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+Project Gutenberg's Boys' Book of Model Boats, by Raymond Francis Yates
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Boys' Book of Model Boats
+
+Author: Raymond Francis Yates
+
+Release Date: June 7, 2009 [EBook #29064]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOYS' BOOK OF MODEL BOATS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Emmy and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+BOYS' BOOK
+
+OF
+
+MODEL BOATS
+
+[Illustration: ©_Jack Sussman_
+
+A TWO-FOOT STEAMBOAT
+
+Making her way across the park pond. Ten miles an hour is a common speed
+for a boat of this type]
+
+
+
+BOYS' BOOK
+
+OF
+
+MODEL BOATS
+
+BY RAYMOND FRANCIS YATES
+
+          WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS
+          FROM DRAWINGS AND
+          PHOTOGRAPHS
+
+[Illustration]
+
+          NEW YORK
+          THE CENTURY CO.
+
+
+          Copyright, 1920, by
+          THE CENTURY CO.
+
+          PRINTED IN U. S. A.
+
+
+          TO
+          LAVERNE YATES
+          A BUILDER OF MODEL BOATS
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+EVERY boy likes to build boats. The interest in boats seems to be born
+in the race. The little three-year-old chap is instinctively attracted
+by a puddle of water in which to sail his "boat," which may take the
+form of a piece of shingle or common board. Few men have passed through
+their boyhood days without having built boats at some time.
+
+The author was an ardent boat-builder, and he well remembers how he
+combed the Children's Department of the local library in search of a
+book that would tell him something about boats, and especially for
+information regarding the construction of models. He found books on
+model airplanes, toys, electricity, radio, and chemistry, but alas!
+nothing about model boats. He vowed then that when he became a man he
+would write a book on model boats--a book that would contain all the
+treasured information he had accumulated during his boat-building
+years.
+
+This book is the result of that vow, and the author earnestly hopes that
+it will gladden the heart of every boy who builds and sails a boat.
+There are probably few happier moments in a boy's life than when he sees
+his little model steamer proudly make her way across the park pond, or
+his little sail-boat respond to the summer breeze.
+
+The author takes this opportunity to thank his wife, who acted as his
+amanuensis in the preparation of this manuscript.
+
+                                                  RAYMOND FRANCIS YATES.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                    PAGE
+
+     I WHY A BOAT FLOATS                                        3
+
+    II THE HULL                                                12
+
+   III HOW TO MAKE SIMPLE BOATS, WITH AND WITHOUT POWER DRIVE  26
+
+    IV STEAM AND ELECTRIC PROPULSION                           42
+
+     V AN ELECTRIC LAUNCH                                      66
+
+    VI A STEAM LAUNCH                                          75
+
+   VII AN ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN LAKE FREIGHTER                   91
+
+  VIII AN ELECTRIC SUBMARINE-CHASER                            98
+
+    IX BOAT FITTINGS                                          107
+
+     X THE DESIGN OF MODEL STEAM-ENGINES                      126
+
+    XI A MODEL FLOATING DRY-DOCK                              135
+
+   XII OPERATION OF FLASH STEAM POWER PLANTS FOR MODEL BOATS  149
+
+  XIII SAILING YACHTS                                         164
+
+   XIV TWO-FOOT SAILING YACHT                                 184
+
+       APPENDIX                                               207
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  A two-foot steam boat                            _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                            FACING
+                                                             PAGE
+
+  Getting ready for a trip                                     72
+
+  All ready to go                                              73
+
+  A powerful gasolene blow-torch                              112
+
+  Just after the race                                         113
+
+  A twin-cylinder steam engine for model marine use           168
+
+  A cup-winning model sail boat                               169
+
+
+
+
+BOYS' BOOK OF MODEL BOATS
+
+
+
+
+BOYS' BOOK OF MODEL BOATS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+WHY A BOAT FLOATS
+
+
+BEFORE taking up the construction of any of the model power boats
+described in this book, it will be well for the young boat-builder to
+become acquainted with such terms as buoyancy, displacement, center of
+gravity, etc. Knowledge of these subjects is more or less necessary if
+successful boats are to be made. Aside from this, they are terms that
+every boy who claims an interest in boats should understand.
+
+"How does a steel boat float?" is a question that many boys ask. The
+reason they usually designate a steel boat is probably because steel is
+so much heavier than water. But many things heavier than water can be
+made to float if they are in the form of a boat. Concrete, for instance,
+is now being used in ship construction, and this substance, when
+reinforced with steel rods, is very much heavier than water.
+
+Before learning how a boat floats, what is known as "specific gravity"
+must be thoroughly understood. Gravity is a force that is continuously
+"pulling" everything toward the center of the earth. It is gravity that
+gives a body "weight." Some substances are heavier than others; or, to
+be more correct, it is said that the specific gravity of one substance
+is greater than that of another. It will be well to keep in mind that
+specific gravity merely refers to weight. It is simply a scientific
+term. The specific gravity of a substance is always expressed by a
+figure that tells how much heavier any substance is than water, because
+water has been chosen as a standard.
+
+The specific gravity of water is 1. The specific gravity of gold is
+19.26, meaning that it is about 19-1/4 times heavier than water. The
+specific gravity of a piece of oak is 0.86, which shows that it is not
+quite so heavy as water. One cubic foot of water weighs 62.42 pounds.
+It will be understood that a cubic foot of gold would weight 19.26 x
+62.42, because it is 19.26 times heavier than water. A cubic foot of
+oak, however, would weigh only 54 pounds, because it has been found that
+it has a specific gravity of only 0.86 which is less than water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+A cubic foot of oak (see Fig. 1), with a weight of 54 pounds, will float
+when placed in water. The cubic foot of brass (_B_), however, will not
+float, because it weights 8.1 times as much as water. For the present,
+then, it can be said that a substance lighter than water will float in
+water, but that substances heavier than water, such as iron, lead, gold,
+silver, etc., will not float. If the cubic foot of oak (_A_) were
+placed in water, it would sink to the depth shown at _C_. When the block
+sinks into the water, a certain amount of water will be forced away or
+"displaced"; that is, the block in sinking occupies a space that was
+previously occupied or filled with water. The oak block sinks to within
+a short distance of the top because the oak is really just a trifle
+lighter than water. If a pine block were placed in the water it would
+sink only to the distance shown at _D_, since the weight of pine is less
+than oak, or only 34.6 pounds per cubic foot. A pine block will, then,
+displace only about 34.6 pounds of water, which leaves nearly half of
+the block out of the water. Thus, it will be seen that for a given
+volume (size) a cubic foot of wood will sink to a depth corresponding to
+its weight. Different kinds of wood have different weights.
+
+If a cubic foot of brass is placed in water, it will sink rapidly to the
+bottom, because the brass is much heavier than water. How is it, then,
+that an iron or concrete ship will float? If the cubic foot of brass is
+rolled or flattened out in a sheet, and formed or pressed into the
+shape of a boat hull, as shown in Fig. 2, it will float when placed upon
+the surface of the water. Why is it that brass is caused to float in
+this way, when it sank so rapidly in the form of a solid square?
+
+[Illustration: FIG.2]
+
+It will be remembered that the pine and oak block were caused to float
+because they displaced a greater weight of water than their own weight.
+This is just what causes the brass boat-hull to float. If the amount of
+water actually displaced by the hull could be weighed, it would be found
+that the weight of the water would be greater than the weight of the
+hull. It will be understood that the space occupied by the brass
+boat-hull is far greater than the space occupied by the block of brass
+before it was rolled out and formed into a hull. What is true of brass
+holds true of iron, steel, etc. A block of steel will not float, because
+the water it displaces does not weigh nearly as much as the block. If
+this block, however, were rolled out into a sheet and the sheet formed
+into a hollow hull, the hull would float, because it would displace a
+volume of water that would more than total the weight of the steel in
+the hull.
+
+In the case of the brass boat-hull, it would be found that a greater
+portion of the hull would remain out of the water. The hull, then, could
+be loaded until the top of it came within a safe distance from the
+water. As the load is increased, the hull sinks deeper and deeper. The
+capacity of big boats is reckoned in tons. If a boat had a carrying
+capacity of ten tons it would sink to what is called its "load
+water-line" (L.W.L.) when carrying ten tons. As a load or cargo is
+removed from a vessel it rises out of the water.
+
+What if the hull of a boat has a hole in it? If the hole is below the
+water-line, water will leak in and in time completely fill the inside of
+the hull, causing the boat to sink. Also, if too great a load or cargo
+were placed in a boat, it would sink. It must be understood that water
+leaking into a boat increases its load, and if it is not stopped it will
+cause the boat to sink.
+
+The center of gravity of a boat is a very important matter. First,
+attention will be directed to the meaning of "center of gravity." If a
+one-foot ruler is made to balance (as shown in Fig. 3) at the six-inch
+mark, the point at which it balances will be very close to the center of
+gravity. The real center, however, will be in the middle of the wood of
+which the rule is composed. It should constantly be kept in mind that
+this "center of gravity" is a purely imaginary point.
+
+Look at Fig. 4. If wires are arranged in a wooden frame, as shown, the
+point where the wires cross will be the center of gravity if the square
+formed by the wooden strips is solid. Every body, no matter what its
+shape, has a center of gravity. The center of gravity is really an
+imaginary point in a body, at the center of its mass. Oftentimes
+engineers are heard saying that the center of gravity of a certain
+object is too high or too low. Fig. 5 shows the center of gravity in a
+boat. If the center of gravity in a boat is too high (as illustrated in
+Fig. 6) the boat is said to be topheavy and unsafe. When a boat is
+topheavy or its center of gravity is too high, the boat is liable to
+capsize. In fact, some very serious marine accidents have been caused by
+this fault.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6]
+
+
+The center of gravity (or center of weight) in a boat should be as low
+as possible. A boat with a low center of gravity will be very stable in
+the water and difficult to capsize. This is true of model boats just as
+much as it is true of large boats. The model boat builder must keep the
+weight of his boat as near the bottom as possible. For instance, if a
+heavy cabin were built on a frail little hull, the boat would be very
+unstable and would probably capsize easily.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE HULL
+
+
+MODEL boat-hulls are generally made by one of two methods. One method is
+that of cutting the hull from a solid piece of wood. The other method is
+commonly known as the "bread-and-butter" system. The hull is built up of
+planks laid on top one of another with marine glue spread between them.
+The last-mentioned method (which shall hereafter be called the built-up
+method) possesses many advantages over the first.
+
+Cutting a model boat-hull from a solid piece of wood is by no means a
+simple or easy task, especially for beginners. Of course, after several
+hulls have been produced in this fashion, the worker becomes practised
+in cutting them out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8]
+
+
+The construction of hulls on the built-up principle will be described
+first. For the sake of convenience, the drawings of the boat-hull shown
+in Figs. 7 and 8 will be followed out. Before going further it will be
+well to understand drawings of boat-hulls; that is, how to know the
+lines of a boat from a drawing. By the "lines" is meant its shape.
+Marine architects employ a regular method in drawing boat-hulls. Fig. 7
+shows the side of a boat and half of the deck plan. It will be seen
+that this drawing does not tell much about the real shape of the boat,
+and if a hull were to be produced according to the shape given, the
+builder would have to use his own judgment as to the outline of the hull
+at different places. For convenience, the boat is divided into ten
+sections, represented by the lines 0 to 10. It will be seen that the
+shape of the hull at section 2 will be different from the shape of the
+hull at section 8. Again, section 0 will be much narrower than section
+5.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9]
+
+Now look at Fig. 8. Note the shape of the cross-section of the hull at
+the different sections. For instance, the line at section 1 in Fig. 8
+represents the shape of the hull at section 1 in Fig. 7. It must be
+remembered, however, that this is only half of the section, and that the
+line 1 in Fig. 8 would have to be duplicated by another line to show the
+true shape. The cross-section of the boat at section 0 is shown in Fig.
+9. One half of the drawing in Fig. 8 represents the forward half of the
+hull, and the other half represents the stern half of the hull. If the
+shape of the boat at section 10 is desired, the line 10 in Fig. 8 could
+be traced on a piece of tissue paper. The paper could then be folded in
+half and the line first made traced on the second half. This would then
+produce the section of the boat at point 10. Thus, by closely examining
+Fig. 8 the shape of the entire hull can be seen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10]
+
+If pieces of wire could be used to form the lines of the hull at the
+various sections, it would appear as shown in Fig. 10 when assembled.
+
+Notice that in Fig. 8 there is a load water-line, which the vessel
+sinks to when loaded, and the second and first load water-line, which
+the vessel sinks to when only partially loaded or when carrying no load
+aside from its regular necessary equipment. The keel line of the boat is
+the line that runs along the bottom from bow to stern. (The bow of the
+boat is the front and the stern the back.)
+
+Motor-boating and marine magazines often publish the lines of different
+boats, and if the young boat-builder understands how to read boat
+drawings he will be able to make a model of any boat that is so
+described.
+
+Directions will now be given regarding the method of producing a
+boat-hull similar to the lines shown in Figs. 7 and 8, by the built-up
+method of construction.
+
+First, it will be necessary to procure the lumber. Several clean white
+pine boards will be very suitable to work with, and will not require
+much skill in handling. Let us assume that the boat-hull is to measure
+22 inches in length, with a depth of 4 inches. The beam, which is the
+width of the boat at its widest point, will be 5 inches. (It will be
+well to remember what the term "beam" means, since the term will be
+used constantly throughout the book.)
+
+On a piece of heavy wrapping-paper draw the deck plan full size, that
+is, 22 inches long by 5 inches at its widest point. Next cut out along
+the pencil line with a pair of shears. Now lay the paper outline on a
+plank and mark out the pattern on the wood. Repeat this process with
+three more planks. When this is done, cut out the boards with a keyhole
+saw.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11]
+
+After the boards are cut out mark them as shown in Fig. 11. The space
+marked out on the board must be sawed out in two of the boards, to form
+the inside of the hull, if the boat is to carry some form of power, such
+as a battery-motor, or steam-engine. After the lines are marked out,
+make a hole with a 3/4-inch bit, as shown in Fig. 12. Insert the point of
+the keyhole saw in one of these holes to start it and cut out the
+piece. Treat the second board in the same way. The third board must
+have a smaller portion cut out of the center, owing to the fact that
+this board is nearer the bottom of the hull, where the width of the boat
+is narrower. The width of the piece cut out in the third board should
+not be more than 2 inches.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12]
+
+When this work is done, a very thin layer of glue is placed over the
+boards, and they are then laid one on top of another. The boards are
+then placed in a vise or clamp and allowed to remain there over night.
+In applying the glue, the builder should be careful not to put too much
+on the boards. Too much glue is worse than not enough. It should be
+merely a thin film.
+
+After the boards have been glued together the crude hull will appear, as
+shown in Fig. 13.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13]
+
+At this point the hull sections from 0 to 10 must be marked off. By
+referring again to Fig. 7 it will be seen that the sections 0 to 1 and 9
+to 10 are not so far apart as the other sections. Section 0 is 1 inch
+from the bow of the boat and section 1 is 1 inch from section 0.
+Sections 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are all 1 inch apart. Section 9 is 1
+inch from 10 and 10 is 1 inch from the stern. Lines should be drawn
+across the deck to correspond with these sections, which can be measured
+off with a ruler. It will now be necessary to cut some templates, or
+forms, from cardboard to guide the builder in bringing the hull to
+shape. It will be an easy matter to make these templates by following
+Fig. 8. A template of section 9 is shown in Fig. 14. It will be necessary
+to make eleven templates, corresponding to the sections 0 to 10. The
+templates should be cut from heavy cardboard so they will hold their
+shapes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14]
+
+The hull of the boat is now placed in a vise and roughly brought to
+shape with a draw-knife. After it has been brought to shape by this
+means a spoke-shave is used. This little tool has an adjustable blade by
+means of which it is possible to regulate the cut. When the builder
+starts to use the spoke-shave he should also start to use his templates
+or forms, applying them sectionally to determine how much more wood he
+will have to remove to bring the hull to shape. For instance, when he is
+working in the vicinity of sections 5, 6, and 7 he will apply these
+forms at the proper points occasionally to determine when enough wood
+has been removed. This procedure is followed out the entire length of
+the boat, care being taken to see that both sides are the same and that
+too much wood is not removed, since there is no remedy for this mistake.
+The builder who proceeds carefully and is not in too great a hurry to
+finish the work need not make this mistake.
+
+Of course, it will not be possible to bring the hull to a perfect finish
+with a spoke-shave. This can be done, however, by the use of a coarse
+file and sandpaper. The coarse file is used to take the rough marks of
+the spoke-shave away, and the marks left by the file are in turn removed
+by the sandpaper. The sandpaper must be applied unsparingly and always
+with the grain. It will be necessary to use considerable "elbow grease"
+to obtain a good finish.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15]
+
+Boat-hulls can also be hewn to shape from a solid block, but it will be
+understood that this method involves more work than the one just
+described. Of course, the procedure of bringing the hull to shape by the
+aid of the draw-knife, spoke-shave, and templates is the same, but the
+hollowing out of the inside of the hull will be a much more difficult
+job. However, with a couple of good sharp chisels and a gouge the work
+will not be so difficult as at first appears. The use of an auger and
+bit will greatly aid in the work. After the outside of the hull is
+brought to shape the wooden form is drilled with holes, as shown in Fig.
+15. This will make it much easier to chip the wood away. After the major
+portion of the wood has been taken out with the chisel, the gouge is
+brought into use. The gouge should be used very carefully, since it will
+easily go through the entire hull if it is not handled properly. For the
+beginner it is not safe to make a hull less than 1/2 inch in thickness.
+Of course, it is not necessary to carefully finish the inside of the
+hull, since it is covered up with the deck and cabin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16]
+
+The solid hull has one advantage over the built-up hull. It is not
+affected by moisture and it is therefore not so liable to warp and lose
+its shape. It will also stand more rough usage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19]
+
+
+There is still another method of producing a boat-hull. This hull is
+known as the Sharpie type. A Sharpie hull is shown in Fig. 16. The
+method of producing a hull of this type will be seen quite clearly by
+reference to Fig. 17, which shows the boards and parts cut out ready to
+assemble. The boards are made from 1/8-inch mahogany, which can be
+obtained at any lumber-yard. First, the bow piece is cut to shape and
+carefully finished. Then the two side pieces are fastened to it, as
+shown in Fig. 18. The screws used should be brass, since iron screws
+will rust and cause trouble. Three screws should be used for each side
+board, and they should be driven into the bow piece so that the screws
+on one side will not interfere with those on the other. The first
+cross-piece is then screwed in place, as shown in Fig. 19. The second
+and third cross-pieces are then screwed in place and the back or stern
+piece attached. The bottom of the boat is then carefully put in place
+with small screws. It will be noticed that the bottom board of the boat
+is cut to fit the inside of the bottom. It is held in place with small
+brass brads. The crevices or seams along the bottom of the boat should
+be carefully covered with pitch or marine glue to prevent leakage when
+the boat is in the water. The bow of the boat should be finished off
+nicely to a point with a heavy file or a wood-rasp.
+
+This type of hull is extremely easy to produce and it is capable of
+carrying a considerable load. However, it is not a good type to use for
+all kinds of boats. It makes a splendid little pleasure yacht or
+submarine-chaser, but for a torpedo-boat destroyer or a freighter it
+would not be suitable.
+
+The young model boat builder is advised not to try to construct hulls
+from metal. This is a very difficult task even for the thoroughly
+experienced mechanic. Wood is much easier to work with and will produce
+the same results.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HOW TO MAKE SIMPLE BOATS, WITH AND WITHOUT POWER DRIVE
+
+
+THIS Chapter will be devoted to the construction of very simple types of
+boats. The boats described will be constructed largely with blocks of
+wood cut into various shapes and sizes. The results obtainable by this
+method of construction are surprising, and there are few types of boats
+that cannot be modeled by following the method. After the model-builder
+has constructed a few boats along this principle he will be able to
+duplicate the general appearance of almost any craft he sees by
+carefully planning and cutting the blocks he uses.
+
+The first boat described is a submarine. This is shown in Fig. 20. Four
+blocks of wood form the basis of its construction, and these are cut
+from 1-inch stock, as shown in the drawing. Such a submarine can be
+made practically any size up to 12 inches in length. Beyond this size
+they begin to look out of proportion and they are more difficult to
+propel. After nailing the blocks together as shown in the drawing, a
+small piece of sheet brass is bent at right angles and tacked to the
+stern piece. This is to act as a bearing for the propeller.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21]
+
+The propeller-shaft is bent into a hook over which rubber bands are
+placed. The opposite end of the rubber bands are fastened to a screw-eye
+driven into the under side of the bow. A heavy piece of copper wire is
+fastened to the stern of the boat by staples, and bent as shown. A
+rudder is then cut from thin sheet brass, and the end of it is bent
+around a piece of wire larger in diameter than the wire used for the
+rudder-post. It is then taken from this wire and slipped over the wire
+on the boat. It should be pinched in place by a pair of pliers, so that
+it will stay in any position in which it is put. The end of the wire is
+bent over so that the rudder will not slip off. The boat can be steered
+in a circle or it can be made to go straight, depending upon the
+position of the propeller.
+
+The horizontal rudders are mounted forward, as shown. They are made from
+thin sheet brass bent as indicated in the little insertion. A hole is
+drilled in them as shown, and a screw is placed through these to hold
+the rudders to the side of the craft. The screws should be tightened so
+that the rudders will stay at any angle at which they are put. If the
+boat is to be submerged the rudders are pointed as shown. If the boat is
+to travel on the surface of the water the rudders are brought up into a
+horizontal position or parallel with the deck. A little gray paint
+placed on this model will greatly improve its appearance.
+
+Another submarine, more complicated than the one just described, is
+shown in Fig. 21. The body of this submarine is formed by a part of a
+broomstick or shovel-handle. This submarine is truer to type and can be
+made with very little trouble. The piece of broomstick or shovel-handle
+is cut 22 inches in length. It is pointed at each end, and part of it is
+planed off to form the upper deck. When this is done, a small flat piece
+is cut as shown, and nailed or screwed to the flat portion. The
+conning-tower and periscope are placed on the upper deck, as shown. The
+rudder on this craft is not made adjustable, so that it always travels
+in a perfectly straight line. The horizontal rudders however, are made
+adjustable, and the boat is therefore able to travel upon the surface
+or submerge, depending upon the position of the rudder.
+
+The power plant of this boat is made up of rubber bands. The power
+transmission to the propeller is a little different than the one
+previously described. A gear and a pinion are salvaged from the works of
+an old alarm-clock, and mounted on a piece of brass, as shown. A little
+soldering will be necessary here to make a good job. By using the gear
+meshing with the pinion a considerable increase in the speed of the
+propeller is obtained, and therefore the speed of the boat is
+considerably increased. The method of holding the power plant to the
+bottom of the boat is made very clear. In order to bring the boat down
+to the proper level in the water, a strip of sheet lead can be tacked to
+the bottom. The builder should take care to get a piece of lead just the
+correct weight to leave the surface of the deck awash. A coat of gray
+paint will also greatly improve the appearance of this craft.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24]
+
+Attention is directed to the construction of boats of different types
+made without power plants. Many interesting little crafts can be
+produced in this way, and the energetic model-builder can produce a
+whole model harbor or dock-yard by constructing a number of boats of
+different types according to the following instructions.
+
+The first boat described will be the tug _Mary Ann_ shown in Fig. 22 and
+Fig. 23. The blocks necessary to construct this boat are shown in Fig.
+24. The hull of the boat is produced by three pieces of wood sawed out
+to the same shape with a keyhole saw and glued together. After the glue
+is dry the blocks are placed in a vise and the top one or deck block is
+planed down as shown. It will be seen that the deck inclines slightly
+toward the stern of the boat. When this is done the hull is turned
+upside down and the bottom of the stern planed off as illustrated. The
+outside of the hull can be finished up with a sharp knife and a
+jack-plane.
+
+The little bow piece can also then be tacked in place. After this the
+pieces that form the hull can be nailed together from the bottom and
+from the top. This is quite necessary, for glue will not hold them in
+place after the boat has become thoroughly soaked with water.
+
+The cabin and engine-room are shown very clearly in the illustration and
+little need be said about erecting this part of the craft. The two doors
+and window on the side of the cabin are made by cutting out small pieces
+of cigar-box wood and gluing them to the cabin and engine-room. A good
+substitute for the wood can be found in tin, but of course this would
+have to be tacked on. The little skylight on the back of the tug is made
+by a single block covered by two pieces of cigar-box wood.
+
+In order to stabilize the craft and to bring her down to the proper
+water-line, a lead keel must be nailed to the bottom. The weight of this
+keel will have to be adjusted until the boat rests properly in the
+water. The reader will notice that no dimensions have been given for
+this boat. This is because most boys will wish to build different sized
+boats, and therefore it has not been deemed advisable to dimension the
+boats described in this Chapter. What the author desires to do is to
+impart the principles of construction, so that every boy may use his own
+ingenuity in regard to size and proportion of length to beam.
+
+If tugs are constructed according to the design outlined above, the
+model boat builder will also desire to have something that the tug can
+haul. A very simple barge for this purpose is outlined in Figs. 25 and
+26. This is formed of a single slab with the ends cut at an angle as
+illustrated. A square flat piece is then tacked to the upper deck, which
+acts as a cover. Four posts are then put in place in the same way as
+those on the tug. One is placed in each corner. A boat or a scow like
+this is generally painted red, and the model described can be made to
+look much more realistic by painting it this color.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28]
+
+These barges are so easy to construct that the model-builder should make
+three or four of them at a time. If the pieces for several are cut out
+at the same time, the construction will be just that much easier. If the
+boat does not sink far enough into the water, a piece of lead should be
+placed on the bottom to bring it down. This piece of lead should be
+placed as near the center as it is possible to get it. Otherwise the
+boat will list or tip at one end or the other. With a little patience
+and care the weight can be so adjusted on the bottom as to bring the
+scow to a perfectly level position. The reader will understand that the
+water-line of a scow or any boat made according to the directions in
+this book will depend largely upon the nature of the wood. In the first
+Chapter of the book it was pointed out that the specific gravity of
+different woods varies, and therefore the buoyancy will vary.
+
+A model freighter is shown in Fig. 27. The hull of this boat can be
+formed by two 1-1/2-inch planks. These will require a little hard work
+to cut out; but, on the other hand, the effort will be entirely
+justified by the pleasing appearance of the little craft that can be
+produced in this way. A bow and stern block to raise the deck are cut
+out and nailed in place, as shown. A cabin is also placed on the stern
+of the craft, and this is formed by a block with a piece of cigar-box
+wood placed on the top. The cigar-box wood should project a little over
+the edges to form a canopy. The center of the deck can be raised by a
+third block; and three independent blocks, two large ones and a small
+one, form the main cabin. Sandwiched in between these blocks are three
+pieces of cigar-box wood. The remaining details of the craft are so
+simple that they may easily be made by following the diagram.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29]
+
+Let us turn our attention to model war-ships. A torpedo-boat destroyer
+is clearly illustrated in Figs. 28 and 29. This is very simple to
+construct and makes a pleasing craft when finished. The hull is formed
+by two blocks. One of these forms the raised deck on the bow of the
+boat. The cabin is built up on this raised deck. It will be seen that
+the part of the hull that rests in the water is formed by one block. In
+building boats of this nature the constructor should be careful to keep
+them long and slender, since torpedo-boat destroyers are always of this
+type. They are high-speed craft, and their displacement must therefore
+be as small as possible. Some of these boats carry four stacks and some
+two. The author prefers four stacks as giving the boat a better
+appearance than two. The two little cabins near the stern of the boat
+are placed there merely to take away the plainness of construction. The
+guns mounted forward and aft are merely round pieces of wood with a
+piece of wire bent around them and forced into a hole in the deck.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30]
+
+The boat-builder should not be satisfied with one or two of these craft;
+he should make a whole fleet. This will afford the average boy a great
+amount of pleasure, since he can add to his fleet from time to time and
+have official launchings. Each boat can also be given a name and a
+number. A little gray paint on the hull of these boats and black on the
+stacks gives them a very presentable appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32]
+
+A battleship is shown in Fig. 30. A battleship should be at least twice
+as long as a torpedo-boat destroyer. A view of the battleship as it will
+look in the water is shown in Fig. 31. By carefully examining this
+drawing the builder will be able to see just the number and shape of
+the blocks that enter into the construction of the craft. The battleship
+is provided with four main batteries mounted in turrets, one forward and
+three aft. A mast is also built, and strings run from it to the top of
+the main cabin and to the end of one of the turrets mounted aft. A screw
+is placed through the centers of the fore and aft turrets, so they can
+be turned to any position. Battleships should be painted gray. It will
+be necessary to place rather a heavy keel on the boat just described in
+order to bring it down to the proper depth in the water. Otherwise it
+will be topheavy and will capsize very easily. A fleet of battleships
+and battle-cruisers can easily be made according to the foregoing
+instructions, and the builder should not be satisfied with producing
+only one.
+
+A pleasure yacht is illustrated in Fig. 32. The hull of this craft is
+formed by two boards nailed together. The cabins are very simple, being
+formed by a solid block of wood with a piece of cigar-box wood tacked to
+the top. The windows and doors are marked in place with a soft
+lead-pencil, and the stack is mounted midway between the two cabins. A
+wireless antenna should be placed on the boat, with a few guy-wires from
+the masts run to various parts of the deck. A lead-in wire also runs
+down into one of the cabins. The hull of this boat should be painted
+pure white. The deck can be left its natural color, while the stack
+should be painted black and the cabins white with green trimmings.
+
+Almost any type of boat can be produced by the use of simple blocks of
+wood and other miscellaneous pieces easily brought to shape from
+ordinary materials. This method of construction offers a wonderful
+opportunity for the boy to exercise his creative faculties.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+STEAM AND ELECTRIC PROPULSION
+
+
+BOATS are propelled by two different systems. Some inland-water boats
+still employ side paddle-wheels, while ocean-going vessels use the more
+modern propeller or screw.
+
+The paddle-wheel really acts as a continuous oar. Such a wheel is shown
+in Fig. 33. As the wheel goes around the paddle dips into the water and
+pushes the boat forward. If the direction of the boat is to be reversed,
+the rotation of the paddle-wheels is reversed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38]
+
+Before passing onto the screw, it may be well to explain just how a
+paddle-wheel causes a boat to move. When a man gets into a rowboat, he
+generally pushes himself off by placing his oar against the dock or
+shore and pushing on it. That is just what the paddle does in the water.
+It dips into the water and pushes against it. It must be remembered,
+however, that water is unlike a solid substance and it "gives." When a
+man places his oar against the bank and pushes it, the bank does not
+move, and all of the man's energy is used in starting the boat. Water,
+however, does not remain stationary when the paddles push against it,
+and therefore all of the power it not utilized in moving the boat--part
+is used in moving the water.
+
+The paddle-wheel is not so efficient in moving a boat as the more modern
+propeller--or screw, as it is more often called. The screw receives its
+name from the ordinary metal screw, because its theory of operation is
+exactly the same. A wood screw, when turned, forces itself into wood. A
+propeller, when turned, forces itself (and thereby the boat) through the
+water. A small propeller is illustrated in Fig. 34. This is an ordinary
+three-blade propeller. (The writer prefers the word propeller instead of
+screw.)
+
+From the drawing, it will be seen that the propeller-blades are mounted
+at an angle. This angle of the blades causes them to force water back as
+they cut through it when the propeller is revolving. This forcing of the
+water back tends to produce a forward motion of the propeller, and in
+this way the boat on which the propeller is mounted moves through the
+water. The propeller is caused to revolve by a steam-engine,
+steam-turbine, or gasolene-engine, as shown in Fig. 35. Longer boats
+have more than one propeller. A boat that has two propellers is called a
+twin-screw boat. A boat driven with four propellers is called a
+quadruple-screw boat.
+
+When a machine screw is turned around just once, it moves forward a
+certain distance, as a glance at Fig. 36 will show. The distance the
+screw moves forward will depend entirely upon the distance between the
+threads. The distance between the threads is called the pitch of the
+thread. If the threads are 1/32 inch apart, then the screw will move
+1/32 inch every time it revolves.
+
+If a propeller acts in the same way as a screw, then it too must have a
+pitch. The pitch, or the distance that a propeller will advance in one
+revolution, is measured in inches. A propeller with a pitch of ten
+inches should move ten inches through the water at each revolution.
+However, there is a certain amount of "slip," and a propeller does not
+actually advance the distance that it should theoretically. The pitch of
+a propeller is really the distance it would advance in one revolution
+if it were revolving in an unyielding or solid substance.
+
+To make a simple propeller, first cut out of thin sheet brass three
+blades as shown at _A_, Fig. 37. Sheet brass with a thickness of 1/32
+inch is very suitable for this purpose. Next, a block, as shown at _B_,
+is carefully carved out so that the propeller can be hammered down into
+the depression. The same block is used for the three blades, so that
+each will have the same curvature. The block should be cut from oak,
+since this wood will not split or lose its shape when the forming is
+done.
+
+The hub is made next. This is shown at _C_, Fig. 37. The hub, of brass,
+is made according to the stream-line method. It is filed to shape from a
+piece of round brass stock. A hole runs lengthwise in the brass, as
+shown, and a set-screw is used to hold the hub of the propeller-shaft.
+The method of cutting the slots in the hub is shown at _D_, Fig. 37. The
+hub is clamped between two boards placed in the vise, and a hacksaw is
+used to cut a slot in the hub. The hub is then turned around one third
+of a revolution, and another slot cut, using the same saw-marks in the
+boards, so that the angle of the second slot will be the same as the
+first one. The third slot is cut in the same manner. The three blades
+that were cut out are now fastened in these slots and held there by
+solder. This completes the propeller and it is now ready to be fastened
+upon the propeller-shaft.
+
+Let us consider the general method of putting the propeller-shaft in
+place. The young boat-builder will readily understand that it would be
+very impractical merely to bore a hole in the hull of the boat to put
+the propeller-shaft through. In this way water would surely leak into
+the hull and the boat would sink in a short time. Some method must be
+evolved to keep the water out of the hull, and yet allow the
+propeller-shaft to revolve freely.
+
+The propeller-shaft is arranged within a brass tube, as shown at Fig.
+38. The brass tube should be about 1/8 inch larger in diameter than the
+propeller-shaft. A little brass bushing must also be arranged at each
+end, as shown. When the propeller-shaft is mounted in place in the
+tube, there will be a space between it and the tube. Before the
+propeller-shaft is put in place it is well smeared with vaseline, and
+when it is placed in the tube the space between the shaft and the tube
+will be completely filled with it. This will prevent water from
+entering. Owing to the fact that vaseline is a soft, greasy substance,
+it will not prevent the rotation of the propeller-shaft. The brass tube
+is placed through a hole bored in the hull of the boat. The hole should
+be a trifle smaller than the diameter of the brass tube, so that the
+tube can be forced into the hole.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42]
+
+One of the simplest methods of propelling a boat is by means of rubber
+bands. Such a boat is shown in Fig. 39. This is a small wooden hull
+fitted with a two-blade propeller. The propeller is shown at Fig. 40. It
+is cut in a single piece and held to the propeller-shaft merely by a
+drop of solder since there will not be much strain upon it owing to the
+low power of the rubber-band motor. The opposite end of the
+propeller-shaft is bent into a hook, and the rubber bands run from this
+to another hook placed at the bow of the boat. The rubber bands may be
+similar to those employed by model airplane builders. The motor, of
+course, must be wound up by turning the propeller around until the bands
+become twisted into little knots, as shown at Fig. 39. Boats driven by
+rubber bands cannot be very large unless a great number of rubber bands
+are used. Even then the power is short-lived. However, building a few
+small boats driven by rubber-band motors will do much to teach the
+young boat-builder some valuable lessons in boat construction.
+
+Probably the best method of propelling model boats is the electric
+method. By building a boat large enough to accommodate two dry batteries
+or a small storage battery and a little power motor, a very reliable
+method of propulsion is made possible. The boat must have sufficient
+displacement to accommodate the weight of the dry-cells and storage
+battery. A boat two feet long, with a beam of 4-1/2 inches, is large
+enough to accommodate one dry-cell and a small motor, providing the
+fittings of the boat are not too heavy.
+
+A suitable power motor for small boats, which will run with either one
+or two dry-cells, is shown in Fig. 41. The connections for the motor are
+given clearly in Fig. 42, and a suitable switch to control the motor is
+shown at Fig. 43.
+
+Owing to its greater power, the storage battery is to be preferred.
+Dry-cells are extremely heavy and occupy considerable space. They are
+also costly, since they do not last long and cannot be worked too hard
+unless they polarize.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45]
+
+A very suitable method of mounting an electric motor is illustrated in
+Figs. 44 and 45. It will be noticed that the motor is inverted. A small
+pinion or gear is mounted upon the armature-shaft of the motor. A larger
+gear (about three times the diameter of the small one) is placed upon
+the propeller-shaft. This gives a speed reduction of three to one. It
+will be seen that the propeller-tube is strapped within a strip of brass
+to a small cross-piece nailed to the bottom board of the hull. The hull
+is of the built-up type, and the other three boards that go to make it
+up are not shown. When the three boards are glued in place, a brass
+strip is run across the top board and the base of the motor is screwed
+to this. This holds the motor rigidly in place so that it will not move
+when the power is turned on. The brass strip used should have sufficient
+thickness to hold the motor rigid. It will also be seen that the motor
+is tipped slightly so that it will come in line with the
+propeller-shaft.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48]
+
+It is not always possible to obtain small gears. For this reason the
+model boat builder may find it necessary to use a different method of
+fastening the propeller-shaft to the motor. A very good method of doing
+this is shown in Fig. 46. Here a coiled wire spring is used. This is
+wound to shape on a rod, and a drop of solder holds it to the propeller
+and motor shafts. In the method of propulsion shown in Fig. 44 the
+armature-shaft of the motor must be perfectly in line with the
+propeller-shaft, or the gears will bind and unsatisfactory operation of
+the motor will result. With the little spring the motor will not have to
+be mounted exactly in line with the shaft, and it will also be possible
+to mount the motor standing up. Of course, if the motor is mounted in
+this way it will be necessary to make the propeller-shaft longer, as is
+shown in Fig. 47.
+
+Still another method of driving the propeller is illustrated in Fig. 48.
+This method is so simple that the author feels explanation to be
+unnecessary.
+
+Clockwork can often be employed for propulsion purposes, but this method
+is not very satisfactory. It is also very difficult to obtain suitable
+clockworks to install in a boat. Oftentimes it will be possible to
+salvage the works of an old alarm-clock, providing the main-spring is
+intact. It is a very easy matter to mount the clock-spring and connect
+it to the propeller. Any one of the aforementioned methods can be
+employed.
+
+Steam propulsion has its advantages; but, on the other hand, the writer
+is not inclined to recommend it as strongly as the electric method for
+reliability. Of course, steam is a more powerful agency in the
+propulsion of small boats and thereby greater speed is attainable by its
+use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51]
+
+Here is a very simple small power plant suitable for driving boats up to
+3-1/2 feet in length. The boiler is shown in Figs. 49 and 50. The method
+of assembling the boiler is pictured clearly in Fig. 49. A brass or
+copper tube about 2-1/2 inches in diameter is used. Two end pieces are
+cut to shape and forced into the boiler ends. A hole is drilled in the
+center of these pieces before they are put in place. After the end
+pieces are forced in place solder is carefully flowed around their
+edges. The brass rod is then threaded at each end and placed
+concentrically within the boiler, as shown in Fig. 49. A nut is placed
+on each end of this rod and tightened. The nut is then soldered in
+place. This brass rod, called a stay-rod, prevents the end of the boiler
+from blowing out when the steam pressure has reached its maximum value.
+Three holes are drilled in the brass tube, as shown. One is to
+accommodate the steam feed-pipe that goes to the engine; another is for
+the safety-valve, and still another for the filling plug. The
+safety-valve and filling plug are both shown in Fig. 51. The little
+spring on the safety-valve is adjustable, so that the valve can be
+regulated in order to prevent it from blowing off at pressures lower
+than that at which the engine operates.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52]
+
+A suitable firebox for the boiler is shown clearly in Fig. 52. This is
+cut to shape from stovepipe iron and held together with small rivets.
+Holes should be punched or drilled in the side of the firebox to give
+the burner a sufficient supply of air. The burner is illustrated
+clearly in Fig. 52. The fuel-tank can be made from an ordinary tin can
+with the cover soldered on, and a hole made for a cork by means of which
+it is filled with denatured alcohol. A little pipe runs from the
+fuel-tank to the burner. It is advisable, if possible, to place a small
+valve in this pipe to cut off the fuel supply when necessary. The only
+other method of putting the burner out would be to stand it on its end.
+The burner consists of a rectangular tin box with a top cut out as
+illustrated. A piece of brass or copper gauze is placed in the top.
+Asbestos wool is used to fill the can, and the alcohol is drawn into the
+wool by capillary attraction, where it burns with a steady hot flame at
+the surface of the copper gauze. In the corner of the can near the
+feed-pipe another small piece of copper gauze is soldered as shown. This
+covers up the feed-pipe entrance so that the asbestos will not plug up
+the pipe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54]
+
+The engine to be used in connection with the boiler just described is
+shown in Fig. 53. This is a very simple engine of the oscillation type,
+and there should be little trouble in making it. A more mechanical
+drawing of the engine is shown in Fig. 54. The details of the engine are
+shown in Fig. 55.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55]
+
+The cylinder of the engine should be made first. This is made from a
+piece of brass tubing with an internal diameter of 3/4 inch. Two end
+pieces, or a cylinder-end cover and cylinder head, must be cut to fit
+inside the cylinder. These should be cut to shape from 1/16 inch brass,
+and a hole drilled in the cylinder head 1/8 inch in diameter to
+accommodate the piston-rod. The cylinder head is then soldered in place.
+The cylinder-end cover should be left until the piston-rod and piston
+are made.
+
+The piston head is cut to shape from a piece of 3/16-inch sheet brass,
+or it can be cut from a piece of 3/4-inch round brass with a hacksaw.
+The piston-rod is soldered into a hole in the piston-head. A small
+square piece of brass is placed on the opposite end of the piston-rod to
+act as a bearing. This little piece is cut and drilled as shown in the
+drawing. Before it is soldered in place on the piston-rod the
+cylinder-end cover should be placed on the rod. Both the piston and the
+cylinder-end cover can then be placed inside the cylinder, and the
+piston-end cover is soldered in place. Before final assembling the
+piston should be made to fit nicely into the cylinder. This can be
+brought about by applying emery cloth to the piston-head until it slips
+nicely into the cylinder with little or no play. Thus a steam-tight fit
+is made, and this contributes greatly to the efficiency and power of the
+engine.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57]
+
+The cylinder blocks are shown in Fig. 55. These are cut and brought to
+shape with a hacksaw and file. With a half-round file one side of one of
+the blocks is filed slightly concave, so that it will fit on the outside
+of the cylinder. Two 1/8-inch holes are drilled in this piece as shown
+in the drawing. The hole at the top is the steam entrance and exhaust
+for the engine; that is, when the cylinder is at one side steam enters
+this hole, and when the crank throws the cylinder over to the other side
+steam leaves through the same hole after having expanded in the
+cylinder. This cylinder block is soldered to the piston as shown in
+Fig. 56. The pivot upon which the cylinder swings is then put in place
+in the hole at the bottom of the block. Solder is flowed around the
+pivot to hold it securely in place.
+
+The second cylinder block is now finished according to the drawing. This
+has two holes 1/8 inch in diameter bored in it. One of these holes is
+the steam inlet and the other the exhaust. When the cylinder is at one
+side of its stroke the hole that was bored in the top of the steam block
+which was soldered on the cylinder is in line with the inlet hole in the
+block under consideration. Steam then enters the cylinder and forces the
+piston down. This turns the crank around, and the crank in turn pulls
+the piston over to the opposite side, so that the hole in the first
+piston block of the cylinder now comes in line with the exhaust hole on
+the second cylinder block. The steam in the cylinder escapes and the
+same operation is repeated over again. Of course, it must be understood
+that this steam admission and exhaust takes place very rapidly. The hole
+in the second cylinder block, which goes over the pivot, must be made a
+trifle more than 1/8 inch in diameter, so that it will slide freely over
+the pivot.
+
+The engine is mounted on a very simple frame, which is a piece of
+1/16-inch brass cut and bent as illustrated. After it is cut and bent to
+shape the second cylinder block is soldered in place. The cylinder can
+then be mounted. It will be seen that the pivot goes through both the
+second cylinder block and the engine standard. A small spring is placed
+over the protruding end of the pivot and a nut put in place. By turning
+this nut the pressure on the face of the two cylinder blocks can be
+adjusted, and the model engineer must always remember that the pressure
+on these springs must be greater than the steam pressure in the
+feed-pipe. Otherwise the steam pressure will force the cylinder-block
+faces apart and steam leakage will result. On the other hand, the
+pressure of the spring should not be too great, since that would
+interfere with the free movement of the engine cylinder.
+
+Nothing now remains to be made except the crank and the flywheel. The
+crank revolves in a small brass bearing which is soldered in place on
+the engine standard. It will be seen that the sheet brass that makes up
+the engine standard is not thick enough to offer a good bearing for the
+crank. The crank is bent to shape from a piece of 1/8-inch brass rod,
+and the author advises the builder to heat the brass rod red-hot while
+the bending is done. This will prevent it from fracturing, and will also
+permit a sharp bend to be made.
+
+The flywheel is a circular piece of brass 1 inch in diameter. Its center
+is drilled out and it is soldered to the crank as illustrated in Fig.
+54. Two other holes 1/8 inch in diameter are drilled in the flywheel as
+illustrated, and two small brass pins are cut out from 1/8-inch brass
+rod and forced into these holes and then soldered. These provide a
+method of driving the propeller-shaft that is shown very clearly at Fig.
+57.
+
+The steam feed-pipe that runs from the boiler to the engine can be of
+small copper tubing. It may be necessary to mount the engine on a small
+block, as shown in Fig. 53. After the steam in the boiler has reached a
+sufficient pressure the engine crank should be given a couple of twists
+in order to start it. Before operating the engine a little lubricating
+oil should be run into the cylinder through the inlet or exhaust ports.
+The cylinder should always be kept well lubricated. The contacting faces
+of the cylinder blocks should also be kept lubricated.
+
+_Caution._ Always keep water in the boiler. Never permit it to run dry,
+as this would cause a boiler explosion. When the engine is started and
+cannot be made to run, take the burner from under the boiler so that
+steam will cease to be generated. With the safety-valve the model boat
+builder need have little fear of an explosion. Nevertheless the
+foregoing directions should be carefully adhered to.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+AN ELECTRIC LAUNCH
+
+
+THE little electric launch to be described is of very simple
+construction, and when finished it will provide the builder with a very
+shipshape little model from which he will be able to derive a good deal
+of pleasure. It has a speed of from 2-1/2 to 3 miles an hour when
+equipped with dry batteries or storage batteries. The hull is of the
+Sharpie type, and this offers very little trouble in cutting out and
+assembling.
+
+The general appearance of the boat and hull will be gathered from the
+drawings. The pieces necessary to assemble the hull are shown in Fig.
+58. Only five pieces are necessary: two side pieces, a stern piece, a
+bow piece, and a bottom piece. The length of the boat over all is 40
+inches with a 7-inch beam. The widest part of the boat is 1 foot 10
+inches from the bow.
+
+After the pieces that form the hull are cut they are thoroughly
+sandpapered to produce a smooth surface. The heavy imperfections in the
+wood can be taken out with coarse paper, and the finishing can be done
+with a finer paper. It is understood that sandpapering should always be
+done with the grain, never across the grain. The sides of the boat are
+cut about 1/4 inch thick, but they are planed thinner in places where
+the bend is most pronounced. The side pieces are 2-3/4 inches deep at
+the stern and 2-1/4 inches at the stern. There is a gradual curve from
+the bow to the stern, which is more marked toward the head.
+
+The stern piece is thicker than the side pieces, being made of 1/2-inch
+wood. It is cut to the shape shown at Fig. 58, and beveled along the
+bottom edge to enable it to be fixed on the slant. The bow piece is a
+triangle 2-3/4 inches in length.
+
+After the parts are thoroughly finished with sandpaper the stern piece
+is fixed in position. In making all the joints on the boat the builder
+should see that plenty of fairly thick paint is run in while the joint
+is being screwed up. This will help greatly in making the boat
+water-tight. Plenty of 3/4-inch brass wood-screws are used in assembling
+the hull. All the holes for the wood-screws should be countersunk so
+that the heads will come flush with the surface of the hull. Now one of
+the sides should be screwed to the stern piece, at the same time bending
+the bottom and side to meet. This is done gradually, inch by inch, and
+screws are put in place at equal distances. When the bow is reached, the
+side piece is beveled to fit the bow piece, which should already have
+been screwed into place. The other side of the boat is treated in a
+similar manner, and the young worker should take care to keep the side
+and bow piece perfectly square and upright. This may sound easy on
+paper, but it will be found that a good deal of care must be exercised
+to produce this result.
+
+After the hull has been assembled it is given a good coat of paint
+inside and out. When the first coat is dry the holes left by the
+screw-heads are carefully puttied over, and the hull is given a second
+coat of paint. This procedure will produce a perfectly water-tight
+hull.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63]
+
+The stern tube is 3/8 inch, outside diameter. A hole is bored in the
+bottom of the boat to receive the stern tube. This job must be done
+cautiously; otherwise the bottom of the boat may be ruined. It is best
+to screw a substantial block to the inside of the boat. This block
+should be cut to fit the bottom and will act as a support for drilling.
+It will also help greatly to make a water-tight joint around the tube.
+The distance from the point where the stern tube passes through the
+bottom to the stern should be about 12-1/2 inches. The stern tube should
+be mounted as nearly parallel with the bottom as possible, since on this
+depends the speed of the boat. As the angle of the propeller-shaft
+increases, the speed of the boat will decrease. In drilling the hole the
+boat-builder should be careful to keep the drill running along the
+central line of the boat.
+
+As before mentioned, the stern tube is a piece of brass tubing 3/8 inch
+in diameter and 8 inches long. It is filed square at both ends, and a
+brass plug is fastened with solder in each end. The tube is then filled
+with melted vaseline, which is allowed to cool. The hole in the hull
+around the tube is then well smeared with thick paint. When this is
+done, a layer of red lead or putty is placed around the joint both on
+the inside and the outside of the boat.
+
+While the putty is drying the spray-hood or turtle-deck can be made.
+This is bent to shape from a piece of tinplate and extends half way
+down the boat. When the turtle-deck is finished, it is best to lay it
+aside, before finally fastening it in place, until the entire boat is
+completed.
+
+The wooden part of the deck is made of 1/8-inch wood and scribed with a
+sharp knife to represent planking. This method of producing planking was
+described in detail in Chapter II.
+
+Toward the stern of the boat and just behind the motor a hatchway is
+fitted to give access to the batteries and starting switch.
+
+The finished Sharpie hull without its driving batteries or motor should
+weigh about 1 pound 3 ounces. The hull being finished, let us consider
+the electric propelling equipment.
+
+A 1/8-inch cold-rolled steel driving or propeller-shaft is used. The
+shaft is 13 inches long and a gear-wheel 1 inch in diameter is fixed to
+one end of this shaft. This gear-wheel meshes with a brass pinion on the
+motor-shaft. This forms a 3-1/2 to 1 reduction gear, which produces a
+greatly increased speed of the boat. The other end of the
+propeller-shaft rests in the skeg bearing. In this present case this
+consists of a tube about 1/2 inch long, which is made for a revolving
+fit on the propeller-shaft and supported by a sheet-metal bracket. This
+is shown in Fig. 63. The end of the propeller also revolves adjacent to
+the bearing in the skeg.
+
+[Illustration: ©_Jack Sussman_
+
+GETTING READY FOR A TRIP
+
+Heating the blow-torch to a point where it will burn automatically]
+
+The propeller is a three-blade affair with a diameter of 2-1/4 inches.
+It is attached to the propeller-shaft with a set-screw. The motor is a
+very simple type obtainable in the open market. It is similar to one
+shown in Fig. 41. As before mentioned, either dry or storage batteries
+may be used as a source of current. The writer strongly advises the use
+of storage batteries if possible. The initial cost of these batteries is
+greater than that for dry batteries; but, on the other hand, the small
+storage battery can be charged repeatedly and will outlast many dry
+batteries. If the boat is used much the storage battery will probably be
+the more economical of the two.
+
+The steering gear of the boat is very simple. The rudder works in a
+bearing that is screwed to the stern piece. The end of the rudder-shaft
+is tapped, and a brass screw is used to clamp it in position after
+setting it with the fingers. The rudder-shaft is a 3/4-inch brass rod.
+The lower end of this rod is slit with a hacksaw and the rudder is
+placed in this. Solder is then flowed along the joint.
+
+[Illustration: ©_Jack Sussman_
+
+ALL READY TO GO!
+
+A little boat with steam up, ready for a trip when her owner releases
+her]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60]
+
+Of course, the builder may paint his boat whatever color he may select;
+but a maroon hull with a white-enameled spray-hood or turtle-deck makes
+a very pleasing combination. Fig. 60 shows a rough plan of the general
+arrangement of the power machinery. Figs. 61, 62 and 63 will do much to
+give the reader a clear idea of the method of construction which could
+not be gained by reading a description.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61]
+
+The general appearance of the boat can be improved materially in many
+ways. For instance, a little stack or ventilator may be added to the
+turtle-deck, and a little flag-stick carrying a tiny flag may be placed
+on the bow and on the stern.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62]
+
+The motor current should be turned on only when necessary, for dry-cells
+deteriorate rapidly when in use, and small storage batteries quickly
+lose their charge, although they will last much longer than dry-cells
+and give much better service.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+A STEAM LAUNCH
+
+
+THE steam launch _Nancy Lee_ is an attractive little craft when finished
+and it is capable of attaining considerable speed. It is really designed
+after the cruising type of motor-boats. This type of boat is
+particularly adaptable for simple model-making, owing to the elimination
+of awkward fittings. The power machinery is of very simple construction
+and presents no real difficulty.
+
+The following materials are necessary to construct the _Nancy Lee_:
+
+          Large wood block for hull.
+          Thin white pine for deck, etc.
+          Sheet-metal tube, rod and wire for the boiler, engine, etc.
+          Lamp-wick, paint, screws, and brads
+          Miscellaneous fittings
+
+The actual expense necessary to construct the boat is very small.
+
+Having obtained the block for the hull, you are ready to start work. The
+hull, when planed on all sides, should be 30 inches long, 6-1/2 inches
+wide, and 3-3/4 inches deep. A center line is drawn down the length of
+the hull, and five cross-section lines are drawn at right angles to the
+center line 5 inches apart. On these lines the builder should mark off
+the greatest lengths of the boat, taking the dimensions from the
+half-breadth drawing shown in Fig. 64. It will be noted that the deck is
+wider than the L. W. L. forward and narrower than the L. W. L. at the
+stern. The block should be cut to the widest line on the half-breadth
+part.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64]
+
+The half-widths in Fig. 64 are drawn each side of the center line on the
+block. The block will be cut out to this line and planed up as true as
+possible. The builder should then project the section lines with a set
+square on each side of the boat, mark off the profile from the sheer
+plan, Fig. 65, and cut the block to this line, afterward planing it up
+true.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66]
+
+The blocks should now appear as sketched in Fig. 66. It is now ready for
+the shaping of its exterior. A plane, a chisel, and a draw-knife are the
+only tools necessary to bring the hull to the correct shape. The
+cardboard templates must be cut, one for each half-section, as shown in
+the body plan, Fig. 67. These templates serve to show the proper outside
+shape of the hull. The block for the hull must be cut away until each
+one of these templates fits properly into place. The various stages are
+indicated in Figs. 68 and 69.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68]
+
+The interior of the board is gouged out with a gouging chisel, and if
+the builder desires a uniform result he should make inside templates. In
+gouging out the interior of the hull the chisel or gouge should be
+handled very carefully; otherwise it is liable to slip and spoil the
+entire hull.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69]
+
+The next job is to cut and properly fit the raised portion or
+forecastle. A piece of wood 1-1/4 inches thick, 15 inches long, and
+6-1/4 inches wide must be prepared and laid in place on the hull. The
+shape of the hull is marked off with a pencil and the wood sawed along
+this line. The inner portion is also cut out, thus making a V-shaped
+piece which must be glued and screwed in place, as shown in Fig. 70.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70]
+
+The oval air-vents shown in the drawing can be cut at this time. The
+hull is neatly finished by cutting in the sheer or curvature of the hull
+and sandpapering it all over. A cross-beam or support, _C_, Fig. 70, is
+cut and fitted as illustrated. This particular piece supports the
+fore-deck, and also carries the main-deck, as well as bracing the boat
+together. This piece should be 3/16 inch thick and cut from solid oak.
+
+The decks can be made of a good quality of white pine. The builder
+should select clean pieces, free from knots and blemishes. It only
+requires to be cut to shape and then fixed to the hull with a few brads.
+The edge should be cleaned up flush with the hull by the aid of a plane.
+The opening for the cock-pit, shown in the drawing in Fig. 71, is to be
+cut in the deck. The coamings and seats are cut to the sizes indicated
+in the drawings. They are then glued and pinned together. When fitted to
+the deck the result will be somewhat as shown in Fig. 71.
+
+The fore-deck is prepared in a similar manner; but, since this is to be
+removable, two battens must be fitted to the under side to keep it in
+place. The openings for the hatchways can be cut and the hatch-covers
+made by cutting another piece of wood 3/16 inch thick to form an edging.
+A cover piece to go over the small pieces, removed from cutting out the
+hatch opening, is shown at Fig. 72. A coping-saw will be found very
+useful for this work. The covers are neatly rounded on the edge and
+nicely finished.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76]
+
+Fig. 73 will give the reader a very good idea of the appearance of the
+boat at this stage. It will be seen that the sketch shows the deck
+broken away so as to render the cross-batten visible, which also shows
+the fair-lead at _F_, Fig. 73. This is cut from two small pieces of
+3/16-inch stuff, glued and pinned in place. The forward deck is
+completed by the addition of cowl-ventilators, cut from hard wood and
+screwed in place. The flag-mast is made from a short piece of 1/16-inch
+wire. The details of the mooring-cleats are shown in Fig. 74. They are
+fashioned by using a small screw-eye and soldering a short piece of
+brass wire through the eye. An oblong metal plate is then cut and a
+central hole drilled. This plate is soldered to the shank of the
+screw-eye and the cleat is complete. One of these devices is to be
+fitted to the fore-deck and two on the main-deck and stern.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75]
+
+The rudder and steering gear will be considered next. Fig. 75 shows the
+stern of the boat with the rudder gear mounted in place. It will be
+noted that the rudder-blade is merely a piece of sheet brass cut to
+shape and soldered into the rudder-post _M_, which is slit to
+accommodate it. The rudder-post is hung in two screw-eyes on the stern
+of the boat. A small wheel about 1 inch in diameter, with an edge filed
+in it, is soldered to the top of the rudder-post. A fine cord or string,
+well stretched and oiled, is attached to the wheel and led through two
+screw-eyes on the deck. From this it is led through an opening in the
+coaming to a drum on the steering column, which is turned by another
+small wheel similar to that used on the rudder-post, but with a round
+edge. The steering column is merely a piece of 1/8-inch wire, held in
+place by two small screw-eyes fixed in the coaming and with a tube-brush
+soldered on to keep the wire in position. The drum is simply a hard-wood
+bushing driven tightly in place.
+
+The power machinery for the _Nancy Lee_ must be considered at this time.
+This is really one of the most interesting parts of the construction.
+The general appearance of the power plant can be seen by referring to
+Fig. 77, which is a view of the complete boiler and engine mounted
+together on the same base. The boiler is shown at _A_ and the
+safety-valve and filler at _L_. The base or firebox _B_ protects the
+burner from stray drafts of air, and also supports the boiler.
+
+The lamp or burner consists of a receptacle _C_ for containing the
+denatured alcohol. The denatured alcohol is inserted through the
+filler-tube _E_, which is kept closed with a cork. The upright tube _D_
+is fitted so that air can go into the receptacle containing the alcohol.
+Three burners are necessary to fire the boiler. These are fitted as
+shown in _F_, and they give sufficient heat to produce steam enough to
+drive the cylinder _G_. The steam is conducted to the cylinder through
+the short pipe _K_. The steam-cylinder has the usual piston and rod,
+which drives the circular crank _H_. This crank is mounted on a
+crankshaft carried on the metal tube _M_. As will be noticed, the
+cylinder is of the simple oscillating type mounted on a standard, formed
+as part of the boiler casing, and stiffened by two angle-plates _L_.
+
+A heavy flywheel, _J_, is now fitted to the inside end of the
+crankshaft. This wheel should be a lead casting, and as heavy as
+possible. A heavy flywheel contributes much to the operating efficiency
+of the engine. The propeller-shaft and crank are shown at _N_ in the
+insert.
+
+The boiler is made from a strong tin can about 1-3/4 inches in diameter
+and 4-1/2 inches long. It is cleaned inside and out, and all the seams
+are double-soldered. The lid is also soldered on the can. This little
+boiler, although not elaborately made, will be found capable of standing
+up under considerable steam-pressure, and so no fear need be had of
+accidents by explosion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82]
+
+A little safety-valve and filler-plug suitable for use on the boiler
+are shown clearly in Fig. 78. A piece of sheet tin is cut out to the
+size and shape illustrated in Fig. 79 at _A_. The piece is bent up at
+the dotted lines and the seams are soldered. Two angle-plates, _B_, are
+then cut and fitted and soldered in place. Next a piece of brass tube
+with a 1/8-inch bore and 1 inch long is cut and soldered in place for
+the bearing of the crankshaft. A lead flywheel 1-1/4 inches in diameter
+and 1/2 inch thick is then mounted firmly on a piece of straight steel
+wire 1-3/4 inches long, which acts as a shaft.
+
+The shaft is made to run freely in the crankshaft bearing that was
+previously soldered in place. The cylinder is shown in section in Fig.
+80. If the reader will refer back to the construction of the engine
+described in Chapter 4 he will readily understand the operation and
+construction of this particular engine.
+
+A little crank must be cut from 1/16-inch brass, and soldered to the
+crankshaft after fitting a wire crank-pin to the outer edge. This
+crank-pin should be of such a size that the joint on the end of the
+piston-rod shown at _A_, Fig. 80, turns on it easily. The throw should
+be only half the stroke of the engine, which is 3/8 of an inch.
+
+The boiler is now fixed in place by bending the lugs _B_, Fig. 79, so
+that they just support the boiler nicely. They are then soldered in
+place. Next fit the short steam-pipe _K_ between the boiler and the
+steam block on the cylinder. The builder should take care to keep the
+steam-pipe well up to the top of the boiler.
