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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Architecture + Classic and Early Christian + +Author: Thomas Roger Smith + John Slater + +Release Date: August 22, 2009 [EBook #29759] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Sam W. and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + +<p class="center lrgfont"><i>ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS OF ART HISTORY<br /> +OF ALL AGES</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/acec001.png" width="100" height="15" +alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center xlrgfont">ARCHITECTURE<br /> +CLASSIC AND EARLY CHRISTIAN</p> + +<p class="center lrgfont">BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.</p> + +<p class="center"><small>AND</small></p> + +<p class="center lrgfont">JOHN SLATER, B.A., F.R.I.B.A.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/acec001.png" width="100" height="15" +alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a> +<img src="images/acec002.jpg" width="700" height="419" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS, AS IT WAS IN THE TIME OF PERICLES, <i>circa</i> B.C. 438.</p> + + + + +<p class="center lrgfont padtop"><i>ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS OF ART HISTORY</i></p> + +<h1 class="padtop"><span class="lrgfont">ARCHITECTURE</span><br /> +CLASSIC AND EARLY CHRISTIAN</h1> + +<h2 class="padtop">BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.</h2> + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: -1em;"><i>Professor of Architecture, University Coll. London</i></p> + +<p class="center smlfont">AND</p> + +<h2>JOHN SLATER, B.A., F.R.I.B.A.</h2> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="atrium" id="atrium"></a> +<img src="images/acec003.jpg" width="400" height="282" +alt="Halls surrounding a central open courtyard" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">ATRIUM OF A ROMAN MANSION.</p> + + +<p class="center padtop">LONDON<br /> +SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON<br /> +CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET<br /> +1882.</p> + + + +<p class="center padtop">[<i>All rights reserved.</i>]</p> + +<p class="center padtop">LONDON. PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,<br /> +STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> + +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p><span class="smcap">This</span> handbook is intended to give such an outline of the +Architecture of the Ancient World, and of that of Christendom +down to the period of the Crusades, as, without +attempting to supply the minute information required +by the professional student, may give a general idea of +the works of the great building nations of Antiquity +and the Early Christian times. Its chief object has been +to place information on the subject within the reach of +those persons of literary or artistic education who desire +to become in some degree acquainted with Architecture. +All technicalities which could be dispensed with have +been accordingly excluded; and when it has been unavoidable +that a technical word or phrase should occur, +an explanation has been added either in the text or in +the glossary; but as this volume and the companion one +on Gothic and Renaissance Architecture are, in effect, +two divisions of the same work, it has not been thought +necessary to repeat in the glossary given with this part +the words explained in that prefixed to the other.</p> + +<p>In treating so very wide a field, it has been felt that +the chief prominence should be given to that great +sequence of architectural styles which form the links +of a chain connecting the architecture of modern Europe +with the earliest specimens of the art. Egypt, Assyria, +and Persia combined to furnish the foundation upon +which the splendid architecture of the Greeks was based. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span> +Roman architecture was founded on Greek models with the +addition of Etruscan construction, and was for a time +universally prevalent. The break-up of the Roman +Empire was followed by the appearance of the Basilican, +the Byzantine, and the Romanesque phases of Christian +art; and, later on, by the Saracenic. These are the styles +on which all mediæval and modern European architecture +has been based, and these accordingly have furnished the +subjects to which the reader’s attention is chiefly directed. +Such styles as those of India, China and Japan, which lie +quite outside this series, are noticed much more briefly; and +some matters—such, for example, as prehistoric architecture—which +in a larger treatise it would have been desirable +to include, have been entirely left out for want of room.</p> + +<p>In treating each style the object has not been to mention +every phase of its development, still less every building, +but rather to describe the more prominent buildings +with some approach to completeness. It is true that +much is left unnoticed, for which the student who wishes +to pursue the subject further will have to refer to the +writings specially devoted to the period or country. But +it has been possible to describe a considerable number of +typical examples, and to do so in such a manner as, it is +hoped, may make some impression on the reader’s mind. +Had notices of a much greater number of buildings been +compressed into the same space, each must have been so +condensed that the volume, though useful as a catalogue +for reference, would have, in all probability, become +uninteresting, and consequently unserviceable to the class +of readers for whom it is intended.</p> + +<p>As far as possible mere matters of opinion have been +excluded from this handbook. A few of the topics which +it has been necessary to approach are subjects on which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span> +high authorities still more or less disagree, and it has +been impossible to avoid these in every instance; but, +as far as practicable, controverted points have been left +untouched. Controversy is unsuited to the province of +such a manual as this, in which it is quite sufficient for +the authors to deal with the ascertained facts of the +history which they have to unfold.</p> + +<p>It is not proposed here to refer to the authorities for +the various statements made in these pages, but to this +rule it is impossible to avoid making one exception. +The writers feel bound to acknowledge how much +they, in common with all students of the art, are indebted +to the patient research, the profound learning, +and the admirable skill in marshalling facts displayed +by Mr. Fergusson in his various writings. Had it been +possible to devote a larger space to Eastern architecture, +Pagan and Mohammedan, the indebtedness to him, in a +field where he stands all but alone, must of necessity +have been still greater.</p> + +<p>The earlier chapters of this volume were chiefly written +by Mr. Slater, who very kindly consented to assist in the +preparation of it; but I am of course, as editor, jointly +responsible with him for the contents. The <a href="#Page_1">Introduction</a>, +Chapters <a href="#Page_80">V.</a> to <a href="#Page_117">VII.</a>, and from Chapter <a href="#Page_182">X.</a> to the end, have +been written by myself: and if our work shall in any +degree assist the reader to understand, and stimulate him +to admire, the architecture of the far-off past; above all, +if it enables him to appreciate our vast indebtedness to +Greek art, and in a lesser degree to the art of other nations +who have occupied the stage of the world, the aim which +the writers have kept in view will not have been missed.</p> + +<p class="sig smcap">T. Roger Smith.</p> + +<p class="address"><i>University College, London.</i><br /> +<i>May, 1882.</i></p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="frieze" id="frieze"></a> +<img src="images/acec004.jpg" width="500" height="188" +alt="Interwoven stems ending in decorative leaves" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Frieze from Church at Denkendorf.</p> + + + +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="Table of contents"> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER I.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrb" colspan="2"><small>PAGE</small></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">INTRODUCTION.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER II.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Pyramids. Tombs. Temples. Analysis of Buildings.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER III.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Babylonian. Assyrian. Persian. Analysis of Buildings.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Hindu. Chinese and Japanese.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER V.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">GREEK ARCHITECTURE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Buildings of the Doric Order.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span>CHAPTER VII.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Analysis of Greek Architecture. The Plan. The Walls. The Roof. The Openings. The Columns. The Ornaments. Architectural Character.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Historical and General Sketch.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">The Buildings of the Romans. Basilicas. Theatres and Amphitheatres. Baths (Thermæ). Bridges and Aqueducts. Commemorative Monuments. Domestic Architecture.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER X.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Analysis of Roman Architecture. The Plan. The Walls. The Roofs. The Openings. The Columns. The Ornaments. Architectural Character.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XI.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Basilicas in Rome and Italy.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XII.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIII.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIV.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Analysis of Basilican, Byzantine, and Romanesque.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XV.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Egypt, Syria and Palestine, Sicily and Spain, Persia and India.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></p> + +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="List of illustrations"> + <tr> + <td class="tdrb" colspan="3"><small>PAGE</small></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Parthenon at Athens, as it was in the time of Pericles</span>, <i>circa</i> <small>B.C.</small> 438.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc" colspan="2">Atrium of a Roman Mansion.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#atrium">(<i>on title‑page</i>)</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc" colspan="2">Frieze from Church at Denkendorf.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#frieze">x</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc" colspan="2">Rock-cut Tomb at Myra, in Lycia. Imitation of Timber Construction in Stone.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#tomb">xviii</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc" colspan="2">The Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#temple">xxiv</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">1.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Opening spanned by a Lintel. Arch of the Goldsmiths, Rome.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig001">3</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">2.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Opening spanned by a Semicircular Arch. Roman Triumphal Arch at Pola.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig002">4</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">3.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Openings spanned by Pointed Arches. Interior of St. Front, Périgueux, France.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig003">5</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">4.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Restored according to Adler.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig004">8</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">5.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Part of the Exterior of the Colosseum, Rome.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig005">10</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">6.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Timber Architecture. Church at Borgund.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig006">12</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">7.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">An Egyptian Cornice.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig007">14</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">8.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Section across the Great Pyramid (of Cheops or Suphis).</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig008">17</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">9.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Ascending Gallery in the Great Pyramid.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig009">19</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">10.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Sepulchral Chamber in the Pyramid of Cephren at Gizeh.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig010">19</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">11.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Construction of the King’s Chamber in the Great Pyramid.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig011">19</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">12.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Imitation of Timber Construction in Stone, from a Tomb at Memphis.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig012">21</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">13.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Imitation of Timber Construction in Stone, from a Tomb at Memphis.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig013">21</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">14.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan and Section of the Tomb at Beni-Hassan.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig014">23</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">15.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Rock-cut Façade of the Tomb at Beni-Hassan.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig015">24</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">16.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Ground-plan of the Temple at Karnak.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig016">26</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">17.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, showing the Clerestory.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig017">27</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">18.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Entrance to an Egyptian Temple, showing the Pylons.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig018">27</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span>19.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Temple at Edfou.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig019">30</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">20.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Example of one of the Mammisi at Edfou.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig020">30</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">21.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Ground-plan of the Rock-cut Temple at Ipsamboul.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig021">31</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">22.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Section of the Rock-cut Temple at Ipsamboul.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig022">31</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">23.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Egyptian Column with Lotus Bud Capital.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig023">33</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">24.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Egyptian Column with Lotus Flower Capital.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig024">33</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">25.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Palm Capital.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig025">34</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">26.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Sculptured Capital.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig026">34</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">27.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Isis Capital from Denderah.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig027">35</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">28.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Fanciful Column from painted Decoration at Thebes.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig028">35</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">29.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Crowning Cornice and Bead.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig029">36</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">30.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Painted Decoration from Thebes.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig030">42</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">31.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Sculptured Ornament at Nineveh.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig031">43</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">32.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Palace at Khorsabad. Built by King Sargon about 710 <small>B.C.</small></td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig032">48</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">33.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Pavement from Khoyunjik.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig033">51</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">34.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Proto-Ionic Column from Assyrian Sculpture.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig034">53</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">34<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Proto-Ionic Capital from Assyrian Sculpture.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig034a">53</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">34<span class="smcap">b</span>.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Proto-Corinthian Capital from Assyrian Sculpture.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig034b">53</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">35.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Tomb of Cyrus.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig035">54</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">35<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">General Plan of the Buildings at Persepolis.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig035a">56</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">35<span class="smcap">b</span>.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Column from Persepolis—East and West Porticoes.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig035b">58</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">36.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Column from Persepolis—North Portico.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig036">58</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">37.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Rock-cut Tomb of Darius.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig037">60</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">38.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Sculptured Ornament at Allahabad.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig038">64</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">39.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Dagoba from Ceylon.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig039">66</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">40.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Chaitya near Poona.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig040">68</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">41.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Kylas at Ellora. A Rock-cut Monument.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig041">69</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">42.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Kylas at Ellora.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig042">70</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">43.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Vimana from Manasara.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig043">71</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">44.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Bracket Capital.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig044">73</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">45.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Column from Ajunta.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig045">73</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">46.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Column from Ellora.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig046">73</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">47.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Column from Ajunta.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig047">73</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">48.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">A small Pagoda.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig048">76</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">49.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Greek Honeysuckle Ornament.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig049">80</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">50.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of a small Greek Temple in Antis.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig050">82</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">50<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of a small Greek Temple.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig050a">83</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">51.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Ancient Greek Wall of Unwrought Stone from Samothrace.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig051">86</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span>52.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenæ.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig052">86</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">52<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Section of the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenæ.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig052a">86</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">53.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Greek Doric Capital from Selinus.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig053">87</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">53<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Greek Doric Capital from the Theseum.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig053a">87</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">53<span class="smcap">b</span>.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Greek Doric Capital from Samothrace.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig053b">87</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">54.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Ruins of the Parthenon at Athens.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig054">89</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">55.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Parthenon.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig055">90</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">56.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Roof of a Greek Doric Temple, showing the Marble Tiles.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig056">91</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">56<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Section of the Greek Doric Temple at Pæstum. As restored by Bötticher.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig056a">92</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">57.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Greek Doric Order from the Theseum.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig057">93</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">58.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of a Greek Doric Column.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig058">94</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">59.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Fillets under a Greek Doric Capital.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig059">94</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">60.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Capital of a Greek Doric Column from Ægina, with Coloured Decoration.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig060">95</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">61.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Section of the Entablature of the Greek Doric Order.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig061">96</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">62.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan, looking up, of part of a Greek Doric Peristyle.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig062">96</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">63.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Details of the Triglyph.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig063">97</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">64.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Details of the Mutules.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig064">97</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">65.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Elevation and Section of the Capital of a Greek Anta, with Coloured Decoration.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig065">99</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">66.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Palmette and Honeysuckle.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig066">102</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">67.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Shaft of an Ionic Column, showing the Flutes.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig067">103</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">68.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Ionic Capital. Front Elevation.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig068">103</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">69.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Ionic Capital. Side Elevation.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig069">103</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">70.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Ionic Order. From Priene, Asia Minor.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig070">105</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">71.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Ionic Order. From the Erechtheium, Athens.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig071">106</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">72.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">North-west View of the Erechtheium, in the time of Pericles.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig072">107</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">73.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Erechtheium.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig073">108</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">74.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Ionic Base from the Temple of the Wingless Victory (Nikè Apteros).</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig074">108</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">75.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Ionic Base Mouldings from Priene.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig075">108</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">76.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Corinthian Order. From the Monument of Lysicrates at Athens.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig076">111</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">77.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Corinthian Capital from the Monument of Lysicrates.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig077">112</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">78.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Monument of Lysicrates, as in the time of Pericles.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig078">113</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">79.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Capital of an Anta from Miletus. Side View.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig079">114</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">80.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Restoration of the Greek Theatre of Segesta.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig080">115</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span>81.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Capital of an Anta from Miletus.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig081">117</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">82.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Greek Doorway, showing Cornice.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig082">123</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">83.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Greek Doorway. Front View. (From the Erechtheium.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig083">123</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">84.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Acanthus Leaf and Stalk.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig084">128</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">85.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Acanthus Leaf.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig085">129</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">86.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Metope from the Parthenon. Conflict between a Centaur and one of the Lapithæ.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig086">130</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">87.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Mosaic from the Temple of Zeus, Olympia.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig087">131</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">88.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Section of the Portico of the Erechtheium.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig088">132</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">89.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Portico of the Erechtheium, looking up.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig089">132</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">90.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Capital of Antæ from the Erechtheium.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig090">133</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">91‑96.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Greek Ornaments in Relief.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig091">134</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">97‑104.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Greek Ornaments in Relief.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig097">135</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">105‑110.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Greek Ornaments in Colour.</td> + <td class="tdrt"><a href="#fig105">136</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">111‑113.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Examples of Honeysuckle Ornament.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig111">137</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">114.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Combination of the Fret, the Egg and Dart, the Bead and Fillet, and the Honeysuckle.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig114">137</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">116‑120.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Examples of the Fret.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig116">137</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">121.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Elevation of an Etruscan Temple (restored from Descriptions only).</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig121">138</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">122.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Sepulchre at Corneto.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig122">140</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">123.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Cloaca Maxima.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig123">142</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">124.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">“Incantada” in Salonica.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig124">147</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">125.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Ionic Order from the Temple of Fortuna Virilis, Rome.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig125">148</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">126.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Roman-Corinthian Temple at Nîmes (Maison Carrée). Probably of the time of Hadrian.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig126">150</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">127.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Ground-plan of the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig127">151</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">128.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Corinthian Order from the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig128">152</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">129.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Temple of Vesta at Tivoli. Plan, looking up, and Section of Part of the Peristyle.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig129">153</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">130.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Ground-plan of the Basilica Ulpia, Rome.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig130">155</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">131.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Colosseum, Rome.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig131">157</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">132.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Colosseum. Section and Elevation.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig132">158</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">133.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the principal Building, Baths of Caracalla, Rome.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig133">163</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">134.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Interior of Santa Maria degli Angeli, Rome.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig134">165</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">135.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Pantheon, Rome. Ground-plan.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig135">166</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">136.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Pantheon. Exterior.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig136">167</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span>137.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Pantheon. Interior.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig137">168</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">138.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Corinthian Order from the Pantheon.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig138">169</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">139.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Arch of Constantine, Rome.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig139">172</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">140.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Ground-plan of the House of Pansa, Pompeii.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig140">176</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">141.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Ground-plan of the House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig141">177</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">142.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Atrium of a Pompeian House.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig142">178</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">143.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Wall Decoration from Pompeii.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig143">180</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">144.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Carving from the Forum of Nerva, Rome.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig144">182</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">145.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Roman-Corinthian Capital and Base. From the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig145">188</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">145<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">A Roman Composite Capital.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig145a">188</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">146.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Part of the Theatre of Marcellus, Rome. Showing the Combination of Columns and Arched Openings.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig146">190</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">147.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">From the Ruins of the Forum of Nerva, Rome. Showing the Use of an Attic Story.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig147">191</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">148.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">From the Baths of Diocletian, Rome. Showing a fragmentary Entablature at the starting of part of a Vault.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig148">192</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">149.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">From the Palace of Diocletian, Spalatro. Showing an Arch springing from a Column.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig149">192</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">150.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Mouldings and Ornaments from various Roman Buildings.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig150">193</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">151.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Roman Carving. An Acanthus Leaf.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig151">194</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">152.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">The Egg and Dart Enrichment—Roman.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig152">194</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">153.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Wall-Decoration of (so-called) Arabesque Character from Pompeii.</td> + <td class="tdrt"><a href="#fig153">195</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">154.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Decoration in Relief and Colour of the Vault of a Tomb in the Via Latina, near Rome.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig154">197</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">155.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Basilica Church of San Miniato, Florence.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig155">198</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">156.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Interior of a Basilica at Pompeii. Restored, from Descriptions by various Authors.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig156">200</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">156<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Basilica, or Early Christian Church, of Sant’ Agnese at Rome.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig156a">202</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">157.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Sant’ Apollinare, Ravenna. Part of the Arcade and Apse.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig157">205</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">158.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Apse of the Basilica of San Paolo Fuori le Mura, Rome.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig158">207</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">158<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Frieze from the Monastery at Fulda.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig158a">210</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">159.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Church of Santa Sophia at Constantinople. Longitudinal Section.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig159">212</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">160.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of San Vitale at Ravenna.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig160">216</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">161.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">San Vitale at Ravenna. Longitudinal Section.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig161">216</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</a></span>162.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of St. Mark’s at Venice.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig162">217</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">163.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Sculptured Ornament from the Golden Door of Jerusalem.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig163">219</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">164.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Church at Turmanin in Syria.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig164">220</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">165.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Tower of a Russian Church.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig165">221</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">166.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Tower of Earl’s Barton Church.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig166">223</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">167.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Cathedral at Piacenza.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig167">225</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">168.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Vaults of the excavated Roman Baths in the Musée de Cluny, Paris.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig168">227</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">169.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Church of St. Sernin, Toulouse.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig169">228</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">170.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Nave Arcade at St. Sernin, Toulouse.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig170">229</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">171.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Arches in receding Planes at St. Sernin, Toulouse.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig171">230</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">172.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Norman Arches in St. Peter’s Church, Northampton.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig172">234</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">173.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Nave Arcade, Peterborough Cathedral.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig173">236</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">174.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Decorative Arcade from Canterbury Cathedral.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig174">237</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">175.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Hedingham Castle.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig175">238</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">176.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Interior of Hedingham Castle.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig176">239</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">177.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Rounded Arch of Church at Gelnhausen.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig177">240</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">178.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Church of the Apostles at Cologne.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig178">241</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">179.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Spire of Spires Cathedral.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig179">242</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">180.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Church at Rosheim. Upper Portion of Façade.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig180">244</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">181.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Cubic Capital.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig181">246</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">182.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Doorway at Tind, Norway.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig182">247</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">183.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Mouldings of Portal of St. James’s Church at Koesfeld.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig183">248</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">184.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Byzantine Basket work Capital from San Michele in Affricisco at Ravenna.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig184">251</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">185.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Arabian Capital. From the Alhambra.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig185">252</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">186.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Horse-shoe Arch.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig186">254</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">187.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Exterior of Santa Sophia, Constantinople. Showing the Minarets added after its Conversion into a Mosque.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig187">255</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">188.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Alhambra. Hall of the Abencerrages.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig188">257</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">189.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Mosque “El Moyed” at Cairo.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig189">259</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">190.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Arabian Wall Decoration.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig190">260</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">191.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Plan of the Sakhra Mosque at Jerusalem.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig191">261</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">192.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Section of the Sakhra Mosque at Jerusalem.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig192">262</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">193.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Doorway in the Alhambra.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig193">264</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">194.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Grand Mosque at Delhi, built by Shah Jehan.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig194">267</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">195.</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Entrance to a Moorish Bazaar.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig195">269</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 410px;"> +<a name="tomb" id="tomb"></a> +<img src="images/acec005.jpg" width="410" height="500" +alt="Entrance to the tomb" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Rock-cut Tomb at Myra, in Lycia.</span><br /> +<i>Imitation of Timber Construction in Stone.</i></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[xix]</a></span></p> + +<h2>GLOSSARY.</h2> + + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><span class="smcap">Abacus</span>, a square tablet which crowns the capital of the column.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acanthus</span>, a plant, the foliage of which was imitated in the ornament +of the Corinthian capital.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Agora</span>, the place of general assembly in a Greek city.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alæ</span> (<i>Lat.</i> wings), recesses opening out of the atrium of a Roman +house.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alhambra</span>, the palatial fortress of Granada (from <i>al hamra</i>—the red).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ambo</span>, a fitting of early Christian churches, very similar to a pulpit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amphitheatre</span>, a Roman place of public entertainment in which +combats of gladiators, &c., were exhibited.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Antæ</span>, narrow piers used in connection with columns in Greek architecture, +for the same purpose as pilasters in Roman.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arabesque</span>, a style of very light ornamental decoration.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Archaic</span>, primitive, so ancient as to be rude, or at least extremely +simple.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Archivolt</span>, the series of mouldings which is carried round an arch.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arena</span>, the space in the centre of an amphitheatre where the combats, +&c., took place.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arris</span>, a sharp edge.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Astragal</span>, a small round moulding.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Atrium</span>, the main quadrangle in a Roman dwelling-house; also the +enclosed court in front of an early Christian basilican church.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Baptistery</span>, a building, or addition to a building, erected for the +purposes of celebrating the rite of Christian baptism.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Basement</span>, the lowest story of a building, applied also to the lowest +part of an architectural design.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bas-relief</span>, a piece of sculpture in low relief.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bird’s-beak</span>, a moulding in Greek architecture, used in the capitals of +Antæ.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[xx]</a></span><span class="smcap">Byzantine</span>, +the style of Christian architecture which had its origin +at Byzantium (Constantinople).</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Carceres</span>, in the ancient racecourses, goals and starting-points.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cartouche</span>, in Egyptian buildings, a hieroglyphic signifying the name +of a king or other important person.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caryatidæ</span>, human figures made to carry an entablature, in lieu of +columns in some Classic buildings.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cavædiam</span>, another name for the atrium of a Roman house.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cavea</span>, the part of an ancient theatre occupied by the audience.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cavetto</span>, in Classic architecture, a hollow moulding.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cella</span>, the principal, often the only, apartment of a Greek or Roman +temple.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chaitya</span>, an Indian temple, or hall of assembly.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Circus</span>, a Roman racecourse.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cloaca</span>, a sewer or drain.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Columbarium</span>, literally a pigeon-house—a Roman sepulchre built in +many compartments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Columnar</span>, made with columns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Compluvium</span>, the open space or the middle of the roof of a Roman +atrium.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corona</span>, in the cornices of Greek and Roman architecture, the plain +unmoulded feature which is supported by the lower part of the +cornice, and on which the crowning mouldings rest.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cornice</span>, the horizontal series of mouldings crowning the top of a +building or the walls of a room.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cuneiform</span>, of letters in Assyrian inscriptions, wedge-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cyclopean</span>, applied to masonry constructed of vast stones, usually not +hewn or squared.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cyma</span> (recta, or reversa), a moulding, in Classic architecture, of an outline +partly convex and partly concave.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Dagoba</span>, an Indian tomb of conical shape.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dentil band</span>, in Classic architecture, a series of small blocks resembling +square-shaped teeth.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Domus</span> (<i>Lat.</i>), a house, applied usually to a detached residence.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dwarf-wall</span>, a very low wall.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Echinus</span>, in Greek Doric architecture, the principal moulding of the +capital placed immediately under the abacus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Entablature</span>, the superstructure—comprising architrave, frieze and +cornice—above the columns in Classic architecture.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</a></span><span class="smcap">Entasis</span>, +in the shaft of a column, a curved outline.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ephebeum</span>, the large hall in Roman baths in which youths practised +gymnastic exercises.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Facia</span>, in Classic architecture, a narrow flat band or face.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fauces</span>, the passage from the atrium to the peristyle in a Roman +house.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Flutes</span>, the small channels which run from top to bottom of the shaft +of most columns in Classic architecture.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Forum</span>, the place of general assembly in a Roman city, as the Agora +was in a Greek.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fresco</span>, painting executed upon a plastered wall while the plaster is +still wet.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fret</span>, an ornament made up of squares and L-shaped lines, in use in +Greek architecture.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Garth</span>, the central space round which a cloister is carried.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Girder</span>, a beam.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grouted</span>, said of masonry or brickwork, treated with liquid mortar to +fill up all crevices and interstices.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Guttæ</span>, small pendent features in Greek and Roman Doric cornices, +resembling rows of wooden pegs.