far from the Roman
+type, with the exception of localities where circumstances favoured
+direct intercourse with the East. The architecture of the Eastern
+Church, on the other hand, adhered quite as closely to the models of
+Byzantium.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 166.--TOWER OF EARL'S BARTON CHURCH.]
+
+The style, so far as is known, was for a long time almost, if not
+absolutely, the same over a very large part of Western Christendom,
+and it has received from Mr. Freeman the appropriate designation of
+Primitive Romanesque. It was not till the tenth century, or later,
+that distinctive varieties began to make their appearance; and though
+that which was built earlier than that date has, through rebuildings
+and enlargements as well as natural decay, been in many cases swept
+away, still enough may be met with to show us what the buildings of
+that remote time were like.
+
+The churches are usually small, and have an apsidal east end. The
+openings are rude, with round-headed arches and small single or
+two-light windows, and the outer walls are generally marked by flat
+pilasters of very slight projection. Towers are common, and the
+openings in them are often divided into two or more lights by rude
+columns. The plan of these churches was founded on the basilica type,
+but they do not exhibit the same internal arrangement; and it is very
+noteworthy that many of them show marks of having been vaulted, or at
+least partly vaulted; and not covered, as the basilicas usually were,
+by timber roofs. Even a country so remote as Great Britain possessed
+in the 10th century many buildings of Primitive Romanesque character;
+and in such Saxon churches as those of Worth, Brixworth, Dover, or
+Bradford, and such towers as those of Earl's Barton (Fig. 166),
+Trinity Church Colchester, Barnack, or Sompting, we have specimens of
+the style remaining to the present day.
+
+By degrees, as buildings of greater extent and more ornament were
+erected, the local varieties to which reference has been made began to
+develop themselves. In Lombardy and North Italy, for example, a
+Lombard Romanesque style can be recognised distinctly; here a series
+of churches were built, many of them vaulted, but not many of the
+largest size. Most of them were on substantially the same plan as the
+basilicas, though a considerable number of circular or polygonal
+churches were also built. Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, and some of the
+churches at Brescia, Pavia, and Lucca, may be cited as well-known
+examples of early date, and a little later the cathedrals of Parma,
+Modena, and Piacenza (Fig. 167), and San Zenone at Verona. These
+churches are all distinguished by the free use of small ornamental
+arches and narrow pilaster-strips externally, and the employment of
+piers with half-shafts attached to them, rather than columns, in the
+arcades; they have fine bell-towers; circular windows often occupy
+the gables, and very frequently the walls have been built of, or
+ornamented with, coloured materials. The sculpture--grotesque,
+vigorous, and full of rich variety--which distinguishes many of these
+buildings, and which is to be found specially enriching the doorways,
+is of great interest, and began early to develop a character that is
+quite distinctive.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 167.--CATHEDRAL AT PIACENZA.]
+
+Turning to Germany, we find that a very strong resemblance existed
+between the Romanesque churches of that country and those of North
+Italy. At Aix-la-Chapelle a polygonal church exists, built by
+Charlemagne, and which tradition asserts was designed on the model of
+San Vitale at Ravenna. The resemblance is undoubted, but the German
+church is by no means an exact copy of Justinian's building. Early
+examples of German Romanesque exist in the cathedrals of Mayence,
+Worms, and Spires, and a steady advance was made till a point was
+reached (in the twelfth century) at which the style may be said to
+have attained the highest development which Romanesque architecture
+received in any country of Europe.
+
+The arcaded ornament (the arches being very frequently open so as to
+form a real arcade) which was noticed as occurring in Lombard
+churches, belongs also to German ones, though the secondary internal
+arcade (triforium) is absent from some of the early examples. Piers
+are used more frequently than columns in the interiors, and are often
+very plain. From an early date the use of a western as well as an
+eastern apse seems to have been common in Germany, and high western
+façades extending between two towers were features specially met with
+in that country. For a notice and some illustrations of the latest and
+best phase of German Romanesque, which may with propriety be termed
+"round-arched Gothic," the reader is referred to the companion volume
+of this series.[34]
+
+France exhibits more than one variety of Romanesque; for not only, as
+remarked in the chapter on Byzantine Art, is the influence of Greek or
+Venetian artists traceable in the buildings of certain districts,
+especially Périgueux, but it is clear that in others the existence of
+fine examples of Roman architecture (Fig. 168) affected the design of
+buildings down to and during the eleventh century. This influence may,
+for example, be detected in the use, in the churches at Autun,
+Valence, and Avignon, of capitals, pilasters, and other features
+closely resembling classic originals, and in the employment through a
+great part of Central and Northern France of vaulted roofs.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 168.--VAULTS OF THE EXCAVATED ROMAN BATHS, IN
+ THE MUSÉE DE CLUNY, PARIS.]
+
+A specially French feature is the chevet, a group of apsidal chapels
+which were built round the apse itself, and which combined with it to
+make of the east end of a great cathedral a singularly rich and ornate
+composition. This feature, originating in Romanesque churches, was
+retained in France through the whole of the Gothic period, and a good
+example of it may be seen in the large Romanesque church of St. Sernin
+at Toulouse, which we illustrate (Fig. 169). The transepts were
+usually well marked. The nave arcades generally sprang from piers
+(Fig. 170), more rarely from columns. Arches are constantly met with
+recessed, _i.e._ in receding planes,[35] the first stage of progress
+towards a Gothic treatment, and are occasionally slightly moulded
+(Fig. 171). Western doorways are often highly enriched with sculpture;
+and the carving and sculpture generally, though often rude, are full
+of vitality. Towers occur, usually square, more rarely octagonal.
+Window-lights are frequently grouped two or more under one arch.
+Capitals of a basket-shape, and with a square abacus, often richly
+sculptured, are employed.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 169.--CHURCH OF ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 170.--NAVE ARCADE AT ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 171.--ARCHES IN RECEDING PLANES AT ST. SERNIN,
+ TOULOUSE.]
+
+In Normandy, and generally in the North of France, round-arched
+architecture was excellently carried out, and churches remarkable both
+for their extent and their great dignity and solidity were erected.
+Generally speaking, however, Norman architecture, especially as met
+with in Normandy itself, is less ornate than the Romanesque of
+Southern France; in fact some of the best examples seem to suffer from
+a deficiency of ornament. The large and well-known churches at Caen,
+St. Etienne, otherwise the Abbaye aux Hommes--interesting to
+Englishmen as having been founded by William the Conqueror
+immediately after the Conquest--and the Trinité, or Abbaye aux Dames,
+are excellent examples of early Norman architecture, but the student
+must not forget that additions have been made to them, which, if they
+add to their beauty, at the same time alter their character. For
+example, in St. Etienne, the upper part of the western towers and the
+fine spires with which they are crowned were built subsequent to the
+original structure, as was also, in all probability, the chevet, or
+eastern limb. It seems probable also that the vaulting may not be what
+was contemplated in the original plan.