+
+The lamp should be built at this time. The container for the denatured
+alcohol is made from a well soldered tin box of suitable size. It can
+also be made by cutting a sheet of tin to the size and shape shown in
+Fig. 81. The corner joints are soldered and then a tin lid is soldered
+in place. The builder should not forget to make the filler-tube _E_ and
+air-tube _D_, as shown in Fig. 77, before soldering the top piece in
+place. The burners should be made as high as the container, and these
+should be made from little pieces of tin bent to shape and soldered on
+to a bottom pipe, as shown in Fig. 77. The builder should also remember
+to cut the holes through this pipe so that the alcohol can get into the
+burner-tubes, and also to solder the open end of the bottom or feed
+tube. Before the wicks are put into the lamps, the container should be
+tested by filling it with alcohol to see that it is perfectly tight at
+all joints. If it is not the container should be gone over again with
+solder to assure its being leak-proof.
+
+Before operating the engine with steam, it can be tested with a small
+bicycle pump through the opening for the safety-valve. The engine should
+turn over briskly at every stroke of the pump, providing it does not
+come to rest at "dead center." If it does come to rest at "dead center,"
+where no air can enter the piston, the crankshaft should be given a
+little twist and the engine will then start. Before steam is applied it
+will be well to experiment until the engine runs with the air-pump.
+
+Having made the engine run smoothly with air, steam can be generated in
+the boiler. The wicks should not be placed too tightly in the burners.
+After they are in place the container may be filled with denatured
+alcohol, and the burners lighted and placed under the boiler. In a very
+few minutes steam will be up. At the first indication of pressure in the
+boiler the engine should be given a twist with the fingers until it
+starts and goes of its own accord. The constructor should remember to
+keep his engine well lubricated.
+
+The propeller-shaft is merely a piece of steel wire, perfectly straight
+and fitted with a crank _A_, Fig. 82. This crank is similar to the one
+fitted to the engine, but with a small slot cut out for the crank-pin to
+fit into. This is done so that, as the crank-pin on the engine turns
+around, it also turns a slotted crank on the propeller-shaft.
+
+A short piece of tube, _C_, is now fitted to a flat brass plate, _D_.
+The plate is mounted at an angle to the tube, so that when it is in
+place on the stern of the boat the propeller-shaft will be in line with
+the crankshaft of the engine.
+
+A clearance hole is now drilled through the hull, so that the
+propeller-shaft can be put in place. Solder the tube to the plate, and
+punch four small holes in the plate, so that it can be screwed firmly
+to the hull. Solder a short piece of tube, as shown at _B_, Fig. 82, to
+keep the propeller-shaft in position.
+
+The propeller must now be made. This is easily done by cutting out a
+disk of brass 1-1/2 inches in diameter, as shown in Fig. 83. The shaded
+portions of the brass disk are cut away. The blades are bent to shape,
+care being taken to see that they are all alike. This done, the
+propeller is soldered to the propeller-shaft.
+
+The only part of the job that remains is to screw the boiler in place
+under the fore-deck of the boat. This done, the _Nancy Lee_ is ready for
+her trial. The fore-deck should be made removable by fitting it with
+pins or screws with the heads cut off, so that the deck only needs
+pushing into place. This little boat should be capable of attaining a
+speed of from four to five miles an hour if it is made carefully and
+according to the directions outlined in this Chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+AN ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN LAKE FREIGHTER
+
+
+A PROTOTYPE of the model lake freighter described in this Chapter will
+probably be familiar to many readers. It is a type of boat used on the
+Great Lakes, and, owing to its peculiarity of design, it lends itself
+very well to construction in model form.
+
+The lines of the boat may be seen very clearly in Fig. 84.
+
+The hull of the model freighter measures four feet over all, and the
+beam at the water-line is 8 inches. The extreme draft will be in the
+neighborhood of 5 inches. This model, when completed, will be capable of
+carrying considerable weight; in fact, it is able to accommodate
+thirty-five pounds in weight when used in fresh water. This will give
+the builder an opportunity to install a very substantial power
+equipment with little regard for weight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85]
+
+The hull is made according to the built-up principle, and the
+constructor will have to cut his templates before attempting the shaping
+of the hull. Owing to the depth of the model, it will be necessary to
+use about ten planks. The plank that is used to form the bottom of the
+boat is not gouged out. Every other plank is gouged out with a saw and
+chisel.
+
+The bottom plank is shaped with a knife to conform to the lines of the
+boat. In building up the hull with the planks, they should first be
+smeared with glue, and when put in place a few brass brads should be
+driven in. As mentioned in an earlier part of this book, iron nails
+should not be used in work of this nature, owing to the fact that they
+will rust and cause trouble. The brass brads are placed about one inch
+apart the entire length of the boards. The hull is finished with a plane
+and sandpaper, and after it has been brought to shape in this way and
+finished, a coat of paint is applied. Black with dark red trimmings
+makes a very good combination for a boat of this type.
+
+The deck is made from a piece of 1/4-inch pine board. Seven hatches are
+added to the deck. Six of these hatches can be made by merely gluing a
+square piece of 1/4-inch wood to the deck. The seventh hatch should be
+made with a hole cut in the deck, so that access can be had to the power
+motor.
+
+The deck-house, wheel-house, and chart-house, as well as the bridge,
+should be constructed of tin, which may be salvaged from clean tin
+cans. The bridge is provided with spray-cloths made from white adhesive
+tape, as outlined in Chapter 9. The port-holes in the deck-house and
+hull are made by little pieces of brass forced in place over a small
+piece of mica. The life-boats, which are carried on top of the
+engine-house, are whittled out of a solid piece of wood and painted
+white. Life-boats are always painted white, regardless of the color of
+the boat upon which they are used. The life-boats are held by means of
+string and small dummy pulleys to davits made of heavy stovepipe wire. A
+rub-streak made of a piece of 1/4-inch square pine is tacked to each
+side of the hull just below the sheer-line. The rub-streak should be
+tacked in place with nails such as those used on cigar-boxes.
+
+The funnel measures 1 inch in diameter by 4 inches long. A small exhaust
+steam pipe, which can be made from a piece of brass tubing, is mounted
+directly aft of the funnel. The forward deck fittings consist mainly of
+a steering-boom, two bollards, two fair-heads, and four life-buoys
+mounted on the bridge. The main-deck is equipped with six bollards and
+two covered ventilators, each 1/2 inch in diameter. The foremast is
+properly stayed in the deck, and should be fitted with rat-lines. The
+rat-lines can be made with black thread and finished with varnish, which
+when dry will tend to hold the threads in shape.
+
+The rudder is cut from a piece of sheet brass to the shape shown, and
+fitted with a quadrant. The engine cabin can be made from cigar-box
+wood. The windows and doors can either be painted in place, or the
+windows can be cut and backed up with sheet celluloid. A good substitute
+for painted doors will be found in small pieces of tin painted a
+different color from the cabin. The same procedure may be followed in
+fitting the windows and doors to the forward cabin.
+
+We are now ready to consider the power plant. Owing to the large
+displacement of the boat, it will carry a fairly heavy storage battery.
+The electric motor and storage battery are mounted in the manner shown
+in Fig. 85, which will also give the reader an idea of the appearance of
+the finished model. As the drawing indicates, it will not be necessary
+to tilt the motor to any great degree in order to bring the propeller to
+the proper depth. This is because of the depth of the boat. Instead of a
+string or belt to connect the motor with the propeller, the shaft of the
+motor is taken out and replaced by a longer steel rod that will serve
+both as a motor-shaft and a propeller-shaft. The propeller-shaft extends
+from the motor through the stern-tube. The propeller used for this model
+is a three-blade affair, 3 inches in diameter. It must be of this size
+in order to propel a boat of these dimensions at a consistent speed.
+
+Care must be taken in mounting the motor in this way. If it is not
+mounted directly in line with the stern-tube the propeller-shaft will
+have a tendency to bind. However, with a little care no trouble should
+be experienced from this source. The storage battery used should be of
+the four-volt forty-ampere hour variety. This boat will be capable of
+carrying such a battery and this weight should just bring the craft down
+to her load water-line. The whole deck is made removable, so that the
+storage battery can be taken in and out at times when it is necessary to
+recharge it. A battery of this capacity, however, will drive a small
+motor similar to the type used on the boat for some time.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+AN ELECTRIC SUBMARINE-CHASER
+
+
+THE submarine chaser design given in the drawings and described in the
+text of this Chapter is a presentable little boat with pleasing lines
+and deck fittings. There is nothing difficult about its construction,
+and, considering the amount of work necessary to produce it, it is
+probably one of the most pleasing boats described in the book. If made
+correctly it will look "speedy" and shipshape.
+
+The general outline of the boat can be gathered from Figs. 86, 87, and
+88. Fig. 86 gives a side view of the craft; Fig. 87 shows the bow, while
+Fig. 88 gives the deck-plan.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88]
+
+Notice first the construction of the hull. This is made according to the
+Sharpie type, but the lines are changed to give the boat a more graceful
+appearance. This is done by changing the shape of the deck and the
+bottom pieces. Fig. 89 shows the various pieces necessary to construct
+the hull. It will be seen that the forward portion of the bottom piece
+is narrower than the deck piece, and broadens out so that it is wider at
+the stern than the deck piece. The deck piece has a maximum width of 5
+inches, while the bottom piece has a width of 4 inches at the forward
+section. The deck measures 3-1/2 inches at the stern, while the bottom
+piece measures 4-1/2 inches at the stern. This produces a half-inch
+taper on each side of the stern. A half-inch taper is also produced on
+the bow portion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89]
+
+The hull of the boat can be made from 1/8-inch mahogany. If this is not
+available, choose some other close-grained wood, free from knots and
+blemishes. Paper patterns are made to correspond with the general shape
+of the pieces that form the hull as given in Fig. 89. The pieces, after
+being marked, are cut to shape with a keyhole-saw. After this is done
+their edges should be trimmed neatly with a jack-plane.
+
+The two sides pieces are now screwed to the bow piece by small brass
+screws. After this is done the bottom piece is fastened to the side
+pieces the entire length of the boat. Next the first cross-piece, as
+shown in Fig. 90, is screwed in place. This cross-piece should be 4-3/4
+inches in length, so that the width of the hull at this point is just 5
+inches. The next cross-piece should correspond to the width of the deck
+piece at the section of the hull where it is placed. The same holds true
+for the third cross-piece. When the third cross-piece has been screwed
+in place, the stern piece is put in position.
+
+The joints of the hull should then be smeared with either pitch or
+bath-tub enamel or a thick mixture of white lead may be used.
+
+After having made sure that the hull is perfectly water-tight the worker
+can proceed to install the power equipment. This consists of a small
+battery motor driven with two dry cells. The design and installation of
+such things as stern-tubes and propeller-shafts have been taken up in
+detail in an earlier part of this book. The strut that holds the
+propeller-shaft is shown in Fig. 91. This consists merely of a brass
+bushing held in a bracket made of a strip of brass 1/2 inch wide. The
+brass strip is wound around the bushing and soldered. It is held to the
+bottom of the hull by means of two 8-32 brass machine screws. These
+screws should be tightened to prevent leakage. It would be inadvisable
+to use wood-screws for this purpose, owing to the fact that the bottom
+piece of the boat is thin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92]
+
+The two dry batteries for the motor are held in two tin troughs, as
+illustrated in Fig. 92. These troughs are fastened to the side of the
+boat by means of small bolts. They will prevent the boat from shifting
+its cargo; in other words, they hold the batteries in place and thereby
+prevent the boat from listing.
+
+The deck and deck fittings should now be furnished. The construction of
+the forward cabin is shown in Fig. 93. The sides and back are formed
+with cigar-box wood, while the curved front can best be made with a
+piece of tin. The top is also cut to shape from cigar-box wood, and
+should overlap about 1/4 inch. The pilot-house is simplicity itself,
+being made of a piece of curved tin with three windows cut in it. Four
+little lugs cut in the tin are bent on the inside and each provided with
+a hole. These lugs are used to tack the pilot-house to the deck. A small
+skylight is produced from a solid piece of wood and tacked in place as
+illustrated in the drawing.
+
+The builder is cautioned not to destroy the appearance of his boat by
+making the mast too large. After the mast has been nicely sandpapered, a
+little wire frame is bent to shape and fastened to the top, as shown in
+Fig. 87. The little wire railing that is placed in front of the mast is
+then bent to shape, and this and the mast are put in their permanent
+position. The mast can be held to the deck by boring a hole a little
+under size and smearing the bottom of the mast with a little glue before
+it is forced in. Pieces of black thread are run from the top of the mast
+to the railing at the bottom, as shown. These threads are used to hoist
+signal flags. Two little angle-pieces are placed on the forward deck,
+one on each side of the pilot-house. These are for the harbor lights.
+One should be painted green and one red.
+
+This finishes the forward cabin. It should be placed in the center of
+the deck and the position it occupies should be marked out with a
+pencil. This portion of the deck should be carefully cut out with a
+coping-saw. The cabin is then forced into the opening. The fit should be
+fairly tight, so that it will not be necessary to employ nails or glue,
+as this is the only way in which the interior of the hull is made
+accessible.
+
+Two ventilators are placed just back of the forward cabin. Between the
+forward cabin and the cabin aft there is placed a rapid-fire gun. The
+details of this gun are given in Fig. 94. The barrel of the gun is made
+of a piece of brass rod. A hole is drilled through this rod with a small
+drill and a piece of copper wire is inserted. A square piece of brass
+for the breech is then drilled out to receive the barrel. One end of the
+barrel is placed in this hole and held with a drop of solder. A drop of
+solder should also be used on the copper wire that runs through the
+barrel. The bearing and shield of the gun are made from thin sheet
+brass, as illustrated. Three holes are drilled in the bearing bracket,
+two through which the wire passes and one through which the small nail
+is placed to hold the bearing to the wooden standard. The shield is
+forced over the barrel and held in place with a drop of solder. When the
+barrel is mounted in the bearing, a drop of solder should be put in
+place to prevent the barrel of the gun from tipping.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94]
+
+The cabin which is placed aft on the boat, is of very simple
+construction. It is made up entirely of cigar-box wood tacked together,
+and the top should overlap 1/4 inch. The cabin is then tacked to the
+deck of the boat. The mast should be only three-fourths as high as the
+forward mast, and a tiny hole is drilled near the top. Into this hole a
+small piece of soft wire is placed, and from this wire a thread runs to
+the cabin. A small flag can then be placed on the thread, as illustrated
+in Fig. 86.
+
+Six port-holes are now bored in each side of the hull with a 1/2-inch
+bit. These can be backed up with mica or celluloid. Five smaller
+port-holes made with a 1/4-inch drill are then bored in each side of the
+forward cabin. Three are placed in the aft cabin.
+
+With the exception of painting, the hull is now ready to be launched.
+Before finally applying the paint the hull should be given a thorough
+rubbing with sandpaper. A battleship gray with maroon trimmings makes a
+pleasing color combination for this boat.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+BOAT FITTINGS
+
+
+THE model boat builder generally has some trouble in producing the
+necessary fittings for his boats. It is practically impossible to buy
+such things in this country, and so it is necessary to make them.
+
+Using a little care, it is possible to make presentable fittings by
+utilizing odds and ends found about the household and shop. In this
+Chapter the author will describe the construction of the more important
+fittings necessary to model boats, such as stacks, searchlights,
+bollards, cowl-ventilators, davits, and binnacles.
+
+The smokestack is probably one of the easiest things to produce. A very
+suitable method of producing a smokestack is shown in Fig. 95. The stack
+itself is cut from a piece of thin brass tubing. It is also possible to
+use a small tin can of the proper diameter. In both cases, of course,
+paint must be applied to improve the appearance of the brass or tin. If
+the stack is painted either gray or white a red band near the top of the
+stack produces a good finish and makes it look more shipshape.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97]
+
+The method of anchoring the stack to the deck of the boat is shown very
+clearly. First a block of wood is cut about the same diameter as the
+internal diameter of the stack. This block of wood is then forced up
+into the stack. A small square base is then cut, and fastened to the
+block on the inside of the stack with a wood-screw. It might be
+mentioned here that it is often necessary to drill a hole with a small
+hand drill before driving the screw in, to prevent splitting the wood.
+
+After the base piece is fastened to the stack, the base in turn is held
+to the deck of the boat by two small screws driven up from beneath. The
+guy-wires can then be fastened on. The guy-wires should be made of very
+fine wire, since heavy wire would be entirely out of proportion. The
+wire can be fastened on the stack by drilling a tiny hole through the
+stack. A knot is then tied in one end of the wire, and the opposite end
+threaded through the hole. Small screw-eyes driven into the base piece
+are used to anchor the guy-wires.
+
+Ventilators are a very important part of the boat. The model-builder
+will encounter considerable trouble if he attempts to make his
+cowl-ventilator from metal, unless he is very experienced in drawing
+copper out by hand. The writer has found a method of producing
+cowl-ventilators by the use of clay pipes. Clay pipes can be purchased
+for a few cents each, and when cut down as shown in Fig. 96 they form
+very suitable ventilators. The pipe can be cut as shown by the use of a
+file. The ventilator is held to the deck of the boat by being forced
+into a hole in the deck that is just a trifle under size. Of course, the
+forcing will have to be done carefully to prevent the stem from
+cracking. The inside of the ventilator should always be painted red, and
+the outside should be the same color as the boat. Ventilators made in
+this way absolutely defy detection and do much toward bettering the
+general appearance of the craft upon which they are used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96]
+
+A simple searchlight, easily made by the model boat builder, is shown
+in Fig. 97. This is an electric light, and the batteries used to propel
+the boat can be used for the light. First a small circular piece of wood
+is cut out, as shown at _A_, Fig. 97. The center of this is drilled out
+to accommodate a small flashlight bulb. A tiny brass screw is then
+driven into the piece of wood, so that it will come in contact with the
+center of the base of the flashlight bulb. This little screw forms one
+of the electrical contacts, and one of the wires from the battery is
+attached to it.
+
+A little strip of brass is then cut as shown in _B_, Fig. 97, and
+provided with three holes, one hole at each end and one in the middle.
+The brass is bent into a semicircular shape, so that it will be just a
+little larger in diameter than the outside of the wooden piece in which
+the flashlight bulb is mounted. This little piece is then fastened to a
+wooden post with a small brass pin, as shown in Fig. 97. Two more pins
+are used to hold the wooden piece to the searchlight proper. One of
+these pins is driven through the wooden piece until it comes in contact
+with the base of the flashlight bulb. This forms the other electrical
+connection, and the second feed wire from the battery can be attached to
+the little brass piece that holds the searchlight. Both the feed wires
+from the battery can come up through a hole in the deck close to the
+wooden post upon which the searchlight is mounted.
+
+Bollards are very easily made. Reference to Fig. 98 will make this
+clear. First a little strip of brass is cut, and this is drilled as
+shown with two holes, one at each end and two smaller holes in the
+center. Two little circular pieces of wood are then cut, with a hole
+through the center. A brass screw passes through these and into the deck
+of the boat. The brass screw should not be driven in too far, since the
+bollards should be free to revolve. It is also possible to use brass
+tubing instead of wood if the proper size is in the model-builder's
+shop.
+
+[Illustration: A POWERFUL GASOLENE BLOW-TORCH
+
+For a metre racing boat. Such a torch will deliver a steady, hot flame
+for fifteen minutes]
+
+A word will be said here about finishing the deck of a model boat. It is
+a very tedious job to cut separate planks to form the deck. In fact,
+this job is quite beyond the ability, to say nothing of the patience, of
+the average young model-builder. A very simple method of producing
+imitation planking is shown in Fig. 99. A sharp knife and a
+straight-edge are the only tools for this work. The straight-edge is
+merely used to guide the knife. The cuts should not be made too deep,
+and they should be made a uniform distance apart. When the deck is
+finished in this manner and varnished over, a very pleasing effect is
+produced. In fact, if the work is done carefully, the deck looks very
+much as if it were planked.
+
+[Illustration: JUST AFTER THE RACE
+
+A line-up of the entries in one of the power boat races held at Central
+Park, New York City. The author presented the cup to the owner of Elmara
+III, the winning boat, which attained a speed of nearly thirty miles an
+hour]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101]
+
+A small life-boat is shown in Fig. 100. This can easily be carved to
+shape from a small piece of soft white pine. The center is gouged out,
+and tiny little seats made of thin strips of wood are glued in place.
+Two small screw-eyes are placed in the boat, for fastening it to the
+davits. The davits are shown in Fig. 101, at _A_ and _B_. They are made
+by bending a piece of small brass rod, as shown. One end of the rod is
+hammered flat, and a hole is made in it with a very small drill. Holes
+a little under size are drilled in the deck, and the davits are forced
+into these. The method of suspending the life-boat from the davits is
+shown at _B_, Fig. 101. The little blocks of wood are glued on to a
+thread to represent pulleys, and they are, of course, only imitation or
+dummy pulleys.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102]
+
+The method of producing port-holes is shown in Fig. 102. A hole is first
+bored through the wood with a bit of the proper size. The size of the
+port-holes depends entirely upon the size of the boat. A piece of brass
+tubing is then cut off with a hacksaw to form a brass bushing. The
+outside diameter of this tubing should be the same as the size of the
+bit used. For instance, if a 1/2-inch bit is used, brass tubing 1/2 inch
+in diameter should be purchased. Such tubing can be obtained from any
+hardware store. Celluloid, such as that used for windows in automobile
+curtains, is glued to the inside of the port-holes. This makes a
+splendid substitute for glass. It can be obtained at garages and
+automobile supply stores for a few cents a square foot. The model boat
+builder can also use either mica or glass for this purpose, although
+thick glass looks somewhat out of place.
+
+A binnacle is shown in Fig. 103. This is made from a solid piece of wood
+cut with a semi-spherical top. The steering-wheel is made of a wheel
+from an old alarm clock. The teeth of the wheel should be filed off.
+Tiny pieces of wire are then soldered in place on the wheel, as shown. A
+pin driven through the center of the steering-wheel is used to fasten it
+to the binnacle. The binnacle itself can be held to the deck either by
+glue or by a small screw.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103]
+
+A torpedo-tube for use on model destroyers and battleships is shown in
+Fig. 104. First two disks of wood are cut. Then a circular piece is
+cut, as shown. Two brass nails are then driven through this piece into
+one of the disks. An upholstering tack is driven into the end of the
+circular piece, as pictured. The method of attaching the torpedo-tube to
+the deck is clearly illustrated in Fig. 104 and no further directions
+need be given. If the model-builder has a small piece of brass tube on
+hand suitable for use in this case, it will make a much better appearing
+tube than the piece of wood illustrated.
+
+A wireless antenna is shown at Fig. 105. This is a fitting that will do
+much toward improving the appearance of any craft. Very fine copper wire
+is used for the aërial. The little spreaders are cut to shape from wood,
+and a tiny hole is punched through them through which the wire is
+placed. Black beads slipped on the wire serve very well as insulators.
+The lead-in wire which drops to the wireless cabin is attached to the
+aërial by winding it around each one of the aërial waves. The aërial
+should be suspended between the masts of the vessel. A few words should
+be said about masts in general. If there is one way in which a
+model-builder can destroy the appearance of a model boat, it is by using
+badly proportioned masts. The average boy seems inclined to use a mast
+of too great a diameter, which makes it out of proportion with the rest
+of the boat. It is better to have a mast too small rather than too
+large.
+
+The method of producing railing is shown in Fig. 106. The same small
+brass rod that was used for the davits can be used for the rail
+stanchions. One end of the stanchions is hammered flat and drilled out.
+The stanchions are fastened to the deck by first drilling small holes
+and forcing them into it. Thread or very fine wire is used for the
+railing. Fine wire is preferred owing to the fact that it will not break
+so easily under strain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110]
+
+Fig. 107 shows a good method of producing stairs. It must be remembered
+that stairs are often used in model-boat construction. First a strip of
+tin is bent as shown. Then two more strips, which act as side pieces,
+are cut. One of these strips is soldered to each side of the stairs.
+Then six stanchions, which can be made from heavy copper wire, are
+soldered to the side pieces, as shown. The railing can be made from
+copper wire or black thread.
+
+Fig. 108 shows a small skylight placed on the deck. This is easily made
+from cigar-box-wood glued together. The holes in the top pieces for the
+windows are cut with a very sharp knife. It will be necessary to use a
+little patience in this, to prevent the piece from splitting and to
+prevent cracks. A piece of celluloid is glued underneath the top pieces
+before they are finally glued in place.
+
+A small quick-firing deck-gun is shown in Fig. 109. This is a very
+simple fitting and can be made with very little difficulty. The base of
+the gun is formed by cutting a thread-spool in half. A piece of small
+brass tubing is used to form the barrel. A little piece of sheet tin is
+looped over the back of the gun to represent the breech. A tiny piece of
+wire is held to the side of the breech with a drop of solder, to
+represent a handle. The shield of the gun is cut from a piece of tin,
+as shown. A hole is made in the bottom of this, so that the nail that
+passes through the barrel of the gun will also pass through this hole
+and into the spool. The center of the spool should be plugged to hold
+the nail. After the gun is painted gray or black it will appear very
+businesslike, considering the small amount of labor spent in producing
+it.
+
+Anchors are more or less difficult to make (Fig. 110), and unless the
+builder is endowed with a great amount of patience he will not be able
+to file them out of solid metal. A dummy anchor can be easily cut out of
+wood, however, and when painted black it will answer instead of a metal
+one. The anchor shown at _A_ is a very simple type made out of a solid
+piece of wood. The one at _B_, however, is made out of two pieces of
+wood fastened together with a pin, as shown. The bottom piece of the
+anchor shown at _B_ should be rather thick to get the proper effect, and
+the two points should be tapered nicely. The center of the bottom piece
+should be hollowed out to accommodate the vertical piece.
+
+A common hatch is shown at Fig. 111. This can be made in the form of an
+open box from cigar-box wood, and glued to the deck. It is not necessary
+to cut a hole in the deck for this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113]
+
+A cargo-hoist for use on model freight-boats is shown in Fig. 112. This
+is a very simple piece of work and will need little description. Several
+stay-wires should be fastened to the main-mast and held to the deck with
+small screw-eyes. The boom should be made a trifle smaller in diameter
+than the mast. The pulleys are dummy, like those on the life-boat. A
+little hook bent to shape from copper wire is placed on the end of the
+thread, as shown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114]
+
+Fig. 113 shows a method of making a whistle and an engine exhaust. The
+engine exhaust is made of a piece of wood, and the furled top is
+produced by an eyelet such as those used in shoes. The engine exhaust is
+always placed immediately back of the last smokestack. The whistle is a
+simple device made almost entirely of wood. The whistle-cord is of
+thread attached to the small piece of wire, as shown.
+
+Fig. 114 shows the method of making spray-cloths for the top of the
+pilot-house. Small brass brads are driven into the top of the
+pilot-house, and white adhesive tape is placed on the brads, as
+pictured. Advantage can be taken of the adhesive substance on the tape
+which holds it in place on the brads.
+
+A rudder is shown in Fig. 115. The rudder-post should be a piece of
+brass rod so thick that it can be split with a hacksaw. The sheet brass
+that forms the rudder proper is placed in this split and soldered. In
+the case of an ornamental boat the rudder can be fixed as shown in Fig.
+115. It will be seen that it is quite impossible to keep the rudder in
+adjustment in this way.
+
+If the rudder is to be kept in a certain adjustment a quadrant is
+necessary. This is made by using a semicircular piece of heavy sheet
+brass and filing little notches in it. The lever of the rudder rests in
+these notches, and by this means the rudder can be held in any one
+position, so that the boat will either turn in a circle or go straight.
+Fig. 116 illustrates such an arrangement.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE DESIGN OF MODEL STEAM-ENGINES
+
+
+INSTEAD of describing the construction of several model engines of
+different design, the author thinks it advisable to put the reader in
+possession of the fundamentals of model steam-engine design and
+construction. In this way the model engineer will be able to design and
+construct model steam-engines according to his own ideas and in
+accordance with the raw materials and miscellaneous parts he may find in
+his workshop. Unless the young mechanic is in possession of a very well
+equipped workshop, it is quite impossible to construct a steam-engine
+according to certain specifications. However, if he has in mind the
+fundamental principles of steam-engine design, he can go ahead and
+design his engine, for which he will have no trouble in machining or
+producing the parts that enter into its construction. By this the
+author means that the workman can design his engine to meet the
+materials he has on hand.
+
+Notice Fig. 117. This is a cylinder into which is fitted a piston. If
+steam is forced into the cylinder the piston will be forced to the
+opposite end of the cylinder. If some means is then provided so that the
+steam can escape and the piston come back, another impulse can be given
+it by admitting more steam, and thus a continuous motion may be
+produced. This is how the steam-engine works.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117]
+
+Having learned how motion is imparted to the piston by the expansion of
+steam under pressure, attention is directed to what is known as the "D"
+slide-valve. This slide-valve permits steam to enter the cylinder and to
+exhaust at proper intervals. See Fig. 118. Steam enters the steam-chest
+through the pipe _A_. The slide-valve is shown at _D_. When the
+slide-valve is in the position shown, steam enters the cylinder, and by
+the time the cylinder has arrived in the position shown by the dotted
+line _C_, the slide-valve moves over, closing the passage _B_. The steam
+under pressure forces the piston to the opposite end of the cylinder.
+When the piston reaches the opposite end of the cylinder, steam that has
+entered through the passage _F_ again forces the piston back to its
+original position. This is caused by the slide-valve shifting its
+position, because of the impulse it received at the opposite end of the
+cylinder. Thus it will be seen that when the piston is at one end of the
+cylinder the opposite end is exhausting. By carefully studying Fig. 118
+the action of the _D_ valve will be understood. The connecting-rod _E_
+is connected to the crankshaft and in this way the engine is caused to
+revolve.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 118]
+
+A cylinder similar to that shown in Fig. 118 is called a double-acting
+cylinder. This is because the steam acts on both sides of the piston.
+Single-acting cylinders are cylinders in which the steam expands on only
+one side of the piston. In the single-acting engines the _D_ valve is
+modified.
+
+The "stroke" of a steam-engine depends upon the length of the cylinder;
+really, the stroke is the distance travelled by the piston. In model
+engines it ranges from 3/8 of an inch to 1-1/2 inches. The bore of a
+cylinder is its internal diameter. The bore is usually a trifle smaller
+than the stroke. Thus it is common to have a stroke of 7/8 inch and a
+cylinder-bore of 3/4 inch.
+
+At this juncture the author would caution the more inexperienced young
+mechanics not to build double-acting engines. The valve mechanism is
+somewhat intricate and very difficult to regulate. The construction is
+also much more complicated, and this also holds true of the designing.
+On the other hand, single-acting engines, while not so powerful for a
+given size, will do very nicely in driving model boats, and will deliver
+sufficient power for all ordinary purposes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 119]
+
+Your attention is directed to Fig. 119. This shows a design for a model
+single-cylinder, single-acting steam-engine. The reader should carefully
+study each drawing before continuing to digest the following matter. The
+cylinder _L_ can be made from a piece of tubing. This can be either
+brass or copper. Aluminum should not be used, owing to the fact that it
+is difficult to solder and difficult to work with. The piston is made so
+that it will fit nicely into the cylinder and move up and down without
+binding. It will be seen that a groove, _M_, is cut around the piston
+near the top. String soaked in oil is placed in this groove. This is
+called packing, and the presence of this packing prevents steam leakage
+between the piston and the cylinder walls and thereby materially
+increases the efficiency of the engine.
+
+In this case the connecting-rod _R_ is made in a circular piece. It is
+attached to the piston by a pin, _F_. The connecting-rod must be free to
+revolve upon this pin. The engine shown has a stroke of 7/8 inch.
+Therefore, the crank-pin _K_ on the crank-disk _N_ must be placed 1/2 of
+7/8 or 7/16 inch from the center of the disk _N_, so that when this disk
+makes one revolution, the piston will move 7/8 inch in the cycle. Thus
+it will be seen that the distance of the crank-pin _K_ from the center
+of the crank disk _N_ will depend entirely upon the stroke of the
+engine. It may be well to mention here that the worker should always
+start designing his engine by first determining the bore and stroke.
+Everything depends upon these two factors. It is also well to mention
+here that the piston should never travel completely to the top of the
+cylinder--a small space must always be left for the steam to expand.
+One eighth of an inch is plenty of space to leave.
+
+It will be noticed that the valve mechanisms on the particular engine
+shown bear no resemblance to the _D_ valve previously described. The
+holes _G_ which are bored around the cylinder are the exhaust ports. It
+will be seen that when the piston is at the end of its downward stroke
+it uncovers these exhaust ports and permits the steam to escape. The
+momentum of the flywheel _A_ pushes the piston upward, closing these
+holes. As these holes are closed the valve _H_ uncovers the entrance _I_
+and permits steam to enter from the boiler through _J_. By the time the
+piston has reached the upward limit of its stroke a considerable steam
+pressure has developed on top of the cylinder, and this again forces the
+piston downward. Thus the same cycle of movement is gone through
+repeatedly.
+
+The valve on this little engine is extremely simple. It consists of a
+circular piece of brass drilled out, as shown. A hole (_I_ and _J_) is
+drilled transversely through this. The little cylinder shown in the
+insert at _O_ slides in the larger hole, and when it is at its upper
+limit it cuts off the steam. At the proper intervals the valve is pulled
+down by the eccentric _C_. It will be seen that the moving parts, i.e.,
+the valve and the piston, must be properly timed. That is, the eccentric
+_C_ must be mounted on the crank-shaft _B_ so that the valve will close
+and open at proper intervals. When the engine is made, the eccentric can
+be shifted about by means of a set-screw, _Q_, until the engine operates
+satisfactorily. This set-screw is used to hold the eccentric to the
+crank-shaft. The word eccentric merely means "off center." Thus the
+eccentric in this case is formed by a little disk of brass with the hole
+drilled off center. The distances these holes are placed off center will
+depend entirely upon the motion of the valve. It will be seen that the
+valve is connected to the eccentric by means of the valve-rod _E_. The
+valve-rod, in turn, is held to a circular strap which is placed around
+the eccentric. A groove should be cut in the surface of the eccentric,
+so that this strap will not slip off. If the strap is not put on too
+tightly and the eccentric is free to revolve within it, the valve will
+be forced up and down as the eccentric revolves.
+
+The crank-shaft _B_ revolves in two bearings, _D D_. The flywheel is
+held to the crank-shaft by means of a set-screw _S_.
+
+Most small engines with a bore under one inch will operate nicely on
+from 20 to 30 pounds of steam, and this pressure can easily be generated
+in the boiler that was described in the chapter on model-boat power
+plants.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+A MODEL FLOATING DRY-DOCK
+
+
+AS many of the readers probably know, a dry-dock is used in assisting
+disabled vessels. Some dry-docks are permanent, while others are built
+so that they can be floated or towed to a disabled vessel that is not
+able to get to a land dry-dock. The land dry-dock operates as follows.
+It is first filled with water, and the disabled boat is towed in by
+tugs. After the tugs leave, the gates are closed, and the water in the
+dry-dock is pumped out, leaving the boat high and dry. Large props are
+put in place to prevent the boat from tipping.
+
+The dry-dock here described is a model that is towed to a disabled
+vessel. It is then sunk until it passes under the boat. The sinking is
+brought about by filling the dry-dock with water. After it has sunk to
+the proper depth it is passed under the boat to be repaired, the water
+is pumped out, and the dry-dock rises, lifting the disabled boat with
+it. Repairs can then be made very easily.
+
+The model here described does not possess all the fittings and additions
+of the original. However, it is able to rise or sink as required,
+carrying the machinery necessary to bring about these functions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 120]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 121]
+
+A general view of the completed model is shown in Fig. 120. The first
+part to construct is the framework for the hull. Four pieces of wood
+will be required for this, and they should be cut to the shape and size
+shown in Fig. 121. To make this it is best to cut the two side parts
+first, as indicated by the dotted lines. This done, the bottom piece can
+be clamped on from behind by means of pieces of lath. These are for the
+two end pieces. The other two pieces are made in the same way, except
+that they contain holes for the water to pass through, as shown at _B_.
+The wood for these frames, or ribs, should be not less than 1/4 inch
+thick in order to accommodate the pieces used in the construction of the
+remainder of the hull.
+
+When the builder has made the four ribs, he should proceed to construct
+the lower deck, which consists of a single piece of wood nicely planed
+and finished, measuring 14-1/2 inches long by 8 inches wide and 1/8 inch
+thick. This piece must be nailed to the bottom of each of the ribs, one
+at each end, and the other two containing the holes at equal distances
+apart. Tiny nails, similar to those used on cigar-boxes, will be found
+very suitable for this work. Some old cigar-boxes may be broken apart to
+obtain the nails for this purpose. Before nailing on the board it should
+be marked out to present ordinary deck-boards. The reader is referred
+back to Chapter 9 which describes this process, using a straight-edge
+and knife.
+
+When this board is nailed in place, the next requirement will be two
+pieces for the sides the bottom edges, of which must rest on the top of
+the deck-board. These boards are the same length as the deck. They
+should reach to the top of the ribs, and be fastened in the same way as
+the bottom deck. It is good practice, when doing this, to place a little
+white lead on the bottom edge before finally driving the nails in place.
+This will tend to produce a water-tight joint. This done, three pieces
+of wood 5/8 inch square must be screwed in place, flush with the bottom
+ends of the ribs, to form a flat keel. They should be firmly fixed since
+a lead keel is afterward screwed on the bottom of the boat. Attention
+should now be directed to fitting the two middle decks. These are placed
+4 inches from the top and are 4 inches wide. In this space the engine
+and pumps are placed. Therefore, the top deck is made in the form of a
+lid, and the outside plate made to draw out. In this way the mechanism
+below the deck can be made very accessible.
+
+The framework of the dry-dock is now completed, and the builder can
+proceed to fix on the side plates. These are made from sheet tin with a
+width of 14-1/2 inches. The length must be sufficient to reach from the
+top of one side, around the bottom of the hull, to the top of the other
+side. Having cut the tin to the required size, one side is put in place
+with small nails, spacing them an equal distance apart.
+
+Before securing the opposite side, the builder must first arrange the
+inlet-valve. This particular member is constructed as follows. First,
+obtain an old gas-pipe union which measures about 5/8 inch in diameter
+and 3/4 inch long. With a hacksaw this is cut off in a sloping direction
+with an angle to correspond with the slope in the bottom of the
+dry-dock. When this is done, a lid must be fitted to the top by means of
+a long rod, as clearly shown in Fig. 122. On the under side of this lid
+a small piece of sheet rubber should be glued, so that when the lid is
+screwed down the valve will be made water-tight. The valve must now be
+soldered to the inside of the hull. It is placed in such a position that
+it will rest just under the center of one of the upper decks when the
+controlling rod is upright.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 122]
+
+The top end of the rod must contain a thread for about 1 inch, and a
+round plate made to screw on. This plate should be about 3/4 inch in
+diameter, and contain three small holes around the edge. These holes are
+used in fastening the plate to the deck. The top of the rod is fitted
+with a small crank-handle, which is used in turning the rod in either
+direction. In this way the valve can be either opened or closed. At the
+bottom of the rod a small swivel should be provided, as indicated in
+Fig. 122.
+
+The plate or sheet of tin on this side of the hull can now be
+permanently fixed in place. When this is done a light hammer should be
+used around the edges to turn the tin into the wood.
+
+With the plates secured in place, the builder must next fix a flat wood
+keel along the bottom of the dry-dock. This should be screwed to the
+inside keel, screws passing through the tin plate. A lead keel is then
+screwed to the wooden keel, and when this is done the dry-dock can be
+launched. If the foregoing instructions have been carried out carefully
+the dry-dock should ride lightly on the water.
+
+As a trial the inlet-valve is now unscrewed and water is permitted to
+enter the hull. When the water rushes in, the hull will begin to sink.
+The water should be allowed to enter until the hull sinks to within an
+inch of the lower or inside deck. The valve should then be closed. The
+exact position of the water should now be found, and a line drawn all
+around the hull, which can afterward be painted in.
+
+The engine and boilers must now be constructed and placed on the
+dry-dock, so that the water that was permitted to enter may be pumped
+out. As a temporary arrangement, a thin rubber tubing is inserted
+through a hole in the lower deck and allowed to hang outside the
+water-level. The siphon can then be formed by simply drawing the water
+up by suction with the lips. A continuous flow will result, emptying the
+hull within a short time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 123]
+
+Attention is now directed to the construction of the boiler and pumps.
+The boiler, which is rectangular in shape, is made of thin sheet copper,
+and measures 4 inches long by 3 inches wide by 2 inches deep. A hole is
+made in the top, and a brass or copper tube 6 inches long and about 3/4
+inch in diameter is soldered in position, as depicted in Fig. 123. This
+tube acts as a chimney on the dry-dock, but it is really used for
+filling the boiler, and the top is supplied with a tightly fitting
+cork.
+
+The ends of the boiler also act as supports, and they are made 4 inches
+long. The bottom edge is turned up for about 1/4 inch to enable the
+boiler to be screwed firmly to the lower deck. The boiler occupies a
+position at one end of the hull, and should fit easily in between decks.
+A small spirit-lamp is used to furnish heat, and no description need be
+given of this particular part of the equipment. Before the boiler is
+firmly fixed in place a small hole should be made near the top at one
+end. The feed steam-pipe is inserted in this, and soldered in place.
+
+Two small oscillating cylinders, similar to those made for the engine on
+the _Nancy Lee_ (Chapter 6), should be made. They should not be more
+than 3/4 inch in length, with a 3/8-inch bore. If the builder has any
+old model steam-engines in the shop, he may take the cylinders from them
+instead of constructing new ones for the dry-dock.
+
+The engine is set up as shown in Fig. 124. The first job is to make the
+frame or standards, and this is in one piece. Two pieces of brass (_A_),
+measuring 5-1/2 inches long by 1/2 inch wide and 1/16 inch in thickness,
+are cut. Next the builder should mark off 1-1/2 inches from either end,
+and carefully bend at right angles, after which holes are drilled to
+accommodate the crank-axle _B_. Two holes must also be made for screws
+to enable the machine to be screwed to the deck.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 124]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 125]
+
+The flywheel should be 1-1/2 inches in diameter, while the bent crank
+has a throw of 3/16 inch. The steam-cylinder is fixed on the outside of
+one of the uprights, and the steam-pipe must, of course, be fitted from
+the inside.
+
+The pump-cylinder is composed of a small piece of brass tube 1 inch long
+and 3/8 inch in diameter. The plunger is 1/2 inch long, and the diameter
+is just sufficient to enable it to work freely up and down inside the
+brass tube. One end is shaped as shown in Fig. 125. This contains a saw
+cut that enables the pump-rod to be placed between and connected with a
+pin. The bottom end of the cylinder is now fitted with a brass disk in
+which a hole is made and a 3/32-inch tube soldered in place. The inside
+surface of this piece of brass should be countersunk, and the piece is
+then soldered into the end of the cylinder. Before the plunger is
+inserted a small lead shot is dropped in, which should be larger than
+the hole at the bottom of the cylinder, thereby covering it. A hole is
+drilled in at the side of the cylinder, and a small bent pipe fixed in
+it. At the top of this pipe a short piece of 3/8-inch brass tube is
+fixed in place, as indicated. This piece of tubing is closed at both
+ends. The bottom end is treated like that of the pump-barrel and
+supplied with a large shot. An outlet-pipe is soldered into the side of
+the delivery-valve chamber and leads to the side of the hull.
+
+The pump _E_ is fixed at the bottom midway between the engine uprights
+as indicated in Fig. 124. The suction-pipe passes through a hole and
+down through the deck nearly to the bottom of the hull. After the
+engine and boiler are connected, a trial can be made. If the foregoing
+instructions have been carried out, the engine will run at a good speed
+and a continuous flow of water will be pumped out of the hull. All parts
+of the engine and pump should be carefully oiled and water should be
+poured into the pump in order to prime it before its start.
+
+It is understood that two complete boilers and pump units are made for
+the model, and one is mounted on each side. If the builder desires to
+increase the capacity of the pumps and install a more powerful boiler
+and engine, only one pump will be necessary. Otherwise the water will
+not be pumped from the hull very rapidly.
+
+When the builder has finished the pump units, he should turn his
+attention to the remainder of the fittings. Two small cranes are made,
+and one is placed at each side of the hull. They are made of tin. The
+cab of each crane measures 2-1/2 inches high by 2 inches long by 1-3/4
+inches wide. A small roof is fitted on, and a piece of wood fitted to
+the bottom to serve as a floor. The jib measures 6 inches long by 3/4
+inch at the base, and tapers to 1/2 inch. It has 1/4 inch turned down at
+each side, thus adding considerable strength. The jib is fitted to the
+cab by means of a wire passed through the sides, and two guy-ropes are
+arranged as shown. A small piece is now cut out at the top, and a pulley
+wheel fixed in position by means of a pin passed through the sides.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 126]
+
+The winding-drum can be made of either tin or wood. The axle passes
+through both sides of the cab, the crank being attached to the outside.
+Fig. 126 shows the completed crane, which is held to the deck by means
+of a small bolt and nut. A washer should be placed between the bottom of
+the crane and the deck, to allow the crane to turn freely with little
+friction.
+
+A hand-rail, made of fine brass wire, is placed around the deck.
+
+Dummy port-holes are fixed to the sides of the dry-dock for the purpose
+of lighting up the interior of the engine-room. These are furnished from
+top rings taken from gas-mantles. Anchor-chains are fixed at each end of
+the dry-dock. The whole dry-dock is painted with two coats of gray paint
+and the water-line painted in bright red.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 127]
+
+Fig. 127 shows the dry-dock with a model boat in position.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+OPERATION OF FLASH STEAM POWER PLANTS FOR MODEL BOATS
+
+
+THE flash steam method of propelling model power boats of the racing
+type produces a far greater speed than would otherwise be possible.
+Flash steam plants are far more complicated than ordinary
+steam-propelled power plants, and for this reason the author devotes a
+chapter to their description.
+
+A considerable equipment of tools and not a little mechanical ingenuity
+are required to produce and assemble a workable flash steam plant.
+However, such plants have gained great popularity in the past few years,
+and all of the hydroplane racing craft are propelled with such outfits.
+These power plants are capable of delivering such a tremendous power
+that speeds as high as thirty-five miles an hour have been reached by
+boats measuring 40 inches long.
+
+The illustration, Fig. 128, shows a flash steam plant and its various
+parts. Each part and its function will be described in this Chapter in
+detail. The gasolene tank _A_ is used to hold the fuel, which is fed to
+the gasolene burner _C_. The gasolene burner operates on the principle
+of the ordinary gasolene torch. First the tank is filled about
+three-quarters full with gasolene. An air-pressure is then produced in
+the tank with a bicycle pump. The pipe leading from the gasolene-tank at
+the top is coiled around the burner, and the free end of it is bent and
+provided with a nipple, so that the gasolene vapor will be blown through
+the center of the helix of the coil formed by the pipe bent around the
+burner. This is quite clearly shown in the drawing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 128]
+
+The cylinder is merely a piece of stovepipe iron bent to shape and
+provided with several air-holes at the burner end. To start the burner,
+the vaporizing coils must first be heated in an auxiliary flame. The
+flame of an ordinary blow-torch is suitable for this purpose. After
+the coils have become sufficiently hot the valve at the top of the
+gasolene-tank is opened, and this causes a stream of gasolene vapor to
+issue at the nipple. This produces a hot flame at the center of the
+vaporizing coils, and in this way the coils are kept hot. The purpose of
+heating these coils is further to vaporize the gasolene as it passes
+through them on the way to the burner. Once started, the action of the
+burner is entirely automatic. The vaporizing coils are made of Shelby
+steel tubing with an internal diameter of 1/8 inch.
+
+It will be seen that the flame from the gasolene-torch is blown through
+the center of the boiler coils _B_. Thus, any water passing through
+these boiler coils is instantly converted into steam. In other words,
+the water "flashes" into steam. The heat of the blow-torch is so great
+that most of the boiler coils are maintained at red heat even while the
+water is passing through them.
+
+Notice the water-tank _G_. A little scoop, formed by a pipe of small
+diameter, protrudes through the bottom of the boat, so that the forward
+motion of the boat will cause water to rise in the tank _G_. An
+overflow is also provided, so that, should the water not be sucked out
+of the tank quickly enough, it will not flood the boat. The overflow
+pipe hangs off the side of the boat.
+
+The water pump _E_ sucks water from the tank, and pumps it through the
+check-valve _K_ (this valve permits water to pass in one direction only)
+into the boiler coils. The boiler coils, being red-hot, cause the water
+to flash into steam the instant it reaches them. By the time the steam
+has reached the opposite end of the boiler coils, it is no longer steam,
+but a hot, dry gas at a terrific pressure. From the boiler coils the
+steam passes into the steam-chest of the engine, and thence into the
+cylinder, where it expands, delivering its energy to the piston.
+
+It will be seen that the water-pump _E_ is geared to the engine. Owing
+to this, it is necessary to start the water circulating through the
+boiler coils by the hand pump _F_. This hand pump forces water through
+the boiler coils just as the power pump does. After the hand pump is
+started the engine is turned over a few times until it starts. The
+valve _H_ is then closed, which cuts the starting pump _F_ entirely out
+of the system, because when the engine starts it also drives the water
+pump _E_, and therefore the action becomes entirely automatic.
+
+The relief-cock _L_ is placed in the system to be used if the engine
+stalls. By opening the relief-cock the pressure in the complete system
+is immediately relieved. At all other times the relief-cock is closed.
+
+A second pump, _I_, is also included in the system. This, like the
+water-pump, is geared to the engine and driven by it. It is the duty of
+this pump to convey oil from the lubricating tank _M_ into the steam
+feed-pipe just before it enters the steam-chest. In this way the live
+superheated steam carries a certain amount of lubricating oil with it in
+the cylinder.
+
+Owing to the high temperature of the superheated steam, it is impossible
+to use brass cylinders on the steam-engines employed with flash steam
+systems. Steel seems to be the only cheap metal that is capable of
+withstanding the attack of flash steam. Brass is out of the question,
+since its surface will pit badly after it is in use a short time.
+
+The boiler of a flash steam plant is covered with sheet iron so as to
+prevent drafts of air from deflecting the flame from the center of the
+boiler coils. The cover is provided with ventilators, so that the burner
+will not be smothered. If enough oxygen does not enter the interior of
+the boiler coils, poor combustion will result, and the gasolene flame
+will not develop its maximum heat. Upon referring again to the diagram,
+it will be seen that the exhaust steam pipe from the engine discharges
+into the stack of the boiler covering. This discharge greatly
+facilitates the circulation of air through the boiler coils.
+
+After a flash steam plant has been started it will work automatically,
+providing all the parts are in good running order. Flash steam plants,
+however, are difficult to get in the proper adjustment, and once
+adjusted they are easily disturbed by minor causes. Owing to the fact
+that every square inch of surface in the flash coils is heating surface,
+the amount of water supplied to the boiler must be exactly what is
+needed. The heat must also be regulated so that the temperature of the
+steam will just meet the engine's needs. Many times an increase in heat
+causes the steam to reach such a temperature that it will burn up the
+lubricating oil before it reaches the cylinder of the engine. This is
+liable to cause trouble, because sticking is apt to occur.
+
+Model power boats with speeds as high as thirty-five miles an hour have
+been made in America. Such high-speed boats must be assembled with
+infinite care, owing to the fact that the mechanism they carry is more
+or less erratic in its action, and unless it is well made results cannot
+be expected.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 129]
+
+There are probably few sports more interesting than that of model
+power-boat racing. The Central Park Model Yacht Club of New York city is
+one of the most progressive clubs in America, and its members not only
+have a sail-boat division, but they also have a power-boat division. The
+members of the power-boat section have races regularly once a week, and
+the most lively competition is shown. It is indeed amusing to watch
+these little high-speed boats dash across the pond, their bows high in
+the air and their little engines snorting frantically. Owing to the
+difficulty of keeping these small racing boats in a straight line, they
+are tied to a wire or heavy cord and allowed to race around a pole
+anchored in the center of the pond, as illustrated in Fig. 129. The top
+of the pole should be provided with a ball-bearing arranged so that the
+cord to which the boat is fastened will not wind around the post. In
+this way the boats are caused to travel in a circle, and as the cord to
+which they are fastened represents the radius of the circle, the
+circumference can readily be found by multiplying the radius by 2,
+which will give the diameter. The diameter is then multiplied by 3.1416
+to obtain the circumference. If the boats were permitted to travel wild
+they would run into the bank, a fatal procedure when they are running at
+high speed.
+
+Speed boat hulls are usually of the hydroplane or sea-sled type. This
+type of hull is extremely easy to make. Such a hull is shown in Fig.
+130. It will be seen that it has an aluminum bottom. The propeller and
+propeller strut will be noticed in this illustration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 130]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 131]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 132]
+
+The drawing for the particular hull shown in Fig. 130 is given in Fig.
+131. First the two side pieces are cut out to the shape shown. In this
+particular instance the over-all length of the sides is 39-1/3 inches.
+This is called a meter boat, and is built with this length to conform
+with the English racing rules. Next a bow piece is cut out, and this is
+produced from solid wood. Only two materials are used in the
+construction of this hull, aluminum and mahogany. Square mahogany strips
+are cut out and fastened inside of the side pieces by means of shellac
+and 3/8-inch brass brads. The bottom of the hull is made of 22-gage
+sheet aluminum. This is fastened to the square mahogany strips, since
+the sides of the boat are entirely too thin for this purpose. The method
+of fastening the strips of aluminum will be made evident by referring to
+Fig. 132. The aluminum bottom does not run completely over the bow
+piece, but merely overlaps it sufficiently to be fastened by brass
+brads, as illustrated in Fig. 135. The single step in the bottom of the
+boat is fastened by a mahogany strip, through which the stern-tube runs
+and the water-scoop. The back of the boat is made up of mahogany. A
+small aluminum hood is bent to shape, and this is fastened to the bow of
+the boat and prevents the boat from shipping water.
+
+In building a hull of this nature the mechanic should exercise care to
+see that it is in perfect balance, and that the sides are finished and
+varnished as smoothly as possible. This will cut down both air and water
+resistance. The position of the propeller strut and stern-tube will be
+seen by referring to the drawing of the hull in Fig. 131.
+
+The propeller of a high-speed boat is of a high pitch and generally of
+the two-blade type. It should be at least 3 inches in diameter and with
+a pitch of about 10 inches. By this it is meant that the propeller
+theoretically should advance 10 inches through the water for one
+revolution. The rudder is generally fastened in one position, in case
+the boat is not used on a string and pole. It will be found advisable,
+however, always to run the boat in this way, and in such cases the
+rudder can be entirely dispensed with.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 133]
+
+The boiler of a flash steam plant is extremely simple. Such a boiler is
+shown in Fig. 133. It consists merely of a coil of copper or Shelby
+steel tubing with an internal diameter of 1/4 inch. The boiler coils
+should be wound around a circular form of wood about 2-3/4 inches in
+diameter. In the case of copper it will not be found very difficult to
+do this, providing the copper is heated before being wound on the wooden
+form. If the copper is heated it is advisable to wind the wood with a
+layer of sheet asbestos before the copper tube is wound on. It is almost
+necessary to do this winding with a lathe, but if the mechanic does not
+have access to such a tool he may have to find other means of doing it,
+or possibly he can take it to a local machine shop and have the work
+done for a few cents. The boiler coil should be wound about 9 inches
+long.
+
+A casing of Russian sheet iron is made to slip over the boiler, leaving
+sufficient space between. Ventilating holes or slots are cut in the
+cover to permit of a free circulation of air. The boiler covering is
+also provided with a funnel through which the exhaust gases from the
+blow-lamp pass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 134]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 135]
+
+The blow-lamp used operates on the same principle as the ordinary
+blow-torch. The details of such a lamp are given in Fig. 134, and a
+finished torch is shown in Fig. 135. Instead of making the valves
+necessary for the blow-torch, it is advisable to purchase them, for they
+are very difficult to make accurately. The valve at the back of the
+torch regulates the gasolene supply that passes through the nipple. The
+hole in the nipple should be about twenty thousandths of an inch. Owing
+to the fact that the copper coil wound about the burner is short, the
+tube can be filled with molten resin before it is bent. In this way the
+tube will not kink or lose its shape while being wound. After it is
+wound it is placed in the fire and the molten resin forced out with a
+bicycle-pump. Such a blow-torch produces a tremendous heat and throws a
+hot flame far up into the boiler coils.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+SAILING YACHTS
+
+
+BEFORE attempting to construct model sailing yachts the young worker
+should become thoroughly conversant with the different types of yachts
+and their fittings. In the following pages the author briefly outlines
+the general science of yacht-making and sailing.
+
+Sailing yachts are made in four principal types. There is the cutter
+rig, yawl rig, sloop rig, and the ketch rig. The cutter rig is shown in
+Fig. 136. It consists of four sails so arranged that the top-sail may be
+either removed altogether or replaced by sails of smaller area. In all
+yachts it is necessary to haul the sails up into position by ropes known
+as halyards. The halyards must be led down to the deck. The
+model-builder, however, can dispense with much of the gear used on
+larger boats.
+
+A sloop rig is illustrated in Fig. 137. By studying the drawing the
+worker will see that the sloop rig differs from the cutter rig only in
+that she carries a single sail forward of her mast.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 137]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 136]
+
+The yawl rig (See Fig. 138) is similar to a cutter rig, but has a small
+sail set up on another mast abaft the mainsail. The sheet is led aft to
+a spar that projects beyond the counter. The mast upon which the smaller
+sail is set is known as the mizzenmast. In this rig it will be seen that
+the main boom must be made considerably shorter than was the case in
+the cutter rig. This is done so that it will not follow the mizzenmast
+when it swings from one position to another.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 138]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 139]
+
+The ketch rig differs greatly from the yawl rig. The mizzenmast always
+occupies a position forward of the rudder-post. In the yawl the
+mizzenmast is always stepped aft of the rudder-post. This will be seen
+by referring to the drawings of the two boats. The ketch rig is
+illustrated in Fig. 139.
+
+The prettiest rig of all is the schooner; but, owing to the fact that it
+is difficult to get them to go well to windward unless the hull is
+perfectly rigged, the author has decided not to deal with this type of
+boat. When the reader becomes proficient in building and sailing the
+simpler types described in this book, he may turn his attention to the
+construction and sailing of more complicated types.
+
+
+_Model Yacht Parts_
+
+The submerged portion of a yacht is, as in all other boats, termed the
+hull. The backbone of the hull is called the keelson. Attached to the
+keelson is a piece of lead, which is put in place to give the boat
+stability and power to resist the heeling movement created by the
+wind-pressure upon the sails. This is known as the keel.
+
+Yachts always have an opening in the deck giving access to the interior
+of the hull. These openings are known as hatchways. When sailing in
+rough weather the hatchway is closed by a hatch to prevent the yacht
+from shipping water.
+
+The extreme forward end of a yacht hull is called the stern, while the
+portions forward and aft of the midships section are known as the fore
+and after-body respectively.
+
+[Illustration: A TWIN CYLINDER STEAM ENGINE FOR MODEL MARINE USE
+
+This engine will drive a boat several feet long]
+
+In all yachts a portion of the hull extends out over the water. These
+portions are known as overhangs. The overhang aft is sometimes called
+the counter-stern. The sides of the hull that rise above the deck are
+called bulwarks, and the part of the bulwarks that cross the stern is
+called the taffrail. The taffrail is always pierced with holes to allow
+water to run off the deck quickly, so that the additional weight will
+not in any way affect the course of the boat. It is understood that
+yachts raise great quantities of water upon their decks when traveling
+in rough sea.
+
+The bowsprit is passed through a ring at the top of the stern, and this
+ring is termed the gammon iron. Its end is secured in a socket or
+between a pair of uprights called the bowsprit bits. These are fixed to
+the deck. Metal bars are fixed a short distance above the deck to take
+rings attached to the sheets. This is done so that the sails may swing
+freely from one side of the boat to the other. Metal eyes are screwed
+into the sides to take the shrouds, and are called chain-plates. The eye
+in the stern is called the bobstay plate. In the stern-post are two eyes
+called gudgeons. The rudder is hooked to this by means of two hooks
+called pintles. The bar or lever that is fixed to the top of the
+rudder-post is called a tiller.
+
+[Illustration: A CUP-WINNING MODEL SAIL BOAT
+
+Designed and constructed by the commodore of the Central Park Model
+Yacht Club, New York, N. Y.]
+
+The parts and fittings of a mast follow: the step, the head, the caps,
+crosstrees, truck, topmast, boom, and gaff. The part of the gaff that
+rests on the mast is called the throat; the end of the gaff is called
+the peak. The jib-boom is a term used only in connection with model
+yachts. In larger boats the jib-boom is an extension of the bowsprit.
+The small boom that projects over the stern of a yawl is called the
+bumpkin. The spar is rather a general term applied to practically all
+wooden supports of sails. The spar of a lug-sail is called the yard. It
+is different from a boom or gaff, by reason of its lying against the
+mast instead of having one end butting on the mast. Anything belonging
+to the mainmast should be distinguished by the prefix main. Thus, there
+are the mainsail, the mainboom, main-topsail, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 140]
+
+A sail for a model cutter-rigged yacht is shown in Fig. 140. The
+bowsprit and masts are, when necessary, given support by ropes that are
+stretched tightly to some point where they can be conveniently anchored
+to the hull. The following are those largely used on model yachts:
+topmast stay, bobstay, topmast shrouds, and forestay.
+
+The sails are pulled up and fastened by ropes termed halyards. The
+halyards are fastened to the upper portions of the sail, and they are
+named according to the sail to which they are attached. For instance,
+there is the jib halyard and the foresail halyard. A mainsail carried by
+a gaff has two halyards, the throat and peak. The movement of the sails
+is controlled by ropes, called sheets, which take their names from the
+sails they control. There is a mainsheet, a jibsheet, and a foresheet.
+The reader should take note of this term and refrain from confusing it
+with the sails.
+
+
+_Sailing Model Yachts_
+
+The sailing of model yachts is a real art, and the author warns the
+reader that he cannot hope to become a proficient yachtsman by merely
+digesting the information given in this book. His real knowledge must be
+earned by experience in handling a model yacht on the water. However,
+there are few sports that will afford more pleasure than that of sailing
+model yachts. Being an outdoor sport it is very healthful.
+
+In sailing a model yacht the sails are set, or "trimmed," so that she
+will continue to sail along the course previously decided upon by the
+yachtsman. She must do this in as speedy a manner as possible and with
+as little deviation from her original course as possible. The trim of
+the sails will depend upon the wind. If the boat is to sail against the
+wind, that is termed "beating to windward"; with the wind is called
+"scudding." With the wind sideways it is called "reaching." If the boat
+is sailed with the wind blowing midway between one of the sides and the
+stern in such a way that it sweeps from one side of the stern across the
+deck, this is called "three-quarter sailing" in a "quartering" wind. A
+model yacht will continue for a great distance on a reach or while
+scudding; but, on the other hand, it will not be possible for her to
+sail directly against the wind. If a yachtsman is to make headway
+against the wind, he must sail his boat as near dead against the wind as
+it will go.