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Hexastyle</span>, of six columns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Honeysuckle Ornament</span>, a decoration constantly introduced into +Assyrian and Greek architecture, founded upon the flower of the +honeysuckle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Horse-shoe Arch</span>, an arch more than a semicircle, and so wider above +than at its springing.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hypostyle</span>, literally “under columns,” but used to mean filled by +columns.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Impluvium</span>, the space into which the rain fell in the centre of the +atrium of a Roman house.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Insula</span>, a block of building surrounded on all sides by streets, literally +an island.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Intercolumniation</span>, the space between two columns.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Keyed</span>, secured closely by interlocking.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Kibla</span>, the most sacred part of a Mohammedan mosque.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Lâts</span>, in Indian architecture, Buddhist inscribed pillars.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[xxii]</a></span><span class="smcap">Mammisi</span>, +small Egyptian temples.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mastaba</span>, the most usual form of Egyptian tomb.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mausoleum</span>, a magnificent sepulchral monument or tomb. From the +tomb erected to Mausolus, by his wife Artemisia, at Halicarnassus, +379 <small>B.C.</small></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Metopes</span>, literally faces, the square spaces between triglyphs in Doric +architecture; occasionally applied to the sculptures fitted into +these spaces.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Minaret</span>, a slender lofty tower, a usual appendage of a Mohammedan +mosque.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monolith</span>, of one stone.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mortise</span>, a hollow in a stone or timber to receive a corresponding +projection.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mosque</span>, a Mohammedan place of worship.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mutule</span>, a feature in a Classic Doric cornice, somewhat resembling +the end of a timber beam.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Narthex</span>, in an early Christian church, the space next the entrance.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Obelisk</span>, a tapering stone pillar, a feature of Egyptian architecture.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Opus Alexandrinum</span>, the mosaic work used for floors in Byzantine +and Romanesque churches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ovolo</span>, a moulding, the profile of which resembles the outline of an +egg, used in Classic architecture.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Pendentive</span>, a feature in Byzantine and other domed buildings, +employed to enable a circular dome to stand over a square space.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peristylar</span>, or <span class="smcap">Peripteral</span>, with columns all round.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peristylium</span>, or <span class="smcap">Peristyle</span>, in a Roman house, the inner courtyard; +also any space or enclosure with columns all round it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Piscina</span>, a small basin usually executed in stone and placed within a +sculptured niche, fixed at the side of an altar in a church, with a +channel to convey away the water poured into it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polychromy</span>, the use of decorative colours.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Precincts</span>, the space round a church or religious house, usually +enclosed with a wall.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Presbytery</span>, the eastern part of a church, the chancel.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Profile</span> (of a moulding), the outline which it would present if cut +across at right angles to its length.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pronaos</span>, the front portion or vestibule to a temple.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Propylæa</span>, in Greek architecture, a grand portal or state entrance.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</a></span><span class="smcap">Prothyrum</span>, +in a Roman house, the porch or entrance.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pseudo-peripteral</span>, resembling, but not really being peristylar.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pylon</span>, or <span class="smcap">Pro-Pylon</span>, the portal or front of an Egyptian temple.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Quadriga</span>, a four-horse chariot.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Romanesque</span>, the style of Christian architecture which was founded on +Roman work.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rotunda</span>, a building circular in plan.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Sacristy</span>, the part of a church where the treasures belonging to the +church are preserved.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Shinto Temples</span>, temples (in Japan) devoted to the Shinto religion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Span</span>, the space over which an arch or a roof extends.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spina</span>, the central wall of a Roman racecourse.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stilted</span>, raised, usually applied to an arch when its centre is above +the top of the jambs from which it springs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Struts</span>, props.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stupa</span>, in Indian architecture, a mound or tope.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stylobate</span>, a series of steps, usually those leading up to a Classic +temple.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Taas</span>, a pagoda.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tablinum</span>, in a Roman house, the room between the atrium and the +peristyle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Talar</span>, in Assyrian architecture, an open upper story.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tenoned</span>, fastened with a projection or tenon.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tesselated</span>, made of small squares of material, applied to coarse mosaic +work.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tetrastyle</span>, with four columns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Thermæ</span>, the great bathing establishments of the Romans.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Topes</span>, in Indian architecture, artificial mounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trabeated</span>, constructed with a beam or beams, a term usually employed +in contrast to arches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Triclinium</span>, in a Roman house, the dining-room.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Triglyph</span>, the channelled feature in the frieze of the Doric order.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tumuli</span>, mounds, usually sepulchral.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Typhonia</span>, small Egyptian temples.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Velarium</span>, a great awning.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vestibule</span>, the outer hall or ante-room.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[xxiv]</a></span><span class="smcap">Volutes</span>, +in Classic architecture, the curled ornaments of the Ionic +capital.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Voussoirs</span>, the wedge-shaped stones of which arches are made.</p> +</div> + +<p class="smlpadt">N.B. For the explanation of other technical words found in this +volume, consult the Glossary given with the companion volume on +Gothic and Renaissance Architecture.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 361px;"> +<a name="temple" id="temple"></a> +<img src="images/acec006.jpg" width="361" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">The Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/acec007.jpg" width="400" height="248" +alt="Decorative capital of a column" /> +</div> + + + + +<h1 class="padtop">ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE.</h1> + + + +<h2 class="padtop">CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">A</span>RCHITECTURE may be described as building at its +best, and when we talk of the architecture of any +city or country we mean its best, noblest, or most beautiful +buildings; and we imply by the use of the word that these +buildings possess merits which entitle them to rank as +works of art.</p> + +<p>The architecture of the civilised world can be best +understood by considering the great buildings of each important +nation separately. The features, ornaments, and +even forms of ancient buildings differed just as the speech, +or at any rate the literature, differed. Each nation wrote +in a different language, though the books may have been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +devoted to the same aims; and precisely in the same way +each nation built in a style of its own, even if the buildings +may have been similar in the purposes they had to +serve. The division of the subject into the architecture of +Egypt, Greece, Rome, &c., is therefore the most natural +one to follow.</p> + +<p>But certain broad groups, rising out of peculiarities of +a physical nature, either in the buildings themselves or +in the conditions under which they were erected, can +hardly fail to be suggested by a general view of the +subject. Such, for example, is the fourfold division to +which the reader’s attention will now be directed.</p> + +<p>All buildings, it will be found, can be classed under one +or other of four great divisions, each distinguished by a +distinct mode of building, and each also occupying a +distinct place in history. The first series embraces +the buildings of the Egyptians, the Persians, and the +Greeks, and was brought to a pitch of the highest perfection +in Greece during the age of Pericles. All the +buildings erected in these countries during the many +centuries which elapsed from the earliest Egyptian to the +latest Greek works, however they may have differed in +other respects, agree in this—that the openings, be they +doors, or be they spaces between columns, were spanned +by beams of wood or lintels of stone (Fig. <a href="#fig001">1</a>). Hence +this architecture is called architecture of the beam, or, in +more formal language, trabeated architecture. This mode +of covering spaces required that in buildings of solid +masonry, where stone or marble lintels were employed, +the supports should not be very far apart, and this +circumstance led to the frequent use of rows of columns. +The architecture of this period is accordingly sometimes +called columnar, but it has no exclusive claim to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +epithet; the column survived long after the exclusive +use of the beam had been superseded, and the term +columnar must accordingly be shared with buildings +forming part of the succeeding series.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 444px;"> +<a name="fig001" id="fig001"></a> +<img src="images/acec008.jpg" width="444" height="550" +alt="Decorated with figures and text" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 1.—Opening spanned by a Lintel. Arch of the Goldsmiths, Rome.</p> + +<p>The second great group of buildings is that in which +the semicircular arch is introduced into construction, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +used either together with the beam, or, as mostly happened, +instead of the beam, to span the openings (Fig. <a href="#fig002">2</a>). This +use of the arch began with the Assyrians, and it reappeared +in the works of the early Etruscans. The round-arched +series of styles embraces the buildings of the +Romans from their earliest beginnings to their decay; it +also includes the two great schools of Christian architecture +which were founded by the Western and the Eastern +Church respectively,—namely, the Romanesque, which, +originating in Rome, extended itself through Western +Europe, and lasted till the time of the Crusades, and the +Byzantine, which spread from Constantinople over all +the countries in which the Eastern (or Greek) Church +flourished, and which continues to our own day.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 349px;"> +<a name="fig002" id="fig002"></a> +<img src="images/acec009.jpg" width="349" height="400" +alt="A plainer arch, with only two figures and small sections of text" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 2.—Opening Spanned by a Semicircular Arch. Roman Triumphal Arch +at Pola.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 406px;"> +<a name="fig003" id="fig003"></a> +<img src="images/acec010.jpg" width="406" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 3.—Openings Spanned by Pointed Arches. Interior of St. Front, +Périgueux, France.</p> + +<p>The third group of buildings is that in which the +pointed arch is employed instead of the semicircular arch +to span the openings (Fig. <a href="#fig003">3</a>). It began with the rise of +Mohammedan architecture in the East, and embraces all +the buildings of Western Europe, from the time of the +First Crusade to the revival of art in the fifteenth century. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +This great series of buildings constitutes what is known +as Pointed, or, more commonly, as Gothic architecture.</p> + +<p>The fourth group consists of the buildings erected +during or since the Renaissance (<i>i.e.</i> revival) period, and +is marked by a return to the styles of past ages or distant +countries for the architectural features and ornaments of +buildings; and by that luxury, complexity, and ostentation +which, with other qualities, are well comprehended +under the epithet Modern. This group of buildings +forms what is known as Renaissance architecture, and +extends from the epoch of the revival of letters in the +fifteenth century, to the present day.</p> + +<p>The first two of these styles—namely, the architecture +of the beam, and that of the round arch—are treated of in +this little volume. They occupy those remote times of +pagan civilisation which may be conveniently included +under the broad term Ancient; and the better known +work of the Greeks and Romans—the classic nations—and +they extend over the time of the establishment of +Christianity down to the close of that dreary period +not incorrectly termed the Dark ages. Ancient, Classic, +and early Christian architecture is accordingly an appropriate +title for the main subjects of this volume, though, +for the sake of convenience, some notices of Oriental +architecture have been added. Gothic and Renaissance +architecture form the subjects of the companion volume.</p> + +<p>It may excite surprise that what appears to be so small +a difference as that which exists between a beam, a round +arch, or a pointed arch, should be employed in order to +distinguish three of the four great divisions. But in reality +this is no pedantic or arbitrary grouping. The mode in +which spaces or openings are covered lies at the root of +most of the essential differences between styles of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +architecture, and the distinction thus drawn is one of a real, +not of a fanciful nature.</p> + +<p>Every building when reduced to its elements, as will +be done in both these volumes, may be considered as made +up of its (1) floor or plan, (2) walls, (3) roof, (4) openings, +(5) columns, and (6) ornaments, and as marked by +its distinctive (7) character, and the student must be +prepared to find that the openings are by no means the +least important of these elements. In fact, the moment +the method of covering openings was changed, it would +be easy to show, did space permit, that all the other +elements, except the ornaments, were directly affected by +the change, and the ornaments indirectly; and we thus +find such a correspondence between this index feature and +the entire structure as renders this primary division a +scientific though a very broad one. The contrast between +the trabeated style and the arched style may be well +understood by comparing the illustration of the Parthenon +which forms our frontispiece, or that of the great +temple of Zeus at Olympia (Fig. <a href="#fig004">4</a>), with the exterior of +the Colosseum at Rome (Fig. <a href="#fig005">5</a>), introduced here for the +purposes of this comparison.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig004" id="fig004"></a> +<img src="images/acec011.jpg" width="700" height="310" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 4.—Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Restored according to Adler.</p> + +<p>A division of buildings into such great series as these +cannot, however, supersede the more obvious historical +and geographical divisions. The architecture of every +ancient country was partly the growth of the soil, +<i>i.e.</i> adapted to the climate of the country, and the +materials found there, and partly the outcome of the +national character of its inhabitants, and of such influences +as race, colonisation, commerce, or conquest brought +to bear upon them. These influences produced strong +distinctions between the work of different peoples, especially +before the era of the Roman Empire. Since that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"><!-- original location of Fig. 4 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +period of universal dominion all buildings and styles have +been influenced more or less by Roman art. We accordingly +find the buildings of the most ancient nations +separated from each other by strongly marked lines of +demarcation, but those since the era of the Empire showing +a considerable resemblance to one another. The circumstance +that the remains of those buildings only which +received the greatest possible attention from their builders +have come down to us from any remote antiquity, has +perhaps served to accentuate the differences between +different styles, for these foremost buildings were not +intended to serve the same purpose in all countries. +Nothing but tombs and temples have survived in Egypt. +Palaces only have been rescued from the decay of Assyrian +and Persian cities; and temples, theatres, and places of +public assembly are the chief, almost the only remains of +architecture in Greece.</p> + +<p>A strong contrast between the buildings of different +ancient nations rises also from the differing point of view +for which they were designed. Thus, in the tombs and, +to a large extent, the temples of the Egyptians, we find +structures chiefly planned for internal effect; that is to +say, intended to be seen by those admitted to the sacred +precincts, but only to a limited extent appealing to the +admiration of those outside. The buildings of the Greeks, +on the other hand, were chiefly designed to please those +who examined them from without, and though no doubt +some of them, the theatres especially, were from their +very nature planned for interior effect, by far the greatest +works which Greek art produced were the exteriors of +the temples.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 372px;"> +<a name="fig005" id="fig005"></a> +<img src="images/acec012.jpg" width="372" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 5.—Part of the Exterior of the Colosseum, Rome. (Now in Ruins.)</p> + +<p>The works of the Romans, and, following them, those +of almost all Western Christian nations, were designed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"><!-- original location of Fig. 5 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +to unite external and internal effect; but in many cases +external was evidently most sought after, and, in the +North of Europe, many expedients—such, for example, +as towers, high-pitched roofs, and steeples—were introduced +into architecture with the express intention of +increasing external effect. On the other hand, the Eastern +styles, both Mohammedan and Christian, especially when +practised in sunny climates, show in many cases a comparative +disregard of external effect, and that their architects +lavished most of their resources on the interiors of +their buildings.</p> + +<p>Passing allusions have been made to the influence of +climate on architecture; and the student whose attention +has been once called to this subject will find many +interesting traces of this influence in the designs of +buildings erected in various countries. Where the power +of the sun is great, flat terraced roofs, which help to keep +buildings cool, and thick walls are desirable. Sufficient +light is admitted by small windows far apart. Overhanging +eaves, or horizontal cornices, are in such a climate +the most effective mode of obtaining architectural effect, +and accordingly in the styles of all Southern peoples +these peculiarities appear. The architecture of Egypt, +for example, exhibited them markedly. Where the sun +is still powerful, but not so extreme, the terraced roof +is generally replaced by a sloping roof, steep enough to +throw off water, and larger openings are made for light +and air; but the horizontal cornice still remains the most +appropriate means of gaining effects of light and shade. +This description will apply to the architecture of Italy +and Greece. When, however, we pass to Northern countries, +where snow has to be encountered, where light is +precious, and where the sun is low in the heavens for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +greater part of the day, a complete change takes place. +Roofs become much steeper, so as to throw off snow. +The horizontal cornice is to a large extent disused, but +the buttress, the turret, and other vertical features, from +which a level sun will cast shadows, begin to appear; +and windows are made numerous and spacious. This +description applies to Gothic architecture generally—in +other words, to the styles which rose in Northern Europe.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 450px;"> +<a name="fig006" id="fig006"></a> +<img src="images/acec013.jpg" width="450" height="412" +alt="Showing steep roof and turret of northern architecture" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 6.—Timber Architecture. Church at Borgund.</p> + +<p>The influence of materials on architecture is also worth +notice. Where granite, which is worked with difficulty, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +is the material obtainable, architecture has invariably +been severe and simple; where soft stone is obtainable, +exuberance of ornament makes its appearance, in consequence +of the material lending itself readily to the carver’s +chisel. Where, on the other hand, marble is abundant +and good, refinement is to be met with, for no other +building material exists in which very delicate mouldings +or very slight or slender projections may be employed +with the certainty that they will be effective. Where +stone is scarce, brick buildings, with many arches, roughly +constructed cornices and pilasters, and other peculiarities +both of structure and ornamentation, make their appearance, +as, for example, in Lombardy and North Germany. +Where materials of many colours abound, as is the case, for +example, in the volcanic districts of France, polychromy +is sought as a means of ornamentation. Lastly, where +timber is available, and stone and brick are both scarce, +the result is an architecture of which both the forms and +the ornamentation are entirely dissimilar to those proper +to buildings of stone, marble, or brick, as may be seen by +a glance at our illustration of an early Scandinavian +church built of timber (Fig. <a href="#fig006">6</a>), which presents forms +appropriate to a timber building as being easily constructed +of wood, but which would hardly be suitable to +any other material whatever.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig007" id="fig007"></a> +<img src="images/acec014.jpg" width="500" height="182" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 7.—Egyptian Cornice.</p> + + + +<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<h3>EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE origin of Egyptian architecture, like that of +Egyptian history, is lost in the mists of antiquity. +The remains of all, or almost all, other styles of architecture +enable us to trace their rude beginnings, their development, +their gradual progress up to a culminating point, and +thence their slow but certain decline; but the earliest +remains of the constructions of the Egyptians show their +skill as builders at the height of its perfection, their architecture +highly developed, and their sculpture at its very +best, if not indeed at the commencement of its decadence; +for some of the statuary of the age of the Pyramids was +never surpassed in artistic effect by the work of a later +era. It is impossible for us to conceive of such scientific +skill as is evidenced in the construction of the great pyramids, +or such artistic power as is displayed on the walls of +tombs of the same date, or in the statues found in them, +as other than the outcome of a vast accumulation of experience, +the attainment of which must imply the lapse of +very long periods of time since the nation which produced +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +such works emerged from barbarism. It is natural, where +so remote an antiquity is in question, that we should +feel a great difficulty, if not an impossibility, in fixing +exact dates, but the whole tendency of modern exploration +and research is rather to push back than to advance +the dates of Egyptian chronology, and it is by no means +impossible that the dynasties of Manetho, after being +derided as apocryphal for centuries, may in the end be +accepted as substantially correct. Manetho was an +Egyptian priest living in the third century <small>B.C.</small>, who +wrote a history of his country, which he compiled +from the archives of the temples. His work itself is +lost, but Josephus quotes extracts from it, and Eusebius +and Julius Africanus reproduced his lists, in which the +monarchs of Egypt are grouped into thirty-four dynasties. +These, however, do not agree with one another, and in +many cases it is difficult to reconcile them with the records +displayed in the monuments themselves.</p> + +<p>The remains with which we are acquainted indicate +four distinct periods of great architectural activity in +Egyptian history, viz.: (1) the period of the fourth +dynasty, when the Great Pyramids were erected (probably +3500 to 3000 <small>B.C.</small>); (2) the period of the twelfth +dynasty, to which belong the remains at Beni-Hassan; +(3) the period of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, +when Thebes was in its glory, which is attested by +the ruins of Luxor and Karnak; and (4) the Ptolemaic +period, of which there are the remains at Denderah, +Edfou, and Philæ. The monuments that remain are +almost exclusively tombs and temples. The tombs are, +generally speaking, all met with on the east or right +bank of the Nile: among them must be classed those +grandest and oldest monuments of Egyptian skill, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +Pyramids, which appear to have been all designed as +royal burying-places. A large number of pyramids have +been discovered, but those of Gizeh, near Cairo, are the +largest and the best known, and also probably the oldest +which can be authenticated.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The three largest pyramids +are those of Cheops, Cephren, and Mycerinus at Gizeh +(or, as the names are more correctly written, Suphis, Sensuphis, +and Moscheris or Mencheris). These monarchs +all belonged to the fourth dynasty, and the most probable +date to be assigned to them is about 3000 <small>B.C.</small> The pyramid +of Suphis is the largest, and is the one familiarly +known as the Great Pyramid; it has a square base, the +side of which is 760 feet long,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> a height of 484 feet, and +an area of 577,600 square feet. In this pyramid the angle +of inclination of the sloping sides to the base is 51° 51′, +but in no two pyramids is this angle the same. There +can be no doubt that these huge monuments were erected +each as the tomb of an individual king, whose efforts were +directed towards making it everlasting, and the greatest +pains were taken to render the access to the burial chamber +extremely hard to discover. This accounts for the vast +disproportion between the lavish amount of material used +for the pyramid and the smallness of the cavity enclosed +in it (Fig. <a href="#fig008">8</a>).</p> + +<p>The material employed was limestone cased with syenite +(granite from Syene), and the internal passages were lined +with granite. The granite of the casing has entirely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +disappeared, but that employed as linings is still in its +place, and so skilfully worked that it would not be possible +to introduce even a sheet of paper between the joints.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig008" id="fig008"></a> +<img src="images/acec015.jpg" width="500" height="374" +alt="Showing the interior passages and chambers" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 8.—Section across the Great Pyramid (of Cheops or Suphis).</p> + +<p>The entrance D to this pyramid of Suphis was at a height +of 47 ft. 6 in. above the base, and, as was almost invariably +the case, on the north face; from the entrance a passage +slopes downward at an angle of 26° 27′ to a chamber cut +in the rock at a depth of about 90 feet below the base +of the pyramid. This chamber seems to have been intended +as a blind, as it was not the place for the deposition +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +of the corpse. From the point in the above described +passage—marked A on our illustration of this pyramid—another +gallery starts upwards, till it reaches the +point C, from which a horizontal passage leads to another +small chamber. This is called the Queen’s Chamber, but +no reason has been discovered for the name. From this +point C the gallery continues upwards till, in the heart of +the pyramid, the Royal Chamber, B, is reached. The walls +of these chambers and passages are lined with masonry +executed in the hardest stone (granite), and with an +accuracy of fitting and a truth of surface that can +hardly be surpassed. Extreme care seems to have been +taken to prevent the great weight overhead from crushing +in the galleries and the chamber. The gallery from C +upwards is of the form shown in Fig. <a href="#fig009">9</a>, where each layer +of stones projects slightly beyond the one underneath it. +Fig. <a href="#fig011">11</a> is a section of the chamber itself, and the succession +of small chambers shown one above the other was evidently +formed for the purpose of distributing the weight +of the superincumbent mass. From the point C a narrow +well leads almost perpendicularly downwards to a point +nearly at the bottom of the first-mentioned gallery; and +the purpose to be served by this well was long a subject +of debate. The probability is that, after the corpse had +been placed in its chamber, the workmen completely +blocked up the passage from A to C by allowing large +blocks of granite to slide down it, these blocks having +been previously prepared and deposited in the larger +gallery; the men then let themselves down the well, and +by means of the lower gallery made their exit from the +pyramid. The entrances to the chamber and to the pyramid +itself were formed by huge blocks of stone which +exactly fitted into grooves prepared for them with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"><!-- original location of Figs. 9-11 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +most beautiful mathematical accuracy. The chief interest +attaching to the pyramids lies in their extreme antiquity, +and the scientific method of their construction; for their +effect upon the spectator is by no means proportionate to +their immense mass and the labour bestowed upon them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 121px;"> +<a name="fig009" id="fig009"></a> +<img src="images/acec016.jpg" width="121" height="250" +alt="Showing the stepped construction" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 9.—Ascending +Gallery in the +Great Pyramid.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 230px;"> +<a name="fig010" id="fig010"></a> +<img src="images/acec017.jpg" width="230" height="250" +alt="Showing the construction" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 10.—The Sepulchral +Chamber in the Pyramid +of Cephren at Gizeh.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 378px;"> +<a name="fig011" id="fig011"></a> +<img src="images/acec018.jpg" width="378" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 11.—The Construction of the King’s Chamber in the +Great Pyramid.</p> + +<p>In the neighbourhood of the pyramids are found a large +number of tombs which are supposed to be those of private +persons. Their form is generally that of a <i>mastaba</i> or +truncated pyramid with sloping walls, and their construction +is evidently copied from a fashion of wooden architecture +previously existing. The same idea of making an +everlasting habitation for the body prevailed as in the +case of the pyramids, and stone was therefore the material +employed; but the builders seem to have desired to indulge +in a decorative style, and as they were totally unable to +originate a legitimate stone architecture, we find carved in +stone, rounded beams as lintels, grooved posts, and—most +curious of all—roofs that are an almost exact copy of +the early timber huts when unsquared baulks of timber +were laid across side by side to form a covering. Figs. <a href="#fig012">12</a> +and <a href="#fig013">13</a> show this kind of stone-work, which is peculiar to +the old dynasties, and seems to have had little influence +upon succeeding styles.</p> + +<p>A remarkable feature of these early private tombs consists +in the paintings with which the walls are decorated, +and which vividly portray the ordinary every-day occupations +carried on during his lifetime by the person who +was destined to be the inmate of the tomb. These +paintings are of immense value in enabling us to form +an accurate idea of the life of the people at this early +age.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 363px;"> +<a name="fig012" id="fig012"></a> +<img src="images/acec019.jpg" width="363" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 12.—Imitation of Timber Construction in +Stone, from a Tomb at Memphis.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 374px;"> +<a name="fig013" id="fig013"></a> +<img src="images/acec020.jpg" width="374" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 13.—Imitation of Timber Construction in +Stone, from a Tomb at Memphis.</p> + +<p>It may possibly be open to doubt whether the dignified +appellation of architecture should be applied to buildings +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"><!-- original location of Figs. 12-13 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +of the kind we have just been describing; but when we +come to the series of remains of the twelfth dynasty at +Beni-Hassan, in middle Egypt, we meet with the earliest +known examples of that most interesting feature of all +subsequent styles—the column. Whether the idea of +columnar architecture originated with the necessities of +quarrying—square piers being left at intervals to support +the superincumbent mass of rock as the quarry was gradually +driven in—or whether the earliest stone piers were +imitations of brickwork or of timber posts, we shall probably +never be able to determine accurately, though the +former supposition seems the more likely. We have here +monuments of a date 1400 years anterior to the earliest +known Greek examples, with splendid columns, both +exterior and interior, which no reasonable person can +doubt are the prototypes of the Greek Doric order. +Fig. <a href="#fig014">14</a> is a plan with a section, and Fig. <a href="#fig015">15</a> an exterior +view, of one of these tombs, which, it will be seen, consisted +of a portico, a chamber with its roof supported by +columns, and a small space at the farther end in which +is formed the opening of a sloping passage or well, at the +bottom of which the vault for the reception of the body +was constructed. The walls of the large chamber are +lavishly decorated with scenes of every-day life, and it +has even been suggested that these places were not erected +originally as tombs, but as dwelling-places, which after +death were appropriated as sepulchres.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="fig014" id="fig014"></a> +<img src="images/acec021.jpg" width="300" height="180" +alt="Showing view between columns" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Section.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/acec022.jpg" width="300" height="462" +alt="Showing position of columns" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 14.—Plan and Section of the Tomb +at Beni-Hassan.</p> + +<p>The columns are surmounted by a small square slab, +technically called an abacus, and heavy square beams or +architraves span the spaces between the columns, while +the roof between the architraves has a slightly segmental +form. The tombs of the later period, viz. of the eighteenth +and nineteenth dynasties, are very different from those of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +the twelfth dynasty, and present few features of architectural +interest, though they are remarkable for their +vast extent and the +variety of form of their +various chambers and +galleries. They consist +of a series of +chambers excavated in +the rock, and it appears +certain that the +tomb was commenced +on the accession of each +monarch, and was +driven farther and +farther into the rock +during the continuance +of his reign till his +death, when all work +abruptly ceased. All +the chambers are profusely +decorated with +paintings, but of a kind +very different from +those of the earlier +dynasties. Instead of +depicting scenes of ordinary +life, all the paintings +refer to the supposed +life after death, +and are thus of very +great value as a means +of determining the religious +opinions of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +Egyptians at this time. One of the most remarkable +of these tombs is that of Manephthah or Sethi I., at +Bab-el-Molouk, and known as Belzoni’s tomb, as it was +discovered by him; from it was taken the alabaster sarcophagus +now in the Soane Museum in Lincoln’s Inn Fields. +To this relic a new interest is given by the announcement, +while these pages are passing through the press, of the +discovery of the mummy of this very Manephthah, with +thirty-eight other royal mummies, in the neighbourhood +of Thebes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="fig015" id="fig015"></a> +<img src="images/acec023.jpg" width="400" height="280" +alt="Showing entrance to the tomb" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 15.—Rock-cut Façade of Tomb at Beni-Hassan.</p> + +<p>Of the Ptolemaic period no tombs, except perhaps a few +at Alexandria, are known to exist.</p> + + +<h3>TEMPLES.</h3> + +<p>It is very doubtful whether any remains of temples of +the time of the fourth dynasty—<i>i.e.</i> contemporaneous with +the pyramids—exist. One, constructed on a most extraordinary +plan, was supposed to have been discovered about +a quarter of a century ago, and it was described by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +Professor Donaldson at the Royal Institute of British Architects +in 1861, but later Egyptologists rather incline to +the belief that this was a tomb and not a temple, as in one +of the chambers of the interior a number of compartments +were discovered one above the other which were apparently +intended for the reception of bodies. This singular building +is close to the Great Sphinx; its plan is cruciform, +and there are in the interior a number of rectangular +piers of granite supporting very simple architraves, but +there are no means of determining what kind of roof +covered it in. The walls seem to have been faced on the +interior with polished slabs of granite or alabaster, but no +sculpture or hieroglyphic inscriptions were found on them +to explain the purpose of the building. Leaving this +building—which is of a type quite unique—out of the +question, Egyptian temples can be generally classed +under two heads: (1) the large principal temples, and (2) +the small subsidiary ones called Typhonia or Mammisi. +Both kinds of temple vary little, if at all, in plan from +the time of the twelfth dynasty down to the Roman +dominion.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 206px;"> +<a name="fig016" id="fig016"></a> +<img src="images/acec024.jpg" width="206" height="500" +alt="Locations A to E shown in alphabetical order from bottom to top of the plan" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 16.—Ground-plan of the +Palace at Karnak.</p> + +<p>The large temples consist almost invariably of an entrance +gate flanked on either side by a large mass of masonry, +called a pylon, in the shape of a truncated pyramid +(Fig. <a href="#fig018">18</a>). The axis of the ground-plan of these pylons is +frequently obliquely inclined to the axis of the plan of the +temple itself; and indeed one of the most striking features +of Egyptian temples is the lack of regularity and symmetry +in their construction. The entrance gives access +to a large courtyard, generally ornamented with columns: +beyond this, and occasionally approached by steps, is +another court, smaller than the first, but much more +splendidly adorned with columns and colossi; beyond this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +again, in the finest examples, occurs what is called the +Hypostyle Hall, <i>i.e.</i> a hall with two rows of lofty columns +down the centre, and at the sides other rows, more or less +in number, of lower columns; the object of this arrangement +being that the central portion might be lighted by a +kind of clerestory above the roof of the side portions. +Fig. <a href="#fig017">17</a> shows this arrangement. This hypostyle hall +stood with its greatest length transverse to the general +axis of the temple, so that it was entered from the side. +Beyond it were other chambers, all of small size, the +innermost being generally the sanctuary, +while the others were probably +used as residences by the +priests. Homer’s hundred-gated +Thebes, which was for so long the +capital of Egypt, offers at Karnak +and Luxor the finest remains of +temples; what is left of the former +evidently showing that it must +have been one of the most magnificent +buildings ever erected in +any country. Fig. <a href="#fig016">16</a> is a plan of +the temple of Karnak, which was +about 1200 feet long and 348 feet +wide. A is the entrance between +the two enormous pylons giving +access to a large courtyard, in +which is a small detached temple, +and another larger one breaking +into the courtyard obliquely. A +gateway between a second pair of pylons admits to B, the +grand Hypostyle Hall, 334 feet by 167 feet. Beyond this +are additional gateways with pylons, separated by a sort +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"><!-- original location of Figs. 17-18 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +of gallery, C, in which were two gigantic obelisks; D, another +grand hall, is called the Hall of the Caryatides, and +beyond is the Hall of the eighteen columns, through which +access is gained to a number of smaller halls grouped round +the central chamber E. Beyond this is a large courtyard, +in the centre of which stood the original sanctuary, which +has disappeared down to its foundations, nothing but some +broken shafts of columns remaining. At the extreme east +is another hall supported partly by columns and partly +by square piers, and a second series of pillared courts and +chambers. The pylons and buildings generally decrease +in height as we proceed from the entrance eastwards. +This is due to the fact that, the building grew by successive +additions, each one more magnificent than the last, +all being added on the side from which the temple was +entered, leaving the original sanctuary unchanged and +undisturbed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig017" id="fig017"></a> +<img src="images/acec025.jpg" width="600" height="314" +alt="Showing the highly decorated columns" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 17.—The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, showing the Clerestory.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig018" id="fig018"></a> +<img src="images/acec026.jpg" width="600" height="403" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 18.—Entrance to an Egyptian Temple, showing the Pylons.</p> + +<p>Besides the buildings shown on the plan there were +many other temples to the north, south, and east, entered +by pylons and some of them connected together by avenues +of sphinxes, obelisks, and colossi, which altogether made +up the most wonderful agglomeration of buildings that +can be conceived. It must not be imagined that this +temple of Karnak, together with the series of connected +temples is the result, of one clearly conceived plan; on +the contrary, just as has been frequently the case with +our own cathedrals and baronial halls, alterations were +made here and additions there by successive kings one +after the other without much regard to connection or +congruity, the only feeling that probably influenced them +being that of emulation to excel in size and grandeur +the erections of their predecessors, as the largest buildings +are almost always of latest date. The original sanctuary, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +or nucleus of the temple, was built by Usertesen I., the +second or third king of the twelfth dynasty. Omenophis, +the first king of the Shepherd dynasties, built a temple +round the sanctuary, which has disappeared. Thothmes +I. built the Hall of the Caryatides and commenced the +next Hall of the eighteen columns, which was finished +by Thothmes II. Thothmes III. built that portion surrounding +the sanctuary, and he also built the courts on +the extreme east. The pylon at C was built by Omenophis +III., and formed the façade of the temple before the +erection of the grand hall. Sethi I. built the Hypostyle +Hall, which had probably been originated by Rhamses I., +who commenced the pylon west of it. Sethi II. built the +small detached temple, and Rhamses III. the intersecting +temple. The Bubastites constructed the large front court +by building walls round it, and the Ptolemies commenced +the huge western pylon. The colonnade in the centre of +the court was erected by Tahraka.</p> + +<p>Extensive remains of temples exist at Luxor, Edfou +(Fig. <a href="#fig019">19</a>), and Philæ, but it will not be necessary to give +a detailed description of them, as, if smaller in size, they +are very similar in arrangement to those already described. +It should be noticed that all these large temples have the +mastaba form, <i>i.e.</i> the outer walls are not perpendicular +on the outside, but slope inwards as they rise, thus giving +the buildings an air of great solidity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 239px;"> +<a name="fig019" id="fig019"></a> +<img src="images/acec027.jpg" width="239" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 19.—Plan of the Temple at Edfou.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 182px;"> +<a name="fig020" id="fig020"></a> +<img src="images/acec028.jpg" width="182" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 20.—Plan of one of the +Mammisi at Edfou.</p> + +<p>The Mammisi exhibit quite a different form of temple +from those previously described, and are generally found +in close proximity to the large temples. They are +generally erected on a raised terrace, rectangular on plan +and nearly twice as long as it was wide, approached by +a flight of steps opposite the entrance; they consist of +oblong buildings, usually divided by a wall into two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +chambers, and surrounded on all sides by a colonnade +composed of circular columns or square piers placed at +intervals, and the whole is roofed in. A dwarf wall is frequently +found between the piers and columns, about half +the height of the shaft. These temples differ from the larger +ones in having their outer walls perpendicular. Fig. <a href="#fig020">20</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +is a plan of one of these small temples, and no one can +fail to remark the striking likeness to some of the Greek +temples; there can indeed +be little doubt that this +nation borrowed the peristylar +form of its temples +from the Ancient Egyptians.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 335px;"> +<a name="fig021" id="fig021"></a> +<img src="images/acec029.jpg" width="335" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 21.—Ground-plan of the Rock-cut +Temple at Ipsamboul.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig022" id="fig022"></a> +<img src="images/acec030.jpg" width="500" height="294" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 22.—Section of the Rock-cut Temple at Ipsamboul.</p> + +<p>Although no rock-cut +temples have been discovered +in Egypt proper, +Nubia is very rich in such +remains. The arrangement +of these temples hewn out +of the rock is closely analogous +to that of the detached +ones. Figs. <a href="#fig021">21</a> and <a href="#fig022">22</a> show +a plan and section of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +largest of the rock-cut temples at Ipsamboul, which +consists of two extensive courts, with smaller chambers +beyond, all connected by galleries. The roof of the large +court is supported by eight huge piers, the faces of which +are sculptured into the form of standing colossi, and the +entrance is adorned by four splendid seated colossi, +68 ft. 6 in. high. As was the case with the detached +temples, it will be noticed that the height of the +various chambers decreases towards the extremity of the +excavation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 100px;"> +<a name="fig023" id="fig023"></a> +<img src="images/acec031.jpg" width="100" height="98" +alt="Plan view of Egyptian column with lotus bud capital" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Plan.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 110px;"> +<img src="images/acec032.jpg" width="110" height="350" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 23.—Egyptian Column +with Lotus Bud Capital.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 208px;"> +<a name="fig024" id="fig024"></a> +<img src="images/acec033.jpg" width="208" height="450" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 24.—Egyptian Column +with Lotus Flower Capital.</p> + +<p>The constructional system pursued by the Egyptians, +which consisted in roofing over spaces with large horizontal +blocks of stone, led of necessity to a columnar arrangement +in the interiors, as it was impossible to cover large areas +without frequent upright supports. Hence the column +became the chief means of obtaining effect, and the varieties +of form which it exhibits are very numerous. The earliest +form is that at Beni-Hassan, which has already been noticed +as the prototype of the Doric order. Figs. <a href="#fig023">23</a> and <a href="#fig024">24</a> are +views of two columns of a type more commonly employed. +In these the sculptors appear to have imitated as closely +as possible the forms of the plant-world around them, as +is shown in Fig. <a href="#fig023">23</a>, which represents a bundle of reeds +or lotus stalks, and is the earliest type known of the lotus +column, which was afterwards developed into a number of +forms, one of which will be observed on turning to our +section of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (Fig. <a href="#fig017">17</a>), as +employed for the lateral columns. The stalks are bound +round with several belts, and the capital is formed by +the slightly bulging unopened bud of the flower, above +which is a small abacus with the architrave resting upon +it: the base is nothing but a low circular plinth. The +square piers also have frequently a lotus bud carved on +them. At the bottom of the shaft is frequently found +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +a decoration imitated from the sheath of leaves from +which the plant springs. As a further development of +this capital we have the opened lotus flower of a very +graceful bell-like shape, ornamented with a similar sheath-like +decoration to that at the base of the shaft (Fig. <a href="#fig024">24</a>). +This decoration was originally painted only, not sculptured, +but at a later period we find these sheaths and buds worked +in stone. Even more graceful is the palm capital, which +also had its leading lines of decoration painted on it at first +(Fig. <a href="#fig025">25</a>), and afterwards sculptured (Fig. <a href="#fig026">26</a>). At a later +period of the style we find the plant forms abandoned, and +capitals were formed of a fantastic combination of the head +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +of Isis with a pylon resting upon it (Fig. <a href="#fig027">27</a>). Considerable +ingenuity was exercised in adapting the capitals of the +columns to the positions in which they were placed: thus +in the hypostyle halls, the lofty central row of columns +generally had capitals of the form shown in Fig. <a href="#fig024">24</a>, as +the light here was sufficient to illuminate thoroughly the +underside of the overhanging bell; but those columns +which were farther removed from the light had their +capitals of the unopened bud form, which was narrower +at the top than at bottom. In one part of the temple at +Karnak is found a very curious capital resembling the +open lotus flower inverted. The proportion which the +height of Egyptian columns bears to their diameter differs +so much in various cases that there was evidently no +regular standard adhered to, but as a general rule they +have a heavy and massive character. The wall-paintings +of the Egyptian buildings show many curious forms of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +columns (Fig. <a href="#fig028">28</a>), but we have no reason for thinking +that these fantastic shapes were really executed in stone.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 306px;"> +<a name="fig025" id="fig025"></a> +<img src="images/acec034.jpg" width="306" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 25.—Palm Capital.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 319px;"> +<a name="fig026" id="fig026"></a> +<img src="images/acec035.jpg" width="319" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 26.—Sculptured Capital.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 221px;"> +<a name="fig027" id="fig027"></a> +<img src="images/acec036.jpg" width="221" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 27.—Isis Capital from +Denderah.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 100px;"> +<a name="fig028" id="fig028"></a> +<img src="images/acec037.jpg" width="100" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 28.—Fanciful Column from +Painted Decoration at Thebes.</p> + +<p>Almost the only sculptured ornaments worked on the +exteriors of buildings were the curious astragal or bead at +all the angles, and the cornice, which consisted of a very +large cavetto, or hollow moulding, surmounted by a fillet. +These features are almost invariable from the earliest to +the latest period of the style. This cavetto was generally +enriched, over the doorways, with an ornament representing +a circular boss with a wing at each side of it +(Fig. <a href="#fig029">29</a>).</p> + +<p>One other feature of Egyptian architecture which was +peculiar to it must be mentioned; namely, the obelisk. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +Obelisks were nearly always erected in pairs in front +of the pylons of the temples, and added to the dignity of +the entrance. They were invariably monoliths, slightly +tapering in outline, carved with the most perfect accuracy; +they must have existed originally in very large numbers. +Not a few of these have been transported to Europe, and +at least twelve are standing in Rome, one is in Paris, and +one in London.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 450px;"> +<a name="fig029" id="fig029"></a> +<img src="images/acec038.jpg" width="450" height="162" +alt="Featuring a winged scarab design" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 29.—Crowning Cornice and Bead.</p> + +<p>The most striking features, and the most artistic, in the +decoration of Egyptian buildings, are the mural paintings +and sculptured pictures, which are found in the most lavish +profusion, and which exhibit the highest skill in conventionalising +the human figure and other objects.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Tombs +and temples, columns and obelisks are completely covered +with graphic representations of peaceful home pursuits, +warlike expeditions and battle scenes, and—though not +till a late period—descriptions of ritual and mythological +delineations of the supposed spirit-world which the soul +has entered after death. These pictures, together with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +hieroglyphic inscriptions—which are in themselves a series +of pictures—not only relieve the bare wall surface, but, +what is far more important, enable us to realise the kind +of existence which was led by this ancient people; and +as in nearly every case the cartouche (or symbol representing +the name) of the monarch under whose reign the +building was erected was added, we should be able to fix +the dates of the buildings with exactness, were the chronology +of the kings made out beyond doubt.