+
+St. Etienne is 364 ft. long, and is lofty in its proportions. It has a
+nave and aisles, arcades resting on piers, and strongly-marked
+transepts, and has two western towers with the gable of the nave
+between them. The west front is well designed in three stories, having
+strongly-marked vertical divisions in the buttresses of the towers,
+and equally distinct horizontal divisions in the three doorways below,
+and two ranges of windows, each of five lights, above. There is no
+circular west window. The nave and aisles are vaulted.
+
+Besides other cathedral churches, such for example as those of Bayeux
+and Evreux, in which considerable parts of the original structures
+remain, there exist throughout Normandy and Brittany many parochial
+churches and monastic buildings, exhibiting, at least in some portions
+of their structure, the same characteristics as those of St. Etienne;
+and it is clear that an immense number of buildings, the beauty and
+even refinement of which are conspicuous, must have been erected in
+Northern France during the eleventh and the early years of the twelfth
+centuries, the period to which Norman architecture in France may be
+said to belong.
+
+In Great Britain, as has been already pointed out, enough traces of
+Saxon--that is to say, Primitive Romanesque--architecture remain to
+show that many simple, though comparatively rude, buildings must have
+been erected previous to the Norman Conquest. Traces exist also of an
+influence which the rapid advance that had been made by the art of
+building as practised in Normandy was exerting in our island. The
+buildings at Westminster Abbey raised by Edward the Confessor, though
+they have been almost all rebuilt, have left just sufficient traces
+behind to enable us to recognise that they were of bold design. The
+plan of the Confessor's church was laid out upon a scale almost as
+large as that of the present structure. The monastic buildings were
+extensive. The details of the work were, some of them, refined and
+delicate, and resembled closely those employed in Norman buildings at
+that time. Thus it appears that, even had the Conquest not taken
+place, no small influence would have been exerted upon buildings in
+England by the advance then being made in France; but instead of a
+gradual improvement being so produced, a sudden and rapid revolution
+was effected by the complete conquest of the country and its
+occupation by nobles and ecclesiastics from Normandy, who, enriched by
+the plunder of the conquered country, were eager to establish
+themselves in permanent buildings.
+
+Shortly after the Conquest distinctive features began to show
+themselves. Norman architecture in England soon became essentially
+different from what it was in Normandy, and we possess in this country
+a large series of fine works showing the growth of this imported
+style, from the early simplicity of the chapel in the Tower of London
+to such elaboration as that of the later parts of Durham Cathedral.
+
+The number of churches founded or rebuilt soon after the Norman
+Conquest must have been enormous, for in examining churches of every
+date and in every part of England it is common to find some fragment
+of Norman work remaining from a former church: this is very frequently
+a doorway left standing or built into walls of later date: and, in
+addition to these fragments, no small number of churches, and more
+than one cathedral, together with numerous castles, remain in whole or
+in part as they were erected by the original builders.
+
+Norman architecture is considered to have prevailed in England for
+more than a century; that is to say, from the Conquest (1066) to the
+accession of Richard I. (1189). For some details of the marks by which
+Norman work can be recognised the reader is referred to the companion
+volume;[36] we propose here to give an account of the broader
+characteristics of the buildings erected during the prevalence of the
+style.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The oldest remaining parts of Canterbury Cathedral are specimens of
+Norman architecture executed in England immediately after the
+Conquest. This great church was rebuilt by Archbishop Lanfranc (whose
+episcopate lasted from 1070 to 1089), and in extent as laid out by him
+was very nearly identical with the existing structure; almost every
+portion has, however, been rebuilt, so that of his work only the
+towers forming transepts to the choir, and some other fragments, now
+remain. More complete and equally ancient is the chapel in the Tower
+of London, which consists of a small apsidal church with nave and
+aisles, vaulted throughout, and in excellent preservation. This
+building, though very charming, is almost destitute of ornament. A
+little more ornate, and still a good example of early Norman, is St.
+Peter's Church, Northampton (Fig. 172), the interior of which we
+illustrate. To these examples of early Norman we may add a large part
+of Rochester Cathedral, and the transepts of Winchester. The transepts
+of Exeter present a specimen of rather more advanced Norman work; and
+in the cathedrals of Peterborough and Durham the style can be seen at
+its best.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 172.--NORMAN ARCHES IN ST. PETER'S CHURCH,
+ NORTHAMPTON.]
+
+In most Norman buildings we find very excellent masonry and massive
+construction. The exteriors of west fronts, transepts, and towers
+show great skill and care in their composition, the openings being
+always well grouped, and contrasted with plain wall-spaces; and a keen
+sense of proportion is perceptible. The Norman architects had at
+command a rich, if perhaps a rather rude, ornamentation, which they
+generally confined to individual features, especially doorways; on
+these they lavished mouldings and sculpture, the elaboration of which
+was set off by the plainness of the general structure. In the interior
+of the churches we usually meet with piers of massive proportion,
+sometimes round, sometimes octagonal, sometimes rectangular, and a
+shaft is sometimes carried up the face of the piers; as, for example,
+in Peterborough Cathedral (Fig. 173). The capitals of the columns and
+piers have a square abacus, and, generally speaking, are of the
+cushion-shaped sort, commonly known as basket-capitals, and are
+profusely carved. The larger churches have the nave roofed with a
+timber roof, and at Peterborough there is a wooden ceiling; in these
+cases the aisles only are vaulted, but in some small churches the
+whole building has been so covered. Buttresses are seldom required,
+owing to the great mass of the walls; when employed they have a very
+slight projection, but the same strips or pilasters which are used in
+German Romanesque occur here also. Low towers were common, and have
+been not unfrequently preserved in cases where the rest of the
+building has been removed. As the style advanced, the proportions of
+arcades became more lofty, and shafts became more slender, decorative
+arcades (Fig. 174) became more common, and in these and many other
+changes the approaching transition to Gothic may be easily detected.
+
+We have already alluded to the many Norman doorways remaining in
+parish churches of which all other parts have been rebuilt. These
+doorways are generally very rich; they possess a series of mouldings
+sometimes springing from shafts, sometimes running not only round the
+arched head, but also up the jambs of the opening; and each moulding
+is richly carved, very often with a repetition of the same ornament on
+each voussoir of the arch. Occasionally, but not frequently, large
+portions of wall-surface are covered by a diaper; that is to say, an
+ornament constantly repeated so as to produce a general sense of
+enrichment.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 173.--NAVE ARCADE, PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 174.--DECORATIVE ARCADE FROM CANTERBURY
+ CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Norman castles, as well as churches, were built in great numbers
+shortly after the Conquest, and not a few remain. The stronghold
+which a follower of the Conqueror built in order to establish himself
+on the lands granted him was always a very sturdy massive square
+tower, low in proportion to its width, built very strongly, and with
+every provision for sustaining an attack or even a siege. Such a tower
+is called "a keep;" and in many famous castles, as for example the
+Tower of London, the keep forms the nucleus round which buildings and
+courtyards of later date have clustered. In some few instances,
+however, as for example at Colchester, the keep is the only part now
+standing, and it is probable that when originally built these Norman
+castles were not much encumbered with out-buildings. Rochester Castle
+is a fine example of a Norman keep, though it has suffered much from
+decay and injury. The very large Norman keep of the Tower of London,
+known as the White Tower, and containing the chapel already described,
+has been much modernised and altered, but retains the fine mass of its
+original construction. Perhaps the best (and best-preserved) example
+is Hedingham Castle in Essex, which we illustrate (Figs. 175 and 176).