+
+The cutter type of yacht will move against a wind that is blowing at a
+very small angle on her bowsprit. As soon as she reaches the limit of
+her course, the yachtsman turns her bow at a small angle so as to bring
+the wind on the opposite side of the vessel, and in this way a second
+course is started. These courses are repeated in a zigzag fashion until
+the yacht arrives at her destination. This zigzagging, or "tacking," as
+it is called, is illustrated in Fig. 141. It will be seen that the yacht
+starts at _B_, and makes 3 tacks before she arrives at her destination,
+_A_. Each time she touches the shore she is "put about" and set upon a
+new course, or "tack."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 141]
+
+It will be understood that tacking is slow work, and a greater distance
+must be traveled than would be covered by a power-boat, which would be
+able to go in a straight line. However, with wind-propelled craft this
+is the only way in which progress can be made against the wind. The
+left-hand side of a yacht viewed from the stern is called the port side,
+while the right-hand side is called the starboard side. Thus a yacht
+sailing with the wind blowing on her port side is on the port tack,
+while if the wind is blowing on the starboard side she is said to be on
+the starboard tack. From this the reader will see that Fig. 142 shows an
+impossible case.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 142]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 143]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 144]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 145]
+
+The sails in front of the mast that are placed nearest the stern of the
+yacht act in such a manner as to turn the bows in the direction of the
+arrow, as illustrated in Fig. 146, and the sail or sails abaft the mast
+turn the boat in the direction of the arrow _A_. The boat thus revolves
+upon the center of the mast much as a weathercock revolves upon its
+pivot. If there is more than one mast, all the sails carried abaft the
+mainmast serve to turn the boat in the direction _A_. The work of
+sailing depends greatly upon the skill in balancing these two effects so
+that the boat will progress in a straight line. To do this the sails are
+set in a greater or less angle in relation to the center line of the
+boat. The less the angle that a sail makes with the center line of the
+boat, the greater is its power to determine in which direction the boat
+will steer. The more the yachtsman slackens out his jib and foresail, or
+the smaller he makes these sails, the less their power will be to turn
+the boat in the direction _B_. On the other hand, the larger they are
+and the more tightly they are pulled in, the greater will be their
+power. When the mainsail and all of the sails abaft the mainsail are
+slackened out and the smaller they are made, the less their power will
+be to swing the boat in the direction _A_.
+
+The influence of a sail upon the speed of a boat also increases with the
+angle that it makes with the center line of the hull. The more the
+yachtsman slackens out his sail, the more it will help the boat along.
+The reader will see that these two conditions interfere with each other,
+and therefore the trimming of the sails becomes a compromise. It is good
+for the young yachtsman to remember to sail his boat with the sails as
+slack as possible, as long as she keeps a good course. He should also
+remember not to overload her with sails, since the nearer to an upright
+position she maintains the faster she will go.
+
+It is not possible to depend entirely upon the trim of the sails to keep
+a model in a given course. This is because the strength of the wind
+varies so that the sails are in balance one moment and out of balance
+the next. The sails abaft the mainmast overpower the sails before it
+when the wind increases. The result of this is that the bow of the boat
+will be repeatedly turned in the direction _A_, Fig. 146.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 146]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 147]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 148]
+
+Some form of automatic rudder is therefore generally used to overcome
+this tendency of the yacht to "luff" in the wind. Fig. 147 shows the
+course of a yacht reaching from _A_ to _B_. The dotted lines show the
+course she should follow. The full line shows the effect of puffs of
+wind, which repeatedly take her out of her course. Many times she may
+completely turn around and make a similar course back to the
+starting-point, as in Fig. 148. There is also the danger of her being
+taken back when pointing directly against the wind--the wind will force
+her backward stern first for some distance, as illustrated in Fig. 149.
+She will do this until she manages to get around on one tack or the
+other.
+
+The dotted line _B_ illustrates the course in which she would be driven
+under these conditions. It is not practical to sail a model yacht dead
+before the wind without an automatic rudder. With the use of an
+automatic rudder the erratic movements shown in Fig. 148 can be entirely
+overcome. The action of the rudder is such that every time the boat
+leans over to luff up into the wind, the weight of the rudder causes it
+to swing out, and thus prevents her from losing her course. As a
+different type of rudder is required, according to the course in which
+the yacht is sailing, the weight should be adjustable if the same rudder
+is used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 149]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 150]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 152]
+
+Let us consider scudding before the wind. For scudding the heaviest
+rudder should be used, or the weight on a loaded tiller should be in its
+position of maximum power. All the sails abaft the foremast should be
+slackened out as far as they will go, which will bring the booms almost
+at right angles with the center line of the boat. If the craft is a
+cutter or yawl with a light weight, the yachtsman should rig the
+spinnaker. The head-sails may be left slack or can be tightened. Fig.
+150 shows the position of the booms when scudding with a schooner and
+yawl. The yawl is shown scudding goose winged. The cutter is illustrated
+with the spinnaker set. The other craft is a two-mast lugger with
+balanced lugs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 151]
+
+Attention is now directed to "reaching." For this particular work the
+yachtsman should put on a medium rudder. When using a weighted tiller
+the weight should be put in a midway position. The head-sails should be
+pulled in fairly tight and the aft-sails made slack. The yachtsman,
+however, should not slacken them as for scudding. Fig. 151 shows a
+schooner reaching. The thick black lines represent the booms of the
+sails. If the wind is very light a spinnaker-jib may be set or a
+jib-topsail in light or moderate breezes. In the case of a wind that
+comes over the stern quarter, as indicated by the arrow _A_, the next
+heavier rudder, or its equivalent in weighted tiller, should be put in
+operation, and the sails slackened out a little more than before. The
+boat is then said to be free and sailing on the starboard tack. If the
+wind is coming in the direction _B_ the jib and foresail may require
+slackening and the aft sails pulled in more than when sailing with the
+wind in the direction _C_. A still lighter rudder can be used as the
+course gets near to beating windward, and the yacht is said to be
+close-hauled on the starboard tack.
+
+In beating to windward, if a rudder is used at all, it should be as
+light as possible, just heavy enough to keep the boat steady. However,
+this is just the condition of sailing when a boat can dispense with a
+rudder. It depends entirely upon the characteristics of the particular
+yacht being sailed, and for this the yachtsman must depend upon his own
+experience. The jib-topsail should not be used in a case like this, and
+if the wind is fairly strong a smaller jib should be set than that used
+for reaching. It is advisable to slacken the jib and foresail out and
+pull the aft-sails in somewhat tightly. Fig. 152 shows a cutter beating
+to windward on a port tack. In this case she will have to pay out to
+starboard a bit before her sails fill.
+
+In sailing the weather must be watched very closely, and the amount of
+sail carried will depend entirely upon the weather conditions. A yacht
+should never be overloaded with sail. If she has more than she can
+comfortably carry she will heel over and drag her sails in the water.
+Not only this, but she will also drift to leeward when beating to
+windward. When sailing a new boat, her best trim for various points of
+sailing and force of wind must be found by painstaking experiments. The
+boat should always be sailed with her sails as slack as she will take
+them and keep in her course. In this way she will move faster than when
+the sails are pulled in close.
+
+The model yachtsman should always watch the wind and note whether it
+shifts its direction or alters its force. The boat is trimmed
+accordingly when the boat is put about. Easing or tightening the jib or
+main-sheet slightly will make a very noticeable difference.
+
+By taking down the top-sail or setting a jib-head top-sail in place of a
+jack yard top-sail, the yacht will be caused to ride easier in puffs of
+wind. In case she does not point well to windward when beating, the
+yachtsman should try a smaller jib, or he can slacken the
+foresail-sheet. If she runs off regularly to leeward on one tack only,
+while keeping well to windward on the other, she has some defect in
+construction or a bent keel.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+TWO-FOOT SAILING YACHT
+
+
+THE model yacht described in this Chapter is the design of Mr. W. J.
+Daniels, of England, and was described by him in "Junior Mechanics." Mr.
+Daniels is one of the best known and most successful English designers
+of model yachts, and the one here described can easily be constructed by
+the average boy:
+
+          In order that the reader may realize the obstacles
+          to be surmounted in designing a model yacht that
+          will sail in a straight line to windward,
+          irrespective of the different pressure that the
+          wind may expend on the sails, it must be pointed
+          out that the boat is continuously altering the
+          shape of the submerged part of her hull:
+          therefore, unless the hull is so designed that
+          harmony is retained at every angle to which the
+          pressure of wind on the sails may heel it, the
+          model's path through the water will be, more or
+          less, an arc of a circle. Whether the boat sails
+          toward the wind, or, in other words, in a curve
+          the center of the circle of which is on the same
+          side of the boat as the wind, or in a curve the
+          center of the circle of which is on the opposite
+          or leeward side, will depend upon the formation of
+          the boat.
+
+          As these notes are intended to first initiate the
+          reader into the subject of model yacht building
+          and construction, the design supplied is one in
+          which all things, as far as shape is concerned,
+          have been considered.
+
+          It is the endeavor of every designer to produce
+          the most powerful boat possible for a given
+          length--that is, one that can hold her sail up in
+          resistance to the wind-pressure best. Of course,
+          the reader will easily realize that breadth and
+          weight of keel will be the main features that will
+          enable the model to achieve this object; but, as
+          these two factors are those that tend to make a
+          design less slender, if pushed to extremes, the
+          designer has to compromise at a point when the
+          excess of beam and buoyancy are detrimental to the
+          speed lines of the hull.
+
+          But the question of design pure and simple is a
+          complex one, and we do not intend to weary the
+          reader just now with anything of that kind, so we
+          will now proceed to build the hull. In order that
+          we may correctly interpret the shape shown in the
+          design without being expert woodcarvers, we must
+          use our ingenuity and by mechanical means achieve
+          our object, at the same time saving ourselves a
+          large amount of labor, such as we should have to
+          expend if we made this boat from a solid block of
+          wood.
+
+          Now, as regards understanding the drawings: it is
+          essential to remember that a line which in one
+          view is a curve is always a straight line in the
+          other two views. Those lines which are drawn
+          parallel to the water-line are known as
+          water-lines, and it will be seen that the curves
+          shown on the deck plan represent the actual shapes
+          of the hull at the corresponding water-lines
+          above, below, and exactly on the load water-line.
+          In other words, if after the hull is made it were
+          sunk down to these various levels, the shapes of
+          the hole made in the surface of the water would be
+          as shown in the plan.
+
+          Therefore, instead of making our boat from a solid
+          block of wood, we will make our block up from
+          several layers, the thickness of each layer being
+          equal to the space between the water-lines; but
+          before gluing these layers together we will cut
+          them out to the exact shape that the boat will be
+          at their various positions.
+
+          It will not be necessary to have a separate piece
+          of wood for each layer, as some layers below the
+          actual water-line will be cut from the pieces of
+          wood that have been cut out from the layers above.
+
+          In this case, the boat being 24 inches long, the
+          top layer will be the same length and breadth as
+          the boat, and 1 inch in thickness.
+
+          Draw down the center of the board a straight
+          line, and other lines square to it, representing
+          the position of the cross-sections as shown in the
+          drawing. You have now to transfer the deck line to
+          this board, and this is done by marking the
+          breadth at the various sections and drawing a
+          curve through the spots, a thin strip of
+          straight-grained wood being used as a rule, the
+          latter being held down by such weights as are
+          available. For the purpose of laying off the
+          water-lines truly, lines spaced at 1-1/2 inches
+          are shown; the first, it will be noticed, is half
+          a section or 3/4 inch from the stem head.
+
+          The material required will be a board of pine
+          about 6 feet long, 8 inches wide, and 1 inch
+          finished thickness.
+
+          Nearly all wood-yards stock first-quality pine,
+          but it is in planks 3 inches thick. You can no
+          doubt pick up a short length about 4 feet long.
+
+          If so, take it to a sawmill and have two boards
+          1-1/4 inches thick cut and then machine-planed
+          down to a dead inch. Perhaps you can purchase a
+          board that is already cut, and is fully 1 inch
+          thick, to allow for planing.
+
+          Prepare one edge of the board straight with a
+          plane, seeing that it is square to the surface.
+
+          As a planing-machine always leaves a series of
+          ridges across the board, varying according to the
+          quality of the machine, it is necessary before
+          transferring the lines to the wood to just skim
+          the surface with a nicely sharpened plane, and set
+          so as to just skim the wood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 153]
+
+
+          The lengths required are: _A_, plank 24 inches
+          long; _B_, plank 24 inches; _C_, plank 18-1/2
+          inches.
+
+          The _D_ plank will be cut from the center of _B_,
+          but will have to be shifted two sections forward.
+
+          Having transferred the various shapes from the
+          drawing on to their respective layers, you saw out
+          each carefully with a bow or a keyhole-saw, care
+          being taken not to cut inside the lines. It is
+          better to cut full, and trim down to the lines
+          with a chisel or plane. A good deal of trouble can
+          be saved by the expenditure of a few cents for
+          having them machine-sawed, in which case ask the
+          sawyer to use his finest-toothed saw.
+
+          Having cut out layers _A_, _B_, _C_, and _D_,
+          fresh lines are marked, as shown by the dotted
+          lines in the plan. These indicate the shape of the
+          inside of each layer when the boat is carved out,
+          and save labor.
+
+          These may as well be sawed out now as carved out
+          later. It will also facilitate gluing up, as it
+          will allow the superfluous glue to be squeezed
+          out, and also decrease the breadth of the joint.
+
+          In order to get these various layers glued
+          together dead true to their positions as indicated
+          in the design, you must choose a section about
+          amidships, say section 11, and with a square draw
+          a line from that section, which is, of course,
+          still showing on the surface of the layer, down
+          the edge on either side, joining up with a line
+          across the opposite face. Also vertical lines at
+          each end of the midships line must be drawn on
+          the wood, great care being taken to get the
+          midships line on the under face of the layers dead
+          opposite each other.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 154]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 155]
+
+          If your outfit contains half a dozen carpenter's
+          hand screws, these can be used; but if not, it
+          will be necessary to purchase from a hardware
+          store eight seven-inch bolts and nuts 3/8 inch in
+          diameter, with one washer for each, and to make up
+          four clamps, as shown in Fig. 156.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 156]
+
+          You will start by gluing layer _C_ to layer _D_,
+          blocks being placed between the surface of the
+          layers and the clamps to prevent bruising the
+          wood. These two are then glued to layer _B_, and
+          when this is thoroughly set they are glued to the
+          layer _A_. The best glue to use for this job is
+          marine glue, which does not dry too quickly, and
+          so gives plenty of time to see that the layers
+          have not shifted. In every case one clamp should
+          be placed at each extreme end of the shorter
+          layer, so as to insure the ends making contact,
+          the other two being placed equidistant.
+
+          While waiting for the glue to set, you can be
+          preparing the four layers (shown below _D_) for
+          the lead keel pattern. The lines must be cut out,
+          in this case, with a chisel, as it will be noticed
+          that the lower faces must be left wide enough to
+          receive the top face of the layer beneath it.
+
+          It will be noticed that the under face of each of
+          these layers extends beyond the top face aft, and
+          allowance must be made for this. On laying off the
+          lines on the fin layers, do not join up with a
+          point each end, but leave about 1/8 inch
+          thickness, as shown on the drawing.
+
+          These layers must be drilled through to take the
+          keel-bolts, which are made from two motorcycle
+          spokes, twelve-gage. These should be cut to a
+          length of 5-1/2 or 6 inches. Great care should be
+          taken to insure that the midship lines are exactly
+          vertical over each other when these layers are
+          glued up.
+
+          Before gluing these four layers on to the hull
+          proper, they should be held in position by means
+          of the spokes, in which position they can be sawed
+          to shape for the keel pattern. First, with a small
+          plane or sharp chisel cut down roughly, then a
+          rasp and different grades of sandpaper are used,
+          working across the joints.
+
+          It will be realized that, if the pattern for the
+          keel were cut off dead on the line indicated on
+          the design, there would be a loss of wood through
+          the saw cut. In order to obviate this, another
+          line 3/16 inch below the proper lead line is
+          drawn, and the saw cut made between these two
+          lines. You will now plane down each face that is
+          left rough by the saw, straight and square to each
+          of these lines. On the top face of the pattern
+          for the lead, glue or tack a piece 3/16 inch thick
+          along the face, and cut down the edges flush.
+
+          You will by this means have made up for the amount
+          of wood carried away by the saw. You will no doubt
+          find a difficulty in holding the pieces of wood
+          for planing in the ordinary way, but it is simple
+          enough if you set the plane nicely, grip it in a
+          vise or bench screw upside down, and push the work
+          over the plane's face, instead of vice versa. But
+          be careful of your fingers!
+
+          Take the pieces left from the spokes when cutting
+          down to length, and put these in the holes in the
+          keel pattern. These are for cores, and if you take
+          your pattern to a foundry they will cast it for a
+          small amount, with the holes in it.
+
+          Shoot the top face of the lead in the manner
+          before described, and fit on. The hull is now
+          ready for carving out. Screw on your bench two
+          pieces of wood about 18 inches in length and 4
+          inches wide, so that they project over the edge of
+          the bench about 10 inches. These should be about
+          15 inches apart. Place your hull upside down on
+          them, and fix it by nailing upward into the top
+          layer. After cutting off the corners of the layers
+          roughly with a chisel you use a small plane set
+          fairly fine, and work all over the hull evenly,
+          taking care not to cut below any of the joints. A
+          small gouge will be required to clear the wood
+          from the region of the after fin, a round
+          rasp--sandpaper being wrapped around a small
+          stick--being used for smoothing down afterward.
+
+          Templates of the cross-sections should now be made
+          from thick white paper. This is done by pricking
+          through the design to transfer their shape onto
+          the paper. The cross-sections have on this account
+          been produced here actual size. If cross-lines
+          representing the water-lines are drawn, you will
+          have an excellent guide for fitting, as these
+          lines will, of course, come opposite each glued
+          joint.
+
+          Try your templates now and again as you work, and
+          do not try to finish one spot, but keep the whole
+          at an even stage, and you will see the hull
+          gradually grow into shape.
+
+          The topsides (which is the name given to that part
+          of the vessel's hull above the water-line) are
+          responsible for the boat's appearance when afloat,
+          and until the top sheer is cut off the boat looks
+          very disappointing. The cross-lines being still on
+          the upper layer, draw square lines from them down
+          the topsides and from the drawing mark the points
+          through which the sheer-line runs. The thickness
+          of the deck must be allowed for, and as this will
+          be just over 1/16 inch, the line must be drawn
+          this much below the finished sheer-line. The arch
+          of the transom must be marked, and the hull cut
+          down to the sheer. To avoid the risk of splitting,
+          a number of fine saw cuts are made down each
+          section line and two or three at the transom.
+
+          You now proceed to carve out the inside. Pad your
+          bench bearers and rest your hull upon them. A
+          curved wood gouge with a fairly flat edge is the
+          best tool. Get it nicely sharpened, and work all
+          over the inside of hull until it is about 3/16
+          inch thick, the top edge being left 3/8 inch wide.
+
+          Keep holding up to the light until it is showing a
+          blood-red color, and smooth down the gouge marks
+          with coarse sandpaper.
+
+          The hole for the stern-tube must now be drilled,
+          and the tube made and fitted. The hole should be
+          1/4 inch in diameter. First drill a smaller hole,
+          and then with a 1/4-inch rat-tail file slowly open
+          it out, at the same time rubbing a groove down the
+          stern-post. The stern-tube is made from a piece of
+          light-gage brass tube, it being cut away with a
+          piercing saw to leave a strip the length of the
+          stern-post. Drill three holes in the strip at
+          equal distance and large enough to take a 1/4 inch
+          brass screw, No. 0 size. Temporarily screw the
+          tube in position, and from a piece of thin brass
+          make a plate for the inside. An oval hole will
+          have to be made in the plate to enable it to seat
+          flat over the tube. Solder this while in position.
+          Then remove the whole, and replace, after
+          white-leading where wood touches brass.
+
+          The deck-beams, three in number and 1/4 inch
+          square in section, must now be fitted. The sheer
+          edge which we left 3/8 inch wide must be recessed
+          to receive the beams, the recess being made with a
+          1/4-inch chisel.
+
+          Before gluing beams in, three coats of good
+          varnish must be applied to the inside of shell.
+
+          The deck should now be prepared and fitted. You
+          will require a piece of pine of ample length and
+          breadth, 1/8 inch in thickness, and after planing
+          finely and sand-papering, pieces of the same stuff
+          should be glued on the under face to reinforce it
+          where the bowsprit, keel-plate, hatch rim, and
+          mast will be fitted. Cut these pieces to shape
+          before gluing on.
+
+          Before doing the latter, apply a coat of clear
+          size to the upper face of the deck; this will
+          bring up the grain, so paper it down when dry.
+          This process should be repeated three times.
+
+          Three coats of varnish should be given to the
+          under side of the deck after the pieces have been
+          glued on, and when dry the deck can be fitted,
+          3/8-inch veneer pins being used for fixing on, and
+          care being taken to get it true to position. A
+          center line is drawn down the under side of the
+          deck, and marks made to correspond at the stern
+          and transom on the shell.
+
+          The planking lines on the deck can be drawn to
+          suit your fancy, India ink and a draftsman's
+          ruling pen being used to do it, afterward applying
+          two coats of carriage varnish.
+
+          To paint the hull, white lead and dryers, in the
+          proportion of 5 to 1 by weight respectively,
+          should be dissolved in turpentine, a few drops of
+          linseed oil being mixed to make it work freely.
+          Have this about the consistency of milk, and,
+          after straining, give the hull about eight coats,
+          one every twenty-four hours, rubbing each down
+          when dry with No. 00 sandpaper. Keep the joint
+          representing the load water-line always in sight
+          by penciling over after each coat of paint is dry.
+          When a sufficient body of paint has been applied,
+          the colors can be applied. Enamel is best for
+          this. Stick strips of gummed paper around the hull
+          at the water-line, and paint up to the edge. When
+          the paint is dry the paper can be soaked off, the
+          paper being again applied, but reversed for the
+          other color. If you can use a lining brush the
+          paper is not necessary for the second color.
+
+          While the painting is going on, spars, sails, and
+          fittings can be made. As the spars have to be
+          varnished, it is best to make them first. Pine
+          should be used, and after cutting strips of
+          suitable length and diameter, plane them square in
+          section. With the batten draw on the face the
+          amount of taper to be given, and plane down to
+          this line, still keeping the spar square in
+          section. This having been done, the corners are
+          planed off carefully until the spar is octagonal
+          in section, when it is easy to make it perfectly
+          round with sandpaper by rubbing with the paper
+          rolled around the stick. The diameter of our mast
+          is 1/2 inch parallel until the hoist of the fore
+          triangle is reached, tapering from there to 1/4
+          inch at the masthead or truck. The boom is 1/4
+          inch at the gooseneck, thickening to 3/8 inch
+          where the main-sheet is attached, down to 1/4
+          inch at the outboard end. The jib-boom is slightly
+          less than 1/4 inch parallel.
+
+          All spars should be treated with clear size and
+          fine sandpaper before varnishing. This will
+          prevent discoloring by the latter, and will also
+          allow the India ink markings to be made, which
+          latter will be a guide for the trimming of the
+          sails.
+
+          In order that any yacht, model or otherwise, may
+          be able to perform her best, it is essential that
+          she should have well setting sails. In fact, in a
+          model a badly setting sail will sometimes even be
+          enough to prevent her going to windward at all. By
+          well setting sails we mean sails that are
+          naturally flat and not made so by straining them
+          out on the spars. Light material, such as cambric
+          or light union silk, is best for this purpose, but
+          not a material that has any dressing in it.
+
+          This particular sail plan is very easy to mark
+          out. Lay your material out on a table or smooth
+          surface and pin it down with drawing-pins,
+          sufficiently stretching it so as to pull out any
+          creases. The length of the back edge of the
+          mainsail (which is called the leech) is measured
+          off 1-1/4 inches inside the edge of the cloth, and
+          a curve struck as illustrated. The other two sides
+          of the mainsail are then laid off and pencil lines
+          drawn. You will note that allowance must be made
+          for hemming the back edge of the mainsail. If your
+          sewing-machine has a hemmer, find out how wide a
+          hem it makes (the smaller the better), and make
+          allowance accordingly, twice the width of the hem
+          being necessary. Much depends upon the tension at
+          which the machine is set, so be careful that the
+          latter is sufficiently slack so that it does not
+          draw up the material.
+
+          The jib is marked out in the same manner, and, as
+          illustrated, the lines representing the positions
+          of the batten sleeves are drawn. The batten
+          sleeves are small pockets into which thin pieces
+          of cane (called battens) are inserted to help the
+          sail to set nicely. Unless the sail is a good cut
+          to begin with, however, the insertion of these
+          battens will never make it right. The sails should
+          now be cut out with a sharp penknife or scissors,
+          care being taken not to pull the cloth, and
+          especially not along the edges that run across the
+          threads. You then hem the backs and also the foot
+          of the jib. The batten sleeves (which should be of
+          white satin ribbon about 3/8 inch in width) should
+          now be sewn on by stitching down along the extreme
+          edge to the line drawn, and then down the other
+          edge, the ends being left open. A strip of narrow
+          tape is sewn across the foot of the jib-sail to
+          take the strain of the pull, the part of the jib
+          contained by the curve of the foot and the tape
+          being known as the bonnet of the jib.
+
+          To prevent the edges of the sails (other than
+          those hemmed) being stretched, you bind them with
+          good tape. The tape is first folded and creased
+          by rubbing over an edge. The end of the tape is
+          then turned in. Take a corner of the sail and
+          place it inside the fold of the tape, care being
+          taken to get the raw edge right up against the
+          crease. The needle of the machine should then be
+          lowered through it as near to the edge of the tape
+          as practicable, taking care that it goes through
+          both edges. Keeping a slight pull on the binding,
+          arrange the cloth in it without pulling the edge.
+          Put the foot of the machine down and sew it,
+          afterward raising the foot again and proceeding as
+          before right around the raw edges of the sail,
+          leaving the needle down each time the foot is
+          raised. Do not sew where a batten sleeve passes
+          under the binding, as you will require the former
+          left open to allow the batten to pass into the
+          fold of the binding. The rings for putting up the
+          luffs of the jib- and main-sail are made by
+          winding a piece of thin brass or German silver
+          wire around a steel rod (the spokes used in the
+          keel being suitable for the latter) and sawing
+          down to divide them. A small eyelet should be put
+          in each corner of the sails, and others spaced
+          evenly at about 2-1/2 inches apart along the boom
+          and about 5 inches apart along the mast, for
+          lacing on. An extra row of stitching may be run
+          down the outer edge of the binding to smooth it
+          down.
+
+          The simpler the fittings of a model that is
+          required for practical sailing, the better. They
+          should be as light as practical. Aluminum is not
+          advisable for fittings when the boat is to be
+          sailed in salt water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 157]
+
+          The bowsprit fittings, which are known as the
+          gammon iron and heel plate (Figs. 157, 158), are
+          made by soldering pieces of brass tube (cut to
+          suitable size and shape) onto pieces of triangular
+          sheet brass, as illustrated. The horses can either
+          be of wire with the ends turned to suitable shape
+          and fitted with one screw, or they can have plates
+          for two screws, in which case the wire is either
+          threaded and screwed into the plate or
+          silver-soldered to it. Silver-soldering is done
+          with a blow-pipe. The flux used is borax made into
+          a thin paste with water. Silver-solder is bought
+          in small sheets, and a few cents' worth will go a
+          long way if used properly. Cut small pieces about
+          1/8 inch by 1/16 inch, and, after painting the
+          part to be soldered with your paste borax with a
+          very small brush, pick up the solder with the tip
+          of the brush and put it in position. It will then
+          run around the joint when the metal is raised to
+          sufficient heat.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 158]
+
+          The hatch-rim is made by cutting a strip of thin
+          brass 1/4 inch in width, the length being the
+          circumference of the oval. The two ends are
+          brought together and silver-soldered. Cut out the
+          oval in a piece of very thin brass and fit in your
+          oval strip so that the flat is just in the center
+          of it. This can then be sweated around with an
+          ordinary soldering-iron, the flat being trimmed
+          down afterward with the shears to leave a flange
+          1/4 inch in width, the latter being drilled to
+          take 1/4 inch No. 0 round-head screws.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 159]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 160]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 161]
+
+          The deck fitting for the mast, (Fig. 159) is made
+          in much the same way, a piece of tube being used
+          instead of cutting a strip of brass. To receive
+          the heel of the mast a fitting known as the
+          mast-step must be made and fitted. This, of
+          course, must be done before the deck is put on.
+          The step is made from two pieces of brass, each
+          about 1/32 inch in thickness, 1 inch long and 1/2
+          inch wide. One is hard-soldered on edge down the
+          center of the other to form something like a T
+          girder. A slot, as illustrated, is cut in the
+          upright piece with a ward file, and holes drilled
+          in the flat for screwing down on the inside of the
+          boat. A ferrule of brass tube is fitted to the
+          heel of the mast, a cut of suitable size being
+          made in it to receive the upright of the step. A
+          hole should be drilled through the heel of the
+          mast at right angles to the slot, and a wire
+          passed through and riveted, the latter being of
+          suitable thickness to be received by the slot in
+          the step.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 164]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 163]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 162]
+
+          The rudder-blade (Fig. 162) is made from a piece
+          of sheet brass fitted to a tube, the latter being
+          an easy fit into the stern-tube already fitted.
+          The blade can be soldered onto the tube. The
+          pintle on which the rudder fits and swings is a
+          strip of brass, the width of the after fin, a wire
+          pin being hard-soldered in to fit up into the
+          rudder.
+
+          The pintle (Fig. 163) should be fitted before the
+          painting is started.
+
+          In the steering gear, instead of a quadrant, as
+          the fitting on the rudder-head of the "Braine"
+          gear is called, you fit an ordinary tiller (Fig.
+          164) by bending a wire to suit your fancy and
+          soldering it on to a collar made from a piece of
+          tube that will just sleeve on the outside of the
+          rubber-tube, which latter is fixed by drilling a
+          hole right through it and the rudder head, and
+          fitting a tapered pin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 165]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 166]
+
+          The steering-gear rack (Fig. 165) by which the
+          amount of helm is adjusted is made from a strip of
+          brass cut with lugs which are bent up at right
+          angles as illustrated. This need only be of thin
+          sheet metal, as the strain is very small.
+
+          For running before the wind, separate lines are
+          used, two in number, as illustrated, and the
+          amount of helm is governed by the distance away
+          from midships that the lead is moved. For
+          instance, if the lead is placed amidships, the
+          pull will simply keep the rudder dead straight,
+          whereas if placed on the deck edge it will allow
+          the maximum amount of angle.
+
+          Your bowsers can be made from pieces of toothbrush
+          handle or from brass or German-silver wire. Very
+          efficient bowsers can be made from aluminum tube
+          cut in sections about 3/16 inch long, with three
+          holes drilled in each piece around its periphery.
+
+          Plaited bobbin cotton should be used for the
+          cordage, as it does not curl up when wet.
+
+          If you decide to fit the Braine steering gear, a
+          spur or bumpkin, as it is termed, must be fitted
+          to take the rubber centering line.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+BOYS' DICTIONARY OF MARINE TERMS
+
+
+        =Abaft.= Behind; toward the stern.
+
+        =Abeam.= At right angles to the side and in
+          horizontal plane.
+
+        =Aft.= Toward the stern.
+
+        =After-body.= Between amidships and stern.
+
+        =Aloft.= Overhead; on the yards or in the upper
+          rigging.
+
+        =Amidships.= The middle part of a vessel.
+
+        =Anchor.= Instrument for holding vessels at rest
+          in the water. Made of iron.
+
+        =Athwart. Athwartships.= Across; from side to
+          side.
+
+        =Ballast.= Material used to load the ship, for
+          stability or submerging purposes.
+
+        =Barge.= General name for vessels built for
+          towing.
+
+        =Bark.= Three-masted vessel, square-rigged on the
+          fore- and main-masts, and fore-and-aft rigged on
+          the mizzen.
+
+        =Barkentine.= Three-masted vessel, square-rigged
+          on the foremast and fore-and-aft on the main-and
+          mizzen-masts.
+
+        =Beam.= The widest part of a vessel.
+
+        =Bollards.= Posts of timber on sides of docks,
+          quays, etc., over which ropes are thrown for
+          hauling vessels alongside.
+
+        =Boom.= The lower spar for a fore-and-aft sail.
+
+        =Bow.= Sides of fore part of boat: the right hand
+          being the starboard bow, and the left hand the
+          port bow.
+
+        =Bowsprit.= Pole projecting from stem forward, and
+          taking forestays and bobstays.
+
+        =Bridge-house.= House built near bridge.
+
+        =Brig.= Vessel with two masts, both square-rigged
+          but having a gaff mainsail.
+
+        =Buoy.= A floating object moored over a certain
+          spot; generally a warning of danger.
+
+        =Buoyancy.= The capacity for floating which a boat
+          possesses.
+
+        =Cabin.= Room for use of officers and passengers.
+
+        =Capstan.= Consists of a long drum revolving
+          vertically and used for pulling in heavy lines.
+          Sometimes used in connection with windlass to
+          hoist anchor by hand.
+
+          _Center of Gravity._ Center of weight.
+
+        =Coaming.= Raised planking around hatchway of
+          yacht to prevent water shipped in rough weather
+          from getting below decks.
+
+        =Cockpit.= Formerly an apartment under lower
+          gun-deck of warship, used as quarters for junior
+          officers, and during a battle devoted to the
+          surgeon and his assistants.
+
+        =Cockswain.= Person who steers a boat.
+
+        =Compass.= Instrument composed of one or more
+          magnetic needles attached to a circular card which
+          turns freely on the point of a steel cone or
+          floats on a liquid. The upper surface of the card
+          is divided into the 32 points of the compass. Used
+          to find direction.
+
+        =Craft.= Usually denotes small size vessel, but
+          may be applied to any kind.
+
+        =Crane.= Machine for hoisting and moving heavy
+          equipment and material.
+
+        =Cruiser.= Boat intended for extended voyages.
+          Used in connection with yachts, to distinguish
+          from racing models.
+
+        =Davit.= Light crane on side of ship for lowering
+          and lifting boats. Sometimes applied to projecting
+          beam over which anchor is hoisted.
+
+        =Displacement.= Weight of ship and all on board
+          when at sea. It is equal to the weight of the
+          water displaced.
+
+        =Dock.= An excavation of large area for reception
+          of vessels. Wet-dock for loading and unloading or
+          dry-dock for building and repairing vessels.
+
+        =Dock-yard.= A place where ships are built and
+          repaired.
+
+        =Funnel.= Large sheet-iron tube extending from the
+          uptake high above the deck, through which smoke
+          and gases pass.
+
+        =Galley.= The kitchen of a vessel.
+
+        =Gangway.= Sides of upper deck from main-mast to
+          mizzen-mast, or from the former to the break of a
+          poop or raised quarter-deck; also a passage for
+          entering or leaving vessel.
+
+        =Gross tonnage.= Entire cubical capacity of ship,
+          including every inclosed space and all room under
+          deck from stem to stern-post, if closed in and
+          usable.
+
+        =Gunwale, gunnel.= Upper part of sheer-strake,
+          where it comes in contact with upper deck
+          stringer.
+
+        =Headlights.= Lights carried at the masthead.
+
+        =Head of the bowsprit.= The forward end.
+
+        =Hull.= The entire structure of a vessel,
+          exclusive of equipment.
+
+        =Inboard.= Within the ship.
+
+        =Inner skin.= Planking or plating covering the
+          inside of frames.
+
+        =Jack.= Name given to various sails, ropes, etc.
+
+
+        =Jib.= Triangular sail carried on a stay reaching
+          from the foremast head or from topmast to the
+          jib-boom.
+
+        =Keel.= Backbone of a vessel in wooden ships.
+          Composed of great lengths of timber connected to
+          each other by scarfs. In steel ships usually a set
+          of plates from stem to stern.
+
+        =Even keel, uneven keel.= Designates the manner in
+          which ship floats. If balanced evenly in a
+          fore-and-aft direction she is on even keel, if
+          depressed at head or stern she is on uneven keel.
+
+        =Keelson angle-bar.= Any angle-bar used in the
+          construction of a keelson.
+
+        =Lanyards.= Short lengths of rope used to tighten
+          up davit-guys, awnings, etc.
+
+        =Launching.= Sliding a boat into the water from
+          the building-berth.
+
+        =Lee side.= Opposite to the side on which the wind
+          blows.
+
+        =Lighter.= Large craft used to bring cargo
+          alongside or to lighten a grounded vessel.
+
+        =List.= When one side of a vessel lies deeper in
+          the water than the other; caused by shifting
+          cargo, etc.
+
+        =Log.= Apparatus used to determine speed of a
+          vessel.
+
+        =Main-mast.= Principal mast of a ship; the second
+          mast counting from bow to stern.
+
+        =Marine engine.= Engine especially designed for
+          the propulsion of boats.
+
+        =Mast.= A long piece, or system of pieces, of
+          timber, placed nearly perpendicularly to the
+          keelson of a vessel to support the spars and gear
+          by which the sails are set. In modern practice,
+          steel masts are built by riveting rolled plates
+          together.
+
+        =Midships.= Middle part of a ship.
+
+        =Mizzen-mast.= Third mast on a vessel with three
+          or more masts.
+
+        =Mizzen-sails.= Sails carried on a mizzen-mast.
+
+        =Mushroom Ventilator.= Short cast-iron tube with
+          movable iron rod passing through the center. A
+          metal cup is fitted to the top of the rod, which
+          may be lifted to permit air to enter, or closed to
+          prevent water from entering. Generally fitted over
+          cabins.
+
+        =Navigation Bridge.= Bridge used for taking
+          observations or handling the ship in difficult
+          situations.
+
+        =Outboard.= Outside the hull or beyond the
+          gunwale.
+
+        =Outlet cock.= Any cock used to free a receptacle
+          of water.
+
+        =Paddle-wheels.= Wheels fitted on each side of a
+          paddle steamer in connection with the
+          paddle-shaft, consisting of a cast-iron boss from
+          which wrought-iron arms radiate, strengthened by
+          rims and stays, and with a float attached to each
+          arm.
+
+        =Pawl.= Small catch to prevent moving object from
+          going beyond certain limit.
+
+        =Pile.= A piece of lumber or iron, together with
+          others, driven into the bed of a river for the
+          support of a pier, bridge, etc.
+
+        =Pilot Bridge.= Narrow thwartships platform,
+          extending from side to side above a steamer's
+          upper or bridge deck. Serves as a station for the
+          pilot or officer of the watch.
+
+        =Port.= Opening in ship's side, in bulwark, etc.
+
+        =Propeller-screw.= Propeller in which blades are
+          at an angle to the line of axis, similar to the
+          threads of a screw.
+
+        =Quarters.= Men's positions when called to their
+          duties, as during fire or boat drill; also living
+          accommodations.
+
+        =Quay.= Artificial landing-place.
+
+        =Raft.= A collection of boards fastened together
+          by ropes or chains, and capable of floating.
+
+        =Ram.= Massive projection under water at the bow
+          of a warship. The ship is also called a ram.
+
+        =Rat-line.= Three-stranded cord, of which the
+          ladder-like steps in lower rigging, topmast
+          rigging, etc., are formed.
+
+        =Rigging.= Entire equipment of a ship's masts,
+          spars, etc., with their standing and running
+          ropes.
+
+        =Rudder.= A device for steering vessels. Hinged to
+          the outside of the hull, usually at the stern.
+
+        =Sail.= A device of canvas and rope fastened to
+          spars and rigging, and extended to catch the wind
+          and drive the vessel.
+
+        =Skiff.= Long, lightly built boat sometimes used
+          in rowing races.
+
+        =Sloop.= Vessel with one mast, having a jib-sail.
+
+        =Spar.= Any shaped piece of timber used as a mast,
+          bowsprit, yard, etc., or intended for such use.
+
+        =Stanchion.= A stationary upright support.
+
+        =Superstructure.= Any structure above top full
+          deck.
+
+        =Tack.= To change the direction of sailing due to
+          wind.
+
+        =Thwart.= Seats are called thwarts when they
+          extend from side to side of a boat, athwart when
+          across.
+
+        =Tonnage.= Entire capacity or cubical contents of
+          a vessel. One ton estimated at 100 cubic English
+          feet.
+
+        =Trawler.= Fishing-vessel with ground-sweeping
+          net.
+
+        =Trim.= Term indicating the state of a ship with
+          regard to ballast; position of a vessel in the
+          water with respect to horizontal.
+
+        =Turtle-back.= Top of wheel-house, forecastle,
+          etc., formed like a turtle's back.
+
+        =Upper Works.= Same as freeboard when a vessel is
+          loaded.
+
+        =Uptake.= Part connecting smokebox to funnel.
+          Sometimes includes the smokebox.
+
+        =Ventilator.= Usually made of sheet iron in
+          tubular forms, and arranged to expel foul air and
+          permit the passage of fresh air to any part of a
+          ship.
+
+        =Vessel.= Craft requiring a licensed master.
+          (Boats do not).
+
+        =Water ballast.= Sea water let into double bottom
+          or ballast-tank.
+
+        =Water-Line.= (Light) Submerging line of vessel
+          without cargo.
+
+        =Water-Line.= (Load) Submerging line of vessel
+          with full cargo.
+
+        =Water-tight Compartment.= Compartment with
+          water-tight bulkhead at each end.
+
+        =Winch.= Machine used for loading or unloading
+          cargo. Some are hand driven and some electrically
+          driven.
+
+        =Windlass.= Special form of winch used to hoist
+          anchor.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Obvious punctuation errors repaired.
+
+Page 128, "oppositite" changed to "opposite" (the opposite end of)
+
+Page 131, N italicized to match rest of usage (center of the disk _N_)
+
+Page 132, D italicized to match rest of usage (to the _D_ valve
+previously)
+
+Page 185, "deterimental" changed to "detrimental" (detrimental to the
+speed)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Boys' Book of Model Boats, by Raymond Francis Yates
+
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+
+Project Gutenberg's Boys' Book of Model Boats, by Raymond Francis Yates
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Boys' Book of Model Boats
+
+Author: Raymond Francis Yates
+
+Release Date: June 7, 2009 [EBook #29064]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOYS' BOOK OF MODEL BOATS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Emmy and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<h1>BOYS' BOOK</h1>
+
+<h2>OF</h2>
+
+<h1>MODEL BOATS</h1>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="front" id="front"></a>
+<img src="images/i_005.jpg" width="500" height="286" alt="A TWO-FOOT STEAMBOAT" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A TWO-FOOT STEAMBOAT<br />Making her way across the park pond. Ten miles an hour is a common speed for a boat of this type</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h1>BOYS' BOOK</h1>
+
+<h2>OF</h2>
+
+<h1>MODEL BOATS</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+<h2>RAYMOND FRANCIS YATES</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS<br />
+FROM DRAWINGS AND<br />
+PHOTOGRAPHS<br /><br /><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/i_006.png" width="150" height="146" alt="Emblem" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><br /><br />
+NEW YORK<br />
+THE CENTURY CO.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class='copyright'>
+Copyright, 1920, by<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Century Co.</span><br />
+<br /><br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Printed in U. S. A.</span><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class='center'>
+TO<br />
+LAVERNE YATES<br />
+A BUILDER OF MODEL BOATS<br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">Every</span> boy likes to build boats. The interest
+in boats seems to be born in the race. The
+little three-year-old chap is instinctively attracted
+by a puddle of water in which to sail
+his "boat," which may take the form of a
+piece of shingle or common board. Few
+men have passed through their boyhood
+days without having built boats at some time.</div>
+
+<p>The author was an ardent boat-builder,
+and he well remembers how he combed the
+Children's Department of the local library
+in search of a book that would tell him something
+about boats, and especially for information
+regarding the construction of
+models. He found books on model airplanes,
+toys, electricity, radio, and chemistry,
+but alas! nothing about model boats. He
+vowed then that when he became a man he
+would write a book on model boats&mdash;a book
+that would contain all the treasured information
+he had accumulated during his boat-building
+years.</p>
+
+<p>This book is the result of that vow, and
+the author earnestly hopes that it will gladden
+the heart of every boy who builds and
+sails a boat. There are probably few happier
+moments in a boy's life than when he
+sees his little model steamer proudly make
+her way across the park pond, or his little
+sail-boat respond to the summer breeze.</p>
+
+<p>The author takes this opportunity to thank
+his wife, who acted as his amanuensis in the
+preparation of this manuscript.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+<span class="smcap">Raymond Francis Yates.</span><br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Why a Boat Floats</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">The Hull</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">How to Make Simple Boats, with and without Power Drive</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IV</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Steam and Electric Propulsion</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>V</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">An Electric Launch</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VI</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">A Steam Launch</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VII</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">An Electrically Driven Lake Freighter</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VIII</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">An Electric Submarine-Chaser</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IX</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Boat Fittings</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>X</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">The Design of Model Steam-Engines</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XI</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">A Model Floating Dry-Dock</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XII</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Operation of Flash Steam Power Plants for Model Boats</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XIII</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Sailing Yachts</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XIV</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Two-Foot Sailing Yacht</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Appendix</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations">
+<tr><td align='left'>A two-foot steam boat</td><td align='right'><a href="#front"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'><small>FACING<br />PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Getting ready for a trip</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>All ready to go</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A powerful gasolene blow-torch</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Just after the race</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A twin-cylinder steam engine for model marine use&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A cup-winning model sail boat</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>BOYS' BOOK<br />
+OF MODEL BOATS</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>WHY A BOAT FLOATS</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>BEFORE taking up the construction of
+any of the model power boats described
+in this book, it will be well for the
+young boat-builder to become acquainted
+with such terms as buoyancy, displacement,
+center of gravity, etc. Knowledge of these
+subjects is more or less necessary if successful
+boats are to be made. Aside from this,
+they are terms that every boy who claims an
+interest in boats should understand.</div>
+
+<p>"How does a steel boat float?" is a question
+that many boys ask. The reason they
+usually designate a steel boat is probably because
+steel is so much heavier than water.
+But many things heavier than water can be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+made to float if they are in the form of a
+boat. Concrete, for instance, is now being
+used in ship construction, and this substance,
+when reinforced with steel rods, is
+very much heavier than water.</p>
+
+<p>Before learning how a boat floats, what is
+known as "specific gravity" must be thoroughly
+understood. Gravity is a force that
+is continuously "pulling" everything toward
+the center of the earth. It is gravity that
+gives a body "weight." Some substances
+are heavier than others; or, to be more correct,
+it is said that the specific gravity of one
+substance is greater than that of another.
+It will be well to keep in mind that specific
+gravity merely refers to weight. It is
+simply a scientific term. The specific gravity
+of a substance is always expressed by a
+figure that tells how much heavier any substance
+is than water, because water has been
+chosen as a standard.</p>
+
+<p>The specific gravity of water is 1. The
+specific gravity of gold is 19.26, meaning that
+it is about 19<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> times heavier than water.
+The specific gravity of a piece of oak is 0.86,
+which shows that it is not quite so heavy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+as water. One cubic foot of water weighs
+62.42 pounds. It will be understood that a
+cubic foot of gold would weight 19.26 x
+62.42, because it is 19.26 times heavier than
+water. A cubic foot of oak, however, would
+weigh only 54 pounds, because it has been
+found that it has a specific gravity of only
+0.86 which is less than water.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a name="fig_1" id="fig_1"></a>
+<img src="images/i_020.png" width="350" height="303" alt="Fig. 1" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>A cubic foot of oak (see <a href="#fig_1">Fig. 1</a>), with a
+weight of 54 pounds, will float when placed
+in water. The cubic foot of brass (<i>B</i>), however,
+will not float, because it weights 8.1
+times as much as water. For the present,
+then, it can be said that a substance lighter
+than water will float in water, but that substances
+heavier than water, such as iron,
+lead, gold, silver, etc., will not float. If the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+cubic foot of oak (<i>A</i>) were placed in water,
+it would sink to the depth shown at <i>C</i>.
+When the block sinks into the water, a certain
+amount of water will be forced away or
+"displaced"; that is, the block in sinking occupies
+a space that was previously occupied
+or filled with water. The oak block sinks to
+within a short distance of the top because the
+oak is really just a trifle lighter than water.
+If a pine block were placed in the water it
+would sink only to the distance shown at <i>D</i>,
+since the weight of pine is less than oak, or
+only 34.6 pounds per cubic foot. A pine
+block will, then, displace only about 34.6
+pounds of water, which leaves nearly half of
+the block out of the water. Thus, it will be
+seen that for a given volume (size) a cubic
+foot of wood will sink to a depth corresponding
+to its weight. Different kinds of wood
+have different weights.</p>
+
+<p>If a cubic foot of brass is placed in water,
+it will sink rapidly to the bottom, because the
+brass is much heavier than water. How is
+it, then, that an iron or concrete ship will
+float? If the cubic foot of brass is rolled
+or flattened out in a sheet, and formed or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+pressed into the shape of a boat hull, as
+shown in <a href="#fig_2">Fig. 2</a>, it will float when placed
+upon the surface of the water. Why is it
+that brass is caused to float in this way, when
+it sank so rapidly in the form of a solid
+square?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_2" id="fig_2"></a>
+<img src="images/i_022.png" width="400" height="256" alt="Fig. 2" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be remembered that the pine and
+oak block were caused to float because they
+displaced a greater weight of water than
+their own weight. This is just what causes
+the brass boat-hull to float. If the amount
+of water actually displaced by the hull could
+be weighed, it would be found that the weight
+of the water would be greater than the
+weight of the hull. It will be understood
+that the space occupied by the brass boat-hull
+is far greater than the space occupied by
+the block of brass before it was rolled out
+and formed into a hull. What is true of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+brass holds true of iron, steel, etc. A block
+of steel will not float, because the water it
+displaces does not weigh nearly as much as
+the block. If this block, however, were
+rolled out into a sheet and the sheet formed
+into a hollow hull, the hull would float, because
+it would displace a volume of water
+that would more than total the weight of the
+steel in the hull.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the brass boat-hull, it would
+be found that a greater portion of the hull
+would remain out of the water. The hull,
+then, could be loaded until the top of it came
+within a safe distance from the water. As
+the load is increased, the hull sinks deeper
+and deeper. The capacity of big boats is
+reckoned in tons. If a boat had a carrying
+capacity of ten tons it would sink to what
+is called its "load water-line" (L.W.L.)
+when carrying ten tons. As a load or cargo
+is removed from a vessel it rises out of the
+water.</p>
+
+<p>What if the hull of a boat has a hole in
+it? If the hole is below the water-line,
+water will leak in and in time completely
+fill the inside of the hull, causing the boat to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+sink. Also, if too great a load or cargo
+were placed in a boat, it would sink. It
+must be understood that water leaking into a
+boat increases its load, and if it is not stopped
+it will cause the boat to sink.</p>
+
+<p>The center of gravity of a boat is a very
+important matter. First, attention will be
+directed to the meaning of "center of gravity."
+If a one-foot ruler is made to balance
+(as shown in <a href="#fig_3">Fig. 3</a>) at the six-inch mark,
+the point at which it balances will be very
+close to the center of gravity. The real center,
+however, will be in the middle of the
+wood of which the rule is composed. It
+should constantly be kept in mind that this
+"center of gravity" is a purely imaginary
+point.</p>
+
+<p>Look at <a href="#fig_4">Fig. 4</a>. If wires are arranged
+in a wooden frame, as shown, the point
+where the wires cross will be the center of
+gravity if the square formed by the wooden
+strips is solid. Every body, no matter what
+its shape, has a center of gravity. The center
+of gravity is really an imaginary point
+in a body, at the center of its mass. Oftentimes
+engineers are heard saying that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+center of gravity of a certain object is too
+high or too low. <a href="#fig_5">Fig. 5</a> shows the center of
+gravity in a boat. If the center of gravity
+in a boat is too high (as illustrated in <a href="#fig_6">Fig. 6</a>)
+the boat is said to be topheavy and unsafe.
+When a boat is topheavy or its center
+of gravity is too high, the boat is liable to
+capsize. In fact, some very serious marine
+accidents have been caused by this fault.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="fig_3" id="fig_3"></a><a name="fig_4" id="fig_4"></a><a name="fig_5" id="fig_5"></a><a name="fig_6" id="fig_6"></a>
+<img src="images/i_025.png" width="550" height="418" alt="Fig. 4" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The center of gravity (or center of
+weight) in a boat should be as low as possible.
+A boat with a low center of gravity
+will be very stable in the water and difficult<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+to capsize. This is true of model boats just
+as much as it is true of large boats. The
+model boat builder must keep the weight of
+his boat as near the bottom as possible. For
+instance, if a heavy cabin were built on a
+frail little hull, the boat would be very unstable
+and would probably capsize easily.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>THE HULL</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>MODEL boat-hulls are generally made
+by one of two methods. One method
+is that of cutting the hull from a solid piece
+of wood. The other method is commonly
+known as the "bread-and-butter" system.
+The hull is built up of planks laid on top one
+of another with marine glue spread between
+them. The last-mentioned method
+(which shall hereafter be called the built-up
+method) possesses many advantages over the
+first.</div>
+
+<p>Cutting a model boat-hull from a solid
+piece of wood is by no means a simple or easy
+task, especially for beginners. Of course,
+after several hulls have been produced in
+this fashion, the worker becomes practised in
+cutting them out.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="fig_7" id="fig_7"></a><a name="fig_8" id="fig_8"></a>
+<img src="images/i_028.png" width="550" height="569" alt="Fig. 7" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The construction of hulls on the built-up
+principle will be described first. For the sake<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+of convenience, the drawings of the boat-hull
+shown in <a href="#fig_7">Figs. 7</a> and <a href="#fig_8">8</a> will be followed out.
+Before going further it will be well to understand
+drawings of boat-hulls; that is, how to
+know the lines of a boat from a drawing.
+By the "lines" is meant its shape. Marine
+architects employ a regular method in drawing
+boat-hulls. <a href="#fig_7">Fig. 7</a> shows the side of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+boat and half of the deck plan. It will be
+seen that this drawing does not tell much
+about the real shape of the boat, and if a hull
+were to be produced according to the shape
+given, the builder would have to use his own
+judgment as to the outline of the hull at different
+places. For convenience, the boat is
+divided into ten sections, represented by the
+lines 0 to 10. It will be seen that the shape
+of the hull at section 2 will be different from
+the shape of the hull at section 8. Again,
+section 0 will be much narrower than section
+5.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 143px;"><a name="fig_9" id="fig_9"></a>
+<img src="images/i_030a.png" width="143" height="300" alt="Fig. 9" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Now look at <a href="#fig_8">Fig. 8</a>. Note the shape of the
+cross-section of the hull at the different sections.
+For instance, the line at section 1
+in <a href="#fig_8">Fig. 8</a> represents the shape of the hull at
+section 1 in <a href="#fig_7">Fig. 7</a>. It must be remembered,
+however, that this is only half of the section,
+and that the line 1 in <a href="#fig_8">Fig. 8</a> would have to
+be duplicated by another line to show the
+true shape. The cross-section of the boat at
+section 0 is shown in <a href="#fig_9">Fig. 9</a>. One half of
+the drawing in <a href="#fig_8">Fig. 8</a> represents the forward
+half of the hull, and the other half
+represents the stern half of the hull. If the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+shape of the boat at section 10 is desired, the
+line 10 in <a href="#fig_8">Fig. 8</a> could be traced on a piece
+of tissue paper. The paper could
+then be folded in half and the line
+first made traced on the second
+half. This would then produce
+the section of the boat at point 10.
+Thus, by closely examining <a href="#fig_8">Fig. 8</a>
+ the shape of the entire hull can
+be seen.</p>
+
+
+<p>If pieces of wire could be used to form
+the lines of the hull at the various sections,
+it would appear as shown in <a href="#fig_10">Fig. 10</a> when assembled.</p>
+
+<p>Notice that in <a href="#fig_8">Fig. 8</a> there is a load water-line,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+which the vessel sinks to when loaded,
+and the second and first load water-line,
+which the vessel sinks to when only partially
+loaded or when carrying no load aside from
+its regular necessary equipment. The keel
+line of the boat is the line that runs along the
+bottom from bow to stern. (The bow of the
+boat is the front and the stern the back.)</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_10" id="fig_10"></a>
+<img src="images/i_030b.png" width="400" height="252" alt="Fig. 10" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Motor-boating and marine magazines
+often publish the lines of different boats, and
+if the young boat-builder understands how to
+read boat drawings he will be able to make
+a model of any boat that is so described.</p>
+
+<p>Directions will now be given regarding
+the method of producing a boat-hull similar
+to the lines shown in <a href="#fig_7">Figs. 7</a> and <a href="#fig_8">8</a>, by the
+built-up method of construction.</p>
+
+<p>First, it will be necessary to procure the
+lumber. Several clean white pine boards
+will be very suitable to work with, and will
+not require much skill in handling. Let us
+assume that the boat-hull is to measure 22
+inches in length, with a depth of 4 inches.
+The beam, which is the width of the boat at
+its widest point, will be 5 inches. (It will be
+well to remember what the term "beam"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+means, since the term will be used constantly
+throughout the book.)</p>
+
+<p>On a piece of heavy wrapping-paper
+draw the deck plan full size, that is, 22 inches
+long by 5 inches at its widest point. Next
+cut out along the pencil line with a pair of
+shears. Now lay the paper outline on a
+plank and mark out the pattern on the wood.
+Repeat this process with three more planks.
+When this is done, cut out the boards with
+a keyhole saw.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;"><a name="fig_11" id="fig_11"></a>
+<img src="images/i_032.png" width="380" height="94" alt="Fig. 11" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>After the boards are cut out mark them
+as shown in <a href="#fig_11">Fig. 11</a>. The space marked
+out on the board must be sawed out in two
+of the boards, to form the inside of the hull,
+if the boat is to carry some form of power,
+such as a battery-motor, or steam-engine.
+After the lines are marked out, make a hole
+with a <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span>-inch bit, as shown in <a href="#fig_12">Fig. 12</a>. Insert
+the point of the keyhole saw in one of
+these holes to start it and cut out the piece.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+Treat the second board in the same way.
+The third board must have a smaller portion
+cut out of the center, owing to the fact that
+this board is nearer the bottom of the hull,
+where the width of the boat is narrower.
+The width of the piece cut out in the third
+board should not be more than 2 inches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;"><a name="fig_12" id="fig_12"></a>
+<img src="images/i_033.png" width="375" height="125" alt="Fig. 12" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>When this work is done, a very thin layer
+of glue is placed over the boards, and they
+are then laid one on top of another. The
+boards are then placed in a vise or clamp
+and allowed to remain there over night. In
+applying the glue, the builder should be careful
+not to put too much on the boards. Too
+much glue is worse than not enough. It
+should be merely a thin film.</p>
+
+<p>After the boards have been glued together
+the crude hull will appear, as shown in <a href="#fig_13">Fig. 13</a>
+.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="fig_13" id="fig_13"></a>
+<img src="images/i_034.png" width="350" height="161" alt="Fig. 13" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>At this point the hull sections from 0 to 10<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+must be marked off. By referring again to
+<a href="#fig_7">Fig. 7</a> it will be seen that the sections 0 to
+1 and 9 to 10 are not so far apart as the
+other sections. Section 0 is 1 inch from the
+bow of the boat and section 1 is 1 inch from
+section 0. Sections 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are
+all 1 inch apart. Section 9 is 1 inch from 10
+and 10 is 1 inch from the stern. Lines
+should be drawn across the deck to correspond
+with these sections, which can be
+measured off with a ruler. It will now be
+necessary to cut some templates, or forms,
+from cardboard to guide the builder in bringing
+the hull to shape. It will be an easy matter
+to make these templates by following
+<a href="#fig_8">Fig. 8</a>. A template of section 9 is shown in
+<a href="#fig_14">Fig. 14</a>. It will be necessary to make eleven
+templates, corresponding to the sections 0 to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+10. The templates should be cut from heavy
+cardboard so they will hold their shapes.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="fig_14" id="fig_14"></a>
+<img src="images/i_035.png" width="300" height="219" alt="Fig. 14" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The hull of the boat is now placed in a vise
+and roughly brought to shape with a draw-knife.
+After it has been brought to shape
+by this means a spoke-shave is used. This
+little tool has an adjustable blade by means
+of which it is possible to regulate the cut.
+When the builder starts to use the spoke-shave
+he should also start to use his templates
+or forms, applying them sectionally to
+determine how much more wood he will have
+to remove to bring the hull to shape. For
+instance, when he is working in the vicinity
+of sections 5, 6, and 7 he will apply these
+forms at the proper points occasionally to
+determine when enough wood has been removed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+This procedure is followed out the
+entire length of the boat, care being taken
+to see that both sides are the same and that
+too much wood is not removed, since there
+is no remedy for this mistake. The builder
+who proceeds carefully and is not in too great
+a hurry to finish the work need not make this
+mistake.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, it will not be possible to bring
+the hull to a perfect finish with a spoke-shave.
+This can be done, however, by the
+use of a coarse file and sandpaper. The
+coarse file is used to take the rough marks of
+the spoke-shave away, and the marks left by
+the file are in turn removed by the sandpaper.
+The sandpaper must be applied unsparingly
+and always with the grain. It will be necessary
+to use considerable "elbow grease" to
+obtain a good finish.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 375px;"><a name="fig_15" id="fig_15"></a>
+<img src="images/i_037.png" width="375" height="315" alt="Fig. 15" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Boat-hulls can also be hewn to shape from
+a solid block, but it will be understood that
+this method involves more work than the one
+just described. Of course, the procedure of
+bringing the hull to shape by the aid of the
+draw-knife, spoke-shave, and templates is
+the same, but the hollowing out of the inside<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+of the hull will be a much more difficult
+job. However, with a couple of good sharp
+chisels and a gouge the work will not be so
+difficult as at first appears. The use of an
+auger and bit will greatly aid in the work.
+After the outside of the hull is brought to
+shape the wooden form is drilled with holes,
+as shown in <a href="#fig_15">Fig. 15</a>. This will make it much
+easier to chip the wood away. After the
+major portion of the wood has been taken out
+with the chisel, the gouge is brought into use.