</p> + +<p>The following description of the manner in which the +Egyptian paintings and sculptures were executed—from +the pen of Owen Jones—will be read with interest:—“The +wall was first chiselled as smooth as possible, the +imperfections of the stone were filled up with cement or +plaster, and the whole was rubbed smooth and covered +with a coloured wash; lines were then ruled perpendicularly +and horizontally with red colour, forming squares +all over the wall corresponding with the proportions of +the figure to be drawn upon it. The subjects of the +painting and of the hieroglyphics were then drawn on +the wall with a red line, most probably by the priest or +chief scribe, or by some inferior artist, from a document +divided into similar squares; then came the chief artist, +who went over every figure and hieroglyphic with a black +line, and a firm and steady hand, giving expression to each +curve, deviating here and confirming there the red line. +The line thus traced was then followed by the sculptor. +The next process was to paint the figure in the prescribed +colours.”</p> + +<p>Although Egyptian architecture was essentially a trabeated +style,—that is to say, a style in which beams or +lintels were usually employed to cover openings,—there is +strong ground for the belief that the builders of that time +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +were acquainted with the nature of the arch. Dr. Birch +mentions a rudimentary arch of the time of the fifth +dynasty: at Abydos there are also remains of vaulted +tombs of the sixth dynasty; and in a tomb in the neighbourhood +of the Pyramids there is an elementary arch of +three stones surmounted by a true arch constructed in four +courses. The probability is that true brick arches were +built at a very early period, but in the construction of +their tombs, where heavy masses of superincumbent +masonry or rock had to be supported, the Egyptians +seem to have been afraid to risk even the remote possibility +of their arches decaying; and hence, even when +they preserved the form of the arch in masonry, they +constructed it with horizontal courses of stones projecting +one over the other, and then cut away the lower angles. +One dominating idea seems to have influenced them in +the whole of their work—<i>esto perpetua</i> was their motto; +and though they have been excelled by later peoples in +grace and beauty, it is a question whether they have ever +been surpassed in the skill with which they adapted their +means to the end which they always kept in view.</p> + + +<h3>ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.</h3> + + +<h4><i>Plan.</i></h4> + +<p><strong>Floor</strong> (technically <strong>Plan</strong>).—The early rock-cut tombs +were, of course, only capable of producing internal effects; +their floor presents a series of halls and galleries, varying +in size and shape, leading one out of the other, and +intended by their contrast or combination to produce +architectural effect. To this was added in the later rock-cut +tombs a façade to be seen directly in front. Much +the same account can be given of the disposition of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +built temples. They possess one front, which the spectator +approaches, and they are disposed so as to produce varied +and impressive interiors, but not to give rise to external +display. The supports, such as walls, columns, piers, are +all very massive and very close together, so that the only +wide open spaces are courtyards.</p> + +<p>The circle, or octagon, or other polygonal forms do not +appear in the plans of Egyptian buildings; but though all +the lines are straight, there is a good deal of irregularity +in spacing, walls which face one another are not always +parallel, and angles which appear to be right angles very +often are not so.</p> + +<p>The later buildings extend over much space. The +adjuncts to these buildings, especially the avenues of +sphinxes, are planned so as to produce an air of stately +grandeur, and in them some degree of external effect is +aimed at.</p> + + +<h4><i>Walls.</i></h4> + +<p>The walls are uniformly thick, and often of granite or +of stone, though brick is also met with; <i>e.g.</i> some of the +smaller pyramids are built entirely of brick. In all probability +the walls of domestic buildings were to a great +extent of brick, and less thick than those of the temples; +hence they have all disappeared.</p> + +<p>The surface of walls, even when of granite, was usually +plastered with a thin fine plaster, which was covered by +the profuse decoration in colour already alluded to.</p> + +<p>The walls of the propylons tapered from the base towards +the top, and the same thing sometimes occurred in other +walls. In almost all cases the stone walls are built of +very large blocks, and they show an unrivalled skill in +masonry.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>Roofs.</i></h4> + +<p>The roofing which remains is executed entirely in stone, +but not arched or vaulted. The rock-cut tombs, however, +as has been stated, contain ceilings of an arched shape, +and in some cases forms which seem to be an imitation of +timber roofing. The roofing of the Hypostyle Hall at +Karnak provides an arrangement for admitting light very +similar to the clerestory of Gothic cathedrals.</p> + + +<h4><i>Openings.</i></h4> + +<p>The openings were all covered by a stone lintel, and +consequently were uniformly square-headed. The interspaces +between columns were similarly covered, and hence +Egyptian architecture has been, and correctly, classed +as the first among the styles of trabeated architecture. +Window-openings seldom occur.</p> + + +<h4><i>Columns.</i></h4> + +<p>The columns have been already described to some extent. +They are almost always circular in plan, but the shaft is +sometimes channelled. They are for the most part of +sturdy proportions, but great grace and elegance are +shown in the profile given to shafts and capitals. The +design of the capitals especially is full of variety, and +admirably adapts forms obtained from the vegetable kingdom. +The general effect of the Egyptian column, wherever +it is used, is that it appears to have, as it really has, +a great deal more strength than is required. The fact +that the abacus (the square block of stone introduced +between the moulded part of the capital and what it +carries) is often smaller in width than the diameter of +the column aids very much to produce this effect.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>Ornaments.</i></h4> + +<p>Mouldings are very rarely employed; in fact, the large +bead running up the angles of the pylons, &c., and a heavy +hollow moulding doing duty as a cornice, are all that are +usually met with. Sculpture and carving occur occasionally, +and are freely introduced in later works, where +we sometimes find statues incorporated into the design of +the fronts of temples. Decoration in colour, in the shape +of hieroglyphic inscriptions and paintings of all sorts, +was profusely employed (Figs. <a href="#fig027">27-30</a>), and is executed +with a truth of drawing and a beauty of colouring that +have never been surpassed. As has been pointed out, +almost every object drawn is partly conventionalised, in +the most skilful manner, so as to make it fit its place +as a piece of a decorative system.</p> + + +<h4><i>Architectural Character.</i></h4> + +<p>This is gloomy, and to a certain extent forbidding, +owing to the heavy walls and piers and columns, and the +great masses supported by them; but when in its freshness +and quite uninjured by decay or violence, the exquisite +colouring of the walls and ceilings and columns must have +added a great deal of beauty: this must have very much +diminished the oppressive effect inseparable from such +massive construction and from the gloomy darkness of +many portions of the buildings. It is also noteworthy +that the expenditure of materials and labour is greater in +proportion to the effect attained than in any other style. +The pyramids are the most conspicuous example of this +prodigality. Before condemning this as a defect in the +style, it must be remembered that a stability which should +defy enemies, earthquakes, and the tooth of time, was far +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +more aimed at than architectural character; and that, +had any mode of construction less lavish of material, and +less perfect in workmanship, been adopted, the buildings +of Egypt might have all disappeared ere this.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig030" id="fig030"></a> +<img src="images/acec039.jpg" width="600" height="544" +alt="A repeated and complex spiral, wheel and lotus design" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 30.—Painted Decoration from Thebes.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Some Egyptologists incline to the opinion that the pyramid of Saqqára +is the most ancient, while others think it much more recent than +those of Gizeh.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Strictly speaking, the base is not an exact square, the four sides +measuring, according to the Royal Engineers, north, 760 ft. 7·5 in.; south, +761 ft. 8·5 in.; east, 760 ft. 9·5 in.; and west, 764 ft. 1 in.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Conventionalising may be described as representing a part only of the +visible qualities or features of an object, omitting the remainder or very +slightly indicating them. A black silhouette portrait is an extreme +instance of convention, as it displays absolutely nothing but the outline +of a profile. For decorative purposes it is almost always necessary to conventionalise +to a greater or less extent whatever is represented.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig031" id="fig031"></a> +<img src="images/acec040.jpg" width="500" height="190" +alt="Showing kneeling winged bulls" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 31.—Sculptured Ornament at Nineveh.</p> + + + +<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<h3>WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE architectural styles of the ancient nations which +ruled over the countries of Western Asia watered +by the Tigris and the Euphrates, from a period about +2200 <small>B.C.</small> down to 330 <small>B.C.</small>, are so intimately connected one +with another, and so dependent one upon the other, that it +is almost impossible to attempt an accurate discrimination +between the Babylonian, or ancient Chaldæan, the Assyrian +and the Persian. A more intelligible idea of the architecture +of this long period will be gained by regarding +the three styles as modifications and developments of one +original style, than by endeavouring to separate them.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> +Their sequence can, however, be accurately determined. +First comes the old Chaldæan period, next the Assyrian, +during which the great city of Nineveh was built, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +finally the Persian, after Cyrus had subdued the older +monarchies; and remains exist of all these periods. As +to the origin of the Chaldæan Kingdom, however, all is +obscure; and the earliest date which can be fixed with +the slightest approach to probability is 2234 <small>B.C.</small>, when +Nimrod is supposed to have founded the old Chaldæan +dynasty. This seems to have lasted about 700 years, and +was then overthrown by a conquering nation of which +no record or even tradition remains, the next two and a +half centuries being a complete blank till the rise of the +great Assyrian Monarchy about 1290 <small>B.C.</small>, which lasted +till its destruction by Cyrus about 538 <small>B.C.</small> The Persian +Monarchy then endured till the death of Alexander the +Great, in 333 <small>B.C.</small>, after which great confusion arose, the +empire being broken up among his generals and rapidly +falling to pieces.</p> + +<p>It is only within a comparatively recent period that we +have had any knowledge of the architecture of these +countries; but the explorations of M. Botta, commenced +in 1843 and continued by M. Place, and those of Mr. (now +Sir A. H.) Layard in 1845, combined with the successful +attempts of Prof. Grotefend, Prof. Lassen, and Col. Rawlinson +at deciphering the cuneiform inscriptions, have disclosed +a new world to the architectural student, without +which some of the developments of Greek architecture +must have remained obscure. The authentic remains of +buildings of the early Chaldæan period are too few and in +too ruinous a condition to allow of a reproduction of their +architectural features with any certainty. The buildings, +whether palaces or temples, appear to have been constructed +on terraces, and to have been several storeys in +height; and in one instance, at Mugheyr, the walls sloped +inwards in a similar manner to those of Egyptian buildings, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +a peculiarity which is not met with in other examples +of West Asiatic architecture. The materials employed +were bricks, both sun-dried and kiln-burnt, which seem +to have been coated with a vitreous enamel for purposes +of interior decoration. Fragments of carved limestone +were discovered by Sir A. H. Layard, but the fact that +the fragments found have been so few ought not to +lead us too hastily to the conclusion that stone was not +used as facing for architectural purposes, as after the +buildings became ruined the stone would eagerly be sought +for and carried away before the brickwork was touched. +Bitumen seems to have been employed as a cement. Although +original buildings of this era cannot be found, +it has been shown that in all probability we have, in a +building of a later date—the Birs-i-Nimrud—a type of the +old Babylonian temple. This in its general disposition +must have resembled that of the Tomb of Cyrus, described +and figured later on, though on a vastly larger scale. The +lowest storey appears to have been an exact square of +272 ft.; each of the higher storeys was 42 ft. less horizontally +than the one below it, and was placed 30 ft. back +from the front of the storey below it, but equidistant +from the two sides, where the platforms were 21 ft. wide. +The three upper storeys were 45 ft. in height altogether, +the two below these were 26 ft. each, and the height of +the lowest is uncertain. The topmost storey probably had +a tower on it which enclosed the shrine of the temple. +This edifice was for a long time a bone of contention +among savants, but Colonel Rawlinson’s investigations +have brought to light the fact that it was a temple dedicated +to the seven heavenly spheres, viz. Saturn, Jupiter, +Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon, in the +order given, starting from the bottom. Access to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +various platforms was obtained by stairs, and the whole +building was surrounded by a walled enclosure. From +remains found at Wurkha we may gather that the walls +of the buildings of this period were covered with elaborate +plaster ornaments, and that a lavish use was made of +colour in their decoration.</p> + +<p>Of the later Assyrian period several ruins of buildings +believed to be palaces have been excavated, of which the +large palace at Khorsabad, the old name of which was +Hisir-Sargon, now a small village between 10 and 11 miles +north-east of Nineveh, has been the most completely +explored, and this consequently is the best adapted to explain +the general plan of an Assyrian edifice. M. Botta, +when French Consul at Mosul, and M. Victor Place conducted +these explorations, and the following details are +taken from their works. Like all other Assyrian palaces, +this was reared on a huge artificial mound, the labour +of forming which must have been enormous. The reason +for the construction of these mounds is not far to seek. +Just as the chiefs of a mountainous country choose the +loftiest peaks for their castles, so in Assyria, which +was a very flat country, the extra defensive strength +of elevated buildings was clearly appreciated; and as +these absolute monarchs ruled over a teeming population +and had a very large number of slaves, and only had +to direct their taskmasters to impress labour whenever +they wanted it, no difficulty existed in forming elevated +platforms for their palaces. These were frequently close +to a river, and it is by no means improbable that this was +turned into the excavation from which the earth for the +mound was taken, and thus formed a lake or moat as an +additional defence. A further reason for these terraces +may be found in the fact that in a hot climate buildings +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +erected some 20 or 30 ft. above the level of the plain +catch the breezes much more quickly than lower edifices. +In the case of Khorsabad the terrace was made of sun-dried +bricks, about 15·7 in. square and 2 in. thick. These +bricks were made of the most carefully prepared clay. +The terrace was faced by a retaining wall of coursed +masonry, nearly 10 ft. in thickness. On this terrace +the palace was built, and it consisted of a series of open +courts arranged unsymmetrically, surrounded by state or +private apartments, storehouses, stables, &c. Great care +seems to have been exercised in the accurate orientation of +the building, but in rather a peculiar manner. Instead +of any one façade of the building facing due north, +the corners face exactly towards the four points of the +compass. The courts were all entered by magnificent +portals flanked by gigantic figures, and were approached +by flights of steps. Fig. <a href="#fig032">32</a> is a plan of the palace of +Khorsabad, which was placed close to the boundary of the +city; in fact it was partly outside the city wall proper, +though surrounded by a wall of its own. The grand +south-east portals or propylæa were adorned with huge +human-headed bulls and gigantic figures, and gave access +to a large court, 315 ft. by 280 ft., on the east side of which +are the stables and out-houses, and on the west side the +metal stores. On the north of this court, though not +approached directly from it, was the Seraglio (not to be +confounded with the Harem), the grand entrance to which +was from a second large court, access to which was obtained +from a roadway sloping up from the city. The portals +to this portion of the palace were also adorned with +human-headed bulls. From the second court a vaulted +passage gave access to the state apartments, which appear +to have had a direct view across the open country, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"><!-- original location of Fig. 32 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +were quite outside the city walls. The Harem has been +excavated; it stood just outside the palace proper, behind +the metal stores. The remains of an observatory exist, +and the outlines of what is supposed to have been a +temple have also been unearthed, so that we have here a +complete plan of the palace. Altogether 31 courts and +198 chambers have been discovered.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig032" id="fig032"></a> +<img src="images/acec041.jpg" width="600" height="738" +alt="Plan showing the extent and complexity of the buildings" /> +</div> + +<p class="topcapt smcap">Fig. 32.—Palace of Khorsabad. Built by King Sargon about 710 <small>B.C.</small></p> + +<p class="subcapt">A, Steps. B, Chief portal. C, Chief entrance-court. D-H, Women’s apartments (Harem). J, Centre +court of building. K, Chief court of royal residence. L, Portal with carved bulls as guards. +M, Centre court of royal residence. N, Temple (?). O, Pyramid of steps. S, Entrance to chief court. +T, Plan of terraces with wall and towers.</p> + +<p>It will be noticed that great disproportion exists between +the length of the various apartments and their breadth, none +being more than 40 ft. wide; and it is probable that this +was owing to structural necessities, the Assyrian builders +finding it impossible, with the materials at their disposal, +to cover wider spaces than this. The walls of this palace +vary from 5 to 15 ft. in thickness, and are composed of +sun-dried bricks, faced in the principal courts and state +apartments with slabs of alabaster or Mosul gypsum to a +height of from 9 to 12 ft., above which kiln-burnt bricks +were used. The alabaster slabs were held together by +iron, copper, or wooden cramps or plugs, and were covered +with sculptured pictures representing scenes of peace and +war, from which, as was the case with the Egyptian +remains, we are able to reconstruct for ourselves the daily +life of the monarchs of those early times. Above the +alabaster slabs plastered decorations were used; in some +cases painted frescoes have been found, or mosaics formed +with enamelled bricks of various colours. In the out-buildings +and the more retired rooms of the palace, the +alabaster slabs were omitted, and plaster decorations used, +from the ground upwards. The researches of MM. Botta +and Place have shown that colour was used with a lavishness +quite foreign to our notions, as the alabaster statues +as well as the plaster enrichments were coloured. M. Place +says that in no case were the plain bricks allowed to face +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +the walls of an apartment, the joint being always concealed +either by colour or plaster: in fact, he remarks that +after a time, if he found walls standing showing the brickwork +joints, he invariably searched with success among +the débris of the chamber for remains of the sculptured +decorations which had been used to face the walls.</p> + +<p>Not the least interesting of these discoveries was that +of the drains under the palace, portions of which were +in very good preservation; and all were vaulted, so that +there can be no doubt whatever that the Assyrians were +acquainted with the use of the arch. This was further +proved by the discovery by M. Place of the great arched +gates of the city itself, with an archivolt of coloured +enamelled bricks forming various patterns, with a semicircular +arch springing from plain jambs. Extreme care +was taken by the Assyrian builders in laying the pavements +to ensure their being perfectly level: first a layer +of kiln-burnt bricks was laid on the ordinary sun-dried +bricks forming the terrace; then came a layer of fine sand, +upon which the bricks or slabs of the pavement proper +were laid, forming in many cases an elegant pattern (see +Fig. <a href="#fig033">33</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 393px;"> +<a name="fig033" id="fig033"></a> +<img src="images/acec042.jpg" width="393" height="400" +alt="One corner, showing central repeated floral designs, with repeated lotus border" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 33.—Pavement from Khoyunjik.</p> + +<p>Great difference of opinion exists as to the manner in +which the various apartments of the palace were lighted. +M. Place suggests that the rooms were all vaulted on the +inside, and the spandrels filled in with earth afterwards to +form perfectly flat roofs, and he gives a restoration of the +building on such an arrangement; but if he is correct, +it is impossible to see how any light at all can have penetrated +into the interior of many of the apartments, and +as these apartments are decorated with a profusion of +paintings it is very difficult to believe that artificial light +alone was used in them. M. Place thinks, however, that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +in some cylindrical terra-cotta vessels which he found he +has hit upon a species of skylight which passed completely +through the vault over the rooms, and thus admitted the +light from above. This, however, can hardly be considered +as settled yet. Mr. Fergusson, on the other hand, suggests +that the thick main walls were carried to a height of about +18 or 19 ft., and that above this were two rows of dwarf +columns, one on the inner and the other on the outer edge +of the wall, these columns supporting a flat terrace roof, and +the walls thus forming galleries all round the apartments. +Then to cover the space occupied by the apartments themselves +it is necessary to assume the existence of rows of +columns, the capitals of which were at the same level as +those of the dwarf columns on the walls. Where one +apartment is surrounded on all sides by others, the roof +over it may have been carried up to a higher level, forming +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +a sort of clerestory. This theory no doubt accounts for +many things which are very hard to explain otherwise, +and derives very strong support from the analogy of Persepolis, +where slender stone columns exist. Such columns +of cedar wood would add enormously to the magnificence +and grandeur of the building; and if, as seems likely, most +of these Assyrian palaces were destroyed by fire, the +absence of the remains of columns offers no difficulty. +On the other hand, in many parts of the palace of Khorsabad +no trace of fire remains, and yet here no suggestion +of detached columns can be found, and, moreover, it is +extremely difficult to arrange columns symmetrically in the +various apartments so that doorways are not interfered +with. There is also another difficulty, viz. that if the +building called the Harem at Khorsabad was built in this +way, the apartments would have been open to the view of +any one ascending the lofty building called the observatory. +It is quite possible that further explorations may tend to +elucidate this difficult question of roofing, but at present +all that can be said is that none of the theories that have +been put forward is wholly satisfactory.</p> + +<p>As no columns at all exist, we cannot say what capitals +were employed, but it is probable that those of Persepolis, +which will be shortly described, were copied from an +earlier wooden form, which may have been that used by the +Assyrian builders. There is, however, capping the terrace +on which the temple was erected at Khorsabad, a good +example of an Assyrian cornice, which is very similar +indeed to the forms found in Egypt, and some of the +sculptured bas-reliefs which have been discovered depict +rude copies of Assyrian buildings drawn by the people +themselves; and it is most interesting to notice that just +as we found in the Egyptian style the proto-Doric column, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +so in the Assyrian we find the proto-Ionic (Figs. <a href="#fig034">34</a>, <a href="#fig034a">34<span class="smcap">a</span></a>), +and possibly also the proto-Corinthian (Fig. <a href="#fig034b">34<span class="smcap">b</span></a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 88px;"> +<a name="fig034" id="fig034"></a> +<img src="images/acec043.png" width="88" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 34.—Proto-Ionic +Column.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="fig034a" id="fig034a"></a> +<img src="images/acec044.png" width="150" height="144" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 34a.—Proto-Ionic +Capital from Assyrian +Sculpture.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 128px;"> +<a name="fig034b" id="fig034b"></a> +<img src="images/acec045.png" width="128" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 34b.—Proto-Corinthian +Capital +from Assyrian +Sculpture.</p> + +<p>The third branch of West Asiatic architecture is the +Persian, which was developed after Cyrus had conquered +the older monarchies, and which attained its greatest magnificence +under Darius and Xerxes. The Persians were +originally a brave and hardy race inhabiting the mountainous +region south of Media, which slopes down to the +Persian Gulf. Until the time of Cyrus, who was the founder +of the great kingdom of Persia, they inhabited small towns, +had no architecture, and were simple barbarians. But after +Cyrus had vanquished the wealthy and luxurious Assyrian +monarchs, and his warriors had seen and wondered at the +opulence and splendour of the Assyrian palaces, it was +natural that his successors should strive to emulate for +themselves the display of their vassals. Therefore, having +no indigenous style to fall back upon, the artisans who +were summoned to build the tomb of the founder of the +monarchy and the palaces of his successors, simply copied +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +the forms with which they were acquainted. Fortunately, +the sites for the new palaces were in a locality where building +stone was good and abundant, and the presence of this +material had a modifying effect upon the architecture.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig035" id="fig035"></a> +<img src="images/acec046.jpg" width="600" height="434" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 35.—Tomb of Cyrus.</p> + +<p>The best known of the remains which date as far back +as the earlier Persian dynasties is the so-called tomb of +Cyrus at Pasargadæ, near Murghab (Fig. <a href="#fig035">35</a>). This may +be looked upon as a model in white marble of an old +Chaldæan temple, such as the Birs-i-Nimrud. There +are the same platforms diminishing in area as the top is +approached, and on the topmost platform is a small cella +or temple with a gabled stone roof, which probably +originally contained the sarcophagus. It is, however, at +Persepolis, the real capital of the later Persian kings, +whose grandeur and wealth were such that Alexander is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +said to have found there treasure to the amount of thirty +millions of pounds sterling, that we find the most magnificent +series of ruins. These were carefully measured and +drawn by Baron Texier in 1835, and his work and that of +MM. Flandrin and Coste are those from which the best +information on this subject can be obtained.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig035a" id="fig035a"></a> +<img src="images/acec047.jpg" width="700" height="590" +alt="Showing location A at the bottom of the plan, and B at the top" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 35a.—General Plan of the Buildings at Persepolis.</p> + +<p>Persepolis is about 35 miles north-east of Shiraz, close to +the main highway to Ispahan, at the foot of the mountain +range which bounds the extensive plain of Nurdusht. The +modern inhabitants of the district call the ruins Takht-i-Jamshid +(or the building of Jamshid), but the inscriptions +that have been deciphered prove that Darius and Xerxes +were the chief builders. Just as was the case with the +Assyrian ruins, these stand on an immense platform +which rises perpendicularly from the plain and abuts in +the rear against the mountain range. Instead, however, +of this platform being raised artificially, it was cut out of +the rock, and levelled into a series of terraces, on which +the buildings were erected. The platform, whose length +from north to south is about 1582 ft., and breadth from +east to west about 938 ft., is approached from the plain +by a magnificent double staircase of black marble, of very +easy rise, not more than 4 in. each step. Its general +height above the level of the plain was originally +34 ft. 9 in. The retaining wall of the platform is not +straight, but has in it 40 breaks or set-offs of unequal +dimensions. At the top of the staircase are the remains of +a building with four columns in the centre and with large +portals both back and front, each of which is adorned with +gigantic bulls, strikingly resembling those found at Khorsabad. +Those in the front have no wings, but those in the +rear have wings and human heads. It has been suggested +that these are the ruins of one of those large covered gates +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +frequently mentioned in the Bible, under the shelter of +which business was transacted, and which probably formed +the entrance to the whole range of courts and buildings. +After passing through this gateway and turning southwards, +at a distance of 177 feet from it, another terrace +is reached, 9 ft. 2 in. higher than the first one. This terrace +also is approached by four flights of steps profusely +decorated with sculptured bas-reliefs, and on it are the +remains of the Chehil Minar, the grand hexastyle Hall of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +Xerxes, which must have been one of the most magnificent +buildings of ancient times. This building is marked A on +the general plan. It consisted of a central court, containing +thirty-six columns, the distance from centre to centre +of the outside columns being 142 ft. 8 in. This court was +surrounded by walls, of which nothing now remains but +the jambs of three of the doorways. On three sides of +this court, to the north, east and west, were porticoes of +twelve columns each, precisely in a line with those of the +central court, the distance from centre to centre of the +columns being 28 ft. 6 in. These columns, both in their +proportions and shape, suggest an imitation of timber construction. +On the south the court was probably terminated +by a wall, and Mr. Fergusson suggests that the +corners between the porticoes were filled up with small +chambers. The most striking feature of this hall or palace +must have been its loftiness, the height of the columns +varying from 63 ft. 8 in. to 64 feet from bottom of base to +top of capital. The shafts were slightly tapering and had +48 flutings, and were 4 ft. 6 in. in diameter in the upper +part. The bases of the columns show hardly any variations, +and consist of a series of mouldings such as is shown in +Fig. <a href="#fig036">36</a>; the lowest part of this moulded base is enriched +with leaves, and rests on a low circular plinth at the +bottom: the total height of the base averages 5 feet. +The capitals show considerable variations. Those of the +east and west porticoes represent the heads and fore part +of the bodies of two bulls<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> placed directly on the shaft +back to back, with their forelegs doubled under them, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"><!-- original location of Figs. 35b and 36 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +the feet resting on the shaft and the knees projecting; +the total height of these capitals is 7 ft. 4 in. Between +the necks of the bulls rested the wooden girder which +supported the cross-bearers of the roof. In the north +portico and, so far as can be ascertained, in the central +court, the shaft of the column was much shorter, and +supported a fantastic elongated capital, consisting of a +sort of inverted cup, supporting an elegant shape much +resembling the Egyptian palm-leaf capital, above which, +on all the four sides, are double spirals resembling the +ornaments of the Greek Ionic capital known as volutes, but +placed perpendicularly, and not, as in the Ionic capital, +horizontally. These volutes again may have supported +double bulls, which would make the total height of the +columns the same as those of the east and west porticoes. +The doorways have cornices enriched with leaves, similar +to those found at Khorsabad, which have already been +noticed as bearing a decided resemblance to the Egyptian +doorways.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 148px;"> +<a name="fig035b" id="fig035b"></a> +<img src="images/acec048.jpg" width="148" height="600" +alt="Showing double-headed bull capital on a plain column" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 35b.—Column from Persepolis, +East and West Porticoes.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 143px;"> +<a name="fig036" id="fig036"></a> +<img src="images/acec049.jpg" width="143" height="600" +alt="Showing double-headed bull capital on a more decorative column" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 36.—Column from +Persepolis, North Portico.</p> + +<p>On other terraces, slightly raised above the main platform, +exist the remains, in a more or less ruined condition, +of numerous other courts and halls, one of which has no +less than one hundred columns to support its roof, but the +height of this building was much inferior to that of the +Chehil Minar. The existence of these columns leaves no +doubt that these buildings were covered with flat roofs; +and that over part of them was a raised talar or prayer-platform +is rendered probable from the introduction of such +a feature into the sculptured representation of a palace +façade which forms the entrance to the rock-tomb of +Darius, which was cut out of the mountain at the back +of the terrace of Persepolis. The position of this tomb +on the general plan is marked B, and Fig. <a href="#fig037">37</a> is a view +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +of the entrance, which was probably intended as a copy +of one of the halls. All the walls of the palaces were +profusely decorated with sculptured pictures, and various +indications occur which induce the belief that painting +was used to decorate those portions of the walls that were +not faced with sculptured slabs.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 439px;"> +<a name="fig037" id="fig037"></a> +<img src="images/acec050.jpg" width="439" height="550" +alt="Showing the entrance with carvings of figures above it" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 37.—The Rock-cut Tomb of Darius.</p> + +<p>The superior lightness and elegance of the Persepolitan +ruins to those of an earlier epoch will not fail to be noticed, +but there is still a certain amount of barbaric clumsiness +discernible, and it is not till we come to Greek architecture +that we see how an innate genius for art and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +beauty, such as was possessed by that people, could cull +from previous styles everything capable of being used +with effect, and discard or prune off all the unnecessary +exuberances of those styles which offend a critically artistic +taste.</p> + + +<h3>ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.</h3> + + +<h4><i>Plan.</i></h4> + +<p>The floor-space of a great Assyrian or Medo-Persian +building was laid out on a plan quite distinct from that of +an Egyptian temple; for the rooms are almost always +grouped round quadrangles. The buildings are also placed +on terraces, and no doubt would secure external as well +as internal effects, to which the imposing flights of stairs +provided would largely contribute. We find in Assyrian +palaces, halls comparatively narrow in proportion to their +great length, but still so wide that the roofing of them +must have been a serious business, and we find them +arranged side by side, often three deep. In the Persian +buildings, halls nearly square on plan, and filled by a +multitude of columns, occur frequently. In the plan of +detached buildings like the Birs-i-Nimrud, we are reminded +of the pyramids of Egypt, which no doubt suggested the +idea of pyramidal monuments to all subsequent building +peoples.</p> + + +<h4><i>Walls.</i></h4> + +<p>The magnificently worked granite and stones of Egypt +give place to brick for the material of the walls, with the +result that a far larger space could be covered with buildings +by a given number of men in a given time, but of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +course the structures were far more liable to decay. +Accordingly, sturdy as their walls are, we find them at +the present day reduced to mere shapeless mounds, but of +prodigious extent.</p> + + +<h4><i>Roofs.</i></h4> + +<p>We can only judge of the roofs by inference, and it has +already been stated that a difference of opinion exists +respecting them. It appears most probable that a large +proportion of the buildings must have been roofed by +throwing timber beams from wall to wall and forming +a thick platform of earth on them, and must have been +lighted by some sort of clerestory. At any rate the +stone roofs of the Egyptians seem to have been discarded, +and with them the necessity for enormous columns and +piers placed very close together. In some bas-reliefs, +buildings with roofs of a domical shape are represented.</p> + + +<h4><i>Openings.</i></h4> + +<p>Doorways are the openings chiefly met with, and it is +not often that the superstructure, whether arch or lintel, +remains, but it is clear that in some instances, at least, +openings were arched. Great attention was paid to important +doorways, and a large amount of magnificent +sculpture was employed to enrich them.</p> + + +<h4><i>Columns.</i></h4> + +<p>The columns most probably were of wood in Assyrian +palaces. In some of the Persian ones they were of marble, +but of a proportion and treatment which point to an imitation +of forms suitable for wood. The bases and capitals +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +of these slender shafts are beautiful in themselves, and +very interesting as suggesting the source from which +some of the forms in Greek architecture were derived, +and on the bas-reliefs other architectural forms are represented +which were afterwards used by the Greeks.</p> + + +<h4><i>Ornaments.</i></h4> + +<p>Sculptured slabs, painted wall decorations, and terra-cotta +ornamentation were used as enrichments of the walls. +These slabs, which have become familiarly known through +the attention roused by the discoveries of Sir A. H. Layard +and the specimens sent by him to the British Museum, +are objects of the deepest interest; so are the carved bulls +from gateways. In the smaller and more purely ornamental +decorations the honeysuckle, and other forms +familiar to us from their subsequent adoption by Greek +artists, are met with constantly, executed with great +taste.</p> + + +<h4><i>Architectural Character.</i></h4> + +<p>A character of lavish and ornate magnificence is the +quality most strongly displayed by the architectural +remains of Western Asia, and could we have beheld any +one of the monuments before it was reduced to ruin, we +should probably have seen this predominant to an extent +of which it is almost impossible now to form an adequate +idea.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> In any such endeavour we should be met by the further difficulty, +that the writers of antiquity differ widely in the precise limits which they +give to the Assyrian Kingdom. Some make it include Babylon, other +writers say that it was bounded on the south by Babylon, and altogether +the greatest confusion exists in the accounts that have come down to us.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> As a matter of fact there is a marked distinction between the heads +of the animals of the east and west porticoes: those of the west are undoubtedly +bulls, but those of the east are grotesque mythological creatures +somewhat resembling the fabled unicorn.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig038" id="fig038"></a> +<img src="images/acec051.jpg" width="700" height="156" +alt="Showing a repeated floral design with bead pattern border at the bottom" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 38.—Sculptured Ornament at Allahabad.</p> + + + +<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<h3>ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<h4><i>Hindu Architecture.</i></h4> + +<p><span class="dropcap">H</span>INDU architecture is not only unfamiliar but uncongenial +to Western tastes; and as it has exercised no +direct influence upon the later styles of Europe, it will be +noticed in far less detail than the magnitude and importance +of many Indian buildings which have been examined +and measured during the last few years would otherwise +claim, although the exuberant wealth of ornament exhibited +in these buildings denotes an artistic genius of very high +order, if somewhat uncultured and barbaric. As by far the +largest number of Hindu buildings are of a date much later +than the commencement of our era, a strict adherence to +chronological sequence would scarcely allow the introduction +of this style so early in the present volume; but +we know that several centuries before Christ powerful +kingdoms and wealthy cities existed in India; and as it +seems clear also that in architecture and art, as well as in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +manners and customs, hardly any change<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> has occurred +from remote antiquity, it appeared allowable, as well as +convenient, that the short description we have to offer +should precede rather than follow that of the classical +styles properly so called. Here, as always when we +attempt to penetrate farther back than a certain date, +all is obscure and mythical. We find lists of kings +and dynasties going back thousands of years before our +era, but nothing at all to enable us to judge how much of +this may be taken as solid fact. Mr. Fergusson believes +he has discovered in one date, viz. 3101 <small>B.C.</small>, the first Aryan +settlement; but be this as it may, it is useless to look for +any architectural remains until after the death of Gotama +Buddha in 543 <small>B.C.</small>; in fact, it is very doubtful whether +remains can be authenticated until the reign of King +Asoka (<small>B.C.</small> 272 to <small>B.C.</small> 236), when Buddhism had spread +over almost the whole of the country, where it remained +the predominant cult until Brahmanism again asserted its +supremacy in the 14th century <small>A.D.</small></p> + +<p>The earliest, or among the earliest, architectural remains +are the inscribed pillars called Lâts, which are +found in numerous localities, but have been almost always +overthrown. Many of these were erected by the above-named +Asoka: they were ornamented with bands and +mouldings separating the inscriptions, and crowned by a +sort of capital, which was generally in the form of an +animal. One very curious feature in these pillars is the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +constant occurrence of a precise imitation of the well-known +honeysuckle ornament of the Greeks; this was probably +derived from the same source whence the Greeks obtained +it, namely Assyria. It is most probable that these pillars +served to ornament the approaches to some kind of sacred +enclosure or temple, of which, however, no remains have +been found.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 306px;"> +<a name="fig039" id="fig039"></a> +<img src="images/acec052.jpg" width="306" height="400" +alt="Showing steps leading up to dome with pinnacle" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 39.—Dagoba from Ceylon.</p> + +<p>Extremely early in date are some of the tumuli or topes +which exist in large numbers in various parts of India. +These are of two kinds,—the topes or stupas proper, which +were erected to commemorate some striking event or to +mark a sacred spot; and the dagobas, which were built +to cover the relics of Buddha himself or some Buddhist +saint. These topes consist of a slightly stilted hemispherical +dome surmounting a substructure, circular in +plan, which forms a sort of terrace, access to which is +obtained by steps. The domical shape was, however, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +external only, as on the inside the masonry was almost solid, +a few small cavities only being left for the protection of +various jewels, &c. The dome was probably surmounted +by a pinnacle, as shown in Fig. <a href="#fig039">39</a>. In the neighbourhood +of Bhilsa, in Central India, there are a large number of +these topes, of which the largest, that of Sanchi, measures +121 ft. in diameter and 55 ft. in height; it was erected +by King Asoka.</p> + +<p>Two kinds of edifices which are not tombs remain, +the chaityas (temples or halls of assembly) and viharas +or monasteries, which were generally attached to the +chaityas. These erections were either detached or cut +in the rock, and it is only the rock-cut ones of which +remains exist of an earlier date than the commencement of +the Christian era. The earliest specimen of a rock-cut +chaitya is in the Nigope cave, near Behar, constructed +about 200 <small>B.C.</small> This consists of two compartments, an +outer rectangular one 32 ft. 9 in. by 19 ft. 1 in., and +an inner circular one 19 ft. in diameter. The Lomas +Rishi cave is of a slightly later date: both of these +rock-cut temples exhibit in every detail a reproduction +of wooden forms. In the doorway the stone piers slope +inwards, just like raking wooden struts, and the upper +part represents the ends of longitudinal rafters supporting +a roof. Later on the builders emancipated themselves +to a certain extent from this servile adhesion to +older forms, and Fig. <a href="#fig040">40</a> gives a plan and section of a +later chaitya at Karli, near Poona. This bears a striking +resemblance to a Christian basilica:<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> there is first the forecourt; +then a rectangular space divided by columns into +nave and aisles, and terminated by a semicircular apse. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +The nave is 25 ft. 7 in. wide, and the aisles 10 ft. each, +the total length is 126 ft. Fifteen columns separate the +nave from the aisles, and these have bases, octagonal shafts, +and rich capitals. Round the apse the columns are replaced +by piers. The side aisles have flat roofs, and the central +nave a stilted semicircular one, practically a vault, which +at the apse becomes a semicircular dome, under which +is the dagoba, the symbol of Buddhism. The screen +separating the forecourt from the temple itself is richly +ornamented with sculpture.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig040" id="fig040"></a> +<img src="images/acec053.jpg" width="700" height="504" +alt="Showing section and plan of the chaitya" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 40.—Chaitya near Poona.</p> + +<p>The older viharas or monasteries were also cut in the rock +(Figs. <a href="#fig041">41</a>, <a href="#fig042">42</a>), and were divided into cells or chambers; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +they were several storeys in height, and it is probable that +the cells were used by devout Buddhists as habitations for +the purposes of meditation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig041" id="fig041"></a> +<img src="images/acec054.jpg" width="600" height="546" +alt="Showing a number of decorated buildings and a free-standing ornate column" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 41.—The Kylas at Ellora. A Rock-cut Monument.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 370px;"> +<a name="fig042" id="fig042"></a> +<img src="images/acec055.jpg" width="370" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 42.—Plan of the Kylas at Ellora. A Rock-cut Monument.</p> + +<p>Among the most remarkable, and in fact almost unique +features of Hindu Architecture are the so-called rails +which form enclosures sometimes round the topes and +sometimes round sacred trees. Occasionally they are +found standing alone, though when this is the case it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +probably on account of the object which was the cause of +their erection having perished. They are built of stone, +carved so as to represent a succession of perpendicular and +horizontal bands or rails, separated by a sort of pierced +panels. The carving is of the most elaborate description, +both human and animal forms being depicted with great +fidelity, and representations occur of various forms of tree +worship which have been of the greatest use in elucidating +the history of this phase of religious belief. Occasionally +the junctions of the rails are carved into a series of discs, +separated by elaborate scroll-work. These rails are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +frequently of very large dimensions, that at Bharhut—which +is one of the most recently discovered—measuring 275 ft. +in circumference, with a height of 22 ft. 6 in. The date +of these erections is frequently very difficult to determine, +but the chief authorities generally concur in the opinion +that none are found dating earlier than about 250 <small>B.C.</small>, nor +later than 500 <small>A.D.</small>, so that it is pretty certain they must +have been appropriated to some form of Buddhist worship.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 322px;"> +<a name="fig043" id="fig043"></a> +<img src="images/acec056.jpg" width="322" height="600" +alt="Showing an edifice of several storeys" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 43.—Vimana from Manasara.</p> + +<p>All the buildings that we have mentioned were devoted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +to the worship of Buddha, but the Jain schism, Brahmanism, +and other cults had their representative temples and buildings, +a full description of which would require a volume +many times larger than the present one. Many of the +late detached buildings display rich ornamentation and +elaborate workmanship. They are generally of a pyramidal +shape, several storeys in height, covered with intricately +cut mouldings and other fantastic embellishments.</p> + +<p>Columns are of all shapes and sizes, brackets frequently +take the place of capitals, and where capitals exist almost +every variety of fantastic form is found. It has been +stated that no fixed laws govern the plan or details of +Indian buildings, but there exists an essay on Indian +Architecture by Ram Raz—himself a Hindoo—which tends +to show that such a statement is erroneous, as he quotes +original works of considerable antiquity which lay down +stringent rules as to the planning of buildings, their height, +and the details of the columns. It is probable that a more +extended acquaintance with Hindu literature will throw +further light on these rules.</p> + +<p>Of the various invasions which have occurred some have +left traces in the architecture of India. None of these are +more interesting than certain semi-Greek forms which are +met with in the Northern Provinces, and which without +doubt are referable to the influence of the invasion under +Alexander the Great. A far more conspicuous and widespread +series of changes followed in the wake of the +Mohammedan invasions. We shall have an opportunity +later on of recurring to this subject,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> but it is one to which +attention should be called at this early stage, lest it should +be thought that a large and splendid part of Indian architecture +had been overlooked.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 226px;"> +<a name="fig044" id="fig044"></a> +<img src="images/acec057.jpg" width="226" height="400" +alt="Showing two curved brackets branching out from the capital" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 44.—Bracket Capital.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 289px;"> +<a name="fig045" id="fig045"></a> +<img src="images/acec058.jpg" width="289" height="500" +alt="Showing a decorative column" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 45.—Column from Ajunta.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 296px;"> +<a name="fig046" id="fig046"></a> +<img src="images/acec059.jpg" width="296" height="500" +alt="Showing a short decorative column" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 46.—Column from Ellora.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 194px;"> +<a name="fig047" id="fig047"></a> +<img src="images/acec060.jpg" width="194" height="500" +alt="Showing a plain column with curving capital" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 47.—Column from Ajunta.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>Chinese and Japanese Architecture.</i></h4> + +<p>Although the Chinese have existed as a nation, continuously +for between two and three thousand years, if +not longer, and at a very early period had arrived at a +high state of artistic and scientific cultivation, yet none +of their buildings with which we are acquainted has any +claim on our attention because of its antiquity. Several +reasons may be assigned for this, the principal being that +the Chinese seem to be as a race singularly unsusceptible +to all emotions. Although they reverence their dead +ancestors, yet this reverence never led them, as did that +of the Egyptians, Etruscans, and other nations, to a +lavish expenditure of labour or materials, to render +their tombs almost as enduring as the everlasting hills. +Though waves of religious zeal must have flowed over +the country when Confucius inculcated his simple and +practical morality and gained an influential following, +and again when Buddhism was introduced and speedily +became the religion of the greater portion of the people, +their religious emotion never led them, as it did the Greeks +and the Mediæval builders, to erect grand and lasting +monuments of sacred art. When most of the Western +nations were still barbarians, the Chinese had attained a +settled system of government, and were acquainted with +numerous scientific truths which we have prided ourselves +on rediscovering within the last two centuries; but no +thought ever seems to have occurred to them, as it did to +the Romans, of commemorating any event connected with +their life as a nation, or of handing down to posterity a +record of their great achievements. Peaceful and prosperous, +they have pursued the even tenor of their way at +a high level of civilisation certainly, but at a most monotonous +one.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +The Buddhist temples of China have a strong affinity +to those of India. The largest is that at Honan, the +southern suburb of Canton. This is 306 ft. long by 174 ft. +wide, and consists of a series of courts surrounded by colonnades +and cells for the <i>bonzes</i> or priests. In the centre +of the courtyard is a series of pavilions or temples connected +by passages, and devoted to the worship of the idols +contained in them. On each side of the main court, against +the outer wall, is another court, with buildings round it, +consisting of kitchen and refectories on the one side, and +hospital wards on the other. It is almost certain that this is +a reproduction of the earlier forms of chaityas and viharas +which existed in India, and have been already referred to. +The temple of Honan is two storeys in height, the building +itself being of stone, but the colonnade surrounding it is of +wood on marble bases. On the second storey the columns +are placed on two sides only, and not all round. The +columns have no capitals, but have projecting brackets. +The roof of each storey projects over the columns, and +has a curved section, which is, in fact, peculiar to Chinese +roofs, and it is enriched at the corners with carved beasts +and foliage. This is a very common form of temple +throughout China.