+From the remains of this building some idea of the interior of the
+hall--the chief room within a Norman keep--may be obtained, as well as
+of the general external appearance of such a structure.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 175.--HEDINGHAM CASTLE.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 176.--INTERIOR OF HEDINGHAM CASTLE.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[34] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' chap. vii.
+
+[35] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' chap. v. p. 62.
+
+[36] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' chap. ii. p. 23.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 177.--ROUNDED ARCH OF CHURCH AT GELNHAUSEN.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+_Analysis._
+
+Notwithstanding very wide differences which undoubtedly exist, there
+is a sufficient bond of union between the Basilican, the Byzantine,
+and the Romanesque styles, to render it possible for us to include the
+characteristics of the three in an analysis of Christian round-arched
+architecture.
+
+_The Plan or floor-disposition_ of the basilican churches, as has been
+pointed out, was distinctive. The atrium, or forecourt, the porch, the
+division into nave and aisles; the transept, the great arch, and the
+apse beyond it with the episcopal seat at the back behind the altar;
+the ambos; and the enclosure for the choir, were typical features.
+Detached towers sometimes occurred. The plan of Romanesque churches
+was based upon that of the basilica; the atrium was often omitted, so
+was the transept sometimes; but, when retained, the transept was
+generally made more prominent than in the basilica. The position of
+the altar and of the enclosure for the choir were changed, but in
+other respects the basilica plan was continued. In Germany, however,
+apsidal transepts (Fig. 178) were built. Towers were common,
+occasionally detached, but more frequently joined to the main
+building.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 178.--PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES AT
+ COLOGNE.]
+
+Circular and polygonal buildings for use as baptisteries, and
+sometimes as churches, existed both in the basilican and the
+Romanesque time.
+
+Byzantine church plans are all distinguished by their great central
+square space, covered by the central dome, flanked usually by four
+arms, comparatively short, and all of equal length; and the plan of
+the buildings is generally square, or nearly so, in outline. Circular
+and polygonal buildings sometimes occur.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 179.--SPIRE OF SPIRES CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Few traces of the arrangement of military, secular, or domestic
+buildings earlier than the twelfth century remain, but some examples
+of a cloister at the side of the nave (generally the south side) of a
+church, giving or intended to give access to monastic buildings, still
+exist.
+
+_The Walls_ of such buildings as have come down to us are, it may be
+well understood, strong, since the most recent of this round-arched
+series of buildings must be about seven hundred years old. Fine
+masonry was not much employed till the time of the Normans, but the
+Roman plan of building with bricks or rubble and casing the face of
+the walls with marble or mosaic, or at least plaster, was generally
+followed. The walls are carried up as gables and towers to a
+considerable extent (Fig. 179), especially in Western countries.
+
+_The Roof._--In a basilica this was of timber, in a Byzantine church
+it consisted of a series of domes; in a Romanesque church it was
+sometimes of timber as in the basilica, but not unfrequently vaulted.
+As a general rule the vault prevailed in the West and the dome in the
+East; and such examples of either sort of roof as occur in those
+provinces where the other was usual, like the domed churches in parts
+of France, must be looked upon as exceptional.
+
+_The Openings_ are almost invariably arched, and seldom, if ever,
+covered by a lintel. It is hardly necessary to add that the arches are
+always round. Almost always they are semicircular, but instances of
+the employment of a segmental arch, or of one the outline of which is
+a little more than half a circle, may be occasionally met with.
+
+Door openings are often made important both by size and decoration.
+Window openings are usually small; and the grouping of two or more
+lights under one head, which was so conspicuous a feature in Gothic
+architecture, first appears in Byzantine buildings, and is met with
+also in Romanesque ones. The mode of introducing light is to a certain
+extent characteristic. The basilican churches always possess a
+clerestory, and usually side windows in the aisles; and this
+arrangement is generally followed in Romanesque buildings, though
+sometimes, in Germany, the clerestory is omitted. The gable ends of
+the nave and transepts are not usually pierced by many or large lights
+(Fig. 180); and when there is a central feature, as a tower, or even a
+dome, little or no light is introduced through it. On the other hand,
+the Byzantine churches depend largely for light upon the ring of
+windows which commonly encircles the base of the central dome, and
+sometimes that of the subsidiary domes; and the gables are pierced
+so as to supply any additional light required, so that windows are
+infrequent in the lower walls. Broadly speaking, therefore, the
+Western churches have side-lighting and the Eastern top-lighting.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 180.--CHURCH AT ROSHEIM. UPPER PORTION OF
+ FAÇADE.]
+
+The great arches which carry the main domes form a notable feature in
+Eastern churches, and are of very bold construction. In the basilican
+churches one great arch, called "the arch of triumph," occurs, and
+only one; this gives access to the apse: and a similar arch, which we
+now denominate "the chancel arch," usually occupies a corresponding
+position in all Romanesque churches. The arches of the arcade
+separating the nave from the aisles in all Western churches are
+usually of moderate span. In some ancient basilicas these arches are
+replaced by a horizontal beam.
+
+_The Columns._--In basilicas these were of antique type; very often
+they had actually been obtained by the demolition of older buildings,
+and when made purposely they were as a rule of the same general
+character. The same might be said of those introduced into Byzantine
+buildings, though a divergence from the classic type soon manifested
+itself, and small columns began to appear as decorative features. In
+Romanesque buildings the columns are very varied indeed, and shafts
+are frequently introduced into the decoration of other features. They
+occur in the jambs of doorways with mouldings or sub-arches springing
+from them; long shafts and short ones, frequently supporting
+ornamental arcades, are employed both internally and externally; and
+altogether that use of the column as a means of decoration, of which
+Gothic architecture presents so many examples, first began in the
+Romanesque style.
+
+The capitals employed in Romanesque buildings generally depart
+considerably from the classic type, being based on the primitive cube
+capital (Fig. 181), but, as a rule, in Eastern as well as in basilican
+churches, they bear a tolerably close resemblance to classic ones.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 181.--CUBIC CAPITAL.]