+The gouge should be used very carefully,
+since it will easily go through the entire hull
+if it is not handled properly. For the beginner
+it is not safe to make a hull less than
+<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inch in thickness. Of course, it is not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+necessary to carefully finish the inside of the
+hull, since it is covered up with the deck and
+cabin.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;"><a name="fig_16" id="fig_16"></a>
+<img src="images/i_038.png" width="325" height="116" alt="Fig. 16" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The solid hull has one advantage over the
+built-up hull. It is not affected by moisture
+and it is therefore not so liable to warp and
+lose its shape. It will also stand more rough
+usage.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="fig_17" id="fig_17"></a><a name="fig_18" id="fig_18"></a><a name="fig_19" id="fig_19"></a>
+<img src="images/i_039.png" width="450" height="453" alt="Fig. 17" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>There is still another method of producing
+a boat-hull. This hull is known as the
+Sharpie type. A Sharpie hull is shown in
+<a href="#fig_16">Fig. 16</a>. The method of producing a hull of
+this type will be seen quite clearly by reference
+to <a href="#fig_17">Fig. 17</a>, which shows the boards and
+parts cut out ready to assemble. The boards
+are made from <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch mahogany, which can
+be obtained at any lumber-yard. First, the
+bow piece is cut to shape and carefully
+finished. Then the two side pieces are
+fastened to it, as shown in <a href="#fig_18">Fig. 18</a>. The
+screws used should be brass, since iron<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+screws will rust and cause trouble. Three
+screws should be used for each side board,
+and they should be driven into the bow piece
+so that the screws on one side will not interfere
+with those on the other. The first
+cross-piece is then screwed in place, as shown
+in <a href="#fig_19">Fig. 19</a>. The second and third cross-pieces
+are then screwed in place and the
+back or stern piece attached. The bottom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+of the boat is then carefully put in place with
+small screws. It will be noticed that the
+bottom board of the boat is cut to fit the inside
+of the bottom. It is held in place with
+small brass brads. The crevices or seams
+along the bottom of the boat should be carefully
+covered with pitch or marine glue to
+prevent leakage when the boat is in the
+water. The bow of the boat should be finished
+off nicely to a point with a heavy file or
+a wood-rasp.</p>
+
+<p>This type of hull is extremely easy to produce
+and it is capable of carrying a considerable
+load. However, it is not a good type to
+use for all kinds of boats. It makes a splendid
+little pleasure yacht or submarine-chaser,
+but for a torpedo-boat destroyer or a freighter
+it would not be suitable.</p>
+
+<p>The young model boat builder is advised
+not to try to construct hulls from metal.
+This is a very difficult task even for the
+thoroughly experienced mechanic. Wood
+is much easier to work with and will produce
+the same results.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>HOW TO MAKE SIMPLE BOATS, WITH AND WITHOUT POWER DRIVE</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>THIS Chapter will be devoted to the construction
+of very simple types of boats.
+The boats described will be constructed
+largely with blocks of wood cut into various
+shapes and sizes. The results obtainable by
+this method of construction are surprising,
+and there are few types of boats that cannot
+be modeled by following the method.
+After the model-builder has constructed a
+few boats along this principle he will be
+able to duplicate the general appearance of
+almost any craft he sees by carefully planning
+and cutting the blocks he uses.</div>
+
+<p>The first boat described is a submarine.
+This is shown in <a href="#fig_20">Fig. 20</a>. Four blocks of
+wood form the basis of its construction, and
+these are cut from 1-inch stock, as shown in
+the drawing. Such a submarine can be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+made practically any size up to 12 inches in
+length. Beyond this size they begin to look
+out of proportion and they are more difficult
+to propel. After nailing the blocks together
+as shown in the drawing, a small
+piece of sheet brass is bent at right angles
+and tacked to the stern piece. This is to act
+as a bearing for the propeller.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="fig_20" id="fig_20"></a><a name="fig_21" id="fig_21"></a>
+<img src="images/i_042.png" width="550" height="547" alt="Fig. 20" title="" />
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The propeller-shaft is bent into a hook
+over which rubber bands are placed. The
+opposite end of the rubber bands are fastened
+to a screw-eye driven into the under side of
+the bow. A heavy piece of copper wire is
+fastened to the stern of the boat by staples,
+and bent as shown. A rudder is then cut
+from thin sheet brass, and the end of it is
+bent around a piece of wire larger in diameter
+than the wire used for the rudder-post.
+It is then taken from this wire and slipped
+over the wire on the boat. It should be
+pinched in place by a pair of pliers, so that
+it will stay in any position in which it is put.
+The end of the wire is bent over so that the
+rudder will not slip off. The boat can be
+steered in a circle or it can be made to go
+straight, depending upon the position of the
+propeller.</p>
+
+<p>The horizontal rudders are mounted forward,
+as shown. They are made from thin
+sheet brass bent as indicated in the little insertion.
+A hole is drilled in them as shown,
+and a screw is placed through these to hold
+the rudders to the side of the craft. The
+screws should be tightened so that the rudders<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+will stay at any angle at which they
+are put. If the boat is to be submerged
+the rudders are pointed as shown. If the
+boat is to travel on the surface of the water
+the rudders are brought up into a horizontal
+position or parallel with the deck. A little
+gray paint placed on this model will greatly
+improve its appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Another submarine, more complicated
+than the one just described, is shown in <a href="#fig_21">Fig. 21</a>
+. The body of this submarine is formed
+by a part of a broomstick or shovel-handle.
+This submarine is truer to type and can be
+made with very little trouble. The piece of
+broomstick or shovel-handle is cut 22 inches
+in length. It is pointed at each end, and
+part of it is planed off to form the upper
+deck. When this is done, a small flat piece
+is cut as shown, and nailed or screwed to the
+flat portion. The conning-tower and periscope
+are placed on the upper deck, as shown.
+The rudder on this craft is not made adjustable,
+so that it always travels in a perfectly
+straight line. The horizontal rudders however,
+are made adjustable, and the boat is
+therefore able to travel upon the surface or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+submerge, depending upon the position of the
+rudder.</p>
+
+<p>The power plant of this boat is made up of
+rubber bands. The power transmission to
+the propeller is a little different than the
+one previously described. A gear and a
+pinion are salvaged from the works of an
+old alarm-clock, and mounted on a piece of
+brass, as shown. A little soldering will be
+necessary here to make a good job. By
+using the gear meshing with the pinion a
+considerable increase in the speed of the propeller
+is obtained, and therefore the speed
+of the boat is considerably increased. The
+method of holding the power plant to the bottom
+of the boat is made very clear. In order
+to bring the boat down to the proper level in
+the water, a strip of sheet lead can be tacked
+to the bottom. The builder should take care
+to get a piece of lead just the correct weight
+to leave the surface of the deck awash. A
+coat of gray paint will also greatly improve
+the appearance of this craft.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="fig_22" id="fig_22"></a><a name="fig_23" id="fig_23"></a><a name="fig_24" id="fig_24"></a>
+<img src="images/i_046.png" width="500" height="708" alt="Fig. 22" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Attention is directed to the construction
+of boats of different types made without
+power plants. Many interesting little crafts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+can be produced in this way, and the energetic
+model-builder can produce a whole
+model harbor or dock-yard by constructing a
+number of boats of different types according
+to the following instructions.</p>
+
+<p>The first boat described will be the tug
+<i>Mary Ann</i> shown in <a href="#fig_22">Fig. 22</a> and <a href="#fig_23">Fig. 23</a>.
+The blocks necessary to construct this boat
+are shown in <a href="#fig_24">Fig. 24</a>. The hull of the boat
+is produced by three pieces of wood sawed
+out to the same shape with a keyhole saw
+and glued together. After the glue is dry
+the blocks are placed in a vise and the top
+one or deck block is planed down as shown.
+It will be seen that the deck inclines slightly
+toward the stern of the boat. When this is
+done the hull is turned upside down and the
+bottom of the stern planed off as illustrated.
+The outside of the hull can be finished up
+with a sharp knife and a jack-plane.</p>
+
+<p>The little bow piece can also then be tacked
+in place. After this the pieces that form the
+hull can be nailed together from the bottom
+and from the top. This is quite necessary,
+for glue will not hold them in place after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+the boat has become thoroughly soaked with
+water.</p>
+
+<p>The cabin and engine-room are shown
+very clearly in the illustration and little need
+be said about erecting this part of the craft.
+The two doors and window on the side of the
+cabin are made by cutting out small pieces of
+cigar-box wood and gluing them to the cabin
+and engine-room. A good substitute for the
+wood can be found in tin, but of course this
+would have to be tacked on. The little skylight
+on the back of the tug is made by a
+single block covered by two pieces of cigar-box
+wood.</p>
+
+<p>In order to stabilize the craft and to bring
+her down to the proper water-line, a lead
+keel must be nailed to the bottom. The
+weight of this keel will have to be adjusted
+until the boat rests properly in the water.
+The reader will notice that no dimensions
+have been given for this boat. This is because
+most boys will wish to build different
+sized boats, and therefore it has not been
+deemed advisable to dimension the boats described
+in this Chapter. What the author<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+desires to do is to impart the principles of
+construction, so that every boy may use his
+own ingenuity in regard to size and proportion
+of length to beam.</p>
+
+<p>If tugs are constructed according to the
+design outlined above, the model boat builder
+will also desire to have something that the
+tug can haul. A very simple barge for this
+purpose is outlined in <a href="#fig_25">Figs. 25</a> and <a href="#fig_26">26</a>. This
+is formed of a single slab with the ends cut
+at an angle as illustrated. A square flat
+piece is then tacked to the upper deck, which
+acts as a cover. Four posts are then put in
+place in the same way as those on the tug.
+One is placed in each corner. A boat or a
+scow like this is generally painted red, and
+the model described can be made to look
+much more realistic by painting it this color.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="fig_25" id="fig_25"></a><a name="fig_26" id="fig_26"></a><a name="fig_27" id="fig_27"></a><a name="fig_28" id="fig_28"></a>
+<img src="images/i_050.png" width="450" height="555" alt="Fig. 25" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>These barges are so easy to construct that
+the model-builder should make three or four
+of them at a time. If the pieces for several
+are cut out at the same time, the construction
+will be just that much easier. If the
+boat does not sink far enough into the water,
+a piece of lead should be placed on the bottom
+to bring it down. This piece of lead should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+be placed as near the center as it is possible
+to get it. Otherwise the boat will list or tip
+at one end or the other. With a little
+patience and care the weight can be so adjusted
+on the bottom as to bring the scow to
+a perfectly level position. The reader will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+understand that the water-line of a scow or
+any boat made according to the directions in
+this book will depend largely upon the nature
+of the wood. In the first Chapter of
+the book it was pointed out that the specific
+gravity of different woods varies, and therefore
+the buoyancy will vary.</p>
+
+<p>A model freighter is shown in <a href="#fig_27">Fig. 27</a>.
+The hull of this boat can be formed by two
+1<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span>-inch planks. These will require a little
+hard work to cut out; but, on the other hand,
+the effort will be entirely justified by the
+pleasing appearance of the little craft that
+can be produced in this way. A bow and
+stern block to raise the deck are cut out and
+nailed in place, as shown. A cabin is also
+placed on the stern of the craft, and this is
+formed by a block with a piece of cigar-box
+wood placed on the top. The cigar-box
+wood should project a little over the edges to
+form a canopy. The center of the deck can
+be raised by a third block; and three independent
+blocks, two large ones and a small
+one, form the main cabin. Sandwiched in
+between these blocks are three pieces of
+cigar-box wood. The remaining details of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+the craft are so simple that they may easily
+be made by following the diagram.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="fig_29" id="fig_29"></a>
+<img src="images/i_052.png" width="450" height="195" alt="Fig. 29" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Let us turn our attention to model war-ships.
+A torpedo-boat destroyer is clearly
+illustrated in <a href="#fig_28">Figs. 28</a> and <a href="#fig_29">29</a>. This is very
+simple to construct and makes a pleasing
+craft when finished. The hull is formed by
+two blocks. One of these forms the raised
+deck on the bow of the boat. The cabin is
+built up on this raised deck. It will be seen
+that the part of the hull that rests in the
+water is formed by one block. In building
+boats of this nature the constructor should
+be careful to keep them long and slender,
+since torpedo-boat destroyers are always of
+this type. They are high-speed craft, and
+their displacement must therefore be as small
+as possible. Some of these boats carry four<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+stacks and some two. The author prefers
+four stacks as giving the boat a better appearance
+than two. The two little cabins
+near the stern of the boat are placed there
+merely to take away the plainness of construction.
+The guns mounted forward and
+aft are merely round pieces of wood with a
+piece of wire bent around them and forced
+into a hole in the deck.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="fig_30" id="fig_30"></a>
+<img src="images/i_053.png" width="550" height="407" alt="Fig. 30" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The boat-builder should not be satisfied
+with one or two of these craft; he should
+make a whole fleet. This will afford the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+average boy a great amount of pleasure,
+since he can add to his fleet from time to
+time and have official launchings. Each
+boat can also be given a name and a number.
+A little gray paint on the hull of these
+boats and black on the stacks gives them
+a very presentable appearance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="fig_31" id="fig_31"></a><a name="fig_32" id="fig_32"></a>
+<img src="images/i_054.png" width="450" height="338" alt="Fig. 31" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>A battleship is shown in <a href="#fig_30">Fig. 30</a>. A battleship
+should be at least twice as long as a
+torpedo-boat destroyer. A view of the battleship
+as it will look in the water is shown
+in <a href="#fig_31">Fig. 31</a>. By carefully examining this
+drawing the builder will be able to see just<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+the number and shape of the blocks that
+enter into the construction of the craft. The
+battleship is provided with four main batteries
+mounted in turrets, one forward and
+three aft. A mast is also built, and strings
+run from it to the top of the main cabin and
+to the end of one of the turrets mounted aft.
+A screw is placed through the centers of the
+fore and aft turrets, so they can be turned to
+any position. Battleships should be painted
+gray. It will be necessary to place rather
+a heavy keel on the boat just described in
+order to bring it down to the proper depth
+in the water. Otherwise it will be topheavy
+and will capsize very easily. A fleet of battleships
+and battle-cruisers can easily be
+made according to the foregoing instructions,
+and the builder should not be satisfied
+with producing only one.</p>
+
+<p>A pleasure yacht is illustrated in <a href="#fig_32">Fig. 32</a>.
+The hull of this craft is formed by two
+boards nailed together. The cabins are very
+simple, being formed by a solid block of
+wood with a piece of cigar-box wood tacked
+to the top. The windows and doors are
+marked in place with a soft lead-pencil, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+the stack is mounted midway between the
+two cabins. A wireless antenna should be
+placed on the boat, with a few guy-wires
+from the masts run to various parts of the
+deck. A lead-in wire also runs down into
+one of the cabins. The hull of this boat
+should be painted pure white. The deck can
+be left its natural color, while the stack
+should be painted black and the cabins white
+with green trimmings.</p>
+
+<p>Almost any type of boat can be produced
+by the use of simple blocks of wood and other
+miscellaneous pieces easily brought to shape
+from ordinary materials. This method of
+construction offers a wonderful opportunity
+for the boy to exercise his creative faculties.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>STEAM AND ELECTRIC PROPULSION</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>BOATS are propelled by two different
+systems. Some inland-water boats
+still employ side paddle-wheels, while ocean-going
+vessels use the more modern propeller
+or screw.</div>
+
+<p>The paddle-wheel really acts as a continuous
+oar. Such a wheel is shown in <a href="#fig_33">Fig. 33</a>
+. As the wheel goes around the paddle
+dips into the water and pushes the boat forward.
+If the direction of the boat is to be
+reversed, the rotation of the paddle-wheels is
+reversed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="fig_34" id="fig_34"></a><a name="fig_33" id="fig_33"></a><a name="fig_35" id="fig_35"></a><a name="fig_36" id="fig_36"></a><a name="fig_37" id="fig_37"></a><a name="fig_38" id="fig_38"></a>
+<img src="images/i_058.png" width="500" height="564" alt="Fig. 33" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Before passing onto the screw, it may be
+well to explain just how a paddle-wheel
+causes a boat to move. When a man gets
+into a rowboat, he generally pushes himself
+off by placing his oar against the dock or
+shore and pushing on it. That is just what
+the paddle does in the water. It dips into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+the water and pushes against it. It must be
+remembered, however, that water is unlike
+a solid substance and it "gives." When a
+man places his oar against the bank and
+pushes it, the bank does not move, and all
+of the man's energy is used in starting the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+boat. Water, however, does not remain stationary
+when the paddles push against it,
+and therefore all of the power it not utilized
+in moving the boat&mdash;part is used in moving
+the water.</p>
+
+<p>The paddle-wheel is not so efficient in moving
+a boat as the more modern propeller&mdash;or
+screw, as it is more often called. The screw
+receives its name from the ordinary metal
+screw, because its theory of operation is exactly
+the same. A wood screw, when
+turned, forces itself into wood. A propeller,
+when turned, forces itself (and thereby the
+boat) through the water. A small propeller
+is illustrated in <a href="#fig_34">Fig. 34</a>. This is an ordinary
+three-blade propeller. (The writer prefers
+the word propeller instead of screw.)</p>
+
+<p>From the drawing, it will be seen that the
+propeller-blades are mounted at an angle.
+This angle of the blades causes them to force
+water back as they cut through it when the
+propeller is revolving. This forcing of the
+water back tends to produce a forward motion
+of the propeller, and in this way the
+boat on which the propeller is mounted
+moves through the water. The propeller is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+caused to revolve by a steam-engine, steam-turbine,
+or gasolene-engine, as shown in <a href="#fig_35">Fig. 35</a>
+. Longer boats have more than one propeller.
+A boat that has two propellers is
+called a twin-screw boat. A boat driven
+with four propellers is called a quadruple-screw
+boat.</p>
+
+<p>When a machine screw is turned around
+just once, it moves forward a certain distance,
+as a glance at <a href="#fig_36">Fig. 36</a> will show. The
+distance the screw moves forward will depend
+entirely upon the distance between the
+threads. The distance between the threads
+is called the pitch of the thread. If the
+threads are <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>32</sub></span> inch apart, then the screw
+will move <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>32</sub></span> inch every time it revolves.</p>
+
+<p>If a propeller acts in the same way as a
+screw, then it too must have a pitch. The
+pitch, or the distance that a propeller will
+advance in one revolution, is measured in
+inches. A propeller with a pitch of ten
+inches should move ten inches through the
+water at each revolution. However, there
+is a certain amount of "slip," and a propeller
+does not actually advance the distance that
+it should theoretically. The pitch of a propeller<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+is really the distance it would advance
+in one revolution if it were revolving in an
+unyielding or solid substance.</p>
+
+<p>To make a simple propeller, first cut out
+of thin sheet brass three blades as shown at
+<i>A</i>, <a href="#fig_37">Fig. 37</a>. Sheet brass with a thickness of
+<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>32</sub></span> inch is very suitable for this purpose.
+Next, a block, as shown at <i>B</i>, is carefully
+carved out so that the propeller can be hammered
+down into the depression. The same
+block is used for the three blades, so that
+each will have the same curvature. The
+block should be cut from oak, since this wood
+will not split or lose its shape when the forming
+is done.</p>
+
+<p>The hub is made next. This is shown at
+<i>C</i>, <a href="#fig_37">Fig. 37</a>. The hub, of brass, is made according
+to the stream-line method. It is
+filed to shape from a piece of round brass
+stock. A hole runs lengthwise in the brass,
+as shown, and a set-screw is used to hold the
+hub of the propeller-shaft. The method of
+cutting the slots in the hub is shown at <i>D</i>,
+<a href="#fig_37">Fig. 37</a>. The hub is clamped between two
+boards placed in the vise, and a hacksaw is
+used to cut a slot in the hub. The hub is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+then turned around one third of a revolution,
+and another slot cut, using the same saw-marks
+in the boards, so that the angle of the
+second slot will be the same as the first one.
+The third slot is cut in the same manner.
+The three blades that were cut out are now
+fastened in these slots and held there by solder.
+This completes the propeller and it is
+now ready to be fastened upon the propeller-shaft.</p>
+
+<p>Let us consider the general method of
+putting the propeller-shaft in place. The
+young boat-builder will readily understand
+that it would be very impractical merely to
+bore a hole in the hull of the boat to put the
+propeller-shaft through. In this way water
+would surely leak into the hull and the boat
+would sink in a short time. Some method
+must be evolved to keep the water out of the
+hull, and yet allow the propeller-shaft to revolve
+freely.</p>
+
+<p>The propeller-shaft is arranged within a
+brass tube, as shown at <a href="#fig_38">Fig. 38</a>. The brass
+tube should be about <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch larger in diameter
+than the propeller-shaft. A little brass
+bushing must also be arranged at each end,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+as shown. When the propeller-shaft is
+mounted in place in the tube, there will be a
+space between it and the tube. Before the
+propeller-shaft is put in place it is well
+smeared with vaseline, and when it is placed
+in the tube the space between the shaft and
+the tube will be completely filled with it.
+This will prevent water from entering.
+Owing to the fact that vaseline is a soft,
+greasy substance, it will not prevent the rotation
+of the propeller-shaft. The brass
+tube is placed through a hole bored in the
+hull of the boat. The hole should be a
+trifle smaller than the diameter of the
+brass tube, so that the tube can be forced
+into the hole.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="fig_39" id="fig_39"></a><a name="fig_40" id="fig_40"></a><a name="fig_42" id="fig_42"></a>
+<img src="images/i_064.png" width="500" height="354" alt="Fig. 39" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>One of the simplest methods of propelling
+a boat is by means of rubber bands. Such
+a boat is shown in <a href="#fig_39">Fig. 39</a>. This is a small
+wooden hull fitted with a two-blade propeller.
+The propeller is shown at <a href="#fig_40">Fig. 40</a>. It is cut
+in a single piece and held to the propeller-shaft
+merely by a drop of solder since there
+will not be much strain upon it owing to the
+low power of the rubber-band motor. The
+opposite end of the propeller-shaft is bent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+into a hook, and the rubber bands run from
+this to another hook placed at the bow of the
+boat. The rubber bands may be similar to
+those employed by model airplane builders.
+The motor, of course, must be wound up by
+turning the propeller around until the bands
+become twisted into little knots, as shown at
+<a href="#fig_39">Fig. 39</a>. Boats driven by rubber bands cannot
+be very large unless a great number of
+rubber bands are used. Even then the
+power is short-lived. However, building a
+few small boats driven by rubber-band motors<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+will do much to teach the young boat-builder
+some valuable lessons in boat construction.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the best method of propelling
+model boats is the electric method. By
+building a boat large enough to accommodate
+two dry batteries or a small storage
+battery and a little power motor, a very reliable
+method of propulsion is made possible.
+The boat must have sufficient displacement
+to accommodate the weight of the dry-cells
+and storage battery. A boat two feet long,
+with a beam of 4<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches, is large enough to
+accommodate one dry-cell and a small motor,
+providing the fittings of the boat are not too
+heavy.</p>
+
+<p>A suitable power motor for small boats,
+which will run with either one or two dry-cells,
+is shown in <a href="#fig_41">Fig. 41</a>. The connections
+for the motor are given clearly in <a href="#fig_42">Fig. 42</a>,
+and a suitable switch to control the motor
+is shown at <a href="#fig_43">Fig. 43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to its greater power, the storage
+battery is to be preferred. Dry-cells are extremely
+heavy and occupy considerable
+space. They are also costly, since they do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+not last long and cannot be worked too hard
+unless they polarize.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="fig_41" id="fig_41"></a><a name="fig_43" id="fig_43"></a><a name="fig_44" id="fig_44"></a><a name="fig_45" id="fig_45"></a>
+<img src="images/i_066.png" width="550" height="440" alt="Fig. 41" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>A very suitable method of mounting an
+electric motor is illustrated in <a href="#fig_44">Figs. 44</a> and
+<a href="#fig_45">45</a>. It will be noticed that the motor is inverted.
+A small pinion or gear is mounted
+upon the armature-shaft of the motor. A
+larger gear (about three times the diameter
+of the small one) is placed upon the propeller-shaft.
+This gives a speed reduction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+of three to one. It will be seen that the propeller-tube
+is strapped within a strip of brass
+to a small cross-piece nailed to the bottom
+board of the hull. The hull is of the built-up
+type, and the other three boards that go
+to make it up are not shown. When the
+three boards are glued in place, a brass strip
+is run across the top board and the base of
+the motor is screwed to this. This holds the
+motor rigidly in place so that it will not move
+when the power is turned on. The brass
+strip used should have sufficient thickness to
+hold the motor rigid. It will also be seen
+that the motor is tipped slightly so that it
+will come in line with the propeller-shaft.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="fig_46" id="fig_46"></a><a name="fig_47" id="fig_47"></a><a name="fig_48" id="fig_48"></a>
+<img src="images/i_068.png" width="550" height="397" alt="Fig. 46" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>It is not always possible to obtain small
+gears. For this reason the model boat
+builder may find it necessary to use a different
+method of fastening the propeller-shaft
+to the motor. A very good method of doing
+this is shown in <a href="#fig_46">Fig. 46</a>. Here a coiled wire
+spring is used. This is wound to shape on
+a rod, and a drop of solder holds it to the
+propeller and motor shafts. In the method
+of propulsion shown in <a href="#fig_44">Fig. 44</a> the armature-shaft
+of the motor must be perfectly in line<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+with the propeller-shaft, or the gears will
+bind and unsatisfactory operation of the
+motor will result. With the little spring the
+motor will not have to be mounted exactly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+in line with the shaft, and it will also be possible
+to mount the motor standing up. Of
+course, if the motor is mounted in this way
+it will be necessary to make the propeller-shaft
+longer, as is shown in <a href="#fig_47">Fig. 47</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Still another method of driving the propeller
+is illustrated in <a href="#fig_48">Fig. 48</a>. This method
+is so simple that the author feels explanation
+to be unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>Clockwork can often be employed for propulsion
+purposes, but this method is not very
+satisfactory. It is also very difficult to obtain
+suitable clockworks to install in a boat.
+Oftentimes it will be possible to salvage the
+works of an old alarm-clock, providing the
+main-spring is intact. It is a very easy
+matter to mount the clock-spring and connect
+it to the propeller. Any one of the
+aforementioned methods can be employed.</p>
+
+<p>Steam propulsion has its advantages; but,
+on the other hand, the writer is not inclined
+to recommend it as strongly as the electric
+method for reliability. Of course, steam is
+a more powerful agency in the propulsion of
+small boats and thereby greater speed is attainable
+by its use.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="fig_49" id="fig_49"></a><a name="fig_50" id="fig_50"></a><a name="fig_51" id="fig_51"></a>
+<img src="images/i_070.png" width="550" height="452" alt="Fig. 49" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Here is a very simple small power plant
+suitable for driving boats up to 3<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> feet in
+length. The boiler is shown in <a href="#fig_49">Figs. 49</a> and
+<a href="#fig_50">50</a>. The method of assembling the boiler is
+pictured clearly in <a href="#fig_49">Fig. 49</a>. A brass or
+copper tube about 2<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches in diameter is
+used. Two end pieces are cut to shape and
+forced into the boiler ends. A hole is drilled
+in the center of these pieces before they are
+put in place. After the end pieces are forced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+in place solder is carefully flowed around
+their edges. The brass rod is then threaded
+at each end and placed concentrically within
+the boiler, as shown in <a href="#fig_49">Fig. 49</a>. A nut is
+placed on each end of this rod and tightened.
+The nut is then soldered in place. This
+brass rod, called a stay-rod, prevents the end
+of the boiler from blowing out when the
+steam pressure has reached its maximum
+value. Three holes are drilled in the brass
+tube, as shown. One is to accommodate the
+steam feed-pipe that goes to the engine; another
+is for the safety-valve, and still another
+for the filling plug. The safety-valve
+and filling plug are both shown in <a href="#fig_51">Fig. 51</a>.
+The little spring on the safety-valve is adjustable,
+so that the valve can be regulated
+in order to prevent it from blowing off at
+pressures lower than that at which the engine
+operates.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="fig_52" id="fig_52"></a>
+<img src="images/i_072.png" width="500" height="255" alt="Fig. 52" title="" />
+</div>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;"><a name="fig_53" id="fig_53"></a>
+<img src="images/i_073a.png" width="164" height="300" alt="Fig. 53" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>A suitable firebox for the boiler is shown
+clearly in <a href="#fig_52">Fig. 52</a>. This is cut to shape from
+stovepipe iron and held together with small
+rivets. Holes should be punched or drilled
+in the side of the firebox to give the burner
+a sufficient supply of air. The burner is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+illustrated clearly in <a href="#fig_52">Fig. 52</a>. The fuel-tank
+can be made from an ordinary tin can with
+the cover soldered on, and a hole made for a
+cork by means of which it is filled with denatured
+alcohol. A little pipe runs from
+the fuel-tank to the burner. It is advisable,
+if possible, to place a small valve in this pipe
+to cut off the fuel supply when necessary.
+The only other method of putting the burner
+out would be to stand it on its end. The
+burner consists of a rectangular tin box with
+a top cut out as illustrated. A piece of brass
+or copper gauze is placed in the top. Asbestos
+wool is used to fill the can, and the alcohol
+is drawn into the wool by capillary attraction,
+where it burns with a steady hot
+flame at the surface of the copper gauze. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+the corner of the can near the feed-pipe another
+small piece of copper gauze is soldered
+as shown. This covers up
+the feed-pipe entrance so
+that the asbestos will not
+plug up the pipe.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_54" id="fig_54"></a>
+<img src="images/i_073b.png" width="400" height="225" alt="Fig. 54" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The engine to be used in
+connection with the boiler
+just described is shown in
+<a href="#fig_53">Fig. 53</a>. This is a very
+simple engine of the oscillation
+type, and there should
+be little trouble in making it.
+A more mechanical drawing of the engine
+is shown in <a href="#fig_54">Fig. 54</a>. The details of the engine
+are shown in <a href="#fig_55">Fig. 55</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="fig_55" id="fig_55"></a>
+<a href="images/i_074-big.png"><img src="images/i_074.png" width="550" height="407" alt="Fig. 55" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cylinder of the engine should be made
+first. This is made from a piece of brass
+tubing with an internal diameter of <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch.
+Two end pieces, or a cylinder-end cover and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+cylinder head, must be cut to fit inside the
+cylinder. These should be cut to shape
+from <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span> inch brass, and a hole drilled in the
+cylinder head <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch in diameter to accommodate
+the piston-rod. The cylinder head
+is then soldered in place. The cylinder-end
+cover should be left until the piston-rod and
+piston are made.</p>
+
+<p>The piston head is cut to shape from a
+piece of <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span>-inch sheet brass, or it can be cut
+from a piece of <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span>-inch round brass with a
+hacksaw. The piston-rod is soldered into a
+hole in the piston-head. A small square
+piece of brass is placed on the opposite end
+of the piston-rod to act as a bearing. This
+little piece is cut and drilled as shown in the
+drawing. Before it is soldered in place on
+the piston-rod the cylinder-end cover should
+be placed on the rod. Both the piston and
+the cylinder-end cover can then be placed inside
+the cylinder, and the piston-end cover is
+soldered in place. Before final assembling
+the piston should be made to fit nicely into
+the cylinder. This can be brought about by
+applying emery cloth to the piston-head until
+it slips nicely into the cylinder with little or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+no play. Thus a steam-tight fit is made, and
+this contributes greatly to the efficiency and
+power of the engine.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="fig_56" id="fig_56"></a><a name="fig_57" id="fig_57"></a>
+<img src="images/i_076.png" width="350" height="256" alt="Fig. 56" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The cylinder blocks are shown in <a href="#fig_55">Fig. 55</a>.
+These are cut and brought to shape with a
+hacksaw and file. With a half-round file
+one side of one of the blocks is filed slightly
+concave, so that it will fit on the outside of
+the cylinder. Two <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch holes are drilled
+in this piece as shown in the drawing. The
+hole at the top is the steam entrance and exhaust
+for the engine; that is, when the cylinder
+is at one side steam enters this hole, and
+when the crank throws the cylinder over to
+the other side steam leaves through the same
+hole after having expanded in the cylinder.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+This cylinder block is soldered to the piston
+as shown in <a href="#fig_56">Fig. 56</a>. The pivot upon which
+the cylinder swings is then put in place in the
+hole at the bottom of the block. Solder is
+flowed around the pivot to hold it securely in
+place.</p>
+
+<p>The second cylinder block is now finished
+according to the drawing. This has two
+holes <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch in diameter bored in it. One
+of these holes is the steam inlet and the other
+the exhaust. When the cylinder is at one
+side of its stroke the hole that was bored in
+the top of the steam block which was soldered
+on the cylinder is in line with the inlet hole
+in the block under consideration. Steam
+then enters the cylinder and forces the piston
+down. This turns the crank around, and
+the crank in turn pulls the piston over to the
+opposite side, so that the hole in the first piston
+block of the cylinder now comes in line
+with the exhaust hole on the second cylinder
+block. The steam in the cylinder escapes
+and the same operation is repeated over
+again. Of course, it must be understood
+that this steam admission and exhaust takes
+place very rapidly. The hole in the second<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+cylinder block, which goes over the pivot,
+must be made a trifle more than <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch in
+diameter, so that it will slide freely over the
+pivot.</p>
+
+<p>The engine is mounted on a very simple
+frame, which is a piece of <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span>-inch brass cut
+and bent as illustrated. After it is cut and
+bent to shape the second cylinder block is
+soldered in place. The cylinder can then be
+mounted. It will be seen that the pivot goes
+through both the second cylinder block and
+the engine standard. A small spring is
+placed over the protruding end of the pivot
+and a nut put in place. By turning this nut
+the pressure on the face of the two cylinder
+blocks can be adjusted, and the model engineer
+must always remember that the pressure
+on these springs must be greater than
+the steam pressure in the feed-pipe. Otherwise
+the steam pressure will force the cylinder-block
+faces apart and steam leakage will
+result. On the other hand, the pressure of
+the spring should not be too great, since that
+would interfere with the free movement of
+the engine cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing now remains to be made except<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+the crank and the flywheel. The crank revolves
+in a small brass bearing which is soldered
+in place on the engine standard. It
+will be seen that the sheet brass that makes
+up the engine standard is not thick enough
+to offer a good bearing for the crank. The
+crank is bent to shape from a piece of <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch
+brass rod, and the author advises the builder
+to heat the brass rod red-hot while the bending
+is done. This will prevent it from fracturing,
+and will also permit a sharp bend to
+be made.</p>
+
+<p>The flywheel is a circular piece of brass 1
+inch in diameter. Its center is drilled out
+and it is soldered to the crank as illustrated
+in <a href="#fig_54">Fig. 54</a>. Two other holes <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch in diameter
+are drilled in the flywheel as illustrated,
+and two small brass pins are cut out from
+<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch brass rod and forced into these holes
+and then soldered. These provide a method
+of driving the propeller-shaft that is shown
+very clearly at <a href="#fig_57">Fig. 57</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The steam feed-pipe that runs from the
+boiler to the engine can be of small copper
+tubing. It may be necessary to mount the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+engine on a small block, as shown in <a href="#fig_53">Fig. 53</a>.
+After the steam in the boiler has reached a
+sufficient pressure the engine crank should
+be given a couple of twists in order to start
+it. Before operating the engine a little lubricating
+oil should be run into the cylinder
+through the inlet or exhaust ports. The cylinder
+should always be kept well lubricated.
+The contacting faces of the cylinder blocks
+should also be kept lubricated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caution.</i> Always keep water in the boiler.
+Never permit it to run dry, as this would
+cause a boiler explosion. When the engine
+is started and cannot be made to run, take
+the burner from under the boiler so that
+steam will cease to be generated. With the
+safety-valve the model boat builder need have
+little fear of an explosion. Nevertheless the
+foregoing directions should be carefully adhered
+to.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>AN ELECTRIC LAUNCH</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>THE little electric launch to be described
+is of very simple construction, and
+when finished it will provide the builder with
+a very shipshape little model from which he
+will be able to derive a good deal of pleasure.
+It has a speed of from 2<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> to 3 miles an hour
+when equipped with dry batteries or storage
+batteries. The hull is of the Sharpie type,
+and this offers very little trouble in cutting
+out and assembling.</div>
+
+<p>The general appearance of the boat and
+hull will be gathered from the drawings.
+The pieces necessary to assemble the hull are
+shown in <a href="#fig_58">Fig. 58</a>. Only five pieces are necessary:
+two side pieces, a stern piece, a bow
+piece, and a bottom piece. The length of the
+boat over all is 40 inches with a 7-inch beam.
+The widest part of the boat is 1 foot 10 inches
+from the bow.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After the pieces that form the hull are cut
+they are thoroughly sandpapered to produce
+a smooth surface. The heavy imperfections
+in the wood can be taken out with coarse
+paper, and the finishing can be done with a
+finer paper. It is understood that sandpapering
+should always be done with the
+grain, never across the grain. The sides of
+the boat are cut about <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch thick, but they
+are planed thinner in places where the bend
+is most pronounced. The side pieces are 2<span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span>
+inches deep at the stern and 2<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches at the
+stern. There is a gradual curve from the
+bow to the stern, which is more marked toward
+the head.</p>
+
+<p>The stern piece is thicker than the side
+pieces, being made of <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span>-inch wood. It is
+cut to the shape shown at <a href="#fig_58">Fig. 58</a>, and beveled
+along the bottom edge to enable it to be
+fixed on the slant. The bow piece is a triangle
+2<span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches in length.</p>
+
+<p>After the parts are thoroughly finished
+with sandpaper the stern piece is fixed in
+position. In making all the joints on the
+boat the builder should see that plenty of
+fairly thick paint is run in while the joint is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+being screwed up. This will help greatly in
+making the boat water-tight. Plenty of <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span>-inch
+brass wood-screws are used in assembling
+the hull. All the holes for the wood-screws
+should be countersunk so that the
+heads will come flush with the surface of the
+hull. Now one of the sides should be
+screwed to the stern piece, at the same time
+bending the bottom and side to meet. This
+is done gradually, inch by inch, and screws
+are put in place at equal distances. When
+the bow is reached, the side piece is beveled
+to fit the bow piece, which should already
+have been screwed into place. The other
+side of the boat is treated in a similar
+manner, and the young worker should take
+care to keep the side and bow piece perfectly
+square and upright. This may sound easy
+on paper, but it will be found that a good
+deal of care must be exercised to produce
+this result.</p>
+
+<p>After the hull has been assembled it is
+given a good coat of paint inside and out.
+When the first coat is dry the holes left by
+the screw-heads are carefully puttied over,
+and the hull is given a second coat of paint.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+This procedure will produce a perfectly
+water-tight hull.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_58" id="fig_58"></a><a name="fig_59" id="fig_59"></a><a name="fig_63" id="fig_63"></a>
+<img src="images/i_084.png" width="400" height="413" alt="Fig. 58" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The stern tube is <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch, outside diameter.
+A hole is bored in the bottom of the boat to
+receive the stern tube. This job must be
+done cautiously; otherwise the bottom of
+the boat may be ruined. It is best to screw
+a substantial block to the inside of the boat.
+This block should be cut to fit the bottom
+and will act as a support for drilling. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+will also help greatly to make a water-tight
+joint around the tube. The distance from
+the point where the stern tube passes through
+the bottom to the stern should be about 12<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span>
+inches. The stern tube should be mounted
+as nearly parallel with the bottom as possible,
+since on this depends the speed of the
+boat. As the angle of the propeller-shaft
+increases, the speed of the boat will decrease.
+In drilling the hole the boat-builder should
+be careful to keep the drill running along
+the central line of the boat.</p>
+
+<p>As before mentioned, the stern tube is a
+piece of brass tubing <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch in diameter and
+8 inches long. It is filed square at both ends,
+and a brass plug is fastened with solder in
+each end. The tube is then filled with
+melted vaseline, which is allowed to cool.
+The hole in the hull around the tube is then
+well smeared with thick paint. When this
+is done, a layer of red lead or putty is placed
+around the joint both on the inside and the
+outside of the boat.</p>
+
+<p>While the putty is drying the spray-hood
+or turtle-deck can be made. This is bent to
+shape from a piece of tinplate and extends<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+half way down the boat. When the turtle-deck
+is finished, it is best to lay it aside, before
+finally fastening it in place, until the entire
+boat is completed.</p>
+
+<p>The wooden part of the deck is made of
+<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch wood and scribed with a sharp knife
+to represent planking. This method of producing
+planking was described in detail in
+Chapter II.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the stern of the boat and just behind
+the motor a hatchway is fitted to give
+access to the batteries and starting switch.</p>
+
+<p>The finished Sharpie hull without its driving
+batteries or motor should weigh about
+1 pound 3 ounces. The hull being finished,
+let us consider the electric propelling equipment.</p>
+
+<p>A <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch cold-rolled steel driving or propeller-shaft
+is used. The shaft is 13 inches
+long and a gear-wheel 1 inch in diameter is
+fixed to one end of this shaft. This gear-wheel
+meshes with a brass pinion on the
+motor-shaft. This forms a 3<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> to 1 reduction
+gear, which produces a greatly increased
+speed of the boat. The other end of the propeller-shaft
+rests in the skeg bearing. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+this present case this consists of a tube about
+<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inch long, which is made for a revolving
+fit on the propeller-shaft and supported by a
+sheet-metal bracket. This is shown in <a href="#fig_63">Fig. 63</a>
+. The end of the propeller also revolves
+adjacent to the bearing in the skeg.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="getting" id="getting"></a>
+<img src="images/i_088.jpg" width="550" height="385" alt="GETTING READY FOR A TRIP" title="" />
+<span class="caption">GETTING READY FOR A TRIP<br />Heating the blow-torch to a point where it will burn automatically</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The propeller is a three-blade affair with
+a diameter of 2<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches. It is attached to
+the propeller-shaft with a set-screw. The
+motor is a very simple type obtainable in the
+open market. It is similar to one shown in
+<a href="#fig_41">Fig. 41</a>. As before mentioned, either dry
+or storage batteries may be used as a source
+of current. The writer strongly advises the
+use of storage batteries if possible. The initial
+cost of these batteries is greater than that
+for dry batteries; but, on the other hand, the
+small storage battery can be charged repeatedly
+and will outlast many dry batteries. If
+the boat is used much the storage battery
+will probably be the more economical of the
+two.</p>
+
+<p>The steering gear of the boat is very
+simple. The rudder works in a bearing that
+is screwed to the stern piece. The end of the
+rudder-shaft is tapped, and a brass screw is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+used to clamp it in position after setting it
+with the fingers. The rudder-shaft is a <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span>-inch
+brass rod. The lower end of this rod
+is slit with a hacksaw and the rudder is
+placed in this. Solder is then flowed along
+the joint.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="all" id="all"></a>
+<img src="images/i_089.jpg" width="500" height="361" alt="ALL READY TO GO!" title="" />
+<span class="caption">ALL READY TO GO!<br />A little boat with steam up, ready for a trip when her owner releases her</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>Of course, the builder may paint his boat
+whatever color he may select; but
+a maroon hull with a white-enameled
+spray-hood or turtle-deck
+makes a very pleasing combination.
+<a href="#fig_60">Fig. 60</a> shows a rough
+plan of the general arrangement
+of the power machinery. <a href="#fig_61">Figs. 61</a>,
+<a href="#fig_62">62</a> and <a href="#fig_63">63</a> will do much to give
+the reader a clear idea of the
+method of construction which could not be
+gained by reading a description.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_60" id="fig_60"></a>
+<img src="images/i_090a.png" width="400" height="170" alt="Fig. 60" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 105px;"><a name="fig_61" id="fig_61"></a>
+<img src="images/i_090b.png" width="105" height="250" alt="Fig. 61" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The general appearance of the boat can be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+improved materially in many ways. For instance,
+a little stack or ventilator may be
+added to the turtle-deck,
+and a little flag-stick carrying
+a tiny flag may be
+placed on the bow and on
+the stern.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a name="fig_62" id="fig_62"></a>
+<img src="images/i_091.png" width="200" height="139" alt="Fig. 62" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The motor current should be turned on
+only when necessary, for dry-cells deteriorate
+rapidly when in use, and small storage
+batteries quickly lose their charge, although
+they will last much longer than dry-cells and
+give much better service.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>A STEAM LAUNCH</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>THE steam launch <i>Nancy Lee</i> is an attractive
+little craft when finished and it
+is capable of attaining considerable speed.
+It is really designed after the cruising type
+of motor-boats. This type of boat is particularly
+adaptable for simple model-making,
+owing to the elimination of awkward fittings.
+The power machinery is of very simple construction
+and presents no real difficulty.</div>
+
+<p>The following materials are necessary to
+construct the <i>Nancy Lee</i>:</p>
+
+<div class='poem2'>
+Large wood block for hull.<br />
+Thin white pine for deck, etc.<br />
+Sheet-metal tube, rod and wire for the boiler, engine, etc.<br />
+Lamp-wick, paint, screws, and brads<br />
+Miscellaneous fittings<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>The actual expense necessary to construct
+the boat is very small.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Having obtained the block for the hull,
+you are ready to start work. The hull, when
+planed on all sides, should be 30 inches long,
+6<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches wide, and 3<span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches deep. A
+center line is drawn down the length of the
+hull, and five cross-section lines are drawn at
+right angles to the center line 5 inches apart.
+On these lines the builder should mark off the
+greatest lengths of the boat, taking the dimensions
+from the half-breadth drawing
+shown in <a href="#fig_64">Fig. 64</a>. It will be noted that the
+deck is wider than the L. W. L. forward and
+narrower than the L. W. L. at the stern.
+The block should be cut to the widest line
+on the half-breadth part.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"><a name="fig_65" id="fig_65"></a><a name="fig_64" id="fig_64"></a><a name="fig_67" id="fig_67"></a>
+<img src="images/i_093.png" width="425" height="191" alt="Fig. 65" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The half-widths in <a href="#fig_64">Fig. 64</a> are drawn
+each side of the center line on the block.
+The block will be cut out to this line and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+planed up as true as possible. The builder
+should then project the section lines with a
+set square on each side of the boat, mark
+off the profile from the sheer plan, <a href="#fig_65">Fig. 65</a>,
+and cut the block to this line, afterward
+planing it up true.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"><a name="fig_66" id="fig_66"></a>
+<img src="images/i_094.png" width="250" height="182" alt="Fig. 66" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The blocks should now appear as sketched
+in <a href="#fig_66">Fig. 66</a>. It is now ready for the shaping
+of its exterior. A plane, a chisel, and a
+draw-knife are the only tools necessary to
+bring the hull to the correct shape. The
+cardboard templates must be cut, one for
+each half-section, as shown in the body plan,
+<a href="#fig_67">Fig. 67</a>. These templates serve to show the
+proper outside shape of the hull. The block
+for the hull must be cut away until each one
+of these templates fits properly into place.
+The various stages are indicated in <a href="#fig_68">Figs. 68</a>
+and <a href="#fig_69">69</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="fig_68" id="fig_68"></a>
+<img src="images/i_095a.png" width="300" height="173" alt="Fig. 68" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The interior of the board is gouged out
+with a gouging chisel, and if the builder desires
+a uniform result he should make inside
+templates. In gouging out the interior of
+the hull the chisel or gouge should be handled
+very carefully; otherwise it is liable to slip
+and spoil the entire hull.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="fig_69" id="fig_69"></a>
+<img src="images/i_095b.png" width="300" height="145" alt="Fig. 69" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The next job is to cut and properly fit the
+raised portion or forecastle. A piece of
+wood 1<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches thick, 15 inches long, and
+6<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches wide must be prepared and laid in
+place on the hull. The shape of the hull is
+marked off with a pencil and the wood sawed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+along this line. The inner portion is also
+cut out, thus making a V-shaped piece which
+must be glued and screwed in place, as shown
+in <a href="#fig_70">Fig. 70</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="fig_70" id="fig_70"></a><a name="fig_71" id="fig_71"></a>
+<img src="images/i_096.png" width="450" height="327" alt="Fig. 71" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The oval air-vents shown in the drawing
+can be cut at this time. The hull is neatly
+finished by cutting in the sheer or curvature
+of the hull and sandpapering it all over. A
+cross-beam or support, <i>C</i>, <a href="#fig_70">Fig. 70</a>, is cut and
+fitted as illustrated. This particular piece
+supports the fore-deck, and also carries the
+main-deck, as well as bracing the boat together.
+This piece should be <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span> inch thick
+and cut from solid oak.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The decks can be made of a good quality
+of white pine. The builder should select
+clean pieces, free from knots and blemishes.
+It only requires to be cut to shape and then
+fixed to the hull with a few brads. The edge
+should be cleaned up flush with the hull by
+the aid of a plane. The opening for the
+cock-pit, shown in the drawing in <a href="#fig_71">Fig. 71</a>,
+is to be cut in the deck. The coamings and
+seats are cut to the sizes indicated in the
+drawings. They are then glued and pinned
+together. When fitted to the deck the result
+will be somewhat as shown in <a href="#fig_71">Fig. 71</a>.</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a name="fig_72" id="fig_72"></a>
+<img src="images/i_097.png" width="150" height="81" alt="Fig. 72" title="" />
+</div>
+<p>The fore-deck is prepared in a similar
+manner; but, since this is to be removable,
+two battens must be fitted to the under side
+to keep it in place. The openings for the
+hatchways can be cut and the hatch-covers
+made by cutting another piece of wood <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span>
+inch thick to form an edging. A cover piece
+to go over the small pieces, removed
+from cutting out the
+hatch opening, is shown at <a href="#fig_72">Fig. 72</a>
+. A coping-saw will be found very useful
+for this work. The covers are neatly
+rounded on the edge and nicely finished.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_74" id="fig_74"></a><a name="fig_76" id="fig_76"></a>
+<img src="images/i_098b.png" width="400" height="162" alt="Fig. 74" title="" />
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"><a name="fig_73" id="fig_73"></a>
+<img src="images/i_098a.png" width="250" height="253" alt="Fig. 73" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 73 will give the reader a very good
+idea of the appearance of the boat at this
+stage. It will be seen that the sketch shows
+the deck broken away
+so as to render the cross-batten
+visible, which
+also shows the fair-lead
+at <i>F</i>, <a href="#fig_73">Fig. 73</a>. This is
+cut from two small
+pieces of <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span>-inch stuff,
+glued and pinned in
+place. The forward deck is completed
+by the addition of cowl-ventilators, cut
+from hard wood and screwed in place.
+The flag-mast is made from a short piece of
+<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span>-inch wire. The details of the mooring-cleats
+are shown in <a href="#fig_74">Fig. 74</a>. They are
+fashioned by using a small screw-eye and
+soldering a short piece of brass wire through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+the eye. An oblong metal plate is then cut
+and a central hole drilled. This plate is
+soldered to the shank of the screw-eye and
+the cleat is complete. One of these devices
+is to be fitted to the fore-deck and two on
+the main-deck and stern.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_75" id="fig_75"></a>
+<img src="images/i_099.png" width="400" height="208" alt="Fig. 75" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The rudder and steering gear will be considered
+next. <a href="#fig_75">Fig. 75</a> shows the stern of the
+boat with the rudder gear mounted in place.
+It will be noted that the rudder-blade is
+merely a piece of sheet brass cut to shape
+and soldered into the rudder-post <i>M</i>, which
+is slit to accommodate it. The rudder-post
+is hung in two screw-eyes on the stern of
+the boat. A small wheel about 1 inch in
+diameter, with an edge filed in it, is soldered
+to the top of the rudder-post. A fine cord
+or string, well stretched and oiled, is attached<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+to the wheel and led through two screw-eyes
+on the deck. From this it is led through an
+opening in the coaming to a drum on the
+steering column, which is turned by another
+small wheel similar to that used on the
+rudder-post, but with a round edge. The
+steering column is merely a piece of <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch
+wire, held in place by two small screw-eyes
+fixed in the coaming and with a tube-brush
+soldered on to keep the wire in position.
+The drum is simply a hard-wood bushing
+driven tightly in place.</p>
+
+<p>The power machinery for the <i>Nancy Lee</i>
+must be considered at this time. This is
+really one of the most interesting parts of the
+construction. The general appearance of
+the power plant can be seen by referring to
+<a href="#fig_77">Fig. 77</a>, which is a view of the complete
+boiler and engine mounted together on the
+same base. The boiler is shown at <i>A</i> and
+the safety-valve and filler at <i>L</i>. The base or
+firebox <i>B</i> protects the burner from stray
+drafts of air, and also supports the boiler.</p>
+
+<p>The lamp or burner consists of a receptacle
+<i>C</i> for containing the denatured alcohol.
+The denatured alcohol is inserted through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+the filler-tube <i>E</i>, which is kept closed with a
+cork. The upright tube <i>D</i> is fitted so that
+air can go into the receptacle containing the
+alcohol. Three burners are necessary to fire
+the boiler. These are fitted as shown in <i>F</i>,
+and they give sufficient heat to produce
+steam enough to drive the cylinder <i>G</i>. The
+steam is conducted to the cylinder through
+the short pipe <i>K</i>. The steam-cylinder has
+the usual piston and rod, which drives the
+circular crank <i>H</i>. This crank is mounted on
+a crankshaft carried on the metal tube <i>M</i>.
+As will be noticed, the cylinder is of the
+simple oscillating type mounted on a standard,
+formed as part of the boiler casing,
+and stiffened by two angle-plates <i>L</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A heavy flywheel, <i>J</i>, is now fitted to the inside
+end of the crankshaft. This wheel
+should be a lead casting, and as heavy as
+possible. A heavy flywheel contributes
+much to the operating efficiency of the engine.
+The propeller-shaft and crank are
+shown at <i>N</i> in the insert.</p>
+
+<p>The boiler is made from a strong tin can
+about 1<span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches in diameter and 4<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches
+long. It is cleaned inside and out, and all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+the seams are double-soldered. The lid is
+also soldered on the can. This little boiler,
+although not elaborately made, will be found
+capable of standing up under considerable
+steam-pressure, and so no fear need be had
+of accidents by explosion.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_77" id="fig_77"></a><a name="fig_78" id="fig_78"></a><a name="fig_79" id="fig_79"></a><a name="fig_80" id="fig_80"></a><a name="fig_81" id="fig_81"></a><a name="fig_82" id="fig_82"></a><a name="fig_83" id="fig_83"></a>
+<a href="images/i_102-big.png"><img src="images/i_102.png" width="400" height="472" alt="Fig. 83" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A little safety-valve and filler-plug suitable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+for use on the boiler are shown clearly in
+<a href="#fig_78">Fig. 78</a>. A piece of sheet tin is cut out to
+the size and shape illustrated in <a href="#fig_79">Fig. 79</a> at <i>A</i>.
+The piece is bent up at the dotted lines and
+the seams are soldered. Two angle-plates,
+<i>B</i>, are then cut and fitted and soldered in
+place. Next a piece of brass tube with a
+<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch bore and 1 inch long is cut and soldered
+in place for the bearing of the crankshaft.
+A lead flywheel 1<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches in diameter
+and <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inch thick is then mounted firmly
+on a piece of straight steel wire 1<span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches
+long, which acts as a shaft.</p>
+
+<p>The shaft is made to run freely in the
+crankshaft bearing that was previously
+soldered in place. The cylinder is shown in
+section in <a href="#fig_80">Fig. 80</a>. If the reader will refer
+back to the construction of the engine described
+in Chapter 4 he will readily understand
+the operation and construction of this
+particular engine.</p>
+
+<p>A little crank must be cut from <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span>-inch
+brass, and soldered to the crankshaft after
+fitting a wire crank-pin to the outer edge.
+This crank-pin should be of such a size that
+the joint on the end of the piston-rod shown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+at <i>A</i>, <a href="#fig_80">Fig. 80</a>, turns on it easily. The throw
+should be only half the stroke of the engine,
+which is <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> of an inch.</p>
+
+<p>The boiler is now fixed in place by bending
+the lugs <i>B</i>, <a href="#fig_79">Fig. 79</a>, so that they just support
+the boiler nicely. They are then
+soldered in place. Next fit the short steam-pipe
+<i>K</i> between the boiler and the steam
+block on the cylinder. The builder should
+take care to keep the steam-pipe well up to
+the top of the boiler.</p>
+
+<p>The lamp should be built at this time.
+The container for the denatured alcohol is
+made from a well soldered tin box of suitable
+size. It can also be made by cutting
+a sheet of tin to the size and shape shown
+in <a href="#fig_81">Fig. 81</a>. The corner joints are soldered
+and then a tin lid is soldered in place. The
+builder should not forget to make the filler-tube
+<i>E</i> and air-tube <i>D</i>, as shown in <a href="#fig_77">Fig. 77</a>,
+before soldering the top piece in place. The
+burners should be made as high as the container,
+and these should be made from little
+pieces of tin bent to shape and soldered on
+to a bottom pipe, as shown in <a href="#fig_77">Fig. 77</a>. The
+builder should also remember to cut the holes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+through this pipe so that the alcohol can get
+into the burner-tubes, and also to solder the
+open end of the bottom or feed tube. Before
+the wicks are put into the lamps, the
+container should be tested by filling it with
+alcohol to see that it is perfectly tight at all
+joints. If it is not the container should be
+gone over again with solder to assure its
+being leak-proof.</p>
+
+<p>Before operating the engine with steam,
+it can be tested with a small bicycle pump
+through the opening for the safety-valve.
+The engine should turn over briskly at every
+stroke of the pump, providing it does not
+come to rest at "dead center." If it does
+come to rest at "dead center," where no air
+can enter the piston, the crankshaft should
+be given a little twist and the engine will
+then start. Before steam is applied it will
+be well to experiment until the engine runs
+with the air-pump.</p>
+
+<p>Having made the engine run smoothly
+with air, steam can be generated in the
+boiler. The wicks should not be placed too
+tightly in the burners. After they are in
+place the container may be filled with denatured<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+alcohol, and the burners lighted and
+placed under the boiler. In a very few minutes
+steam will be up. At the first indication
+of pressure in the boiler the engine
+should be given a twist with the fingers until
+it starts and goes of its own accord. The
+constructor should remember to keep his
+engine well lubricated.</p>
+
+<p>The propeller-shaft is merely a piece of
+steel wire, perfectly straight and fitted with
+a crank <i>A</i>, <a href="#fig_82">Fig. 82</a>. This crank is similar
+to the one fitted to the engine, but with a
+small slot cut out for the crank-pin to fit
+into. This is done so that, as the crank-pin
+on the engine turns around, it also turns a
+slotted crank on the propeller-shaft.</p>
+
+<p>A short piece of tube, <i>C</i>, is now fitted to
+a flat brass plate, <i>D</i>. The plate is mounted
+at an angle to the tube, so that when it is
+in place on the stern of the boat the propeller-shaft
+will be in line with the crankshaft
+of the engine.</p>
+
+<p>A clearance hole is now drilled through
+the hull, so that the propeller-shaft can be
+put in place. Solder the tube to the plate,
+and punch four small holes in the plate, so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+that it can be screwed firmly to the hull.
+Solder a short piece of tube, as shown at <i>B</i>,
+<a href="#fig_82">Fig. 82</a>, to keep the propeller-shaft in position.</p>
+
+<p>The propeller must now be made. This is
+easily done by cutting out a disk of brass 1<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span>
+inches in diameter, as shown in <a href="#fig_83">Fig. 83</a>. The
+shaded portions of the brass disk are cut
+away. The blades are bent to shape, care
+being taken to see that they are all alike.
+This done, the propeller is soldered to the
+propeller-shaft.</p>
+
+<p>The only part of the job that remains is
+to screw the boiler in place under the fore-deck
+of the boat. This done, the <i>Nancy Lee</i>
+is ready for her trial. The fore-deck should
+be made removable by fitting it with pins or
+screws with the heads cut off, so that the
+deck only needs pushing into place. This
+little boat should be capable of attaining a
+speed of from four to five miles an hour if
+it is made carefully and according to the
+directions outlined in this Chapter.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>AN ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN LAKE FREIGHTER</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>A PROTOTYPE of the model lake
+freighter described in this Chapter
+will probably be familiar to many readers.
+It is a type of boat used on the Great Lakes,
+and, owing to its peculiarity of design, it
+lends itself very well to construction in model
+form.</div>
+
+<p>The lines of the boat may be seen very
+clearly in <a href="#fig_84">Fig. 84</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The hull of the model freighter measures
+four feet over all, and the beam at the water-line
+is 8 inches. The extreme draft will be
+in the neighborhood of 5 inches. This
+model, when completed, will be capable of
+carrying considerable weight; in fact, it is
+able to accommodate thirty-five pounds in
+weight when used in fresh water. This will
+give the builder an opportunity to install a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+very substantial power equipment with little
+regard for weight.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="fig_84" id="fig_84"></a><a name="fig_85" id="fig_85"></a>
+<img src="images/i_109.png" width="550" height="437" alt="Fig. 84" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The hull is made according to the built-up
+principle, and the constructor will have to
+cut his templates before attempting the shaping
+of the hull. Owing to the depth of the
+model, it will be necessary to use about ten
+planks. The plank that is used to form the
+bottom of the boat is not gouged out.
+Every other plank is gouged out with a saw
+and chisel.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The bottom plank is shaped with a knife
+to conform to the lines of the boat. In building
+up the hull with the planks, they should
+first be smeared with glue, and when put in
+place a few brass brads should be driven in.
+As mentioned in an earlier part of this book,
+iron nails should not be used in work of this
+nature, owing to the fact that they will rust
+and cause trouble. The brass brads are
+placed about one inch apart the entire length
+of the boards. The hull is finished with a
+plane and sandpaper, and after it has been
+brought to shape in this way and finished, a
+coat of paint is applied. Black with dark
+red trimmings makes a very good combination
+for a boat of this type.</p>
+
+<p>The deck is made from a piece of <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span>-inch
+pine board. Seven hatches are added to the
+deck. Six of these hatches can be made by
+merely gluing a square piece of <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span>-inch wood
+to the deck. The seventh hatch should be
+made with a hole cut in the deck, so that
+access can be had to the power motor.</p>
+
+<p>The deck-house, wheel-house, and chart-house,
+as well as the bridge, should be constructed
+of tin, which may be salvaged from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+clean tin cans. The bridge is provided with
+spray-cloths made from white adhesive tape,
+as outlined in Chapter 9. The port-holes in
+the deck-house and hull are made by little
+pieces of brass forced in place over a small
+piece of mica. The life-boats, which are
+carried on top of the engine-house, are
+whittled out of a solid piece of wood and
+painted white. Life-boats are always
+painted white, regardless of the color of the
+boat upon which they are used. The life-boats
+are held by means of string and small
+dummy pulleys to davits made of heavy
+stovepipe wire. A rub-streak made of a
+piece of <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span>-inch square pine is tacked to each
+side of the hull just below the sheer-line.
+The rub-streak should be tacked in place with
+nails such as those used on cigar-boxes.</p>
+
+<p>The funnel measures 1 inch in diameter by
+4 inches long. A small exhaust steam pipe,
+which can be made from a piece of brass
+tubing, is mounted directly aft of the funnel.