</p> + +<p>The Taas or Pagodas are the buildings of China best +known to Europeans. These are nearly always octagonal +in plan, and consist generally of nine storeys, diminishing +both in height and breadth as they approach the top. +Each storey has a cornice composed of a fillet and large +hollow moulding, supporting a roof which is turned up +at every corner and ornamented with leaves and bells. +On the top of all is a long pole, forming a sort of spire, +surrounded by iron hoops, and supported by eight chains +attached to the summit and to each angle of the roof of +the topmost storey. The best known pagoda is that of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +Nankin, which is 40 ft. in diameter at its base, and is faced +inside and outside with white glazed porcelain slabs keyed +into the brick core. The roof tiles are also of porcelain, +in bands of green and yellow, and at each angle is a moulding +of larger tiles, red and green alternately. The effect +of the whole is wonderfully brilliant and dazzling. Apart +from the coloured porcelain, nearly every portion of a +Chinese temple or pagoda is painted, colour forming the +chief means of producing effect; but as nearly everything +is constructed of wood, there was and is no durability in +these edifices.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 436px;"> +<a name="fig048" id="fig048"></a> +<img src="images/acec061.jpg" width="436" height="500" +alt="A pagoda of three levels, built on a platform" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 48.—A Small Pagoda.</p> + +<p>In public works of utility, such as roads, canals—one +of which is nearly 700 miles in length—and boldly +designed bridges, the Chinese seem to have shown a +more enlightened mind; and the Great Wall, which was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +built to protect the northern boundary of the kingdom, +about 200 <small>B.C.</small>, is a wonderful example of engineering skill. +This wall, which varies from 15 to 30 ft. in height, is +about 25 ft. thick at the base, and slopes off to 20 ft. at +the top. It is defended by bastions placed at stated +intervals, which are 40 ft. square at the base, and about the +same in height; the wall is carried altogether through a +course of about 1400 miles, following all the sinuosities of +the ground over which it passes. It is a most remarkable +fact that a nation should have existed 2000 years ago +capable of originating and completing so great a work; but +it is still more remarkable that such a nation, possessing +moreover, as it does, a great faculty in decorative art +applied to small articles of use and fancy, should be still +leading a populous and prosperous existence, and yet should +have so little to show in the way of architecture, properly +so termed, at the present time.</p> + +<p>Japan, like China, possesses an architecture, but one +exclusively of wood; for although the use of stone for +bridges, walls, &c., had been general, all houses and temples +were invariably built of wood until the recent employment +of foreigners led to the erection of brick and stone buildings. +The consequence has been that nearly all the old temples +have been burnt down and rebuilt several times; and though +it is probable that the older forms were adhered to when +the buildings were re-erected, it is only by inference that +we can form an idea of the ancient architecture of the +country. The heavy curved roofs which are so characteristic +of Chinese buildings are found also in Japan, but only +in the Buddhist temples, and this makes it probable that +this form of roof is not of native origin, but was introduced +with the Buddhist cult. The earlier Shinto temples have +a different form of roof, which is without the upward +curve, but which has nearly as much projection at the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +eaves as the curved roofs. Where the buildings are more +than one storey in height the upper one is always set somewhat +back, as we saw was the case in the Chinese pagodas, +and considerable and pleasing variety is obtained by treating +the two storeys differently. Very great skill in carving +is shown, all the posts, brackets, beams, and projecting +rafters being formed into elaborate representations of animals +and plants, or quaintly conceived grotesques; and the +flat surfaces have frequently a shallow incised arabesque +pattern intertwined with foliage. The roofs are always +covered with tiles, and a curious effect is produced by +enriching the hips and ridges with several courses of tiles +in cement, thus making them rise considerably above +the other portions of the roof. A peculiar feature of +Japanese houses is that the walls, whether external or +internal, are not filled in with plaster, but are constructed +of movable screens which slide in grooves formed in the +framing of the partitions. Thus all the rooms can easily +be thrown together or laid open to the outer air in hot +weather. All travellers in Japan remark upon the impossibility +of obtaining privacy in the hotels in consequence +of this.</p> + +<p>The Shinto temples are approached through what might +be termed an archway, only that the arch does not enter +into its composition. This erection is called a Torii, and +is thus described by Professor Conder:<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>—“It is composed +of two upright posts of great thickness, each consisting +of the whole trunk of a tree rounded, about 15 ft. high, +and placed 12 ft. apart. Across the top of these is placed +a wooden lintel, projecting considerably and curving +upwards at the ends. Some few feet below this another +horizontal piece is tenoned into the uprights, having a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +little post in the centre helping to support the upper +lintel.” These erections occasionally occur in front of a +Buddhist temple, when they are built of stone, exactly +imitating, however, the wooden originals. This is interesting, +as offering another proof, were one needed, that the +curious forms of masonry exhibited in much of the work of +the early nations, some of which has been described, is the +result of an imitation of earlier wooden forms.</p> + +<p>The chief effect in the buildings of the Japanese is +intended to be produced by colour, which is profusely +used; and they have attained to a height of perfection +in the preparation of varnishes and lacquers that has +never been equalled. Their lacquer is used all over their +buildings, besides forming their chief means of decorating +small objects. It is, however, beginning to be questioned +whether the old art of lacquering is not becoming lost by +the Japanese themselves, as the modern work appears by +no means equal to the old. One curious form of decoration, +of which the Japanese are much enamoured, consists +in forming miniature representations of country scenes and +landscapes; waterfalls, bridges, &c., being reproduced on +the most diminutive scale. It is much to be feared that +our small stock of knowledge of ancient Japanese art will +never be greatly increased, as the whole country and the +people are becoming modernised and Europeanised to such +an extent that it appears probable there will soon be little +indigenous art left in the country.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt smlfont">It has not been thought necessary to append to this chapter +analyses of the Eastern styles similar to those which are given in the +case of the great divisions of Western Architecture. The notice of +these styles must unavoidably be condensed into very small space.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> It is not intended to imply that Hindustan has been without change +in her ruling dynasties. These have been continually changing; but the +remarkable fact is that, numerous as have been the nations that have +poured across the Indus attracted by “the wealth of Ind,” there has been +no reflux, as it were: the various peoples, with their arts, religions, and +manners, have been swallowed up and assimilated, leaving but here and +there slight traces of their origin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See Chap. <a href="#Page_198">XI.</a> for an illustration of a Christian Basilica.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_252">chapter</a> on Saracenic Architecture.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Paper communicated to the Royal Institute of Architects.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig049" id="fig049"></a> +<img src="images/acec062.jpg" width="600" height="153" +alt="Repeated pattern, alternately reversed, forming a linear design" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 49.—Greek Honeysuckle Ornament.</p> + + + +<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2> + +<h3>GREEK ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<h4><i>Buildings of the Doric Order.</i></h4> + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE architecture of Greece has a value far higher than +that attaching to any of the styles which preceded +it, on account of the beauty of the buildings and the +astonishing refinement which the best of them display. +This architecture has a further claim on our attention, as +being virtually the parent of that of all the nations of +Western Europe. We cannot put a finger upon any features +of Egyptian, Assyrian, or Persian architecture, the influence +of which has survived to the present day, except such as +were adopted by the Greeks. On the other hand, there is +no feature, no ornament, nor even any principle of design +which the Greek architects employed, that can be said to +have now become obsolete. Not only do we find direct +reproductions of Greek architecture forming part of the +practice of every European country, but we are able to +trace to Greek art the parentage of many of the forms and +features of Roman, Byzantine, and Gothic architecture, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +especially those connected with the column and which grew +out of its artistic use. Greek architecture did not include +the arch and all the forms allied to it, such as the vault +and the dome; and, so far as we know, the Greeks abstained +from the use of the tower. Examples of both +these features were, it is almost certain, as fully within +the knowledge of the Greeks as were those features of +Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian buildings which they +employed; consequently it is to deliberate selection that +we must attribute this exclusion. Within the limits by +which they confined themselves, the Greeks worked with +such power, learning, taste, and skill that we may fairly +claim for their highest achievement—the Parthenon—that +it advanced as near to absolute perfection as any +work of art ever has been or ever can be carried.</p> + +<p>Greek architecture seems to have begun to emerge from +the stage of archaic simplicity about the beginning of the +sixth century before the Christian era (600 <small>B.C.</small> is the +reputed date of the old Doric Temple at Corinth). All +the finest examples were erected between that date and +the death of Alexander the Great (333 <small>B.C.</small>), after which +period it declined and ultimately gave place to Roman.</p> + +<p>The domestic and palatial buildings of the Greeks have +decayed or been destroyed, leaving but few vestiges. We +know their architecture exclusively from ruins of public +buildings, and to a limited extent of sepulchral monuments +remaining in Greece and in Greek colonies. By far the +most numerous and excellent among these buildings are +temples. The Greek idea of a temple was different from +that entertained by the Egyptians. The building was to +a much greater extent designed for external effect than +internal. A comparatively small sacred cell was provided +for the reception of the image of the divinity, usually with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +one other cell behind it, which seems to have served as +treasury or sacristy; but there were no surrounding +chambers, gloomy halls, or enclosed courtyards, like those +of the Egyptian temples, visible only to persons admitted +within a jealously guarded outer wall. The temple, it is +true, often stood within some sort of precinct, but it was +accessible to all. It stood open to the sun and air; it +invited the admiration of the passer-by; its most telling +features and best sculpture were on the exterior. Whether +this may have been, to some extent, the case with Persian +buildings, we have few means of knowing, but certainly +the attention paid by the Greeks to the outside of their +temples offers a striking contrast to the practice of the +Egyptians, and to what we know of that of the Assyrians.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="fig050" id="fig050"></a> +<img src="images/acec063.jpg" width="400" height="252" +alt="Showing a simple building, steps on all sides, and two columns at each end" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 50.—Plan of a small Greek Temple in Antis.</p> + +<p>The temple, however grand, was always of simple form, +with a gable at each end, and in this respect differed +entirely from the series of halls, courts, and chambers of +which a great Egyptian temple consisted. In the very +smallest temple at least one of the gables was made into a +portico by the help of columns and two pilasters (Fig. <a href="#fig050">50</a>). +More important temples had a larger number of columns, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +and often a portico at each end (Figs. <a href="#fig050a">50<span class="smcap">a</span></a> and <a href="#fig055">55</a>). The +most important had columns on the flanks as well as at the +front and rear, the sacred cell being, in fact, surrounded +by them. It will be apparent from this that the column, +together with the superstructure which rested upon it, +must have played a very important part in Greek temple-architecture, +and an inspection of any representations of +Greek buildings will at once confirm the impression.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 350px;"> +<a name="fig050a" id="fig050a"></a> +<img src="images/acec064.jpg" width="350" height="258" +alt="Showing a simple building, with surrounding steps and four columns at each end" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 50a.—Plan of a small Greek Temple.</p> + +<p>We find in Greece three distinct manners, distinguished +largely by the mode in which the column is dealt with. +These it would be quite consistent to call “styles,” were +it not that another name has been so thoroughly appropriated +to them, that they would hardly now be recognised +were they to be spoken of as anything else than +“orders.” The Greek orders are named the Doric, Ionic, +and Corinthian. Each of them presents a different series +of proportions, mouldings, features, and ornaments, though +the main forms of the buildings are the same in all. The +column and its entablature (the technical name for the +frieze, architrave, and cornice, forming the usual superstructure) +being the most prominent features in every +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +such building, have come to be regarded as the index or +characteristic from an inspection of which the order and +the degree of its development can be recognised, just as +a botanist recognises plants by their flowers. By reproducing +the column and entablature, almost all the characteristics +of either of the orders can be copied; and hence +a technical and somewhat unfortunate use of the word +“order” to signify these features only has crept in, and has +overshadowed and to a large extent displaced its wider +meaning. It is difficult in a book on architecture to +avoid employing the word “order” when we have to speak +of a column and its entablature, because it has so often +been made use of in this sense. The student must, however, +always bear in mind that this is a restricted and +artificial sense of the word, and that the column belonging +to any order is always accompanied by the use throughout +the building of the appropriate proportions, ornaments, +and mouldings belonging to that order.</p> + +<p>The origin of Greek architecture is a very interesting +subject for inquiry, but, owing to the disappearance of +almost all very early examples of the styles, it is necessarily +obscure. Such information, however, as we possess, +taken together with the internal evidence afforded by the +features of the matured style, points to the influence of +Egypt, to that of Assyria and Persia, and to an early +manner of timber construction—the forms proper to +which were retained in spite of the abandonment of +timber for marble—as all contributing to the formation +of Greek architecture.</p> + +<p>In Asia Minor a series of monuments, many of them +rock-cut, has been discovered, which throw a curious +light upon the early growth of architecture. We refer +to tombs found in Lycia, and attributed to about the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +seventh century <small>B.C.</small> In these we obviously have the +first work in stone of a nation of ship builders. A Lycian +tomb—such as the one now to be seen, accurately restored, +in the British Museum—represents a structure of beams +of wood framed together, surmounted by a roof which +closely resembles a boat turned upside down. The planks, +the beams to which they were secured, and even a ridge +similar to the keel of a vessel, all reappear here, showing +that the material in use for building was so universally +timber, that when the tomb was to be “graven in the rock +for ever” the forms of a timber structure were those that +presented themselves to the imagination of the sculptor. +In other instances the resemblance to shipwrights’ work +disappears, and that of a carpenter is followed by that of +the mason. Thus we find imitations of timber beams +framed together and of overhanging low-pitched roofs, +in some cases carried on unsquared rafters lying side by +side, in several of these tombs.</p> + +<p>What happened on the Asiatic shore of the Egean must +have occurred on the Greek shores, and though none of +the very earliest specimens of reproduction in stone of +timber structures has come down to us, there are abundant +traces, as we shall presently see, of timber originals in +buildings of the Doric order. Timber originals were not, +however, the only sources from which the early inhabitants +of Greece drew their inspiration.</p> + +<p>Constructions of extreme antiquity, and free from any +appearance of imitating structures of timber, mark the sites +of the oldest cities of Greece, Mycenæ and Orchomenos for +example, the most ancient being Pelasgic city walls of unwrought +stone (Fig. <a href="#fig051">51</a>). The so-called Treasury of Atreus +at Mycenæ, a circular underground chamber 48 ft. 6 in. +in diameter, and with a pointed vault, is a well-known +specimen of more regular yet archaic building. Its vault +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +is constructed of stones corbelling over one another, and +is not a true arch (Figs. <a href="#fig052">52</a>, <a href="#fig052a">52<span class="smcap">a</span></a>). The treatment of an +ornamental column found here, and of the remains of +sculptured ornaments over a neighbouring gateway called +the Gate of the Lions, is of very Asiatic character, and +seems to show that whatever influences had been brought +to bear on their design were Oriental.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig051" id="fig051"></a> +<img src="images/acec065.jpg" width="500" height="343" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 51.—Ancient Greek Wall of Unwrought Stone from Samothrace.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 226px;"> +<a name="fig052" id="fig052"></a> +<img src="images/acec066.jpg" width="226" height="300" +alt="Showing entrance leading to round chamber with a side chamber" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 52.—Plan of the Treasury +of Atreus at Mycenæ.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="fig052a" id="fig052a"></a> +<img src="images/acec067.jpg" width="300" height="213" +alt="Showing the beehive-shaped round chamber" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 52a.—Section of the Treasury +of Atreus at Mycenæ.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 230px;"> +<a name="fig053" id="fig053"></a> +<img src="images/acec068.png" width="230" height="275" +alt="Showing highly curved top" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 53.—Greek Doric Capital +from Selinus.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 230px;"> +<a name="fig053a" id="fig053a"></a> +<img src="images/acec069.png" width="230" height="275" +alt="Showing slightly curved top" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 53a.—Greek Doric +Capital from the Theseum.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 226px;"> +<a name="fig053b" id="fig053b"></a> +<img src="images/acec070.png" width="226" height="275" +alt="Showing uncurved top" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 53b.—Greek Doric Capital from Samothrace.</p> + +<p>A wide interval of time and a great contrast in taste +separate the early works of Pelasgic masonry and even +the chamber at Mycenæ from even the rudest and most +archaic of the remaining Hellenic works of Greece. The +Doric temple at Corinth is attributed, as has been stated, +to the seventh century <small>B.C.</small> This was a massive masonry +structure with extremely short, stumpy columns, and +strong mouldings, but presenting the main features of the +Doric style, as we know it, in its earliest and rudest form. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +Successive examples (Figs. <a href="#fig053">53</a> to <a href="#fig053b">53<span class="smcap">b</span></a>) show increasing +slenderness of proportions and refinement of treatment, +and are accompanied by sculpture which approaches nearer +and nearer to perfection; but in the later and best buildings, +as in the earliest and rudest, certain forms are +retained for which it seems impossible to account, except +on the supposition that they are reproductions in stone or +marble of a timber construction. These occur in the entablature, +while the column is of a type which it is hard to +believe is not copied from originals in use in Egypt many +centuries earlier, and already described (chap. <a href="#Page_14">II.</a>).</p> + +<p>We will now proceed to examine a fully-developed +Greek Doric temple of the best period, and in doing so +we shall be able to recognise the forms referred to in the +preceding paragraph as we come to them. The most complete +Greek Doric temple was the Parthenon, the work of +the architect Ictinus, the temple of the Virgin Goddess +Athene (Minerva) at Athens, and on many accounts this +building will be the best to select for our purpose.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig054" id="fig054"></a> +<img src="images/acec071.jpg" width="700" height="433" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 54.—Ruins of the Parthenon at Athens.</p> + +<p>The Parthenon at Athens stood on the summit of a lofty +rock, and within an irregularly shaped enclosure, something +like a cathedral close; entered through a noble gateway.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> +The temple itself was of perfectly regular plan, and stood +quite free from dependencies of any sort. It consisted of +a cella, or sacred cell, in which stood the statue of the +goddess, with one chamber (the treasury) behind. In the +cella, and also in the chamber behind, there were columns. +A series of columns surrounded this building, and at +either end was a portico, eight columns wide, and two +deep. There were two pediments, or gables, of flat +pitch, one at each end. The whole stood on a basement +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"><!-- original location of Fig. 54 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +of steps; the building, exclusive of the steps, being +228 ft. long by 101 ft. wide, and 64 ft. high. The columns +were each 34 ft. 3 in. high, and more than 6 ft. in diameter +at the base; a portion of the shaft and of the capital of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +one is in the British Museum, and a magnificent reproduction, +full size, of the column and its entablature may +be seen at the École des Beaux Arts, Paris. The ornaments +consisted almost exclusively of sculpture of the +very finest quality, executed by or under the superintendence +of Pheidias. Of this sculpture many specimens +are now in the British Museum.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 402px;"> +<a name="fig055" id="fig055"></a> +<img src="images/acec072.jpg" width="402" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 55.—Plan of the Parthenon at Athens.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig056" id="fig056"></a> +<img src="images/acec073.jpg" width="500" height="477" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 56.—The Roof of a Greek Doric Temple, showing the Marble Tiles.</p> + +<p>The construction of this temple was of the most solid +and durable kind, marble being the material used; and +the workmanship was most careful in every part of which +remains have come down to us. The roof was, no doubt, +made of timber and covered with marble tiles (Fig. <a href="#fig056">56</a>), +carried on a timber framework, all traces of which have entirely +perished; and the mode in which it was constructed +is a subject upon which authorities differ, especially as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +to what provision was made for the admission of light. +The internal columns, found in other temples as well +as in the Parthenon, were no doubt employed to support +this roof, as is shown in Bötticher’s restoration of the +Temple at Pæstum which we reproduce (Fig. <a href="#fig056a">56<span class="smcap">a</span></a>), though +without pledging ourselves to its accuracy; for, indeed, it +seems probable that something more or less like the clerestory +of a Gothic church must have been employed to +admit light to these buildings, as we know was the case +in the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. But this structure, if +it existed, has entirely disappeared.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig056a" id="fig056a"></a> +<img src="images/acec074.jpg" width="600" height="392" +alt="Showing internal columns employed to support the roof" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 56a.—Section of the Greek Doric Temple at Pæstum. As restored by +Bötticher.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 288px;"> +<a name="fig057" id="fig057"></a> +<img src="images/acec075t.jpg" width="288" height="500" +alt="Showing the different elements of the Doric order" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/acec075.jpg">See larger image.</a></span> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 57.—The Greek Doric Order from the Theseum.</p> + +<p>The order of the Parthenon was Doric, and the leading +proportions were as follows:—The column was 5·56 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"><!-- original location of Fig. 57 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +diameters high; the whole height, including the stylobate +or steps, might be divided into nine parts, of which two +go to the stylobate, six to the column, and one to the +entablature.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="fig058" id="fig058"></a> +<img src="images/acec076.png" width="225" height="223" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 58.—Plan of a Greek +Doric Column.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="fig059" id="fig059"></a> +<img src="images/acec077.png" width="200" height="141" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 59.—The Fillets +under a Greek Doric +Capital.</p> + +<p>The Greek Doric order is without a base; the shaft of +the column springs from the top step and tapers towards +the top, the outline being not, however, straight, but of a +subtle curve, known technically as the entasis of the +column. This shaft is channelled with twenty shallow +channels,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> the ridges separating one from another being +very fine lines. A little below the moulding of the +capital, fine sinkings, forming lines round the shaft, exist, +and above these the channels of the flutes are stopped +by or near the commencement of the projecting moulding +of the capital. This moulding, which is of a section +calculated to convey the idea of powerful support, is +called the echinus, and its lower portion is encircled by a +series of fillets (Fig. <a href="#fig059">59</a>), which are cut into it. Above +the echinus, which is circular, like the shaft, comes the +highest member—the abacus, a square stout slab of +marble, which completes the capital of the column. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +whole is most skilfully designed to convey the idea of +sturdy support, and yet to clothe the support with grace. +The strong proportions of the shaft, the slight curve +of its outline, the lines traced upon its surface by the +channels, and even the vigorous uncompromising planting +of it on the square step from which it springs, all contribute +to make the column look strong. The check given +to the vigorous upward lines of the channels on the shaft +by the first sinkings, and their arrest at the point where +the capital spreads out, intensified as it is by the series of +horizontal lines drawn round the echinus by the fillets +cut into it, all seem to convey the idea of spreading the +supporting energy of the column outwards; and the abacus +appears naturally fitted, itself inert, to receive a burden +placed upon it and to transmit its pressure to the capital +and shaft below.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig060" id="fig060"></a> +<img src="images/acec078.jpg" width="500" height="310" +alt="Showing key and leaf patterns" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 60.—Capital of a Greek Doric Column from Ægina, +with coloured decoration.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 550px;"> +<a name="fig061" id="fig061"></a> +<img src="images/acec079.jpg" width="550" height="550" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 61.—Section of the Entablature of the Greek Doric Order.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig062" id="fig062"></a> +<img src="images/acec080.jpg" width="500" height="260" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 62.—Plan looking up of part of a Greek Doric Peristyle.</p> + +<p>The entablature which formed the superstructure consisted +first of a square marble beam—the architrave, +which, it may be assumed, represents a square timber +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +beam that occupied the same position in the primitive +structures. On this rests a second member called the +frieze, the prominent feature of which is a series of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +slightly projecting features, known as triglyphs (three +channels) (Fig. <a href="#fig063">63</a>), from the channels running down +their face. These closely resemble, and no doubt actually +represent, the ends of massive timber beams, which must +have connected the colonnade to the wall of the cell in +earlier buildings. At the bottom of each is a row of +small pendants, known as guttæ, which closely resemble +wooden pins, such as would be used to keep a timber +beam in place. The panels between the triglyphs are +usually as wide as they are high. They are termed +metopes and sculpture commonly occupies them. The +third division of the entablature, the cornice represents +the overhanging eaves of the roof.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 350px;"> +<a name="fig063" id="fig063"></a> +<img src="images/acec081.jpg" width="350" height="281" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 63.—Details of the Triglyph.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 230px;"> +<a name="fig064" id="fig064"></a> +<img src="images/acec082.jpg" width="230" height="350" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 64.—Details of the +Mutules.</p> + +<p>The cornices employed in classic architecture may be +almost invariably subdivided into three parts: the supporting +part, which is the lowest,—the projecting part, which is +the middle,—and the crowning part, which is the highest +division of the cornice. The supporting part in a Greek +Doric cornice is extremely small. There are no mouldings, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +such as we shall find in almost every other cornice, +calculated to convey the idea of contributing to sustain +the projection of the cornice, but there are slabs of marble, +called mutules (Fig. <a href="#fig064">64</a>), dropping towards the outer end, +of which one is placed over each triglyph and one between +every two. These seem to recall, by their shape, their +position, and their slope alike, the ends of the rafters of +a timber roof; and their surface is covered with small projections +which resemble the heads of wooden pins, similar +to those already alluded to. The projecting part, in this +as in almost all cornices, is a plain upright face of some +height, called “the corona,” and recalling probably a +“facia” or flat narrow board such as a carpenter of the +present day would use in a similar position, secured in the +original structure to the ends of the rafters and supporting +the eaves. Lastly, the crowning part is, in the Greek +Doric, a single convex moulding, not very dissimilar in +profile to the ovolo of the capital, and forming what we +commonly call an eaves-gutter.</p> + +<p>At the ends of the building the two upper divisions of +the cornice—namely, the projecting corona and the crowning +ovolo—are made to follow the sloping line of the gable, +a second corona being also carried across horizontally in a +manner which can be best understood by inspecting a +diagram of the corner of a Greek Doric building (Fig. <a href="#fig057">57</a>); +and the triangular space thus formed was termed a pediment, +and was the position in which the finest of the sculpture +with which the building was enriched was placed.</p> + +<p>In the Parthenon a continuous band of sculpture ran +round the exterior of the cell, near the top of the wall.</p> + +<p>One other feature was employed in Greek temple-architecture. +The <i>anta</i> was a square pillar or pier of masonry +attached to the wall, and corresponded very closely to our +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +pilaster; but its capital always differed from that of the +columns in the neighbourhood of which it was employed. +The antæ of the Greek Doric order, as employed in the +Parthenon, have a moulded base, which it will be remembered +is not the case with the column, and their +capital has for its principal feature an under-cut moulding, +known as the bird’s beak, quite dissimilar from the +ovolo of the capital of the column (Fig. <a href="#fig065">65</a>). Sometimes +the portico of a temple consisted of the side walls prolonged, +and ending in two antæ, with two or more columns +standing between them. Such a portico is said to be in +antis.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="fig065" id="fig065"></a> +<img src="images/acec083.jpg" width="400" height="120" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 65.—Elevation and Section of the Capital of a Greek Anta, +with coloured decoration.</p> + +<p>The Parthenon presents examples of the most extraordinary +refinements in order to correct optical illusions. +The delicacy and subtlety of these are extreme, but there +can be no manner of doubt that they existed. The best +known correction is the diminution in diameter or taper, +and the <i>entasis</i> or convex curve of the tapered outline of the +shaft of the column. Without the taper, which is perceptible +enough in the order of this building, and much +more marked in the order of earlier buildings, the columns +would look top-heavy; but the entasis is an additional +optical correction to prevent their outline from appearing +hollowed, which it would have done had there been no curve. +The columns of the Parthenon have shafts that are over +34 ft. high, and diminish from a diameter of 6·15 ft. at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +the bottom to 4·81 ft. at the top. The outline between +these points is convex, but so slightly so that the curve +departs at the point of greatest curvature not more than +¾ in. from the straight line joining the top and bottom. +This is, however, just sufficient to correct the tendency to +look hollow in the middle.</p> + +<p>A second correction is intended to overcome the apparent +tendency of a building to spread outwards towards +the top. This is met by inclining the columns slightly +inwards. So slight, however, is the inclination, that were +the axes of two columns on opposite sides of the Parthenon +continued upwards till they met, the meeting-point +would be 1952 yards, or, in other words, more than +one mile from the ground.</p> + +<p>Another optical correction is applied to the horizontal +lines. In order to overcome a tendency which exists in all +long lines to seem as though they droop in the middle, +the lines of the architrave, of the top step, and of other +horizontal features of the building, are all slightly curved. +The difference between the outline of the top step of the +Parthenon and a straight line joining its two ends is at +the greatest only just over 2 inches.</p> + +<p>The last correction which it is necessary to name here +was applied to the vertical proportions of the building. +The principles upon which this correction rests have been +demonstrated by Mr. John Pennethorne;<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> and it would +hardly come within the scope of this volume to attempt +to state them here: suffice it to say, that small additions, +amounting in the entire height of the order to less +than 5 inches, were made to the heights of the various +members of the order, with a view to secure that from +one definite point of view the effect of foreshortening +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +should be exactly compensated, and so the building should +appear to the spectator to be perfectly proportioned.</p> + +<p>The Parthenon, like many, if not all Greek buildings, +was profusely decorated with coloured ornaments, of which +nearly every trace has now disappeared, but which must +have contributed largely to the splendid beauty of the +building as a whole, and must have emphasised and set +off its parts. The ornaments known as Doric frets were +largely employed. They consist of patterns made entirely +of straight lines interlacing, and, while preserving the +severity which is characteristic of the style, they permit +of the introduction of considerable richness.</p> + +<p>The principal remaining examples or fragments of Greek +Doric may be enumerated as follows:—</p> + + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="smcap">In Greece.</p> + +<p>Temple of (?) Athena, at Corinth, ab. 650 <small>B.C.</small><br /> +Temple of (?) Zeus, in the island of Ægina, ab. 550 <small>B.C.</small><br /> +Temple of Theseus (Theseum), at Athens, 465 <small>B.C.</small><br /> +Temple of Athena (Parthenon), on the Acropolis at Athens, fin. 438 <small>B.C.</small><br /> +The Propylæa, on the Acropolis at Athens, 436-431 <small>B.C.</small><br /> +Temple of Zeus at Olympia.<br /> +Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bassæ,<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> in Arcadia (designed by Ictinus).<br /> +Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Phigaleia, in Arcadia (built by Ictinus).<br /> +Temple of Athena, on the rock of Sunium, in Attica.<br /> +Temple of Nemesis, at Rhamnus, in Attica.<br /> +Temple of Demeter (Ceres), at Eleusis, in Attica.</p> + +<p class="smcap">In Sicily and South Italy.</p> + +<p>Temple of (?) Zeus, at Agrigentum, in Sicily (begun <small>B.C.</small> 480).<br /> +Temple at Ægesta (or Segesta), in Sicily.<br /> +Temple of (?) Zeus, at Selinus, in Sicily (? ab. 410 <small>B.C.</small>).<br /> +Temple of (?) Athena, at Syracuse, in Sicily.<br /> +Temple of Poseidon, at Pæstum, in South of Italy (? ab. 550 <small>B.C.</small>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> See <a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a> and Figs. <a href="#fig054">54</a> and <a href="#fig055">55</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The Propylæa.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Mr. Fergusson’s investigations, soon, it is understood, to be published +in a complete form, clearly show that the clerestory and roof can be +restored with the greatest probability.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> In a few instances a smaller number is found.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> ‘Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> ? Exterior Doric—Interior Ionic.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 650px;"> +<a name="fig066" id="fig066"></a> +<img src="images/acec084.jpg" width="650" height="267" +alt="Repeated linear design" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 66.—Palmette and Honeysuckle.</p> + + + +<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2> + +<h3>GREEK ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<h4><i>Buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.</i></h4> + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE Doric was the order in which the full strength and +the complete refinement of the artistic character of +the Greeks were most completely shown. There was a great +deal of the spirit of severe dignity proper to Egyptian +art in its aspect; but other nationalities contributed to +the formation of the many-sided Greek nature, and we +must look to some other country than Egypt for the spirit +which inspired the Ionic order. This seems to have been +brought into Greece by a distinct race, and shows marks +of an Asiatic origin. The feature which is most distinctive +is the one most distinctly Eastern—the capital of +the column, ornamented always by volutes, <i>i.e.</i> scrolls, +which bear a close resemblance to features similarly +employed in the columns found at Persepolis. The same +resemblance can be also detected in the moulded bases, +and even the shafts of the columns, and in many of the +ornaments employed throughout the buildings.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="fig067" id="fig067"></a> +<img src="images/acec085.png" width="225" height="224" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 67.—Shaft of Ionic +Column showing the Flutes.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 425px;"> +<a name="fig068" id="fig068"></a> +<img src="images/acec086.jpg" width="425" height="298" +alt="Showing palmette and honeysuckle design" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 68.—Ionic Capital. Front Elevation.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="fig069" id="fig069"></a> +<img src="images/acec087.jpg" width="300" height="292" +alt="Showing palmette and honeysuckle design" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 69.—Ionic Capital. Side +Elevation.</p> + +<p>In form and disposition an ordinary Ionic temple was +similar to one of the Doric order, but the general proportions +are more slender, and the mouldings of the order +are more numerous and more profusely enriched. The +column in the Ionic order had a base, often elaborately +and sometimes singularly moulded (Figs. <a href="#fig074">74</a>, <a href="#fig075">75</a>). The +shaft (Figs. <a href="#fig067">67</a>, <a href="#fig070">70</a>) is of more slender proportions than +the Doric shaft. It was fluted, but its channels are more +numerous, and are separated from one another by broader +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +fillets than in the Doric. The distinctive feature, as in +all the orders, is the capital (Figs. <a href="#fig068">68</a>, <a href="#fig069">69</a>), which is +recognised at a glance by the two remarkable ornaments +already alluded to as like scrolls, and known as volutes. +These generally formed the faces of a pair of cushion-shaped +features, which could be seen in a side view of +the capital; but sometimes volutes stand in a diagonal +position, and in almost every building they differ slightly. +The abacus is less deep than in the Greek Doric, and +it is always moulded at the edge, which was never the +case with the Doric abacus. The entablature (Fig. <a href="#fig070">70</a>) +is, generally speaking, richer than that of the Doric order. +The architrave, for example, has three facias instead of +being plain. On the other hand, the frieze has no triglyphs, +and but rarely sculpture. There are more members in +the cornice, several mouldings being combined to fortify +the supporting portion. These have sometimes been +termed “the bed mouldings,” and among them occurs one +which is almost typical of the order, and is termed a +dentil band. This moulding presents the appearance of +a plain square band of stone, in which a series of cuts had +been made dividing it into blocks somewhat resembling +teeth, whence the name. Such an ornament is more +naturally constructed in wood than in stone or marble, but +if the real derivation of the Ionic order, as of the Doric, +be in fact from timber structures, the dentil band is +apparently the only feature in which that origin can now +be traced. The crowning member of the cornice is a +partly hollow moulding, technically called a “cyma recta,” +less vigorous than the convex ovolo, of the Doric: this +moulding, and some of the bed mouldings, were commonly +enriched with carving. Altogether more slenderness +and less vigour, more carved enrichment and less +painted decoration, more reliance on architectural ornament +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"><!-- original location of Fig. 70 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"><!-- original location of Fig. 71 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +and less on the work of the sculptor, appear to +distinguish those examples of Greek Ionic which have +come down to us, as compared with Doric buildings.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 407px;"> +<a name="fig070" id="fig070"></a> +<img src="images/acec088.jpg" width="407" height="700" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 70.—The Ionic Order. From Priene, Asia Minor.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 280px;"> +<a name="fig071" id="fig071"></a> +<img src="images/acec089t.jpg" width="280" height="500" +alt="Diagram showing elements of the Ionic order" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/acec089.jpg">See larger image.</a></span> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 71.—Ionic Order. From the Erechtheium, Athens.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig072" id="fig072"></a> +<img src="images/acec090.jpg" width="600" height="476" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 72.—North-west View of the Erechtheium, in the Time of Pericles.</p> + +<p>The most numerous examples of the Ionic order of +which remains exist are found in Asia Minor, but the +most refined and complete is the Erechtheium at Athens +(Figs. <a href="#fig072">72</a>, <a href="#fig073">73</a>), a composite structure containing three +temples built in juxtaposition, but differing from one +another in scale, levels, dimensions, and treatment. The +principal order from the Erechtheium (Fig. <a href="#fig071">71</a>) shows a +large amount of enrichment introduced with the most +refined and severe taste. Specially remarkable are the +ornaments (borrowed from the Assyrian honeysuckle) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +which encircle the upper part of the shaft at the point +where it passes into the capital, and the splendid spirals +of the volutes (Figs. <a href="#fig068">68</a>, <a href="#fig069">69</a>). The bases of the columns +in the Erechtheium example are models of elegance and +beauty. Those of some of the examples from Asia Minor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +are overloaded with a vast number of mouldings, by no +means always producing a pleasing effect (Figs. <a href="#fig074">74</a>, <a href="#fig075">75</a>). +Some of them bear a close resemblance to the bases of the +columns at Persepolis.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig073" id="fig073"></a> +<img src="images/acec091.jpg" width="500" height="412" +alt="Showing position of columns and other features" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 73.—Plan of the Erechtheium.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 207px;"> +<a name="fig074" id="fig074"></a> +<img src="images/acec092.png" width="207" height="275" +alt="Showing layers of mouldings" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 74.—Ionic Base from the +Temple of the Wingless Victory +(Nikè Apteros).</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="fig075" id="fig075"></a> +<img src="images/acec093.png" width="275" height="274" +alt="Showing many layers of mouldings" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 75.—Ionic Base Mouldings +from Priene.</p> + +<p>The most famous Greek building which was erected in +the Ionic style was the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. +This temple has been all but totally destroyed, and the +very site of it had been for centuries lost and unknown +till the energy and sagacity of an English architect (Mr. +Wood) enabled him to discover and dig out the vestiges +of the building. Fortunately sufficient traces of the +foundation have remained to render it possible to recover +the plan of the temple completely; and the discovery of +fragments of the order, together with representations on +ancient coins and a description by Pliny, have rendered +it possible to make a restoration on paper, of the general +appearance of this famous temple, which must be very +nearly, if not absolutely, correct.</p> + +<p>The walls of this temple enclosed, as usual, a cella (in +which was the statue of the goddess), with apparently +a treasury behind it: they were entirely surrounded by a +double series of columns, with a pediment at each end. +The exterior of the building, including these columns, was +about twice the width of the cella. The whole structure, +which was of marble, was planted on a spacious platform +with steps. The account of Pliny refers to thirty-six +columns, which he describes as “<i>columnæ celatæ</i>” (sculptured +columns), adding that one was by Scopas, a very +celebrated artist. The fortunate discovery by Mr. Wood +of a few fragments of these columns shows that the lower +part of the shaft immediately above the base was enriched +by a group of figures—about life-size—carved in the +boldest relief and encircling the column. One of these +groups has been brought to the British Museum, and its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +beauty and vigour enable the imagination partly to restore +this splendid feature, which certainly was one of the most +sumptuous modes of decorating a building by the aid of +sculpture which has ever been attempted; and the effect +must have been rich beyond description.</p> + +<p>It is worth remark that the Erechtheium, which has +been already referred to, contains an example of a different, +and perhaps a not less remarkable, mode of combining +sculpture with architecture. In one of its three porticoes +(Fig. <a href="#fig072">72</a>) the columns are replaced by standing female +figures, known as caryatidæ, and the entablature rests on +their heads. This device has frequently been repeated in +ancient and in modern architecture, but, except in some +comparatively obscure examples, the sculptured columns +of Ephesus do not appear to have been imitated.</p> + +<p>Another famous Greek work of art, the remains of +which have been, like the Temple of Diana, disinterred by +the energy and skill of a learned Englishman, belonged +to the Ionic order. To Mr. Newton we owe the recovery +of the site, and considerable fragments of the architectural +features, of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the +ancient wonders of the world. The general outline of +this monument must have resembled other Greek tombs +which have been preserved, such, for example, as the Lion +Tomb at Cnidus; that is to say, the plan was square: +there was a basement, above this an order, and above that +a steep pyramidal roof rising in steps, not carried to a +point, but stopping short to form a platform, on which +was placed a quadriga (or four-horsed chariot). This +building is known to have been richly sculptured, and +many fragments of great beauty have been recovered. +Indeed it was probably its elaboration, as well as its +very unusual height (for the Greek buildings were seldom +lofty), which led to its being so celebrated.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 306px;"> +<a name="fig076" id="fig076"></a> +<img src="images/acec094.jpg" width="306" height="700" +alt="Showing columns with decorated frieze above, including figures and inscription" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 76.—The Corinthian Order. From the Monument of Lysicrates at Athens.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 411px;"> +<a name="fig077" id="fig077"></a> +<img src="images/acec095.jpg" width="411" height="450" +alt="Featuring floral and foliage design" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 77.—Corinthian Capital from the Monument of Lysicrates at Athens.</p> + +<p>The Corinthian order, the last to make its appearance, +was almost as much Roman as Greek, and is hardly found +in any of the great temples of the best period of which +remains exist in Greece, though we hear of its use. For +example, Pausanias states that the Corinthian order was +employed in the interior of the Temple of Athena Alea at +Tegea, built by Scopas, to which a date shortly after the +year 394 <small>B.C.</small> is assigned. The examples which we possess +are comparatively small works, and in them the order +resembles the Ionic, but with the important exceptions +that the capital of the column is quite different, that the +proportions are altogether a little slenderer, and that the +enrichments are somewhat more florid.</p> + +<div class="figcenter padtop" style="width: 267px;"> +<a name="fig078" id="fig078"></a> +<img src="images/acec096.jpg" width="267" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 78.—Monument of Lysicrates at Athens, as in the Time of Pericles.</p> + +<p>The capital of the Greek Corinthian order, as seen in +the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates at Athens (Fig. <a href="#fig078">78</a>)—a +comparatively miniature example, but the most perfect +we have—is a work of art of marvellous beauty (Fig. <a href="#fig077">77</a>). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"><!-- original location of Fig. 78 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +It retains a feature resembling the Ionic volute, but +reduced to a very small size, set obliquely and appearing +to spring from the sides of a kind of long bell-shaped +termination to the column. This bell is clothed with +foliage, symmetrically arranged and much of it studied, +but in a conventional manner, from the graceful foliage +of the acanthus; between the two small volutes appears +an Assyrian honeysuckle, and tendrils of honeysuckle, +conventionally treated, occupy part of the upper portion +of the capital. The abacus is moulded, and is curved on +plan, and the base of the capital is marked by a very +unusual turning-down of the flutes of the columns. The +entire structure to which this belonged is a model of +elegance, and the large sculptured mass of leaves and +tendrils with which it is crowned is especially noteworthy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="fig079" id="fig079"></a> +<img src="images/acec097.jpg" width="250" height="250" +alt="Showing floral design" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 79.—Capital of Antæ from Miletus. Side View.</p> + +<p>A somewhat simpler Corinthian capital, and another of +very rich design, are found in the Temple of Apollo Didymæus +at Miletus, where also a very elegant capital for the +antæ—or pilasters—is employed (Figs. <a href="#fig079">79</a>, <a href="#fig081">81</a>). A more +ornamental design for a capital could hardly be adopted +than that of the Lysicrates example, but there was room for +more elaboration in the entablature, and accordingly large +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"><!-- original location of Fig. 80 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +richly-sculptured brackets seem to have been introduced, +and a profusion of ornament was employed. The examples +of this treatment which remain are, however, of Roman +origin rather than Greek.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig080" id="fig080"></a> +<img src="images/acec098.jpg" width="700" height="270" +alt="View looking directly towards the stage" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 80.—Restoration of the Greek Theatre of Segesta.</p> + +<p>The Greek cities must have included structures of +great beauty and adapted to many purposes, of which in +most cases few traces, if any, have been preserved. We +have no remains of a Greek palace, or of Greek dwelling-houses, +although those at Pompeii were probably erected +and decorated by Greek artificers, for Roman occupation. +The agora of a Greek city, which was a place of public +assembly something like the Roman Forum, is known to +us only by descriptions in ancient writers, but we possess +some remains of Greek theatres; and from these, aided by +Roman examples and written descriptions, can understand +what these buildings were. The auditory was curved +in plan, occupying rather more than a semicircle; the +seats rose in tiers one behind another; a circular space +was reserved for the chorus in the centre of the seats, +and behind it was a raised stage, bounded by a wall +forming its back and sides: a rough notion of the arrangement +can be obtained from the lecture theatre of many +modern colleges, and our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig080">80</a>) gives a +general idea of what must have been the appearance of +one of these structures. Much of the detail of these +buildings is, however, a matter of pure speculation, and +consequently does not enter into the scheme of this +manual.