+
+_The Ornaments_ throughout the whole of the Christian round-arched
+period are a very interesting subject of study, and will repay close
+attention. In the basilican style mouldings occur but seldom: where
+met with, they are all of the profiles common in Roman architecture,
+but often rudely and clumsily worked. Carving partakes also of classic
+character, though it is not difficult to detect the commencement of
+that metamorphosis which was effected in Byzantium, and which can
+hardly be better described than in the following paragraph from the
+pen of Sir Digby Wyatt:--"The foliage is founded on ancient Greek
+rather than on Roman traditions, and is characterised by a peculiarly
+sharp outline. All ornamental sculpture is in comparatively low
+relief, and the absence of human and other figures is very marked.
+Enrichments were almost invariably so carved, by sinking portions only
+of the surfaces and leaving the arrises and principal places
+untouched, as to preserve the original constructive forms given by the
+mason (Fig. 184). The employment of the drill instead of the chisel,
+so common in debased Roman work, was retained as a very general
+practice by the Greek carvers, and very often with excellent effect.
+The foliage of the acanthus, although imitated from the antique,
+quite changed its character, becoming more geometrical and
+conventional in its form. That which particularly distinguishes
+Lombard from Byzantine art is its sculpture abounding with grotesque
+imagery, with illustrations of every-day life, of a fanciful mythology
+not yet quite extinct, and allusions, no longer symbolic but direct,
+to the Christian creed; the latter quality a striking evidence of the
+triumph of the Roman Church over all iconoclastic adversaries in
+Greece." What is here asserted of Lombard carving is true of that in
+the Romanesque buildings in Germany, Scandinavia (Fig. 182), France,
+and to a certain extent in Great Britain, though in our own country a
+large proportion of the ornamental carving consists simply of
+decorative patterns, such as the chevron, billet, and zig-zag; and
+sculpture containing figures and animals is less common.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 182.--DOORWAY AT TIND, NORWAY. (END OF 12TH
+ CENTURY.)]
+
+The mouldings of Romanesque buildings are simple, and at first were
+few in number, but by degrees they become more conspicuous, and before
+the transition to Gothic they assumed considerable importance (Fig.
+183) and added not a little to the architectural character of the
+buildings.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 183.--MOULDINGS OF PORTAL OF ST. JAMES'S CHURCH
+ AT KOESFELD.]
+
+Coloured decoration, especially in mosaic, was a conspicuous feature
+in basilican churches, and still more so in those of the Byzantine
+style; such decoration in Romanesque churches was not infrequent, but
+it was more commonly painted in fresco or tempera. The glass
+mosaic-work to be found on the walls of Early Christian churches, both
+basilican and Byzantine, but less frequently Romanesque, is most
+interesting and beautiful: "it was," says the high authority already
+quoted, "employed only to represent and reproduce the forms of
+existing objects, such as figures, architectural forms and
+conventional foliage, which were generally relieved with some slight
+indication of shading upon a gold ground--the whole being bedded in
+the cement covering the walls and vaults of the basilicas and
+churches."
+
+"The design of both figures and ornaments was, generally speaking,
+very rude, though not without an occasional rising in some of the
+figures to a certain sublimity, derivable principally from the great
+simplicity of the forms and draperies and the earnest grandiose
+expression depicted on their countenances. The pieces of glass
+employed in the formation of this work are very irregular in shapes
+and sizes, of all colours and tones of colour, and the ground tint
+almost invariably prevailing is gold. The manner of execution is
+always large and coarse, and rarely approaches in neatness of joint
+and regularity of bedding to the (ancient Roman) 'opus majus
+vermiculatus;' yet, notwithstanding these blemishes, the effect of
+gorgeous, luxurious, and at the same time solemn decoration produced
+is unattainable by any other means as yet employed as structural
+embellishment. How noble and truly ecclesiastical in character are the
+gold-clad interiors of Monreale Cathedral, of the Capella Palatina at
+Palermo, of St. Mark at Venice, San Miniato at Florence, or Santi
+Apollinare and Vitale at Ravenna, the concurrent testimony of all
+travellers attests."
+
+A finer kind of glass mosaic arranged in geometrical patterns was
+made use of to enrich the ambos, screens, episcopal chairs, sepulchral
+ornaments, and other similar fittings of churches, and was often of
+great beauty. A third sort of mosaic--the Alexandrine work (opus
+Alexandrinum)--used for pavements, has been already alluded to; this
+was extremely effective, but its use appears to have been less general
+than that of the glass mosaics for the walls.
+
+_The Architectural Character_ of the basilican churches may be briefly
+characterised as venerable and dignified, but yet cheerful and bright
+rather than forbidding; they are, as interiors, impressive but not
+oppressive, solemn but not gloomy. Comparatively little attention was
+paid to external effect, and there is not often much in them to strike
+the passer-by. The character of Byzantine interiors is far more rich,
+and even splendid; but it is more gloomy, and often is solemn and
+grand to the last degree. In many cases these churches possess fine
+exteriors; and for the level sky-line produced by the long straight
+roofs of the basilica, a more or less pyramidal composition, showing
+curved outlines rather than straight ones, is substituted. The
+architectural character of the Romanesque buildings varies extremely
+with the districts in which they are erected; but, generally speaking,
+it may be described as picturesque, and even sometimes romantic; the
+appearance of towers, prominent transepts, and many smaller decorative
+features serves to render the exteriors telling and varied, though
+often somewhat rude and primitive. A solid and somewhat heavy
+character distinguishes the interiors of some varieties of Romanesque
+buildings--such, for example, as our own Early Norman; but in our
+fully-developed and late Norman, and still more in the latest German
+Romanesque churches, this disappears almost entirely, and much beauty
+and even lightness of effect is obtained, without any loss of that
+richness which is characteristic of more ancient examples.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 184.--BYZANTINE BASKET-WORK CAPITAL FROM SAN
+ MICHELE IN AFFRICISCO AT RAVENNA.]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 185.--ARABIAN CAPITAL. FROM THE ALHAMBRA.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+Few revolutions more sudden, more signal, and more widespread are
+recorded in history than that which covered not only the East but part
+of the West with the Mohammedan religion and dominion. Mohammed was
+born either in the year 569 or 570 of the Christian era, and died A.D.
+652. The year of the Hegira, the era from which Mohammedans compute
+their chronology, is A.D. 622, and within little more than a century
+from this era the Prophet was acknowledged, and the suzerainty of the
+Caliph recognised eastwards, in Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and
+Persia, and in India as far as to the Ganges; and westwards along the
+north coast of Africa, in Sicily, and in Spain. It was only to be
+expected that such a wonderful tide of conquest and such a widespread
+change of religion should before long leave its impress on the
+architecture of the continents thus revolutionised; and accordingly a
+Mohammedan style soon rose. This style did not displace or override
+the indigenous art of the various countries where it prevailed, as
+Roman architecture did in the age of universal dominion under the
+Empire; it assimilated the peculiarities of each country, and so
+transmuted them, that although wherever the religion of Mohammed
+prevails the architecture will at a glance confess the fact, still the
+local or national peculiarities of each country remain prominent.