+The forward deck fittings consist mainly of
+a steering-boom, two bollards, two fair-heads,
+and four life-buoys mounted on the
+bridge. The main-deck is equipped with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+six bollards and two covered ventilators,
+each <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inch in diameter. The foremast is
+properly stayed in the deck, and should be
+fitted with rat-lines. The rat-lines can be
+made with black thread and finished with
+varnish, which when dry will tend to hold
+the threads in shape.</p>
+
+<p>The rudder is cut from a piece of sheet
+brass to the shape shown, and fitted with a
+quadrant. The engine cabin can be made
+from cigar-box wood. The windows and
+doors can either be painted in place, or the
+windows can be cut and backed up with sheet
+celluloid. A good substitute for painted
+doors will be found in small pieces of tin
+painted a different color from the cabin.
+The same procedure may be followed in fitting
+the windows and doors to the forward
+cabin.</p>
+
+<p>We are now ready to consider the power
+plant. Owing to the large displacement of
+the boat, it will carry a fairly heavy storage
+battery. The electric motor and storage
+battery are mounted in the manner shown
+in <a href="#fig_85">Fig. 85</a>, which will also give the reader
+an idea of the appearance of the finished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+model. As the drawing indicates, it will not
+be necessary to tilt the motor to any great
+degree in order to bring the propeller to the
+proper depth. This is because of the depth
+of the boat. Instead of a string or belt to
+connect the motor with the propeller, the
+shaft of the motor is taken out and replaced
+by a longer steel rod that will serve both
+as a motor-shaft and a propeller-shaft.
+The propeller-shaft extends from the motor
+through the stern-tube. The propeller used
+for this model is a three-blade affair, 3 inches
+in diameter. It must be of this size in order
+to propel a boat of these dimensions at a
+consistent speed.</p>
+
+<p>Care must be taken in mounting the motor
+in this way. If it is not mounted directly in
+line with the stern-tube the propeller-shaft
+will have a tendency to bind. However,
+with a little care no trouble should be experienced
+from this source. The storage
+battery used should be of the four-volt forty-ampere
+hour variety. This boat will be capable
+of carrying such a battery and this
+weight should just bring the craft down to
+her load water-line. The whole deck is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+made removable, so that the storage battery
+can be taken in and out at times when it is
+necessary to recharge it. A battery of this
+capacity, however, will drive a small motor
+similar to the type used on the boat for some
+time.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>AN ELECTRIC SUBMARINE-CHASER</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>THE submarine chaser design given in
+the drawings and described in the text
+of this Chapter is a presentable little boat
+with pleasing lines and deck fittings. There
+is nothing difficult about its construction,
+and, considering the amount of work necessary
+to produce it, it is probably one of the
+most pleasing boats described in the book.
+If made correctly it will look "speedy" and
+shipshape.</div>
+
+<p>The general outline of the boat can be
+gathered from <a href="#fig_86">Figs. 86</a>, <a href="#fig_87">87</a>, and <a href="#fig_88">88</a>. <a href="#fig_86">Fig. 86</a>
+gives a side view of the craft; <a href="#fig_87">Fig. 87</a> shows
+the bow, while <a href="#fig_88">Fig. 88</a> gives the deck-plan.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="fig_86" id="fig_86"></a><a name="fig_87" id="fig_87"></a><a name="fig_88" id="fig_88"></a>
+<img src="images/i_116.png" width="450" height="377" alt="Fig. 86" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Notice first the construction of the hull.
+This is made according to the Sharpie type,
+but the lines are changed to give the boat a
+more graceful appearance. This is done by
+changing the shape of the deck and the bottom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+pieces. <a href="#fig_89">Fig. 89</a> shows the various pieces
+necessary to construct the hull. It will be
+seen that the forward portion of the bottom
+piece is narrower than the deck piece, and
+broadens out so that it is wider at the stern
+than the deck piece. The deck piece has a
+maximum width of 5 inches, while the bottom
+piece has a width of 4 inches at the forward
+section. The deck measures 3<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches
+at the stern, while the bottom piece measures
+4<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches at the stern. This produces a
+half-inch taper on each side of the stern. A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+half-inch taper is also produced on the bow
+portion.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="fig_89" id="fig_89"></a><a name="fig_90" id="fig_90"></a><a name="fig_91" id="fig_91"></a>
+<img src="images/i_117.png" width="500" height="434" alt="Fig. 90" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The hull of the boat can be made from
+<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch mahogany. If this is not available,
+choose some other close-grained wood, free
+from knots and blemishes. Paper patterns
+are made to correspond with the general
+shape of the pieces that form the hull as
+given in <a href="#fig_89">Fig. 89</a>. The pieces, after being
+marked, are cut to shape with a keyhole-saw.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+After this is done their edges should be
+trimmed neatly with a jack-plane.</p>
+
+<p>The two sides pieces are now screwed to
+the bow piece by small brass screws. After
+this is done the bottom piece is fastened to
+the side pieces the entire length of the boat.
+Next the first cross-piece, as shown in <a href="#fig_90">Fig. 90</a>
+, is screwed in place. This cross-piece
+should be 4<span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches in length, so that the
+width of the hull at this point is just 5 inches.
+The next cross-piece should correspond to
+the width of the deck piece at the section of
+the hull where it is placed. The same holds
+true for the third cross-piece. When the
+third cross-piece has been screwed in place,
+the stern piece is put in position.</p>
+
+<p>The joints of the hull should then be
+smeared with either pitch or bath-tub
+enamel or a thick mixture of white lead may
+be used.</p>
+
+<p>After having made sure that the hull is
+perfectly water-tight the worker can proceed
+to install the power equipment. This
+consists of a small battery motor driven with
+two dry cells. The design and installation
+of such things as stern-tubes and propeller-shafts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+have been taken up in detail in an
+earlier part of this book. The strut that
+holds the propeller-shaft is shown in <a href="#fig_91">Fig. 91</a>
+. This consists merely of a brass bushing
+held in a bracket made of a strip of brass
+<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inch wide. The brass strip is wound
+around the bushing and soldered. It is held
+to the bottom of the hull by means of two
+8-32 brass machine screws. These screws
+should be tightened to prevent leakage. It
+would be inadvisable to use wood-screws for
+this purpose, owing to the fact that the bottom
+piece of the boat is thin.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a name="fig_92" id="fig_92"></a><a name="fig_93" id="fig_93"></a>
+<img src="images/i_119.png" width="350" height="338" alt="Fig. 93" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The two dry batteries for the motor are
+held in two tin troughs, as illustrated in <a href="#fig_92">Fig. 92</a>
+. These troughs are fastened to the side
+of the boat by means of small bolts. They<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+will prevent the boat from shifting its cargo;
+in other words, they hold the batteries in
+place and thereby prevent the boat from listing.</p>
+
+<p>The deck and deck fittings should now be
+furnished. The construction of the forward
+cabin is shown in <a href="#fig_93">Fig. 93</a>. The sides and
+back are formed with cigar-box wood, while
+the curved front can best be made with a
+piece of tin. The top is also cut to shape
+from cigar-box wood, and should overlap
+about <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch. The pilot-house is simplicity
+itself, being made of a piece of curved tin
+with three windows cut in it. Four little
+lugs cut in the tin are bent on the inside and
+each provided with a hole. These lugs are
+used to tack the pilot-house to the deck. A
+small skylight is produced from a solid piece
+of wood and tacked in place as illustrated in
+the drawing.</p>
+
+<p>The builder is cautioned not to destroy
+the appearance of his boat by making the
+mast too large. After the mast has been
+nicely sandpapered, a little wire frame is
+bent to shape and fastened to the top, as
+shown in <a href="#fig_87">Fig. 87</a>. The little wire railing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+that is placed in front of the mast is then
+bent to shape, and this and the mast are put
+in their permanent position. The mast can
+be held to the deck by boring a hole a little
+under size and smearing the bottom of the
+mast with a little glue before it is forced in.
+Pieces of black thread are run from the top
+of the mast to the railing at the bottom, as
+shown. These threads are used to hoist signal
+flags. Two little angle-pieces are placed
+on the forward deck, one on each side of the
+pilot-house. These are for the harbor
+lights. One should be painted green and
+one red.</p>
+
+<p>This finishes the forward cabin. It
+should be placed in the center of the deck
+and the position it occupies should be marked
+out with a pencil. This portion of the deck
+should be carefully cut out with a coping-saw.
+The cabin is then forced into the opening.
+The fit should be fairly tight, so that
+it will not be necessary to employ nails or
+glue, as this is the only way in which the
+interior of the hull is made accessible.</p>
+
+<p>Two ventilators are placed just back of
+the forward cabin. Between the forward<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+cabin and the cabin aft there is placed a
+rapid-fire gun. The details of this gun are
+given in <a href="#fig_94">Fig. 94</a>. The barrel of the gun is
+made of a piece of brass rod. A hole is
+drilled through this rod
+with a small drill and a
+piece of copper wire is inserted.
+A square piece of
+brass for the breech is then
+drilled out to receive the
+barrel. One end of the
+barrel is placed in this hole
+and held with a drop of solder. A drop of
+solder should also be used on the copper wire
+that runs through the barrel. The bearing
+and shield of the gun are made from thin
+sheet brass, as illustrated. Three holes are
+drilled in the bearing bracket, two through
+which the wire passes and one through which
+the small nail is placed to hold the bearing to
+the wooden standard. The shield is forced
+over the barrel and held in place with a drop
+of solder. When the barrel is mounted in
+the bearing, a drop of solder should be put
+in place to prevent the barrel of the gun
+from tipping.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 228px;"><a name="fig_94" id="fig_94"></a>
+<img src="images/i_122.png" width="228" height="250" alt="Fig. 94" title="" />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The cabin which is placed aft on the boat,
+is of very simple construction. It is made
+up entirely of cigar-box wood tacked together,
+and the top should overlap <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch.
+The cabin is then tacked to the deck of the
+boat. The mast should be only three-fourths
+as high as the forward mast, and a
+tiny hole is drilled near the top. Into this
+hole a small piece of soft wire is placed, and
+from this wire a thread runs to the cabin.
+A small flag can then be placed on the thread,
+as illustrated in <a href="#fig_86">Fig. 86</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Six port-holes are now bored in each side
+of the hull with a <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span>-inch bit. These can be
+backed up with mica or celluloid. Five
+smaller port-holes made with a <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span>-inch drill
+are then bored in each side of the forward
+cabin. Three are placed in the aft cabin.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of painting, the hull
+is now ready to be launched. Before finally
+applying the paint the hull should be given
+a thorough rubbing with sandpaper. A battleship
+gray with maroon trimmings makes
+a pleasing color combination for this boat.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>BOAT FITTINGS</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>THE model boat builder generally has
+some trouble in producing the necessary
+fittings for his boats. It is practically
+impossible to buy such things in this country,
+and so it is necessary to make them.</div>
+
+<p>Using a little care, it is possible to make
+presentable fittings by utilizing odds and
+ends found about the household and shop.
+In this Chapter the author will describe the
+construction of the more important fittings
+necessary to model boats, such as stacks,
+searchlights, bollards, cowl-ventilators, davits,
+and binnacles.</p>
+
+<p>The smokestack is probably one of the
+easiest things to produce. A very suitable
+method of producing a smokestack is shown
+in <a href="#fig_95">Fig. 95</a>. The stack itself is cut from a
+piece of thin brass tubing. It is also possible
+to use a small tin can of the proper diameter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+In both cases, of course, paint must
+be applied to improve the appearance of the
+brass or tin. If the stack is painted either
+gray or white a red band near the top of
+the stack produces a good finish and makes
+it look more shipshape.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 303px;"><a name="fig_95" id="fig_95"></a><a name="fig_97" id="fig_97"></a>
+<img src="images/i_125.png" width="303" height="350" alt="Fig. 95" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The method of anchoring the stack to the
+deck of the boat is shown very clearly. First
+a block of wood is cut about the same diameter
+as the internal diameter of the stack.
+This block of wood is then forced up into the
+stack. A small square base is then cut, and
+fastened to the block on the inside of the
+stack with a wood-screw. It might be mentioned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+here that it is often necessary to drill
+a hole with a small hand drill before driving
+the screw in, to prevent splitting the wood.</p>
+
+<p>After the base piece is fastened to the
+stack, the base in turn is held to the deck
+of the boat by two small screws driven up
+from beneath. The guy-wires can then be
+fastened on. The guy-wires should be made
+of very fine wire, since heavy wire would be
+entirely out of proportion. The wire can
+be fastened on the stack by drilling a tiny
+hole through the stack. A knot is then tied
+in one end of the wire, and the opposite end
+threaded through the hole. Small screw-eyes
+driven into the base piece are used to
+anchor the guy-wires.</p>
+
+<p>Ventilators are a very important part of
+the boat. The model-builder will encounter
+considerable trouble if he attempts to make
+his cowl-ventilator from metal, unless he is
+very experienced in drawing copper out by
+hand. The writer has found a method of
+producing cowl-ventilators by the use of clay
+pipes. Clay pipes can be purchased for a
+few cents each, and when cut down as shown
+in <a href="#fig_96">Fig. 96</a> they form very suitable ventilators.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+The pipe can be cut as shown by the
+use of a file. The ventilator is held to the
+deck of the boat by being forced into a hole
+in the deck that is just a trifle under size.
+Of course, the forcing will have to be done
+carefully to prevent the stem from cracking.
+The inside of the ventilator should always
+be painted red, and the outside should be the
+same color as the boat. Ventilators made in
+this way absolutely defy detection and do
+much toward bettering the general appearance
+of the craft upon which they are used.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;"><a name="fig_96" id="fig_96"></a><a name="fig_98" id="fig_98"></a>
+<img src="images/i_127.png" width="280" height="350" alt="Fig. 98" title="" />
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>A simple searchlight, easily made by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+model boat builder, is shown in <a href="#fig_97">Fig. 97</a>.
+This is an electric light, and the batteries
+used to propel the boat can be used for the
+light. First a small circular piece of wood
+is cut out, as shown at <i>A</i>, <a href="#fig_97">Fig. 97</a>. The
+center of this is drilled out to accommodate
+a small flashlight bulb. A tiny brass screw
+is then driven into the piece of wood, so that
+it will come in contact with the center of the
+base of the flashlight bulb. This little screw
+forms one of the electrical contacts, and one
+of the wires from the battery is attached to
+it.</p>
+
+<p>A little strip of brass is then cut as shown
+in <i>B</i>, <a href="#fig_97">Fig. 97</a>, and provided with three holes,
+one hole at each end and one in the middle.
+The brass is bent into a semicircular shape,
+so that it will be just a little larger in diameter
+than the outside of the wooden piece in
+which the flashlight bulb is mounted. This
+little piece is then fastened to a wooden post
+with a small brass pin, as shown in <a href="#fig_97">Fig. 97</a>.
+Two more pins are used to hold the wooden
+piece to the searchlight proper. One of
+these pins is driven through the wooden piece
+until it comes in contact with the base of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+flashlight bulb. This forms the other electrical
+connection, and the second feed wire
+from the battery can be attached to the little
+brass piece that holds the searchlight. Both
+the feed wires from the battery can come
+up through a hole in the deck close to the
+wooden post upon which the searchlight is
+mounted.</p>
+
+<p>Bollards are very easily made. Reference
+to <a href="#fig_98">Fig. 98</a> will make this clear. First a little
+strip of brass is cut, and this is drilled as
+shown with two holes, one at each end and
+two smaller holes in the center. Two little
+circular pieces of wood are then cut, with a
+hole through the center. A brass screw
+passes through these and into the deck of the
+boat. The brass screw should not be
+driven in too far, since the bollards should
+be free to revolve. It is also possible to use
+brass tubing instead of wood if the proper
+size is in the model-builder's shop.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="powerful" id="powerful"></a>
+<img src="images/i_130.jpg" width="550" height="287" alt="A POWERFUL GASOLENE BLOW-TORCH" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A POWERFUL GASOLENE BLOW-TORCH<br />For a metre racing boat. Such a torch will deliver a steady, hot flame forfifteen minutes</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A word will be said here about finishing
+the deck of a model boat. It is a very tedious
+job to cut separate planks to form the
+deck. In fact, this job is quite beyond the
+ability, to say nothing of the patience, of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+average young model-builder. A very
+simple method of producing imitation planking
+is shown in <a href="#fig_99">Fig. 99</a>. A sharp knife and
+a straight-edge are the only tools for this
+work. The straight-edge is merely used to
+guide the knife. The cuts should not be
+made too deep, and they should be made a
+uniform distance apart. When the deck is
+finished in this manner and varnished over,
+a very pleasing effect is produced. In fact,
+if the work is done carefully, the deck looks
+very much as if it were planked.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="just" id="just"></a>
+<img src="images/i_131.jpg" width="550" height="301" alt="JUST AFTER THE RACE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">JUST AFTER THE RACE<br />A line-up of the entries in one of the power boat races held at Central Park, New York City.
+The author presented the cup to the owner of Elmara III, the winning boat, which attained a speed
+of nearly thirty miles an hour</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"><a name="fig_99" id="fig_99"></a>
+<img src="images/i_132.jpg" width="425" height="286" alt="Fig. 99" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_101" id="fig_101"></a><a name="fig_104" id="fig_104"></a>
+<img src="images/i_133b.png" width="400" height="266" alt="Fig. 104" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"><a name="fig_100" id="fig_100"></a>
+<img src="images/i_133a.png" width="250" height="168" alt="Fig. 100" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>A small life-boat is shown in <a href="#fig_100">Fig. 100</a>.
+This can easily be carved to shape from a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+small piece of soft white pine. The center
+is gouged out, and tiny little seats made of
+thin strips of wood are glued in place. Two
+small screw-eyes are placed in the boat, for
+fastening it to the davits. The davits are
+shown in <a href="#fig_101">Fig. 101</a>, at <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>. They are
+made by bending a piece of small brass rod,
+as shown. One end of the rod is hammered
+flat, and a hole is made in it with a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+very small drill. Holes a little under size
+are drilled in the deck, and the davits are
+forced into these. The method of suspending
+the life-boat from the davits is shown at
+<i>B</i>, <a href="#fig_101">Fig. 101</a>. The little blocks of wood are
+glued on to a thread to represent pulleys, and
+they are, of course, only imitation or dummy
+pulleys.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="fig_102" id="fig_102"></a>
+<img src="images/i_134.png" width="300" height="189" alt="Fig. 102" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The method of producing port-holes is
+shown in <a href="#fig_102">Fig. 102</a>. A hole is first bored
+through the wood with a bit of the proper
+size. The size of the port-holes depends entirely
+upon the size of the boat. A piece of
+brass tubing is then cut off with a hacksaw
+to form a brass bushing. The outside diameter
+of this tubing should be the same as
+the size of the bit used. For instance, if a
+<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span>-inch bit is used, brass tubing <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inch in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+diameter should be purchased. Such tubing
+can be obtained from any hardware store.
+Celluloid, such as that used for windows in
+automobile curtains, is glued to the inside of
+the port-holes. This makes a splendid substitute
+for glass. It can be obtained at
+garages and automobile supply stores for a
+few cents a square foot. The model boat
+builder can also use either mica or glass for
+this purpose, although thick glass looks
+somewhat out of place.</p>
+
+<p>A binnacle is shown in <a href="#fig_103">Fig. 103</a>. This is
+made from a solid piece of
+wood cut with a semi-spherical
+top. The steering-wheel
+is made of a wheel
+from an old alarm clock.
+The teeth of the wheel
+should be filed off. Tiny pieces of wire are
+then soldered in place on the wheel, as
+shown. A pin driven through the center of
+the steering-wheel is used to fasten it to the
+binnacle. The binnacle itself can be held to
+the deck either by glue or by a small screw.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 177px;"><a name="fig_103" id="fig_103"></a>
+<img src="images/i_135.png" width="177" height="175" alt="Fig. 103" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>A torpedo-tube for use on model destroyers
+and battleships is shown in <a href="#fig_104">Fig. 104</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+First two disks of wood are cut. Then a circular
+piece is cut, as shown. Two brass
+nails are then driven through this piece into
+one of the disks. An upholstering tack is
+driven into the end of the circular piece, as
+pictured. The method of attaching the
+torpedo-tube to the deck is clearly illustrated
+in <a href="#fig_104">Fig. 104</a> and no further directions need
+be given. If the model-builder has a small
+piece of brass tube on hand suitable for use
+in this case, it will make a much better appearing
+tube than the piece of wood illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>A wireless antenna is shown at <a href="#fig_105">Fig. 105</a>.
+This is a fitting that will do much toward
+improving the appearance of any craft.
+Very fine copper wire is used for the a&euml;rial.
+The little spreaders are cut to shape from
+wood, and a tiny hole is punched through
+them through which the wire is placed.
+Black beads slipped on the wire serve very
+well as insulators. The lead-in wire which
+drops to the wireless cabin is attached to the
+a&euml;rial by winding it around each one of the
+a&euml;rial waves. The a&euml;rial should be suspended
+between the masts of the vessel. A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+few words should be said about masts in general.
+If there is one way in which a model-builder
+can destroy the appearance of a
+model boat, it is by using badly proportioned
+masts. The average boy seems inclined
+to use a mast of too great a diameter,
+which makes it out of proportion with the
+rest of the boat. It is better to have a mast
+too small rather than too large.</p>
+
+<p>The method of producing railing is shown
+in <a href="#fig_106">Fig. 106</a>. The same small brass rod that
+was used for the davits can be used for the
+rail stanchions. One end of the stanchions
+is hammered flat and drilled out. The
+stanchions are fastened to the deck by first
+drilling small holes and forcing them into
+it. Thread or very fine wire is used for the
+railing. Fine wire is preferred owing to the
+fact that it will not break so easily under
+strain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;"><a name="fig_105" id="fig_105"></a><a name="fig_106" id="fig_106"></a><a name="fig_107" id="fig_107"></a><a name="fig_108" id="fig_108"></a><a name="fig_109" id="fig_109"></a><a name="fig_110" id="fig_110"></a>
+<img src="images/i_138.png" width="475" height="563" alt="Fig. 105" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 107 shows a good method of producing
+stairs. It must be remembered that
+stairs are often used in model-boat construction.
+First a strip of tin is bent as shown.
+Then two more strips, which act as side
+pieces, are cut. One of these strips is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+soldered to each side of the stairs. Then
+six stanchions, which can be made from
+heavy copper wire, are soldered to the side
+pieces, as shown. The railing can be made
+from copper wire or black thread.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 108 shows a small skylight placed on
+the deck. This is easily made from cigar-box-wood
+glued together. The holes in the
+top pieces for the windows are cut with a
+very sharp knife. It will be necessary to
+use a little patience in this, to prevent the
+piece from splitting and to prevent cracks.
+A piece of celluloid is glued underneath the
+top pieces before they are finally glued in
+place.</p>
+
+<p>A small quick-firing deck-gun is shown in
+<a href="#fig_109">Fig. 109</a>. This is a very simple fitting and
+can be made with very little difficulty. The
+base of the gun is formed by cutting a
+thread-spool in half. A piece of small brass
+tubing is used to form the barrel. A little
+piece of sheet tin is looped over the back of
+the gun to represent the breech. A tiny
+piece of wire is held to the side of the breech
+with a drop of solder, to represent a handle.
+The shield of the gun is cut from a piece of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+tin, as shown. A hole is made in the bottom
+of this, so that the nail that passes
+through the barrel of the gun will also pass
+through this hole and into the spool. The
+center of the spool should be plugged to hold
+the nail. After the gun is painted gray or
+black it will appear very businesslike, considering
+the small amount of labor spent in
+producing it.</p>
+
+<p>Anchors are more or less difficult to make
+(Fig. 110), and unless the builder is endowed
+with a great amount of patience he
+will not be able to file them out of solid metal.
+A dummy anchor can be easily cut out of
+wood, however, and when painted black it
+will answer instead of a metal one. The
+anchor shown at <i>A</i> is a very simple type
+made out of a solid piece of wood. The one
+at <i>B</i>, however, is made out of two pieces of
+wood fastened together with a pin, as shown.
+The bottom piece of the anchor shown at <i>B</i>
+should be rather thick to get the proper effect,
+and the two points should be tapered
+nicely. The center of the bottom piece
+should be hollowed out to accommodate the
+vertical piece.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A common hatch is shown at <a href="#fig_111">Fig. 111</a>.
+This can be made in the form of an open box
+from cigar-box wood, and glued to the deck.
+It is not necessary to cut a hole in the deck
+for this purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;"><a name="fig_111" id="fig_111"></a><a name="fig_113" id="fig_113"></a><a name="fig_115" id="fig_115"></a><a name="fig_116" id="fig_116"></a>
+<img src="images/i_141.png" width="475" height="354" alt="Fig. 115" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>A cargo-hoist for use on model freight-boats
+is shown in <a href="#fig_112">Fig. 112</a>. This is a
+very simple piece of work and will need
+little description. Several stay-wires should
+be fastened to the main-mast and held to the
+deck with small screw-eyes. The boom
+should be made a trifle smaller in diameter
+than the mast. The pulleys are dummy, like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+those on the life-boat. A little hook bent to
+shape from copper wire is placed on the end
+of the thread, as shown.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 185px;"><a name="fig_112" id="fig_112"></a>
+<img src="images/i_142a.png" width="185" height="250" alt="Fig. 112" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Fig. 113 shows a method of making a
+whistle and an engine exhaust. The engine
+exhaust is made of a piece of wood, and the
+furled top is produced by an eyelet such as
+those used in shoes. The engine exhaust is
+always placed immediately back of the last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+smokestack. The whistle is a simple device
+made almost entirely of wood. The whistle-cord
+is of thread attached to the small piece
+of wire, as shown.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="fig_114" id="fig_114"></a>
+<img src="images/i_142b.png" width="300" height="212" alt="Fig. 114" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 114 shows the method of making
+spray-cloths for the top of the pilot-house.
+Small brass brads are driven into the top of
+the pilot-house, and white adhesive tape is
+placed on the brads, as pictured. Advantage
+can be taken of the adhesive substance
+on the tape which holds it in place on the
+brads.</p>
+
+<p>A rudder is shown in <a href="#fig_115">Fig. 115</a>. The
+rudder-post should be a piece of brass rod
+so thick that it can be split with a hacksaw.
+The sheet brass that forms the rudder
+proper is placed in this split and soldered.
+In the case of an ornamental boat the rudder
+can be fixed as shown in <a href="#fig_115">Fig. 115</a>. It
+will be seen that it is quite impossible to keep
+the rudder in adjustment in this way.</p>
+
+<p>If the rudder is to be kept in a certain adjustment
+a quadrant is necessary. This is
+made by using a semicircular piece of heavy
+sheet brass and filing little notches in it.
+The lever of the rudder rests in these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+notches, and by this means the rudder can
+be held in any one position, so that the boat
+will either turn in a circle or go straight.
+<a href="#fig_116">Fig. 116</a> illustrates such an arrangement.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DESIGN OF MODEL STEAM-ENGINES</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>INSTEAD of describing the construction
+of several model engines of different design,
+the author thinks it advisable to put
+the reader in possession of the fundamentals
+of model steam-engine design and construction.
+In this way the model engineer will be
+able to design and construct model steam-engines
+according to his own ideas and in
+accordance with the raw materials and miscellaneous
+parts he may find in his workshop.
+Unless the young mechanic is in possession
+of a very well equipped workshop, it is quite
+impossible to construct a steam-engine according
+to certain specifications. However,
+if he has in mind the fundamental principles
+of steam-engine design, he can go ahead and
+design his engine, for which he will have
+no trouble in machining or producing the
+parts that enter into its construction. By<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+this the author means that the workman can
+design his engine to meet the materials he
+has on hand.</div>
+
+<p>Notice <a href="#fig_117">Fig. 117</a>. This is a cylinder into
+which is fitted a piston. If steam is forced
+into the cylinder the piston
+will be forced to the opposite
+end of the cylinder. If some
+means is then provided so that
+the steam can escape and the
+piston come back, another impulse
+can be given it by admitting
+more steam, and thus a continuous motion
+may be produced. This is how the
+steam-engine works.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 220px;"><a name="fig_117" id="fig_117"></a>
+<img src="images/i_146.png" width="220" height="300" alt="Fig. 117" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Having learned how motion is imparted
+to the piston by the expansion of steam under
+pressure, attention is directed to what is
+known as the "D" slide-valve. This slide-valve
+permits steam to enter the cylinder and
+to exhaust at proper intervals. See <a href="#fig_118">Fig. 118</a>.
+Steam enters the steam-chest through the
+pipe <i>A</i>. The slide-valve is shown at <i>D</i>.
+When the slide-valve is in the position
+shown, steam enters the cylinder, and by the
+time the cylinder has arrived in the position<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+shown by the dotted line <i>C</i>, the slide-valve
+moves over, closing the passage <i>B</i>. The
+steam under pressure forces the piston to
+the <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'oppositite'">opposite</ins> end of the cylinder. When
+the piston reaches the opposite end of the
+cylinder, steam that has entered through the
+passage <i>F</i> again forces the piston back to
+its original position. This is caused by the
+slide-valve shifting its position, because of
+the impulse it received at the opposite end
+of the cylinder. Thus it will be seen that
+when the piston is at one end of the cylinder
+the opposite end is exhausting. By carefully
+studying <a href="#fig_118">Fig. 118</a> the action of the <i>D</i> valve
+will be understood. The connecting-rod <i>E</i>
+is connected to the crankshaft and in this
+way the engine is caused to revolve.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="fig_118" id="fig_118"></a>
+<img src="images/i_147.png" width="300" height="191" alt="Fig. 118" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>A cylinder similar to that shown in <a href="#fig_118">Fig. 118</a>
+ is called a double-acting cylinder. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+is because the steam acts on both sides of the
+piston. Single-acting cylinders are cylinders
+in which the steam expands on only
+one side of the piston. In the single-acting
+engines the <i>D</i> valve is modified.</p>
+
+<p>The "stroke" of a steam-engine depends
+upon the length of the cylinder; really, the
+stroke is the distance travelled by the piston.
+In model engines it ranges from <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> of
+an inch to 1<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches. The bore of a cylinder
+is its internal diameter. The bore is usually
+a trifle smaller than the stroke. Thus it is
+common to have a stroke of <span class='frac'><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch and a
+cylinder-bore of <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch.</p>
+
+<p>At this juncture the author would caution
+the more inexperienced young mechanics not
+to build double-acting engines. The valve
+mechanism is somewhat intricate and very
+difficult to regulate. The construction is
+also much more complicated, and this also
+holds true of the designing. On the other
+hand, single-acting engines, while not so
+powerful for a given size, will do very
+nicely in driving model boats, and will deliver
+sufficient power for all ordinary purposes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;"><a name="fig_119" id="fig_119"></a>
+<img src="images/i_149.png" width="475" height="357" alt="Fig. 119" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Your attention is directed to <a href="#fig_119">Fig. 119</a>.
+This shows a design for a model single-cylinder,
+single-acting steam-engine. The
+reader should carefully study each drawing
+before continuing to digest the following
+matter. The cylinder <i>L</i> can be made from
+a piece of tubing. This can be either brass
+or copper. Aluminum should not be used,
+owing to the fact that it is difficult to solder
+and difficult to work with. The piston is
+made so that it will fit nicely into the cylinder
+and move up and down without binding.
+It will be seen that a groove, <i>M</i>, is cut around<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+the piston near the top. String soaked in oil
+is placed in this groove. This is called packing,
+and the presence of this packing prevents
+steam leakage between the piston and
+the cylinder walls and thereby materially increases
+the efficiency of the engine.</p>
+
+<p>In this case the connecting-rod <i>R</i> is made
+in a circular piece. It is attached to the piston
+by a pin, <i>F</i>. The connecting-rod must
+be free to revolve upon this pin. The engine
+shown has a stroke of <span class='frac'><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch. Therefore,
+the crank-pin <i>K</i> on the crank-disk <i>N</i> must
+be placed <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> of <span class='frac'><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> or <span class='frac'><sup>7</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span> inch from the
+center of the disk <ins title="Transcriber's Note: not italicized in the original text"><i>N</i></ins>, so that when this disk
+makes one revolution, the piston will move
+<span class='frac'><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch in the cycle. Thus it will be seen that
+the distance of the crank-pin <i>K</i> from the
+center of the crank disk <i>N</i> will depend entirely
+upon the stroke of the engine. It may
+be well to mention here that the worker
+should always start designing his engine by
+first determining the bore and stroke.
+Everything depends upon these two factors.
+It is also well to mention here that the piston
+should never travel completely to the top
+of the cylinder&mdash;a small space must always<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+be left for the steam to expand. One eighth
+of an inch is plenty of space to leave.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that the valve mechanisms
+on the particular engine shown bear no
+resemblance to the <ins title="Transcriber's Note: not italicized in the original text"><i>D</i></ins> valve previously described.
+The holes <i>G</i> which are bored
+around the cylinder are the exhaust ports.
+It will be seen that when the piston is at
+the end of its downward stroke it uncovers
+these exhaust ports and permits the steam
+to escape. The momentum of the flywheel
+<i>A</i> pushes the piston upward, closing these
+holes. As these holes are closed the valve
+<i>H</i> uncovers the entrance <i>I</i> and permits steam
+to enter from the boiler through <i>J</i>. By the
+time the piston has reached the upward limit
+of its stroke a considerable steam pressure
+has developed on top of the cylinder, and this
+again forces the piston downward. Thus
+the same cycle of movement is gone through
+repeatedly.</p>
+
+<p>The valve on this little engine is extremely
+simple. It consists of a circular piece of
+brass drilled out, as shown. A hole (<i>I</i> and
+<i>J</i>) is drilled transversely through this. The
+little cylinder shown in the insert at <i>O</i> slides<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+in the larger hole, and when it is at its upper
+limit it cuts off the steam. At the proper
+intervals the valve is pulled down by the
+eccentric <i>C</i>. It will be seen that the moving
+parts, i.e., the valve and the piston, must
+be properly timed. That is, the eccentric <i>C</i>
+must be mounted on the crank-shaft <i>B</i> so
+that the valve will close and open at proper
+intervals. When the engine is made, the eccentric
+can be shifted about by means of a
+set-screw, <i>Q</i>, until the engine operates satisfactorily.
+This set-screw is used to hold the
+eccentric to the crank-shaft. The word eccentric
+merely means "off center." Thus
+the eccentric in this case is formed by a little
+disk of brass with the hole drilled off center.
+The distances these holes are placed off center
+will depend entirely upon the motion of
+the valve. It will be seen that the valve is
+connected to the eccentric by means of the
+valve-rod <i>E</i>. The valve-rod, in turn, is held
+to a circular strap which is placed around
+the eccentric. A groove should be cut in
+the surface of the eccentric, so that this
+strap will not slip off. If the strap is not
+put on too tightly and the eccentric is free<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+to revolve within it, the valve will be forced
+up and down as the eccentric revolves.</p>
+
+<p>The crank-shaft <i>B</i> revolves in two bearings,
+<i>D D</i>. The flywheel is held to the
+crank-shaft by means of a set-screw <i>S</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Most small engines with a bore under one
+inch will operate nicely on from 20 to 30
+pounds of steam, and this pressure can easily
+be generated in the boiler that was described
+in the chapter on model-boat power plants.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>A MODEL FLOATING DRY-DOCK</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>AS many of the readers probably know,
+a dry-dock is used in assisting disabled
+vessels. Some dry-docks are permanent,
+while others are built so that they
+can be floated or towed to a disabled vessel
+that is not able to get to a land dry-dock.
+The land dry-dock operates as follows. It
+is first filled with water, and the disabled
+boat is towed in by tugs. After the tugs
+leave, the gates are closed, and the water in
+the dry-dock is pumped out, leaving the boat
+high and dry. Large props are put in place
+to prevent the boat from tipping.</div>
+
+<p>The dry-dock here described is a model
+that is towed to a disabled vessel. It is then
+sunk until it passes under the boat. The
+sinking is brought about by filling the dry-dock
+with water. After it has sunk to the
+proper depth it is passed under the boat to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+be repaired, the water is pumped out, and
+the dry-dock rises, lifting the disabled boat
+with it. Repairs can then be made very
+easily.</p>
+
+<p>The model here described does not possess
+all the fittings and additions of the original.
+However, it is able to rise or sink as required,
+carrying the machinery necessary to
+bring about these functions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="fig_120" id="fig_120"></a><a name="fig_121" id="fig_121"></a>
+<img src="images/i_155.png" width="450" height="269" alt="Fig. 120" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>A general view of the completed model is
+shown in <a href="#fig_120">Fig. 120</a>. The first part to construct
+is the framework for the hull. Four
+pieces of wood will be required for this,
+and they should be cut to the shape and size
+shown in <a href="#fig_121">Fig. 121</a>. To make this it is best<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+to cut the two side parts first, as indicated
+by the dotted lines. This done, the bottom
+piece can be clamped on from behind by
+means of pieces of lath. These are for the
+two end pieces. The other two pieces are
+made in the same way, except that they contain
+holes for the water to pass through, as
+shown at <i>B</i>. The wood for these frames,
+or ribs, should be not less than <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch thick
+in order to accommodate the pieces used in
+the construction of the remainder of the
+hull.</p>
+
+<p>When the builder has made the four ribs,
+he should proceed to construct the lower
+deck, which consists of a single piece of wood
+nicely planed and finished, measuring 14<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span>
+inches long by 8 inches wide and <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch
+thick. This piece must be nailed to the bottom
+of each of the ribs, one at each end, and
+the other two containing the holes at equal
+distances apart. Tiny nails, similar to those
+used on cigar-boxes, will be found very suitable
+for this work. Some old cigar-boxes
+may be broken apart to obtain the nails for
+this purpose. Before nailing on the board it
+should be marked out to present ordinary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+deck-boards. The reader is referred back
+to Chapter 9 which describes this process,
+using a straight-edge and knife.</p>
+
+<p>When this board is nailed in place, the
+next requirement will be two pieces for the
+sides the bottom edges, of which must rest
+on the top of the deck-board. These boards
+are the same length as the deck. They
+should reach to the top of the ribs, and be
+fastened in the same way as the bottom deck.
+It is good practice, when doing this, to place
+a little white lead on the bottom edge before
+finally driving the nails in place. This will
+tend to produce a water-tight joint. This
+done, three pieces of wood <span class='frac'><sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch square
+must be screwed in place, flush with the bottom
+ends of the ribs, to form a flat keel.
+They should be firmly fixed since a lead keel
+is afterward screwed on the bottom of the
+boat. Attention should now be directed to
+fitting the two middle decks. These are
+placed 4 inches from the top and are 4 inches
+wide. In this space the engine and pumps
+are placed. Therefore, the top deck is made
+in the form of a lid, and the outside plate
+made to draw out. In this way the mechanism<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+below the deck can be made very accessible.</p>
+
+<p>The framework of the dry-dock is now
+completed, and the builder can proceed to fix
+on the side plates. These are made from
+sheet tin with a width of 14<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches. The
+length must be sufficient to reach from the
+top of one side, around the bottom of the
+hull, to the top of the other side. Having
+cut the tin to the required size, one side is
+put in place with small nails, spacing them
+an equal distance apart.</p>
+
+<p>Before securing the opposite side, the
+builder must first arrange the inlet-valve.
+This particular member is constructed as follows.
+First, obtain an old gas-pipe union
+which measures about <span class='frac'><sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch in diameter
+and <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch long. With a hacksaw this is cut
+off in a sloping direction with an angle to
+correspond with the slope in the bottom of
+the dry-dock. When this is done, a lid must
+be fitted to the top by means of a long rod,
+as clearly shown in <a href="#fig_122">Fig. 122</a>. On the under
+side of this lid a small piece of sheet rubber
+should be glued, so that when the lid is
+screwed down the valve will be made water-tight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+The valve must now be soldered to
+the inside of the hull. It is placed in such a
+position that it will rest just under
+the center of one of the upper
+decks when the controlling
+rod is upright.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 120px;"><a name="fig_122" id="fig_122"></a>
+<img src="images/i_159.png" width="120" height="300" alt="Fig. 122" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The top end of the rod must
+contain a thread for about 1 inch,
+and a round plate made to screw
+on. This plate should be about
+<span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch in diameter, and contain
+three small holes around the
+edge. These holes are used in fastening
+the plate to the deck. The top of the rod
+is fitted with a small crank-handle, which is
+used in turning the rod in either direction.
+In this way the valve can be either opened
+or closed. At the bottom of the rod a small
+swivel should be provided, as indicated in
+<a href="#fig_122">Fig. 122</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The plate or sheet of tin on this side of
+the hull can now be permanently fixed in
+place. When this is done a light hammer
+should be used around the edges to turn the
+tin into the wood.</p>
+
+<p>With the plates secured in place, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+builder must next fix a flat wood keel along
+the bottom of the dry-dock. This should
+be screwed to the inside keel, screws passing
+through the tin plate. A lead keel is then
+screwed to the wooden keel, and when this
+is done the dry-dock can be launched. If
+the foregoing instructions have been carried
+out carefully the dry-dock should ride lightly
+on the water.</p>
+
+<p>As a trial the inlet-valve is now unscrewed
+and water is permitted to enter the hull.
+When the water rushes in, the hull will begin
+to sink. The water should be allowed
+to enter until the hull sinks to within an inch
+of the lower or inside deck. The valve
+should then be closed. The exact position
+of the water should now be found, and a line
+drawn all around the hull, which can afterward
+be painted in.</p>
+
+<p>The engine and boilers must now be constructed
+and placed on the dry-dock, so that
+the water that was permitted to enter may be
+pumped out. As a temporary arrangement,
+a thin rubber tubing is inserted through a
+hole in the lower deck and allowed to hang
+outside the water-level. The siphon can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+then be formed by simply drawing the water
+up by suction with the lips. A continuous
+flow will result, emptying the hull within a
+short time.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 325px;"><a name="fig_123" id="fig_123"></a>
+<img src="images/i_161.png" width="325" height="255" alt="Fig. 123" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Attention is now directed to the construction
+of the boiler and pumps. The boiler,
+which is rectangular in shape, is made of
+thin sheet copper, and measures 4 inches
+long by 3 inches wide by 2 inches deep. A
+hole is made in the top, and a brass or copper
+tube 6 inches long and about <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch in diameter
+is soldered in position, as depicted in
+<a href="#fig_123">Fig. 123</a>. This tube acts as a chimney on
+the dry-dock, but it is really used for filling
+the boiler, and the top is supplied with a
+tightly fitting cork.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The ends of the boiler also act as supports,
+and they are made 4 inches long. The
+bottom edge is turned up for about <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch
+to enable the boiler to be screwed firmly to
+the lower deck. The boiler occupies a position
+at one end of the hull, and should fit
+easily in between decks. A small spirit-lamp
+is used to furnish heat, and no description
+need be given of this particular part of
+the equipment. Before the boiler is firmly
+fixed in place a small hole should be made
+near the top at one end. The feed steam-pipe
+is inserted in this, and soldered in place.</p>
+
+<p>Two small oscillating cylinders, similar to
+those made for the engine on the <i>Nancy Lee</i>
+(Chapter 6), should be made. They should
+not be more than <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch in length, with a <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch
+bore. If the builder has any old model
+steam-engines in the shop, he may take the
+cylinders from them instead of constructing
+new ones for the dry-dock.</p>
+
+<p>The engine is set up as shown in <a href="#fig_124">Fig. 124</a>.
+The first job is to make the frame or standards,
+and this is in one piece. Two pieces
+of brass (<i>A</i>), measuring 5<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches long by
+<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inch wide and <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span> inch in thickness, are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+cut. Next the builder should mark off 1<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span>
+inches from either end, and carefully bend
+at right angles, after which holes are drilled
+to accommodate the crank-axle <i>B</i>. Two
+holes must also be made for screws to enable
+the machine to be screwed to the deck.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;"><a name="fig_124" id="fig_124"></a><a name="fig_125" id="fig_125"></a>
+<img src="images/i_163.png" width="325" height="173" alt="Fig. 124" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The flywheel should be 1<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches in diameter,
+while the bent crank has a throw of
+<span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span> inch. The steam-cylinder is fixed on the
+outside of one of the uprights, and the steam-pipe
+must, of course, be fitted from the inside.</p>
+
+<p>The pump-cylinder is composed of a small
+piece of brass tube 1 inch long and <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch in
+diameter. The plunger is <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inch long, and
+the diameter is just sufficient to enable it to
+work freely up and down inside the brass
+tube. One end is shaped as shown in <a href="#fig_125">Fig. 125</a>
+. This contains a saw cut that enables<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+the pump-rod to be placed between and connected
+with a pin. The bottom end of the
+cylinder is now fitted with a brass disk in
+which a hole is made and a <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>32</sub></span>-inch tube
+soldered in place. The inside surface of
+this piece of brass should be countersunk,
+and the piece is then soldered into the end of
+the cylinder. Before the plunger is inserted
+a small lead shot is dropped in, which should
+be larger than the hole at the bottom of the
+cylinder, thereby covering it. A hole is
+drilled in at the side of the cylinder, and a
+small bent pipe fixed in it. At the top of
+this pipe a short piece of <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch brass tube
+is fixed in place, as indicated. This piece
+of tubing is closed at both ends. The bottom
+end is treated like that of the pump-barrel
+and supplied with a large shot. An outlet-pipe
+is soldered into the side of the delivery-valve
+chamber and leads to the side of the
+hull.</p>
+
+<p>The pump <i>E</i> is fixed at the bottom midway
+between the engine uprights as indicated
+in <a href="#fig_124">Fig. 124</a>. The suction-pipe passes
+through a hole and down through the deck
+nearly to the bottom of the hull. After the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+engine and boiler are connected, a trial can
+be made. If the foregoing instructions
+have been carried out, the engine will run
+at a good speed and a continuous flow of
+water will be pumped out of the hull. All
+parts of the engine and pump should be carefully
+oiled and water should be poured into
+the pump in order to prime it before its
+start.</p>
+
+<p>It is understood that two complete boilers
+and pump units are made for the model, and
+one is mounted on each side. If the builder
+desires to increase the capacity of the pumps
+and install a more powerful boiler and engine,
+only one pump will be necessary.
+Otherwise the water will not be pumped
+from the hull very rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>When the builder has finished the pump
+units, he should turn his attention to the remainder
+of the fittings. Two small cranes
+are made, and one is placed at each side of
+the hull. They are made of tin. The cab
+of each crane measures 2<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches high by
+2 inches long by 1<span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches wide. A small
+roof is fitted on, and a piece of wood fitted
+to the bottom to serve as a floor. The jib<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+measures 6 inches long by <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch at the base,
+and tapers to <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inch. It has <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch turned
+down at each side, thus adding considerable
+strength. The jib is fitted to the cab by
+means of a wire passed through the sides,
+and two guy-ropes are arranged as shown.
+A small piece is now cut out at the top, and
+a pulley wheel fixed in position by means of
+a pin passed through the sides.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 275px;"><a name="fig_126" id="fig_126"></a>
+<img src="images/i_166.png" width="275" height="189" alt="Fig. 126" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The winding-drum can be made of either
+tin or wood. The axle passes through both
+sides of the cab, the crank being attached
+to the outside. <a href="#fig_126">Fig. 126</a> shows the completed
+crane, which is held to the deck by
+means of a small bolt and nut. A washer
+should be placed between the bottom of the
+crane and the deck, to allow the crane to
+turn freely with little friction.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A hand-rail, made of fine brass wire, is
+placed around the deck.</p>
+
+<p>Dummy port-holes are fixed to the sides
+of the dry-dock for the purpose of lighting
+up the interior of the engine-room. These
+are furnished from top rings taken from
+gas-mantles. Anchor-chains are fixed at
+each end of the dry-dock. The whole dry-dock
+is painted with two coats of gray paint
+and the water-line painted in bright red.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="fig_127" id="fig_127"></a>
+<img src="images/i_167.png" width="200" height="237" alt="Fig. 127" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 127 shows the dry-dock with a model
+boat in position.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h3>OPERATION OF FLASH STEAM POWER PLANTS FOR MODEL BOATS</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>THE flash steam method of propelling
+model power boats of the racing type
+produces a far greater speed than would
+otherwise be possible. Flash steam plants
+are far more complicated than ordinary
+steam-propelled power plants, and for this
+reason the author devotes a chapter to their
+description.</div>
+
+<p>A considerable equipment of tools and not
+a little mechanical ingenuity are required to
+produce and assemble a workable flash steam
+plant. However, such plants have gained
+great popularity in the past few years, and
+all of the hydroplane racing craft are propelled
+with such outfits. These power
+plants are capable of delivering such a tremendous
+power that speeds as high as thirty-five<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+miles an hour have been reached by boats
+measuring 40 inches long.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration, <a href="#fig_128">Fig. 128</a>, shows a flash
+steam plant and its various parts. Each
+part and its function will be described in
+this Chapter in detail. The gasolene tank <i>A</i>
+is used to hold the fuel, which is fed to the
+gasolene burner <i>C</i>. The gasolene burner
+operates on the principle of the ordinary
+gasolene torch. First the tank is filled about
+three-quarters full with gasolene. An air-pressure
+is then produced in the tank with a
+bicycle pump. The pipe leading from the
+gasolene-tank at the top is coiled around the
+burner, and the free end of it is bent and
+provided with a nipple, so that the gasolene
+vapor will be blown through the center of
+the helix of the coil formed by the pipe bent
+around the burner. This is quite clearly
+shown in the drawing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="fig_128" id="fig_128"></a>
+<img src="images/i_170.png" width="550" height="339" alt="Fig. 128" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The cylinder is merely a piece of stovepipe
+iron bent to shape and provided with several
+air-holes at the burner end. To start the
+burner, the vaporizing coils must first be
+heated in an auxiliary flame. The flame of
+an ordinary blow-torch is suitable for this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+purpose. After the coils have become sufficiently
+hot the valve at the top of the gasolene-tank
+is opened, and this causes a stream
+of gasolene vapor to issue at the nipple.
+This produces a hot flame at the center of
+the vaporizing coils, and in this way the coils
+are kept hot. The purpose of heating these
+coils is further to vaporize the gasolene as
+it passes through them on the way to the
+burner. Once started, the action of the
+burner is entirely automatic. The vaporizing
+coils are made of Shelby steel tubing
+with an internal diameter of <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that the flame from the
+gasolene-torch is blown through the center
+of the boiler coils <i>B</i>. Thus, any water passing
+through these boiler coils is instantly
+converted into steam. In other words, the
+water "flashes" into steam. The heat of the
+blow-torch is so great that most of the boiler
+coils are maintained at red heat even while
+the water is passing through them.</p>
+
+<p>Notice the water-tank <i>G</i>. A little scoop,
+formed by a pipe of small diameter, protrudes
+through the bottom of the boat, so
+that the forward motion of the boat will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+cause water to rise in the tank <i>G</i>. An overflow
+is also provided, so that, should the
+water not be sucked out of the tank quickly
+enough, it will not flood the boat. The
+overflow pipe hangs off the side of the
+boat.</p>
+
+<p>The water pump <i>E</i> sucks water from the
+tank, and pumps it through the check-valve
+<i>K</i> (this valve permits water to pass in one
+direction only) into the boiler coils. The
+boiler coils, being red-hot, cause the water
+to flash into steam the instant it reaches
+them. By the time the steam has reached
+the opposite end of the boiler coils, it is no
+longer steam, but a hot, dry gas at a terrific
+pressure. From the boiler coils the steam
+passes into the steam-chest of the engine,
+and thence into the cylinder, where it expands,
+delivering its energy to the piston.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that the water-pump <i>E</i> is
+geared to the engine. Owing to this, it is
+necessary to start the water circulating
+through the boiler coils by the hand pump
+<i>F</i>. This hand pump forces water through
+the boiler coils just as the power pump does.
+After the hand pump is started the engine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+is turned over a few times until it starts.
+The valve <i>H</i> is then closed, which cuts the
+starting pump <i>F</i> entirely out of the system,
+because when the engine starts it also drives
+the water pump <i>E</i>, and therefore the action
+becomes entirely automatic.</p>
+
+<p>The relief-cock <i>L</i> is placed in the system
+to be used if the engine stalls. By opening
+the relief-cock the pressure in the complete
+system is immediately relieved. At all
+other times the relief-cock is closed.</p>
+
+<p>A second pump, <i>I</i>, is also included in the
+system. This, like the water-pump, is
+geared to the engine and driven by it. It is
+the duty of this pump to convey oil from
+the lubricating tank <i>M</i> into the steam feed-pipe
+just before it enters the steam-chest.
+In this way the live superheated steam
+carries a certain amount of lubricating oil
+with it in the cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the high temperature of the superheated
+steam, it is impossible to use brass
+cylinders on the steam-engines employed
+with flash steam systems. Steel seems to be
+the only cheap metal that is capable of withstanding
+the attack of flash steam. Brass<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+is out of the question, since its surface will
+pit badly after it is in use a short time.</p>
+
+<p>The boiler of a flash steam plant is
+covered with sheet iron so as to prevent
+drafts of air from deflecting the flame from
+the center of the boiler coils. The cover is
+provided with ventilators, so that the burner
+will not be smothered. If enough oxygen
+does not enter the interior of the boiler coils,
+poor combustion will result, and the gasolene
+flame will not develop its maximum
+heat. Upon referring again to the diagram,
+it will be seen that the exhaust steam pipe
+from the engine discharges into the stack of
+the boiler covering. This discharge greatly
+facilitates the circulation of air through the
+boiler coils.</p>
+
+<p>After a flash steam plant has been started
+it will work automatically, providing all the
+parts are in good running order. Flash
+steam plants, however, are difficult to get in
+the proper adjustment, and once adjusted
+they are easily disturbed by minor causes.
+Owing to the fact that every square inch of
+surface in the flash coils is heating surface,
+the amount of water supplied to the boiler<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+must be exactly what is needed. The heat
+must also be regulated so that the temperature
+of the steam will just meet the engine's
+needs. Many times an increase in heat
+causes the steam to reach such a temperature
+that it will burn up the lubricating oil before
+it reaches the cylinder of the engine. This
+is liable to cause trouble, because sticking is
+apt to occur.</p>
+
+<p>Model power boats with speeds as high as
+thirty-five miles an hour have been made in
+America. Such high-speed boats must be
+assembled with infinite care, owing to the
+fact that the mechanism they carry is more
+or less erratic in its action, and unless it is
+well made results cannot be expected.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 271px;"><a name="fig_129" id="fig_129"></a>
+<img src="images/i_176.png" width="271" height="275" alt="Fig. 129" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>There are probably few sports more interesting
+than that of model power-boat racing.
+The Central Park Model Yacht Club
+of New York city is one of the most progressive
+clubs in America, and its members
+not only have a sail-boat division, but they
+also have a power-boat division. The members
+of the power-boat section have races
+regularly once a week, and the most lively
+competition is shown. It is indeed amusing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+to watch these little high-speed boats
+dash across the pond, their bows high in the
+air and their little engines snorting frantically.
+Owing to the difficulty of keeping
+these small racing boats in a straight line,
+they are tied to a wire or heavy cord and
+allowed to race around a pole anchored in
+the center of the pond, as illustrated in <a href="#fig_129">Fig. 129</a>
+. The top of the pole should be provided
+with a ball-bearing arranged so that
+the cord to which the boat is fastened will
+not wind around the post. In this way the
+boats are caused to travel in a circle, and as
+the cord to which they are fastened represents
+the radius of the circle, the circumference
+can readily be found by multiplying the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+radius by 2, which will give the diameter.
+The diameter is then multiplied by 3.1416
+to obtain the circumference. If the boats
+were permitted to travel wild they would run
+into the bank, a fatal procedure when they
+are running at high speed.</p>
+
+<p>Speed boat hulls are usually of the hydroplane
+or sea-sled type. This type of hull is
+extremely easy to make. Such a hull is
+shown in <a href="#fig_130">Fig. 130</a>. It will be seen that it
+has an aluminum bottom. The propeller
+and propeller strut will be noticed in this illustration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="fig_130" id="fig_130"></a><a name="fig_131" id="fig_131"></a><a name="fig_132" id="fig_132"></a>
+<img src="images/i_178.png" width="450" height="417" alt="Fig. 130" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The drawing for the particular hull shown
+in <a href="#fig_130">Fig. 130</a> is given in <a href="#fig_131">Fig. 131</a>. First the
+two side pieces are cut out to the shape
+shown. In this particular instance the
+over-all length of the sides is 39<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub></span> inches.
+This is called a meter boat, and is built with
+this length to conform with the English racing
+rules. Next a bow piece is cut out, and
+this is produced from solid wood. Only
+two materials are used in the construction
+of this hull, aluminum and mahogany.
+Square mahogany strips are cut out and
+fastened inside of the side pieces by means<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+of shellac and <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch brass brads. The
+bottom of the hull is made of 22-gage sheet
+aluminum. This is fastened to the square
+mahogany strips, since the sides of the boat
+are entirely too thin for this purpose. The
+method of fastening the strips of aluminum
+will be made evident by referring to <a href="#fig_132">Fig. 132</a>
+. The aluminum bottom does not run
+completely over the bow piece, but merely
+overlaps it sufficiently to be fastened by brass
+brads, as illustrated in <a href="#fig_135">Fig. 135</a>. The single<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+step in the bottom of the boat is fastened by
+a mahogany strip, through which the stern-tube
+runs and the water-scoop. The back
+of the boat is made up of mahogany. A
+small aluminum hood is bent to shape, and
+this is fastened to the bow of the boat and
+prevents the boat from shipping water.</p>
+
+<p>In building a hull of this nature the mechanic
+should exercise care to see that it is
+in perfect balance, and that the sides are
+finished and varnished as smoothly as possible.
+This will cut down both air and water
+resistance. The position of the propeller
+strut and stern-tube will be seen by referring
+to the drawing of the hull in <a href="#fig_131">Fig. 131</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The propeller of a high-speed boat is of a
+high pitch and generally of the two-blade
+type. It should be at least 3 inches in diameter
+and with a pitch of about 10 inches.
+By this it is meant that the propeller theoretically
+should advance 10 inches through the
+water for one revolution. The rudder is
+generally fastened in one position, in case
+the boat is not used on a string and pole.
+It will be found advisable, however, always
+to run the boat in this way, and in such cases<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+the rudder can be entirely dispensed with.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="fig_133" id="fig_133"></a>
+<img src="images/i_180.png" width="450" height="137" alt="Fig. 133" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The boiler of a flash steam plant is extremely
+simple. Such a boiler is shown in
+<a href="#fig_133">Fig. 133</a>. It consists merely of a coil of
+copper or Shelby steel tubing with an internal
+diameter of <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch. The boiler coils
+should be wound around a circular form of
+wood about 2<span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches in diameter. In the
+case of copper it will not be found very
+difficult to do this, providing the copper is
+heated before being wound on the wooden
+form. If the copper is heated it is advisable
+to wind the wood with a layer of sheet asbestos
+before the copper tube is wound on.
+It is almost necessary to do this winding
+with a lathe, but if the mechanic does not
+have access to such a tool he may have to
+find other means of doing it, or possibly he
+can take it to a local machine shop and have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+the work done for a few cents. The boiler
+coil should be wound about 9 inches long.</p>
+
+<p>A casing of Russian sheet iron is made
+to slip over the boiler, leaving sufficient space
+between. Ventilating holes or slots are cut
+in the cover to permit of a free circulation
+of air. The boiler covering is also provided
+with a funnel through which the exhaust
+gases from the blow-lamp pass.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="fig_134" id="fig_134"></a><a name="fig_135" id="fig_135"></a>
+<img src="images/i_181.png" width="450" height="159" alt="Fig. 134" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The blow-lamp used operates on the same
+principle as the ordinary blow-torch. The
+details of such a lamp are given in <a href="#fig_134">Fig. 134</a>,
+and a finished torch is shown in <a href="#fig_135">Fig. 135</a>.
+Instead of making the valves necessary for
+the blow-torch, it is advisable to purchase
+them, for they are very difficult to make
+accurately. The valve at the back of the
+torch regulates the gasolene supply that
+passes through the nipple. The hole in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+nipple should be about twenty thousandths
+of an inch. Owing to the fact that the
+copper coil wound about the burner is short,
+the tube can be filled with molten resin before
+it is bent. In this way the tube will not
+kink or lose its shape while being wound.
+After it is wound it is placed in the fire and
+the molten resin forced out with a bicycle-pump.
+Such a blow-torch produces a tremendous
+heat and throws a hot flame far up
+into the boiler coils.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h3>SAILING YACHTS</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>BEFORE attempting to construct model
+sailing yachts the young worker should
+become thoroughly conversant with the different
+types of yachts and their fittings. In
+the following pages the author briefly outlines
+the general science of yacht-making
+and sailing.</div>
+
+<p>Sailing yachts are made in four principal
+types. There is the cutter rig, yawl rig,
+sloop rig, and the ketch rig. The cutter rig
+is shown in <a href="#fig_136">Fig. 136</a>. It consists of four
+sails so arranged that the top-sail may be
+either removed altogether or replaced by
+sails of smaller area. In all yachts it is
+necessary to haul the sails up into position
+by ropes known as halyards. The halyards
+must be led down to the deck. The model-builder,
+however, can dispense with much of
+the gear used on larger boats.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A sloop rig is illustrated in <a href="#fig_137">Fig. 137</a>. By
+studying the drawing the worker will see
+that the sloop rig differs from the cutter rig
+only in that she carries a single sail forward
+of her mast.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_136" id="fig_136"></a><a name="fig_137" id="fig_137"></a>
+<img src="images/i_184.png" width="400" height="340" alt="Fig. 137" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The yawl rig (See <a href="#fig_138">Fig. 138</a>) is similar to
+a cutter rig, but has a small sail set up on
+another mast abaft the mainsail. The sheet
+is led aft to a spar that projects beyond the
+counter. The mast upon which the smaller
+sail is set is known as the mizzenmast. In
+this rig it will be seen that the main boom
+must be made considerably shorter than was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+the case in the cutter rig. This is done so
+that it will not follow the mizzenmast when
+it swings from one position to another.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 195px;"><a name="fig_138" id="fig_138"></a><a name="fig_139" id="fig_139"></a>
+<img src="images/i_185.png" width="195" height="325" alt="Fig. 138" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The ketch rig differs greatly from the
+yawl rig. The mizzenmast always occupies
+a position forward of the rudder-post. In
+the yawl the mizzenmast is always stepped
+aft of the rudder-post. This will be seen by
+referring to the drawings of the two boats.
+The ketch rig is illustrated in <a href="#fig_139">Fig. 139</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The prettiest rig of all is the schooner;
+but, owing to the fact that it is difficult to
+get them to go well to windward unless the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+hull is perfectly rigged, the author has decided
+not to deal with this type of boat.
+When the reader becomes proficient in building
+and sailing the simpler types described
+in this book, he may turn his attention to
+the construction and sailing of more complicated
+types.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>Model Yacht Parts</i></div>
+
+<p>The submerged portion of a yacht is, as
+in all other boats, termed the hull. The
+backbone of the hull is called the keelson.