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig081" id="fig081"></a> +<img src="images/acec099.jpg" width="500" height="240" +alt="Showing floral and bead patterns" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 81.—Capital of Antæ from Miletus.</p> + + + +<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2> + +<h3>GREEK ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<h4><i>Analysis.</i></h4> + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE <strong>Plan</strong> or floor-disposition of a Greek building +was always simple however great its extent, was +well judged for effect, and capable of being understood +at once. The grandest results were obtained by simple +means, and all confusion, uncertainty, or complication +were scrupulously avoided. Refined precision, order, symmetry, +and exactness mark the plan as well as every part +of the work.</p> + +<p>The plan of a Greek temple may be said to present +many of the same elements as that of an Egyptian temple, +but, so to speak, turned inside out. Columns are relied on +by the Greek artist, as they were by the Egyptian artist, +as a means of giving effect; but they are placed by him +outside the building instead of within its courts and halls. +The Greek, starting with a comparatively small nucleus +formed by the cell and the treasury, encircles them by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +a magnificent girdle of pillars, and so makes a grand +structure, the first hint or suggestion being in all probability +to be found in certain small Egyptian buildings to +which reference has already been made. The disposition +of these columns and of the great range of steps, or +stylobate, is the most marked feature in Greek temple +plans. Columns also existed, it is true, in the interior of +the building, but these were of smaller size, and seem to +have been introduced to aid in carrying the roof and the +clerestory, if there was one. They have in several instances +disappeared, and there is certainly no ground for +supposing that in any Greek interior the grand but +oppressive effect of a hypostyle hall was attempted to be +reproduced. That was abandoned, together with the +complication, seclusion, and gloom of the long series of +chambers, cells, &c., placed one behind another, just as +the contrasts and surprises of the series of courts and +halls following in succession were abandoned for the one +simple but grand mass built to be seen from without +rather than from within. In the greater number of Greek +buildings a degree of precision is exhibited, to which the +Egyptians did not attain. All right angles are absolutely +true; the setting-out (or spacing) of the different columns, +piers, openings, &c., is perfectly exact; and, in the Parthenon, +the patient investigations of Mr. Penrose and other +skilled observers have disclosed a degree of accuracy as +well as refinement which resembles the precision with +which astronomical instruments are adjusted in Europe +at the present day, rather than the rough-and-ready +measurements of a modern mason or bricklayer.</p> + +<p>What the plans of Greek palaces might have exhibited, +did any remains exist, is merely matter for inference +and conjecture, and it is not proposed in this volume to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +pass far beyond ascertained and observed facts. There +can be, however, little doubt that the palaces of the West +Asiatic style must have at least contributed suggestions +as to internal disposition of the later and more magnificent +Greek mansions. The ordinary dwelling-houses of +citizens, as described by ancient writers, resembled those +now visible in the disinterred cities of Pompeii and +Herculaneum, which will be referred to under Roman +Architecture.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The chief characteristic of the plan of +these is that they retain the disposition which in the +temples was discarded; that is to say, all the doors and +windows looked into an inner court, and the house was +as far as possible secluded within an encircling wall. +The contrast between the openness of the public life +led by the men in Greek cities, and the seclusion of the +women and the families when at home, is remarkably +illustrated by this difference between the public and +private buildings.</p> + +<p>The plan of the triple building called the Erechtheium +(Fig. <a href="#fig072">72</a>) deserves special mention, as an example of an +exceptional arrangement which appears to set the ordinary +laws of symmetry at defiance, and which is calculated to +produce a result into which the picturesque enters at least +as much as the beautiful. Though the central temple is +symmetrical, the two attached porticoes are not so, and +do not, in position, dimensions, or treatment, balance one +another. The result is a charming group, and we cannot +doubt that other examples of freedom of planning would +have been found, had more remains of the architecture of +the great cities of Greece come down to our own day.</p> + +<p>In public buildings other than temples—such as the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +theatre, the agora, and the basilica—the Greek architects +seem to have had great scope for their genius; the planning +of the theatres shows skilful and thoroughly complete +provisions to meet the requirements of the case. A +circular disposition was here introduced—not, it is true, +for the first time, since it is rendered probable by the representations +on sculptured slabs that some circular buildings +existed in Assyria, and circular buildings remain in +the archaic works at Mycenæ; but it was now elaborated +with remarkable completeness, beauty, and mastery over +all the difficulties involved. Could we see the great +theatre of Athens as it was when perfect, we should +probably find that as an interior it was almost unrivalled, +alike for convenience and for beauty; and for these excellences +it was mainly indebted to the elegance of its +planning. The actual floor of many of the Greek temples +appears to have been of marble of different colours.</p> + + +<h4><i>The Walls.</i></h4> + +<p>The construction of the walls of the Greek temples +rivalled that of the Egyptians in accuracy and beauty +of workmanship, and resembled them in the use of solid +materials. The Greeks had within reach quarries of +marble, the most beautiful material which nature has +provided for the use of the builder; and great fineness of +surface and high finish were attained. Some interesting +examples of hollow walling occur in the construction of +the Parthenon. The wall was not an element of the +building on which the Greek architect seemed to dwell +with pleasure; much of it is almost invariably overshadowed +by the lines of columns which form the main +features of the building.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +The pediment (or gable) of a temple is a grand development +of the walls, and perhaps the most striking of the +additions which the Greeks made to the resources of the +architect. It offers a fine field for sculpture, and adds real +and apparent height beyond anything that the Egyptians +ever attempted since the days of the Pyramid-builders; +and it has remained in constant use to the present hour.</p> + +<p>We do not hear of towers being attached to buildings, +and, although such monumental structures as the Mausoleum +of Halicarnassus approached the proportions of a +tower, height does not seem to have commended itself to +the mind of the Greek architect as necessary to the buildings +which he designed. It was reserved for Roman and +Christian art to introduce this element of architectural +effect in all its power. On the other hand, the Greek, +like the Persian architect, emphasised the base of his +building in a remarkable manner, not only by base mouldings, +but by planting the whole structure on a great +range of steps which formed an essential part of the +composition.</p> + + +<h4><i>The Roof.</i></h4> + +<p>The construction of the roofs of Greek temples has +been the subject of much debate. It is almost certain +that they were in some way so made as to admit light. +They were framed of timber and covered by tiles, often, +if not always, of marble. Although all traces of the +timber framing have disappeared, we can at least know +that the pitch was not steep, by the slope of the outline +of the pediments, which formed, as has already been said, +perhaps the chief glory of a Greek temple. The flat stone +roofs sometimes used by the Egyptians, and necessitating +the placing of columns or other supports close together, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +seem to have become disused, with the exception that +where a temple was surrounded by a range of columns +the space between the main wall and the columns was so +covered.</p> + +<p>The vaulted stone roofs of the archaic buildings, of +which the treasury of Atreus (Figs. <a href="#fig052">52</a>, <a href="#fig052a">52<span class="smcap">a</span></a>) was the +type, do not seem to have prevailed in a later period, or, +so far as we know, to have been succeeded by any similar +covering or vault of a more scientific construction.</p> + +<p>It is hardly necessary to add that the Greek theatres +were not roofed. The Romans shaded the spectators in +their theatres and amphitheatres by means of a velarium +or awning, but it is extremely doubtful whether even +this expedient was in use in Greek theatres.</p> + + +<h4><i>The Openings.</i></h4> + +<p>The most important characteristic of the openings in +Greek buildings is that they were flat-topped,—covered +by a lintel of stone or marble,—and never arched. We +have already<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> shown that this circumstance is really of +the first importance as determining the architectural +character of buildings. Doors and window openings were +often a little narrower at the top than the bottom, and +were marked by a band of mouldings, known as the architrave, +on the face of the wall, and, so to speak, framing +in the opening. There was often also a small cornice over +each (Figs. <a href="#fig082">82</a>, <a href="#fig083">83</a>). Openings were seldom advanced +into prominence or employed as features in the exterior +of a building; in fact, the same effects which windows +produce in other styles were in Greek buildings created +by the interspaces between the columns.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>The Columns.</i></h4> + +<p>These features, together with the superstructure or +entablature, which they customarily carried, were the +prominent parts of Greek architecture, occupying as they +did the entire height of the building. The development +of the orders (which we have explained to be really decorative +systems, each of which involved the use of one sort +of column, though the term is constantly understood as +meaning merely the column and entablature) is a very +interesting subject, and illustrates the acuteness with +which the Greeks selected from those models which were +accessible to them, exactly what was suited to their +purpose, and the skill with which they altered and +refined, and almost redesigned, everything which they +so selected.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 119px;"> +<a name="fig082" id="fig082"></a> +<img src="images/acec100.jpg" width="119" height="375" +alt="Showing scroll and floral designs" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 82.—Greek +Doorway Showing +Cornice.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 330px;"> +<a name="fig083" id="fig083"></a> +<img src="images/acec101.jpg" width="330" height="375" +alt="Showing floral decoration and bead patterns" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 83.—Greek Doorway. Front View. +(From the Erechtheium.)</p> + +<p>During the whole period when Greek art was being +developed, the ancient and polished civilisation of Egypt +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +constituted a most powerful and most stable influence, +always present,—always, comparatively speaking, within +reach,—and always the same. Of all the forms of column +and capital existing in Egypt, the Greeks, however, only +selected that straight-sided fluted type of which the +Beni-Hassan example is the best known, but by no +means the only instance. We first meet with these fluted +columns at Corinth, of very sturdy proportions, and +having a wide, swelling, clumsy moulding under the +abacus by way of a capital. By degrees the proportions +of the shaft grew more slender, and the profile of the +capital more elegant and less bold, till the perfected perfections +of the Greek Doric column were attained. This +column is the original to which all columns with moulded +capitals that have been used in architecture, from the +age of Pericles to our own, may be directly or indirectly +referred; while the Egyptian types which the Greeks did +not select—such, for example, as the lotus-columns at +Karnak—have never been perpetuated.</p> + +<p>A different temper or taste, and partly a different +history, led to the selection of the West Asiatic types +of column by a section of the Greek people; but great +alterations in proportion, in the treatment of the capital, +and in the management of the moulded base from which +the columns sprang, were made, even in the orders which +occur in the Ionic buildings of Asia Minor. This was +carried further when the Ionic order was made use of in +Athens herself, and as a result the Attic base and the +perfected Ionic capital are to be found at their best in the +Erechtheium example. The Ionic order and the Corinthian, +which soon followed it, are the parents,—not, it is +true, of all, but of the greater part of the columns with +foliated capitals that have been used in all styles and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +periods of architecture since. It will not be forgotten +that rude types of both orders are found represented on +Assyrian bas-reliefs, but still the Corinthian capital and +order must be considered as the natural and, so to speak, +inevitable development of the Ionic. From the Corinthian +capital an unbroken series of foliated capitals can be traced +down to our own day; almost the only new ornamented +type ever devised since being that which takes its origin +in the Romanesque block capital, known to us in England +as the early Norman cushion capital: this was certainly +the parent of a distinct series, though even these owe not +a little to Greek originals.</p> + +<p>We have alluded to the Ionic base. It was derived +from a very tall one in use at Persepolis, and we meet +with it first in the rich but clumsy forms of the bases in +the Asia Minor examples. In them we find the height of +the feature as used in Persia compressed, while great, and +to our eyes eccentric, elaboration marked the mouldings: +these the refinement of Attic taste afterwards simplified, +till the profile of the well-known Attic base was produced—a +base which has had as wide and lasting an influence +as either of the original forms of capital.</p> + +<p>The Corinthian order, as has been above remarked, is +the natural sequel of the Ionic. Had Greek architecture +continued till it fell into decadence, this order would +have been the badge of it. As it was, the decadence of +Greek art was Roman art, and the Corinthian order was the +favourite order of the Romans; in fact all the important +examples of it which remain are Roman work.</p> + +<p>If we remember how invariably use was made of one +or other of the two great types of the Greek order in all +the buildings of the best Greek time, with the addition +towards its close of the Corinthian order, and that these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +orders, a little more subdivided and a good deal modified, +have formed the substratum of Roman architecture and of +that in use during the last three centuries; and if we also +bear in mind that nearly all the columnar architecture of +Early Christian, Byzantine, Saracenic, and Gothic times, +owes its forms to the same great source, we may well +admit that the invention and perfecting of the orders of +Greek architecture has been—with one exception—the +most important event in the architectural history of the +world. That exception is, of course, the introduction of +the Arch.</p> + + +<h4><i>The Ornaments.</i></h4> + +<p>Greek Ornaments have exerted the same wide influence +over the whole course of Western art as Greek columns; +and in their origin they are equally interesting as specimens +of Greek skill in adapting existing types, and of +Greek invention where no existing types would serve.</p> + +<p>Few of the mouldings of Greek architecture are to be +traced to anterior styles. There is nothing like them +in Egyptian work, and little or nothing in Assyrian; and +though a suggestion of some of them may no doubt be +found in Persian examples, we must take them as having +been substantially originated by Greek genius, which felt +that they were wanted, designed them, and brought them +far towards absolute perfection. They were of the most +refined form, and when enriched were carved with consummate +skill. They were executed, it must be remembered, +in white marble,—a material having the finest +surface, and capable of responding to the most delicate +variations in contour by corresponding changes in shade +or light in a manner and to a degree which no other +material can equal. In the Doric, mouldings were few, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +and almost always convex; they became much more numerous +in the later styles, and then included many of +concave profile. The chief are the <small>OVOLO</small>, which formed +the curved part of the Doric capital, and the crowning +moulding of the Doric cornice; the <small>CYMA</small>; the <small>BIRD’S BEAK</small>, +employed in the capitals of the antæ; the <small>FILLETS</small> under +the Doric capital; the hollows and <small>TORUS</small> mouldings of +the Ionic and Corinthian bases.</p> + +<p>The profiles of these mouldings were very rarely segments +of circles, but lines of varying curvature, capable of +producing the most delicate changes of light and shade, +and contours of the most subtle grace. Many of them +correspond to conic sections, but it seems probable that +the outlines were drawn by hand, and not obtained by +any mechanical or mathematical method.</p> + +<p>The mouldings were some of them enriched, to use the +technical word, by having such ornaments cut into them +or carved on them as, though simple in form, lent themselves +well to repetition.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Where more room for ornament +existed, and especially in the capitals of the Ionic and +Corinthian orders, ornaments were freely and most gracefully +carved, and very symmetrically arranged. Though +these were very various, yet most of them can be classed +under three heads. (1.) <span class="smcap">Frets</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig116">116</a> to <a href="#fig120">120</a>). These +were patterns made up of squares or <img src="images/l.png" width="12" height="15" alt="L" />-shaped lines interlaced +and made to seem intricate, though originally simple. +Frequently these patterns are called Doric frets, from +their having been most used in buildings of the Doric +order. (2.) <span class="smcap">Honeysuckle</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig094">94</a> and <a href="#fig111">111</a> to <a href="#fig114">114</a>). This +ornament, admirably conventionalised, had been used +freely by the Assyrians, and the Greeks only adopted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +what they found ready to their hand when they began +to use it; but they refined it, at the same time losing no +whit of its vigour or effectiveness, and the honeysuckle +has come to be known as a typical Greek decorative +<i>motif</i>. (3.) <span class="smcap">Acanthus</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig084">84</a> and <a href="#fig085">85</a>). This is a broad-leaved +plant, the foliage and stems of which, treated in a +conventional manner, though with but little departure +from nature, were found admirably adapted for floral +decorative work, and accordingly were made use of in the +foliage of the Corinthian capital, and in such ornaments +as, for example, the great finial which forms the summit +of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 625px;"> +<a name="fig084" id="fig084"></a> +<img src="images/acec102.jpg" width="625" height="310" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 84.—The Acanthus Leaf and Stalk.</p> + +<p>The beauty of the carving was, however, eclipsed by +that highest of all ornaments—sculpture. In the Doric +temples, as, for example, in the Parthenon, the architect +contented himself with providing suitable spaces for the +sculptor to occupy; and thus the great pediments, the +metopes (Fig. <a href="#fig086">86</a>) or square panels, and the frieze of the +Parthenon were occupied by sculpture, in which there +was no necessity for more conventionalism than the +amount of artificial arrangement needed in order fitly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +to occupy spaces that were respectively triangular, square, +or continuous. In the later and more voluptuous style +of the Ionic temples we find sculpture made into an +architectural feature, as in the famous statues, known as +the Caryatides, which support the smallest portico of +the Erechtheium, and in the enriched columns of the +Temple of Diana at Ephesus. Sculpture had already +been so employed in Egypt, and was often so used in later +times; but the best opportunity for the display of the +finest qualities of the +sculptor’s art is such an +one as the pediments, &c., +of the great Doric temples +afforded.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 308px;"> +<a name="fig085" id="fig085"></a> +<img src="images/acec103.jpg" width="308" height="375" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 85.—The Acanthus Leaf.</p> + +<p>There is little room for +doubting that all the +Greek temples were richly +decorated in colours, but +traces and indications are +all that remain: these, +however, are sufficient to +prove that a very large +amount of colour was employed, +and that probably +ornaments (Figs. <a href="#fig105">105</a> to <a href="#fig120">120</a>) were painted upon many of +those surfaces which were left plain by the mason, +especially on the cornices, and that mosaics (Fig. <a href="#fig087">87</a>) and +coloured marbles, and even gilding, were freely used. +There is also ground for believing that as the use of +carved enrichments increased with the increasing adoption +of the Ionic and Corinthian styles, less use was made +of painted decorations.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>Architectural Character.</i></h4> + +<p>Observations which have been made during the course of +this and the previous chapters will have gone far to point +out the characteristics of Greek art. An archaic and +almost forbidding severity, with heavy proportions and +more strength than grace, marks the earliest Greek buildings +of which we have any fragments remaining. Dignity, +sobriety, refinement, and beauty are the qualities of the +works of the best period. The latest buildings were +more rich, more ornate, and more slender in their proportions +and to a certain extent less severe.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 550px;"> +<a name="fig086" id="fig086"></a> +<img src="images/acec104.png" width="550" height="522" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 86.—Metope from the Parthenon. Conflict between +a Centaur and one of the Lapithæ.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 650px;"> +<a name="fig087" id="fig087"></a> +<img src="images/acec105.jpg" width="650" height="604" +alt="Showing central figures with floral design, the whole surrounded by a repeating key pattern" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 87.—Mosaic from the Temple of Zeus, Olympia.</p> + +<p>Most carefully studied proportions prevailed, and were +wrought out to a pitch of completeness and refinement +which is truly astounding. Symmetry was the all but +invariable law of composition. Yet in certain respects—as, +for example, the spacing and position of the columns—a +degree of freedom was enjoyed which Roman +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"><!-- original location of Figs. 88-89 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +architecture did not possess. Repetition ruled to the almost +entire suppression of variety. Disclosure of the arrangement +and construction of the building was almost complete, +and hardly a trace of concealment can be detected. +Simplicity reigns in the earliest examples; the elaboration +of even the most ornamental is very chaste and +graceful; and the whole effect of Greek architecture is +one of harmony, unity, and refined power.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig088" id="fig088"></a> +<img src="images/acec106.jpg" width="600" height="364" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 88.—Section of the Portico of the Erechtheium.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 575px;"> +<a name="fig089" id="fig089"></a> +<img src="images/acec107.jpg" width="575" height="556" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="topcapt smcap">Fig. 89.—Plan of the Portico—Looking up.</p> + +<p class="caption">EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT<br /> +<span class="smcap">In the Northern Portico of the Erechtheium—showing the Ornamentation +of the Ceiling.</span></p> + +<p>A general principle seldom pointed out which governs +the application of enrichments to mouldings in Greek +architecture may be cited as a good instance of the subtle +yet admirable concord which existed between the different +features: it is as follows. <em>The outline of each enrichment in +relief was ordinarily described by the same line as the profile +of the moulding to which it was applied.</em> The egg enrichment +(Fig. <a href="#fig091">91</a>) on the ovolo, the water-leaf on the cyma +reversa (Figs. <a href="#fig092">92</a> and <a href="#fig097">97</a>), the honeysuckle on the cyma +recta (Fig. <a href="#fig094">94</a>), and the guilloche (Fig. <a href="#fig100">100</a>) on the torus, +are examples of the application of this rule,—one which +obviously tends to produce harmony.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 375px;"> +<a name="fig090" id="fig090"></a> +<img src="images/acec108.jpg" width="375" height="244" +alt="Showing floral designs and bead patterns" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 90.—Capital of Antæ from the Erechtheium.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p> + +<p class="topcapt ipadtop">EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN RELIEF.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;"> +<a name="fig091" id="fig091"></a> +<img src="images/acec109.jpg" width="375" height="146" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 91.—Egg and Dart.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;"> +<a name="fig092" id="fig092"></a> +<img src="images/acec110.jpg" width="325" height="110" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 92.—Leaf and Dart.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig093" id="fig093"></a> +<img src="images/acec111.jpg" width="600" height="226" +alt="Showing section and front view" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 93.—Honeysuckle.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig094" id="fig094"></a> +<img src="images/acec112.jpg" width="600" height="258" +alt="Showing section and front view" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 94.—Honeysuckle.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;"> +<a name="fig095" id="fig095"></a> +<img src="images/acec113.jpg" width="325" height="122" +alt="Coiled stem and foliage pattern" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 95.—Acanthus.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;"> +<a name="fig096" id="fig096"></a> +<img src="images/acec114.jpg" width="325" height="120" +alt="Coiled stem and foliage pattern" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 96.—Acanthus.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;"> +<a name="fig097" id="fig097"></a> +<img src="images/acec115.jpg" width="325" height="102" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 97.—Leaf and Tongue.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;"> +<a name="fig098" id="fig098"></a> +<img src="images/acec116.jpg" width="325" height="104" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 98.—Leaf and Tongue.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;"> +<a name="fig099" id="fig099"></a> +<img src="images/acec117.jpg" width="325" height="87" +alt="A scale pattern, similar to snake skin" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 99.—Garland.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;"> +<a name="fig100" id="fig100"></a> +<img src="images/acec118.jpg" width="325" height="142" +alt="A woven pattern, similar to simple knotwork" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 100.—Guilloche.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;"> +<a name="fig101" id="fig101"></a> +<img src="images/acec119.jpg" width="325" height="86" +alt="Oval beads alternating with pairs of discs set on edge" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 101.—Bead and Fillet.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;"> +<a name="fig102" id="fig102"></a> +<img src="images/acec120.jpg" width="325" height="62" +alt="Round beads alternating with pairs of discs set on edge" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 102.—Bead and Fillet.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="fig103" id="fig103"></a> +<img src="images/acec121.jpg" width="225" height="120" +alt="Showing combined sculpted layers and their relation to a curved form" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 103.—Torus Moulding.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="fig104" id="fig104"></a> +<img src="images/acec122.jpg" width="225" height="113" +alt="Showing fluted effect" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 104.—Torus Moulding.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p> + +<p class="topcapt ipadtop">EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN COLOUR.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<a name="fig105" id="fig105"></a> +<img src="images/acec123.jpg" width="650" height="152" +alt="Showing section and front view" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 105.—Honeysuckle.</p> + +<p class="topcapt ipadtop smcap">Figs. 106, 108.—Facias with Bands of Foliage.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 147px; padding-left: 10%;"> +<a name="fig106" id="fig106"></a> +<img src="images/acec124.jpg" width="147" height="325" +alt="Paired flowers coming off a central straight stem" /> +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 106.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 132px; padding-right: 10%;"> +<a name="fig108" id="fig108"></a> +<img src="images/acec126.jpg" width="132" height="325" +alt="Leaves coming off a central curving stem" /> +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 108.</p> +</div> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="fig107" id="fig107"></a> +<img src="images/acec125.jpg" width="225" height="224" +alt="A rotated pattern" /> +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 107.—Honeysuckle.</p> +</div> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;"> +<a name="fig109" id="fig109"></a> +<img src="images/acec127.jpg" width="325" height="123" +alt="Showing section and front view" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 109.—Leaf and Dart.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 425px;"> +<a name="fig110" id="fig110"></a> +<img src="images/acec128.jpg" width="425" height="162" +alt="Showing section and front view" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 110.—Egg and Dart.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p> + +<p class="topcapt ipadtop smcap">Figs. 111 to 113.—Examples of the Honeysuckle.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;"> +<a name="fig111" id="fig111"></a> +<img src="images/acec129.jpg" width="325" height="170" +alt="A repeating design, alternately reversed" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 111.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 325px;"> +<a name="fig112" id="fig112"></a> +<img src="images/acec130.jpg" width="325" height="170" +alt="A mirrored repeating design" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 112.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 136px;"> +<a name="fig113" id="fig113"></a> +<img src="images/acec131.jpg" width="136" height="325" +alt="A repeating design" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 113.</p> + + +<p class="topcapt ipadtop smcap">Fig. 114.—Combination of the Fret, the Egg and Dart, the Bead +and Fillet, and the Honeysuckle.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 304px;"> +<a name="fig114" id="fig114"></a> +<img src="images/acec132.jpg" width="304" height="325" +alt="Decoration at the top of column and capital" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 114.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 119px;"> +<a name="fig115" id="fig115"></a> +<img src="images/acec133.jpg" width="119" height="325" +alt="Central pattern similar to stacked fan shapes, with interwoven curved pattern on each side" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 115.—Guilloche.</p> + +<p class="topcapt ipadtop smcap">Figs. 116 to 120.—Examples of the Fret.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="fig116" id="fig116"></a> +<img src="images/acec134.jpg" width="250" height="53" +alt="Showing proportions of a simple fret pattern" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 116.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="fig117" id="fig117"></a> +<img src="images/acec135.jpg" width="250" height="56" +alt="Simple fret pattern" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 117.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="fig118" id="fig118"></a> +<img src="images/acec136.jpg" width="250" height="80" +alt="Showing proportions of a more complex fret pattern" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 118.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="fig119" id="fig119"></a> +<img src="images/acec137.jpg" width="300" height="79" +alt="A simple fret pattern with key and circle designs" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 119.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="fig120" id="fig120"></a> +<img src="images/acec138.jpg" width="225" height="119" +alt="Showing proportions of a complex fret pattern" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 120.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> See Chap. <a href="#Page_147">IX.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Chap. <a href="#Page_1">I.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> For a statement of the general rule governing such enrichments, +see page <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 450px;"> +<a name="fig121" id="fig121"></a> +<img src="images/acec139.jpg" width="450" height="383" +alt="Showing doors, columns and carved figures" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 121.—Elevation of an Etruscan Temple (restored from descriptions only).</p> + + + +<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> + +<h3>ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<h4><i>Historical and General Sketch.</i></h4> + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE few grains of truth that we are able to sift from +the mass of legend which has accumulated round +the early history of Rome seem to indicate that at a very +early period—which the generally received date of 753 <small>B.C.</small> +may be taken to fix as nearly as is now possible—a small +band of outcasts and marauders settled themselves on +the Palatine Hill and commenced to carry on depredations +against the various cities of the tribes whose territories +were in the immediate neighbourhood, such as +the Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, Latins, and Etruscans. +A walled city was built, which from its admirable situation +succeeded in attracting inhabitants in considerable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +numbers, and speedily began to exercise supremacy over +its neighbours. The most important of the neighbouring +nations were the Etruscans, who called themselves +Rasena, and who must have settled on the west coast of +Italy, between the rivers Arno and Tiber, at a very early +period. Their origin is, however, very obscure, some +authorities believing, upon apparently good grounds, that +they came from Asia Minor, while others assert that they +descended from the north over the Rhætian Alps. But +whatever that origin may have been, they had at the time +of the founding of Rome as a city attained a high degree +of civilisation, and showed a considerable amount of +architectural skill; and their arts exercised a very great +influence upon Roman art.</p> + +<p>Considerable remains of the city walls of several Etruscan +towns still exist. These show that the masonry was +of what has been termed a Cyclopean character,—that is +to say, the separate stones were of an enormous size; in +the majority of examples these stones were of a polygonal +shape, though in a few instances they were rectangular, +while in all cases they were fitted together with the most +consummate accuracy of workmanship, which, together +with their great massiveness, has enabled much of this +masonry to endure to the present day. Cortona, Volterra, +Fiesole, and other towns exhibit instances of this walling. +The temples, palaces, or dwelling-houses which went to +make up the cities so fortified have all disappeared, and +the only existing structural remains of Etruscan buildings +are tombs. These are found in large numbers, and +consist—as in the earlier instances which have already +been described—both of rock-cut and detached erections. +Of the former, the best known group is at Castel d’Asso, +where we find not only chambers cut into the rock, each +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +resembling an ordinary room with an entrance in the +face of the rock, but also monuments cut completely +out and standing clear all round; and we cannot fail to +detect in the forms into which the rock has been cut, +especially those of the roof, imitations of wooden buildings, +heavy square piers being left at intervals supporting +longitudinal beams which hold up the roof. +Fig. <a href="#fig122">122</a> is an illustration of the interior of a chamber +in the rock. Occasionally there were a cornice and pediment +over the entrance.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig122" id="fig122"></a> +<img src="images/acec140.jpg" width="700" height="560" +alt="Showing wooden ceiling and decorated walls" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 122.—Sepulchre at Corneto.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +The other class of tombs are circular tumuli, similar +to the Pelasgic tombs of Asia Minor; of these large +numbers exist, but not sufficiently uninjured to enable +us to restore them completely. They generally consisted +of a substructure of stone, upon which was raised a +conical elevation. In the case of the Regulini Galeassi +tomb there were an inner and an outer tumulus, the +latter of which covered several small tombs, while the +inner enclosed one only, which had fortunately never +been opened till it was lately discovered. This tomb +was vaulted on the horizontal system—that is to say, +its vault was not a true arch, but was formed of courses +of masonry, each overhanging the one below, as in the +Treasury of Atreus, and it had a curious recess in the +roof, in which were found numerous interesting examples +of Etruscan pottery. It is, however, clear from the city +gates, sewers, aqueducts, &c., that the Etruscans were +acquainted with and extensively used the true radiating +arch composed of wedge-shaped stones (voussoirs), and +that they constructed it with great care and scientific +skill. The gate at Perugia, and the Cloacæ or Sewers +at Rome, constructed during the reign of the Tarquins,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> +at the beginning of the sixth century <small>B.C.</small>, are examples of +the true arch, and this makes it certain that it was from +the Etruscans that the Romans learned the arched construction +which, when combined with the trabeated or +lintel mode of construction which they copied from the +Greeks, formed the chief characteristic of Roman architecture. +The Cloaca Maxima (Fig. <a href="#fig123">123</a>), which is roofed +over with three concentric semicircular rings of large +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +stones, still exists in many places with not a stone displaced, +as a proof of the skill of these early builders. +There are remains of an aqueduct at Tusculum which +are interesting from the fact of the horizontal being +combined with the true arch in its construction.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 450px;"> +<a name="fig123" id="fig123"></a> +<img src="images/acec141.jpg" width="450" height="352" +alt="Showing the mouth of one of the tunnels" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 123.—Cloaca Maxima.</p> + +<p>No Etruscan temples remain now, but we know from +Vitruvius that they consisted of three cells with one +or more rows of columns in front, the intercolumniation +or interval between the columns being excessive. The +largest Etruscan temple of which any record remains +was that of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome, which, under +the Empire, became one of the most splendid temples of +antiquity. It was commenced by Tarquinius Superbus, +and is said to have derived its name from the fact of the +builders, when excavating the foundations, coming upon a +freshly bleeding head (<i>caput</i>), indicating that the place +would eventually become the chief city of the world. +Another form of Etruscan temple is described by Vitruvius, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +consisting of one circular cell only, with a porch. +This form was probably the origin of the series of circular +Roman buildings which includes such forms of temples as +that at Tivoli, and many of the famous mausolea, <i>e.g.</i> +that of Hadrian, and the culmination of which style is +seen in the Pantheon. It is interesting to notice that +the Romans never entirely gave up the circular form, one +instance of its use in Britain at a late period of the Roman +occupation having been discovered in the ruins of Silchester +near Basingstoke; and we shall find that it was +perpetuated in Christian baptisteries, tombs, and occasionally +churches.</p> + +<p>We know from the traces of such buildings which exist, +that the Etruscans must have constructed theatres and +amphitheatres, and it is recorded that the first Tarquin +laid out the Circus Maximus and instituted the great +games held there. At Sutri there are ruins of an amphitheatre +which is nearly a perfect circle, measuring 265 ft. +in its greatest breadth and 295 ft. in length.</p> + +<p>There are no remains of other buildings which would +enable us to form an opinion as to the civic architecture +of the Etruscans: they must, however, have attained to a +considerable skill in sculpture, as in some of the tombs +figures are represented in high relief which show no +small power of expression. They, too, like the Egyptians, +embellished their tombs with mural paintings. +These are generally in outline, and represent human +figures and animals in scenes of every-day life, with conventionalised +foliage, or mythological scenes such as the +passage of the soul after death to the judgment-seat where +its actions in life are to be adjudicated upon. In the +plastic arts the Etruscans made great progress, many +of their vases showing a delicacy and grace which have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +never been surpassed, and exhibiting in their decorations +traces of both Greek and Egyptian influence.</p> + + + +<p class="smlpadt">We now reach the last of the classical styles of antiquity, +the Roman,—a style which, however, is rather an +adaptation or amalgamation of other styles than an original +and independent creation or development. The contrast +is very great between the “lively Grecian,” imaginative +and idealistic in the highest degree—who seemed to have +an innate genius for art and beauty, and who was always +eager to perpetuate in marble his ideal conception of the +“hero from whose loins he sprung,” or to immortalise +with some splendid work of art the name of his mother-city—and +the stern, practical Roman, realistic in his every +pore, eager for conquest, and whose one dominant idea was +to bring under his sway all the nations who were brought +into contact with him, and to make his city—as had been +foretold—the capital of the whole world. With this idea +always before him, it is no wonder that such a typical +Roman as M. Porcius Cato should look with disdain upon +the fine arts in all their forms, and should regard a love +for the beautiful, whether in literature or art, as synonymous +with effeminacy. Mummius, also, who destroyed +Corinth, is said to have been so little aware of the value +of the artistic treasures which he carried away, as to +stipulate with the carriers who undertook to transport +them to Rome, that if any of the works of art were lost +they should be replaced by others of equal value.</p> + +<p>When the most prominent statesmen displayed such +indifference, it is not surprising that for nearly 500 years +no single trace of any architectural building of any merit +at all in Rome can now be discovered, and that history is +silent as to the existence of any monuments worthy of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +being mentioned. Works of public utility of a very extensive +nature were indeed carried out during this period; +such, for example, as the Appian Way from Rome to +Capua, which was the first paved road in Rome, and was +constructed by the Censor Appius Claudius in <small>B.C.</small> 309. +This was 14 ft. wide and 3 ft. thick, in three layers: +1st, of rough stones grouted together; 2nd, of gravel; and +3rd, of squared stones of various dimensions. The same +Censor also brought water from Præneste to Rome by a +subterranean channel 11 miles long. Several bridges were +also erected, and Cato the Censor is said to have built a +basilica.</p> + +<p>Until about 150 <small>B.C.</small> all the buildings of Rome were +constructed either of brick or the local stone; and though +we hear nothing of architecture as a fine art, we +cannot hesitate to admit that during this period the +Romans carried the art of construction, and especially +that of employing materials of small dimensions and +readily obtainable, in buildings of great size, to a remarkable +pitch of perfection. It was not till after the fall of +Carthage and the destruction of Corinth, when Greece +became a Roman province under the name of Achaia—both +which events occurred in the year 146 <small>B.C.</small>—that +Rome became desirous of emulating, to a certain extent, +the older civilisation which she had destroyed; and about +this time she became so enormously wealthy that vast +sums of money were expended, both publicly and privately, +in the erection of monuments, many of which remain to +the present day, more or less altered. The first marble +temple in Rome was built by the Consul Q. Metellus +Macedonicus, who died <small>B.C.</small> 115. Roman architecture from +this period began to show a wonderful diversity in the +objects to which it was directed,—a circumstance perhaps +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +as interesting as its great scientific and structural advance +upon all preceding styles. In the earlier styles temples, +tombs, and palaces were the only buildings deemed worthy +of architectural treatment; but under the Romans baths, +theatres, amphitheatres, basilicas, aqueducts, triumphal +arches, &c., were carried out just as elaborately as the +temples of the gods.</p> + +<p>It was under the Emperors that the full magnificence +of Roman architectural display was reached. The famous +boast of Augustus, that he found Rome of brick and left +her of marble, gives expression in a few words to what +was the great feature of his reign. Succeeding emperors +lavished vast sums on buildings and public works of all +kinds; and thus it comes to pass that though the most +destructive of all agencies, hostile invasions, conflagrations, +and long periods of neglect, have each in turn done their +utmost to destroy the vestiges of Imperial Rome, there +still remain fragments, and in one or two instances whole +monuments, enough to make Rome, after Athens, the richest +store of classic architectural antiquities in the world.</p> + +<p>But it was not in Rome only that great buildings were +erected. The whole known civilised world was under +Roman dominion, and wherever a centre of government +or even a flourishing town existed there sprang up the +residences of the dominant race, and their places of +business, public worship, and public amusement. Consequently, +we find in our own country, and in France, +Spain, Germany, Italy, North Africa, and Egypt—in +short, in all the countries where Roman rule was +established—examples of temples, amphitheatres, theatres, +triumphal arches, and dwelling-houses, some of them of +great interest and occasionally in admirable preservation.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> The story of the Tarquins probably points to a period when the +chief supremacy at Rome was in the hands of an Etruscan family, and is +interesting for this reason.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 675px;"> +<a name="fig124" id="fig124"></a> +<img src="images/acec142.jpg" width="675" height="282" +alt="Showing section and front view" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 124.—“Incantada” in Salonica.</p> + + + +<h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2> + +<h3>THE BUILDINGS OF THE ROMANS.</h3> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE temples in Rome were not, as in Greece and +Egypt, the structures upon which the architect +lavished all the resources of his art and his science. The +general form of them was copied from that made use +of by the Greeks, but the spirit in which the original +idea was carried out was entirely different. In a word, +the temples of Rome were by no means worthy of her +size and position as the metropolis of the world, and +very few remains of them exist.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 333px;"> +<a name="fig125" id="fig125"></a> +<img src="images/acec143.jpg" width="333" height="700" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 125.—Ionic Order from the Temple of Fortuna Virilis, Rome.</p> + +<p>Ten columns are still standing of the Temple of Antoninus +and Faustina (now the church of San Lorenzo in +Miranda): it occupied the site of a previous temple +and was dedicated by Antoninus Pius to his wife Faustina. +The Temple (supposed) of Fortuna Virilis, in the +Ionic style (Fig. <a href="#fig125">125</a>), still exists as the church of Santa +Maria Egiziaca: this was tetrastyle, with half-columns +all round it, and this was of the kind called by Vitruvius +“pseudo-peripteral.” A few fragmentary remains of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"><!-- original location of Fig. 125 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +other temples exist in Rome, but in some of the Roman +provinces far finer specimens of temples remain, of +which perhaps the best is the Maison Carrée at Nîmes +(Fig. <a href="#fig126">126</a>). Here we find the Roman plan of a single +cell and a deep portico in front, while the sides and +rear have the columns attached. The intercolumniations +and the details of the capitals and entablature are, +however, almost pure Greek. The date of this temple is +uncertain, but it is most probable that it was erected +during the reign of Hadrian. The same emperor is +said to have completed the magnificent Temple of Jupiter +Olympius at Athens, which was 354 ft. long by 171 ft. wide. +It consisted of a cell flanked on each side by a double row +of detached columns; in front was one row of columns in +antis, and three other rows in front of these, while there +were also three rows in the rear: as the columns were of +the Corinthian order, and nearly 60 ft. in height, it may +be imagined that it was a splendid edifice.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig126" id="fig126"></a> +<img src="images/acec144.jpg" width="700" height="494" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 126.—Roman-Corinthian Temple at Nîmes (Maison-Carrée). Probably of the Time of Hadrian.</p> + +<p>The ruins of another magnificent provincial Roman +temple exist at Baalbek—the ancient Heliopolis—in Syria, +not far from Damascus. This building was erected during +the time of the Antonines, probably by Antoninus Pius +himself, and originally it must have been of very extensive +dimensions, the portico alone being 180 ft. long +and about 37 ft. deep. This gives access to a small +hexagonal court, on the western side of which a triple +gateway opens into the Great Court, which is a vast +quadrangle about 450 ft. long by 400 ft. broad, with +ranges of small chambers or niches on three sides, some +of which evidently had at one time beautifully groined +roofs. At the western end of this court, on an artificial +elevation, stand the remains of what is called the Great +Temple. This was originally 290 ft. long by 160 ft. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"><!-- original location of Fig. 126 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +wide, and had 54 columns supporting its roof, six only +of which now remain erect. The height of these columns, +including base and capital, is 75 ft., and their diameter +is 7 ft. at base and about 6 ft. 6 in. at top; they are +of the Corinthian order, and above them rises an elaborately +moulded entablature, 14 ft. in height. Each of +the columns is composed of three stones only, secured by +strong iron cramps; and indeed one of the most striking +features of this group of buildings is the colossal size +of the stones used in their construction. The quarries +from which these stones were hewn are close at hand, +and in them is one stone surpassing all the others in +magnitude, its dimensions being 68 ft. by 14 ft. 2 in. by +13 ft. 11 in. It is difficult to imagine what means can +have existed for transporting so huge a mass, the weight +of which has been calculated at 1100 tons.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 290px;"> +<a name="fig127" id="fig127"></a> +<img src="images/acec145.jpg" width="290" height="375" +alt="Showing position of steps, doorways and columns" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 127.—Ground-plan of the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 296px;"> +<a name="fig128" id="fig128"></a> +<img src="images/acec146.jpg" width="296" height="700" +alt="Showing decoration on capitals" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 128.—Corinthian Order from the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.</p> + +<p>Other smaller temples exist in the vicinity, all of +which are lavishly decorated, but on the whole the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"><!-- original location of Fig. 128 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +ornamentation shows an exuberance of detail which +somewhat offends a critical artistic taste.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 450px;"> +<a name="fig129" id="fig129"></a> +<img src="images/acec147.jpg" width="450" height="700" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 129.—The Temple of Vesta at Tivoli. Plan (looking up) and Section +of part of the Peristyle.</p> + +<p>Circular temples were an elegant variety, which seems +to have been originated by the Romans, and of which +two well-known examples remain—the Temples of Vesta +at Rome and at Tivoli. The columns of the temple +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +at Tivoli (Fig. <a href="#fig128">128</a>) form a well-known and pleasing +variety of the Corinthian order, and the circular form +of the building as shown on the plan (Fig. <a href="#fig127">127</a>) gives +excellent opportunities for good decorative treatment, +as may be judged of by the enlarged diagram of part +of the peristyle (Fig. <a href="#fig129">129</a>).</p> + + +<h4><i>Basilicas.</i></h4> + +<p>Among the most remarkable of the public buildings of +Roman times, both in the mother-city and in the provinces, +were the Basilicas or Halls of Justice, which were also +used as commercial exchanges. It is also believed that +Basilicas existed in some Greek cities, but no clue to their +structural arrangements exists, and whence originated the +idea of the plan of these buildings we are unable to state; +their striking similarity to some of the rock-cut halls or +temples of India has been already pointed out. They +were generally (though not always) covered halls, oblong +in shape, divided into three or five aisles by two or more +rows of columns, the centre aisle being much wider than +those at the sides: over the latter, galleries were frequently +erected. At one end was a semicircular recess or apse, the +floor of which was raised considerably above the level of +the rest of the building, and here the presiding magistrate +sat to hear causes tried. Four<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> of these buildings are +mentioned by ancient writers as having existed in republican +times, viz. the Basilica Portia, erected in <small>B.C.</small> 184, by +Cato the Censor; the Basilica Emilia et Fulvia, erected in +<small>B.C.</small> 179 by the censors M. Fulvius Nobilior and M. Æmilius +Lepidus, and afterwards enlarged and called the Basilica +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +Paulli; the Basilica Sempronia, erected in <small>B.C.</small> 169 by +Tib. Sempronius Gracchus; and the Basilica Julia, erected +by Julius Cæsar, <small>B.C.