+
+The Arabs, a nomadic race who lived in tents, do not seem to have been
+great builders even in their cities. We have no authentic accounts or
+existing remains of very early buildings even in Mecca or Medina, as
+the oldest mosques in those cities have been completely rebuilt. It is
+to Egypt and Syria that we must turn for the most ancient remaining
+examples of Saracenic architecture. These consist of mosques and
+tombs.
+
+
+_Egypt._
+
+A mosque--or Mohammedan place of worship--has two forms. The earlier
+mosques are all of them of a type the arrangement of which is
+simplicity itself. A large open courtyard, resembling the garth of a
+cloister, with a fountain in it, is surrounded cloister-wise by
+arcades supporting timber roofs. On the side nearest Mecca the arcades
+are increased to several rows in depth, so as to cover a considerable
+space. This is the part in which the congregation chiefly assembles;
+here a niche or recess (termed Kibla), more or less enriched, is
+formed in which the Koran is to be kept, and hard by a pulpit is
+erected. For many centuries past, though not, it is believed, from the
+very earliest times, a minaret or high tower, from the top of which
+the call to prayer is given, has also been an indispensable adjunct to
+a mosque.
+
+The second sort of mosque is a domed, and sometimes vaulted building
+of a form chiefly suggested by the Byzantine domed churches, with a
+central space and four short arms. This sort of mosque became almost
+universal in Turkey and Egypt after the capture of Constantinople by
+the Turks, and the appropriation to Moslem worship of Santa Sophia
+itself. The tombs are ornate and monumental buildings, or sanctuaries,
+of the same general character as the domed mosques, and often attached
+to them.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 186.--HORSE-SHOE ARCH.]
+
+From very early times the arches, in the arcades which have been
+described as virtually constituting the whole structure of the simpler
+sort of mosque, were pointed. Lubke claims as the earliest known and
+dated example of the pointed arch in a Saracenic building, the
+Nilometer, a small structure on an island near Cairo, which contains
+pointed arches that must have been built either at the date of its
+original construction in A.D. 719, or at latest, when it was restored
+A.D. 821. The Mosque of Amrou, however, which was founded very soon
+after the conquest of Egypt in A.D. 643, and is largely made up of
+materials obtained from older buildings, exhibits pointed arches, not
+only in the arcades, which probably have been rebuilt since they were
+originally formed, but in the outer walls, which are likely, in part
+at least, to be original.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 187.--EXTERIOR OF SANTA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE.
+ SHOWING THE MINARETS ADDED AFTER ITS CONVERSION INTO A MOSQUE.]
+
+Whatever uncertainty may rest upon these very remote specimens of
+pointed architecture, there is little if any about the Mosque of Ibn
+Tulun, also at Cairo, and built A.D. 885, or, according to another
+authority, A.D. 879. Here arcades of bold pointed arches spring from
+piers, and the effect of the whole structure is noble and full of
+character. From that time the pointed arch was constantly used in
+Saracenic buildings along with the semicircular and the horse-shoe
+arch (Fig. 186).
+
+From the ninth century, then, the pointed arch was in constant use. It
+prevailed in Palestine as well as in the adjacent countries for two
+centuries before it reached the West, and there can be no doubt that
+it was there seen by the Western Crusaders, and a knowledge of its use
+and an appreciation of its beauty and convenience were brought back to
+Western Europe by the returning ecclesiastics and others at the end of
+the First Crusade.[37]
+
+In the eleventh century the splendid Tombs of the Caliphs at Cairo
+were erected,--buildings crowned with domes of a graceful pointed
+form, and remarkable for the external decoration which usually covers
+the whole surface of those domes. By this time also, if not earlier,
+the minaret had become universal. This is a lofty tower of slender
+proportions, passing from a square base below to a circular form above
+(Fig. 187). A minaret is often divided into several stages. Each stage
+is then marked by a balcony, and is, generally speaking, a polygon
+of a greater number of sides than the stage below it.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 188.--ALHAMBRA. HALL OF THE ABENCERRAGES.]
+
+In the interiors of Saracenic buildings what is generally known as
+honeycomb corbelling is constantly employed to fill up corners and
+effect a change of plan from a square below to a circle or octagon
+above. This ornament is formed by the use of a series of small
+brackets, each course of them overhanging those below, and produces an
+effect some idea of which may be gathered from our illustration (Fig.
+188) of the Hall of the Abencerrages in the Alhambra. The interiors
+when not domed are often covered by wooden or plaster ceilings, more
+or less richly decorated, such as are shown in the view of one of the
+arcades of the Mosque "El Moyed," Cairo (Fig. 189), where the
+horse-shoe and pointed arches can both be seen. This illustration also
+shows timber ties, at the feet of the arches, such as were commonly
+used by the earlier Saracenic builders.
+
+The surfaces of the interiors of most Mohammedan buildings in all
+countries are covered with the most exquisite decorations in colour.
+Imitations of natural objects being forbidden by the Koran (a
+prohibition occasionally, but very rarely, infringed), the Saracenic
+artists, whose instincts as decorators seem to have been unrivalled,
+fell back upon geometrical and flowing patterns and inscriptions, and
+upon the use of tiles (Fig. 190), mosaics, inlays, patterns impressed
+on plaster, and every possible device for harmoniously enriching the
+surfaces with which they had to deal. Several of our illustrations
+give indications of the presence of these unrivalled decorations in
+the buildings which they represent (Fig. 195). Windows are commonly
+filled by tracery executed in stone or in plaster, and glazed with
+stained glass, and many of the open spaces in buildings are occupied
+by grilles, executed in wood, and most effective and rich in design.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 189.--MOSQUE 'EL MOYED' AT CAIRO.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 190.--ARABIAN WALL DECORATION.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 191.--PLAN OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM.]