+Attached to the keelson is a piece of lead,
+which is put in place to give the boat stability
+and power to resist the heeling movement
+created by the wind-pressure upon the
+sails. This is known as the keel.</p>
+
+<p>Yachts always have an opening in the
+deck giving access to the interior of the hull.
+These openings are known as hatchways.
+When sailing in rough weather the hatchway
+is closed by a hatch to prevent the yacht
+from shipping water.</p>
+
+<p>The extreme forward end of a yacht hull
+is called the stern, while the portions forward<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+and aft of the midships section are
+known as the fore and after-body respectively.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/engine.jpg" width="500" height="341" alt="A TWIN CYLINDER STEAM ENGINE FOR MODEL MARINE USE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A TWIN CYLINDER STEAM ENGINE FOR MODEL MARINE USE<br />
+This engine will drive a boat several feet long</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In all yachts a portion of the hull extends
+out over the water. These portions are
+known as overhangs. The overhang aft is
+sometimes called the counter-stern. The
+sides of the hull that rise above the deck are
+called bulwarks, and the part of the bulwarks
+that cross the stern is called the taffrail.
+The taffrail is always pierced with
+holes to allow water to run off the deck
+quickly, so that the additional weight will
+not in any way affect the course of the boat.
+It is understood that yachts raise great quantities
+of water upon their decks when traveling
+in rough sea.</p>
+
+<p>The bowsprit is passed through a ring at
+the top of the stern, and this ring is termed
+the gammon iron. Its end is secured in a
+socket or between a pair of uprights called
+the bowsprit bits. These are fixed to the
+deck. Metal bars are fixed a short distance
+above the deck to take rings attached to the
+sheets. This is done so that the sails may
+swing freely from one side of the boat to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+other. Metal eyes are screwed into the sides
+to take the shrouds, and are called chain-plates.
+The eye in the stern is called the
+bobstay plate. In the stern-post are two
+eyes called gudgeons. The rudder is hooked
+to this by means of two hooks called pintles.
+The bar or lever that is fixed to the top of
+the rudder-post is called a tiller.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<img src="images/boat.jpg" width="360" height="500" alt="A CUP-WINNING MODEL SAIL BOAT" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A CUP-WINNING MODEL SAIL BOAT<br />
+Designed and constructed by the commodore of the
+Central Park Model Yacht Club, New York, N. Y.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The parts and fittings of a mast follow:
+the step, the head, the caps, crosstrees, truck,
+topmast, boom, and gaff. The part of the
+gaff that rests on the mast is called the
+throat; the end of the gaff is called the peak.
+The jib-boom is a term used only in connection
+with model yachts. In larger boats the
+jib-boom is an extension of the bowsprit.
+The small boom that projects over the stern
+of a yawl is called the bumpkin. The spar
+is rather a general term applied to practically
+all wooden supports of sails. The spar
+of a lug-sail is called the yard. It is different
+from a boom or gaff, by reason of its lying
+against the mast instead of having one
+end butting on the mast. Anything belonging
+to the mainmast should be distinguished
+by the prefix main. Thus, there are the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+mainsail, the mainboom, main-topsail, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 293px;"><a name="fig_140" id="fig_140"></a>
+<img src="images/i_189.png" width="293" height="300" alt="Fig. 140" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>A sail for a model cutter-rigged yacht is
+shown in <a href="#fig_140">Fig. 140</a>. The bowsprit and masts
+are, when necessary, given support by ropes
+that are stretched tightly to some point
+where they can be conveniently anchored to
+the hull. The following are those largely
+used on model yachts: topmast stay, bobstay,
+topmast shrouds, and forestay.</p>
+
+<p>The sails are pulled up and fastened by
+ropes termed halyards. The halyards are
+fastened to the upper portions of the sail,
+and they are named according to the sail to
+which they are attached. For instance,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+there is the jib halyard and the foresail halyard.
+A mainsail carried by a gaff has two
+halyards, the throat and peak. The movement
+of the sails is controlled by ropes, called
+sheets, which take their names from the
+sails they control. There is a mainsheet, a
+jibsheet, and a foresheet. The reader
+should take note of this term and refrain
+from confusing it with the sails.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>Sailing Model Yachts</i></div>
+
+<p>The sailing of model yachts is a real art,
+and the author warns the reader that he cannot
+hope to become a proficient yachtsman
+by merely digesting the information given
+in this book. His real knowledge must be
+earned by experience in handling a model
+yacht on the water. However, there are
+few sports that will afford more pleasure
+than that of sailing model yachts. Being
+an outdoor sport it is very healthful.</p>
+
+<p>In sailing a model yacht the sails are set,
+or "trimmed," so that she will continue to
+sail along the course previously decided upon
+by the yachtsman. She must do this in as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+speedy a manner as possible and with as
+little deviation from her original course as
+possible. The trim of the sails will depend
+upon the wind. If the boat is to sail against
+the wind, that is termed "beating to windward";
+with the wind is called "scudding."
+With the wind sideways it is called "reaching."
+If the boat is sailed with the wind
+blowing midway between one of the sides
+and the stern in such a way that it sweeps
+from one side of the stern across the deck,
+this is called "three-quarter sailing" in a
+"quartering" wind. A model yacht will
+continue for a great distance on a reach or
+while scudding; but, on the other hand, it
+will not be possible for her to sail directly
+against the wind. If a yachtsman is to
+make headway against the wind, he must
+sail his boat as near dead against the wind
+as it will go.</p>
+
+<p>The cutter type of yacht will move against
+a wind that is blowing at a very small angle
+on her bowsprit. As soon as she reaches
+the limit of her course, the yachtsman turns
+her bow at a small angle so as to bring the
+wind on the opposite side of the vessel, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+in this way a second course is started.
+These courses are repeated in a zigzag
+fashion until the yacht arrives at her destination.
+This zigzagging, or "tacking," as
+it is called, is illustrated in <a href="#fig_141">Fig. 141</a>. It will
+be seen that the yacht starts at <i>B</i>, and makes
+3 tacks before she arrives at her destination,
+<i>A</i>. Each time she touches the shore she is
+"put about" and set upon a new course, or
+"tack."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_141" id="fig_141"></a>
+<img src="images/i_192.png" width="400" height="138" alt="Fig. 141" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be understood that tacking is slow
+work, and a greater distance must be traveled
+than would be covered by a power-boat,
+which would be able to go in a straight line.
+However, with wind-propelled craft this is
+the only way in which progress can be made
+against the wind. The left-hand side of a
+yacht viewed from the stern is called the
+port side, while the right-hand side is called<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+the starboard side. Thus a yacht sailing
+with the wind blowing on her port side is on
+the port tack, while if the wind is blowing
+on the starboard side she is said to be on the
+starboard tack. From this the reader will
+see that <a href="#fig_142">Fig. 142</a> shows an impossible case.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 249px;"><a name="fig_142" id="fig_142"></a><a name="fig_143" id="fig_143"></a><a name="fig_144" id="fig_144"></a><a name="fig_145" id="fig_145"></a>
+<img src="images/i_193.png" width="249" height="425" alt="Fig. 142" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The sails in front of the mast that are
+placed nearest the stern of the yacht act in
+such a manner as to turn the bows in the direction
+of the arrow, as illustrated in Fig.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+146, and the sail or sails abaft the mast turn
+the boat in the direction of the arrow <i>A</i>.
+The boat thus revolves upon the center of
+the mast much as a weathercock revolves
+upon its pivot. If there is more than one
+mast, all the sails carried abaft the mainmast
+serve to turn the boat in the direction
+<i>A</i>. The work of sailing depends greatly
+upon the skill in balancing these two effects
+so that the boat will progress in a straight
+line. To do this the sails are set in a greater
+or less angle in relation to the center line of
+the boat. The less the angle that a sail
+makes with the center line of the boat, the
+greater is its power to determine in which
+direction the boat will steer. The more the
+yachtsman slackens out his jib and foresail,
+or the smaller he makes these sails, the less
+their power will be to turn the boat in the
+direction <i>B</i>. On the other hand, the larger
+they are and the more tightly they are pulled
+in, the greater will be their power. When
+the mainsail and all of the sails abaft the
+mainsail are slackened out and the smaller
+they are made, the less their power will be
+to swing the boat in the direction <i>A</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The influence of a sail upon the speed of
+a boat also increases with the angle that it
+makes with the center line of the hull. The
+more the yachtsman slackens out his sail,
+the more it will help the boat along. The
+reader will see that these two conditions interfere
+with each other, and therefore the
+trimming of the sails becomes a compromise.
+It is good for the young yachtsman to remember
+to sail his boat with the sails as
+slack as possible, as long as she keeps a good
+course. He should also remember not to
+overload her with sails, since the nearer to
+an upright position she maintains the faster
+she will go.</p>
+
+<p>It is not possible to depend entirely upon
+the trim of the sails to keep a model in a
+given course. This is because the strength
+of the wind varies so that the sails are in
+balance one moment and out of balance the
+next. The sails abaft the mainmast overpower
+the sails before it when the wind increases.
+The result of this is that the bow
+of the boat will be repeatedly turned in the
+direction <i>A</i>, <a href="#fig_146">Fig. 146</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 319px;"><a name="fig_146" id="fig_146"></a><a name="fig_147" id="fig_147"></a><a name="fig_148" id="fig_148"></a>
+<img src="images/i_196.png" width="319" height="500" alt="Fig. 146" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Some form of automatic rudder is therefore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+generally used to overcome this tendency
+of the yacht to "luff" in the wind. <a href="#fig_147">Fig. 147</a>
+ shows the course of a yacht reaching
+from <i>A</i> to <i>B</i>. The dotted lines show the
+course she should follow. The full line
+shows the effect of puffs of wind, which repeatedly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+take her out of her course. Many
+times she may completely turn around and
+make a similar course back to the starting-point,
+as in <a href="#fig_148">Fig. 148</a>. There is also the
+danger of her being taken back when pointing
+directly against the wind&mdash;the wind will
+force her backward stern first for some distance,
+as illustrated in <a href="#fig_149">Fig. 149</a>. She will
+do this until she manages to get around on
+one tack or the other.</p>
+
+<p>The dotted line <i>B</i> illustrates the course in
+which she would be driven under these conditions.
+It is not practical to sail a model
+yacht dead before the wind without an automatic
+rudder. With the use of an automatic
+rudder the erratic movements shown
+in <a href="#fig_148">Fig. 148</a> can be entirely overcome. The
+action of the rudder is such that every time
+the boat leans over to luff up into the wind,
+the weight of the rudder causes it to swing
+out, and thus prevents her from losing her
+course. As a different type of rudder is required,
+according to the course in which the
+yacht is sailing, the weight should be adjustable
+if the same rudder is used.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="fig_149" id="fig_149"></a><a name="fig_150" id="fig_150"></a><a name="fig_152" id="fig_152"></a>
+<img src="images/i_198.png" width="500" height="371" alt="Fig. 149" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Let us consider scudding before the wind.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+For scudding the heaviest rudder should be
+used, or the weight on a loaded tiller should
+be in its position of maximum power. All
+the sails abaft the foremast should be slackened
+out as far as they will go, which will
+bring the booms almost at right angles with
+the center line of the boat. If the craft is
+a cutter or yawl with a light weight, the
+yachtsman should rig the spinnaker. The
+head-sails may be left slack or can be tightened.
+<a href="#fig_150">Fig. 150</a> shows the position of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+booms when scudding with a schooner and
+yawl. The yawl is shown scudding goose winged.
+The cutter is illustrated with the
+spinnaker set. The other craft is a two-mast
+lugger with balanced lugs.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a name="fig_151" id="fig_151"></a>
+<img src="images/i_199.png" width="200" height="166" alt="Fig. 151" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Attention is now directed to "reaching."
+For this particular work the yachtsman
+should put on a medium rudder. When using
+a weighted tiller the weight should be put
+in a midway position. The head-sails
+should be pulled in fairly tight and the aft-sails
+made slack. The yachtsman, however,
+should not slacken them as for scudding.
+<a href="#fig_151">Fig. 151</a> shows a schooner reaching. The
+thick black lines represent the booms of the
+sails. If the wind is very light a spinnaker-jib
+may be set or a jib-topsail in light or
+moderate breezes. In the case of a wind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+that comes over the stern quarter, as indicated
+by the arrow <i>A</i>, the next heavier
+rudder, or its equivalent in weighted tiller,
+should be put in operation, and the sails
+slackened out a little more than before.
+The boat is then said to be free and sailing
+on the starboard tack. If the wind is coming
+in the direction <i>B</i> the jib and foresail
+may require slackening and the aft sails
+pulled in more than when sailing with the
+wind in the direction <i>C</i>. A still lighter
+rudder can be used as the course gets near
+to beating windward, and the yacht is said
+to be close-hauled on the starboard tack.</p>
+
+<p>In beating to windward, if a rudder is
+used at all, it should be as light as possible,
+just heavy enough to keep the boat steady.
+However, this is just the condition of sailing
+when a boat can dispense with a rudder. It
+depends entirely upon the characteristics of
+the particular yacht being sailed, and for
+this the yachtsman must depend upon his
+own experience. The jib-topsail should not
+be used in a case like this, and if the wind
+is fairly strong a smaller jib should be set
+than that used for reaching. It is advisable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+to slacken the jib and foresail out and pull
+the aft-sails in somewhat tightly. <a href="#fig_152">Fig. 152</a>
+shows a cutter beating to windward on a
+port tack. In this case she will have to pay
+out to starboard a bit before her sails fill.</p>
+
+<p>In sailing the weather must be watched
+very closely, and the amount of sail carried
+will depend entirely upon the weather conditions.
+A yacht should never be overloaded
+with sail. If she has more than she
+can comfortably carry she will heel over and
+drag her sails in the water. Not only this,
+but she will also drift to leeward when beating
+to windward. When sailing a new boat,
+her best trim for various points of sailing
+and force of wind must be found by painstaking
+experiments. The boat should always
+be sailed with her sails as slack as she
+will take them and keep in her course. In
+this way she will move faster than when the
+sails are pulled in close.</p>
+
+<p>The model yachtsman should always
+watch the wind and note whether it shifts
+its direction or alters its force. The boat
+is trimmed accordingly when the boat is put
+about. Easing or tightening the jib or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+main-sheet slightly will make a very noticeable
+difference.</p>
+
+<p>By taking down the top-sail or setting a
+jib-head top-sail in place of a jack yard top-sail,
+the yacht will be caused to ride easier
+in puffs of wind. In case she does not point
+well to windward when beating, the yachtsman
+should try a smaller jib, or he can
+slacken the foresail-sheet. If she runs off
+regularly to leeward on one tack only, while
+keeping well to windward on the other, she
+has some defect in construction or a bent
+keel.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h3>TWO-FOOT SAILING YACHT</h3>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>THE model yacht described in this Chapter
+is the design of Mr. W. J. Daniels,
+of England, and was described by him in
+"Junior Mechanics." Mr. Daniels is one of
+the best known and most successful English
+designers of model yachts, and the one here
+described can easily be constructed by the
+average boy:</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In order that the reader may realize the obstacles
+to be surmounted in designing a model yacht that
+will sail in a straight line to windward, irrespective
+of the different pressure that the wind may expend
+on the sails, it must be pointed out that the boat
+is continuously altering the shape of the submerged
+part of her hull: therefore, unless the hull is so designed
+that harmony is retained at every angle to
+which the pressure of wind on the sails may heel it,
+the model's path through the water will be, more or
+less, an arc of a circle. Whether the boat sails toward
+the wind, or, in other words, in a curve the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+center of the circle of which is on the same side of
+the boat as the wind, or in a curve the center of the
+circle of which is on the opposite or leeward side,
+will depend upon the formation of the boat.</p>
+
+<p>As these notes are intended to first initiate the
+reader into the subject of model yacht building and
+construction, the design supplied is one in which all
+things, as far as shape is concerned, have been considered.</p>
+
+<p>It is the endeavor of every designer to produce
+the most powerful boat possible for a given length&mdash;that
+is, one that can hold her sail up in resistance
+to the wind-pressure best. Of course, the reader
+will easily realize that breadth and weight of keel
+will be the main features that will enable the model
+to achieve this object; but, as these two factors
+are those that tend to make a design less slender, if
+pushed to extremes, the designer has to compromise
+at a point when the excess of beam and buoyancy
+are <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'deterimental'">detrimental</ins> to the speed lines of the
+hull.</p>
+
+<p>But the question of design pure and simple is
+a complex one, and we do not intend to weary the
+reader just now with anything of that kind, so we
+will now proceed to build the hull. In order that
+we may correctly interpret the shape shown in the
+design without being expert woodcarvers, we must
+use our ingenuity and by mechanical means achieve
+our object, at the same time saving ourselves a
+large amount of labor, such as we should have to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+expend if we made this boat from a solid block of
+wood.</p>
+
+<p>Now, as regards understanding the drawings: it
+is essential to remember that a line which in one
+view is a curve is always a straight line in the
+other two views. Those lines which are drawn
+parallel to the water-line are known as water-lines,
+and it will be seen that the curves shown on the
+deck plan represent the actual shapes of the hull
+at the corresponding water-lines above, below, and
+exactly on the load water-line. In other words,
+if after the hull is made it were sunk down to these
+various levels, the shapes of the hole made in
+the surface of the water would be as shown in the
+plan.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, instead of making our boat from a
+solid block of wood, we will make our block up
+from several layers, the thickness of each layer
+being equal to the space between the water-lines;
+but before gluing these layers together we will cut
+them out to the exact shape that the boat will be
+at their various positions.</p>
+
+<p>It will not be necessary to have a separate piece
+of wood for each layer, as some layers below the
+actual water-line will be cut from the pieces of
+wood that have been cut out from the layers above.</p>
+
+<p>In this case, the boat being 24 inches long, the
+top layer will be the same length and breadth as the
+boat, and 1 inch in thickness.</p>
+
+<p>Draw down the center of the board a straight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+line, and other lines square to it, representing the
+position of the cross-sections as shown in the drawing.
+You have now to transfer the deck line to this
+board, and this is done by marking the breadth at
+the various sections and drawing a curve through
+the spots, a thin strip of straight-grained wood
+being used as a rule, the latter being held down
+by such weights as are available. For the purpose
+of laying off the water-lines truly, lines spaced at
+1<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches are shown; the first, it will be noticed, is
+half a section or <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch from the stem head.</p>
+
+<p>The material required will be a board of pine
+about 6 feet long, 8 inches wide, and 1 inch finished
+thickness.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all wood-yards stock first-quality pine, but
+it is in planks 3 inches thick. You can no doubt
+pick up a short length about 4 feet long.</p>
+
+<p>If so, take it to a sawmill and have two boards
+1<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches thick cut and then machine-planed down
+to a dead inch. Perhaps you can purchase a board
+that is already cut, and is fully 1 inch thick, to allow
+for planing.</p>
+
+<p>Prepare one edge of the board straight with a
+plane, seeing that it is square to the surface.</p>
+
+<p>As a planing-machine always leaves a series of
+ridges across the board, varying according to the
+quality of the machine, it is necessary before transferring
+the lines to the wood to just skim the surface
+with a nicely sharpened plane, and set so as to
+just skim the wood.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="fig_153" id="fig_153"></a>
+<img src="images/i_207.png" width="550" height="338" alt="Fig. 153" title="" />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>The lengths required are: <i>A</i>, plank 24 inches
+long; <i>B</i>, plank 24 inches; <i>C</i>, plank 18<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>D</i> plank will be cut from the center of <i>B</i>,
+but will have to be shifted two sections forward.</p>
+
+<p>Having transferred the various shapes from the
+drawing on to their respective layers, you saw out
+each carefully with a bow or a keyhole-saw, care
+being taken not to cut inside the lines. It is better
+to cut full, and trim down to the lines with a
+chisel or plane. A good deal of trouble can be
+saved by the expenditure of a few cents for having
+them machine-sawed, in which case ask the
+sawyer to use his finest-toothed saw.</p>
+
+<p>Having cut out layers <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, and <i>D</i>, fresh lines
+are marked, as shown by the dotted lines in the
+plan. These indicate the shape of the inside of
+each layer when the boat is carved out, and save
+labor.</p>
+
+<p>These may as well be sawed out now as carved
+out later. It will also facilitate gluing up, as it
+will allow the superfluous glue to be squeezed out,
+and also decrease the breadth of the joint.</p>
+
+<p>In order to get these various layers glued together
+dead true to their positions as indicated in
+the design, you must choose a section about amidships,
+say section 11, and with a square draw a line
+from that section, which is, of course, still showing
+on the surface of the layer, down the edge on
+either side, joining up with a line across the opposite
+face. Also vertical lines at each end of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+midships line must be drawn on the wood, great care
+being taken to get the midships line on the under
+face of the layers dead opposite each other.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 297px;"><a name="fig_154" id="fig_154"></a><a name="fig_155" id="fig_155"></a>
+<img src="images/i_209.png" width="297" height="500" alt="Fig. 154" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>If your outfit contains half a dozen carpenter's
+hand screws, these can be used; but if not, it will
+be necessary to purchase from a hardware store<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+eight seven-inch bolts and nuts <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch in diameter,
+with one washer for each, and to make up four
+clamps, as shown in <a href="#fig_156">Fig. 156</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="fig_156" id="fig_156"></a>
+<img src="images/i_210.png" width="300" height="272" alt="Fig. 156" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>You will start by gluing layer <i>C</i> to layer <i>D</i>, blocks
+being placed between the surface of the layers and
+the clamps to prevent bruising the wood. These
+two are then glued to layer <i>B</i>, and when this is
+thoroughly set they are glued to the layer <i>A</i>. The
+best glue to use for this job is marine glue, which
+does not dry too quickly, and so gives plenty of time
+to see that the layers have not shifted. In every
+case one clamp should be placed at each extreme end
+of the shorter layer, so as to insure the ends making
+contact, the other two being placed equidistant.</p>
+
+<p>While waiting for the glue to set, you can be
+preparing the four layers (shown below <i>D</i>) for the
+lead keel pattern. The lines must be cut out, in
+this case, with a chisel, as it will be noticed that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+lower faces must be left wide enough to receive the
+top face of the layer beneath it.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that the under face of each of
+these layers extends beyond the top face aft, and
+allowance must be made for this. On laying off
+the lines on the fin layers, do not join up with a
+point each end, but leave about <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch thickness,
+as shown on the drawing.</p>
+
+<p>These layers must be drilled through to take the
+keel-bolts, which are made from two motorcycle
+spokes, twelve-gage. These should be cut to a
+length of 5<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> or 6 inches. Great care should be
+taken to insure that the midship lines are exactly
+vertical over each other when these layers are glued
+up.</p>
+
+<p>Before gluing these four layers on to the hull
+proper, they should be held in position by means of
+the spokes, in which position they can be sawed to
+shape for the keel pattern. First, with a small plane
+or sharp chisel cut down roughly, then a rasp and
+different grades of sandpaper are used, working
+across the joints.</p>
+
+<p>It will be realized that, if the pattern for the
+keel were cut off dead on the line indicated on the
+design, there would be a loss of wood through the
+saw cut. In order to obviate this, another line
+<span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span> inch below the proper lead line is drawn, and
+the saw cut made between these two lines. You
+will now plane down each face that is left rough by
+the saw, straight and square to each of these lines.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+On the top face of the pattern for the lead, glue
+or tack a piece <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span> inch thick along the face, and
+cut down the edges flush.</p>
+
+<p>You will by this means have made up for the
+amount of wood carried away by the saw. You
+will no doubt find a difficulty in holding the pieces
+of wood for planing in the ordinary way, but it is
+simple enough if you set the plane nicely, grip it in
+a vise or bench screw upside down, and push the
+work over the plane's face, instead of vice versa.
+But be careful of your fingers!</p>
+
+<p>Take the pieces left from the spokes when cutting
+down to length, and put these in the holes in
+the keel pattern. These are for cores, and if you
+take your pattern to a foundry they will cast it for
+a small amount, with the holes in it.</p>
+
+<p>Shoot the top face of the lead in the manner before
+described, and fit on. The hull is now ready
+for carving out. Screw on your bench two pieces
+of wood about 18 inches in length and 4 inches wide,
+so that they project over the edge of the bench
+about 10 inches. These should be about 15 inches
+apart. Place your hull upside down on them, and
+fix it by nailing upward into the top layer. After
+cutting off the corners of the layers roughly with
+a chisel you use a small plane set fairly fine, and
+work all over the hull evenly, taking care not to
+cut below any of the joints. A small gouge will
+be required to clear the wood from the region of
+the after fin, a round rasp&mdash;sandpaper being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+wrapped around a small stick&mdash;being used for
+smoothing down afterward.</p>
+
+<p>Templates of the cross-sections should now be
+made from thick white paper. This is done by
+pricking through the design to transfer their shape
+onto the paper. The cross-sections have on this
+account been produced here actual size. If cross-lines
+representing the water-lines are drawn, you
+will have an excellent guide for fitting, as these
+lines will, of course, come opposite each glued joint.</p>
+
+<p>Try your templates now and again as you work,
+and do not try to finish one spot, but keep the
+whole at an even stage, and you will see the hull
+gradually grow into shape.</p>
+
+<p>The topsides (which is the name given to that
+part of the vessel's hull above the water-line) are
+responsible for the boat's appearance when afloat,
+and until the top sheer is cut off the boat looks very
+disappointing. The cross-lines being still on the
+upper layer, draw square lines from them down
+the topsides and from the drawing mark the points
+through which the sheer-line runs. The thickness
+of the deck must be allowed for, and as this will
+be just over <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span> inch, the line must be drawn this
+much below the finished sheer-line. The arch of
+the transom must be marked, and the hull cut down
+to the sheer. To avoid the risk of splitting, a number
+of fine saw cuts are made down each section line
+and two or three at the transom.</p>
+
+<p>You now proceed to carve out the inside. Pad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+your bench bearers and rest your hull upon them.
+A curved wood gouge with a fairly flat edge is the
+best tool. Get it nicely sharpened, and work all
+over the inside of hull until it is about <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span> inch thick,
+the top edge being left <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch wide.</p>
+
+<p>Keep holding up to the light until it is showing
+a blood-red color, and smooth down the gouge marks
+with coarse sandpaper.</p>
+
+<p>The hole for the stern-tube must now be drilled,
+and the tube made and fitted. The hole should be
+<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch in diameter. First drill a smaller hole, and
+then with a <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span>-inch rat-tail file slowly open it out,
+at the same time rubbing a groove down the stern-post.
+The stern-tube is made from a piece of light-gage
+brass tube, it being cut away with a piercing
+saw to leave a strip the length of the stern-post.
+Drill three holes in the strip at equal distance and
+large enough to take a <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch brass screw, No. 0
+size. Temporarily screw the tube in position, and
+from a piece of thin brass make a plate for the inside.
+An oval hole will have to be made in the
+plate to enable it to seat flat over the tube. Solder
+this while in position. Then remove the whole, and
+replace, after white-leading where wood touches
+brass.</p>
+
+<p>The deck-beams, three in number and <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch
+square in section, must now be fitted. The sheer
+edge which we left <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch wide must be recessed
+to receive the beams, the recess being made with
+a <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span>-inch chisel.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Before gluing beams in, three coats of good varnish
+must be applied to the inside of shell.</p>
+
+<p>The deck should now be prepared and fitted.
+You will require a piece of pine of ample length
+and breadth, <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch in thickness, and after planing
+finely and sand-papering, pieces of the same stuff
+should be glued on the under face to reinforce it
+where the bowsprit, keel-plate, hatch rim, and mast
+will be fitted. Cut these pieces to shape before
+gluing on.</p>
+
+<p>Before doing the latter, apply a coat of clear
+size to the upper face of the deck; this will bring
+up the grain, so paper it down when dry. This
+process should be repeated three times.</p>
+
+<p>Three coats of varnish should be given to the
+under side of the deck after the pieces have been
+glued on, and when dry the deck can be fitted,
+<span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch veneer pins being used for fixing on, and care
+being taken to get it true to position. A center line
+is drawn down the under side of the deck, and
+marks made to correspond at the stern and transom
+on the shell.</p>
+
+<p>The planking lines on the deck can be drawn to
+suit your fancy, India ink and a draftsman's ruling
+pen being used to do it, afterward applying two
+coats of carriage varnish.</p>
+
+<p>To paint the hull, white lead and dryers, in the
+proportion of 5 to 1 by weight respectively, should
+be dissolved in turpentine, a few drops of linseed
+oil being mixed to make it work freely. Have this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+about the consistency of milk, and, after straining,
+give the hull about eight coats, one every twenty-four
+hours, rubbing each down when dry with No.
+00 sandpaper. Keep the joint representing the load
+water-line always in sight by penciling over after
+each coat of paint is dry. When a sufficient body
+of paint has been applied, the colors can be applied.
+Enamel is best for this. Stick strips of gummed
+paper around the hull at the water-line, and paint
+up to the edge. When the paint is dry the paper
+can be soaked off, the paper being again applied,
+but reversed for the other color. If you can use a
+lining brush the paper is not necessary for the
+second color.</p>
+
+<p>While the painting is going on, spars, sails, and
+fittings can be made. As the spars have to be varnished,
+it is best to make them first. Pine should
+be used, and after cutting strips of suitable length
+and diameter, plane them square in section. With
+the batten draw on the face the amount of taper
+to be given, and plane down to this line, still keeping
+the spar square in section. This having been
+done, the corners are planed off carefully until the
+spar is octagonal in section, when it is easy to make
+it perfectly round with sandpaper by rubbing with
+the paper rolled around the stick. The diameter of
+our mast is <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inch parallel until the hoist of the
+fore triangle is reached, tapering from there to <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span>
+inch at the masthead or truck. The boom is <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span>
+inch at the gooseneck, thickening to <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+the main-sheet is attached, down to <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch at the
+outboard end. The jib-boom is slightly less than
+<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch parallel.</p>
+
+<p>All spars should be treated with clear size and
+fine sandpaper before varnishing. This will prevent
+discoloring by the latter, and will also allow
+the India ink markings to be made, which latter
+will be a guide for the trimming of the sails.</p>
+
+<p>In order that any yacht, model or otherwise, may
+be able to perform her best, it is essential that she
+should have well setting sails. In fact, in a model
+a badly setting sail will sometimes even be enough
+to prevent her going to windward at all. By well
+setting sails we mean sails that are naturally flat and
+not made so by straining them out on the spars.
+Light material, such as cambric or light union silk,
+is best for this purpose, but not a material that has
+any dressing in it.</p>
+
+<p>This particular sail plan is very easy to mark out.
+Lay your material out on a table or smooth surface
+and pin it down with drawing-pins, sufficiently
+stretching it so as to pull out any creases. The
+length of the back edge of the mainsail (which is
+called the leech) is measured off 1<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inches inside the
+edge of the cloth, and a curve struck as illustrated.
+The other two sides of the mainsail are then laid
+off and pencil lines drawn. You will note that allowance
+must be made for hemming the back edge
+of the mainsail. If your sewing-machine has a
+hemmer, find out how wide a hem it makes (the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+smaller the better), and make allowance accordingly,
+twice the width of the hem being necessary.
+Much depends upon the tension at which the machine
+is set, so be careful that the latter is sufficiently
+slack so that it does not draw up the material.</p>
+
+<p>The jib is marked out in the same manner, and,
+as illustrated, the lines representing the positions
+of the batten sleeves are drawn. The batten sleeves
+are small pockets into which thin pieces of cane
+(called battens) are inserted to help the sail to set
+nicely. Unless the sail is a good cut to begin with,
+however, the insertion of these battens will never
+make it right. The sails should now be cut out
+with a sharp penknife or scissors, care being taken
+not to pull the cloth, and especially not along the
+edges that run across the threads. You then hem
+the backs and also the foot of the jib. The batten
+sleeves (which should be of white satin ribbon about
+<span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch in width) should now be sewn on by stitching
+down along the extreme edge to the line drawn,
+and then down the other edge, the ends being left
+open. A strip of narrow tape is sewn across the
+foot of the jib-sail to take the strain of the pull,
+the part of the jib contained by the curve of the
+foot and the tape being known as the bonnet of
+the jib.</p>
+
+<p>To prevent the edges of the sails (other than
+those hemmed) being stretched, you bind them with
+good tape. The tape is first folded and creased by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+rubbing over an edge. The end of the tape is then
+turned in. Take a corner of the sail and place it
+inside the fold of the tape, care being taken to get
+the raw edge right up against the crease. The
+needle of the machine should then be lowered
+through it as near to the edge of the tape as practicable,
+taking care that it goes through both edges.
+Keeping a slight pull on the binding, arrange the
+cloth in it without pulling the edge. Put the foot
+of the machine down and sew it, afterward raising
+the foot again and proceeding as before right
+around the raw edges of the sail, leaving the needle
+down each time the foot is raised. Do not sew
+where a batten sleeve passes under the binding, as
+you will require the former left open to allow the
+batten to pass into the fold of the binding. The
+rings for putting up the luffs of the jib- and main-sail
+are made by winding a piece of thin brass or
+German silver wire around a steel rod (the spokes
+used in the keel being suitable for the latter) and
+sawing down to divide them. A small eyelet should
+be put in each corner of the sails, and others spaced
+evenly at about 2<span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches apart along the boom
+and about 5 inches apart along the mast, for lacing
+on. An extra row of stitching may be run
+down the outer edge of the binding to smooth it
+down.</p>
+
+<p>The simpler the fittings of a model that is required
+for practical sailing, the better. They should
+be as light as practical. Aluminum is not advisable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+for fittings when the boat is to be sailed in salt
+water.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_157" id="fig_157"></a>
+<img src="images/i_220.png" width="400" height="429" alt="Fig. 157" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The bowsprit fittings, which are known as the
+gammon iron and heel plate (<a href="#fig_157">Figs. 157</a>, <a href="#fig_158">158</a>), are
+made by soldering pieces of brass tube (cut to suitable
+size and shape) onto pieces of triangular sheet
+brass, as illustrated. The horses can either be of
+wire with the ends turned to suitable shape and
+fitted with one screw, or they can have plates for
+two screws, in which case the wire is either threaded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+and screwed into the plate or silver-soldered to it.
+Silver-soldering is done with a blow-pipe. The flux
+used is borax made into a thin paste with water.
+Silver-solder is bought in small sheets, and a few
+cents' worth will go a long way if used properly.
+Cut small pieces about <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch by <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span> inch, and, after
+painting the part to be soldered with your paste
+borax with a very small brush, pick up the solder
+with the tip of the brush and put it in position. It
+will then run around the joint when the metal is
+raised to sufficient heat.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 210px;"><a name="fig_158" id="fig_158"></a>
+<img src="images/i_221.png" width="210" height="300" alt="Fig. 158" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The hatch-rim is made by cutting a strip of thin
+brass <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch in width, the length being the circumference
+of the oval. The two ends are brought together
+and silver-soldered. Cut out the oval in a
+piece of very thin brass and fit in your oval strip
+so that the flat is just in the center of it. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+can then be sweated around with an ordinary
+soldering-iron, the flat being trimmed down afterward
+with the shears to leave a flange <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch in
+width, the latter being drilled to take <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> inch No. 0
+round-head screws.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 280px;"><a name="fig_159" id="fig_159"></a><a name="fig_160" id="fig_160"></a><a name="fig_161" id="fig_161"></a>
+<img src="images/i_222.png" width="280" height="234" alt="Fig. 159" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The deck fitting for the mast, (Fig. 159) is made
+in much the same way, a piece of tube being used
+instead of cutting a strip of brass. To receive the
+heel of the mast a fitting known as the mast-step
+must be made and fitted. This, of course, must be
+done before the deck is put on. The step is made
+from two pieces of brass, each about <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>32</sub></span> inch in
+thickness, 1 inch long and <span class='frac'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inch wide. One is
+hard-soldered on edge down the center of the
+other to form something like a T girder. A slot,
+as illustrated, is cut in the upright piece with a
+ward file, and holes drilled in the flat for screwing
+down on the inside of the boat. A ferrule of
+brass tube is fitted to the heel of the mast, a cut of
+suitable size being made in it to receive the upright<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+of the step. A hole should be drilled through the
+heel of the mast at right angles to the slot, and a
+wire passed through and riveted, the latter being
+of suitable thickness to be received by the slot in
+the step.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;"><a name="fig_162" id="fig_162"></a><a name="fig_163" id="fig_163"></a><a name="fig_164" id="fig_164"></a>
+<img src="images/i_223.png" width="220" height="300" alt="Fig. 164" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The rudder-blade (Fig. 162) is made from a piece
+of sheet brass fitted to a tube, the latter being an
+easy fit into the stern-tube already fitted. The
+blade can be soldered onto the tube. The pintle
+on which the rudder fits and swings is a strip of
+brass, the width of the after fin, a wire pin being
+hard-soldered in to fit up into the rudder.</p>
+
+<p>The pintle (Fig. 163) should be fitted before
+the painting is started.</p>
+
+<p>In the steering gear, instead of a quadrant, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+the fitting on the rudder-head of the "Braine"
+gear is called, you fit an ordinary tiller (Fig. 164)
+by bending a wire to suit your fancy and soldering
+it on to a collar made from a piece of tube that
+will just sleeve on the outside of the rubber-tube,
+which latter is fixed by drilling a hole right through
+it and the rudder head, and fitting a tapered pin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="fig_165" id="fig_165"></a>
+<img src="images/i_224a.png" width="300" height="67" alt="Fig. 165" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The steering-gear rack (Fig. 165) by which the
+amount of helm is adjusted is made from a strip
+of brass cut with lugs which are bent up at right
+angles as illustrated. This need only be of thin
+sheet metal, as the strain is very small.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_166" id="fig_166"></a>
+<img src="images/i_224b.png" width="400" height="348" alt="Fig. 166" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>For running before the wind, separate lines are
+used, two in number, as illustrated, and the amount
+of helm is governed by the distance away from
+midships that the lead is moved. For instance, if
+the lead is placed amidships, the pull will simply
+keep the rudder dead straight, whereas if placed on
+the deck edge it will allow the maximum amount
+of angle.</p>
+
+<p>Your bowsers can be made from pieces of toothbrush
+handle or from brass or German-silver wire.
+Very efficient bowsers can be made from aluminum
+tube cut in sections about <span class='frac'><sup>3</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span> inch long, with three
+holes drilled in each piece around its periphery.</p>
+
+<p>Plaited bobbin cotton should be used for the
+cordage, as it does not curl up when wet.</p>
+
+<p>If you decide to fit the Braine steering gear, a
+spur or bumpkin, as it is termed, must be fitted to
+take the rubber centering line.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX</h2>
+
+<h3>BOYS' DICTIONARY OF MARINE TERMS</h3>
+
+
+<div class="hang1"><b>Abaft.</b> Behind; toward the stern.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Abeam.</b> At right angles to the side and in horizontal
+plane.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Aft.</b> Toward the stern.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>After-body.</b> Between amidships and stern.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Aloft.</b> Overhead; on the yards or in the upper
+rigging.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Amidships.</b> The middle part of a vessel.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Anchor.</b> Instrument for holding vessels at rest
+in the water. Made of iron.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Athwart. Athwartships.</b> Across; from side to
+side.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Ballast.</b> Material used to load the ship, for stability
+or submerging purposes.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Barge.</b> General name for vessels built for towing.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Bark.</b> Three-masted vessel, square-rigged on the
+fore- and main-masts, and fore-and-aft rigged
+on the mizzen.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Barkentine.</b> Three-masted vessel, square-rigged
+on the foremast and fore-and-aft on the main-
+and mizzen-masts.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Beam.</b> The widest part of a vessel.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Bollards.</b> Posts of timber on sides of docks, quays,
+etc., over which ropes are thrown for hauling
+vessels alongside.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Boom.</b> The lower spar for a fore-and-aft sail.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Bow.</b> Sides of fore part of boat: the right hand
+being the starboard bow, and the left hand
+the port bow.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Bowsprit.</b> Pole projecting from stem forward,
+and taking forestays and bobstays.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Bridge-house.</b> House built near bridge.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Brig.</b> Vessel with two masts, both square-rigged
+but having a gaff mainsail.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Buoy.</b> A floating object moored over a certain
+spot; generally a warning of danger.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Buoyancy.</b> The capacity for floating which a
+boat possesses.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Cabin.</b> Room for use of officers and passengers.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Capstan.</b> Consists of a long drum revolving vertically
+and used for pulling in heavy lines.
+Sometimes used in connection with windlass
+to hoist anchor by hand.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><i>Center of Gravity.</i> Center of weight.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Coaming.</b> Raised planking around hatchway of
+yacht to prevent water shipped in rough
+weather from getting below decks.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Cockpit.</b> Formerly an apartment under lower gun-deck
+of warship, used as quarters for junior
+officers, and during a battle devoted to the surgeon
+and his assistants.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Cockswain.</b> Person who steers a boat.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Compass.</b> Instrument composed of one or more
+magnetic needles attached to a circular card
+which turns freely on the point of a steel cone
+or floats on a liquid. The upper surface of the
+card is divided into the 32 points of the compass.
+Used to find direction.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Craft.</b> Usually denotes small size vessel, but may
+be applied to any kind.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Crane.</b> Machine for hoisting and moving heavy
+equipment and material.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Cruiser.</b> Boat intended for extended voyages.
+Used in connection with yachts, to distinguish
+from racing models.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Davit.</b> Light crane on side of ship for lowering
+and lifting boats. Sometimes applied to projecting
+beam over which anchor is hoisted.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Displacement.</b> Weight of ship and all on board
+when at sea. It is equal to the weight of the
+water displaced.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Dock.</b> An excavation of large area for reception
+of vessels. Wet-dock for loading and unloading
+or dry-dock for building and repairing
+vessels.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Dock-yard.</b> A place where ships are built and repaired.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Funnel.</b> Large sheet-iron tube extending from the
+uptake high above the deck, through which
+smoke and gases pass.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Galley.</b> The kitchen of a vessel.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Gangway.</b> Sides of upper deck from main-mast<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+to mizzen-mast, or from the former to the
+break of a poop or raised quarter-deck; also a
+passage for entering or leaving vessel.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Gross tonnage.</b> Entire cubical capacity of ship,
+including every inclosed space and all room
+under deck from stem to stern-post, if closed
+in and usable.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Gunwale, gunnel.</b> Upper part of sheer-strake,
+where it comes in contact with upper deck
+stringer.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Headlights.</b> Lights carried at the masthead.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Head of the bowsprit.</b> The forward end.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Hull.</b> The entire structure of a vessel, exclusive
+of equipment.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Inboard.</b> Within the ship.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Inner skin.</b> Planking or plating covering the inside
+of frames.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Jack.</b> Name given to various sails, ropes, etc.</div>
+
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Jib.</b> Triangular sail carried on a stay reaching
+from the foremast head or from topmast to the
+jib-boom.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Keel.</b> Backbone of a vessel in wooden ships.
+Composed of great lengths of timber connected
+to each other by scarfs. In steel ships
+usually a set of plates from stem to stern.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Even keel, uneven keel.</b> Designates the manner in
+which ship floats. If balanced evenly in a
+fore-and-aft direction she is on even keel, if
+depressed at head or stern she is on uneven
+keel.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Keelson angle-bar.</b> Any angle-bar used in the
+construction of a keelson.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Lanyards.</b> Short lengths of rope used to tighten
+up davit-guys, awnings, etc.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Launching.</b> Sliding a boat into the water from
+the building-berth.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Lee side.</b> Opposite to the side on which the wind
+blows.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Lighter.</b> Large craft used to bring cargo alongside
+or to lighten a grounded vessel.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>List.</b> When one side of a vessel lies deeper in
+the water than the other; caused by shifting
+cargo, etc.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Log.</b> Apparatus used to determine speed of a vessel.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Main-mast.</b> Principal mast of a ship; the second
+mast counting from bow to stern.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Marine engine.</b> Engine especially designed for
+the propulsion of boats.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Mast.</b> A long piece, or system of pieces, of
+timber, placed nearly perpendicularly to the
+keelson of a vessel to support the spars and
+gear by which the sails are set. In modern
+practice, steel masts are built by riveting rolled
+plates together.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Midships.</b> Middle part of a ship.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Mizzen-mast.</b> Third mast on a vessel with three
+or more masts.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Mizzen-sails.</b> Sails carried on a mizzen-mast.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Mushroom Ventilator.</b> Short cast-iron tube with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+movable iron rod passing through the center.
+A metal cup is fitted to the top of the rod, which
+may be lifted to permit air to enter, or closed
+to prevent water from entering. Generally
+fitted over cabins.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Navigation Bridge.</b> Bridge used for taking observations
+or handling the ship in difficult situations.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Outboard.</b> Outside the hull or beyond the gunwale.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Outlet cock.</b> Any cock used to free a receptacle
+of water.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Paddle-wheels.</b> Wheels fitted on each side of a
+paddle steamer in connection with the paddle-shaft,
+consisting of a cast-iron boss from
+which wrought-iron arms radiate, strengthened
+by rims and stays, and with a float attached to
+each arm.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Pawl.</b> Small catch to prevent moving object from
+going beyond certain limit.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Pile.</b> A piece of lumber or iron, together with
+others, driven into the bed of a river for the
+support of a pier, bridge, etc.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Pilot Bridge.</b> Narrow thwartships platform, extending
+from side to side above a steamer's
+upper or bridge deck. Serves as a station for
+the pilot or officer of the watch.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Port.</b> Opening in ship's side, in bulwark, etc.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Propeller-screw.</b> Propeller in which blades are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+at an angle to the line of axis, similar to the
+threads of a screw.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Quarters.</b> Men's positions when called to their
+duties, as during fire or boat drill; also living
+accommodations.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Quay.</b> Artificial landing-place.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Raft.</b> A collection of boards fastened together
+by ropes or chains, and capable of floating.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Ram.</b> Massive projection under water at the bow
+of a warship. The ship is also called a ram.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Rat-line.</b> Three-stranded cord, of which the
+ladder-like steps in lower rigging, topmast
+rigging, etc., are formed.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Rigging.</b> Entire equipment of a ship's masts,
+spars, etc., with their standing and running
+ropes.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Rudder.</b> A device for steering vessels. Hinged to
+the outside of the hull, usually at the stern.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Sail.</b> A device of canvas and rope fastened to
+spars and rigging, and extended to catch the
+wind and drive the vessel.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Skiff.</b> Long, lightly built boat sometimes used in
+rowing races.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Sloop.</b> Vessel with one mast, having a jib-sail.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Spar.</b> Any shaped piece of timber used as a mast,
+bowsprit, yard, etc., or intended for such use.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Stanchion.</b> A stationary upright support.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Superstructure.</b> Any structure above top full
+deck.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Tack.</b> To change the direction of sailing due to
+wind.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Thwart.</b> Seats are called thwarts when they extend
+from side to side of a boat, athwart when
+across.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Tonnage.</b> Entire capacity or cubical contents of a
+vessel. One ton estimated at 100 cubic English
+feet.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Trawler.</b> Fishing-vessel with ground-sweeping
+net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Trim.</b> Term indicating the state of a ship with
+regard to ballast; position of a vessel in the
+water with respect to horizontal.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Turtle-back.</b> Top of wheel-house, forecastle, etc.,
+formed like a turtle's back.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Upper Works.</b> Same as freeboard when a vessel
+is loaded.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Uptake.</b> Part connecting smokebox to funnel.
+Sometimes includes the smokebox.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Ventilator.</b> Usually made of sheet iron in tubular
+forms, and arranged to expel foul air and
+permit the passage of fresh air to any part of
+a ship.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Vessel.</b> Craft requiring a licensed master.
+(Boats do not).</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Water ballast.</b> Sea water let into double bottom
+or ballast-tank.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Water-Line.</b> (Light) Submerging line of vessel
+without cargo.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Water-Line.</b> (Load) Submerging line of vessel
+with full cargo.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Water-tight Compartment.</b> Compartment with
+water-tight bulkhead at each end.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Winch.</b> Machine used for loading or unloading
+cargo. Some are hand driven and some electrically
+driven.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>Windlass.</b> Special form of winch used to hoist
+anchor.</div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class='tnote'><h3>Transcriber's Notes:</h3>
+<p>Obvious punctuation errors repaired.</p>
+<p><span class='smcap'>Fig. 55</span> and <span class='smcap'>Fig. 82</span> have been linked to a larger versions to allow better reading of
+the fractions.</p>
+<p>The remaining corrections made are indicated by dotted lines under the corrections. Scroll the mouse over the word and the original text will <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'apprear'">appear</ins>.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Boys' Book of Model Boats, by Raymond Francis Yates
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+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,4522 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Boys' Book of Model Boats, by Raymond Francis Yates
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Boys' Book of Model Boats
+
+Author: Raymond Francis Yates
+
+Release Date: June 7, 2009 [EBook #29064]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOYS' BOOK OF MODEL BOATS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Emmy and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+BOYS' BOOK
+
+OF
+
+MODEL BOATS
+
+[Illustration: (C)_Jack Sussman_
+
+A TWO-FOOT STEAMBOAT
+
+Making her way across the park pond. Ten miles an hour is a common speed
+for a boat of this type]
+
+
+
+BOYS' BOOK
+
+OF
+
+MODEL BOATS
+
+BY RAYMOND FRANCIS YATES
+
+          WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS
+          FROM DRAWINGS AND
+          PHOTOGRAPHS
+
+[Illustration]
+
+          NEW YORK
+          THE CENTURY CO.
+
+
+          Copyright, 1920, by
+          THE CENTURY CO.
+
+          PRINTED IN U. S. A.
+
+
+          TO
+          LAVERNE YATES
+          A BUILDER OF MODEL BOATS
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+EVERY boy likes to build boats. The interest in boats seems to be born
+in the race. The little three-year-old chap is instinctively attracted
+by a puddle of water in which to sail his "boat," which may take the
+form of a piece of shingle or common board. Few men have passed through
+their boyhood days without having built boats at some time.
+
+The author was an ardent boat-builder, and he well remembers how he
+combed the Children's Department of the local library in search of a
+book that would tell him something about boats, and especially for
+information regarding the construction of models. He found books on
+model airplanes, toys, electricity, radio, and chemistry, but alas!
+nothing about model boats. He vowed then that when he became a man he
+would write a book on model boats--a book that would contain all the
+treasured information he had accumulated during his boat-building
+years.
+
+This book is the result of that vow, and the author earnestly hopes that
+it will gladden the heart of every boy who builds and sails a boat.
+There are probably few happier moments in a boy's life than when he sees
+his little model steamer proudly make her way across the park pond, or
+his little sail-boat respond to the summer breeze.
+
+The author takes this opportunity to thank his wife, who acted as his
+amanuensis in the preparation of this manuscript.
+
+                                                  RAYMOND FRANCIS YATES.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                    PAGE
+
+     I WHY A BOAT FLOATS                                        3
+
+    II THE HULL                                                12
+
+   III HOW TO MAKE SIMPLE BOATS, WITH AND WITHOUT POWER DRIVE  26
+
+    IV STEAM AND ELECTRIC PROPULSION                           42
+
+     V AN ELECTRIC LAUNCH                                      66
+
+    VI A STEAM LAUNCH                                          75
+
+   VII AN ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN LAKE FREIGHTER                   91
+
+  VIII AN ELECTRIC SUBMARINE-CHASER                            98
+
+    IX BOAT FITTINGS                                          107
+
+     X THE DESIGN OF MODEL STEAM-ENGINES                      126
+
+    XI A MODEL FLOATING DRY-DOCK                              135
+
+   XII OPERATION OF FLASH STEAM POWER PLANTS FOR MODEL BOATS  149
+
+  XIII SAILING YACHTS                                         164
+
+   XIV TWO-FOOT SAILING YACHT                                 184
+
+       APPENDIX                                               207
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  A two-foot steam boat                            _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                            FACING
+                                                             PAGE
+
+  Getting ready for a trip                                     72
+
+  All ready to go                                              73
+
+  A powerful gasolene blow-torch                              112
+
+  Just after the race                                         113
+
+  A twin-cylinder steam engine for model marine use           168
+
+  A cup-winning model sail boat                               169
+
+
+
+
+BOYS' BOOK OF MODEL BOATS
+
+
+
+
+BOYS' BOOK OF MODEL BOATS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+WHY A BOAT FLOATS
+
+
+BEFORE taking up the construction of any of the model power boats
+described in this book, it will be well for the young boat-builder to
+become acquainted with such terms as buoyancy, displacement, center of
+gravity, etc. Knowledge of these subjects is more or less necessary if
+successful boats are to be made. Aside from this, they are terms that
+every boy who claims an interest in boats should understand.
+
+"How does a steel boat float?" is a question that many boys ask. The
+reason they usually designate a steel boat is probably because steel is
+so much heavier than water. But many things heavier than water can be
+made to float if they are in the form of a boat. Concrete, for instance,
+is now being used in ship construction, and this substance, when
+reinforced with steel rods, is very much heavier than water.
+
+Before learning how a boat floats, what is known as "specific gravity"
+must be thoroughly understood. Gravity is a force that is continuously
+"pulling" everything toward the center of the earth. It is gravity that
+gives a body "weight." Some substances are heavier than others; or, to
+be more correct, it is said that the specific gravity of one substance
+is greater than that of another. It will be well to keep in mind that
+specific gravity merely refers to weight. It is simply a scientific
+term. The specific gravity of a substance is always expressed by a
+figure that tells how much heavier any substance is than water, because
+water has been chosen as a standard.
+
+The specific gravity of water is 1. The specific gravity of gold is
+19.26, meaning that it is about 19-1/4 times heavier than water. The
+specific gravity of a piece of oak is 0.86, which shows that it is not
+quite so heavy as water. One cubic foot of water weighs 62.42 pounds.
+It will be understood that a cubic foot of gold would weight 19.26 x
+62.42, because it is 19.26 times heavier than water. A cubic foot of
+oak, however, would weigh only 54 pounds, because it has been found that
+it has a specific gravity of only 0.86 which is less than water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+A cubic foot of oak (see Fig. 1), with a weight of 54 pounds, will float
+when placed in water. The cubic foot of brass (_B_), however, will not
+float, because it weights 8.1 times as much as water. For the present,
+then, it can be said that a substance lighter than water will float in
+water, but that substances heavier than water, such as iron, lead, gold,
+silver, etc., will not float. If the cubic foot of oak (_A_) were
+placed in water, it would sink to the depth shown at _C_. When the block
+sinks into the water, a certain amount of water will be forced away or
+"displaced"; that is, the block in sinking occupies a space that was
+previously occupied or filled with water. The oak block sinks to within
+a short distance of the top because the oak is really just a trifle
+lighter than water. If a pine block were placed in the water it would
+sink only to the distance shown at _D_, since the weight of pine is less
+than oak, or only 34.6 pounds per cubic foot. A pine block will, then,
+displace only about 34.6 pounds of water, which leaves nearly half of
+the block out of the water. Thus, it will be seen that for a given
+volume (size) a cubic foot of wood will sink to a depth corresponding to
+its weight. Different kinds of wood have different weights.
+
+If a cubic foot of brass is placed in water, it will sink rapidly to the
+bottom, because the brass is much heavier than water. How is it, then,
+that an iron or concrete ship will float? If the cubic foot of brass is
+rolled or flattened out in a sheet, and formed or pressed into the
+shape of a boat hull, as shown in Fig. 2, it will float when placed upon
+the surface of the water. Why is it that brass is caused to float in
+this way, when it sank so rapidly in the form of a solid square?
+
+[Illustration: FIG.2]
+
+It will be remembered that the pine and oak block were caused to float
+because they displaced a greater weight of water than their own weight.
+This is just what causes the brass boat-hull to float. If the amount of
+water actually displaced by the hull could be weighed, it would be found
+that the weight of the water would be greater than the weight of the
+hull. It will be understood that the space occupied by the brass
+boat-hull is far greater than the space occupied by the block of brass
+before it was rolled out and formed into a hull. What is true of brass
+holds true of iron, steel, etc. A block of steel will not float, because
+the water it displaces does not weigh nearly as much as the block. If
+this block, however, were rolled out into a sheet and the sheet formed
+into a hollow hull, the hull would float, because it would displace a
+volume of water that would more than total the weight of the steel in
+the hull.
+
+In the case of the brass boat-hull, it would be found that a greater
+portion of the hull would remain out of the water. The hull, then, could
+be loaded until the top of it came within a safe distance from the
+water. As the load is increased, the hull sinks deeper and deeper. The
+capacity of big boats is reckoned in tons. If a boat had a carrying
+capacity of ten tons it would sink to what is called its "load
+water-line" (L.W.L.) when carrying ten tons. As a load or cargo is
+removed from a vessel it rises out of the water.
+
+What if the hull of a boat has a hole in it? If the hole is below the
+water-line, water will leak in and in time completely fill the inside of
+the hull, causing the boat to sink. Also, if too great a load or cargo
+were placed in a boat, it would sink. It must be understood that water
+leaking into a boat increases its load, and if it is not stopped it will
+cause the boat to sink.
+
+The center of gravity of a boat is a very important matter. First,
+attention will be directed to the meaning of "center of gravity." If a
+one-foot ruler is made to balance (as shown in Fig. 3) at the six-inch
+mark, the point at which it balances will be very close to the center of
+gravity. The real center, however, will be in the middle of the wood of
+which the rule is composed. It should constantly be kept in mind that
+this "center of gravity" is a purely imaginary point.
+
+Look at Fig. 4. If wires are arranged in a wooden frame, as shown, the
+point where the wires cross will be the center of gravity if the square
+formed by the wooden strips is solid. Every body, no matter what its
+shape, has a center of gravity. The center of gravity is really an
+imaginary point in a body, at the center of its mass. Oftentimes
+engineers are heard saying that the center of gravity of a certain
+object is too high or too low. Fig. 5 shows the center of gravity in a
+boat. If the center of gravity in a boat is too high (as illustrated in
+Fig. 6) the boat is said to be topheavy and unsafe. When a boat is
+topheavy or its center of gravity is too high, the boat is liable to
+capsize. In fact, some very serious marine accidents have been caused by
+this fault.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6]
+
+
+The center of gravity (or center of weight) in a boat should be as low
+as possible. A boat with a low center of gravity will be very stable in
+the water and difficult to capsize. This is true of model boats just as
+much as it is true of large boats. The model boat builder must keep the
+weight of his boat as near the bottom as possible. For instance, if a
+heavy cabin were built on a frail little hull, the boat would be very
+unstable and would probably capsize easily.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE HULL
+
+
+MODEL boat-hulls are generally made by one of two methods. One method is
+that of cutting the hull from a solid piece of wood. The other method is
+commonly known as the "bread-and-butter" system. The hull is built up of
+planks laid on top one of another with marine glue spread between them.
+The last-mentioned method (which shall hereafter be called the built-up
+method) possesses many advantages over the first.
+
+Cutting a model boat-hull from a solid piece of wood is by no means a
+simple or easy task, especially for beginners. Of course, after several
+hulls have been produced in this fashion, the worker becomes practised
+in cutting them out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8]
+
+
+The construction of hulls on the built-up principle will be described
+first. For the sake of convenience, the drawings of the boat-hull shown
+in Figs. 7 and 8 will be followed out. Before going further it will be
+well to understand drawings of boat-hulls; that is, how to know the
+lines of a boat from a drawing. By the "lines" is meant its shape.
+Marine architects employ a regular method in drawing boat-hulls. Fig. 7
+shows the side of a boat and half of the deck plan. It will be seen
+that this drawing does not tell much about the real shape of the boat,
+and if a hull were to be produced according to the shape given, the
+builder would have to use his own judgment as to the outline of the hull
+at different places. For convenience, the boat is divided into ten
+sections, represented by the lines 0 to 10. It will be seen that the
+shape of the hull at section 2 will be different from the shape of the
+hull at section 8. Again, section 0 will be much narrower than section
+5.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9]
+
+Now look at Fig. 8. Note the shape of the cross-section of the hull at
+the different sections. For instance, the line at section 1 in Fig. 8
+represents the shape of the hull at section 1 in Fig. 7. It must be
+remembered, however, that this is only half of the section, and that the
+line 1 in Fig. 8 would have to be duplicated by another line to show the
+true shape. The cross-section of the boat at section 0 is shown in Fig.
+9. One half of the drawing in Fig. 8 represents the forward half of the
+hull, and the other half represents the stern half of the hull. If the
+shape of the boat at section 10 is desired, the line 10 in Fig. 8 could
+be traced on a piece of tissue paper. The paper could then be folded in
+half and the line first made traced on the second half. This would then
+produce the section of the boat at point 10. Thus, by closely examining
+Fig. 8 the shape of the entire hull can be seen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10]
+
+If pieces of wire could be used to form the lines of the hull at the
+various sections, it would appear as shown in Fig. 10 when assembled.
+
+Notice that in Fig. 8 there is a load water-line, which the vessel
+sinks to when loaded, and the second and first load water-line, which
+the vessel sinks to when only partially loaded or when carrying no load
+aside from its regular necessary equipment. The keel line of the boat is
+the line that runs along the bottom from bow to stern. (The bow of the
+boat is the front and the stern the back.)
+
+Motor-boating and marine magazines often publish the lines of different
+boats, and if the young boat-builder understands how to read boat
+drawings he will be able to make a model of any boat that is so
+described.
+
+Directions will now be given regarding the method of producing a
+boat-hull similar to the lines shown in Figs. 7 and 8, by the built-up
+method of construction.
+
+First, it will be necessary to procure the lumber. Several clean white
+pine boards will be very suitable to work with, and will not require
+much skill in handling. Let us assume that the boat-hull is to measure
+22 inches in length, with a depth of 4 inches. The beam, which is the
+width of the boat at its widest point, will be 5 inches. (It will be
+well to remember what the term "beam" means, since the term will be
+used constantly throughout the book.)
+
+On a piece of heavy wrapping-paper draw the deck plan full size, that
+is, 22 inches long by 5 inches at its widest point. Next cut out along
+the pencil line with a pair of shears. Now lay the paper outline on a
+plank and mark out the pattern on the wood. Repeat this process with
+three more planks. When this is done, cut out the boards with a keyhole
+saw.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11]
+
+After the boards are cut out mark them as shown in Fig. 11. The space
+marked out on the board must be sawed out in two of the boards, to form
+the inside of the hull, if the boat is to carry some form of power, such
+as a battery-motor, or steam-engine. After the lines are marked out,
+make a hole with a 3/4-inch bit, as shown in Fig. 12. Insert the point of
+the keyhole saw in one of these holes to start it and cut out the
+piece. Treat the second board in the same way. The third board must
+have a smaller portion cut out of the center, owing to the fact that
+this board is nearer the bottom of the hull, where the width of the boat
+is narrower. The width of the piece cut out in the third board should
+not be more than 2 inches.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12]
+
+When this work is done, a very thin layer of glue is placed over the
+boards, and they are then laid one on top of another. The boards are
+then placed in a vise or clamp and allowed to remain there over night.