</small> 46. All these buildings had wooden +roofs, and were of no great architectural merit, and they +perished at a remote date. Under the Empire, basilicas +of much greater size and magnificence were erected; and +remains of that of Trajan, otherwise called the Basilica +Ulpia, have been excavated in the Forum of Trajan. +This was about 360 ft. long by 180 ft. wide, had four rows +of columns inside, and it supposed to have been covered +by a semicircular wooden roof. Apollodorus of Damascus +was the architect of this building. Another basilica of +which remains exist is that of Maxentius, which after his +overthrow by Constantine in <small>A.D.</small> 312, was known as the +Basilica Constantiniana. This structure was of stone, and +had a vaulted roof; it was 195 ft. between the walls, and +was divided into three aisles by piers with enormous +columns standing in front of them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 650px;"> +<a name="fig130" id="fig130"></a> +<img src="images/acec148.jpg" width="650" height="311" +alt="Showing main oblong building and semicircular apse" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 130.—Ground-plan of the Basilica Ulpia, Rome.</p> + +<p>One provincial basilica, that at Trèves, still stands; +and although it must have been considerably altered, it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +is by far the best existing example of this kind of +building. The internal columns do not exist here, and it +is simply a rectangular hall about 175 ft. by 85 ft., with +the usual semicircular apse.</p> + +<p>The chief interest attaching to these basilicas lies in +the fact that they formed the first places of Christian +assembly, and that they served as the model upon which +the first Christian churches were built.</p> + + +<h4><i>Theatres and Amphitheatres.</i></h4> + +<p>Although dramas and other plays were performed in +Rome as early as 240 <small>B.C.</small>, there seems to have been a +strong prejudice against permanent buildings for their +representation, as it is recorded that a decree was passed +in <small>B.C.</small> 154 forbidding the construction of such buildings. +Mummius, the conqueror of Corinth, obtained permission +to erect a wooden theatre for the performance +of dramas as one of the shows of his triumph, and +after this many buildings of the kind were erected, but +all of a temporary nature; and it was not till <small>B.C.</small> 61 +that the first permanent theatre was built by Pompey. +This, and the theatres of Balbus and Marcellus, appear +to have been the only permanent theatres that were +erected in Imperial Rome; and there are no remains of +any but the last of these, and this is much altered. So +that, were it not for the remains of theatres found at +Pompeii, it would be almost impossible to tell how they +were arranged; but from these we can see that the stage +was raised and separated from the part appropriated to +the spectators by a semicircular area, much like that +which in Greek theatres was allotted to the chorus: in +the Roman ones this was assigned for the use of the senators. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +The portion devoted to the spectators—called the +Cavea—was also semicircular on plan, and consisted of +tiers of steps rising one above the other, and divided at +intervals by wide passages and converging staircases communicating +with the porticoes, which ran round the whole +theatre at every story.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 650px;"> +<a name="fig131" id="fig131"></a> +<img src="images/acec149.jpg" width="650" height="510" +alt="Showing the seating and a quarter section of the underlying chambers" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 131.—Plan of the Colosseum, Rome.</p> + +<p>At Orange, in the South of France, are the remains of +a very fine theatre, similar in plan to that described. The +great wall which formed the back of the scene in this +building is still standing, and is one of the most magnificent +pieces of masonry existing.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig132" id="fig132"></a> +<img src="images/acec150.jpg" width="700" height="597" +alt="Showing seating and steps; showing arches" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 132.—The Colosseum. Section and Elevation.</p> + +<p>Although the Romans were not particularly addicted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +to dramatic representations, yet they were passionately +fond of shows and games of all kinds: hence, not only in +Rome itself, but in almost every Roman settlement, from +Silchester to Verona, are found traces of their amphitheatres, +and the mother-city can claim the possession of +the most stupendous fabric of the kind that was ever +erected—the Colosseum or Flavian Amphitheatre, which +was commenced by Vespasian and finished by his son +Titus. An amphitheatre is really a double theatre without +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +a stage, and with the space in the centre unoccupied +by seats. This space, which was sunk several feet below +the first row of seats, was called the arena, and was +appropriated to the various exhibitions which took place +in the building. The plan was elliptical or oval, and +this shape seems to have been universal.</p> + +<p>The Colosseum, whose ruins still remain to attest its +pristine magnificence—</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“Arches on arches, as it were that Rome,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Collecting the chief trophies of her line,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Would build up all her triumphs in one dome”<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>—<br /></span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>was 620 ft. long and 513 wide, and the height was about +162 ft. It was situated in the hollow between the +Esquiline and Cælian hills. The ranges of seats were +admirably planned so as to enable all the audience to +have a view of what was going on in the arena, and +great skill was shown both in the arrangement of the +approaches to the different tiers and in the structural +means for supporting the seats, and double corridors ran +completely round the building on each floor, affording +ready means of exit. Various estimates have been made +of the number of spectators that could be accommodated, +and these range from 50,000 to 100,000, but probably +80,000 was the maximum. Recent excavations have +brought to light the communications which existed between +the arena and the dens where the wild animals +and human slaves and prisoners were confined, and some +of the water channels used when mimic sea-fights were +exhibited. The external façade is composed of four stories, +separated by entablatures that run completely round the +building without a break. The three lower stories consist +of a series of semicircular arched openings, eighty +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +in number, separated by piers with attached columns +in front of them, the Doric order being used in the +lowest story, the Ionic in the second, and the Corinthian +in the third; the piers and columns are elevated on +stylobates; the entablatures have a comparatively slight +projection, and there are no projecting keystones in the +arches. In the lowest range these openings are 13 ft. 4 in. +wide, except the four which are at the ends of the two +axes of the ellipse, and these are 14 ft. 6 in. wide. The +diameter of the columns is 2 ft. 8¾ in. The topmost +story, which is considerably more lofty than either of the +lower ones, was a nearly solid wall enriched by Corinthian +pilasters. In this story occur two tiers of small +square openings in the alternate spaces between the +pilasters. These openings are placed accurately over the +centres of the arches of the lower stories. Immediately +above the higher range of square openings are a series +of corbels—three between each pair of pilasters—which +probably received the ends of the poles carrying the huge +awning which protected the spectators from the sun’s +rays. The whole is surmounted by a heavy cornice, in +which, at intervals immediately over each corbel, are +worked square mortise holes, forming sockets through +which the poles of the awning passed. The stone of +which the façade of the Colosseum is built is a local stone, +called travertine, the blocks of which are secured by iron +cramps without cement. Nearly all the internal portion +of the building is of brick, and the floors of the corridors, +&c., are paved with flat bricks covered with hard stucco. +These amphitheatres were occasionally the scene of imitations +of marine conflicts, when the arena was flooded +with water and mimic vessels of war engaged each other. +Very complete arrangements were made, by means of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +small aqueducts, for leading the water into the arena and +for carrying it off.</p> + +<p>Apart from theatrical representations and gladiatorial +combats, the Romans had an inordinate passion for chariot +races. For those the circi were constructed, of which +class of buildings the Circus Maximus was the largest. +This, originally laid out by Tarquinius Priscus, was reconstructed +on a larger scale by Julius Cæsar. It was circular +at one end and rectangular at the other, at which +was the entrance. On both sides of the entrance were +a number of small arched chambers, called <i>carceres</i>, from +which the chariots started. The course was divided down +the centre by a low wall, called the <i>spina</i>, which was +adorned with various sculptures. The seats rose in a +series of covered porticoes all round the course, except at +the entrance. As the length of the Circus Maximus was +nearly 700 yards, and the breadth about 135 yards, it is +possible that Dionysius may not have formed an exaggerated +notion of its capacity when he says it would accommodate +150,000 spectators.</p> + +<p>In the Roman provinces amphitheatres were often +erected; and at Pola in Istria, Verona in Italy, and +Nîmes and Arles in France, fine examples remain. A +rude Roman amphitheatre, with seats cut in the turf of a +hill-side, exists to this day at the old town of Dorchester +in Dorset, which was anciently a Roman settlement.</p> + + +<h4><i>Baths (Thermæ).</i></h4> + +<p>Nothing can give us a more impressive idea of the +grandeur and lavish display of Imperial Rome than the +remains of the huge Thermæ, or bathing establishments, +which still exist. Between the years 10 <small>A.D.</small>, when +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +Agrippa built the first public baths, and 324 <small>A.D.</small>, when +those of Constantine were erected, no less than twelve +of these vast establishments were erected by various +emperors, and bequeathed to the people. Of the whole +number, the baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian are the +only ones which remain in any state of preservation, and +these were probably the most extensive and magnificent of +all. All these splendid buildings were really nothing more +than bribes to secure the favour of the populace; for it seems +quite clear that the public had practically free entrance +to them, the only charge mentioned by writers of the time +being a quadrans, about a farthing of our money. Gibbon +says, “The meanest Roman could purchase with a small +copper coin the daily enjoyment of a scene of pomp and +luxury which might excite the envy of the kings of Asia.” +And this language is not exaggerated. Not only were +there private bath-rooms, swimming-baths, hot baths, +vapour-baths, and, in fact, all the appurtenances of the +most approved Turkish baths of modern times, but there +were also gymnasia, halls for various games, lecture-halls, +libraries, and theatres in connection with the baths, all +lavishly ornamented with the finest paintings and sculpture +that could be obtained. Stone seems to have been +but sparingly used in the construction of these buildings, +which were almost entirely of brick faced with stucco: +this served as the ground for an elaborate series of fresco +paintings.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 650px;"> +<a name="fig133" id="fig133"></a> +<img src="images/acec151.jpg" width="650" height="467" +alt="Showing the extent of the huge symmetrical complex" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 133.—Plan of the Principal Building, Baths of Caracalla, Rome.]</p> + +<p>The baths of Caracalla, at the foot of the Aventine hill, +erected <small>A.D.</small> 217, comprised a quadrangular block of buildings +of about 1150 ft. (about the fifth of a mile) each way. +The side facing the street consisted of a portico the whole +length of the façade, behind which were numerous ranges +of private bath-rooms. The side and rear blocks contained +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +numerous halls and porticoes, the precise object of which +it is now very difficult to ascertain. As Byron says:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“Temples, baths, or halls?<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Pronounce who can.”<br /></span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>This belt of buildings surrounded an open courtyard or +garden, in which was placed the principal bathing establishment +(Fig. <a href="#fig133">133</a>), a building 730 ft. by 380 ft., which +contained the large piscina, or swimming-bath, various hot +baths, dressing-rooms, gymnasia, and other halls for athletic +exercises. In the centre of one of the longer sides was +a large semicircular projection, roofed with a dome, which +was lined with brass: this rotunda was called the solar +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +cell. From the ruins of these baths were taken some of +the most splendid specimens of antique sculpture, such as +the Farnese Hercules and the Flora in the Museum of +Naples.</p> + +<p>The baths of Diocletian, erected just at the commencement +of the fourth century <small>A.D.</small>, were hardly inferior to +those of Caracalla, but modern and ancient buildings are +now intermingled to such an extent that the general plan +of the buildings cannot now be traced with accuracy. +There are said to have been over 3000 marble seats in +these baths; the walls were covered with mosaics, and the +columns were of Egyptian granite and green Numidian +marble. The Ephebeum, or grand hall, still exists as +the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, having been +restored by Michelangelo. It is nearly 300 ft. long by +90 ft. wide, and is roofed by three magnificent cross +vaults, supported on eight granite columns 45 ft. in height. +(Fig. <a href="#fig134">134</a>.)</p> + +<p>There is one ancient building in Rome more impressive +than any other, not only because it is in a better state of +preservation, but because of the dignity with which it +has been designed, the perfection with which it has been +constructed, and the effectiveness of the mode in which +its interior is lighted. We allude to the Pantheon. +Opinions differ as to whether this was a Hall attached +to the thermæ of Agrippa, or whether it was a temple. +Without attempting to determine this point, we may at +any rate claim that the interior of this building admirably +illustrates the boldness and telling power with which +the large halls forming part of the thermæ were designed; +and, whether it belonged to such a building or not, it is +wonderfully well fitted to illustrate this subject.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig134" id="fig134"></a> +<img src="images/acec152.jpg" width="600" height="411" +alt="Showing a partial view of the cross vaults" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 134.—Interior of Santa Maria degli Angeli, Rome.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 375px;"> +<a name="fig135" id="fig135"></a> +<img src="images/acec153.jpg" width="375" height="600" +alt="Showing rotunda and portico" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 135.—The Pantheon, Rome. Ground-plan.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig136" id="fig136"></a> +<img src="images/acec154.jpg" width="700" height="558" +alt="Showing entrance to portico and dome of rotunda" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 136.—The Pantheon, Rome. Exterior.</p> + +<p>The Pantheon is the finest example of a domed hall +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"><!-- original location of Fig. 134 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +which we have left. The building, which forms the +church of Santa Maria ad Martyres, has been considerably +altered at various times since its erection, and now consists +of a rotunda with a rectangular portico in front of it. The +rotunda was most probably erected by Agrippa, the son-in-law +of Augustus, in <small>B.C.</small> 27, and is a most remarkable +instance of clever construction at so early a date. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +diameter of the interior is 145 ft. 6 in., and the height +to the top of the dome is 147 ft. In addition to the entrance, +the walls are broken up by seven large niches, three +of which are semicircular on plan, and the others, alternating +with them, rectangular. The walls are divided +into two stories by an entablature supported by columns +and pilasters; but although this is now cut through +by the arches of the niches, it is at least probable that +originally this was not the case, and that the entablature +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +ran continuously round the walls, as shown in Fig. <a href="#fig137">137</a>, +which is a restoration of the Pantheon by Adler. Above +the attic story rises the huge hemispherical dome, which +is pierced at its summit by a circular opening 27 ft. in +diameter, through which a flood of light pours down and +illuminates the whole of the interior. The dome is enriched +by boldly recessed panels, and these were formerly +covered with bronze ornaments, which have been removed +for the sake of the metal. The marble enrichments of +the attic have also disappeared, and their place has been +taken by common and tawdry decorations more adapted +to the stage of a theatre. But notwithstanding everything +that has been done to detract from the imposing +effect of the building by the alteration of its details, there +is still, taking it as a whole, a simple grandeur in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"><!-- original location of Fig. 138 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +design, a magnificence in the material employed, and a +quiet harmony in the illumination, that impart to the +interior a character of sublimity which nothing can impair. +The rectangular portico was added at some subsequent +period, and consists of sixteen splendid Corinthian columns +(Fig. <a href="#fig138">138</a>), eight in front supporting the pediment, and +the other eight dividing the portico into three bays, in +precisely the same way as if it formed the pronaos to the +three cells of an Etruscan temple.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig137" id="fig137"></a> +<img src="images/acec155.jpg" width="700" height="411" +alt="Showing portico on the left and rotunda on the right" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 137.—The Pantheon, Rome. Interior.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 370px;"> +<a name="fig138" id="fig138"></a> +<img src="images/acec156.jpg" width="370" height="700" +alt="Showing decorative capitals" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 138.—The Corinthian Order from the Pantheon, Rome.</p> + + +<h4><i>Bridges and Aqueducts.</i></h4> + +<p>The earliest Roman bridges were of wood, and the +Pons Sublicius, though often rebuilt, continued to be of +this material until the time of Pliny, but it was impossible +for a people who made such use of the arch to avoid +seeing the great advantage this form gave them in the +construction of bridges, and several of these formed of +stone spanned the Tiber even before the time of the +Empire. The finest Roman bridges, however, were built +in the provinces. Trajan constructed one over the Danube +which was 150 ft. high and 60 ft. wide, and the arches +of which were of no less than 170 ft. span. This splendid +structure was destroyed by his successor, Hadrian, who +was probably jealous of it. The bridge over the Tagus at +Alcantara, which was constructed by Hadrian, is another +very fine example. There were six arches here, of which +the two centre ones had a span of 100 ft.</p> + +<p>The Roman aqueducts afford striking evidence of the +building enterprise and architectural skill of the people. +Pliny says of these works: “If any one will carefully consider +the quantity of water used in the open air, in private +baths, swimming-baths, houses, gardens, &c., and thinks +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +of the arches that have been built, the hills that have been +tunnelled, and the valleys that have been levelled for the +purpose of conducting the water to its destination, he must +confess that nothing has existed in the world more calculated +to excite admiration.” The same sentiment strikes +an observer of to-day when looking at the ruins of these +aqueducts. At the end of the first century <small>A.D.</small> we read of +nine aqueducts in Rome, and in the time of Procopius +(<small>A.D.</small> 550) there were fourteen in use. Of these, the Aqua +Claudia and the Anio Novus were the grandest and most +costly. Those were constructed about the year 48 <small>A.D.</small>, +and entered the city upon the same arches, though at +different levels, the Aqua Claudia being the lower. The +arches carrying the streams were over nine miles long, +and in some cases 109 ft. high. They were purely works +of utility, and had no architectural decorations; but they +were most admirably adapted for their purpose, and were +so solidly constructed, that portions of them are still in +use. Some of the provincial aqueducts, such as those of +Tarragona and Segovia in Spain, were more ornamental, +and had a double tier of arches. The Pont du Gard, not +far from Nîmes, in France, is a well-known and very +picturesque structure of this character.</p> + + +<h4><i>Commemorative Monuments.</i></h4> + +<p>These comprise triumphal arches, columns, and tombs. +The former consisted of a rectangular mass of masonry +having sculptured representations of the historical event +to be commemorated, enriched with attached columns on +pedestals, supporting an entablature crowned with a high +attic, on which there was generally an inscription. In +the centre was the wide and lofty arched opening. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +Arch of Titus, recording the capture of Jerusalem, is one +of the finest examples. Later on triumphal arches were +on a more extended scale, and comprised a small arch on +each side of the large one; examples of which may be +seen in the arches of Septimius Severus and of Constantine +(Fig. <a href="#fig139">139</a>). The large arched gateways which are met +with in various parts of Europe—such as the Porte +d’Arroux at Autun, and the Porta Nigra at Trèves—are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +monuments very similar to triumphal arches. There remain +also smaller monuments of the same character, such as the +so-called Arch of the Goldsmiths in Rome (Fig. <a href="#fig001">1</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig139" id="fig139"></a> +<img src="images/acec157.jpg" width="700" height="555" +alt="Showing figures and inscription" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 139.—The Arch of Constantine, Rome.</p> + +<p>Columns were erected in great numbers during the time +of the Emperors as memorials of victory. Of these the +Column of Trajan and that of Marcus Aurelius are the +finest. The former was erected in the centre of Trajan’s +Forum, in commemoration of the Emperor’s victory over +the Dacians. It is of the Doric order, 132 ft. 10 in. high, +including the statue. The shaft is constructed of thirty-four +pieces of marble joined with bronze cramps. The +figures on the pedestal are very finely carved, and the +entire shaft is encircled by a series of elaborate bas-reliefs +winding round it in a spiral from its base to its capital. +The beauty of the work on this shaft may be best appreciated +by a visit to the cast of it set up—in two +heights, unfortunately—at the South Kensington Museum. +The Column of Marcus Aurelius, generally known as the +Antonine Column, is similarly enriched, but is not equal +to the Trajan Column.</p> + +<p>The survival of Etruscan habits is clearly seen in the +construction of Roman tombs, which existed in enormous +numbers outside the gates of the city. Merivale says: +“The sepulchres of twenty generations lined the sides +of the high-roads for several miles beyond the gates, +and many had considerable architectural pretensions.” +That of Cecilia Metella is a typical example. Here we +find a square basement surmounted by a circular tower-like +structure, with a frieze and cornice. This was erected +about <small>B.C.</small> 60, by Crassus. The mausoleum of Augustus +was on a much more extensive scale, and consisted of four +cylindrical stories, one above the other, decreasing in +diameter as they ascended, and the topmost of all was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +crowned with a colossal statue of the Emperor. The +tomb of Hadrian, on the banks of the Tiber—now known +as the Castle of Sant’ Angelo—was even more magnificent. +This comprised a square base, 75 ft. high, the side of +which measured about 340 ft.; above this was a cylindrical +building surmounted by a circular peristyle of thirty-four +Corinthian columns. On the top was a quadriga +with a statue of the Emperor. These mausolea were occasionally +octagonal or polygonal in plan, surmounted by +a dome, and cannot fail to remind us of the Etruscan +tumuli.</p> + +<p>Another kind of tomb, of less magnificence, was the +columbarium, which was nothing more than a subterranean +chamber, the walls of which had a number of +small apertures in them for receiving the cinerary urns +containing the ashes of the bodies which had been +cremated. In the eastern portion of the Empire, in rocky +districts, the tombs were cut in the rock, and the façade +was elaborately decorated with columns and other architectural +features.</p> + + +<h4><i>Domestic Architecture.</i></h4> + +<p>Of all the palaces which the Roman emperors built for +themselves, and which we know from historical records to +have been of the most magnificent description, nothing +now remains in Rome itself that is not too completely +ruined to enable any one to restore its plan with accuracy, +though considerable remains exist of the Palace of the +Cæsars on the Palatine Hill. In fact, the palace of +Diocletian at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, is the only remaining +example in the whole of the Roman empire of the +dwelling-house of an emperor, and even this was not +built till after Diocletian had resigned the imperial +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +dignity, so that its date is the early part of the fourth century +<small>A.D.</small> This palace is a rectangle, measuring about 700 ft. +one way and 590 ft. the other, and covers an area of nearly +10 acres. It is surrounded by high walls, broken at intervals +by square and octagonal towers, and contains +temples, baths, and extensive galleries, besides the private +apartments of the Emperor and dwellings for the principal +officers of the household. The architect of this building +broke away from classical traditions to a great extent; for +example, the columns stand on corbels instead of pedestals, +the entablatures being much broken, and the arches spring +directly from the capitals of the columns (Fig. <a href="#fig149">149</a>).</p> + +<p>The private houses in Borne were of two kinds: the +<i>insula</i> and the <i>domus</i>. The insula was a block of buildings +several stories high, frequently let out to different families +in flats. The ground-floor was generally given up to +shops, which had no connection with the upper parts of +the building; and one roof covered the whole. This kind +of house was generally tenanted by the poorer class of +tradesmen and artificers. The other kind of house, the +domus, was a detached mansion. The excavations at +Pompeii have done much to elucidate a number of points +in connection with Roman dwellings which had been the +subject of much discussion by scholars, but we must not +too hastily assume that the Pompeian houses are the exact +counterpart of those of ancient Rome, as Pompeii was what +may be called a Romano-Greek city.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 341px;"> +<a name="fig140" id="fig140"></a> +<img src="images/acec158.jpg" width="341" height="700" +alt="Showing layout of an extensive building, including alae and peristylium" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 140.—Ground-plan of the House of Pansa, Pompeii.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 339px;"> +<a name="fig141" id="fig141"></a> +<img src="images/acec159.jpg" width="339" height="550" +alt="A smaller, more simple building than the House of Pansa" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 141.—Ground-plan of the House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii.</p> + +<p>The general arrangements of a Roman house were as +follows: next the street an open space was frequently +left, with porticoes on each side of it provided with +seats: this constituted the vestibule, and was entirely +outside the house;<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> the entrance-door opened into a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +narrow passage, called the <i>prothyrum</i>, which led to +the <i>atrium</i>,<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> which in the houses of Republican Rome +was the principal apartment, though afterwards it served +as a sort of waiting-room for the clients and retainers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +of the house; it was an open court, roofed in on all the +four sides, but open to the sky in the centre. The simplest +form was called the Tuscan atrium, where the roof was +simply a lean-to sloping towards the centre, the rafters being +supported on beams, two of which rested on the walls of the +atrium, and had two other cross-beams trimmed into them. +The centre opening was called the <i>impluvium</i>, and immediately +under it a tank, called the <i>compluvium</i>, was formed +in the pavement to collect the rain-water (Fig. <a href="#fig142">142</a>). +When the atrium became larger, and the roof had to be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +supported by columns, it was called a <i>cavædium</i>.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> At the +end of this apartment were three others, open in front, the +largest, in the centre, called <i>tablinum</i>, and the two side ones +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +<i>alæ</i>;<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> these were muniment-rooms, where all the family +archives were kept, and their position is midway between the +semi-public part of the house, which lay towards the front, +and the strictly domestic and private part, which lay in the +rear. At the sides of the atrium in the larger houses were +placed small rooms, which served as sleeping chambers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig142" id="fig142"></a> +<img src="images/acec160.jpg" width="700" height="439" +alt="A large living area, with extensive decoration on walls and ceiling" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 142.—The Atrium of a Pompeian House.</p> + +<p>From the end of the atrium a passage, or sometimes +two passages, called the <i>fauces</i>, running by the side of +the tablinum, led to the <i>peristylium</i>,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> which was the +grand private reception-room; this also was a court +open to the sky in the centre, and among the wealthy +Romans its roof was supported by columns of the rarest +marbles. Round the peristyle were grouped the various +private rooms, which varied according to the size of the +house and the taste of the owner. There was always +one dining-room (<i>triclinium</i>), and frequently two or +more, which were arranged with different aspects, for +use in different seasons of the year. If several dining-rooms +existed, they were of various sizes and decorated +with various degrees of magnificence; and a story is told +of one of the most luxurious Romans of Cicero’s time, +that he had simply to tell his slaves which room he would +dine in for them to know what kind of banquet he wished to +be prepared. In the largest houses there were saloons (<i>æci</i>), +parlours (<i>exedræ</i>), picture galleries (<i>pinacothecæ</i>), chapels +(<i>lararia</i>), and various other apartments. The kitchen, with +scullery and bakehouse attached, was generally placed in +one angle of the peristyle, round which various sleeping-chambers, +according to the size of the house, were arranged. +Most of the rooms appear to have been on the ground-floor, +and probably depended for their light upon the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +doorway only; though in some instances at Pompeii small +windows exist high up in the walls.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 468px;"> +<a name="fig143" id="fig143"></a> +<img src="images/acec161.jpg" width="468" height="700" +alt="Showing architectural elements, animal and human forms and other decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 143.—Wall Decoration from Pompeii.</p> + +<p>In the extreme rear of the larger houses there was +generally a garden; and in those which were without this, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +the dead walls in the rear were frequently painted so as to +imitate a garden. The houses of the wealthy Romans +were decorated with the utmost magnificence: marble +columns, mosaic pavements, and charming pieces of sculpture +adorned their apartments, and the walls were in +all cases richly painted (Fig. <a href="#fig143">143</a>), being divided into +panels, in the centre of which were represented sometimes +human figures, sometimes landscapes, and sometimes pictures +of historical events. All the decoration of Roman +houses was internal only: the largest and most sumptuous +mansion had little to distinguish it, next the street, +from a comparatively humble abode; and, with the exception +of the space required for the vestibule and +entrance doorway, nearly the whole of the side of the +house next the street was most frequently appropriated +to shops. All that we are able to learn of the architecture +of Roman private houses, whether from contemporary +descriptions or from the uncovered remains of +Pompeii and Herculaneum,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> points to the fact that it, +even in a greater measure than the public architecture, +was in no sense of indigenous growth, but was simply +a copy of Greek arrangement and Greek decoration.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The passage in Varro, which is the sole authority for the Basilica +Opimia, is generally considered to be corrupt.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Byron.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> This does not occur in the Pompeian houses.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Marked <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, on the plans.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Vitruvius, however, seems to use the terms <i>atrium</i> and <i>cavædium</i> +as quite synonymous.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Marked respectively <i>c</i>, and <i>f</i>, <i>f</i>, on the plan of the House of Pansa.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Marked <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, on the plans.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> At the Crystal Palace can be seen an interesting reproduction of a +Pompeian house, which was designed by the late Sir Digby Wyatt. +It gives a very faithful reproduction of the arrangement and the size of +an average Pompeian house; and though every part is rather more +fully covered with decoration than was usual in the originals, the +decorations of each room faithfully reproduce the treatment of some +original in Pompeii or Herculaneum.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 550px;"> +<a name="fig144" id="fig144"></a> +<img src="images/acec162.jpg" width="550" height="230" +alt="Showing detailed foliage patterns" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 144.—Carving from the Forum of Nerva, Rome.</p> + + + +<h2>CHAPTER X.</h2> + +<h3>ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<h4><i>Analysis.</i></h4> + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE <strong>Plan</strong> (<strong>or floor-disposition</strong>).—The plans of Roman +buildings are striking from their variety and the +vast extent which in some cases they display, as well +as from a certain freedom, mastery, and facility of handling +which are not seen in earlier work. Their variety is +partly due to the very various purposes which the buildings +of the Romans were designed to serve: these comprised +all to which Greek buildings had been appropriated, +and many others, the product of the complex and luxurious +civilisation of the Empire. But independent of this circumstance, +the employment of such various forms in +the plans of buildings as the ellipse, the circle, and the +octagon, and their facile use, seem to denote a people +who could build rapidly, and who looked carefully to +the general masses and outlines of what they built, +however carelessly they handled the minute details. +The freedom with which these new forms were employed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +arises partly also from the fact that the Romans were in +possession of a system of construction which rendered +them practically independent of most of the restrictions +which had fettered the genius of the Egyptians, Assyrians, +and Greeks. Their vaulted roofs could be supported by a +comparatively small number of piers of great solidity, +placed far apart; and accordingly in the great halls of +the Thermæ and elsewhere we find planning in which, a +few stable points of support being secured, the outline of +the spaces between them is varied at the pleasure of the +architect in the most picturesque and pleasing manner.</p> + +<p>The actual floor received a good deal of attention from +the Romans. It was generally covered with tesselated +pavement, often with mosaic, and its treatment entered +into the scheme of the design for most interiors.</p> + + +<h4><i>The Walls.</i></h4> + +<p>The construction of these was essentially different from +that adopted by most earlier nations. The Romans rather +avoided than cultivated the use of large blocks of stone; +they invented methods by which very small materials could +be aggregated together into massive and solid walls. They +used mortar of great cementing power, so much so that +many specimens of Roman walling exist in this country +as well as in Italy or France, where the mortar is as hard +as the stones which it unites. They also employed a system +of binding together the small materials so employed by +introducing, at short distances apart, courses of flat stones +or bricks, called “bond courses,” and they further fortified +such walls by bands of flat materials placed edgeways +after the manner popularly known as herring-bone +work. The result of these methods of construction was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +that the Roman architect could build anywhere, no matter +how unpromising the materials which the locality afforded; +that he could put the walls of his building together without +its being requisite to employ exclusively the skilled +labour of the mason, and that both time and expense were +thus saved. This economy and speed were not pushed so +far as to render the work anything but durable; they +had, however, a bad effect in another direction, for these +rough rubble walls were habitually encased in some more +sightly material, in order to make them look as though +they were something finer than they really were; and +accordingly, the exterior was often faced with a thin +skin of masonry, and not infrequently plastered. The +interior was also almost invariably plastered, but to this +little exception can be taken. This casing of the exteriors +was, however, the beginning of a system of what may be +called false architecture, and one which led to much that +was degrading to the art.</p> + +<p>The walls were in many cases, it has been already observed, +gathered into strong masses, such as it is customary +to term piers, in order to support the vaulted roofs at the +proper points. They were often carried to a much greater +height than in Greek buildings, and they played altogether +a far more important part in the design of Roman buildings +than they had done in that of the Greeks.</p> + + +<h4><i>The Roofs.</i></h4> + +<p>As has been already stated, the Romans, in their possession +of a new system of construction, enjoyed a degree +of freedom which was unknown before. This system +was based upon the use of the arch, and arched roofs and +domes, and it enabled the Romans to produce interiors +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +unapproached before for size and splendour, and such as +have hardly been surpassed since, except by the vaulted +churches of the Middle Ages,—buildings which are themselves +descended from Roman originals. The art of +vaulting was, in short, the key to the whole system of +Roman architecture, just as the Orders were to that of +the Greeks.</p> + +<p>The well-known arch over the Cloaca Maxima at Rome +(Fig. <a href="#fig123">123</a>, p. <a href="#Page_142">142</a>) may be taken as an illustration of the +most ancient and most simple kind of vault, the one which +goes by the significant name of “barrel or waggon-head +vault.” This is simply a continuous arched vault springing +from the top of two parallel walls; in fact, like the +arch of a railway tunnel. Such a vault may be constructed +of very great span, and affords a means of +putting a permanent roof over a floor the outline of which +is a parallelogram; but it is heavy and uninteresting in +appearance. It was soon found to be possible to introduce +a cross vault running at right angles to the original one; +and where such an intersecting vault occurs the side walls +of the original vault may be dispensed with, for so much +of their length as the newly-added vault spans.</p> + +<p>The next step was to introduce a succession of such cross +vaults close to one another, so that large portions of the +original main wall might be dispensed with. What remained +of the side walls was now only a series of oblong +masses or piers, suitably fortified so as to carry the great +weight resting upon them, but leaving the architect free to +occupy the space between them as his fancy might dictate, +or to leave it quite open. In this way were constructed the +great halls of the Thermæ; and the finest halls of modern +classic architecture—such, for example, as the Madeleine +at Paris, or St. George’s Hall at Liverpool—are only a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +reproduction of the splendid structures which such a +system of vaulting rendered possible.</p> + +<p>When the floor of the space to be vaulted was circular, +the result of covering it with an arched roof was the dome—a +familiar feature of Roman architecture, and the +noblest of all forms of roof. We possess in the dome of +the Pantheon a specimen, in fairly good preservation, of +this kind of roof on the grandest scale.</p> + +<p>We shall find that in later ages the dome and the vault +were adopted by the Eastern and the Western schools of +Christian architecture respectively. In Rome we have the +origin of both.</p> + + +<h4><i>The Openings.</i></h4> + +<p>These were both square-headed and arched; but the +arched ones occur far more frequently than the others, and, +when occasion required, could be far bolder. The openings +became of much greater importance than in earlier +styles, and soon disputed with the columns the dignity of +being the feature of the building: this eventually led, as +will be related under the next head, to various devices for +the fusion of the two.</p> + +<p>The adoption of the arch by the Romans led to a +great modification in classic architecture; for its influence +was to be traced in every part of the structure +where an opening of any sort had to be spanned. Formerly +the width of such openings was very limited, +owing to the difficulty of obtaining lintels of great length. +Now their width and height were pure matters of choice, +and doorways, windows, and arcades naturally became +very prominent, and were often very spacious.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>The Columns.</i></h4> + +<p>These necessarily took an altered place as soon as buildings +were carried to such a height that one order could +not, as in Greek temples, occupy the whole space from +pavement to roof. The Greek orders were modified by the +Romans in order to fit these altered circumstances, but +columnar construction was by no means disused when the +arch came to play so important a part in building. The +Roman Doric order, and a very simple variety of it +called Tuscan, were but rarely used. The chief alteration +from the Greek Doric, in addition to a general +degradation of all the mouldings and proportions, was +the addition of a base, which sometimes consists of a +square plinth and large torus, sometimes is a slightly +modified Attic base; the capital has a small moulding +round the top of the abacus, and under the ovolo are two +or three small fillets with a necking below; the shaft +was from 6 to 7 diameters in height, and was not fluted; +the frieze was ornamented with triglyphs, and the metopes +between these were frequently enriched with sculptured +heads of bulls: the metopes were exact squares, and the +triglyphs at the angles of buildings were placed precisely +over the centre of the column.</p> + +<p>The Ionic order was but slightly modified by the Romans, +the chief alteration being made in the capital. Instead +of forming the angular volutes so that they exhibited a +flat surface on the two opposite sides of the capital, the +Romans appear to have desired to make the latter uniform +on all the four sides; they therefore made the sides of the +abacus concave on plan, and arranged the volutes so that +they seemed to spring out of the mouldings under the +abacus and faced anglewise. The capital altogether seems +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +compressed and crowded up, and by no means elegant; +in fact, both this and the Doric order were decidedly deteriorations +from the fine forms of Greek architecture.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 298px;"> +<a name="fig145" id="fig145"></a> +<img src="images/acec163.jpg" width="298" height="425" +alt="Capital showing extensive floral decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 145.—Roman Corinthian Capital +and Base from the Temple of Vesta +at Tivoli.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 350px;"> +<a name="fig145a" id="fig145a"></a> +<img src="images/acec164.jpg" width="350" height="336" +alt="Showing scrolls and extensive foliage decorations" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 145a.—The Roman Composite Capital.</p> + +<p>The Corinthian order was much more in accordance +with the later Roman taste for magnificence and display, +and hence we find its use very general both in Rome and +in other cities of the Empire. Its proportions did not +greatly differ from those of the Greek Corinthian, but +the mouldings in general were more elaborate. Numerous +variations of the capital exist (Figs. <a href="#fig145">145</a>, <a href="#fig145a">145<span class="smcap">a</span></a>), but the +principal one was an amalgamation of the large Ionic +volutes in the upper with the acanthus leaves of the lower +portion of the capital: this is known as the Composite +order, and the capital thus treated has a strength and vigour +which was wanting to the Greek order (see Fig. <a href="#fig145a">145<span class="smcap">a</span></a>). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +The shafts of the columns were more often fluted than +not, though sometimes the lower portion was left plain +and the upper only fluted. The Attic base was generally +used, but an example has been found of an adaptation of +the graceful Persepolitan base to the Corinthian column. +This was the happiest innovation that the Romans made; +it seems, however, to have been but an individual attempt, +and, as it was introduced very shortly before the fall of +the Empire, the idea was not worked out.</p> + +<p>The orders thus changed were employed for the most +part as mere decorative additions to the walls. In many +cases they did not even carry the eaves of the roof, as +they always did in a Greek temple; and it was not +uncommon for two, three, or more orders to be used one +above another, marking the different stories of a lofty +building.</p> + +<p>The columns, or pilasters which took their place, being +reduced to the humble function of ornaments added to the +wall of a building, it became very usual to combine them +with arched openings, and to put an arch in the interspace +between two columns, or, in other words, to add a column +to the pier between two arches (Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a>). These arched +openings being often wide, a good deal of disproportion +between the height of the columns and their distance +apart was liable to occur; and, partly to correct this, the +column was often mounted upon a pedestal, to which the +name of “stylobate” has been given.</p> + +<p>It was also sometimes customary to place above the +order, or the highest order where more than one was +employed, what was termed an attic—a low story ornamented +with piers or pilasters. The exterior of the +Colosseum (Fig. <a href="#fig005">5</a>), the triumphal arches of Constantine +(Fig. <a href="#fig139">139</a>) and Titus, and the fragments of the upper part +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"><!-- original location of Fig. 146 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +of the Forum of Nerva (Fig. <a href="#fig147">147</a>) may be consulted as +illustrations of the combination of an order and an +arched opening, and of the use of pedestals and attics.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 481px;"> +<a name="fig146" id="fig146"></a> +<img src="images/acec165.jpg" width="481" height="700" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 146.—Part of the Theatre of Marcellus, Rome. Showing the combination of +Columns and Arched Openings.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig147" id="fig147"></a> +<img src="images/acec166.jpg" width="700" height="650" +alt="Features a large carved figure and a frieze of smaller figures" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 147.—From the Ruins of the Forum of Nerva, Rome. Showing the use +of an Attic Story. With Plan.</p> + +<p>Another peculiarity, of which we give an illustration from +the baths of Diocletian (Fig. <a href="#fig148">148</a>), was the surmounting a +column or pilaster with a square pillar of stone, moulded +in the same way as an entablature, <i>i.e.</i> with the regular +division into architrave, frieze, and cornice. This was a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +decided perversion of the +use of the order; it occurs +in examples of late date. +So also do various other +arrangements for making +an arch spring from the +capital of a column; one +of these, from the palace +of Diocletian at Spalatro, +we are able to illustrate +(Fig. <a href="#fig149">149</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 286px;"> +<a name="fig148" id="fig148"></a> +<img src="images/acec167.jpg" width="286" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 148.—From the Baths of Diocletian, +Rome. Showing a fragmentary Entablature +at the starting of part of a +Vault.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig149" id="fig149"></a> +<img src="images/acec168.jpg" width="600" height="342" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 149.—From the Palace of Diocletian, Spalatro. Showing an Arch springing +from a Column.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, it may be +worth while to say that +the Roman writers and +architects recognised five +orders: the Tuscan, Doric, +Ionic, Corinthian, and +Composite, the first and +last in this list being, +however, really only +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"><!-- original location of Fig. 150 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> +variations; and that when they placed the orders above one +another, they invariably used those of them which they +selected in the succession in which they have been named; +that is to say, the Tuscan or Doric lowest, and so on in +succession.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 472px;"> +<a name="fig150" id="fig150"></a> +<img src="images/acec169.jpg" width="472" height="700" +alt="Showing mouldings on capitals and bases" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 150.—Mouldings and Ornaments from various Roman Buildings.</p> + + +<h4><i>The Ornaments.</i></h4> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 308px;"> +<a name="fig151" id="fig151"></a> +<img src="images/acec170.jpg" width="308" height="325" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 151.—Roman Carving. An Acanthus Leaf.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="fig152" id="fig152"></a> +<img src="images/acec171.jpg" width="400" height="116" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 152.—The Egg and Dart Enrichment. Roman.</p> + +<p>The mouldings with which Roman buildings are ornamented +are all derived from Greek originals, but are often +extremely rough and coarse. It is true that in some old +Roman work, especially in those of the tombs which are +executed in marble, mouldings of considerable delicacy +and refinement of outline occur, but these are exceptional. +The profiles of the mouldings are, as a rule, segments of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +circles, instead of being more subtle curves, and the result +is that violent contrasts of light and shade are obtained, +telling enough at a distance, but devoid of interest if the +spectator come near.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 475px;"> +<a name="fig153" id="fig153"></a> +<img src="images/acec172.jpg" width="475" height="374" +alt="A symmetrical pattern, showing lines, beads and animal figures" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 153.—Wall Decoration of (so-called) Arabesque character from +Pompeii.</p> + +<p>Carving is executed exactly on the same principles as +those which govern the mouldings—that is to say, with +much more coarseness than in Greek work; not lacking +in vigour, or in a sort of ostentatious opulence of ornament, +but often sadly deficient in refinement and grace.</p> + +<p>Statues, many of them copies of Greek originals, +generally executed with a heavy hand, but sometimes +clearly of Greek work, were employed, as well as bronzes, +inlaid marbles, mosaics, and various devices to ornament +the interiors of Greco-Roman buildings; and free use +was made of ornamental plaster-work, both on walls +and vaults.</p> + +<p>Coloured decoration was much in vogue, and, to judge +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +from what has come down to us, must have been executed +with great taste and much spirit. The walls of a Roman +dwelling-house of importance seem to have been all +painted, partly with that light kind of decoration to +which the somewhat inappropriate name of arabesque +has been given, and partly with groups or single figures, +relieved by dark or black backgrounds. The remains of +the Palace of the Cæsars in Rome, much of it not now +accessible, and the decorations visible at Pompeii, give a +high idea of the skill with which this mural ornamentation +was executed; our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig154">154</a>) may be +taken as affording a good example of the combined decorations +in relief and colour often applied to vaulted ceilings.</p> + +<p>It is, however, characteristic of the lower level at +which Roman art stood as compared with Greek that, +though statues abounded, we find no traces of groups +of sculpture designed to occupy the pediments of +temples, or of bas-reliefs fitted to special localities in +the buildings, such as were all but universal in the best +Greek works.</p> + + +<h4><i>Architectural Character.</i></h4> + +<p>The nature of this will have been to a large extent +gathered from the observations already made. Daring, +energy, readiness, structural skill, and a not too fastidious +taste were characteristic of the Roman architect and his +works. We find traces of vast spaces covered, bold construction +successfully and solidly carried out, convenience +studied, and a great deal of magnificence attained in those +buildings the remains of which have come down to us; +but we do not discover refinement or elegance, a fine +feeling for proportion, or a close attention to details, to +a degree at all approaching the extent to which these +qualities are to be met with in Greek buildings. We +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +are thus sometimes tempted to regret that it was not +possible to combine a higher degree of refinement with +the great excellence in construction and contrivance exhibited +by Roman architecture.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 444px;"> +<a name="fig154" id="fig154"></a> +<img src="images/acec173t.jpg" width="444" height="500" +alt="Highly detailed decoration, showing figures, mosaic and floral patterns" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/acec173.jpg">See larger image.</a></span> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 154.—Decoration in Relief and Colour of the Vault of a Tomb +in the Via Latina, near Rome.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig155" id="fig155"></a> +<img src="images/acec174.jpg" width="500" height="408" +alt="Showing front view" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 155.—Basilica-Church of San Miniato, Florence.