+
+
+_Syria and Palestine._
+
+Syria was one of the countries earliest overrun by the Arab
+propaganda, and Jerusalem was taken by the Caliph Omar as early as
+A.D. 637. He there built a small mosque, though not the one which
+commonly goes by his name. Two mosques of great antiquity and
+importance, but the origin of which is a matter of dispute among
+authorities, stand in the Haram enclosure at Jerusalem. One of these
+is the octagonal building called the Sakhra (Figs. 191-2), known in
+the Moslem world as the Dome of the Rock, popularly called the Mosque
+of Omar, and occupying, as is all but universally admitted, part of
+the site of the Temple itself. Whether this is a "nearly unaltered
+Christian building of the fourth century," or a construction of
+Abd-el-Malek, the second Caliph, erected in the year 688, has been
+debated keenly; but what is beyond debate is that this structure is
+very Byzantine, or, to speak with more exactness, very like some of
+the buildings of Justinian in plan and section, and that from early
+times it was in the possession of the Saracens, and was regarded by
+them as the next most venerable and sacred spot in the world after
+Mecca. Much the same difference of opinion prevails as to the origin
+of the neighbouring mosque, El Aksah, which bears an undoubted general
+resemblance to an ancient basilica, though having no fewer than
+seven parallel avenues. This building has with equal confidence been
+attributed to the fourth and the seventh century. It is fortunately
+quite unnecessary here to do more than point out that these mosques,
+whatever their origin, were in use at least as early as the eighth
+century, and that the beautiful Dome of the Rock must have exercised a
+great influence on Mohammedan art, and, notwithstanding some
+differences of plan, may be fairly regarded as the prototype of many
+of the domed mosques and tombs to which allusion has been made. The
+decorations shown in our illustration of the Sakhra are, it is right
+to observe, most of them of a date centuries later than the time of
+the original construction of the building.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 192.--SECTION OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM.]
+
+
+_Sicily and Spain._
+
+The spread of Mohammedan architecture westward next claims our notice;
+but want of space will only permit us to mention a small though
+interesting group of Saracenic buildings which still remains in
+Sicily; the numerous specimens of the style which exist on the north
+coast of Africa; and the works erected by the Saracens during their
+long rule in Spain. The most celebrated Spanish example is the
+fortress and palace of the Alhambra, begun in 1248, and finished in
+1314. This building (Fig. 188) has been measured, drawn, and fully
+illustrated in an elaborate monograph by our countryman Owen Jones,
+and has become popularly known by the beautiful reproduction of
+portions of it which he executed at the Crystal Palace, and of which
+he wrote an admirable description in his 'Guide-book to the Alhambra
+Court.' The Mohammedan architecture of Spain is here to be seen at
+its best; most of its features are those of Arab art, but with a
+distinguishing character (Fig. 193).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 193.--DOORWAY IN THE ALHAMBRA.]
+
+Two other well-known examples are, the Giralda[38] at Seville, and
+the Mosque at Cordova. The Giralda is a square tower, in fact a
+minaret on a magnificent scale, divided into panels and richly
+decorated, and shows a masculine though beautiful treatment wholly
+different from that of the minarets in Cairo. The well-known Mosque at
+Cordova is of the simplest sort of plan, but of very great extent, and
+contains no less than nineteen parallel avenues separated from one
+another by arcades at two heights springing from 850 columns. The
+Kibla in this mosque is a picturesque domed structure higher than the
+rest of the building. The columns employed throughout are antique ones
+from other buildings, but the whole effect of the structure, which
+abounds with curiously cusped arches and coloured decoration, is
+described as most picturesque and fantastic.
+
+
+_Persia and India._
+
+Turning eastwards, we find in Turkey, as has been said, a close
+adherence to the forms of Byzantine architecture. In Persia, where the
+people are now fire-worshippers, the Mohammedan buildings are mostly
+ruined, and probably many have disappeared, but enough remains to show
+that mosques and palaces of great grandeur were built. Lofty doorways
+are a somewhat distinctive feature of Persian buildings of this style;
+and the use of coloured tiles of singular beauty for linings to the
+walls, in the heads of these great portals, and in other situations to
+which such decoration is appropriate, is very common: these
+decorations afford opportunity for the Persian instinct for colour,
+probably the truest in the whole world, to make itself seen.
+
+In India the wealth of material is such that an almost unlimited
+series of fine buildings could be brought forward, were space and
+illustrations available. A large part of that vast country became
+Mohammedan, and in the buildings erected for mosques and tombs a
+complete blending of the decorative forms in use among Hindu and Jaina
+sculptors with the main lines of Mohammedan art is generally to be
+found. The great open quadrangle, the pointed arch, the dome, the
+minaret, all appear, but they are all made out of Indian materials.
+Perhaps not the least noteworthy feature of mosques and tombs in India
+is the introduction of perforated slabs of marble in the place of the
+bar-tracery which filled the heads of openings in Cairo or Damascus.
+These are works of the greatest and most refined beauty: sometimes
+panels of thin marble, each pierced with a different pattern, are
+fitted into a framework prepared for their reception; at others we
+meet with window-heads where upon a background of twining stems and
+leaves there grow up palms or banian-trees, their lithe branches and
+leaves wreathed into lines of admirable grace, and every part standing
+out, owing to the fine piercings of the marble, as distinctly as a
+tree of Jesse on a painted window in a Gothic cathedral.
+
+The dome at Bijapur, a tomb larger than the Pantheon at Rome, and the
+Kutub at Delhi, a tower not unfit to be compared with Giotto's
+campanile at Florence, are conspicuous among this series of monuments,
+and at Delhi one of the grandest mosques in India (Fig. 194) is also
+to be found. The series of mosques and tombs at Ahmedabad, however,
+form the most beautiful group of buildings in India, and are the only
+ones of which a complete series of illustrations has been published.
+These mosques are remarkable for the great skill with which they are
+roofed and lighted. This is done by means of a series of domes raised
+on columns sufficiently above the general level of the stone ceilings,
+which cover the intervening spaces, to admit light under the line of
+their springing. The beauty of the marble tracery and surface
+decoration is very great. Pointed arches occur here almost invariably,
+and in most cases the outline of the opening is very slightly turned
+upwards at the apex so as to give a slight increase of emphasis to the
+summit of the arch. The buildings are not as a rule lofty; and though
+plain walls and piers occur and contrast well with the arched
+features, pains have been taken to avoid anything like massive or
+heavy construction. Great extent, skilful distribution, extreme
+lightness, and admirably combined groupings of the features and
+masses, are among the fine qualities which lend to Mohammedan
+architecture in Ahmedabad a rare charm.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 194.--GRAND MOSQUE AT DELHI, BUILT BY SHAH JEHAN.]
+
+The religion and the art of Islam seem destined to live and die
+together. Nothing (with the one exception of the suggestion of the
+pointed arch to Western Europe at the very moment when Romanesque art
+was ripe for a change) has developed itself or appears likely to grow
+out of Mohammedan architecture in any part of the wide field to which
+the attention of the reader has been directed; and in this respect the
+art of the Mohammedan is as exclusive, as intolerant, and as infertile
+as his religion. The interest which it must possess in the eyes of a
+Western student will rise less from its own charms than from the fact
+that it first employed the pointed arch--that feature from which
+sprang the glorious series of Western Christian styles to which we
+give the name of Gothic. This arch, indeed, appears to have been
+discovered by the very beginners of Mohammedan architecture, at a time
+when the style was still plastic and in course of growth, and the
+beauty of Saracenic art is due to no small extent to the use of it;
+but in the employment of this feature the Western architect advanced
+much further than the Saracen even at his best could go. The pointed
+architecture of the Middle Ages, with its daring construction, its
+comprehensive design, its elaborate mouldings, and its magnificent
+sculptures, is far more highly developed and more beautiful than that
+of the countries which we have been describing, though in its
+treatment of the walls it cannot surpass, and indeed did not often
+equal, the unrivalled decoration of plane surfaces which forms the
+chief glory of Mohammedan art.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 195.--ENTRANCE TO A MOORISH BAZAAR.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[37] The First Crusade lasted from A.D. 1095 to A.D. 1099.