+In applying the glue, the builder should be careful not to put too much
+on the boards. Too much glue is worse than not enough. It should be
+merely a thin film.
+
+After the boards have been glued together the crude hull will appear, as
+shown in Fig. 13.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13]
+
+At this point the hull sections from 0 to 10 must be marked off. By
+referring again to Fig. 7 it will be seen that the sections 0 to 1 and 9
+to 10 are not so far apart as the other sections. Section 0 is 1 inch
+from the bow of the boat and section 1 is 1 inch from section 0.
+Sections 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are all 1 inch apart. Section 9 is 1
+inch from 10 and 10 is 1 inch from the stern. Lines should be drawn
+across the deck to correspond with these sections, which can be measured
+off with a ruler. It will now be necessary to cut some templates, or
+forms, from cardboard to guide the builder in bringing the hull to
+shape. It will be an easy matter to make these templates by following
+Fig. 8. A template of section 9 is shown in Fig. 14. It will be necessary
+to make eleven templates, corresponding to the sections 0 to 10. The
+templates should be cut from heavy cardboard so they will hold their
+shapes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14]
+
+The hull of the boat is now placed in a vise and roughly brought to
+shape with a draw-knife. After it has been brought to shape by this
+means a spoke-shave is used. This little tool has an adjustable blade by
+means of which it is possible to regulate the cut. When the builder
+starts to use the spoke-shave he should also start to use his templates
+or forms, applying them sectionally to determine how much more wood he
+will have to remove to bring the hull to shape. For instance, when he is
+working in the vicinity of sections 5, 6, and 7 he will apply these
+forms at the proper points occasionally to determine when enough wood
+has been removed. This procedure is followed out the entire length of
+the boat, care being taken to see that both sides are the same and that
+too much wood is not removed, since there is no remedy for this mistake.
+The builder who proceeds carefully and is not in too great a hurry to
+finish the work need not make this mistake.
+
+Of course, it will not be possible to bring the hull to a perfect finish
+with a spoke-shave. This can be done, however, by the use of a coarse
+file and sandpaper. The coarse file is used to take the rough marks of
+the spoke-shave away, and the marks left by the file are in turn removed
+by the sandpaper. The sandpaper must be applied unsparingly and always
+with the grain. It will be necessary to use considerable "elbow grease"
+to obtain a good finish.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15]
+
+Boat-hulls can also be hewn to shape from a solid block, but it will be
+understood that this method involves more work than the one just
+described. Of course, the procedure of bringing the hull to shape by the
+aid of the draw-knife, spoke-shave, and templates is the same, but the
+hollowing out of the inside of the hull will be a much more difficult
+job. However, with a couple of good sharp chisels and a gouge the work
+will not be so difficult as at first appears. The use of an auger and
+bit will greatly aid in the work. After the outside of the hull is
+brought to shape the wooden form is drilled with holes, as shown in Fig.
+15. This will make it much easier to chip the wood away. After the major
+portion of the wood has been taken out with the chisel, the gouge is
+brought into use. The gouge should be used very carefully, since it will
+easily go through the entire hull if it is not handled properly. For the
+beginner it is not safe to make a hull less than 1/2 inch in thickness.
+Of course, it is not necessary to carefully finish the inside of the
+hull, since it is covered up with the deck and cabin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16]
+
+The solid hull has one advantage over the built-up hull. It is not
+affected by moisture and it is therefore not so liable to warp and lose
+its shape. It will also stand more rough usage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19]
+
+
+There is still another method of producing a boat-hull. This hull is
+known as the Sharpie type. A Sharpie hull is shown in Fig. 16. The
+method of producing a hull of this type will be seen quite clearly by
+reference to Fig. 17, which shows the boards and parts cut out ready to
+assemble. The boards are made from 1/8-inch mahogany, which can be
+obtained at any lumber-yard. First, the bow piece is cut to shape and
+carefully finished. Then the two side pieces are fastened to it, as
+shown in Fig. 18. The screws used should be brass, since iron screws
+will rust and cause trouble. Three screws should be used for each side
+board, and they should be driven into the bow piece so that the screws
+on one side will not interfere with those on the other. The first
+cross-piece is then screwed in place, as shown in Fig. 19. The second
+and third cross-pieces are then screwed in place and the back or stern
+piece attached. The bottom of the boat is then carefully put in place
+with small screws. It will be noticed that the bottom board of the boat
+is cut to fit the inside of the bottom. It is held in place with small
+brass brads. The crevices or seams along the bottom of the boat should
+be carefully covered with pitch or marine glue to prevent leakage when
+the boat is in the water. The bow of the boat should be finished off
+nicely to a point with a heavy file or a wood-rasp.
+
+This type of hull is extremely easy to produce and it is capable of
+carrying a considerable load. However, it is not a good type to use for
+all kinds of boats. It makes a splendid little pleasure yacht or
+submarine-chaser, but for a torpedo-boat destroyer or a freighter it
+would not be suitable.
+
+The young model boat builder is advised not to try to construct hulls
+from metal. This is a very difficult task even for the thoroughly
+experienced mechanic. Wood is much easier to work with and will produce
+the same results.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HOW TO MAKE SIMPLE BOATS, WITH AND WITHOUT POWER DRIVE
+
+
+THIS Chapter will be devoted to the construction of very simple types of
+boats. The boats described will be constructed largely with blocks of
+wood cut into various shapes and sizes. The results obtainable by this
+method of construction are surprising, and there are few types of boats
+that cannot be modeled by following the method. After the model-builder
+has constructed a few boats along this principle he will be able to
+duplicate the general appearance of almost any craft he sees by
+carefully planning and cutting the blocks he uses.
+
+The first boat described is a submarine. This is shown in Fig. 20. Four
+blocks of wood form the basis of its construction, and these are cut
+from 1-inch stock, as shown in the drawing. Such a submarine can be
+made practically any size up to 12 inches in length. Beyond this size
+they begin to look out of proportion and they are more difficult to
+propel. After nailing the blocks together as shown in the drawing, a
+small piece of sheet brass is bent at right angles and tacked to the
+stern piece. This is to act as a bearing for the propeller.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21]
+
+The propeller-shaft is bent into a hook over which rubber bands are
+placed. The opposite end of the rubber bands are fastened to a screw-eye
+driven into the under side of the bow. A heavy piece of copper wire is
+fastened to the stern of the boat by staples, and bent as shown. A
+rudder is then cut from thin sheet brass, and the end of it is bent
+around a piece of wire larger in diameter than the wire used for the
+rudder-post. It is then taken from this wire and slipped over the wire
+on the boat. It should be pinched in place by a pair of pliers, so that
+it will stay in any position in which it is put. The end of the wire is
+bent over so that the rudder will not slip off. The boat can be steered
+in a circle or it can be made to go straight, depending upon the
+position of the propeller.
+
+The horizontal rudders are mounted forward, as shown. They are made from
+thin sheet brass bent as indicated in the little insertion. A hole is
+drilled in them as shown, and a screw is placed through these to hold
+the rudders to the side of the craft. The screws should be tightened so
+that the rudders will stay at any angle at which they are put. If the
+boat is to be submerged the rudders are pointed as shown. If the boat is
+to travel on the surface of the water the rudders are brought up into a
+horizontal position or parallel with the deck. A little gray paint
+placed on this model will greatly improve its appearance.
+
+Another submarine, more complicated than the one just described, is
+shown in Fig. 21. The body of this submarine is formed by a part of a
+broomstick or shovel-handle. This submarine is truer to type and can be
+made with very little trouble. The piece of broomstick or shovel-handle
+is cut 22 inches in length. It is pointed at each end, and part of it is
+planed off to form the upper deck. When this is done, a small flat piece
+is cut as shown, and nailed or screwed to the flat portion. The
+conning-tower and periscope are placed on the upper deck, as shown. The
+rudder on this craft is not made adjustable, so that it always travels
+in a perfectly straight line. The horizontal rudders however, are made
+adjustable, and the boat is therefore able to travel upon the surface
+or submerge, depending upon the position of the rudder.
+
+The power plant of this boat is made up of rubber bands. The power
+transmission to the propeller is a little different than the one
+previously described. A gear and a pinion are salvaged from the works of
+an old alarm-clock, and mounted on a piece of brass, as shown. A little
+soldering will be necessary here to make a good job. By using the gear
+meshing with the pinion a considerable increase in the speed of the
+propeller is obtained, and therefore the speed of the boat is
+considerably increased. The method of holding the power plant to the
+bottom of the boat is made very clear. In order to bring the boat down
+to the proper level in the water, a strip of sheet lead can be tacked to
+the bottom. The builder should take care to get a piece of lead just the
+correct weight to leave the surface of the deck awash. A coat of gray
+paint will also greatly improve the appearance of this craft.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24]
+
+Attention is directed to the construction of boats of different types
+made without power plants. Many interesting little crafts can be
+produced in this way, and the energetic model-builder can produce a
+whole model harbor or dock-yard by constructing a number of boats of
+different types according to the following instructions.
+
+The first boat described will be the tug _Mary Ann_ shown in Fig. 22 and
+Fig. 23. The blocks necessary to construct this boat are shown in Fig.
+24. The hull of the boat is produced by three pieces of wood sawed out
+to the same shape with a keyhole saw and glued together. After the glue
+is dry the blocks are placed in a vise and the top one or deck block is
+planed down as shown. It will be seen that the deck inclines slightly
+toward the stern of the boat. When this is done the hull is turned
+upside down and the bottom of the stern planed off as illustrated. The
+outside of the hull can be finished up with a sharp knife and a
+jack-plane.
+
+The little bow piece can also then be tacked in place. After this the
+pieces that form the hull can be nailed together from the bottom and
+from the top. This is quite necessary, for glue will not hold them in
+place after the boat has become thoroughly soaked with water.
+
+The cabin and engine-room are shown very clearly in the illustration and
+little need be said about erecting this part of the craft. The two doors
+and window on the side of the cabin are made by cutting out small pieces
+of cigar-box wood and gluing them to the cabin and engine-room. A good
+substitute for the wood can be found in tin, but of course this would
+have to be tacked on. The little skylight on the back of the tug is made
+by a single block covered by two pieces of cigar-box wood.
+
+In order to stabilize the craft and to bring her down to the proper
+water-line, a lead keel must be nailed to the bottom. The weight of this
+keel will have to be adjusted until the boat rests properly in the
+water. The reader will notice that no dimensions have been given for
+this boat. This is because most boys will wish to build different sized
+boats, and therefore it has not been deemed advisable to dimension the
+boats described in this Chapter. What the author desires to do is to
+impart the principles of construction, so that every boy may use his own
+ingenuity in regard to size and proportion of length to beam.
+
+If tugs are constructed according to the design outlined above, the
+model boat builder will also desire to have something that the tug can
+haul. A very simple barge for this purpose is outlined in Figs. 25 and
+26. This is formed of a single slab with the ends cut at an angle as
+illustrated. A square flat piece is then tacked to the upper deck, which
+acts as a cover. Four posts are then put in place in the same way as
+those on the tug. One is placed in each corner. A boat or a scow like
+this is generally painted red, and the model described can be made to
+look much more realistic by painting it this color.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28]
+
+These barges are so easy to construct that the model-builder should make
+three or four of them at a time. If the pieces for several are cut out
+at the same time, the construction will be just that much easier. If the
+boat does not sink far enough into the water, a piece of lead should be
+placed on the bottom to bring it down. This piece of lead should be
+placed as near the center as it is possible to get it. Otherwise the
+boat will list or tip at one end or the other. With a little patience
+and care the weight can be so adjusted on the bottom as to bring the
+scow to a perfectly level position. The reader will understand that the
+water-line of a scow or any boat made according to the directions in
+this book will depend largely upon the nature of the wood. In the first
+Chapter of the book it was pointed out that the specific gravity of
+different woods varies, and therefore the buoyancy will vary.
+
+A model freighter is shown in Fig. 27. The hull of this boat can be
+formed by two 1-1/2-inch planks. These will require a little hard work
+to cut out; but, on the other hand, the effort will be entirely
+justified by the pleasing appearance of the little craft that can be
+produced in this way. A bow and stern block to raise the deck are cut
+out and nailed in place, as shown. A cabin is also placed on the stern
+of the craft, and this is formed by a block with a piece of cigar-box
+wood placed on the top. The cigar-box wood should project a little over
+the edges to form a canopy. The center of the deck can be raised by a
+third block; and three independent blocks, two large ones and a small
+one, form the main cabin. Sandwiched in between these blocks are three
+pieces of cigar-box wood. The remaining details of the craft are so
+simple that they may easily be made by following the diagram.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29]
+
+Let us turn our attention to model war-ships. A torpedo-boat destroyer
+is clearly illustrated in Figs. 28 and 29. This is very simple to
+construct and makes a pleasing craft when finished. The hull is formed
+by two blocks. One of these forms the raised deck on the bow of the
+boat. The cabin is built up on this raised deck. It will be seen that
+the part of the hull that rests in the water is formed by one block. In
+building boats of this nature the constructor should be careful to keep
+them long and slender, since torpedo-boat destroyers are always of this
+type. They are high-speed craft, and their displacement must therefore
+be as small as possible. Some of these boats carry four stacks and some
+two. The author prefers four stacks as giving the boat a better
+appearance than two. The two little cabins near the stern of the boat
+are placed there merely to take away the plainness of construction. The
+guns mounted forward and aft are merely round pieces of wood with a
+piece of wire bent around them and forced into a hole in the deck.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30]
+
+The boat-builder should not be satisfied with one or two of these craft;
+he should make a whole fleet. This will afford the average boy a great
+amount of pleasure, since he can add to his fleet from time to time and
+have official launchings. Each boat can also be given a name and a
+number. A little gray paint on the hull of these boats and black on the
+stacks gives them a very presentable appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32]
+
+A battleship is shown in Fig. 30. A battleship should be at least twice
+as long as a torpedo-boat destroyer. A view of the battleship as it will
+look in the water is shown in Fig. 31. By carefully examining this
+drawing the builder will be able to see just the number and shape of
+the blocks that enter into the construction of the craft. The battleship
+is provided with four main batteries mounted in turrets, one forward and
+three aft. A mast is also built, and strings run from it to the top of
+the main cabin and to the end of one of the turrets mounted aft. A screw
+is placed through the centers of the fore and aft turrets, so they can
+be turned to any position. Battleships should be painted gray. It will
+be necessary to place rather a heavy keel on the boat just described in
+order to bring it down to the proper depth in the water. Otherwise it
+will be topheavy and will capsize very easily. A fleet of battleships
+and battle-cruisers can easily be made according to the foregoing
+instructions, and the builder should not be satisfied with producing
+only one.
+
+A pleasure yacht is illustrated in Fig. 32. The hull of this craft is
+formed by two boards nailed together. The cabins are very simple, being
+formed by a solid block of wood with a piece of cigar-box wood tacked to
+the top. The windows and doors are marked in place with a soft
+lead-pencil, and the stack is mounted midway between the two cabins. A
+wireless antenna should be placed on the boat, with a few guy-wires from
+the masts run to various parts of the deck. A lead-in wire also runs
+down into one of the cabins. The hull of this boat should be painted
+pure white. The deck can be left its natural color, while the stack
+should be painted black and the cabins white with green trimmings.
+
+Almost any type of boat can be produced by the use of simple blocks of
+wood and other miscellaneous pieces easily brought to shape from
+ordinary materials. This method of construction offers a wonderful
+opportunity for the boy to exercise his creative faculties.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+STEAM AND ELECTRIC PROPULSION
+
+
+BOATS are propelled by two different systems. Some inland-water boats
+still employ side paddle-wheels, while ocean-going vessels use the more
+modern propeller or screw.
+
+The paddle-wheel really acts as a continuous oar. Such a wheel is shown
+in Fig. 33. As the wheel goes around the paddle dips into the water and
+pushes the boat forward. If the direction of the boat is to be reversed,
+the rotation of the paddle-wheels is reversed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38]
+
+Before passing onto the screw, it may be well to explain just how a
+paddle-wheel causes a boat to move. When a man gets into a rowboat, he
+generally pushes himself off by placing his oar against the dock or
+shore and pushing on it. That is just what the paddle does in the water.
+It dips into the water and pushes against it. It must be remembered,
+however, that water is unlike a solid substance and it "gives." When a
+man places his oar against the bank and pushes it, the bank does not
+move, and all of the man's energy is used in starting the boat. Water,
+however, does not remain stationary when the paddles push against it,
+and therefore all of the power it not utilized in moving the boat--part
+is used in moving the water.
+
+The paddle-wheel is not so efficient in moving a boat as the more modern
+propeller--or screw, as it is more often called. The screw receives its
+name from the ordinary metal screw, because its theory of operation is
+exactly the same. A wood screw, when turned, forces itself into wood. A
+propeller, when turned, forces itself (and thereby the boat) through the
+water. A small propeller is illustrated in Fig. 34. This is an ordinary
+three-blade propeller. (The writer prefers the word propeller instead of
+screw.)
+
+From the drawing, it will be seen that the propeller-blades are mounted
+at an angle. This angle of the blades causes them to force water back as
+they cut through it when the propeller is revolving. This forcing of the
+water back tends to produce a forward motion of the propeller, and in
+this way the boat on which the propeller is mounted moves through the
+water. The propeller is caused to revolve by a steam-engine,
+steam-turbine, or gasolene-engine, as shown in Fig. 35. Longer boats
+have more than one propeller. A boat that has two propellers is called a
+twin-screw boat. A boat driven with four propellers is called a
+quadruple-screw boat.
+
+When a machine screw is turned around just once, it moves forward a
+certain distance, as a glance at Fig. 36 will show. The distance the
+screw moves forward will depend entirely upon the distance between the
+threads. The distance between the threads is called the pitch of the
+thread. If the threads are 1/32 inch apart, then the screw will move
+1/32 inch every time it revolves.
+
+If a propeller acts in the same way as a screw, then it too must have a
+pitch. The pitch, or the distance that a propeller will advance in one
+revolution, is measured in inches. A propeller with a pitch of ten
+inches should move ten inches through the water at each revolution.
+However, there is a certain amount of "slip," and a propeller does not
+actually advance the distance that it should theoretically. The pitch of
+a propeller is really the distance it would advance in one revolution
+if it were revolving in an unyielding or solid substance.
+
+To make a simple propeller, first cut out of thin sheet brass three
+blades as shown at _A_, Fig. 37. Sheet brass with a thickness of 1/32
+inch is very suitable for this purpose. Next, a block, as shown at _B_,
+is carefully carved out so that the propeller can be hammered down into
+the depression. The same block is used for the three blades, so that
+each will have the same curvature. The block should be cut from oak,
+since this wood will not split or lose its shape when the forming is
+done.
+
+The hub is made next. This is shown at _C_, Fig. 37. The hub, of brass,
+is made according to the stream-line method. It is filed to shape from a
+piece of round brass stock. A hole runs lengthwise in the brass, as
+shown, and a set-screw is used to hold the hub of the propeller-shaft.
+The method of cutting the slots in the hub is shown at _D_, Fig. 37. The
+hub is clamped between two boards placed in the vise, and a hacksaw is
+used to cut a slot in the hub. The hub is then turned around one third
+of a revolution, and another slot cut, using the same saw-marks in the
+boards, so that the angle of the second slot will be the same as the
+first one. The third slot is cut in the same manner. The three blades
+that were cut out are now fastened in these slots and held there by
+solder. This completes the propeller and it is now ready to be fastened
+upon the propeller-shaft.
+
+Let us consider the general method of putting the propeller-shaft in
+place. The young boat-builder will readily understand that it would be
+very impractical merely to bore a hole in the hull of the boat to put
+the propeller-shaft through. In this way water would surely leak into
+the hull and the boat would sink in a short time. Some method must be
+evolved to keep the water out of the hull, and yet allow the
+propeller-shaft to revolve freely.
+
+The propeller-shaft is arranged within a brass tube, as shown at Fig.
+38. The brass tube should be about 1/8 inch larger in diameter than the
+propeller-shaft. A little brass bushing must also be arranged at each
+end, as shown. When the propeller-shaft is mounted in place in the
+tube, there will be a space between it and the tube. Before the
+propeller-shaft is put in place it is well smeared with vaseline, and
+when it is placed in the tube the space between the shaft and the tube
+will be completely filled with it. This will prevent water from
+entering. Owing to the fact that vaseline is a soft, greasy substance,
+it will not prevent the rotation of the propeller-shaft. The brass tube
+is placed through a hole bored in the hull of the boat. The hole should
+be a trifle smaller than the diameter of the brass tube, so that the
+tube can be forced into the hole.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42]
+
+One of the simplest methods of propelling a boat is by means of rubber
+bands. Such a boat is shown in Fig. 39. This is a small wooden hull
+fitted with a two-blade propeller. The propeller is shown at Fig. 40. It
+is cut in a single piece and held to the propeller-shaft merely by a
+drop of solder since there will not be much strain upon it owing to the
+low power of the rubber-band motor. The opposite end of the
+propeller-shaft is bent into a hook, and the rubber bands run from this
+to another hook placed at the bow of the boat. The rubber bands may be
+similar to those employed by model airplane builders. The motor, of
+course, must be wound up by turning the propeller around until the bands
+become twisted into little knots, as shown at Fig. 39. Boats driven by
+rubber bands cannot be very large unless a great number of rubber bands
+are used. Even then the power is short-lived. However, building a few
+small boats driven by rubber-band motors will do much to teach the
+young boat-builder some valuable lessons in boat construction.
+
+Probably the best method of propelling model boats is the electric
+method. By building a boat large enough to accommodate two dry batteries
+or a small storage battery and a little power motor, a very reliable
+method of propulsion is made possible. The boat must have sufficient
+displacement to accommodate the weight of the dry-cells and storage
+battery. A boat two feet long, with a beam of 4-1/2 inches, is large
+enough to accommodate one dry-cell and a small motor, providing the
+fittings of the boat are not too heavy.
+
+A suitable power motor for small boats, which will run with either one
+or two dry-cells, is shown in Fig. 41. The connections for the motor are
+given clearly in Fig. 42, and a suitable switch to control the motor is
+shown at Fig. 43.
+
+Owing to its greater power, the storage battery is to be preferred.
+Dry-cells are extremely heavy and occupy considerable space. They are
+also costly, since they do not last long and cannot be worked too hard
+unless they polarize.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45]
+
+A very suitable method of mounting an electric motor is illustrated in
+Figs. 44 and 45. It will be noticed that the motor is inverted. A small
+pinion or gear is mounted upon the armature-shaft of the motor. A larger
+gear (about three times the diameter of the small one) is placed upon
+the propeller-shaft. This gives a speed reduction of three to one. It
+will be seen that the propeller-tube is strapped within a strip of brass
+to a small cross-piece nailed to the bottom board of the hull. The hull
+is of the built-up type, and the other three boards that go to make it
+up are not shown. When the three boards are glued in place, a brass
+strip is run across the top board and the base of the motor is screwed
+to this. This holds the motor rigidly in place so that it will not move
+when the power is turned on. The brass strip used should have sufficient
+thickness to hold the motor rigid. It will also be seen that the motor
+is tipped slightly so that it will come in line with the
+propeller-shaft.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48]
+
+It is not always possible to obtain small gears. For this reason the
+model boat builder may find it necessary to use a different method of
+fastening the propeller-shaft to the motor. A very good method of doing
+this is shown in Fig. 46. Here a coiled wire spring is used. This is
+wound to shape on a rod, and a drop of solder holds it to the propeller
+and motor shafts. In the method of propulsion shown in Fig. 44 the
+armature-shaft of the motor must be perfectly in line with the
+propeller-shaft, or the gears will bind and unsatisfactory operation of
+the motor will result. With the little spring the motor will not have to
+be mounted exactly in line with the shaft, and it will also be possible
+to mount the motor standing up. Of course, if the motor is mounted in
+this way it will be necessary to make the propeller-shaft longer, as is
+shown in Fig. 47.
+
+Still another method of driving the propeller is illustrated in Fig. 48.
+This method is so simple that the author feels explanation to be
+unnecessary.
+
+Clockwork can often be employed for propulsion purposes, but this method
+is not very satisfactory. It is also very difficult to obtain suitable
+clockworks to install in a boat. Oftentimes it will be possible to
+salvage the works of an old alarm-clock, providing the main-spring is
+intact. It is a very easy matter to mount the clock-spring and connect
+it to the propeller. Any one of the aforementioned methods can be
+employed.
+
+Steam propulsion has its advantages; but, on the other hand, the writer
+is not inclined to recommend it as strongly as the electric method for
+reliability. Of course, steam is a more powerful agency in the
+propulsion of small boats and thereby greater speed is attainable by its
+use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51]
+
+Here is a very simple small power plant suitable for driving boats up to
+3-1/2 feet in length. The boiler is shown in Figs. 49 and 50. The method
+of assembling the boiler is pictured clearly in Fig. 49. A brass or
+copper tube about 2-1/2 inches in diameter is used. Two end pieces are
+cut to shape and forced into the boiler ends. A hole is drilled in the
+center of these pieces before they are put in place. After the end
+pieces are forced in place solder is carefully flowed around their
+edges. The brass rod is then threaded at each end and placed
+concentrically within the boiler, as shown in Fig. 49. A nut is placed
+on each end of this rod and tightened. The nut is then soldered in
+place. This brass rod, called a stay-rod, prevents the end of the boiler
+from blowing out when the steam pressure has reached its maximum value.
+Three holes are drilled in the brass tube, as shown. One is to
+accommodate the steam feed-pipe that goes to the engine; another is for
+the safety-valve, and still another for the filling plug. The
+safety-valve and filling plug are both shown in Fig. 51. The little
+spring on the safety-valve is adjustable, so that the valve can be
+regulated in order to prevent it from blowing off at pressures lower
+than that at which the engine operates.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52]
+
+A suitable firebox for the boiler is shown clearly in Fig. 52. This is
+cut to shape from stovepipe iron and held together with small rivets.
+Holes should be punched or drilled in the side of the firebox to give
+the burner a sufficient supply of air. The burner is illustrated
+clearly in Fig. 52. The fuel-tank can be made from an ordinary tin can
+with the cover soldered on, and a hole made for a cork by means of which
+it is filled with denatured alcohol. A little pipe runs from the
+fuel-tank to the burner. It is advisable, if possible, to place a small
+valve in this pipe to cut off the fuel supply when necessary. The only
+other method of putting the burner out would be to stand it on its end.
+The burner consists of a rectangular tin box with a top cut out as
+illustrated. A piece of brass or copper gauze is placed in the top.
+Asbestos wool is used to fill the can, and the alcohol is drawn into the
+wool by capillary attraction, where it burns with a steady hot flame at
+the surface of the copper gauze. In the corner of the can near the
+feed-pipe another small piece of copper gauze is soldered as shown. This
+covers up the feed-pipe entrance so that the asbestos will not plug up
+the pipe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54]
+
+The engine to be used in connection with the boiler just described is
+shown in Fig. 53. This is a very simple engine of the oscillation type,
+and there should be little trouble in making it. A more mechanical
+drawing of the engine is shown in Fig. 54. The details of the engine are
+shown in Fig. 55.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55]
+
+The cylinder of the engine should be made first. This is made from a
+piece of brass tubing with an internal diameter of 3/4 inch. Two end
+pieces, or a cylinder-end cover and cylinder head, must be cut to fit
+inside the cylinder. These should be cut to shape from 1/16 inch brass,
+and a hole drilled in the cylinder head 1/8 inch in diameter to
+accommodate the piston-rod. The cylinder head is then soldered in place.
+The cylinder-end cover should be left until the piston-rod and piston
+are made.
+
+The piston head is cut to shape from a piece of 3/16-inch sheet brass,
+or it can be cut from a piece of 3/4-inch round brass with a hacksaw.
+The piston-rod is soldered into a hole in the piston-head. A small
+square piece of brass is placed on the opposite end of the piston-rod to
+act as a bearing. This little piece is cut and drilled as shown in the
+drawing. Before it is soldered in place on the piston-rod the
+cylinder-end cover should be placed on the rod. Both the piston and the
+cylinder-end cover can then be placed inside the cylinder, and the
+piston-end cover is soldered in place. Before final assembling the
+piston should be made to fit nicely into the cylinder. This can be
+brought about by applying emery cloth to the piston-head until it slips
+nicely into the cylinder with little or no play. Thus a steam-tight fit
+is made, and this contributes greatly to the efficiency and power of the
+engine.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57]
+
+The cylinder blocks are shown in Fig. 55. These are cut and brought to
+shape with a hacksaw and file. With a half-round file one side of one of
+the blocks is filed slightly concave, so that it will fit on the outside
+of the cylinder. Two 1/8-inch holes are drilled in this piece as shown
+in the drawing. The hole at the top is the steam entrance and exhaust
+for the engine; that is, when the cylinder is at one side steam enters
+this hole, and when the crank throws the cylinder over to the other side
+steam leaves through the same hole after having expanded in the
+cylinder. This cylinder block is soldered to the piston as shown in
+Fig. 56. The pivot upon which the cylinder swings is then put in place
+in the hole at the bottom of the block. Solder is flowed around the
+pivot to hold it securely in place.
+
+The second cylinder block is now finished according to the drawing. This
+has two holes 1/8 inch in diameter bored in it. One of these holes is
+the steam inlet and the other the exhaust. When the cylinder is at one
+side of its stroke the hole that was bored in the top of the steam block
+which was soldered on the cylinder is in line with the inlet hole in the
+block under consideration. Steam then enters the cylinder and forces the
+piston down. This turns the crank around, and the crank in turn pulls
+the piston over to the opposite side, so that the hole in the first
+piston block of the cylinder now comes in line with the exhaust hole on
+the second cylinder block. The steam in the cylinder escapes and the
+same operation is repeated over again. Of course, it must be understood
+that this steam admission and exhaust takes place very rapidly. The hole
+in the second cylinder block, which goes over the pivot, must be made a
+trifle more than 1/8 inch in diameter, so that it will slide freely over
+the pivot.
+
+The engine is mounted on a very simple frame, which is a piece of
+1/16-inch brass cut and bent as illustrated. After it is cut and bent to
+shape the second cylinder block is soldered in place. The cylinder can
+then be mounted. It will be seen that the pivot goes through both the
+second cylinder block and the engine standard. A small spring is placed
+over the protruding end of the pivot and a nut put in place. By turning
+this nut the pressure on the face of the two cylinder blocks can be
+adjusted, and the model engineer must always remember that the pressure
+on these springs must be greater than the steam pressure in the
+feed-pipe. Otherwise the steam pressure will force the cylinder-block
+faces apart and steam leakage will result. On the other hand, the
+pressure of the spring should not be too great, since that would
+interfere with the free movement of the engine cylinder.
+
+Nothing now remains to be made except the crank and the flywheel. The
+crank revolves in a small brass bearing which is soldered in place on
+the engine standard. It will be seen that the sheet brass that makes up
+the engine standard is not thick enough to offer a good bearing for the
+crank. The crank is bent to shape from a piece of 1/8-inch brass rod,
+and the author advises the builder to heat the brass rod red-hot while
+the bending is done. This will prevent it from fracturing, and will also
+permit a sharp bend to be made.
+
+The flywheel is a circular piece of brass 1 inch in diameter. Its center
+is drilled out and it is soldered to the crank as illustrated in Fig.
+54. Two other holes 1/8 inch in diameter are drilled in the flywheel as
+illustrated, and two small brass pins are cut out from 1/8-inch brass
+rod and forced into these holes and then soldered. These provide a
+method of driving the propeller-shaft that is shown very clearly at Fig.
+57.
+
+The steam feed-pipe that runs from the boiler to the engine can be of
+small copper tubing. It may be necessary to mount the engine on a small
+block, as shown in Fig. 53. After the steam in the boiler has reached a
+sufficient pressure the engine crank should be given a couple of twists
+in order to start it. Before operating the engine a little lubricating
+oil should be run into the cylinder through the inlet or exhaust ports.
+The cylinder should always be kept well lubricated. The contacting faces
+of the cylinder blocks should also be kept lubricated.
+
+_Caution._ Always keep water in the boiler. Never permit it to run dry,
+as this would cause a boiler explosion. When the engine is started and
+cannot be made to run, take the burner from under the boiler so that
+steam will cease to be generated. With the safety-valve the model boat
+builder need have little fear of an explosion. Nevertheless the
+foregoing directions should be carefully adhered to.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+AN ELECTRIC LAUNCH
+
+
+THE little electric launch to be described is of very simple
+construction, and when finished it will provide the builder with a very
+shipshape little model from which he will be able to derive a good deal
+of pleasure. It has a speed of from 2-1/2 to 3 miles an hour when
+equipped with dry batteries or storage batteries. The hull is of the
+Sharpie type, and this offers very little trouble in cutting out and
+assembling.
+
+The general appearance of the boat and hull will be gathered from the
+drawings. The pieces necessary to assemble the hull are shown in Fig.
+58. Only five pieces are necessary: two side pieces, a stern piece, a
+bow piece, and a bottom piece. The length of the boat over all is 40
+inches with a 7-inch beam. The widest part of the boat is 1 foot 10
+inches from the bow.
+
+After the pieces that form the hull are cut they are thoroughly
+sandpapered to produce a smooth surface. The heavy imperfections in the
+wood can be taken out with coarse paper, and the finishing can be done
+with a finer paper. It is understood that sandpapering should always be
+done with the grain, never across the grain. The sides of the boat are
+cut about 1/4 inch thick, but they are planed thinner in places where
+the bend is most pronounced. The side pieces are 2-3/4 inches deep at
+the stern and 2-1/4 inches at the stern. There is a gradual curve from
+the bow to the stern, which is more marked toward the head.
+
+The stern piece is thicker than the side pieces, being made of 1/2-inch
+wood. It is cut to the shape shown at Fig. 58, and beveled along the
+bottom edge to enable it to be fixed on the slant. The bow piece is a
+triangle 2-3/4 inches in length.
+
+After the parts are thoroughly finished with sandpaper the stern piece
+is fixed in position. In making all the joints on the boat the builder
+should see that plenty of fairly thick paint is run in while the joint
+is being screwed up. This will help greatly in making the boat
+water-tight. Plenty of 3/4-inch brass wood-screws are used in assembling
+the hull. All the holes for the wood-screws should be countersunk so
+that the heads will come flush with the surface of the hull. Now one of
+the sides should be screwed to the stern piece, at the same time bending
+the bottom and side to meet. This is done gradually, inch by inch, and
+screws are put in place at equal distances. When the bow is reached, the
+side piece is beveled to fit the bow piece, which should already have
+been screwed into place. The other side of the boat is treated in a
+similar manner, and the young worker should take care to keep the side
+and bow piece perfectly square and upright. This may sound easy on
+paper, but it will be found that a good deal of care must be exercised
+to produce this result.
+
+After the hull has been assembled it is given a good coat of paint
+inside and out. When the first coat is dry the holes left by the
+screw-heads are carefully puttied over, and the hull is given a second
+coat of paint. This procedure will produce a perfectly water-tight
+hull.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63]
+
+The stern tube is 3/8 inch, outside diameter. A hole is bored in the
+bottom of the boat to receive the stern tube. This job must be done
+cautiously; otherwise the bottom of the boat may be ruined. It is best
+to screw a substantial block to the inside of the boat. This block
+should be cut to fit the bottom and will act as a support for drilling.
+It will also help greatly to make a water-tight joint around the tube.
+The distance from the point where the stern tube passes through the
+bottom to the stern should be about 12-1/2 inches. The stern tube should
+be mounted as nearly parallel with the bottom as possible, since on this
+depends the speed of the boat. As the angle of the propeller-shaft
+increases, the speed of the boat will decrease. In drilling the hole the
+boat-builder should be careful to keep the drill running along the
+central line of the boat.
+
+As before mentioned, the stern tube is a piece of brass tubing 3/8 inch
+in diameter and 8 inches long. It is filed square at both ends, and a
+brass plug is fastened with solder in each end. The tube is then filled
+with melted vaseline, which is allowed to cool. The hole in the hull
+around the tube is then well smeared with thick paint. When this is
+done, a layer of red lead or putty is placed around the joint both on
+the inside and the outside of the boat.
+
+While the putty is drying the spray-hood or turtle-deck can be made.
+This is bent to shape from a piece of tinplate and extends half way
+down the boat. When the turtle-deck is finished, it is best to lay it
+aside, before finally fastening it in place, until the entire boat is
+completed.
+
+The wooden part of the deck is made of 1/8-inch wood and scribed with a
+sharp knife to represent planking. This method of producing planking was
+described in detail in Chapter II.
+
+Toward the stern of the boat and just behind the motor a hatchway is
+fitted to give access to the batteries and starting switch.
+
+The finished Sharpie hull without its driving batteries or motor should
+weigh about 1 pound 3 ounces. The hull being finished, let us consider
+the electric propelling equipment.
+
+A 1/8-inch cold-rolled steel driving or propeller-shaft is used. The
+shaft is 13 inches long and a gear-wheel 1 inch in diameter is fixed to
+one end of this shaft. This gear-wheel meshes with a brass pinion on the
+motor-shaft. This forms a 3-1/2 to 1 reduction gear, which produces a
+greatly increased speed of the boat. The other end of the
+propeller-shaft rests in the skeg bearing. In this present case this
+consists of a tube about 1/2 inch long, which is made for a revolving
+fit on the propeller-shaft and supported by a sheet-metal bracket. This
+is shown in Fig. 63. The end of the propeller also revolves adjacent to
+the bearing in the skeg.
+
+[Illustration: (C)_Jack Sussman_
+
+GETTING READY FOR A TRIP
+
+Heating the blow-torch to a point where it will burn automatically]
+
+The propeller is a three-blade affair with a diameter of 2-1/4 inches.
+It is attached to the propeller-shaft with a set-screw. The motor is a
+very simple type obtainable in the open market. It is similar to one
+shown in Fig. 41. As before mentioned, either dry or storage batteries
+may be used as a source of current. The writer strongly advises the use
+of storage batteries if possible. The initial cost of these batteries is
+greater than that for dry batteries; but, on the other hand, the small
+storage battery can be charged repeatedly and will outlast many dry
+batteries. If the boat is used much the storage battery will probably be
+the more economical of the two.
+
+The steering gear of the boat is very simple. The rudder works in a
+bearing that is screwed to the stern piece. The end of the rudder-shaft
+is tapped, and a brass screw is used to clamp it in position after
+setting it with the fingers. The rudder-shaft is a 3/4-inch brass rod.
+The lower end of this rod is slit with a hacksaw and the rudder is
+placed in this. Solder is then flowed along the joint.
+
+[Illustration: (C)_Jack Sussman_
+
+ALL READY TO GO!
+
+A little boat with steam up, ready for a trip when her owner releases
+her]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60]
+
+Of course, the builder may paint his boat whatever color he may select;
+but a maroon hull with a white-enameled spray-hood or turtle-deck makes
+a very pleasing combination. Fig. 60 shows a rough plan of the general
+arrangement of the power machinery. Figs. 61, 62 and 63 will do much to
+give the reader a clear idea of the method of construction which could
+not be gained by reading a description.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61]
+
+The general appearance of the boat can be improved materially in many
+ways. For instance, a little stack or ventilator may be added to the
+turtle-deck, and a little flag-stick carrying a tiny flag may be placed
+on the bow and on the stern.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62]
+
+The motor current should be turned on only when necessary, for dry-cells
+deteriorate rapidly when in use, and small storage batteries quickly
+lose their charge, although they will last much longer than dry-cells
+and give much better service.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+A STEAM LAUNCH
+
+
+THE steam launch _Nancy Lee_ is an attractive little craft when finished
+and it is capable of attaining considerable speed. It is really designed
+after the cruising type of motor-boats. This type of boat is
+particularly adaptable for simple model-making, owing to the elimination
+of awkward fittings. The power machinery is of very simple construction
+and presents no real difficulty.
+
+The following materials are necessary to construct the _Nancy Lee_:
+
+          Large wood block for hull.
+          Thin white pine for deck, etc.
+          Sheet-metal tube, rod and wire for the boiler, engine, etc.
+          Lamp-wick, paint, screws, and brads
+          Miscellaneous fittings
+
+The actual expense necessary to construct the boat is very small.
+
+Having obtained the block for the hull, you are ready to start work. The
+hull, when planed on all sides, should be 30 inches long, 6-1/2 inches
+wide, and 3-3/4 inches deep. A center line is drawn down the length of
+the hull, and five cross-section lines are drawn at right angles to the
+center line 5 inches apart. On these lines the builder should mark off
+the greatest lengths of the boat, taking the dimensions from the
+half-breadth drawing shown in Fig. 64. It will be noted that the deck is
+wider than the L. W. L. forward and narrower than the L. W. L. at the
+stern. The block should be cut to the widest line on the half-breadth
+part.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64]
+
+The half-widths in Fig. 64 are drawn each side of the center line on the
+block. The block will be cut out to this line and planed up as true as
+possible. The builder should then project the section lines with a set
+square on each side of the boat, mark off the profile from the sheer
+plan, Fig. 65, and cut the block to this line, afterward planing it up
+true.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66]
+
+The blocks should now appear as sketched in Fig. 66. It is now ready for
+the shaping of its exterior. A plane, a chisel, and a draw-knife are the
+only tools necessary to bring the hull to the correct shape. The
+cardboard templates must be cut, one for each half-section, as shown in
+the body plan, Fig. 67. These templates serve to show the proper outside
+shape of the hull. The block for the hull must be cut away until each
+one of these templates fits properly into place. The various stages are
+indicated in Figs. 68 and 69.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68]
+
+The interior of the board is gouged out with a gouging chisel, and if
+the builder desires a uniform result he should make inside templates. In
+gouging out the interior of the hull the chisel or gouge should be
+handled very carefully; otherwise it is liable to slip and spoil the
+entire hull.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69]
+
+The next job is to cut and properly fit the raised portion or
+forecastle. A piece of wood 1-1/4 inches thick, 15 inches long, and
+6-1/4 inches wide must be prepared and laid in place on the hull. The
+shape of the hull is marked off with a pencil and the wood sawed along
+this line. The inner portion is also cut out, thus making a V-shaped
+piece which must be glued and screwed in place, as shown in Fig. 70.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70]
+
+The oval air-vents shown in the drawing can be cut at this time. The
+hull is neatly finished by cutting in the sheer or curvature of the hull
+and sandpapering it all over. A cross-beam or support, _C_, Fig. 70, is
+cut and fitted as illustrated. This particular piece supports the
+fore-deck, and also carries the main-deck, as well as bracing the boat
+together. This piece should be 3/16 inch thick and cut from solid oak.
+
+The decks can be made of a good quality of white pine. The builder
+should select clean pieces, free from knots and blemishes. It only
+requires to be cut to shape and then fixed to the hull with a few brads.
+The edge should be cleaned up flush with the hull by the aid of a plane.
+The opening for the cock-pit, shown in the drawing in Fig. 71, is to be
+cut in the deck. The coamings and seats are cut to the sizes indicated
+in the drawings. They are then glued and pinned together. When fitted to
+the deck the result will be somewhat as shown in Fig. 71.
+
+The fore-deck is prepared in a similar manner; but, since this is to be
+removable, two battens must be fitted to the under side to keep it in
+place. The openings for the hatchways can be cut and the hatch-covers
+made by cutting another piece of wood 3/16 inch thick to form an edging.
+A cover piece to go over the small pieces, removed from cutting out the
+hatch opening, is shown at Fig. 72. A coping-saw will be found very
+useful for this work. The covers are neatly rounded on the edge and
+nicely finished.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76]
+
+Fig. 73 will give the reader a very good idea of the appearance of the
+boat at this stage. It will be seen that the sketch shows the deck
+broken away so as to render the cross-batten visible, which also shows
+the fair-lead at _F_, Fig. 73. This is cut from two small pieces of
+3/16-inch stuff, glued and pinned in place. The forward deck is
+completed by the addition of cowl-ventilators, cut from hard wood and
+screwed in place. The flag-mast is made from a short piece of 1/16-inch
+wire. The details of the mooring-cleats are shown in Fig. 74. They are
+fashioned by using a small screw-eye and soldering a short piece of
+brass wire through the eye. An oblong metal plate is then cut and a
+central hole drilled. This plate is soldered to the shank of the
+screw-eye and the cleat is complete. One of these devices is to be
+fitted to the fore-deck and two on the main-deck and stern.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75]
+
+The rudder and steering gear will be considered next. Fig. 75 shows the
+stern of the boat with the rudder gear mounted in place. It will be
+noted that the rudder-blade is merely a piece of sheet brass cut to
+shape and soldered into the rudder-post _M_, which is slit to
+accommodate it. The rudder-post is hung in two screw-eyes on the stern
+of the boat. A small wheel about 1 inch in diameter, with an edge filed
+in it, is soldered to the top of the rudder-post. A fine cord or string,
+well stretched and oiled, is attached to the wheel and led through two
+screw-eyes on the deck. From this it is led through an opening in the
+coaming to a drum on the steering column, which is turned by another
+small wheel similar to that used on the rudder-post, but with a round
+edge. The steering column is merely a piece of 1/8-inch wire, held in
+place by two small screw-eyes fixed in the coaming and with a tube-brush
+soldered on to keep the wire in position. The drum is simply a hard-wood
+bushing driven tightly in place.
+
+The power machinery for the _Nancy Lee_ must be considered at this time.
+This is really one of the most interesting parts of the construction.
+The general appearance of the power plant can be seen by referring to
+Fig. 77, which is a view of the complete boiler and engine mounted
+together on the same base. The boiler is shown at _A_ and the
+safety-valve and filler at _L_. The base or firebox _B_ protects the
+burner from stray drafts of air, and also supports the boiler.
+
+The lamp or burner consists of a receptacle _C_ for containing the
+denatured alcohol. The denatured alcohol is inserted through the
+filler-tube _E_, which is kept closed with a cork. The upright tube _D_
+is fitted so that air can go into the receptacle containing the alcohol.
+Three burners are necessary to fire the boiler. These are fitted as
+shown in _F_, and they give sufficient heat to produce steam enough to
+drive the cylinder _G_. The steam is conducted to the cylinder through
+the short pipe _K_. The steam-cylinder has the usual piston and rod,
+which drives the circular crank _H_. This crank is mounted on a
+crankshaft carried on the metal tube _M_. As will be noticed, the
+cylinder is of the simple oscillating type mounted on a standard, formed
+as part of the boiler casing, and stiffened by two angle-plates _L_.
+
+A heavy flywheel, _J_, is now fitted to the inside end of the
+crankshaft. This wheel should be a lead casting, and as heavy as
+possible. A heavy flywheel contributes much to the operating efficiency
+of the engine. The propeller-shaft and crank are shown at _N_ in the
+insert.
+
+The boiler is made from a strong tin can about 1-3/4 inches in diameter
+and 4-1/2 inches long. It is cleaned inside and out, and all the seams
+are double-soldered. The lid is also soldered on the can. This little
+boiler, although not elaborately made, will be found capable of standing
+up under considerable steam-pressure, and so no fear need be had of
+accidents by explosion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82]
+
+A little safety-valve and filler-plug suitable for use on the boiler
+are shown clearly in Fig. 78. A piece of sheet tin is cut out to the
+size and shape illustrated in Fig. 79 at _A_. The piece is bent up at
+the dotted lines and the seams are soldered. Two angle-plates, _B_, are
+then cut and fitted and soldered in place. Next a piece of brass tube
+with a 1/8-inch bore and 1 inch long is cut and soldered in place for
+the bearing of the crankshaft. A lead flywheel 1-1/4 inches in diameter
+and 1/2 inch thick is then mounted firmly on a piece of straight steel
+wire 1-3/4 inches long, which acts as a shaft.
+
+The shaft is made to run freely in the crankshaft bearing that was
+previously soldered in place. The cylinder is shown in section in Fig.
+80. If the reader will refer back to the construction of the engine
+described in Chapter 4 he will readily understand the operation and
+construction of this particular engine.
+
+A little crank must be cut from 1/16-inch brass, and soldered to the
+crankshaft after fitting a wire crank-pin to the outer edge. This
+crank-pin should be of such a size that the joint on the end of the
+piston-rod shown at _A_, Fig. 80, turns on it easily. The throw should
+be only half the stroke of the engine, which is 3/8 of an inch.
+
+The boiler is now fixed in place by bending the lugs _B_, Fig. 79, so
+that they just support the boiler nicely. They are then soldered in
+place. Next fit the short steam-pipe _K_ between the boiler and the
+steam block on the cylinder. The builder should take care to keep the
+steam-pipe well up to the top of the boiler.
+
+The lamp should be built at this time. The container for the denatured
+alcohol is made from a well soldered tin box of suitable size. It can
+also be made by cutting a sheet of tin to the size and shape shown in
+Fig. 81. The corner joints are soldered and then a tin lid is soldered
+in place. The builder should not forget to make the filler-tube _E_ and
+air-tube _D_, as shown in Fig. 77, before soldering the top piece in
+place. The burners should be made as high as the container, and these
+should be made from little pieces of tin bent to shape and soldered on
+to a bottom pipe, as shown in Fig. 77. The builder should also remember
+to cut the holes through this pipe so that the alcohol can get into the
+burner-tubes, and also to solder the open end of the bottom or feed
+tube. Before the wicks are put into the lamps, the container should be
+tested by filling it with alcohol to see that it is perfectly tight at
+all joints. If it is not the container should be gone over again with
+solder to assure its being leak-proof.
+
+Before operating the engine with steam, it can be tested with a small
+bicycle pump through the opening for the safety-valve. The engine should
+turn over briskly at every stroke of the pump, providing it does not
+come to rest at "dead center." If it does come to rest at "dead center,"
+where no air can enter the piston, the crankshaft should be given a
+little twist and the engine will then start. Before steam is applied it
+will be well to experiment until the engine runs with the air-pump.
+
+Having made the engine run smoothly with air, steam can be generated in
+the boiler. The wicks should not be placed too tightly in the burners.
+After they are in place the container may be filled with denatured
+alcohol, and the burners lighted and placed under the boiler. In a very
+few minutes steam will be up. At the first indication of pressure in the
+boiler the engine should be given a twist with the fingers until it
+starts and goes of its own accord. The constructor should remember to
+keep his engine well lubricated.
+
+The propeller-shaft is merely a piece of steel wire, perfectly straight
+and fitted with a crank _A_, Fig. 82. This crank is similar to the one
+fitted to the engine, but with a small slot cut out for the crank-pin to
+fit into. This is done so that, as the crank-pin on the engine turns
+around, it also turns a slotted crank on the propeller-shaft.
+
+A short piece of tube, _C_, is now fitted to a flat brass plate, _D_.
+The plate is mounted at an angle to the tube, so that when it is in
+place on the stern of the boat the propeller-shaft will be in line with
+the crankshaft of the engine.
+
+A clearance hole is now drilled through the hull, so that the
+propeller-shaft can be put in place. Solder the tube to the plate, and
+punch four small holes in the plate, so that it can be screwed firmly
+to the hull. Solder a short piece of tube, as shown at _B_, Fig. 82, to
+keep the propeller-shaft in position.
+
+The propeller must now be made. This is easily done by cutting out a
+disk of brass 1-1/2 inches in diameter, as shown in Fig. 83. The shaded
+portions of the brass disk are cut away. The blades are bent to shape,
+care being taken to see that they are all alike. This done, the
+propeller is soldered to the propeller-shaft.
+
+The only part of the job that remains is to screw the boiler in place
+under the fore-deck of the boat. This done, the _Nancy Lee_ is ready for
+her trial. The fore-deck should be made removable by fitting it with
+pins or screws with the heads cut off, so that the deck only needs
+pushing into place. This little boat should be capable of attaining a
+speed of from four to five miles an hour if it is made carefully and
+according to the directions outlined in this Chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+AN ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN LAKE FREIGHTER
+
+
+A PROTOTYPE of the model lake freighter described in this Chapter will
+probably be familiar to many readers. It is a type of boat used on the
+Great Lakes, and, owing to its peculiarity of design, it lends itself
+very well to construction in model form.
+
+The lines of the boat may be seen very clearly in Fig. 84.
+
+The hull of the model freighter measures four feet over all, and the
+beam at the water-line is 8 inches. The extreme draft will be in the
+neighborhood of 5 inches. This model, when completed, will be capable of
+carrying considerable weight; in fact, it is able to accommodate
+thirty-five pounds in weight when used in fresh water. This will give
+the builder an opportunity to install a very substantial power
+equipment with little regard for weight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85]
+
+The hull is made according to the built-up principle, and the
+constructor will have to cut his templates before attempting the shaping
+of the hull. Owing to the depth of the model, it will be necessary to
+use about ten planks. The plank that is used to form the bottom of the
+boat is not gouged out. Every other plank is gouged out with a saw and
+chisel.
+
+The bottom plank is shaped with a knife to conform to the lines of the
+boat. In building up the hull with the planks, they should first be
+smeared with glue, and when put in place a few brass brads should be
+driven in. As mentioned in an earlier part of this book, iron nails
+should not be used in work of this nature, owing to the fact that they
+will rust and cause trouble. The brass brads are placed about one inch
+apart the entire length of the boards. The hull is finished with a plane
+and sandpaper, and after it has been brought to shape in this way and
+finished, a coat of paint is applied. Black with dark red trimmings
+makes a very good combination for a boat of this type.
+
+The deck is made from a piece of 1/4-inch pine board. Seven hatches are
+added to the deck. Six of these hatches can be made by merely gluing a
+square piece of 1/4-inch wood to the deck. The seventh hatch should be
+made with a hole cut in the deck, so that access can be had to the power
+motor.
+
+The deck-house, wheel-house, and chart-house, as well as the bridge,
+should be constructed of tin, which may be salvaged from clean tin
+cans. The bridge is provided with spray-cloths made from white adhesive
+tape, as outlined in Chapter 9. The port-holes in the deck-house and
+hull are made by little pieces of brass forced in place over a small
+piece of mica. The life-boats, which are carried on top of the
+engine-house, are whittled out of a solid piece of wood and painted
+white. Life-boats are always painted white, regardless of the color of
+the boat upon which they are used. The life-boats are held by means of
+string and small dummy pulleys to davits made of heavy stovepipe wire. A
+rub-streak made of a piece of 1/4-inch square pine is tacked to each
+side of the hull just below the sheer-line. The rub-streak should be
+tacked in place with nails such as those used on cigar-boxes.
+
+The funnel measures 1 inch in diameter by 4 inches long. A small exhaust
+steam pipe, which can be made from a piece of brass tubing, is mounted
+directly aft of the funnel. The forward deck fittings consist mainly of
+a steering-boom, two bollards, two fair-heads, and four life-buoys
+mounted on the bridge. The main-deck is equipped with six bollards and
+two covered ventilators, each 1/2 inch in diameter. The foremast is
+properly stayed in the deck, and should be fitted with rat-lines. The
+rat-lines can be made with black thread and finished with varnish, which
+when dry will tend to hold the threads in shape.
+
+The rudder is cut from a piece of sheet brass to the shape shown, and
+fitted with a quadrant. The engine cabin can be made from cigar-box
+wood. The windows and doors can either be painted in place, or the
+windows can be cut and backed up with sheet celluloid. A good substitute
+for painted doors will be found in small pieces of tin painted a
+different color from the cabin. The same procedure may be followed in
+fitting the windows and doors to the forward cabin.
+
+We are now ready to consider the power plant. Owing to the large
+displacement of the boat, it will carry a fairly heavy storage battery.
+The electric motor and storage battery are mounted in the manner shown
+in Fig. 85, which will also give the reader an idea of the appearance of
+the finished model. As the drawing indicates, it will not be necessary
+to tilt the motor to any great degree in order to bring the propeller to
+the proper depth. This is because of the depth of the boat. Instead of a
+string or belt to connect the motor with the propeller, the shaft of the
+motor is taken out and replaced by a longer steel rod that will serve
+both as a motor-shaft and a propeller-shaft. The propeller-shaft extends
+from the motor through the stern-tube. The propeller used for this model
+is a three-blade affair, 3 inches in diameter. It must be of this size
+in order to propel a boat of these dimensions at a consistent speed.
+
+Care must be taken in mounting the motor in this way. If it is not
+mounted directly in line with the stern-tube the propeller-shaft will
+have a tendency to bind. However, with a little care no trouble should
+be experienced from this source. The storage battery used should be of
+the four-volt forty-ampere hour variety. This boat will be capable of
+carrying such a battery and this weight should just bring the craft down
+to her load water-line. The whole deck is made removable, so that the
+storage battery can be taken in and out at times when it is necessary to
+recharge it. A battery of this capacity, however, will drive a small
+motor similar to the type used on the boat for some time.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+AN ELECTRIC SUBMARINE-CHASER
+
+
+THE submarine chaser design given in the drawings and described in the
+text of this Chapter is a presentable little boat with pleasing lines
+and deck fittings. There is nothing difficult about its construction,
+and, considering the amount of work necessary to produce it, it is
+probably one of the most pleasing boats described in the book. If made
+correctly it will look "speedy" and shipshape.
+
+The general outline of the boat can be gathered from Figs. 86, 87, and
+88. Fig. 86 gives a side view of the craft; Fig. 87 shows the bow, while
+Fig. 88 gives the deck-plan.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88]
+
+Notice first the construction of the hull. This is made according to the
+Sharpie type, but the lines are changed to give the boat a more graceful
+appearance. This is done by changing the shape of the deck and the
+bottom pieces. Fig. 89 shows the various pieces necessary to construct
+the hull. It will be seen that the forward portion of the bottom piece
+is narrower than the deck piece, and broadens out so that it is wider at
+the stern than the deck piece. The deck piece has a maximum width of 5
+inches, while the bottom piece has a width of 4 inches at the forward
+section. The deck measures 3-1/2 inches at the stern, while the bottom
+piece measures 4-1/2 inches at the stern. This produces a half-inch
+taper on each side of the stern. A half-inch taper is also produced on
+the bow portion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89]
+
+The hull of the boat can be made from 1/8-inch mahogany. If this is not
+available, choose some other close-grained wood, free from knots and
+blemishes. Paper patterns are made to correspond with the general shape
+of the pieces that form the hull as given in Fig. 89. The pieces, after
+being marked, are cut to shape with a keyhole-saw. After this is done
+their edges should be trimmed neatly with a jack-plane.
+
+The two sides pieces are now screwed to the bow piece by small brass
+screws. After this is done the bottom piece is fastened to the side
+pieces the entire length of the boat. Next the first cross-piece, as
+shown in Fig. 90, is screwed in place. This cross-piece should be 4-3/4
+inches in length, so that the width of the hull at this point is just 5
+inches. The next cross-piece should correspond to the width of the deck
+piece at the section of the hull where it is placed. The same holds true
+for the third cross-piece. When the third cross-piece has been screwed
+in place, the stern piece is put in position.
+
+The joints of the hull should then be smeared with either pitch or
+bath-tub enamel or a thick mixture of white lead may be used.
+
+After having made sure that the hull is perfectly water-tight the worker
+can proceed to install the power equipment. This consists of a small
+battery motor driven with two dry cells. The design and installation of
+such things as stern-tubes and propeller-shafts have been taken up in
+detail in an earlier part of this book. The strut that holds the
+propeller-shaft is shown in Fig. 91. This consists merely of a brass
+bushing held in a bracket made of a strip of brass 1/2 inch wide. The
+brass strip is wound around the bushing and soldered. It is held to the
+bottom of the hull by means of two 8-32 brass machine screws. These
+screws should be tightened to prevent leakage. It would be inadvisable
+to use wood-screws for this purpose, owing to the fact that the bottom
+piece of the boat is thin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92]
+
+The two dry batteries for the motor are held in two tin troughs, as
+illustrated in Fig. 92. These troughs are fastened to the side of the
+boat by means of small bolts. They will prevent the boat from shifting
+its cargo; in other words, they hold the batteries in place and thereby
+prevent the boat from listing.
+
+The deck and deck fittings should now be furnished. The construction of
+the forward cabin is shown in Fig. 93. The sides and back are formed
+with cigar-box wood, while the curved front can best be made with a
+piece of tin. The top is also cut to shape from cigar-box wood, and
+should overlap about 1/4 inch. The pilot-house is simplicity itself,
+being made of a piece of curved tin with three windows cut in it. Four
+little lugs cut in the tin are bent on the inside and each provided with
+a hole. These lugs are used to tack the pilot-house to the deck. A small
+skylight is produced from a solid piece of wood and tacked in place as
+illustrated in the drawing.
+
+The builder is cautioned not to destroy the appearance of his boat by
+making the mast too large. After the mast has been nicely sandpapered, a
+little wire frame is bent to shape and fastened to the top, as shown in
+Fig. 87. The little wire railing that is placed in front of the mast is
+then bent to shape, and this and the mast are put in their permanent
+position. The mast can be held to the deck by boring a hole a little
+under size and smearing the bottom of the mast with a little glue before
+it is forced in. Pieces of black thread are run from the top of the mast
+to the railing at the bottom, as shown. These threads are used to hoist
+signal flags. Two little angle-pieces are placed on the forward deck,
+one on each side of the pilot-house. These are for the harbor lights.
+One should be painted green and one red.
+
+This finishes the forward cabin. It should be placed in the center of
+the deck and the position it occupies should be marked out with a
+pencil. This portion of the deck should be carefully cut out with a
+coping-saw. The cabin is then forced into the opening. The fit should be
+fairly tight, so that it will not be necessary to employ nails or glue,
+as this is the only way in which the interior of the hull is made
+accessible.
+
+Two ventilators are placed just back of the forward cabin. Between the
+forward cabin and the cabin aft there is placed a rapid-fire gun. The
+details of this gun are given in Fig. 94. The barrel of the gun is made
+of a piece of brass rod. A hole is drilled through this rod with a small
+drill and a piece of copper wire is inserted. A square piece of brass
+for the breech is then drilled out to receive the barrel. One end of the
+barrel is placed in this hole and held with a drop of solder. A drop of
+solder should also be used on the copper wire that runs through the
+barrel. The bearing and shield of the gun are made from thin sheet
+brass, as illustrated. Three holes are drilled in the bearing bracket,
+two through which the wire passes and one through which the small nail
+is placed to hold the bearing to the wooden standard. The shield is
+forced over the barrel and held in place with a drop of solder. When the
+barrel is mounted in the bearing, a drop of solder should be put in
+place to prevent the barrel of the gun from tipping.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94]
+
+The cabin which is placed aft on the boat, is of very simple
+construction. It is made up entirely of cigar-box wood tacked together,
+and the top should overlap 1/4 inch. The cabin is then tacked to the
+deck of the boat. The mast should be only three-fourths as high as the
+forward mast, and a tiny hole is drilled near the top. Into this hole a
+small piece of soft wire is placed, and from this wire a thread runs to
+the cabin. A small flag can then be placed on the thread, as illustrated
+in Fig. 86.