</p> + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2> + +<h3>EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<h4><i>Basilicas in Rome and Italy.</i></h4> + +<p><span class="dropcap">D</span>URING the first three centuries the Christian +religion was discredited and persecuted; and +though many interesting memorials of this time (some +of them having an indirect bearing upon architectural +questions) remain in the Catacombs, it is chiefly for their +paintings that the touching records of the past which +have been preserved to us in these secluded excavations +should be studied. Early in the fourth century Constantine +the Great became Emperor, and in the course of his +reign (from <small>A.D.</small> 312 to 337) he recognised Christianity, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +and made it the religion of the State. It then, of course, +became requisite to provide places of public worship. +Probably the Christians would have been, in many cases, +reluctant to make use of heathen temples, and few +temples, if any, were adapted to the assembling of a large +congregation. But the large halls of the baths and +the basilicas were free from associations of an objectionable +character, and well fitted for large assemblages +of worshippers. These and other such places were accordingly, +in the first instance, employed as Christian +churches. The basilica, however, became the model +which, at least in Italy, was followed, to the exclusion +of all others, when new buildings were erected for +the purpose of Christian worship; and during the fourth +century, and several succeeding ones, the churches of +the West were all of the basilica type. What occurred +at Constantinople, the seat of the Eastern Empire and +the centre of the Eastern Church, will be considered +presently.</p> + +<p>There is probably no basilica actually standing which +was built during the reign of Constantine, or near his +time; but there are several basilica churches in Rome, +such as that of San Clemente, which were founded near +his time, and which, though they have been partially or +wholly rebuilt, exhibit what is believed to be the ancient +disposition without modification.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 478px;"> +<a name="fig156" id="fig156"></a> +<img src="images/acec175.jpg" width="478" height="700" +alt="Showing central space edged with columns" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 156.—Interior of a Basilica at Pompeii.</span><br /> +<i>Restored, from descriptions by various authors.</i></p> + +<p>Access is obtained to San Clemente through a forecourt +to which the name of the atrium is given. This +is very much like the atrium of a Roman house, being +covered with a shed roof round all four sides and open in +the centre, and so resembling a cloister. The side next +the church was called the narthex or porch; and when an +atrium did not exist, a narthex at least was usually +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"><!-- original location of Fig. 156 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +provided. The basilica has always a central avenue, or nave, +and sides or aisles, and was generally entered from the +narthex by three doors, one to each division. The nave of +San Clemente is lofty, and covered by a simple wooden +roof; it is separated from the side aisles by arcades, the +arches of which spring from the capitals of columns; and +high up in its side walls we find windows. The side +aisles, like the nave, have wooden roofs. The nave terminates +in a semicircular recess called “the apse,” the floor +of which is higher than that of the general structure, and +is approached by steps. A large arch divides this apse +from the nave. A portion of the nave floor is occupied by +an enclosed space for the choir, surrounded by marble +screens, and having a pulpit on either side of it. These +pulpits are termed “ambos.” Below the Church of San +Clemente is a vaulted structure or crypt extending under +the greater part, but not the whole, of the floor of the +main building.</p> + +<p>The description given above would apply, with very +slight variations, to any one of the many ancient basilica +churches in Rome, Milan, Ravenna, and the other older +cities of Italy; the principal variations being that in +many instances, including the very ancient basilica of +St. Peter, now destroyed, the avenues all stopped short of +the end wall of the basilica, and a wide and clear transverse +space or transept ran athwart them in front of the +apse. San Clemente indeed shows some faint traces of +such a feature. In one or two very large churches five +avenues occur,—that is to say, a nave and double aisles; +and in Santa Agnese (Fig. <a href="#fig156a">156<span class="smcap">a</span></a>) and at least one other, we +find a gallery over the side aisles opening into the nave, +or, as Mr. Fergusson puts it, “the side aisles in two +stories.” In many instances we should find no atrium, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"><!-- original location of Fig. 156a --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +but in all cases we meet with the nave and aisles, and the +apse at the end of the nave, with its arch and its elevated +floor; and the entrances are always at the end of the +building farthest from the apse, with some sort of porch +or portal.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig156a" id="fig156a"></a> +<img src="images/acec176.jpg" width="700" height="480" +alt="Showing a high-roofed area, surrounded with arches supported on columns" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 156a.—Basilica, or Early Christian Church of Santa Agnese at Rome.</p> + +<p>The interest of these buildings lies not so much in their +venerable antiquity as in the fact that the arrangements +of all Christian churches in Western Europe down to the +Reformation, and of very many since, are directly derived +from these originals. If the reader will refer to the +description of a Gothic cathedral in the companion volume +of this series,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> it will not be difficult for him to trace the +correspondence between its plan and its general structure +and those of the primitive basilica. The atrium no longer +forms the access to a cathedral, but it still survives in the +cloister, though in a changed position. The narthex or +porch is still more or less traceable in the great western +portals, and in a kind of separation which often, but not +always, exists between the westernmost bay of a cathedral +and the rest of the structure. The division into nave and +aisles remains, and in very large churches and cathedrals +there are double aisles, as there were in the largest +basilicas. The nave roof is still higher than the aisles—the +arcade, in two stories, survives in the usual arcade +and triforium; the windows placed high in the nave are +the present clerestory. The apsidal termination of the +central avenue is still retained in almost all Continental +architecture, though in Great Britain, from an early date, +it was abandoned for a square east end; but square-ended +or apsidal, a recess with a raised floor and a conspicuous +arch, marking it off from the nave, always occupies this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +end of the church; and the under church, or crypt, is +commonly, though not always, met with. The enclosure +for the choir has, generally speaking, been moved farther +east than it was in the basilica churches; though in +Westminster Abbey, and in most Spanish cathedrals, we +have examples of its occupying a position closely analogous +to that of the corresponding enclosure at the basilica of San +Clemente. The cross passage to which we have referred +as having existed in the old basilica of St. Peter, and +many others, is the original of the transept which in +later churches has been made more conspicuous than it +was in the basilica by being lengthened so as to project +beyond the side walls of the church, and by being moved +more westward. Lastly, the two ambos, or pulpits, +survive in two senses. They are represented by the +reading desk and the pulpit, and their situation and +purpose are continued in the epistle and gospel sides of +the choir.</p> + +<p>The one point in which an essential difference occurs is +the position of the altar, or communion table, and that of +the Bishop’s chair, or throne. In the classic basilica the +apse was the tribunal, and a raised seat with a tesselated +pavement occupied the central position in it, and was the +justice-seat of the presiding judge; and in the sweep of +the apse, seats right and left, at a lower elevation, were +provided for assessors or assistant-judges. In front of the +president was placed a small altar. The whole of these +arrangements were copied in the basilica churches. The +seat of the president became the bishop’s throne, the seats +for assessors were appropriated to the clergy, and the +altar retained substantially its old position in front of the +apse, generally with a canopy erected over it. This disposition +continues in basilica churches to the present day. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +At St. Peter’s in Rome, for example, the Pope occupies a +throne in the middle of the apse, and says mass with his +face turned towards the congregation at the high altar, +which stands in front of his throne under a vast baldacchino +or canopy; but in Western Christendom generally +a change has been made,—the altar has been placed in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +apse where the bishop’s throne formerly stood, and the +throne of the bishop and stalls of his clergy have been +displaced, and are to be found at the sides of the choir or +presbytery.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 504px;"> +<a name="fig157" id="fig157"></a> +<img src="images/acec177.jpg" width="504" height="700" +alt="Highly decorated wall and ceiling, with steps leading up" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 157.—Sant’ Apollinare, Ravenna. Part of the Arcade and Apse.</p> + +<p>Many basilica churches were erected out of fragments +taken from older buildings, and present a curious mixture +of columns, capitals, &c.; others, especially those at +Ravenna, exhibit more care, and are noble specimens of +ancient and severe architectural work. The illustration +which we give of part of the nave, arcade, and apse of one +of these, Sant’ Apollinare in Classe, shows the dignified +yet ornate aspect of one of the most carefully executed of +these buildings (Fig. <a href="#fig157">157</a>).</p> + +<p>In some of these churches the decorations are chiefly +in mosaic, and are extremely striking. Our illustration of +the apse of the great basilica of St. Paul without the walls +(Fig. <a href="#fig158">158</a>) may be taken as a fair specimen of the general +arrangement and treatment of the crowd of sacred figures +and subjects which it is customary to represent in these +situations; but it can of course convey no idea of the +brilliant effect produced by powerful colouring executed +in mosaic, the most luminous of all methods of enrichment. +The floor of most of them was formed in the style +of mosaic known as “opus Alexandrinum,” and the large +sweeping, curved bands of coloured material with which +the main outlines of the patterns are defined, and the +general harmony of colour among the porphyries and +other hard stones with which these pavements were executed, +combine to satisfy the eye. A splendid specimen of +opus Alexandrinum, the finest north of the Alps, exists in +the presbytery of Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 518px;"> +<a name="fig158" id="fig158"></a> +<img src="images/acec178.jpg" width="518" height="700" +alt="Heavily decorated, with figures and inscriptions" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 158.—Apse of the Basilica of St. Paul without the Walls, Rome.</p> + +<p>Another description of building is customarily met +with in connection with early Christian churches,—the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"><!-- original location of Fig. 158 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +baptistery. This is commonly a detached building, and +almost always circular or polygonal. In some instances +the baptistery adjoins the atrium or forecourt; but it +soon became customary to erect detached baptisteries of +considerable size. These generally have a high central +portion carried by a ring of columns, and a low aisle running +round, the receptacle for water being in the centre. +The origin of these buildings is not so clear as that of +the basilica churches; they bear some resemblance to the +Roman circular temples; but it is more probable that +the form was suggested by buildings similar in general +arrangement, and forming part of a Roman bath. The +octagonal building known as the baptistery of Constantine, +and the circular building now used as a church and +dedicated to Santa Costanza in Rome, and the celebrated +baptistery of Ravenna, are early examples of this class of +structure. Somewhat more recent, and very well known, +are the great baptisteries of Florence and Pisa.</p> + +<p>A few ancient circular or polygonal churches remain +which do not appear to have been built as baptisteries. +One of these is at Rome, the church of San Stefano +Rotondo; but another, more remarkable in every way, +is at Ravenna, the church of San Vitale. This is an +octagonal building, with a large vestibule and a small +apsidal choir. The central portion, carried by eight +arches springing from as many lofty and solid piers, and +surmounted by a hemispherical dome, rises high above +the aisle which surrounds it. Much elegance is produced +by the arrangement of smaller columns so as to form a +kind of apsidal recess in each of the interspaces between +the eight main piers.</p> + +<p>Another feature which has become thoroughly identified +with church architecture is the bell-tower, or campanile. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +This appendage, there can be no doubt, originated with +the basilicas of Italy. The use of bells as a call to prayer +is said to have been introduced not later, at any rate, than +the sixth century, and to this era is attributed a circular +campanile belonging to Sant’ Apollinare in Classe at +Ravenna, a basilica already alluded to. The circular plan +was, however, exceptional; the ancient campaniles remaining +in Rome are all square; they are usually built of +brick, many stories in height, and with a group of arched +openings in each story, and are generally surmounted by +a low conical roof.</p> + +<p>The type of church which we have described influenced +church architecture in Italy down to the eleventh century, +and such buildings as the beautiful church (Fig. <a href="#fig155">155</a>) of +San Miniato, near Florence (<small>A.D.</small> 1013), and the renowned +group of Cathedral, Baptistery, Campanile, and Campo +Santo (a kind of cloistered cemetery) at Pisa, bear a very +strong resemblance in many respects to these originals; +though they belong rather to the Romanesque than to +the Basilican division of early Christian architecture.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> ‘Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,’ chap. ii. p. 6.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig158a" id="fig158a"></a> +<img src="images/acec179.jpg" width="600" height="166" +alt="Repeated fan, leaf and bead pattern" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 158a.—Frieze from the Monastery at Fulda.</p> + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2> + +<h3>BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">C</span>ONSTANTINE THE GREAT, who by establishing +the Christian religion had encouraged the erection +of basilicas for Christian worship in Rome and Italy, +effected a great political change, and one destined to exert +a marked influence upon Christian architecture, when he +removed the seat of empire from Rome to Byzantium, and +called the new capital Constantinople,<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> after his own +name. Byzantium had been an ancient place, but was +almost in ruins when Constantine, probably attracted by +the unrivalled advantages of its site,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> rebuilt it, or at least +re-established it as a city. The solemn inauguration of +Constantinople as the new capital took place <small>A.D.</small> 330; and +when, under Theodosius, the empire was divided, this city +became the capital of the East.</p> + +<p>With a new point of departure among a people largely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +of Greek race, we might expect that a new development +of the church from some other type than the basilica +might be likely to show itself. This, in fact, is what +occurred; for while the most ancient churches of Rome +all present, as we have seen, an almost slavish copy of +an existing type of building, and do not attempt the use +of vaulted roofs, in Byzantium buildings of most original +design sprang up, founded, it is true, on Roman originals, +but by no means exact copies of them. In the erection +of these churches the most difficult problems of construction +were successfully encountered and solved. What +may have been the course which architecture ran during +the two centuries between the refounding of Byzantium +and the building of Santa Sophia under Justinian, we can, +however, only infer from its outcome. It is doubtful if +any church older than the sixth century now remains in +Constantinople; but it is certain that, to attain the power +of designing and erecting so great a work as Santa Sophia, +the architects of Constantinople must have continued and +largely modified the Roman practice of building vaults and +domes. There is every probability that if some of the +early churches in Byzantium were domed structures others +may have been vaulted basilicas; the more so as the very +ancient churches in Syria, which owed their origin to +Byzantium rather than to Rome, are most of them of the +basilica type.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig159" id="fig159"></a> +<img src="images/acec180.jpg" width="700" height="358" +alt="Showing rooms, doors, windows dome and other features" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 159.—Church of Santa Sophia at Constantinople. Long Section.<br /> +Built under Justinian by Anthemios and Isidoros. Completed <small>A.D.</small> 537.</p> + +<p>A church which had been erected by Constantine, dedicated +to Santa Sophia (holy wisdom), was burnt early in +the reign of Justinian (<small>A.D.</small> 527 to 565); and in rebuilding +it his architects, Anthemios of Thralles, and Isidoros of +Miletus, succeeded in erecting one of the most famous +buildings of the world, and one which is the typical and +central embodiment of a distinct and very strongly marked +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"><!-- original location of Fig. 159 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +well-defined style. The basis of this style may be said to +be the adoption of the dome, in preference to the vault or +the timber roof, as the covering of the space enclosed within +the walls; with the result that the general disposition of +the plan is circular or square, rather than oblong, and +that the structure recalls the Pantheon more than the +great Hall of the Thermæ of Diocletian, or the Basilica of +St. Paul. In Santa Sophia one vast flattish dome dominates +the central space. This dome is circular in plan, +and the space over which it is placed is a square, the +sides of which are occupied by four massive semicircular +arches of 100 ft. span each, springing from four vast +piers, one at each of the four corners. The four triangular +spaces between the corners of the square so +enclosed and the circle or ring resting upon it are filled +by what are termed “pendentives”—features which may, +perhaps, be best described as portions of a dome, each just +sufficient to fit into one corner of the square, and the +four uniting at their upper margin to form a ring. From +this ring springs the main dome. It rises to a height of +46 ft., and is 107 ft. in clear diameter. East and west of +the main dome are two half-domes, each springing from +a wall apsidal (<i>i.e.</i> semicircular) in plan. Smaller apses +again, domed over at a lower level, are introduced, and +vaulted aisles two stories in height occupy the sides of the +space within the outer walls till the outline of the building +is brought to very nearly an exact square. Externally this +church is uninteresting,<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> but its interior is of surpassing +beauty, and can be better described in the eloquent language +of Gilbert Scott<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> than in any other: “Simple as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +is the primary ideal, the actual effect is one of great intricacy, +and of continuous gradation of parts, from the +small arcades up to the stupendous dome, which hangs +with little apparent support like a vast bubble over the +centre, or as Procopius, who witnessed its erection, described +it, ‘as if suspended by a chain from heaven.’</p> + +<p>“The dome is lighted by forty small windows, which +pierce it immediately above the cornice which crowns its +pendentives, and which, by subdividing its lower part +into narrow piers, increases the feeling of its being supported +by its own buoyancy.</p> + +<p>“The interior thus generated, covered almost wholly +by domes, or portions of them, each rising in succession +higher and higher towards the floating hemisphere in the +centre, and so arranged that one shall open out the view +to others, and that nearly the entire system of vaulting +may be viewed at a single glance, appears to me to be in +some respects the noblest which has ever been designed, +as it was certainly the most daring which, up to that time +at least, if not absolutely, had ever been constructed.” +After pointing out how the smaller arcades and apsidal +projections, and the vistas obtained through the various +arched openings, introduced intricate effects of perspective +and constant changes of aspect, Scott continues: “This +union of the more palpable with the more mysterious, of +the vast unbroken expanse with the intricately broken +perspective, must, as it appears to me, and as I judge +from representations, produce an impression more astounding +than that of almost any other building: but when +we consider the whole as clothed with the richest beauties +of surface,—its piers encrusted with inlaid marbles of every +hue, its arcades of marble gorgeously carved, its domes +and vaultings resplendent with gold mosaic interspersed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +with solemn figures, and its wide-spreading floors rich +with marble tesselation, over which the buoyant dome +floats self-supported, and seems to sail over you as you +move,—I cannot conceive of anything more astonishing, +more solemn, and more magnificent.”</p> + +<p>The type of church of which this magnificent cathedral +was the great example has continued in Eastern Christendom +to the present day, and has undergone surprisingly +little variation. A certain distinctive character in the +foliage (Fig. <a href="#fig163">163</a>) employed in capitals and other decorative +carving, and mosaics of splendid colour but somewhat gaunt +and archaic design, though often solemn and dignified, +were typical of the work of Justinian’s day, and could long +afterwards be recognised in Eastern Christian churches.</p> + +<p>Between Rome and Constantinople, and well situated for +receiving influence from both those cities, stood Ravenna, +and here a series of buildings, all more or less Byzantine, +were erected. The most interesting of these is the church +of San Vitale (Figs. <a href="#fig160">160</a>, <a href="#fig161">161</a>). This building is octagonal +in plan, and thus belongs to the series of round and +polygonal churches and baptisteries for which the circular +buildings of the Romans furnished a model; but in its +high central dome, lighted by windows placed high up, +its many subsidiary arcades and apses, the latter roofed +by half-domes, and its vaulted aisles in two stories, it +recalls Santa Sophia; and its sculpture, carving, and +mosaic decorations are hardly less famous and no less +characteristic.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 390px;"> +<a name="fig160" id="fig160"></a> +<img src="images/acec181.jpg" width="390" height="450" +alt="Showing central octagonal structure with other areas built around the edges" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 160.—Plan of San Vitale at Ravenna.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig161" id="fig161"></a> +<img src="images/acec182.jpg" width="700" height="420" +alt="Showing columns and the dome above the central octagonal structure" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 161.—San Vitale at Ravenna. Longitudinal Section.</p> + +<p>One magnificent specimen of Byzantine architecture, +more within the reach of ordinary travellers, and consequently +better known than San Vitale or Santa Sophia, +must not be omitted, and can be studied easily by means +of numberless photographic illustrations—St. Mark’s at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"><!-- original location of Figs. 160-161 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +Venice. This cathedral was built between the years +977-1071, and, it is said, according to a design obtained +from Constantinople. It has since been altered in external +appearance by the erection of bulbous domical roofs +over its domes, and by additions of florid Gothic character; +but, disregarding these, we have alike in plan, structure, +and ornament, a Byzantine church of the first class.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 432px;"> +<a name="fig162" id="fig162"></a> +<img src="images/acec183.jpg" width="432" height="500" +alt="Showing the Greek cross form and position of the domes" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 162.—Plan of St. Mark’s at Venice.</p> + +<p>The ground-plan of St. Mark’s (Fig. <a href="#fig162">162</a>) presents a +Greek cross, <i>i.e.</i> one in which all the arms are equal, and +it is roofed by five principal domes, one at the crossing +and one over each of the four limbs of the cross. Aisles at +a low level, and covered by a series of small flat domes, in +lieu of vaulting, fill up the angles between the arms of the +cross, so as to make the outline of the plan nearly square.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> +The rich colouring of St. Mark’s, due to a profuse employment +of mosaics and of the most costly marbles, and the +splendid effects produced by the mode of introducing +light, which is admitted much as at Santa Sophia, are +perhaps its greatest charm; but there is beauty in every +aspect of its interior which has furnished a fit theme for +the pen of the most eloquent writer on art and architecture +of the present or perhaps of any day.</p> + +<p>From Venice the influence of Byzantine art spread +to a small extent in North Italy; in that city herself as +well as in neighbouring towns, such as Padua, buildings +and fragments of buildings exhibiting the characteristics +of the style can be found. Remarkable traces of the +influence of Byzantium as a centre, believed to be due +to intercourse with Venice, can also be found in France. +Direct communication with Constantinople by way of the +Mediterranean has also introduced Byzantine taste into +Sicily. One famous French church, St. Front in Périgueux, +is identical (or nearly so) with St. Mark’s in its plan; but +all its constructive arches being pointed (Fig. <a href="#fig003">3</a>, page <a href="#Page_5">5</a>), +its general appearance differs a good deal from that of +Eastern churches—a difference which is accentuated by +the absence of the mosaics and other coloured ornaments +which enrich the walls of St. Mark’s. Many very old +domed churches and much sculpture of the Byzantine +type are moreover to be found in Central and Southern +France—Anjou, Aquitaine, and Auvergne. These are, +however, isolated examples of the style having taken root +in spite of adverse circumstances; it is in those parts of +Europe where the Greek Church prevails, or did prevail, +that Byzantine architecture chiefly flourishes. In Greece +and Asia Minor many ancient churches of Byzantine +structure remain, while in Russia churches are built to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +present day corresponding to the general type of those +which have just been described.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 584px;"> +<a name="fig163" id="fig163"></a> +<img src="images/acec184.jpg" width="584" height="600" +alt="Showing extensive foliage decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 163.—From the Golden Door of Jerusalem. Time of Justinian. <small>A.D.</small> 560.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 604px;"> +<a name="fig164" id="fig164"></a> +<img src="images/acec185.jpg" width="604" height="650" +alt="Steps lead up to arch at entrance; towers visible on either side at the front" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 164.—Church at Turmanin in Syria. 4th and 5th Century.</p> + +<p>In ancient buildings of Syria the influence of both the +Roman and the Byzantine models can be traced. No +more characteristic specimens of Byzantine foliage can +be desired than some to be found in Palestine, as for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +example the Golden Gate at Jerusalem, which we illustrate +(Fig. <a href="#fig163">163</a>); but in the deserted cities of Central Syria a +group of exceptional and most interesting buildings, both +secular and sacred, exists, which, as described by De Vogüé, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> +seem to display a free and very original treatment based +upon Roman more than Byzantine ideas. We illustrate +the exterior of one of these, the church at Turmanin +(Fig. <a href="#fig164">164</a>). This is a building divided into a nave and +aisles and with a vestibule. Two low towers flank the +central gable, and it will be noticed that openings of +depressed proportion, mostly semicircular headed, and +with the arches usually springing from square piers, +mark the building; while the use made of columns +strongly resembles the manner in which in later times +they were introduced by the Gothic architects.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 193px;"> +<a name="fig165" id="fig165"></a> +<img src="images/acec186.jpg" width="193" height="350" +alt="Small towers around a larger central tower" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 165.—Tower of a Russian Church.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i> the City of Constantine.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> “The edge of the world: the knot which links together East and +West; the centre in which all extremes combine,” was the not overcharged +description given of Constantinople by one of her own bishops.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> For an illustration see Fig. <a href="#fig187">187</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> ‘Lectures on Mediæval Architecture.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> ‘Syrie Centrale.’</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2> + +<h3>ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE term Romanesque is here used to indicate a +style of Christian architecture, founded on Roman +art, which prevailed throughout Western Europe from the +close of the period of basilican architecture to the rise of +Gothic; except in those isolated districts where the influence +of Byzantium is visible. By some writers the significance +of the word is restricted within narrower limits; +but excellent authorities can be adduced for the employment +of it in the wide sense here indicated. Indeed some +difficulty exists in deciding what shall and what shall not +be termed Romanesque, if any more restricted definition +of its meaning is adopted; while under this general term, +if applied broadly, many closely allied local varieties—as, +for example, Lombard, Rhenish, Romance, Saxon, and +Norman—can be conveniently included.</p> + +<p>The spectacle which Europe presented after the removal +of the seat of empire to Byzantium and the incursions +of the Northern tribes was melancholy in the +extreme. Nothing but the church retained any semblance +of organised existence; and when at last some kind of +order began to emerge from a chaos of universal ruin, +and churches and monastic buildings began to be built in +Western Europe, all of them looked to Rome, and not +to Constantinople, as their common ecclesiastical centre. +It is not surprising that, as soon as differences between +the ritual of the Eastern and the Western Church sprang +up, a contrast between Eastern and Western architecture +should establish itself, and that the early structures of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +the many countries where the Roman Church flourished +never wandered far from the Roman type, with the exception +of localities where circumstances favoured direct +intercourse with the East. The architecture of the +Eastern Church, on the other hand, adhered quite as +closely to the models of Byzantium.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 338px;"> +<a name="fig166" id="fig166"></a> +<img src="images/acec187.jpg" width="338" height="550" +alt="A square tower with a door at the base" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 166.—Tower of Earl’s +Barton Church.</p> + +<p>The style, so far as is known, was for a long time almost, +if not absolutely, the +same over a very large +part of Western Christendom, +and it has received +from Mr. Freeman +the appropriate +designation of Primitive +Romanesque. It +was not till the tenth +century, or later, that +distinctive varieties began +to make their appearance; +and though +that which was built +earlier than that date +has, through rebuildings +and enlargements +as well as natural decay, +been in many +cases swept away, still +enough may be met +with to show us what the buildings of that remote time +were like.</p> + +<p>The churches are usually small, and have an apsidal east +end. The openings are rude, with round-headed arches +and small single or two-light windows, and the outer +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +walls are generally marked by flat pilasters of very +slight projection. Towers are common, and the openings +in them are often divided into two or more lights by +rude columns. The plan of these churches was founded +on the basilica type, but they do not exhibit the same +internal arrangement; and it is very noteworthy that +many of them show marks of having been vaulted, or at +least partly vaulted; and not covered, as the basilicas +usually were, by timber roofs. Even a country so remote +as Great Britain possessed in the 10th century many buildings +of Primitive Romanesque character; and in such Saxon +churches as those of Worth, Brixworth, Dover, or Bradford, +and such towers as those of Earl’s Barton (Fig. <a href="#fig166">166</a>), +Trinity Church Colchester, Barnack, or Sompting, we have +specimens of the style remaining to the present day.</p> + +<p>By degrees, as buildings of greater extent and more +ornament were erected, the local varieties to which reference +has been made began to develop themselves. +In Lombardy and North Italy, for example, a Lombard +Romanesque style can be recognised distinctly; here a +series of churches were built, many of them vaulted, but +not many of the largest size. Most of them were on +substantially the same plan as the basilicas, though a considerable +number of circular or polygonal churches were +also built. Sant’ Ambrogio at Milan, and some of the +churches at Brescia, Pavia, and Lucca, may be cited as +well-known examples of early date, and a little later the +cathedrals of Parma, Modena, and Piacenza (Fig. <a href="#fig167">167</a>), +and San Zenone at Verona. These churches are all distinguished +by the free use of small ornamental arches and +narrow pilaster-strips externally, and the employment of +piers with half-shafts attached to them, rather than +columns, in the arcades; they have fine bell-towers; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +circular windows often occupy the gables, and very frequently +the walls have been built of, or ornamented with, +coloured materials. The sculpture—grotesque, vigorous, +and full of rich variety—which distinguishes many of these +buildings, and which is to be found specially enriching +the doorways, is of great interest, and began early to +develop a character that is quite distinctive.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 450px;"> +<a name="fig167" id="fig167"></a> +<img src="images/acec188.jpg" width="450" height="412" +alt="Showing arches and circular window" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 167.—Cathedral at Piacenza.</p> + +<p>Turning to Germany, we find that a very strong resemblance +existed between the Romanesque churches of +that country and those of North Italy. At Aix-la-Chapelle +a polygonal church exists, built by Charlemagne, and +which tradition asserts was designed on the model of +San Vitale at Ravenna. The resemblance is undoubted, +but the German church is by no means an exact copy +of Justinian’s building. Early examples of German +Romanesque exist in the cathedrals of Mayence, Worms, +and Spires, and a steady advance was made till a point +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +was reached (in the twelfth century) at which the style +may be said to have attained the highest development +which Romanesque architecture received in any country +of Europe.</p> + +<p>The arcaded ornament (the arches being very frequently +open so as to form a real arcade) which was noticed as +occurring in Lombard churches, belongs also to German +ones, though the secondary internal arcade (triforium) is +absent from some of the early examples. Piers are used +more frequently than columns in the interiors, and are +often very plain. From an early date the use of a western +as well as an eastern apse seems to have been common +in Germany, and high western façades extending between +two towers were features specially met with in that +country. For a notice and some illustrations of the +latest and best phase of German Romanesque, which may +with propriety be termed “round-arched Gothic,” the +reader is referred to the companion volume of this series.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p> + +<p>France exhibits more than one variety of Romanesque; +for not only, as remarked in the <a href="#Page_210">chapter</a> on Byzantine Art, +is the influence of Greek or Venetian artists traceable in +the buildings of certain districts, especially Périgueux, but +it is clear that in others the existence of fine examples +of Roman architecture (Fig. <a href="#fig168">168</a>) affected the design of +buildings down to and during the eleventh century. This +influence may, for example, be detected in the use, in the +churches at Autun, Valence, and Avignon, of capitals, +pilasters, and other features closely resembling classic +originals, and in the employment through a great part of +Central and Northern France of vaulted roofs.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 503px;"> +<a name="fig168" id="fig168"></a> +<img src="images/acec189.jpg" width="503" height="650" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 168.—Vaults of the excavated Roman Baths, in the +Musée de Cluny, Paris.</p> + +<p>A specially French feature is the chevet, a group of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +apsidal chapels which were built round the apse itself, +and which combined with it to make of the east end of a +great cathedral a singularly rich and ornate composition. +This feature, originating in Romanesque churches, was +retained in France through the whole of the Gothic +period, and a good example of it may be seen in the large +Romanesque church of St. Sernin at Toulouse, which we +illustrate (Fig. <a href="#fig169">169</a>). The transepts were usually well +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228"><!-- original location of Fig. 169 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +marked. The nave arcades generally sprang from piers +(Fig. <a href="#fig170">170</a>), more rarely from columns. Arches are constantly +met with recessed, +<i>i.e.</i> in receding planes,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> the +first stage of progress towards +a Gothic treatment, +and are occasionally slightly +moulded (Fig. <a href="#fig171">171</a>). Western +doorways are often highly +enriched with sculpture; and +the carving and sculpture +generally, though often rude, +are full of vitality. Towers +occur, usually square, more +rarely octagonal. Window-lights +are frequently grouped +two or more under one arch. +Capitals of a basket-shape, +and with a square abacus, +often richly sculptured, are +employed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 599px;"> +<a name="fig169" id="fig169"></a> +<img src="images/acec190.jpg" width="599" height="700" +alt="Showing chevet and polygonal spire" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 169.—Church of St. +Sernin, Toulouse.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 256px;"> +<a name="fig170" id="fig170"></a> +<img src="images/acec191.jpg" width="256" height="600" +alt="Showing a series of arches, with smaller arches above" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 170.—Nave Arcade at St. +Sernin, Toulouse.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 472px;"> +<a name="fig171" id="fig171"></a> +<img src="images/acec192.jpg" width="472" height="650" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 171.—Arches in receding planes at St. Sernin, Toulouse.</p> + +<p>In Normandy, and generally +in the North of France, +round-arched architecture +was excellently carried out, +and churches remarkable +both for their extent and +their great dignity and solidity +were erected. Generally +speaking, however, Norman architecture, especially +as met with in Normandy itself, is less ornate than the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +Romanesque of Southern France; in fact some of the best +examples seem to suffer from a deficiency of ornament. +The large and well-known churches at Caen, St. Etienne, +otherwise the Abbaye aux Hommes—interesting to Englishmen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +as having been founded by William the Conqueror immediately +after the Conquest—and the Trinité, or Abbaye +aux Dames, are excellent examples of early Norman architecture, +but the student must not forget that additions +have been made to them, which, if they add to their +beauty, at the same time alter their character. For example, +in St. Etienne, the upper part of the western +towers and the fine spires with which they are crowned +were built subsequent to the original structure, as was +also, in all probability, the chevet, or eastern limb. It +seems probable also that the vaulting may not be what +was contemplated in the original plan.</p> + +<p>St. Etienne is 364 ft. long, and is lofty in its proportions. +It has a nave and aisles, arcades resting on +piers, and strongly-marked transepts, and has two western +towers with the gable of the nave between them. The +west front is well designed in three stories, having +strongly-marked vertical divisions in the buttresses of +the towers, and equally distinct horizontal divisions in +the three doorways below, and two ranges of windows, +each of five lights, above. There is no circular west +window. The nave and aisles are vaulted.</p> + +<p>Besides other cathedral churches, such for example as +those of Bayeux and Evreux, in which considerable parts +of the original structures remain, there exist throughout +Normandy and Brittany many parochial churches and +monastic buildings, exhibiting, at least in some portions +of their structure, the same characteristics as those of +St. Etienne; and it is clear that an immense number of +buildings, the beauty and even refinement of which are +conspicuous, must have been erected in Northern France +during the eleventh and the early years of the twelfth +centuries, the period to which Norman architecture in +France may be said to belong.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +In Great Britain, as has been already pointed out, +enough traces of Saxon—that is to say, Primitive Romanesque—architecture +remain to show that many simple, +though comparatively rude, buildings must have been +erected previous to the Norman Conquest. Traces exist +also of an influence which the rapid advance that had been +made by the art of building as practised in Normandy +was exerting in our island. The buildings at Westminster +Abbey raised by Edward the Confessor, though they have +been almost all rebuilt, have left just sufficient traces +behind to enable us to recognise that they were of bold +design. The plan of the Confessor’s church was laid out +upon a scale almost as large as that of the present +structure. The monastic buildings were extensive. The +details of the work were, some of them, refined and delicate, +and resembled closely those employed in Norman +buildings at that time. Thus it appears that, even had the +Conquest not taken place, no small influence would have +been exerted upon buildings in England by the advance +then being made in France; but instead of a gradual +improvement being so produced, a sudden and rapid +revolution was effected by the complete conquest of the +country and its occupation by nobles and ecclesiastics from +Normandy, who, enriched by the plunder of the conquered +country, were eager to establish themselves in permanent +buildings.</p> + +<p>Shortly after the Conquest distinctive features began to +show themselves. Norman architecture in England soon +became essentially different from what it was in Normandy, +and we possess in this country a large series of fine works +showing the growth of this imported style, from the early +simplicity of the chapel in the Tower of London to such +elaboration as that of the later parts of Durham Cathedral.</p> + +<p>The number of churches founded or rebuilt soon after +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +the Norman Conquest must have been enormous, for in +examining churches of every date and in every part of +England it is common to find some fragment of Norman +work remaining from a former church: this is very +frequently a doorway left standing or built into walls of +later date: and, in addition to these fragments, no small +number of churches, and more than one cathedral, +together with numerous castles, remain in whole or in +part as they were erected by the original builders.</p> + +<p>Norman architecture is considered to have prevailed in +England for more than a century; that is to say, from the +Conquest (1066) to the accession of Richard I. (1189). +For some details of the marks by which Norman work +can be recognised the reader is referred to the companion +volume;<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> we propose here to give an account of the +broader characteristics of the buildings erected during the +prevalence of the style.</p> + + + +<p class="smlpadt">The oldest remaining parts of Canterbury Cathedral are +specimens of Norman architecture executed in England +immediately after the Conquest. This great church was +rebuilt by Archbishop Lanfranc (whose episcopate lasted +from 1070 to 1089), and in extent as laid out by him was +very nearly identical with the existing structure; almost +every portion has, however, been rebuilt, so that of his +work only the towers forming transepts to the choir, and +some other fragments, now remain. More complete and +equally ancient is the chapel in the Tower of London, +which consists of a small apsidal church with nave and +aisles, vaulted throughout, and in excellent preservation. +This building, though very charming, is almost destitute +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +of ornament. A little more ornate, and still a good +example of early Norman, is St. Peter’s Church, Northampton +(Fig. <a href="#fig172">172</a>), the interior of which we illustrate. +To these examples of early Norman we may add a large part +of Rochester Cathedral, and the transepts of Winchester. +The transepts of Exeter present a specimen of rather more +advanced Norman work; and in the cathedrals of Peterborough +and Durham the style can be seen at its best.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig172" id="fig172"></a> +<img src="images/acec193.jpg" width="600" height="469" +alt="Showing decorated staggered arches on columns" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 172.—Norman Arches in St. Peter’s Church, Northampton.</p> + +<p>In most Norman buildings we find very excellent +masonry and massive construction. The exteriors of west +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +fronts, transepts, and towers show great skill and care in +their composition, the openings being always well grouped, +and contrasted with plain wall-spaces; and a keen sense +of proportion is perceptible. The Norman architects had +at command a rich, if perhaps a rather rude, ornamentation, +which they generally confined to individual features, +especially doorways; on these they lavished mouldings +and sculpture, the elaboration of which was set off by the +plainness of the general structure. In the interior of +the churches we usually meet with piers of massive proportion, +sometimes round, sometimes octagonal, sometimes +rectangular, and a shaft is sometimes carried up the face +of the piers; as, for example, in Peterborough Cathedral +(Fig. <a href="#fig173">173</a>). The capitals of the columns and piers have a +square abacus, and, generally speaking, are of the cushion-shaped +sort, commonly known as basket-capitals, and are +profusely carved. The larger churches have the nave +roofed with a timber roof, and at Peterborough there +is a wooden ceiling; in these cases the aisles only are +vaulted, but in some small churches the whole building has +been so covered. Buttresses are seldom required, owing +to the great mass of the walls; when employed they have +a very slight projection, but the same strips or pilasters +which are used in German Romanesque occur here also. +Low towers were common, and have been not unfrequently +preserved in cases where the rest of the building has been +removed. As the style advanced, the proportions of arcades +became more lofty, and shafts became more slender, decorative +arcades (Fig. <a href="#fig174">174</a>) became more common, and in +these and many other changes the approaching transition +to Gothic may be easily detected.</p> + +<p>We have already alluded to the many Norman doorways +remaining in parish churches of which all other parts +have been rebuilt. These doorways are generally very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +rich; they possess a series of mouldings sometimes +springing from +shafts, sometimes +running +not only round +the arched head, +but also up the +jambs of the +opening; and +each moulding +is richly carved, +very often with +a repetition of +the same ornament +on each +voussoir of the +arch. Occasionally, +but not frequently, +large +portions of wall-surface +are +covered by a +diaper; that is +to say, an ornament +constantly +repeated so as +to produce a +general sense of +enrichment.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 284px;"> +<a name="fig173" id="fig173"></a> +<img src="images/acec194.jpg" width="284" height="600" +alt="Showing large single arches below and smaller double arches above" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 173.—Nave Arcade, Peterborough Cathedral.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 368px;"> +<a name="fig174"></a> +<img src="images/acec195.jpg" width="368" height="500" +alt="Showing altenate plain and decorated capitals on columns and interwoven arches in relief" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 174.—Decorative Arcade from Canterbury Cathedral.</p> + +<p>Norman castles, +as well as +churches, were +built in great +numbers shortly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +after the Conquest, and not a few remain. The stronghold +which a follower of the Conqueror built in order to +establish himself on the lands granted him was always +a very sturdy massive square tower, low in proportion +to its width, built very strongly, and with every provision +for sustaining an attack or even a siege. Such a +tower is called “a keep;” and in many famous castles, as +for example the Tower of London, the keep forms the +nucleus round which buildings and courtyards of later +date have clustered. In some few instances, however, as +for example at Colchester, the keep is the only part now +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +standing, and it is probable that when originally built +these Norman castles were not much encumbered with out-buildings. +Rochester Castle is a fine example of a Norman +keep, though it has suffered much from decay and injury. +The very large Norman keep of the Tower of London, +known as the White Tower, and containing the chapel +already described, has been much modernised and altered, +but retains the fine mass of its original construction. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +Perhaps the best (and best-preserved) example is Hedingham +Castle in Essex, which we illustrate (Figs. <a href="#fig175">175</a> +and <a href="#fig176">176</a>). From the remains of this building some idea +of the interior of the hall—the chief room within a +Norman keep—may be obtained, as well as of the general +external appearance of such a structure.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 463px;"> +<a name="fig175" id="fig175"></a> +<img src="images/acec196.jpg" width="463" height="600" +alt="A square building with a tower on one corner" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 175.—Hedingham Castle.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig176" id="fig176"></a> +<img src="images/acec197.jpg" width="600" height="448" +alt="Showing large central arch and wooden ceiling; windows set into smaller arches" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 176.—Interior of Hedingham Castle.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> ‘Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,’ chap. vii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> ‘Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,’ chap. v. p. 62.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> ‘Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,’ chap. ii. p. 23.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig177"></a> +<img src="images/acec198.jpg" width="600" height="284" +alt="Stylised floral design set in decorated squares" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 177.—Rounded Arch of Church at Gelnhausen.</p> + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XIV.</h2> + +<h3>CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<h4><i>Analysis.</i></h4> + +<p><span class="dropcap">N</span>OTWITHSTANDING very wide differences which +undoubtedly exist, there is a sufficient bond of +union between the Basilican, the Byzantine, and the +Romanesque styles, to render it possible for us to include +the characteristics of the three in an analysis of Christian +round-arched architecture.</p> + +<p><strong>The Plan or floor-disposition</strong> of the basilican churches, as +has been pointed out, was distinctive. The atrium, or +forecourt, the porch, the division into nave and aisles; +the transept, the great arch, and the apse beyond it with +the episcopal seat at the back behind the altar; the +ambos; and the enclosure for the choir, were typical features. +Detached towers sometimes occurred. The plan +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +of Romanesque churches was based upon that of the +basilica; the atrium was often omitted, so was the transept +sometimes; but, when retained, the transept was generally +made more prominent than in the basilica. The position +of the altar and of the enclosure for the choir were changed, +but in other respects the basilica plan was continued. +In Germany, however, apsidal transepts (Fig. <a href="#fig178">178</a>) were +built. Towers were common, occasionally detached, but +more frequently joined to the main building.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 294px;"> +<a name="fig178" id="fig178"></a> +<img src="images/acec199.jpg" width="294" height="550" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 178.—Plan of the Church of the Apostles at Cologne.</p> + +<p>Circular and polygonal buildings for use as baptisteries, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +and sometimes as churches, existed both in the basilican +and the Romanesque time.</p> + +<p>Byzantine church plans are all distinguished by their +great central square space, covered by the central dome, +flanked usually by four arms, comparatively short, and +all of equal length; and the plan of the buildings is +generally square, or nearly so, in outline. Circular and +polygonal buildings sometimes occur.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 220px;"> +<a name="fig179" id="fig179"></a> +<img src="images/acec200.jpg" width="220" height="500" +alt="Showing arches in the walls climbing up to the spire" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 179.—Spire of Spires +Cathedral.</p> + +<p>Few traces of the arrangement of military, secular, +or domestic buildings earlier +than the twelfth century remain, +but some examples of a +cloister at the side of the nave +(generally the south side) of a +church, giving or intended to +give access to monastic buildings, +still exist.</p> + +<p><strong>The Walls</strong> of such buildings +as have come down to us are, it +may be well understood, strong, +since the most recent of this +round-arched series of buildings +must be about seven hundred +years old. Fine masonry was +not much employed till the time +of the Normans, but the Roman +plan of building with bricks or +rubble and casing the face of the +walls with marble or mosaic, or +at least plaster, was generally +followed. The walls are carried +up as gables and towers to a considerable extent (Fig. <a href="#fig179">179</a>), +especially in Western countries.