+
+[38] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,' p. 141.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+ Abbaye aux Dames, Caen, 231
+ " Hommes, Caen, 230
+
+ Abbey, Westminster, 204
+
+ Agora, 114
+
+ Alhambra, 258, 263
+
+ Amphitheatre at Arles, 161
+ " Nîmes, 161
+ " Pola, 161
+ " Rome (Coloss.), 158
+ " Sutri, 148
+ " Verona, 161
+
+ Anthemios of Thralles, _Architect_, 211
+
+ Appian Way, 145
+
+ Apollodorus of Damascus, _Architect_, 155
+
+ Aqueduct at Nîmes (Pont du Gard), 171
+ " from Præneste to Rome, 145
+ " at Rome (Aqua Claudia), 171
+ " " (Anio Novus), 171
+ " at Segovia, 171
+ " at Tarragona, 171
+
+ Arch at Autun (Porte d'Arroux), 172
+ " Jerusalem (Golden Gate), 220
+ " Rome (of Constantine), 172
+ " " (of the Goldsmiths), 173
+ " " (of Sept. Severus), 172
+ " " (of Titus), 172
+ " Trèves (Porta Nigra), 172
+
+ Asoka, 65
+
+
+ Baalbek, ruins at, 149
+
+ Basilica at Rome (Constantiniana), 155
+ " " (Emilia), 154
+ " " (Julia), 155
+ " " (Portia), 154
+ " " (Sempronia), 155
+ " " (Ulpia), 155
+ " Trèves, 155
+
+ Basilica-church at Florence (S. Miniato), 209
+ " " Ravenna (S. Apollinare in Classe), 206, 209
+ " " Rome (S. Agnese), 201
+ " " Rome (S. Clemente), 199
+ " " Rome (S. Paul without the walls), 205
+ " " Rome (S. Pietro), 201
+
+ Baths of Agrippa, 162
+ " Caracalla, 162
+ " Diocletian, 164, 191
+
+ Bharhut, 71
+
+ Birs-i-Nimrud, 45
+
+ Bridge over the Danube (Trajan's), 170
+ " Tagus (Hadrian's), 170
+ " Tiber (Pons Sublicius), 170
+
+
+ Campo Santo, Pisa, 209
+
+ Castle of S. Angelo, 174
+
+ Cathedral at Canterbury, 233
+ " Durham, 234
+ " Exeter, 234
+ " Monreale, 249
+ " Peterborough, 234, 235
+ " Piacenza, 224
+ " Pisa, 209
+ " Rochester, 234
+ " Rome (S. Peter's), 205
+ " Venice (S. Mark's), 217
+ " Winchester, 234
+
+ Chaitya, 67
+
+ Chapel in Tower of London, 232, 233
+
+ Chehil Minar, 56
+
+ Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, 112
+
+ Church at Aix-la-Chapelle, 225
+ " Caen (Abb. aux Hommes), 230
+ " " (Abb. aux Dames), 231
+ " Constantinople (S. Sophia), 211
+ " Earl's Barton, 224
+ " Milan (S. Ambrogio), 224
+ " Northampton (S. Peter's), 234
+ " Paris (Madeleine), 185
+ " Périgueux (S. Front), 218
+ " Ravenna (S. Vitale), 208, 215
+ " Rome (S. Maria degli Angeli), 164
+ " " (S. Maria ad Martyres), 166
+ " Rome (S. Stefano Rot.), 208
+ " Toulouse (S. Sernin), 227
+ " Turmanin, Syria, 221
+ " Verona (S. Zenone), 224
+
+ Circus Maximus, Rome, 143, 161
+
+ Cloaca Maxima, Rome, 141
+
+ Cnidus, Lion tomb at, 110
+
+ Colosseum, 158
+
+ Column of Marcus Aurelius, 173
+ " Trajan, 173
+
+
+ Decoration of Egyptian buildings, 37
+
+
+ Erechtheium, 107
+
+
+ Forum of Nerva, 191
+
+
+ Gate, Golden, at Jerusalem, 220
+
+ Gate at Perugia, 141
+
+ Giralda, 265
+
+
+ Hall, S. George's, Liverpool, 185
+
+
+ Ictinus, _Architect_, 88
+
+ Isidoros of Miletus, _Architect_, 211
+
+
+ Keep at Colchester, 237
+ " Hedingham Castle, 239
+ " Rochester Castle, 238
+ " Tower of London, 237, 239
+
+ Kutub, 266
+
+
+ Lâts, 65
+
+ Lotus Column, 32
+
+ Lysicrates, Choragic Monument of, 112
+
+
+ Maison Carrée, Nîmes, 149
+
+ Mammisi, 25
+
+ Manephthah, 24
+
+ Manetho, 15
+
+ Mastaba, 20
+
+ Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, 110
+
+ Mosque at Ahmedabad, 266
+ " Cairo (of Amrou), 254
+ " " ("El Moyed"), 258
+ " " (of Ibn Tulun), 256
+ " Cordova, 265
+ " Delhi, 266
+ " Jerusalem (El Aksah), 261
+ " " (Sakhra), 261
+ " (the Nilometer), 254
+
+ Mugheyr, buildings at, 44
+
+ Mycenæ, Treasury of Atreus, 85
+ " Gate of the Lions, 86
+
+
+ Obelisks, 36
+
+
+ Pagoda at Nankin, 76
+
+ Palace at Khorsabad, 46
+ " Rome (of the Cæsars), 174
+ " Spalatro (of Diocletian), 174, 192
+
+ Pantheon, 164
+
+ Parthenon, 88-91, 99-101
+
+ Persepolis, buildings at, 55
+
+ Persian columns, 57
+
+ Pheidias, _Sculptor_, 91
+
+ Pont du Gard, Nîmes, 171
+
+ Porta Nigra, Trèves, 172
+
+ Pylon, 25
+
+ Pyramid of Cephren, 16
+ " Cheops, 16
+ " Mycerinus, 16
+
+
+ Ram Raz, 72
+
+ Rome, Cloacæ at, 141
+
+
+ Scopas, _Sculptor and Architect_, 109, 112
+
+ Silchester, ruins at, 143
+
+ Sutri, ruins of an amphitheatre, 143
+
+
+ Temple at Athens (Erechtheium), 107
+ " " (Parthenon), 88-91, 99-101
+ " " (of Jupiter Olym.), 149
+ " Baalbek, 149
+ " Corinth, 81, 87
+ " Ephesus (of Diana), 109
+ " Honan, 75
+ " Ipsamboul, 31
+ " Karli (Chaitya), 67
+ " Karnak, 26
+ " Lomas Rishi cave, 67
+ " Nigope cave (Chaitya), 67
+ " Nîmes (Maison Carrée), 149
+ " Orange (ruins), 157
+ " Pæstum, 92
+ " Rome (of Jupiter Capitolinus), 142
+ " " (of Q. Metellus Macedonicus), 145
+ " " (of Antoninus and Faustina), 147
+ " " (of Fortuna Vir.), 147
+ " " (of Vesta), 153
+ " " (Pantheon), 164
+ " Sanchi (Tope), 67
+ " Tegea (of Athena Alea), 112
+ " Tivoli (of Vesta), 153
+
+ Temples, Egyptian, 25
+ " Shinto, 77
+
+ Theatre of Balbus, 156
+ " " Marcellus, 156
+ " " Mummius, 156
+ " at Orange, 157
+ " of Pompey, 156
+
+ Thermæ, _see_ Baths
+
+ Tomb at Ahmedabad, 266
+ " " Bab-el-Molouk (Belzoni's), 24
+ " " Bijapur, 266
+ " " Castel d'Asso, 139