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +<strong>The Roof.</strong>—In a basilica this was of timber, in a Byzantine +church it consisted of a series of domes; in a Romanesque +church it was sometimes of timber as in the basilica, +but not unfrequently vaulted. As a general rule the vault +prevailed in the West and the dome in the East; and +such examples of either sort of roof as occur in those +provinces where the other was usual, like the domed +churches in parts of France, must be looked upon as +exceptional.</p> + +<p><strong>The Openings</strong> are almost invariably arched, and seldom, if +ever, covered by a lintel. It is hardly necessary to add +that the arches are always round. Almost always they +are semicircular, but instances of the employment of a +segmental arch, or of one the outline of which is a little +more than half a circle, may be occasionally met with.</p> + +<p>Door openings are often made important both by size +and decoration. Window openings are usually small; and +the grouping of two or more lights under one head, which +was so conspicuous a feature in Gothic architecture, first +appears in Byzantine buildings, and is met with also in +Romanesque ones. The mode of introducing light is to +a certain extent characteristic. The basilican churches +always possess a clerestory, and usually side windows in +the aisles; and this arrangement is generally followed in +Romanesque buildings, though sometimes, in Germany, +the clerestory is omitted. The gable ends of the nave +and transepts are not usually pierced by many or large +lights (Fig. <a href="#fig180">180</a>); and when there is a central feature, as +a tower, or even a dome, little or no light is introduced +through it. On the other hand, the Byzantine churches +depend largely for light upon the ring of windows which +commonly encircles the base of the central dome, and sometimes +that of the subsidiary domes; and the gables are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"><!-- original location of Fig. 180 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +pierced so as to supply any additional light required, so +that windows are infrequent in the lower walls. Broadly +speaking, therefore, the Western churches have side-lighting +and the Eastern top-lighting.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig180" id="fig180"></a> +<img src="images/acec201.jpg" width="700" height="510" +alt="Showing small number of windows and statuary on roof" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 180.—Church at Rosheim. Upper portion of Façade.</p> + +<p>The great arches which carry the main domes form a +notable feature in Eastern churches, and are of very bold +construction. In the basilican churches one great arch, +called “the arch of triumph,” occurs, and only one; this +gives access to the apse: and a similar arch, which we +now denominate “the chancel arch,” usually occupies a +corresponding position in all Romanesque churches. The +arches of the arcade separating the nave from the aisles +in all Western churches are usually of moderate span. +In some ancient basilicas these arches are replaced by +a horizontal beam.</p> + +<p><strong>The Columns.</strong>—In basilicas these were of antique type; +very often they had actually been obtained by the demolition +of older buildings, and when made purposely they +were as a rule of the same general character. The same +might be said of those introduced into Byzantine buildings, +though a divergence from the classic type soon +manifested itself, and small columns began to appear as +decorative features. In Romanesque buildings the columns +are very varied indeed, and shafts are frequently introduced +into the decoration of other features. They occur +in the jambs of doorways with mouldings or sub-arches +springing from them; long shafts and short ones, frequently +supporting ornamental arcades, are employed +both internally and externally; and altogether that use +of the column as a means of decoration, of which Gothic +architecture presents so many examples, first began in the +Romanesque style.</p> + +<p>The capitals employed in Romanesque buildings +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +generally depart considerably from the classic type, being based +on the primitive cube capital (Fig. <a href="#fig181">181</a>), but, as a rule, +in Eastern as well as in basilican +churches, they bear a +tolerably close resemblance to +classic ones.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="fig181" id="fig181"></a> +<img src="images/acec202.jpg" width="250" height="225" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 181.—Cubic Capital.</p> + +<p><strong>The Ornaments</strong> throughout +the whole of the Christian +round-arched period are a very +interesting subject of study, +and will repay close attention. +In the basilican style mouldings +occur but seldom: where +met with, they are all of the profiles common in Roman +architecture, but often rudely and clumsily worked. +Carving partakes also of classic character, though it is +not difficult to detect the commencement of that metamorphosis +which was effected in Byzantium, and which +can hardly be better described than in the following +paragraph from the pen of Sir Digby Wyatt:—“The +foliage is founded on ancient Greek rather than on +Roman traditions, and is characterised by a peculiarly +sharp outline. All ornamental sculpture is in comparatively +low relief, and the absence of human and other +figures is very marked. Enrichments were almost invariably +so carved, by sinking portions only of the surfaces +and leaving the arrises and principal places untouched, as +to preserve the original constructive forms given by the +mason (Fig. <a href="#fig184">184</a>). The employment of the drill instead +of the chisel, so common in debased Roman work, was +retained as a very general practice by the Greek carvers, +and very often with excellent effect. The foliage of the +acanthus, although imitated from the antique, quite +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +changed its character, becoming more geometrical and +conventional in its form. That which particularly distinguishes +Lombard from Byzantine art is its sculpture +abounding with grotesque imagery, with illustrations of +every-day life, of a fanciful +mythology not yet +quite extinct, and allusions, +no longer symbolic +but direct, to the Christian +creed; the latter +quality a striking evidence +of the triumph of +the Roman Church over +all iconoclastic adversaries +in Greece.” What +is here asserted of Lombard +carving is true of +that in the Romanesque +buildings in Germany, +Scandinavia (Fig. <a href="#fig182">182</a>), +France, and to a certain +extent in Great Britain, +though in our own country +a large proportion of +the ornamental carving +consists simply of decorative +patterns, such as +the chevron, billet, and +zig-zag; and sculpture containing figures and animals is +less common.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 302px;"> +<a name="fig182" id="fig182"></a> +<img src="images/acec203.jpg" width="302" height="550" +alt="Showing extensive interwoven leaf and stem forms and animals" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 182.—Doorway at Tind, Norway. +(End of 12th Century.)</p> + +<p>The mouldings of Romanesque buildings are simple, and +at first were few in number, but by degrees they become +more conspicuous, and before the transition to Gothic they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +assumed considerable importance (Fig. <a href="#fig183">183</a>) and added not +a little to the architectural character of the buildings.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 467px;"> +<a name="fig183" id="fig183"></a> +<img src="images/acec204.jpg" width="467" height="650" +alt="Showing ornate shell-shaped, floral and leaf patterns, and figures" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 183.—Mouldings of Portal of St. James’s Church at Koesfeld.</p> + +<p>Coloured decoration, especially in mosaic, was a conspicuous +feature in basilican churches, and still more so +in those of the Byzantine style; such decoration in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +Romanesque churches was not infrequent, but it was +more commonly painted in fresco or tempera. The glass +mosaic-work to be found on the walls of Early Christian +churches, both basilican and Byzantine, but less frequently +Romanesque, is most interesting and beautiful: “it +was,” says the high authority already quoted, “employed +only to represent and reproduce the forms of existing +objects, such as figures, architectural forms and conventional +foliage, which were generally relieved with some +slight indication of shading upon a gold ground—the +whole being bedded in the cement covering the walls and +vaults of the basilicas and churches.”</p> + +<p>“The design of both figures and ornaments was, +generally speaking, very rude, though not without an +occasional rising in some of the figures to a certain sublimity, +derivable principally from the great simplicity +of the forms and draperies and the earnest grandiose +expression depicted on their countenances. The pieces +of glass employed in the formation of this work are very +irregular in shapes and sizes, of all colours and tones of +colour, and the ground tint almost invariably prevailing is +gold. The manner of execution is always large and coarse, +and rarely approaches in neatness of joint and regularity +of bedding to the (ancient Roman) ‘opus majus vermiculatus;’ +yet, notwithstanding these blemishes, the effect of +gorgeous, luxurious, and at the same time solemn decoration +produced is unattainable by any other means as yet +employed as structural embellishment. How noble and +truly ecclesiastical in character are the gold-clad interiors +of Monreale Cathedral, of the Capella Palatina at Palermo, +of St. Mark at Venice, San Miniato at Florence, or Santi +Apollinare and Vitale at Ravenna, the concurrent testimony +of all travellers attests.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +A finer kind of glass mosaic arranged in geometrical +patterns was made use of to enrich the ambos, screens, +episcopal chairs, sepulchral ornaments, and other similar +fittings of churches, and was often of great beauty. A +third sort of mosaic—the Alexandrine work (opus Alexandrinum)—used +for pavements, has been already alluded +to; this was extremely effective, but its use appears to +have been less general than that of the glass mosaics for +the walls.</p> + +<p><strong>The Architectural Character</strong> of the basilican churches may +be briefly characterised as venerable and dignified, but +yet cheerful and bright rather than forbidding; they are, +as interiors, impressive but not oppressive, solemn but not +gloomy. Comparatively little attention was paid to external +effect, and there is not often much in them to strike +the passer-by. The character of Byzantine interiors is +far more rich, and even splendid; but it is more gloomy, +and often is solemn and grand to the last degree. In +many cases these churches possess fine exteriors; and for +the level sky-line produced by the long straight roofs of the +basilica, a more or less pyramidal composition, showing +curved outlines rather than straight ones, is substituted. +The architectural character of the Romanesque buildings +varies extremely with the districts in which they are +erected; but, generally speaking, it may be described as +picturesque, and even sometimes romantic; the appearance +of towers, prominent transepts, and many smaller decorative +features serves to render the exteriors telling and +varied, though often somewhat rude and primitive. A solid +and somewhat heavy character distinguishes the interiors +of some varieties of Romanesque buildings—such, for +example, as our own Early Norman; but in our fully-developed +and late Norman, and still more in the latest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +German Romanesque churches, this disappears almost +entirely, and much beauty and even lightness of effect +is obtained, without any loss of that richness which is +characteristic of more ancient examples.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 408px;"> +<a name="fig184" id="fig184"></a> +<img src="images/acec205.jpg" width="408" height="550" +alt="Showing ornate interwoven leaf and stem patterns" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 184.—Byzantine Basket-work Capital from San Michele in Affricisco +at Ravenna.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 296px;"> +<a name="fig185" id="fig185"></a> +<img src="images/acec206.jpg" width="296" height="350" +alt="Showing extensive scroll-edged decoration in a flowing form" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 185.—Arabian Capital. From the Alhambra.</p> + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XV.</h2> + +<h3>MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">F</span>EW revolutions more sudden, more signal, and more +widespread are recorded in history than that which +covered not only the East but part of the West with the +Mohammedan religion and dominion. Mohammed was born +either in the year 569 or 570 of the Christian era, and +died <small>A.D.</small> 652. The year of the Hegira, the era from +which Mohammedans compute their chronology, is <small>A.D.</small> +622, and within little more than a century from this era +the Prophet was acknowledged, and the suzerainty of the +Caliph recognised eastwards, in Arabia, Syria, Palestine, +Egypt, and Persia, and in India as far as to the Ganges; +and westwards along the north coast of Africa, in Sicily, +and in Spain. It was only to be expected that such a +wonderful tide of conquest and such a widespread change +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +of religion should before long leave its impress on the +architecture of the continents thus revolutionised; and +accordingly a Mohammedan style soon rose. This style +did not displace or override the indigenous art of the +various countries where it prevailed, as Roman architecture +did in the age of universal dominion under the +Empire; it assimilated the peculiarities of each country, +and so transmuted them, that although wherever the +religion of Mohammed prevails the architecture will at +a glance confess the fact, still the local or national +peculiarities of each country remain prominent.</p> + +<p>The Arabs, a nomadic race who lived in tents, do not +seem to have been great builders even in their cities. We +have no authentic accounts or existing remains of very +early buildings even in Mecca or Medina, as the oldest +mosques in those cities have been completely rebuilt. It +is to Egypt and Syria that we must turn for the most +ancient remaining examples of Saracenic architecture. +These consist of mosques and tombs.</p> + + +<h4><i>Egypt.</i></h4> + +<p>A mosque—or Mohammedan place of worship—has +two forms. The earlier mosques are all of them of a +type the arrangement of which is simplicity itself. A +large open courtyard, resembling the garth of a cloister, +with a fountain in it, is surrounded cloister-wise by +arcades supporting timber roofs. On the side nearest +Mecca the arcades are increased to several rows in depth, +so as to cover a considerable space. This is the part in +which the congregation chiefly assembles; here a niche or +recess (termed Kibla), more or less enriched, is formed +in which the Koran is to be kept, and hard by a pulpit +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +is erected. For many centuries past, though not, it is +believed, from the very earliest times, a minaret or high +tower, from the top of which the call to prayer is given, +has also been an indispensable adjunct to a mosque.</p> + +<p>The second sort of mosque is a domed, and sometimes +vaulted building of a form chiefly suggested by the +Byzantine domed churches, with a central space and four +short arms. This sort of mosque became almost universal +in Turkey and Egypt after the capture of Constantinople +by the Turks, and the appropriation to Moslem worship of +Santa Sophia itself. The tombs are ornate and monumental +buildings, or sanctuaries, of the same general character +as the domed mosques, and often attached to them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 295px;"> +<a name="fig186" id="fig186"></a> +<img src="images/acec207.jpg" width="295" height="425" +alt="The top of the arch forms a horse-shoe shape, with extensive decoration above" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 186.—Horse-shoe Arch.</p> + +<p>From very early times +the arches, in the arcades +which have been described +as virtually constituting +the whole structure of the +simpler sort of mosque, +were pointed. Lubke claims +as the earliest known and +dated example of the +pointed arch in a Saracenic +building, the Nilometer, a +small structure on an island +near Cairo, which contains +pointed arches that must +have been built either at +the date of its original construction +in <small>A.D.</small> 719, or at +latest, when it was restored <small>A.D.</small> 821. The Mosque of +Amrou, however, which was founded very soon after the +conquest of Egypt in <small>A.D.</small> 643, and is largely made up of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255"><!-- original location of Fig. 187 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> +materials obtained from older buildings, exhibits pointed +arches, not only in the arcades, which probably have been +rebuilt since they were originally formed, but in the outer +walls, which are likely, in part at least, to be original.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig187" id="fig187"></a> +<img src="images/acec208.jpg" width="700" height="450" +alt="Mainly curved walls on the buildings; four minarets are visible" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 187.—Exterior of Santa Sophia, Constantinople. Showing the Minarets added after its conversion into a Mosque.</p> + +<p>Whatever uncertainty may rest upon these very remote +specimens of pointed architecture, there is little if any +about the Mosque of Ibn Tulun, also at Cairo, and built +<small>A.D.</small> 885, or, according to another authority, <small>A.D.</small> 879. +Here arcades of bold pointed arches spring from piers, +and the effect of the whole structure is noble and full +of character. From that time the pointed arch was +constantly used in Saracenic buildings along with the +semicircular and the horse-shoe arch (Fig. <a href="#fig186">186</a>).</p> + +<p>From the ninth century, then, the pointed arch was +in constant use. It prevailed in Palestine as well as in +the adjacent countries for two centuries before it reached +the West, and there can be no doubt that it was there +seen by the Western Crusaders, and a knowledge of its +use and an appreciation of its beauty and convenience +were brought back to Western Europe by the returning +ecclesiastics and others at the end of the First Crusade.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> + +<p>In the eleventh century the splendid Tombs of the +Caliphs at Cairo were erected,—buildings crowned with +domes of a graceful pointed form, and remarkable for the +external decoration which usually covers the whole surface +of those domes. By this time also, if not earlier, the +minaret had become universal. This is a lofty tower +of slender proportions, passing from a square base below +to a circular form above (Fig. <a href="#fig187">187</a>). A minaret is +often divided into several stages. Each stage is then +marked by a balcony, and is, generally speaking, a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"><!-- original location of Fig. 188 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> +polygon of a greater number of sides than the stage +below it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 507px;"> +<a name="fig188" id="fig188"></a> +<img src="images/acec209.jpg" width="507" height="700" +alt="Showing extensive and complex decoration on the walls and vaulted ceiling" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 188.—Alhambra. Hall of the Abencerrages.</p> + +<p>In the interiors of Saracenic buildings what is generally +known as honeycomb corbelling is constantly employed +to fill up corners and effect a change of plan from a square +below to a circle or octagon above. This ornament is +formed by the use of a series of small brackets, each +course of them overhanging those below, and produces +an effect some idea of which may be gathered from our +illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig188">188</a>) of the Hall of the Abencerrages in +the Alhambra. The interiors when not domed are often +covered by wooden or plaster ceilings, more or less richly +decorated, such as are shown in the view of one of the +arcades of the Mosque “El Moyed,” Cairo (Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a>), +where the horse-shoe and pointed arches can both be seen. +This illustration also shows timber ties, at the feet of +the arches, such as were commonly used by the earlier +Saracenic builders.</p> + +<p>The surfaces of the interiors of most Mohammedan +buildings in all countries are covered with the most +exquisite decorations in colour. Imitations of natural +objects being forbidden by the Koran (a prohibition occasionally, +but very rarely, infringed), the Saracenic artists, +whose instincts as decorators seem to have been unrivalled, +fell back upon geometrical and flowing patterns +and inscriptions, and upon the use of tiles (Fig. <a href="#fig190">190</a>), +mosaics, inlays, patterns impressed on plaster, and every +possible device for harmoniously enriching the surfaces +with which they had to deal. Several of our illustrations +give indications of the presence of these unrivalled decorations +in the buildings which they represent (Fig. <a href="#fig195">195</a>). +Windows are commonly filled by tracery executed in +stone or in plaster, and glazed with stained glass, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259"><!-- original location of Fig. 189 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> +many of the open spaces in buildings are occupied by +grilles, executed in wood, and most effective and rich in +design.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 520px;"> +<a name="fig189" id="fig189"></a> +<img src="images/acec210.jpg" width="520" height="700" +alt="Arches leading up to a high ceiling; this and the walls are heavily decorated" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 189.—Mosque ‘El Moyed’ at Cairo.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 410px;"> +<a name="fig190" id="fig190"></a> +<img src="images/acec211.jpg" width="410" height="500" +alt="Showing complex interwoven geometric design" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 190.—Arabian Wall Decoration.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 340px;"> +<a name="fig191" id="fig191"></a> +<img src="images/acec212.jpg" width="340" height="350" +alt="An octagonal building containing centered octagonal and circular divisions" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 191.—Plan of the Sakhra Mosque at Jerusalem.</p> + + +<h4><i>Syria and Palestine.</i></h4> + +<p>Syria was one of the countries earliest overrun by the +Arab propaganda, and Jerusalem was taken by the Caliph +Omar as early as <small>A.D.</small> 637. He there built a small mosque, +though not the one which commonly goes by his name. Two +mosques of great antiquity and importance, but the origin +of which is a matter of dispute among authorities, stand +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +in the Haram enclosure at Jerusalem. One of these is +the octagonal building called the Sakhra (Figs. <a href="#fig191">191-2</a>), +known in the Moslem world as the Dome of the Rock, +popularly called the Mosque of Omar, and occupying, as +is all but universally admitted, part of the site of the +Temple itself. Whether this is a “nearly unaltered +Christian building of the fourth century,” or a construction +of Abd-el-Malek, the second Caliph, erected in the +year 688, has been debated keenly; but what is beyond +debate is that this structure is very Byzantine, or, to +speak with more exactness, very like some of the buildings +of Justinian in plan and section, and that from +early times it was in the possession of the Saracens, and +was regarded by them as the next most venerable and +sacred spot in the world after Mecca. Much the same +difference of opinion prevails as to the origin of the +neighbouring mosque, El Aksah, which bears an undoubted +general resemblance to an ancient basilica, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"><!-- original location of Fig. 192 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> +though having no fewer than seven parallel avenues. +This building has with equal confidence been attributed to +the fourth and the seventh century. It is fortunately +quite unnecessary here to do more than point out that +these mosques, whatever their origin, were in use at least +as early as the eighth century, and that the beautiful +Dome of the Rock must have exercised a great influence +on Mohammedan art, and, notwithstanding some differences +of plan, may be fairly regarded as the prototype +of many of the domed mosques and tombs to which +allusion has been made. The decorations shown in our +illustration of the Sakhra are, it is right to observe, +most of them of a date centuries later than the time +of the original construction of the building.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 538px;"> +<a name="fig192" id="fig192"></a> +<img src="images/acec213.jpg" width="538" height="700" +alt="Showing extensive decoration to interior and dome" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 192.—Section of the Sakhra Mosque at Jerusalem.</p> + + +<h4><i>Sicily and Spain.</i></h4> + +<p>The spread of Mohammedan architecture westward +next claims our notice; but want of space will only +permit us to mention a small though interesting group of +Saracenic buildings which still remains in Sicily; the +numerous specimens of the style which exist on the north +coast of Africa; and the works erected by the Saracens +during their long rule in Spain. The most celebrated +Spanish example is the fortress and palace of the Alhambra, +begun in 1248, and finished in 1314. This building +(Fig. <a href="#fig188">188</a>) has been measured, drawn, and fully illustrated +in an elaborate monograph by our countryman Owen +Jones, and has become popularly known by the beautiful +reproduction of portions of it which he executed at the +Crystal Palace, and of which he wrote an admirable description +in his ‘Guide-book to the Alhambra Court.’ The +Mohammedan architecture of Spain is here to be seen at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> +its best; most of its features are those of Arab art, but +with a distinguishing character (Fig. <a href="#fig193">193</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 404px;"> +<a name="fig193" id="fig193"></a> +<img src="images/acec214.jpg" width="404" height="650" +alt="Showing arched entrance surrounded with extensive decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 193.—Doorway in the Alhambra.</p> + +<p>Two other well-known examples are, the Giralda<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> +Seville, and the Mosque at Cordova. The Giralda is +a square tower, in fact a minaret on a magnificent scale, +divided into panels and richly decorated, and shows a +masculine though beautiful treatment wholly different +from that of the minarets in Cairo. The well-known +Mosque at Cordova is of the simplest sort of plan, but +of very great extent, and contains no less than nineteen +parallel avenues separated from one another by arcades +at two heights springing from 850 columns. The Kibla +in this mosque is a picturesque domed structure higher +than the rest of the building. The columns employed +throughout are antique ones from other buildings, but +the whole effect of the structure, which abounds with +curiously cusped arches and coloured decoration, is described +as most picturesque and fantastic.</p> + + +<h4><i>Persia and India.</i></h4> + +<p>Turning eastwards, we find in Turkey, as has been said, +a close adherence to the forms of Byzantine architecture. +In Persia, where the people are now fire-worshippers, the +Mohammedan buildings are mostly ruined, and probably +many have disappeared, but enough remains to show that +mosques and palaces of great grandeur were built. Lofty +doorways are a somewhat distinctive feature of Persian +buildings of this style; and the use of coloured tiles of +singular beauty for linings to the walls, in the heads of +these great portals, and in other situations to which such +decoration is appropriate, is very common: these decorations +afford opportunity for the Persian instinct for colour, +probably the truest in the whole world, to make itself seen.</p> + +<p>In India the wealth of material is such that an almost +unlimited series of fine buildings could be brought +forward, were space and illustrations available. A large +part of that vast country became Mohammedan, and in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> +buildings erected for mosques and tombs a complete blending +of the decorative forms in use among Hindu and Jaina +sculptors with the main lines of Mohammedan art is +generally to be found. The great open quadrangle, the +pointed arch, the dome, the minaret, all appear, but they +are all made out of Indian materials. Perhaps not the +least noteworthy feature of mosques and tombs in India +is the introduction of perforated slabs of marble in the +place of the bar-tracery which filled the heads of openings +in Cairo or Damascus. These are works of the greatest +and most refined beauty: sometimes panels of thin marble, +each pierced with a different pattern, are fitted into a +framework prepared for their reception; at others we meet +with window-heads where upon a background of twining +stems and leaves there grow up palms or banian-trees, +their lithe branches and leaves wreathed into lines of +admirable grace, and every part standing out, owing to +the fine piercings of the marble, as distinctly as a tree +of Jesse on a painted window in a Gothic cathedral.</p> + +<p>The dome at Bijapur, a tomb larger than the Pantheon +at Rome, and the Kutub at Delhi, a tower not unfit to +be compared with Giotto’s campanile at Florence, are conspicuous +among this series of monuments, and at Delhi +one of the grandest mosques in India (Fig. <a href="#fig194">194</a>) is +also to be found. The series of mosques and tombs at +Ahmedabad, however, form the most beautiful group of +buildings in India, and are the only ones of which a +complete series of illustrations has been published. +These mosques are remarkable for the great skill with +which they are roofed and lighted. This is done by +means of a series of domes raised on columns sufficiently +above the general level of the stone ceilings, which cover +the intervening spaces, to admit light under the line +of their springing. The beauty of the marble tracery +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"><!-- original location of Fig. 194 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> +and surface decoration is very great. Pointed arches +occur here almost invariably, and in most cases the +outline of the opening is very slightly turned upwards +at the apex so as to give a slight increase of emphasis to +the summit of the arch. The buildings are not as a +rule lofty; and though plain walls and piers occur and +contrast well with the arched features, pains have been +taken to avoid anything like massive or heavy construction. +Great extent, skilful distribution, extreme lightness, +and admirably combined groupings of the features +and masses, are among the fine qualities which lend to +Mohammedan architecture in Ahmedabad a rare charm.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig194" id="fig194"></a> +<img src="images/acec215.jpg" width="700" height="520" +alt="Showing domed building and minarets" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 194.—Grand Mosque at Delhi, built by Shah Jehan.</p> + +<p>The religion and the art of Islam seem destined to live +and die together. Nothing (with the one exception of the +suggestion of the pointed arch to Western Europe at the +very moment when Romanesque art was ripe for a change) +has developed itself or appears likely to grow out of +Mohammedan architecture in any part of the wide field +to which the attention of the reader has been directed; +and in this respect the art of the Mohammedan is as exclusive, +as intolerant, and as infertile as his religion. The +interest which it must possess in the eyes of a Western +student will rise less from its own charms than from +the fact that it first employed the pointed arch—that +feature from which sprang the glorious series of Western +Christian styles to which we give the name of Gothic. +This arch, indeed, appears to have been discovered by +the very beginners of Mohammedan architecture, at a +time when the style was still plastic and in course of +growth, and the beauty of Saracenic art is due to no +small extent to the use of it; but in the employment +of this feature the Western architect advanced much +further than the Saracen even at his best could go. +The pointed architecture of the Middle Ages, with its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> +daring construction, its comprehensive design, its elaborate +mouldings, and its magnificent sculptures, is far more +highly developed and more beautiful than that of the +countries which we have been describing, though in its +treatment of the walls it cannot surpass, and indeed did +not often equal, the unrivalled decoration of plane surfaces +which forms the chief glory of Mohammedan art.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 480px;"> +<a name="fig195" id="fig195"></a> +<img src="images/acec216.jpg" width="480" height="600" +alt="Showing large archway surrounded with decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 195.—Entrance to a Moorish Bazaar.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> The First Crusade lasted from <small>A.D.</small> 1095 to <small>A.D.</small> 1099.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> ‘Gothic and Renaissance Architecture,’ p. 141.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span></p> + +<h2>INDEX.</h2> + + +<p>Abbaye aux Dames, Caen, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> +<span class="space210"> ” </span>Hommes, Caen, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></p> + +<p>Abbey, Westminster, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></p> + +<p>Agora, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></p> + +<p>Alhambra, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></p> + +<p>Amphitheatre at Arles, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> +<span class="space280"> ” </span>Nîmes, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> +<span class="space280"> ” </span>Pola, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> +<span class="space280"> ” </span>Rome (Coloss.), <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> +<span class="space280"> ” </span>Sutri, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> +<span class="space280"> ” </span>Verona, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></p> + +<p>Anthemios of Thralles, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></p> + +<p>Appian Way, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></p> + +<p>Apollodorus of Damascus, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></p> + +<p>Aqueduct at Nîmes (Pont du Gard), <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>from Præneste to Rome, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>at Rome (Aqua Claudia), <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span> <span class="space140"> ” </span>(Anio Novus), <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>at Segovia, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>at Tarragona, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></p> + +<p>Arch at Autun (Porte d’Arroux), <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> +<span class="space125"> ” </span>Jerusalem (Golden Gate), <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> +<span class="space125"> ” </span>Rome (of Constantine), <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> +<span class="space125"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span>(of the Goldsmiths), <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br /> +<span class="space125"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span>(of Sept. Severus), <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> +<span class="space125"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span>(of Titus), <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> +<span class="space125"> ” </span>Trèves (Porta Nigra), <a href="#Page_172">172</a></p> + +<p>Asoka, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Baalbek, ruins at, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></p> + +<p>Basilica at Rome (Constantiniana), <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span>(Emilia), <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span>(Julia), <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span>(Portia), <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span>(Sempronia), <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span>(Ulpia), <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Trèves, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></p> + +<p>Basilica-church at Florence (S. Miniato), <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space110"> ” </span>Ravenna (S. Apollinare in Classe), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space110"> ” </span>Rome (S. Agnese), <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space110"> ” </span>Rome (S. Clemente), <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space110"> ” </span>Rome (S. Paul without the walls), <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space110"> ” </span>Rome (S. Pietro), <a href="#Page_201">201</a></p> + +<p><a name="baths" id="baths"></a>Baths of Agrippa, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> +<span class="space140"> ” </span>Caracalla, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> +<span class="space140"> ” </span>Diocletian, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></p> + +<p>Bharhut, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></p> + +<p>Birs-i-Nimrud, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></p> + +<p>Bridge over the Danube (Trajan’s), <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<span class="space275"> ” </span>Tagus (Hadrian’s), <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<span class="space275"> ” </span>Tiber (Pons Sublicius), <a href="#Page_170">170</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Campo Santo, Pisa, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></p> + +<p>Castle of S. Angelo, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></p> + +<p>Cathedral at Canterbury, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> +<span class="space220"> ” </span>Durham, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> +<span class="space220"> ” </span>Exeter, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> +<span class="space220"> ” </span>Monreale, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br /> +<span class="space220"> ” </span>Peterborough, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> +<span class="space220"> ” </span>Piacenza, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> +<span class="space220"> ” </span>Pisa, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> +<span class="space220"> ” </span>Rochester, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> +<span class="space220"> ” </span>Rome (S. Peter’s), <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br /> +<span class="space220"> ” </span>Venice (S. Mark’s), <a href="#Page_217">217</a><br /> +<span class="space220"> ” </span>Winchester, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></p> + +<p>Chaitya, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></p> + +<p>Chapel in Tower of London, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p> + +<p>Chehil Minar, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></p> + +<p>Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></p> + +<p>Church at Aix-la-Chapelle, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Caen (Abb. aux Hommes), <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span> <span class="space090"> ” </span> (Abb. aux Dames), <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Constantinople (S. Sophia), <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Earl’s Barton, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Milan (S. Ambrogio), <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Northampton (S. Peter’s), <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Paris (Madeleine), <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Périgueux (S. Front), <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Ravenna (S. Vitale), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Rome (S. Maria degli Angeli), <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span> (S. Maria ad Martyres), <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Rome (S. Stefano Rot.), <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Toulouse (S. Sernin), <a href="#Page_227">227</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Turmanin, Syria, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Verona (S. Zenone), <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p> + +<p>Circus Maximus, Rome, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></p> + +<p>Cloaca Maxima, Rome, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></p> + +<p>Cnidus, Lion tomb at, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></p> + +<p>Colosseum, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></p> + +<p>Column of Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br /> +<span class="space180"> ” </span>Trajan, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Decoration of Egyptian buildings, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Erechtheium, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Forum of Nerva, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Gate, Golden, at Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></p> + +<p>Gate at Perugia, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></p> + +<p>Giralda, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Hall, S. George’s, Liverpool, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Ictinus, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></p> + +<p>Isidoros of Miletus, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Keep at Colchester, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +<span class="space140"> ” </span>Hedingham Castle, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> +<span class="space140"> ” </span>Rochester Castle, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> +<span class="space140"> ” </span>Tower of London, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></p> + +<p>Kutub, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Lâts, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></p> + +<p>Lotus Column, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></p> + +<p>Lysicrates, Choragic Monument of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Maison Carrée, Nîmes, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></p> + +<p>Mammisi, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></p> + +<p>Manephthah, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></p> + +<p>Manetho, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></p> + +<p>Mastaba, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></p> + +<p>Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></p> + +<p>Mosque at Ahmedabad, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> +<span class="space180"> ” </span>Cairo (of Amrou), <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> +<span class="space180"> ” </span> <span class="space090"> ” </span>(“El Moyed”), <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<span class="space180"> ” </span> <span class="space090"> ” </span>(of Ibn Tulun), <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> +<span class="space180"> ” </span>Cordova, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> +<span class="space180"> ” </span>Delhi, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> +<span class="space180"> ” </span>Jerusalem (El Aksah), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<span class="space180"> ” </span> <span class="space165"> ” </span>(Sakhra), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<span class="space180"> ” </span>(the Nilometer), <a href="#Page_254">254</a></p> + +<p>Mugheyr, buildings at, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></p> + +<p>Mycenæ, Treasury of Atreus, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +<span class="space165"> ” </span>Gate of the Lions, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Obelisks, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Pagoda at Nankin, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></p> + +<p>Palace at Khorsabad, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> +<span class="space155"> ” </span>Rome (of the Cæsars), <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br /> +<span class="space155"> ” </span>Spalatro (of Diocletian), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> +Pantheon, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></p> + +<p>Parthenon, <a href="#Page_88">88-91</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99-101</a></p> + +<p>Persepolis, buildings at, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></p> + +<p>Persian columns, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></p> + +<p>Pheidias, <i>Sculptor</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></p> + +<p>Pont du Gard, Nîmes, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></p> + +<p>Porta Nigra, Trèves, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></p> + +<p>Pylon, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></p> + +<p>Pyramid of Cephren, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +<span class="space190"> ” </span>Cheops, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +<span class="space190"> ” </span>Mycerinus, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Ram Raz, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></p> + +<p>Rome, Cloacæ at, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Scopas, <i>Sculptor and Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></p> + +<p>Silchester, ruins at, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></p> + +<p>Sutri, ruins of an amphitheatre, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Temple at Athens (Erechtheium), <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space110"> ” </span> (Parthenon), <a href="#Page_88">88-91</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99-101</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space110"> ” </span>(of Jupiter Olym.), <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Baalbek, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Corinth, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Ephesus (of Diana), <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Honan, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Ipsamboul, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Karli (Chaitya), <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Karnak, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Lomas Rishi cave, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Nigope cave (Chaitya), <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Nîmes (Maison Carrée), <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Orange (ruins), <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Pæstum, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Rome (of Jupiter Capitolinus), <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span>(of Q. Metellus Macedonicus), <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span>(of Antoninus and Faustina), <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span>(of Fortuna Vir.), <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span>(of Vesta), <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span> <span class="space100"> ” </span>(Pantheon), <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Sanchi (Tope), <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Tegea (of Athena Alea), <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<span class="space175"> ” </span>Tivoli (of Vesta), <a href="#Page_153">153</a></p> + +<p>Temples, Egyptian, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> + <span class="space155"> ” </span>Shinto, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></p> + +<p>Theatre of Balbus, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> +<span class="space140"> ” </span> <span class="space010"> ” </span>Marcellus, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> +<span class="space140"> ” </span> <span class="space010"> ” </span>Mummius, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> +<span class="space140"> ” </span>at Orange, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +<span class="space140"> ” </span>of Pompey, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></p> + +<p>Thermæ, <i>see</i> <a href="#baths">Baths</a></p> + +<p>Tomb at Ahmedabad, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> +<span class="space100"> ” </span> <span class="space010"> ” </span>Bab-el-Molouk (Belzoni’s), <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br /> +<span class="space100"> ” </span> <span class="space010"> ” </span>Bijapur, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> +<span class="space100"> ” </span> <span class="space010"> ” </span>Castel d’Asso, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br /> +<span class="space100"> ” </span>of Cecilia Metella, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br /> +<span class="space100"> ” </span> <span class="space010"> ” </span>Cyrus, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<span class="space100"> ” </span> <span class="space010"> ” </span>Darius, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<span class="space100"> ” </span> <span class="space010"> ” </span>Hadrian, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br /> +<span class="space100"> ” </span> <span class="space010"> ” </span>Regulini Galeassi, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></p> + +<p>Tombs, Egyptian, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> +<span class="space125"> ” </span>Lycian, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +<span class="space125"> ” </span>Cnidus (Lion), <a href="#Page_110">110</a></p> + +<p>Tope at Sanchi, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></p> + +<p>Tower at Delhi (Kutub), <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> +<span class="space155"> ” </span>Seville (Giralda), <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p> + +<p>Treasury of Atreus, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></p> + +<p>Typhonia, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Usertesen I., <a href="#Page_29">29</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Wall of China, Great, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></p> + +<p>Way, Appian, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></p> + +<p>Westminster Abbey, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></p> + +<p>Wurkha, ruins at, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></p> + + +<p class="center smlfont padtop">LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,<br /> +STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p class="center padtop lrgfont">ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS</p> + +<p class="center smlfont">OF</p> + +<p class="center xlrgfont">ART HISTORY OF ALL AGES</p> + +<p class="center">Each Volume contains numerous Illustrations, and is strongly bound<br /> +for the use of Students. Price 5<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="center smlpadt"><i>NOW READY.</i></p> + +<p class="center smcap">By Professor T. ROGER SMITH and JOHN SLATER, B.A.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>ARCHITECTURE: CLASSIC and EARLY CHRISTIAN.</b></span> Comprising +the Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine and Early Christian. +Illustrated with upwards of 200 Engravings, including the Parthenon, the Erechtheium, +the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, the Colosseum, the Baths of Diocletian, &c.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center smcap">By Professor T. ROGER SMITH and EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>ARCHITECTURE: GOTHIC and RENAISSANCE.</b></span> Showing +the progress of Gothic Architecture in England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, +and of Renaissance Architecture in the same Countries. Illustrated with more than +100 Engravings, including many of the principal Cathedrals, Churches, Palaces, and +Domestic Buildings in England, and on the Continent.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center smcap">By GEORGE REDFORD, F.R.C.S.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>SCULPTURE: EGYPTIAN, ASSYRIAN, GREEK and ROMAN.</b></span> +With 160 Illustrations, including Examples of the Works of the most celebrated +Greek Sculptors, a Map of Ancient Greece, and a Chronological List of Ancient +Sculptors and their Works.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center smcap">By EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A., and PERCY R. HEAD, B.A.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>PAINTING: CLASSIC and ITALIAN.</b></span> Including Painting in Egypt, +Greece, Rome, and Pompeii; the Renaissance in Italy; Schools of Florence, Siena, +Rome, Padua, Venice, Perugia, Ferrara, Parma, Naples and Bologna. Illustrated +with 80 Engravings of many of the finest Pictures of Italy.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center smcap">By H. J. WILMOT-BUXTON, M.A., and EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>PAINTING: GERMAN, FLEMISH and DUTCH.</b></span> Including an +Account of the Works of Albrecht Dürer, Cranach, and Holbein; Van Eyck, Van der +Weyden, and Memling; Rubens, Snyders, and Van Dyck; Rembrandt, Hals, and +Jan Steen; Wynants, Ruisdael, and Hobbema; Cuyp, Potter, and Berchem; Bakhuisen, +Van de Velde, Van Huysum, and many other celebrated painters.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center smcap">By H. J. WILMOT-BUXTON, M.A.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>PAINTING: ENGLISH and AMERICAN.</b></span> Including an account +of the Earliest Paintings known in England; the works of Holbein, Antonio Moro, +Lucas de Heere, Zuccaro, and Marc Garrard; the Hilliards and Olivers; Van Dyck, +Lely, and Kneller; Hogarth, Reynolds, and Gainsborough; West, Romney, and +Lawrence; Constable, Turner, and Wilkie; Maclise, Mulready, and Landseer, and +many other celebrated painters.<br /></p> + +<p class="right"><i>Nearly ready.</i></p> +</div> + +<p class="center smcap">By GERARD SMITH, Exeter Coll. Oxford.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang"><span class="lrgfont"><b>PAINTING: SPANISH and FRENCH.</b></span> Including the Works of +Ribera, Zurbaran, Velazquez, and Murillo; Poussin, Claude Lorrain, Le Sueur, Watteau, +Chardin, Greuze, David, and Prud’hon; Ingres, Vernet, Delaroche, and Delacroix; +Corot, Diaz, and Millet; Courbet, Regnault, Troyon, and many other celebrated artists.</p> + +<p class="right"><i>In preparation.</i></p> +</div> + + + + + +<div class="bbox"> +<p><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p> + +<p>Archaic spelling has been preserved as printed, for example, Egean instead of Ægean.</p> + +<p>Minor punctuation errors have been repaired.</p> + +<p>The following amendments have been made:</p> + +<div class="amends"> +<p>Page <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, footnote—X. amended to XI.—"See Chap. <a href="#Page_198">XI.</a> for an illustration of a +Christian Basilica."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_101">101</a>—Theseium amended to Theseum—"Temple of Theseus (Theseum), at Athens, 465 +<small>B.C.</small>"</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_211">211</a>—Isodoros amended to Isidoros—"... Anthemius of Thralles, and Isidoros of +Miletus, ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_270">270</a>—114 amended to 116—"Agora, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>"</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_270">270</a>—148 amended to 143—"Amphitheatre at Sutri, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>"</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_270">270</a>—205 amended to 206—"Basilica-church +at Rome (S. Paul without the walls), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>"</p> +</div> + +<p>Discrepancies between items in the List of Illustrations and actual +captions have been preserved as printed.</p> + +<p>Figure <a href="#fig115">115</a>—Guilloche is missing from the List +of Illustrations in the original text. This omission has been preserved in this +e-text.</p> + +<p>Figures <a href="#fig116">116</a> and <a href="#fig117">117</a> were out of sequence on page <a href="#Page_136">136</a> (with Figures <a href="#fig105">105-110</a>). They have +been moved to their proper place in the sequence of Figures. Other illustrations have +been moved where necessary so that they are not in the middle of a paragraph. +Omitted page numbers relate to full page illustrations or blank pages in the original.</p> + +<p>The advertising material has been moved to the end of the book.</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith and John Slater + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE *** + +***** This file should be named 29759-h.htm or 29759-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/7/5/29759/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Sam W. and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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