+ " of Cecilia Metella, 173
+ " " Cyrus, 54
+ " " Darius, 59
+ " " Hadrian, 174
+ " " Regulini Galeassi, 141
+
+ Tombs, Egyptian, 20
+ " Lycian, 85
+ " Cnidus (Lion), 110
+
+ Tope at Sanchi, 67
+
+ Tower at Delhi (Kutub), 266
+ " Seville (Giralda), 265
+
+ Treasury of Atreus, 85
+
+ Typhonia, 25
+
+
+ Usertesen I., 29
+
+
+ Wall of China, Great, 76
+
+ Way, Appian, 145
+
+ Westminster Abbey, 204
+
+ Wurkha, ruins at, 46
+
+
+ LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
+ STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS
+
+OF
+
+ART HISTORY OF ALL AGES
+
+Each Volume contains numerous Illustrations, and is strongly bound for
+the use of Students. Price 5_s._
+
+_NOW READY._
+
+BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH AND JOHN SLATER, B.A.
+
+ ARCHITECTURE: CLASSIC and EARLY CHRISTIAN. Comprising
+ the Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine and
+ Early Christian. Illustrated with upwards of 200
+ Engravings, including the Parthenon, the Erechtheium,
+ the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, the Colosseum, the Baths
+ of Diocletian, &c.
+
+BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH AND EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.
+
+ ARCHITECTURE: GOTHIC and RENAISSANCE. Showing the
+ progress of Gothic Architecture in England, France,
+ Germany, Italy, and Spain, and of Renaissance
+ Architecture in the same Countries. Illustrated with
+ more than 100 Engravings, including many of the
+ principal Cathedrals, Churches, Palaces, and Domestic
+ Buildings in England, and on the Continent.
+
+BY GEORGE REDFORD, F.R.C.S.
+
+ SCULPTURE: EGYPTIAN, ASSYRIAN, GREEK and ROMAN. With 160
+ Illustrations, including Examples of the Works of the
+ most celebrated Greek Sculptors, a Map of Ancient
+ Greece, and a Chronological List of Ancient Sculptors
+ and their Works.
+
+BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A., AND PERCY R. HEAD, B.A.
+
+ PAINTING: CLASSIC and ITALIAN. Including Painting in
+ Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Pompeii; the Renaissance in
+ Italy; Schools of Florence, Siena, Rome, Padua, Venice,
+ Perugia, Ferrara, Parma, Naples and Bologna. Illustrated
+ with 80 Engravings of many of the finest Pictures of
+ Italy.
+
+BY H. J. WILMOT-BUXTON, M.A., AND EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.
+
+ PAINTING: GERMAN, FLEMISH and DUTCH. Including an
+ Account of the Works of Albrecht Dürer, Cranach, and
+ Holbein; Van Eyck, Van der Weyden, and Memling; Rubens,
+ Snyders, and Van Dyck; Rembrandt, Hals, and Jan Steen;
+ Wynants, Ruisdael, and Hobbema; Cuyp, Potter, and
+ Berchem; Bakhuisen, Van de Velde, Van Huysum, and many
+ other celebrated painters.
+
+BY H. J. WILMOT-BUXTON, M.A.
+
+ PAINTING: ENGLISH and AMERICAN. Including an account of
+ the Earliest Paintings known in England; the works of
+ Holbein, Antonio Moro, Lucas de Heere, Zuccaro, and Marc
+ Garrard; the Hilliards and Olivers; Van Dyck, Lely, and
+ Kneller; Hogarth, Reynolds, and Gainsborough; West,
+ Romney, and Lawrence; Constable, Turner, and Wilkie;
+ Maclise, Mulready, and Landseer, and many other
+ celebrated painters.
+ _Nearly ready._
+
+BY GERARD SMITH, EXETER COLL. OXFORD.
+
+ PAINTING: SPANISH and FRENCH. Including the Works of
+ Ribera, Zurbaran, Velazquez, and Murillo; Poussin,
+ Claude Lorrain, Le Sueur, Watteau, Chardin, Greuze,
+ David, and Prud'hon; Ingres, Vernet, Delaroche, and
+ Delacroix; Corot, Diaz, and Millet; Courbet, Regnault,
+ Troyon, and many other celebrated artists.
+ _In preparation._
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Archaic spelling has been preserved as printed, for example, Egean
+instead of Ægean.
+
+Minor punctuation errors have been repaired.
+
+The following amendments have been made:
+
+ Page 67, footnote--X. amended to XI.--"See Chap. XI. for
+ an illustration of a Christian Basilica."
+
+ Page 101--Theseium amended to Theseum--"Temple of Theseus
+ (Theseum), at Athens, 465 B.C."
+
+ Page 211--Isodoros amended to Isidoros--"... Anthemius of
+ Thralles, and Isidoros of Miletus, ..."
+
+ Page 270--114 amended to 116--"Agora, 116"
+
+ Page 270--148 amended to 143--"Amphitheatre at Sutri, 143"
+
+ Page 270--205 amended to 206--"Basilica-church at Rome
+ (S. Paul without the walls), 206"
+
+Discrepancies between items in the List of Illustrations and actual
+captions have been preserved as printed.
+
+Figure 115--Guilloche is missing from the List of Illustrations in the
+original text. This omission has been preserved in this e-text.
+
+Figures 116 and 117 were out of sequence on page 136 (with Figures
+105-110). They have been moved to their proper place in the sequence
+of Figures. Other illustrations have been moved where necessary so
+that they are not in the middle of a paragraph.
+
+The advertising material has been moved to the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith and John Slater
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