+
+Six port-holes are now bored in each side of the hull with a 1/2-inch
+bit. These can be backed up with mica or celluloid. Five smaller
+port-holes made with a 1/4-inch drill are then bored in each side of the
+forward cabin. Three are placed in the aft cabin.
+
+With the exception of painting, the hull is now ready to be launched.
+Before finally applying the paint the hull should be given a thorough
+rubbing with sandpaper. A battleship gray with maroon trimmings makes a
+pleasing color combination for this boat.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+BOAT FITTINGS
+
+
+THE model boat builder generally has some trouble in producing the
+necessary fittings for his boats. It is practically impossible to buy
+such things in this country, and so it is necessary to make them.
+
+Using a little care, it is possible to make presentable fittings by
+utilizing odds and ends found about the household and shop. In this
+Chapter the author will describe the construction of the more important
+fittings necessary to model boats, such as stacks, searchlights,
+bollards, cowl-ventilators, davits, and binnacles.
+
+The smokestack is probably one of the easiest things to produce. A very
+suitable method of producing a smokestack is shown in Fig. 95. The stack
+itself is cut from a piece of thin brass tubing. It is also possible to
+use a small tin can of the proper diameter. In both cases, of course,
+paint must be applied to improve the appearance of the brass or tin. If
+the stack is painted either gray or white a red band near the top of the
+stack produces a good finish and makes it look more shipshape.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97]
+
+The method of anchoring the stack to the deck of the boat is shown very
+clearly. First a block of wood is cut about the same diameter as the
+internal diameter of the stack. This block of wood is then forced up
+into the stack. A small square base is then cut, and fastened to the
+block on the inside of the stack with a wood-screw. It might be
+mentioned here that it is often necessary to drill a hole with a small
+hand drill before driving the screw in, to prevent splitting the wood.
+
+After the base piece is fastened to the stack, the base in turn is held
+to the deck of the boat by two small screws driven up from beneath. The
+guy-wires can then be fastened on. The guy-wires should be made of very
+fine wire, since heavy wire would be entirely out of proportion. The
+wire can be fastened on the stack by drilling a tiny hole through the
+stack. A knot is then tied in one end of the wire, and the opposite end
+threaded through the hole. Small screw-eyes driven into the base piece
+are used to anchor the guy-wires.
+
+Ventilators are a very important part of the boat. The model-builder
+will encounter considerable trouble if he attempts to make his
+cowl-ventilator from metal, unless he is very experienced in drawing
+copper out by hand. The writer has found a method of producing
+cowl-ventilators by the use of clay pipes. Clay pipes can be purchased
+for a few cents each, and when cut down as shown in Fig. 96 they form
+very suitable ventilators. The pipe can be cut as shown by the use of a
+file. The ventilator is held to the deck of the boat by being forced
+into a hole in the deck that is just a trifle under size. Of course, the
+forcing will have to be done carefully to prevent the stem from
+cracking. The inside of the ventilator should always be painted red, and
+the outside should be the same color as the boat. Ventilators made in
+this way absolutely defy detection and do much toward bettering the
+general appearance of the craft upon which they are used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96]
+
+A simple searchlight, easily made by the model boat builder, is shown
+in Fig. 97. This is an electric light, and the batteries used to propel
+the boat can be used for the light. First a small circular piece of wood
+is cut out, as shown at _A_, Fig. 97. The center of this is drilled out
+to accommodate a small flashlight bulb. A tiny brass screw is then
+driven into the piece of wood, so that it will come in contact with the
+center of the base of the flashlight bulb. This little screw forms one
+of the electrical contacts, and one of the wires from the battery is
+attached to it.
+
+A little strip of brass is then cut as shown in _B_, Fig. 97, and
+provided with three holes, one hole at each end and one in the middle.
+The brass is bent into a semicircular shape, so that it will be just a
+little larger in diameter than the outside of the wooden piece in which
+the flashlight bulb is mounted. This little piece is then fastened to a
+wooden post with a small brass pin, as shown in Fig. 97. Two more pins
+are used to hold the wooden piece to the searchlight proper. One of
+these pins is driven through the wooden piece until it comes in contact
+with the base of the flashlight bulb. This forms the other electrical
+connection, and the second feed wire from the battery can be attached to
+the little brass piece that holds the searchlight. Both the feed wires
+from the battery can come up through a hole in the deck close to the
+wooden post upon which the searchlight is mounted.
+
+Bollards are very easily made. Reference to Fig. 98 will make this
+clear. First a little strip of brass is cut, and this is drilled as
+shown with two holes, one at each end and two smaller holes in the
+center. Two little circular pieces of wood are then cut, with a hole
+through the center. A brass screw passes through these and into the deck
+of the boat. The brass screw should not be driven in too far, since the
+bollards should be free to revolve. It is also possible to use brass
+tubing instead of wood if the proper size is in the model-builder's
+shop.
+
+[Illustration: A POWERFUL GASOLENE BLOW-TORCH
+
+For a metre racing boat. Such a torch will deliver a steady, hot flame
+for fifteen minutes]
+
+A word will be said here about finishing the deck of a model boat. It is
+a very tedious job to cut separate planks to form the deck. In fact,
+this job is quite beyond the ability, to say nothing of the patience, of
+the average young model-builder. A very simple method of producing
+imitation planking is shown in Fig. 99. A sharp knife and a
+straight-edge are the only tools for this work. The straight-edge is
+merely used to guide the knife. The cuts should not be made too deep,
+and they should be made a uniform distance apart. When the deck is
+finished in this manner and varnished over, a very pleasing effect is
+produced. In fact, if the work is done carefully, the deck looks very
+much as if it were planked.
+
+[Illustration: JUST AFTER THE RACE
+
+A line-up of the entries in one of the power boat races held at Central
+Park, New York City. The author presented the cup to the owner of Elmara
+III, the winning boat, which attained a speed of nearly thirty miles an
+hour]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101]
+
+A small life-boat is shown in Fig. 100. This can easily be carved to
+shape from a small piece of soft white pine. The center is gouged out,
+and tiny little seats made of thin strips of wood are glued in place.
+Two small screw-eyes are placed in the boat, for fastening it to the
+davits. The davits are shown in Fig. 101, at _A_ and _B_. They are made
+by bending a piece of small brass rod, as shown. One end of the rod is
+hammered flat, and a hole is made in it with a very small drill. Holes
+a little under size are drilled in the deck, and the davits are forced
+into these. The method of suspending the life-boat from the davits is
+shown at _B_, Fig. 101. The little blocks of wood are glued on to a
+thread to represent pulleys, and they are, of course, only imitation or
+dummy pulleys.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102]
+
+The method of producing port-holes is shown in Fig. 102. A hole is first
+bored through the wood with a bit of the proper size. The size of the
+port-holes depends entirely upon the size of the boat. A piece of brass
+tubing is then cut off with a hacksaw to form a brass bushing. The
+outside diameter of this tubing should be the same as the size of the
+bit used. For instance, if a 1/2-inch bit is used, brass tubing 1/2 inch
+in diameter should be purchased. Such tubing can be obtained from any
+hardware store. Celluloid, such as that used for windows in automobile
+curtains, is glued to the inside of the port-holes. This makes a
+splendid substitute for glass. It can be obtained at garages and
+automobile supply stores for a few cents a square foot. The model boat
+builder can also use either mica or glass for this purpose, although
+thick glass looks somewhat out of place.
+
+A binnacle is shown in Fig. 103. This is made from a solid piece of wood
+cut with a semi-spherical top. The steering-wheel is made of a wheel
+from an old alarm clock. The teeth of the wheel should be filed off.
+Tiny pieces of wire are then soldered in place on the wheel, as shown. A
+pin driven through the center of the steering-wheel is used to fasten it
+to the binnacle. The binnacle itself can be held to the deck either by
+glue or by a small screw.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103]
+
+A torpedo-tube for use on model destroyers and battleships is shown in
+Fig. 104. First two disks of wood are cut. Then a circular piece is
+cut, as shown. Two brass nails are then driven through this piece into
+one of the disks. An upholstering tack is driven into the end of the
+circular piece, as pictured. The method of attaching the torpedo-tube to
+the deck is clearly illustrated in Fig. 104 and no further directions
+need be given. If the model-builder has a small piece of brass tube on
+hand suitable for use in this case, it will make a much better appearing
+tube than the piece of wood illustrated.
+
+A wireless antenna is shown at Fig. 105. This is a fitting that will do
+much toward improving the appearance of any craft. Very fine copper wire
+is used for the aerial. The little spreaders are cut to shape from wood,
+and a tiny hole is punched through them through which the wire is
+placed. Black beads slipped on the wire serve very well as insulators.
+The lead-in wire which drops to the wireless cabin is attached to the
+aerial by winding it around each one of the aerial waves. The aerial
+should be suspended between the masts of the vessel. A few words should
+be said about masts in general. If there is one way in which a
+model-builder can destroy the appearance of a model boat, it is by using
+badly proportioned masts. The average boy seems inclined to use a mast
+of too great a diameter, which makes it out of proportion with the rest
+of the boat. It is better to have a mast too small rather than too
+large.
+
+The method of producing railing is shown in Fig. 106. The same small
+brass rod that was used for the davits can be used for the rail
+stanchions. One end of the stanchions is hammered flat and drilled out.
+The stanchions are fastened to the deck by first drilling small holes
+and forcing them into it. Thread or very fine wire is used for the
+railing. Fine wire is preferred owing to the fact that it will not break
+so easily under strain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110]
+
+Fig. 107 shows a good method of producing stairs. It must be remembered
+that stairs are often used in model-boat construction. First a strip of
+tin is bent as shown. Then two more strips, which act as side pieces,
+are cut. One of these strips is soldered to each side of the stairs.
+Then six stanchions, which can be made from heavy copper wire, are
+soldered to the side pieces, as shown. The railing can be made from
+copper wire or black thread.
+
+Fig. 108 shows a small skylight placed on the deck. This is easily made
+from cigar-box-wood glued together. The holes in the top pieces for the
+windows are cut with a very sharp knife. It will be necessary to use a
+little patience in this, to prevent the piece from splitting and to
+prevent cracks. A piece of celluloid is glued underneath the top pieces
+before they are finally glued in place.
+
+A small quick-firing deck-gun is shown in Fig. 109. This is a very
+simple fitting and can be made with very little difficulty. The base of
+the gun is formed by cutting a thread-spool in half. A piece of small
+brass tubing is used to form the barrel. A little piece of sheet tin is
+looped over the back of the gun to represent the breech. A tiny piece of
+wire is held to the side of the breech with a drop of solder, to
+represent a handle. The shield of the gun is cut from a piece of tin,
+as shown. A hole is made in the bottom of this, so that the nail that
+passes through the barrel of the gun will also pass through this hole
+and into the spool. The center of the spool should be plugged to hold
+the nail. After the gun is painted gray or black it will appear very
+businesslike, considering the small amount of labor spent in producing
+it.
+
+Anchors are more or less difficult to make (Fig. 110), and unless the
+builder is endowed with a great amount of patience he will not be able
+to file them out of solid metal. A dummy anchor can be easily cut out of
+wood, however, and when painted black it will answer instead of a metal
+one. The anchor shown at _A_ is a very simple type made out of a solid
+piece of wood. The one at _B_, however, is made out of two pieces of
+wood fastened together with a pin, as shown. The bottom piece of the
+anchor shown at _B_ should be rather thick to get the proper effect, and
+the two points should be tapered nicely. The center of the bottom piece
+should be hollowed out to accommodate the vertical piece.
+
+A common hatch is shown at Fig. 111. This can be made in the form of an
+open box from cigar-box wood, and glued to the deck. It is not necessary
+to cut a hole in the deck for this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113]
+
+A cargo-hoist for use on model freight-boats is shown in Fig. 112. This
+is a very simple piece of work and will need little description. Several
+stay-wires should be fastened to the main-mast and held to the deck with
+small screw-eyes. The boom should be made a trifle smaller in diameter
+than the mast. The pulleys are dummy, like those on the life-boat. A
+little hook bent to shape from copper wire is placed on the end of the
+thread, as shown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114]
+
+Fig. 113 shows a method of making a whistle and an engine exhaust. The
+engine exhaust is made of a piece of wood, and the furled top is
+produced by an eyelet such as those used in shoes. The engine exhaust is
+always placed immediately back of the last smokestack. The whistle is a
+simple device made almost entirely of wood. The whistle-cord is of
+thread attached to the small piece of wire, as shown.
+
+Fig. 114 shows the method of making spray-cloths for the top of the
+pilot-house. Small brass brads are driven into the top of the
+pilot-house, and white adhesive tape is placed on the brads, as
+pictured. Advantage can be taken of the adhesive substance on the tape
+which holds it in place on the brads.
+
+A rudder is shown in Fig. 115. The rudder-post should be a piece of
+brass rod so thick that it can be split with a hacksaw. The sheet brass
+that forms the rudder proper is placed in this split and soldered. In
+the case of an ornamental boat the rudder can be fixed as shown in Fig.
+115. It will be seen that it is quite impossible to keep the rudder in
+adjustment in this way.
+
+If the rudder is to be kept in a certain adjustment a quadrant is
+necessary. This is made by using a semicircular piece of heavy sheet
+brass and filing little notches in it. The lever of the rudder rests in
+these notches, and by this means the rudder can be held in any one
+position, so that the boat will either turn in a circle or go straight.
+Fig. 116 illustrates such an arrangement.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE DESIGN OF MODEL STEAM-ENGINES
+
+
+INSTEAD of describing the construction of several model engines of
+different design, the author thinks it advisable to put the reader in
+possession of the fundamentals of model steam-engine design and
+construction. In this way the model engineer will be able to design and
+construct model steam-engines according to his own ideas and in
+accordance with the raw materials and miscellaneous parts he may find in
+his workshop. Unless the young mechanic is in possession of a very well
+equipped workshop, it is quite impossible to construct a steam-engine
+according to certain specifications. However, if he has in mind the
+fundamental principles of steam-engine design, he can go ahead and
+design his engine, for which he will have no trouble in machining or
+producing the parts that enter into its construction. By this the
+author means that the workman can design his engine to meet the
+materials he has on hand.
+
+Notice Fig. 117. This is a cylinder into which is fitted a piston. If
+steam is forced into the cylinder the piston will be forced to the
+opposite end of the cylinder. If some means is then provided so that the
+steam can escape and the piston come back, another impulse can be given
+it by admitting more steam, and thus a continuous motion may be
+produced. This is how the steam-engine works.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117]
+
+Having learned how motion is imparted to the piston by the expansion of
+steam under pressure, attention is directed to what is known as the "D"
+slide-valve. This slide-valve permits steam to enter the cylinder and to
+exhaust at proper intervals. See Fig. 118. Steam enters the steam-chest
+through the pipe _A_. The slide-valve is shown at _D_. When the
+slide-valve is in the position shown, steam enters the cylinder, and by
+the time the cylinder has arrived in the position shown by the dotted
+line _C_, the slide-valve moves over, closing the passage _B_. The steam
+under pressure forces the piston to the opposite end of the cylinder.
+When the piston reaches the opposite end of the cylinder, steam that has
+entered through the passage _F_ again forces the piston back to its
+original position. This is caused by the slide-valve shifting its
+position, because of the impulse it received at the opposite end of the
+cylinder. Thus it will be seen that when the piston is at one end of the
+cylinder the opposite end is exhausting. By carefully studying Fig. 118
+the action of the _D_ valve will be understood. The connecting-rod _E_
+is connected to the crankshaft and in this way the engine is caused to
+revolve.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 118]
+
+A cylinder similar to that shown in Fig. 118 is called a double-acting
+cylinder. This is because the steam acts on both sides of the piston.
+Single-acting cylinders are cylinders in which the steam expands on only
+one side of the piston. In the single-acting engines the _D_ valve is
+modified.
+
+The "stroke" of a steam-engine depends upon the length of the cylinder;
+really, the stroke is the distance travelled by the piston. In model
+engines it ranges from 3/8 of an inch to 1-1/2 inches. The bore of a
+cylinder is its internal diameter. The bore is usually a trifle smaller
+than the stroke. Thus it is common to have a stroke of 7/8 inch and a
+cylinder-bore of 3/4 inch.
+
+At this juncture the author would caution the more inexperienced young
+mechanics not to build double-acting engines. The valve mechanism is
+somewhat intricate and very difficult to regulate. The construction is
+also much more complicated, and this also holds true of the designing.
+On the other hand, single-acting engines, while not so powerful for a
+given size, will do very nicely in driving model boats, and will deliver
+sufficient power for all ordinary purposes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 119]
+
+Your attention is directed to Fig. 119. This shows a design for a model
+single-cylinder, single-acting steam-engine. The reader should carefully
+study each drawing before continuing to digest the following matter. The
+cylinder _L_ can be made from a piece of tubing. This can be either
+brass or copper. Aluminum should not be used, owing to the fact that it
+is difficult to solder and difficult to work with. The piston is made so
+that it will fit nicely into the cylinder and move up and down without
+binding. It will be seen that a groove, _M_, is cut around the piston
+near the top. String soaked in oil is placed in this groove. This is
+called packing, and the presence of this packing prevents steam leakage
+between the piston and the cylinder walls and thereby materially
+increases the efficiency of the engine.
+
+In this case the connecting-rod _R_ is made in a circular piece. It is
+attached to the piston by a pin, _F_. The connecting-rod must be free to
+revolve upon this pin. The engine shown has a stroke of 7/8 inch.
+Therefore, the crank-pin _K_ on the crank-disk _N_ must be placed 1/2 of
+7/8 or 7/16 inch from the center of the disk _N_, so that when this disk
+makes one revolution, the piston will move 7/8 inch in the cycle. Thus
+it will be seen that the distance of the crank-pin _K_ from the center
+of the crank disk _N_ will depend entirely upon the stroke of the
+engine. It may be well to mention here that the worker should always
+start designing his engine by first determining the bore and stroke.
+Everything depends upon these two factors. It is also well to mention
+here that the piston should never travel completely to the top of the
+cylinder--a small space must always be left for the steam to expand.
+One eighth of an inch is plenty of space to leave.
+
+It will be noticed that the valve mechanisms on the particular engine
+shown bear no resemblance to the _D_ valve previously described. The
+holes _G_ which are bored around the cylinder are the exhaust ports. It
+will be seen that when the piston is at the end of its downward stroke
+it uncovers these exhaust ports and permits the steam to escape. The
+momentum of the flywheel _A_ pushes the piston upward, closing these
+holes. As these holes are closed the valve _H_ uncovers the entrance _I_
+and permits steam to enter from the boiler through _J_. By the time the
+piston has reached the upward limit of its stroke a considerable steam
+pressure has developed on top of the cylinder, and this again forces the
+piston downward. Thus the same cycle of movement is gone through
+repeatedly.
+
+The valve on this little engine is extremely simple. It consists of a
+circular piece of brass drilled out, as shown. A hole (_I_ and _J_) is
+drilled transversely through this. The little cylinder shown in the
+insert at _O_ slides in the larger hole, and when it is at its upper
+limit it cuts off the steam. At the proper intervals the valve is pulled
+down by the eccentric _C_. It will be seen that the moving parts, i.e.,
+the valve and the piston, must be properly timed. That is, the eccentric
+_C_ must be mounted on the crank-shaft _B_ so that the valve will close
+and open at proper intervals. When the engine is made, the eccentric can
+be shifted about by means of a set-screw, _Q_, until the engine operates
+satisfactorily. This set-screw is used to hold the eccentric to the
+crank-shaft. The word eccentric merely means "off center." Thus the
+eccentric in this case is formed by a little disk of brass with the hole
+drilled off center. The distances these holes are placed off center will
+depend entirely upon the motion of the valve. It will be seen that the
+valve is connected to the eccentric by means of the valve-rod _E_. The
+valve-rod, in turn, is held to a circular strap which is placed around
+the eccentric. A groove should be cut in the surface of the eccentric,
+so that this strap will not slip off. If the strap is not put on too
+tightly and the eccentric is free to revolve within it, the valve will
+be forced up and down as the eccentric revolves.
+
+The crank-shaft _B_ revolves in two bearings, _D D_. The flywheel is
+held to the crank-shaft by means of a set-screw _S_.
+
+Most small engines with a bore under one inch will operate nicely on
+from 20 to 30 pounds of steam, and this pressure can easily be generated
+in the boiler that was described in the chapter on model-boat power
+plants.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+A MODEL FLOATING DRY-DOCK
+
+
+AS many of the readers probably know, a dry-dock is used in assisting
+disabled vessels. Some dry-docks are permanent, while others are built
+so that they can be floated or towed to a disabled vessel that is not
+able to get to a land dry-dock. The land dry-dock operates as follows.
+It is first filled with water, and the disabled boat is towed in by
+tugs. After the tugs leave, the gates are closed, and the water in the
+dry-dock is pumped out, leaving the boat high and dry. Large props are
+put in place to prevent the boat from tipping.
+
+The dry-dock here described is a model that is towed to a disabled
+vessel. It is then sunk until it passes under the boat. The sinking is
+brought about by filling the dry-dock with water. After it has sunk to
+the proper depth it is passed under the boat to be repaired, the water
+is pumped out, and the dry-dock rises, lifting the disabled boat with
+it. Repairs can then be made very easily.
+
+The model here described does not possess all the fittings and additions
+of the original. However, it is able to rise or sink as required,
+carrying the machinery necessary to bring about these functions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 120]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 121]
+
+A general view of the completed model is shown in Fig. 120. The first
+part to construct is the framework for the hull. Four pieces of wood
+will be required for this, and they should be cut to the shape and size
+shown in Fig. 121. To make this it is best to cut the two side parts
+first, as indicated by the dotted lines. This done, the bottom piece can
+be clamped on from behind by means of pieces of lath. These are for the
+two end pieces. The other two pieces are made in the same way, except
+that they contain holes for the water to pass through, as shown at _B_.
+The wood for these frames, or ribs, should be not less than 1/4 inch
+thick in order to accommodate the pieces used in the construction of the
+remainder of the hull.
+
+When the builder has made the four ribs, he should proceed to construct
+the lower deck, which consists of a single piece of wood nicely planed
+and finished, measuring 14-1/2 inches long by 8 inches wide and 1/8 inch
+thick. This piece must be nailed to the bottom of each of the ribs, one
+at each end, and the other two containing the holes at equal distances
+apart. Tiny nails, similar to those used on cigar-boxes, will be found
+very suitable for this work. Some old cigar-boxes may be broken apart to
+obtain the nails for this purpose. Before nailing on the board it should
+be marked out to present ordinary deck-boards. The reader is referred
+back to Chapter 9 which describes this process, using a straight-edge
+and knife.
+
+When this board is nailed in place, the next requirement will be two
+pieces for the sides the bottom edges, of which must rest on the top of
+the deck-board. These boards are the same length as the deck. They
+should reach to the top of the ribs, and be fastened in the same way as
+the bottom deck. It is good practice, when doing this, to place a little
+white lead on the bottom edge before finally driving the nails in place.
+This will tend to produce a water-tight joint. This done, three pieces
+of wood 5/8 inch square must be screwed in place, flush with the bottom
+ends of the ribs, to form a flat keel. They should be firmly fixed since
+a lead keel is afterward screwed on the bottom of the boat. Attention
+should now be directed to fitting the two middle decks. These are placed
+4 inches from the top and are 4 inches wide. In this space the engine
+and pumps are placed. Therefore, the top deck is made in the form of a
+lid, and the outside plate made to draw out. In this way the mechanism
+below the deck can be made very accessible.
+
+The framework of the dry-dock is now completed, and the builder can
+proceed to fix on the side plates. These are made from sheet tin with a
+width of 14-1/2 inches. The length must be sufficient to reach from the
+top of one side, around the bottom of the hull, to the top of the other
+side. Having cut the tin to the required size, one side is put in place
+with small nails, spacing them an equal distance apart.
+
+Before securing the opposite side, the builder must first arrange the
+inlet-valve. This particular member is constructed as follows. First,
+obtain an old gas-pipe union which measures about 5/8 inch in diameter
+and 3/4 inch long. With a hacksaw this is cut off in a sloping direction
+with an angle to correspond with the slope in the bottom of the
+dry-dock. When this is done, a lid must be fitted to the top by means of
+a long rod, as clearly shown in Fig. 122. On the under side of this lid
+a small piece of sheet rubber should be glued, so that when the lid is
+screwed down the valve will be made water-tight. The valve must now be
+soldered to the inside of the hull. It is placed in such a position that
+it will rest just under the center of one of the upper decks when the
+controlling rod is upright.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 122]
+
+The top end of the rod must contain a thread for about 1 inch, and a
+round plate made to screw on. This plate should be about 3/4 inch in
+diameter, and contain three small holes around the edge. These holes are
+used in fastening the plate to the deck. The top of the rod is fitted
+with a small crank-handle, which is used in turning the rod in either
+direction. In this way the valve can be either opened or closed. At the
+bottom of the rod a small swivel should be provided, as indicated in
+Fig. 122.
+
+The plate or sheet of tin on this side of the hull can now be
+permanently fixed in place. When this is done a light hammer should be
+used around the edges to turn the tin into the wood.
+
+With the plates secured in place, the builder must next fix a flat wood
+keel along the bottom of the dry-dock. This should be screwed to the
+inside keel, screws passing through the tin plate. A lead keel is then
+screwed to the wooden keel, and when this is done the dry-dock can be
+launched. If the foregoing instructions have been carried out carefully
+the dry-dock should ride lightly on the water.
+
+As a trial the inlet-valve is now unscrewed and water is permitted to
+enter the hull. When the water rushes in, the hull will begin to sink.
+The water should be allowed to enter until the hull sinks to within an
+inch of the lower or inside deck. The valve should then be closed. The
+exact position of the water should now be found, and a line drawn all
+around the hull, which can afterward be painted in.
+
+The engine and boilers must now be constructed and placed on the
+dry-dock, so that the water that was permitted to enter may be pumped
+out. As a temporary arrangement, a thin rubber tubing is inserted
+through a hole in the lower deck and allowed to hang outside the
+water-level. The siphon can then be formed by simply drawing the water
+up by suction with the lips. A continuous flow will result, emptying the
+hull within a short time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 123]
+
+Attention is now directed to the construction of the boiler and pumps.
+The boiler, which is rectangular in shape, is made of thin sheet copper,
+and measures 4 inches long by 3 inches wide by 2 inches deep. A hole is
+made in the top, and a brass or copper tube 6 inches long and about 3/4
+inch in diameter is soldered in position, as depicted in Fig. 123. This
+tube acts as a chimney on the dry-dock, but it is really used for
+filling the boiler, and the top is supplied with a tightly fitting
+cork.
+
+The ends of the boiler also act as supports, and they are made 4 inches
+long. The bottom edge is turned up for about 1/4 inch to enable the
+boiler to be screwed firmly to the lower deck. The boiler occupies a
+position at one end of the hull, and should fit easily in between decks.
+A small spirit-lamp is used to furnish heat, and no description need be
+given of this particular part of the equipment. Before the boiler is
+firmly fixed in place a small hole should be made near the top at one
+end. The feed steam-pipe is inserted in this, and soldered in place.
+
+Two small oscillating cylinders, similar to those made for the engine on
+the _Nancy Lee_ (Chapter 6), should be made. They should not be more
+than 3/4 inch in length, with a 3/8-inch bore. If the builder has any
+old model steam-engines in the shop, he may take the cylinders from them
+instead of constructing new ones for the dry-dock.
+
+The engine is set up as shown in Fig. 124. The first job is to make the
+frame or standards, and this is in one piece. Two pieces of brass (_A_),
+measuring 5-1/2 inches long by 1/2 inch wide and 1/16 inch in thickness,
+are cut. Next the builder should mark off 1-1/2 inches from either end,
+and carefully bend at right angles, after which holes are drilled to
+accommodate the crank-axle _B_. Two holes must also be made for screws
+to enable the machine to be screwed to the deck.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 124]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 125]
+
+The flywheel should be 1-1/2 inches in diameter, while the bent crank
+has a throw of 3/16 inch. The steam-cylinder is fixed on the outside of
+one of the uprights, and the steam-pipe must, of course, be fitted from
+the inside.
+
+The pump-cylinder is composed of a small piece of brass tube 1 inch long
+and 3/8 inch in diameter. The plunger is 1/2 inch long, and the diameter
+is just sufficient to enable it to work freely up and down inside the
+brass tube. One end is shaped as shown in Fig. 125. This contains a saw
+cut that enables the pump-rod to be placed between and connected with a
+pin. The bottom end of the cylinder is now fitted with a brass disk in
+which a hole is made and a 3/32-inch tube soldered in place. The inside
+surface of this piece of brass should be countersunk, and the piece is
+then soldered into the end of the cylinder. Before the plunger is
+inserted a small lead shot is dropped in, which should be larger than
+the hole at the bottom of the cylinder, thereby covering it. A hole is
+drilled in at the side of the cylinder, and a small bent pipe fixed in
+it. At the top of this pipe a short piece of 3/8-inch brass tube is
+fixed in place, as indicated. This piece of tubing is closed at both
+ends. The bottom end is treated like that of the pump-barrel and
+supplied with a large shot. An outlet-pipe is soldered into the side of
+the delivery-valve chamber and leads to the side of the hull.
+
+The pump _E_ is fixed at the bottom midway between the engine uprights
+as indicated in Fig. 124. The suction-pipe passes through a hole and
+down through the deck nearly to the bottom of the hull. After the
+engine and boiler are connected, a trial can be made. If the foregoing
+instructions have been carried out, the engine will run at a good speed
+and a continuous flow of water will be pumped out of the hull. All parts
+of the engine and pump should be carefully oiled and water should be
+poured into the pump in order to prime it before its start.
+
+It is understood that two complete boilers and pump units are made for
+the model, and one is mounted on each side. If the builder desires to
+increase the capacity of the pumps and install a more powerful boiler
+and engine, only one pump will be necessary. Otherwise the water will
+not be pumped from the hull very rapidly.
+
+When the builder has finished the pump units, he should turn his
+attention to the remainder of the fittings. Two small cranes are made,
+and one is placed at each side of the hull. They are made of tin. The
+cab of each crane measures 2-1/2 inches high by 2 inches long by 1-3/4
+inches wide. A small roof is fitted on, and a piece of wood fitted to
+the bottom to serve as a floor. The jib measures 6 inches long by 3/4
+inch at the base, and tapers to 1/2 inch. It has 1/4 inch turned down at
+each side, thus adding considerable strength. The jib is fitted to the
+cab by means of a wire passed through the sides, and two guy-ropes are
+arranged as shown. A small piece is now cut out at the top, and a pulley
+wheel fixed in position by means of a pin passed through the sides.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 126]
+
+The winding-drum can be made of either tin or wood. The axle passes
+through both sides of the cab, the crank being attached to the outside.
+Fig. 126 shows the completed crane, which is held to the deck by means
+of a small bolt and nut. A washer should be placed between the bottom of
+the crane and the deck, to allow the crane to turn freely with little
+friction.
+
+A hand-rail, made of fine brass wire, is placed around the deck.
+
+Dummy port-holes are fixed to the sides of the dry-dock for the purpose
+of lighting up the interior of the engine-room. These are furnished from
+top rings taken from gas-mantles. Anchor-chains are fixed at each end of
+the dry-dock. The whole dry-dock is painted with two coats of gray paint
+and the water-line painted in bright red.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 127]
+
+Fig. 127 shows the dry-dock with a model boat in position.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+OPERATION OF FLASH STEAM POWER PLANTS FOR MODEL BOATS
+
+
+THE flash steam method of propelling model power boats of the racing
+type produces a far greater speed than would otherwise be possible.
+Flash steam plants are far more complicated than ordinary
+steam-propelled power plants, and for this reason the author devotes a
+chapter to their description.
+
+A considerable equipment of tools and not a little mechanical ingenuity
+are required to produce and assemble a workable flash steam plant.
+However, such plants have gained great popularity in the past few years,
+and all of the hydroplane racing craft are propelled with such outfits.
+These power plants are capable of delivering such a tremendous power
+that speeds as high as thirty-five miles an hour have been reached by
+boats measuring 40 inches long.
+
+The illustration, Fig. 128, shows a flash steam plant and its various
+parts. Each part and its function will be described in this Chapter in
+detail. The gasolene tank _A_ is used to hold the fuel, which is fed to
+the gasolene burner _C_. The gasolene burner operates on the principle
+of the ordinary gasolene torch. First the tank is filled about
+three-quarters full with gasolene. An air-pressure is then produced in
+the tank with a bicycle pump. The pipe leading from the gasolene-tank at
+the top is coiled around the burner, and the free end of it is bent and
+provided with a nipple, so that the gasolene vapor will be blown through
+the center of the helix of the coil formed by the pipe bent around the
+burner. This is quite clearly shown in the drawing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 128]
+
+The cylinder is merely a piece of stovepipe iron bent to shape and
+provided with several air-holes at the burner end. To start the burner,
+the vaporizing coils must first be heated in an auxiliary flame. The
+flame of an ordinary blow-torch is suitable for this purpose. After
+the coils have become sufficiently hot the valve at the top of the
+gasolene-tank is opened, and this causes a stream of gasolene vapor to
+issue at the nipple. This produces a hot flame at the center of the
+vaporizing coils, and in this way the coils are kept hot. The purpose of
+heating these coils is further to vaporize the gasolene as it passes
+through them on the way to the burner. Once started, the action of the
+burner is entirely automatic. The vaporizing coils are made of Shelby
+steel tubing with an internal diameter of 1/8 inch.
+
+It will be seen that the flame from the gasolene-torch is blown through
+the center of the boiler coils _B_. Thus, any water passing through
+these boiler coils is instantly converted into steam. In other words,
+the water "flashes" into steam. The heat of the blow-torch is so great
+that most of the boiler coils are maintained at red heat even while the
+water is passing through them.
+
+Notice the water-tank _G_. A little scoop, formed by a pipe of small
+diameter, protrudes through the bottom of the boat, so that the forward
+motion of the boat will cause water to rise in the tank _G_. An
+overflow is also provided, so that, should the water not be sucked out
+of the tank quickly enough, it will not flood the boat. The overflow
+pipe hangs off the side of the boat.
+
+The water pump _E_ sucks water from the tank, and pumps it through the
+check-valve _K_ (this valve permits water to pass in one direction only)
+into the boiler coils. The boiler coils, being red-hot, cause the water
+to flash into steam the instant it reaches them. By the time the steam
+has reached the opposite end of the boiler coils, it is no longer steam,
+but a hot, dry gas at a terrific pressure. From the boiler coils the
+steam passes into the steam-chest of the engine, and thence into the
+cylinder, where it expands, delivering its energy to the piston.
+
+It will be seen that the water-pump _E_ is geared to the engine. Owing
+to this, it is necessary to start the water circulating through the
+boiler coils by the hand pump _F_. This hand pump forces water through
+the boiler coils just as the power pump does. After the hand pump is
+started the engine is turned over a few times until it starts. The
+valve _H_ is then closed, which cuts the starting pump _F_ entirely out
+of the system, because when the engine starts it also drives the water
+pump _E_, and therefore the action becomes entirely automatic.
+
+The relief-cock _L_ is placed in the system to be used if the engine
+stalls. By opening the relief-cock the pressure in the complete system
+is immediately relieved. At all other times the relief-cock is closed.
+
+A second pump, _I_, is also included in the system. This, like the
+water-pump, is geared to the engine and driven by it. It is the duty of
+this pump to convey oil from the lubricating tank _M_ into the steam
+feed-pipe just before it enters the steam-chest. In this way the live
+superheated steam carries a certain amount of lubricating oil with it in
+the cylinder.
+
+Owing to the high temperature of the superheated steam, it is impossible
+to use brass cylinders on the steam-engines employed with flash steam
+systems. Steel seems to be the only cheap metal that is capable of
+withstanding the attack of flash steam. Brass is out of the question,
+since its surface will pit badly after it is in use a short time.
+
+The boiler of a flash steam plant is covered with sheet iron so as to
+prevent drafts of air from deflecting the flame from the center of the
+boiler coils. The cover is provided with ventilators, so that the burner
+will not be smothered. If enough oxygen does not enter the interior of
+the boiler coils, poor combustion will result, and the gasolene flame
+will not develop its maximum heat. Upon referring again to the diagram,
+it will be seen that the exhaust steam pipe from the engine discharges
+into the stack of the boiler covering. This discharge greatly
+facilitates the circulation of air through the boiler coils.
+
+After a flash steam plant has been started it will work automatically,
+providing all the parts are in good running order. Flash steam plants,
+however, are difficult to get in the proper adjustment, and once
+adjusted they are easily disturbed by minor causes. Owing to the fact
+that every square inch of surface in the flash coils is heating surface,
+the amount of water supplied to the boiler must be exactly what is
+needed. The heat must also be regulated so that the temperature of the
+steam will just meet the engine's needs. Many times an increase in heat
+causes the steam to reach such a temperature that it will burn up the
+lubricating oil before it reaches the cylinder of the engine. This is
+liable to cause trouble, because sticking is apt to occur.
+
+Model power boats with speeds as high as thirty-five miles an hour have
+been made in America. Such high-speed boats must be assembled with
+infinite care, owing to the fact that the mechanism they carry is more
+or less erratic in its action, and unless it is well made results cannot
+be expected.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 129]
+
+There are probably few sports more interesting than that of model
+power-boat racing. The Central Park Model Yacht Club of New York city is
+one of the most progressive clubs in America, and its members not only
+have a sail-boat division, but they also have a power-boat division. The
+members of the power-boat section have races regularly once a week, and
+the most lively competition is shown. It is indeed amusing to watch
+these little high-speed boats dash across the pond, their bows high in
+the air and their little engines snorting frantically. Owing to the
+difficulty of keeping these small racing boats in a straight line, they
+are tied to a wire or heavy cord and allowed to race around a pole
+anchored in the center of the pond, as illustrated in Fig. 129. The top
+of the pole should be provided with a ball-bearing arranged so that the
+cord to which the boat is fastened will not wind around the post. In
+this way the boats are caused to travel in a circle, and as the cord to
+which they are fastened represents the radius of the circle, the
+circumference can readily be found by multiplying the radius by 2,
+which will give the diameter. The diameter is then multiplied by 3.1416
+to obtain the circumference. If the boats were permitted to travel wild
+they would run into the bank, a fatal procedure when they are running at
+high speed.
+
+Speed boat hulls are usually of the hydroplane or sea-sled type. This
+type of hull is extremely easy to make. Such a hull is shown in Fig.
+130. It will be seen that it has an aluminum bottom. The propeller and
+propeller strut will be noticed in this illustration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 130]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 131]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 132]
+
+The drawing for the particular hull shown in Fig. 130 is given in Fig.
+131. First the two side pieces are cut out to the shape shown. In this
+particular instance the over-all length of the sides is 39-1/3 inches.
+This is called a meter boat, and is built with this length to conform
+with the English racing rules. Next a bow piece is cut out, and this is
+produced from solid wood. Only two materials are used in the
+construction of this hull, aluminum and mahogany. Square mahogany strips
+are cut out and fastened inside of the side pieces by means of shellac
+and 3/8-inch brass brads. The bottom of the hull is made of 22-gage
+sheet aluminum. This is fastened to the square mahogany strips, since
+the sides of the boat are entirely too thin for this purpose. The method
+of fastening the strips of aluminum will be made evident by referring to
+Fig. 132. The aluminum bottom does not run completely over the bow
+piece, but merely overlaps it sufficiently to be fastened by brass
+brads, as illustrated in Fig. 135. The single step in the bottom of the
+boat is fastened by a mahogany strip, through which the stern-tube runs
+and the water-scoop. The back of the boat is made up of mahogany. A
+small aluminum hood is bent to shape, and this is fastened to the bow of
+the boat and prevents the boat from shipping water.
+
+In building a hull of this nature the mechanic should exercise care to
+see that it is in perfect balance, and that the sides are finished and
+varnished as smoothly as possible. This will cut down both air and water
+resistance. The position of the propeller strut and stern-tube will be
+seen by referring to the drawing of the hull in Fig. 131.
+
+The propeller of a high-speed boat is of a high pitch and generally of
+the two-blade type. It should be at least 3 inches in diameter and with
+a pitch of about 10 inches. By this it is meant that the propeller
+theoretically should advance 10 inches through the water for one
+revolution. The rudder is generally fastened in one position, in case
+the boat is not used on a string and pole. It will be found advisable,
+however, always to run the boat in this way, and in such cases the
+rudder can be entirely dispensed with.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 133]
+
+The boiler of a flash steam plant is extremely simple. Such a boiler is
+shown in Fig. 133. It consists merely of a coil of copper or Shelby
+steel tubing with an internal diameter of 1/4 inch. The boiler coils
+should be wound around a circular form of wood about 2-3/4 inches in
+diameter. In the case of copper it will not be found very difficult to
+do this, providing the copper is heated before being wound on the wooden
+form. If the copper is heated it is advisable to wind the wood with a
+layer of sheet asbestos before the copper tube is wound on. It is almost
+necessary to do this winding with a lathe, but if the mechanic does not
+have access to such a tool he may have to find other means of doing it,
+or possibly he can take it to a local machine shop and have the work
+done for a few cents. The boiler coil should be wound about 9 inches
+long.
+
+A casing of Russian sheet iron is made to slip over the boiler, leaving
+sufficient space between. Ventilating holes or slots are cut in the
+cover to permit of a free circulation of air. The boiler covering is
+also provided with a funnel through which the exhaust gases from the
+blow-lamp pass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 134]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 135]
+
+The blow-lamp used operates on the same principle as the ordinary
+blow-torch. The details of such a lamp are given in Fig. 134, and a
+finished torch is shown in Fig. 135. Instead of making the valves
+necessary for the blow-torch, it is advisable to purchase them, for they
+are very difficult to make accurately. The valve at the back of the
+torch regulates the gasolene supply that passes through the nipple. The
+hole in the nipple should be about twenty thousandths of an inch. Owing
+to the fact that the copper coil wound about the burner is short, the
+tube can be filled with molten resin before it is bent. In this way the
+tube will not kink or lose its shape while being wound. After it is
+wound it is placed in the fire and the molten resin forced out with a
+bicycle-pump. Such a blow-torch produces a tremendous heat and throws a
+hot flame far up into the boiler coils.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+SAILING YACHTS
+
+
+BEFORE attempting to construct model sailing yachts the young worker
+should become thoroughly conversant with the different types of yachts
+and their fittings. In the following pages the author briefly outlines
+the general science of yacht-making and sailing.
+
+Sailing yachts are made in four principal types. There is the cutter
+rig, yawl rig, sloop rig, and the ketch rig. The cutter rig is shown in
+Fig. 136. It consists of four sails so arranged that the top-sail may be
+either removed altogether or replaced by sails of smaller area. In all
+yachts it is necessary to haul the sails up into position by ropes known
+as halyards. The halyards must be led down to the deck. The
+model-builder, however, can dispense with much of the gear used on
+larger boats.
+
+A sloop rig is illustrated in Fig. 137. By studying the drawing the
+worker will see that the sloop rig differs from the cutter rig only in
+that she carries a single sail forward of her mast.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 137]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 136]
+
+The yawl rig (See Fig. 138) is similar to a cutter rig, but has a small
+sail set up on another mast abaft the mainsail. The sheet is led aft to
+a spar that projects beyond the counter. The mast upon which the smaller
+sail is set is known as the mizzenmast. In this rig it will be seen that
+the main boom must be made considerably shorter than was the case in
+the cutter rig. This is done so that it will not follow the mizzenmast
+when it swings from one position to another.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 138]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 139]
+
+The ketch rig differs greatly from the yawl rig. The mizzenmast always
+occupies a position forward of the rudder-post. In the yawl the
+mizzenmast is always stepped aft of the rudder-post. This will be seen
+by referring to the drawings of the two boats. The ketch rig is
+illustrated in Fig. 139.
+
+The prettiest rig of all is the schooner; but, owing to the fact that it
+is difficult to get them to go well to windward unless the hull is
+perfectly rigged, the author has decided not to deal with this type of
+boat. When the reader becomes proficient in building and sailing the
+simpler types described in this book, he may turn his attention to the
+construction and sailing of more complicated types.
+
+
+_Model Yacht Parts_
+
+The submerged portion of a yacht is, as in all other boats, termed the
+hull. The backbone of the hull is called the keelson. Attached to the
+keelson is a piece of lead, which is put in place to give the boat
+stability and power to resist the heeling movement created by the
+wind-pressure upon the sails. This is known as the keel.
+
+Yachts always have an opening in the deck giving access to the interior
+of the hull. These openings are known as hatchways. When sailing in
+rough weather the hatchway is closed by a hatch to prevent the yacht
+from shipping water.
+
+The extreme forward end of a yacht hull is called the stern, while the
+portions forward and aft of the midships section are known as the fore
+and after-body respectively.
+
+[Illustration: A TWIN CYLINDER STEAM ENGINE FOR MODEL MARINE USE
+
+This engine will drive a boat several feet long]
+
+In all yachts a portion of the hull extends out over the water. These
+portions are known as overhangs. The overhang aft is sometimes called
+the counter-stern. The sides of the hull that rise above the deck are
+called bulwarks, and the part of the bulwarks that cross the stern is
+called the taffrail. The taffrail is always pierced with holes to allow
+water to run off the deck quickly, so that the additional weight will
+not in any way affect the course of the boat. It is understood that
+yachts raise great quantities of water upon their decks when traveling
+in rough sea.
+
+The bowsprit is passed through a ring at the top of the stern, and this
+ring is termed the gammon iron. Its end is secured in a socket or
+between a pair of uprights called the bowsprit bits. These are fixed to
+the deck. Metal bars are fixed a short distance above the deck to take
+rings attached to the sheets. This is done so that the sails may swing
+freely from one side of the boat to the other. Metal eyes are screwed
+into the sides to take the shrouds, and are called chain-plates. The eye
+in the stern is called the bobstay plate. In the stern-post are two eyes
+called gudgeons. The rudder is hooked to this by means of two hooks
+called pintles. The bar or lever that is fixed to the top of the
+rudder-post is called a tiller.
+
+[Illustration: A CUP-WINNING MODEL SAIL BOAT
+
+Designed and constructed by the commodore of the Central Park Model
+Yacht Club, New York, N. Y.]
+
+The parts and fittings of a mast follow: the step, the head, the caps,
+crosstrees, truck, topmast, boom, and gaff. The part of the gaff that
+rests on the mast is called the throat; the end of the gaff is called
+the peak. The jib-boom is a term used only in connection with model
+yachts. In larger boats the jib-boom is an extension of the bowsprit.
+The small boom that projects over the stern of a yawl is called the
+bumpkin. The spar is rather a general term applied to practically all
+wooden supports of sails. The spar of a lug-sail is called the yard. It
+is different from a boom or gaff, by reason of its lying against the
+mast instead of having one end butting on the mast. Anything belonging
+to the mainmast should be distinguished by the prefix main. Thus, there
+are the mainsail, the mainboom, main-topsail, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 140]
+
+A sail for a model cutter-rigged yacht is shown in Fig. 140. The
+bowsprit and masts are, when necessary, given support by ropes that are
+stretched tightly to some point where they can be conveniently anchored
+to the hull. The following are those largely used on model yachts:
+topmast stay, bobstay, topmast shrouds, and forestay.
+
+The sails are pulled up and fastened by ropes termed halyards. The
+halyards are fastened to the upper portions of the sail, and they are
+named according to the sail to which they are attached. For instance,
+there is the jib halyard and the foresail halyard. A mainsail carried by
+a gaff has two halyards, the throat and peak. The movement of the sails
+is controlled by ropes, called sheets, which take their names from the
+sails they control. There is a mainsheet, a jibsheet, and a foresheet.
+The reader should take note of this term and refrain from confusing it
+with the sails.
+
+
+_Sailing Model Yachts_
+
+The sailing of model yachts is a real art, and the author warns the
+reader that he cannot hope to become a proficient yachtsman by merely
+digesting the information given in this book. His real knowledge must be
+earned by experience in handling a model yacht on the water. However,
+there are few sports that will afford more pleasure than that of sailing
+model yachts. Being an outdoor sport it is very healthful.
+
+In sailing a model yacht the sails are set, or "trimmed," so that she
+will continue to sail along the course previously decided upon by the
+yachtsman. She must do this in as speedy a manner as possible and with
+as little deviation from her original course as possible. The trim of
+the sails will depend upon the wind. If the boat is to sail against the
+wind, that is termed "beating to windward"; with the wind is called
+"scudding." With the wind sideways it is called "reaching." If the boat
+is sailed with the wind blowing midway between one of the sides and the
+stern in such a way that it sweeps from one side of the stern across the
+deck, this is called "three-quarter sailing" in a "quartering" wind. A
+model yacht will continue for a great distance on a reach or while
+scudding; but, on the other hand, it will not be possible for her to
+sail directly against the wind. If a yachtsman is to make headway
+against the wind, he must sail his boat as near dead against the wind as
+it will go.
+
+The cutter type of yacht will move against a wind that is blowing at a
+very small angle on her bowsprit. As soon as she reaches the limit of
+her course, the yachtsman turns her bow at a small angle so as to bring
+the wind on the opposite side of the vessel, and in this way a second
+course is started. These courses are repeated in a zigzag fashion until
+the yacht arrives at her destination. This zigzagging, or "tacking," as
+it is called, is illustrated in Fig. 141. It will be seen that the yacht
+starts at _B_, and makes 3 tacks before she arrives at her destination,
+_A_. Each time she touches the shore she is "put about" and set upon a
+new course, or "tack."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 141]
+
+It will be understood that tacking is slow work, and a greater distance
+must be traveled than would be covered by a power-boat, which would be
+able to go in a straight line. However, with wind-propelled craft this
+is the only way in which progress can be made against the wind. The
+left-hand side of a yacht viewed from the stern is called the port side,
+while the right-hand side is called the starboard side. Thus a yacht
+sailing with the wind blowing on her port side is on the port tack,
+while if the wind is blowing on the starboard side she is said to be on
+the starboard tack. From this the reader will see that Fig. 142 shows an
+impossible case.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 142]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 143]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 144]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 145]
+
+The sails in front of the mast that are placed nearest the stern of the
+yacht act in such a manner as to turn the bows in the direction of the
+arrow, as illustrated in Fig. 146, and the sail or sails abaft the mast
+turn the boat in the direction of the arrow _A_. The boat thus revolves
+upon the center of the mast much as a weathercock revolves upon its
+pivot. If there is more than one mast, all the sails carried abaft the
+mainmast serve to turn the boat in the direction _A_. The work of
+sailing depends greatly upon the skill in balancing these two effects so
+that the boat will progress in a straight line. To do this the sails are
+set in a greater or less angle in relation to the center line of the
+boat. The less the angle that a sail makes with the center line of the
+boat, the greater is its power to determine in which direction the boat
+will steer. The more the yachtsman slackens out his jib and foresail, or
+the smaller he makes these sails, the less their power will be to turn
+the boat in the direction _B_. On the other hand, the larger they are
+and the more tightly they are pulled in, the greater will be their
+power. When the mainsail and all of the sails abaft the mainsail are
+slackened out and the smaller they are made, the less their power will
+be to swing the boat in the direction _A_.
+
+The influence of a sail upon the speed of a boat also increases with the
+angle that it makes with the center line of the hull. The more the
+yachtsman slackens out his sail, the more it will help the boat along.
+The reader will see that these two conditions interfere with each other,
+and therefore the trimming of the sails becomes a compromise. It is good
+for the young yachtsman to remember to sail his boat with the sails as
+slack as possible, as long as she keeps a good course. He should also
+remember not to overload her with sails, since the nearer to an upright
+position she maintains the faster she will go.
+
+It is not possible to depend entirely upon the trim of the sails to keep
+a model in a given course. This is because the strength of the wind
+varies so that the sails are in balance one moment and out of balance
+the next. The sails abaft the mainmast overpower the sails before it
+when the wind increases. The result of this is that the bow of the boat
+will be repeatedly turned in the direction _A_, Fig. 146.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 146]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 147]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 148]
+
+Some form of automatic rudder is therefore generally used to overcome
+this tendency of the yacht to "luff" in the wind. Fig. 147 shows the
+course of a yacht reaching from _A_ to _B_. The dotted lines show the
+course she should follow. The full line shows the effect of puffs of
+wind, which repeatedly take her out of her course. Many times she may
+completely turn around and make a similar course back to the
+starting-point, as in Fig. 148. There is also the danger of her being
+taken back when pointing directly against the wind--the wind will force
+her backward stern first for some distance, as illustrated in Fig. 149.
+She will do this until she manages to get around on one tack or the
+other.
+
+The dotted line _B_ illustrates the course in which she would be driven
+under these conditions. It is not practical to sail a model yacht dead
+before the wind without an automatic rudder. With the use of an
+automatic rudder the erratic movements shown in Fig. 148 can be entirely
+overcome. The action of the rudder is such that every time the boat
+leans over to luff up into the wind, the weight of the rudder causes it
+to swing out, and thus prevents her from losing her course. As a
+different type of rudder is required, according to the course in which
+the yacht is sailing, the weight should be adjustable if the same rudder
+is used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 149]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 150]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 152]
+
+Let us consider scudding before the wind. For scudding the heaviest
+rudder should be used, or the weight on a loaded tiller should be in its
+position of maximum power. All the sails abaft the foremast should be
+slackened out as far as they will go, which will bring the booms almost
+at right angles with the center line of the boat. If the craft is a
+cutter or yawl with a light weight, the yachtsman should rig the
+spinnaker. The head-sails may be left slack or can be tightened. Fig.
+150 shows the position of the booms when scudding with a schooner and
+yawl. The yawl is shown scudding goose winged. The cutter is illustrated
+with the spinnaker set. The other craft is a two-mast lugger with
+balanced lugs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 151]
+
+Attention is now directed to "reaching." For this particular work the
+yachtsman should put on a medium rudder. When using a weighted tiller
+the weight should be put in a midway position. The head-sails should be
+pulled in fairly tight and the aft-sails made slack. The yachtsman,
+however, should not slacken them as for scudding. Fig. 151 shows a
+schooner reaching. The thick black lines represent the booms of the
+sails. If the wind is very light a spinnaker-jib may be set or a
+jib-topsail in light or moderate breezes. In the case of a wind that
+comes over the stern quarter, as indicated by the arrow _A_, the next
+heavier rudder, or its equivalent in weighted tiller, should be put in
+operation, and the sails slackened out a little more than before. The
+boat is then said to be free and sailing on the starboard tack. If the
+wind is coming in the direction _B_ the jib and foresail may require
+slackening and the aft sails pulled in more than when sailing with the
+wind in the direction _C_. A still lighter rudder can be used as the
+course gets near to beating windward, and the yacht is said to be
+close-hauled on the starboard tack.
+
+In beating to windward, if a rudder is used at all, it should be as
+light as possible, just heavy enough to keep the boat steady. However,
+this is just the condition of sailing when a boat can dispense with a
+rudder. It depends entirely upon the characteristics of the particular
+yacht being sailed, and for this the yachtsman must depend upon his own
+experience. The jib-topsail should not be used in a case like this, and
+if the wind is fairly strong a smaller jib should be set than that used
+for reaching. It is advisable to slacken the jib and foresail out and
+pull the aft-sails in somewhat tightly. Fig. 152 shows a cutter beating
+to windward on a port tack. In this case she will have to pay out to
+starboard a bit before her sails fill.
+
+In sailing the weather must be watched very closely, and the amount of
+sail carried will depend entirely upon the weather conditions. A yacht
+should never be overloaded with sail. If she has more than she can
+comfortably carry she will heel over and drag her sails in the water.
+Not only this, but she will also drift to leeward when beating to
+windward. When sailing a new boat, her best trim for various points of
+sailing and force of wind must be found by painstaking experiments. The
+boat should always be sailed with her sails as slack as she will take
+them and keep in her course. In this way she will move faster than when
+the sails are pulled in close.
+
+The model yachtsman should always watch the wind and note whether it
+shifts its direction or alters its force. The boat is trimmed
+accordingly when the boat is put about. Easing or tightening the jib or
+main-sheet slightly will make a very noticeable difference.
+
+By taking down the top-sail or setting a jib-head top-sail in place of a
+jack yard top-sail, the yacht will be caused to ride easier in puffs of
+wind. In case she does not point well to windward when beating, the
+yachtsman should try a smaller jib, or he can slacken the
+foresail-sheet. If she runs off regularly to leeward on one tack only,
+while keeping well to windward on the other, she has some defect in
+construction or a bent keel.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+TWO-FOOT SAILING YACHT
+
+
+THE model yacht described in this Chapter is the design of Mr. W. J.
+Daniels, of England, and was described by him in "Junior Mechanics." Mr.
+Daniels is one of the best known and most successful English designers
+of model yachts, and the one here described can easily be constructed by
+the average boy:
+
+          In order that the reader may realize the obstacles
+          to be surmounted in designing a model yacht that
+          will sail in a straight line to windward,
+          irrespective of the different pressure that the
+          wind may expend on the sails, it must be pointed
+          out that the boat is continuously altering the
+          shape of the submerged part of her hull:
+          therefore, unless the hull is so designed that
+          harmony is retained at every angle to which the
+          pressure of wind on the sails may heel it, the
+          model's path through the water will be, more or
+          less, an arc of a circle. Whether the boat sails
+          toward the wind, or, in other words, in a curve
+          the center of the circle of which is on the same
+          side of the boat as the wind, or in a curve the
+          center of the circle of which is on the opposite
+          or leeward side, will depend upon the formation of
+          the boat.
+
+          As these notes are intended to first initiate the
+          reader into the subject of model yacht building
+          and construction, the design supplied is one in
+          which all things, as far as shape is concerned,
+          have been considered.
+
+          It is the endeavor of every designer to produce
+          the most powerful boat possible for a given
+          length--that is, one that can hold her sail up in
+          resistance to the wind-pressure best. Of course,
+          the reader will easily realize that breadth and
+          weight of keel will be the main features that will
+          enable the model to achieve this object; but, as
+          these two factors are those that tend to make a
+          design less slender, if pushed to extremes, the
+          designer has to compromise at a point when the
+          excess of beam and buoyancy are detrimental to the
+          speed lines of the hull.
+
+          But the question of design pure and simple is a
+          complex one, and we do not intend to weary the
+          reader just now with anything of that kind, so we
+          will now proceed to build the hull. In order that
+          we may correctly interpret the shape shown in the
+          design without being expert woodcarvers, we must
+          use our ingenuity and by mechanical means achieve
+          our object, at the same time saving ourselves a
+          large amount of labor, such as we should have to
+          expend if we made this boat from a solid block of
+          wood.
+
+          Now, as regards understanding the drawings: it is
+          essential to remember that a line which in one
+          view is a curve is always a straight line in the
+          other two views. Those lines which are drawn
+          parallel to the water-line are known as
+          water-lines, and it will be seen that the curves
+          shown on the deck plan represent the actual shapes
+          of the hull at the corresponding water-lines
+          above, below, and exactly on the load water-line.
+          In other words, if after the hull is made it were
+          sunk down to these various levels, the shapes of
+          the hole made in the surface of the water would be
+          as shown in the plan.
+
+          Therefore, instead of making our boat from a solid
+          block of wood, we will make our block up from
+          several layers, the thickness of each layer being
+          equal to the space between the water-lines; but
+          before gluing these layers together we will cut
+          them out to the exact shape that the boat will be
+          at their various positions.
+
+          It will not be necessary to have a separate piece
+          of wood for each layer, as some layers below the
+          actual water-line will be cut from the pieces of
+          wood that have been cut out from the layers above.
+
+          In this case, the boat being 24 inches long, the
+          top layer will be the same length and breadth as
+          the boat, and 1 inch in thickness.
+
+          Draw down the center of the board a straight
+          line, and other lines square to it, representing
+          the position of the cross-sections as shown in the
+          drawing. You have now to transfer the deck line to
+          this board, and this is done by marking the
+          breadth at the various sections and drawing a
+          curve through the spots, a thin strip of
+          straight-grained wood being used as a rule, the
+          latter being held down by such weights as are
+          available. For the purpose of laying off the
+          water-lines truly, lines spaced at 1-1/2 inches
+          are shown; the first, it will be noticed, is half
+          a section or 3/4 inch from the stem head.
+
+          The material required will be a board of pine
+          about 6 feet long, 8 inches wide, and 1 inch
+          finished thickness.
+
+          Nearly all wood-yards stock first-quality pine,
+          but it is in planks 3 inches thick. You can no
+          doubt pick up a short length about 4 feet long.
+
+          If so, take it to a sawmill and have two boards
+          1-1/4 inches thick cut and then machine-planed
+          down to a dead inch. Perhaps you can purchase a
+          board that is already cut, and is fully 1 inch
+          thick, to allow for planing.
+
+          Prepare one edge of the board straight with a
+          plane, seeing that it is square to the surface.
+
+          As a planing-machine always leaves a series of
+          ridges across the board, varying according to the
+          quality of the machine, it is necessary before
+          transferring the lines to the wood to just skim
+          the surface with a nicely sharpened plane, and set
+          so as to just skim the wood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 153]
+
+
+          The lengths required are: _A_, plank 24 inches
+          long; _B_, plank 24 inches; _C_, plank 18-1/2
+          inches.
+
+          The _D_ plank will be cut from the center of _B_,
+          but will have to be shifted two sections forward.
+
+          Having transferred the various shapes from the
+          drawing on to their respective layers, you saw out
+          each carefully with a bow or a keyhole-saw, care
+          being taken not to cut inside the lines. It is
+          better to cut full, and trim down to the lines
+          with a chisel or plane. A good deal of trouble can
+          be saved by the expenditure of a few cents for
+          having them machine-sawed, in which case ask the
+          sawyer to use his finest-toothed saw.
+
+          Having cut out layers _A_, _B_, _C_, and _D_,
+          fresh lines are marked, as shown by the dotted
+          lines in the plan. These indicate the shape of the
+          inside of each layer when the boat is carved out,
+          and save labor.
+
+          These may as well be sawed out now as carved out
+          later. It will also facilitate gluing up, as it
+          will allow the superfluous glue to be squeezed
+          out, and also decrease the breadth of the joint.
+
+          In order to get these various layers glued
+          together dead true to their positions as indicated
+          in the design, you must choose a section about
+          amidships, say section 11, and with a square draw
+          a line from that section, which is, of course,
+          still showing on the surface of the layer, down
+          the edge on either side, joining up with a line
+          across the opposite face. Also vertical lines at
+          each end of the midships line must be drawn on
+          the wood, great care being taken to get the
+          midships line on the under face of the layers dead
+          opposite each other.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 154]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 155]
+
+          If your outfit contains half a dozen carpenter's
+          hand screws, these can be used; but if not, it
+          will be necessary to purchase from a hardware
+          store eight seven-inch bolts and nuts 3/8 inch in
+          diameter, with one washer for each, and to make up
+          four clamps, as shown in Fig. 156.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 156]
+
+          You will start by gluing layer _C_ to layer _D_,
+          blocks being placed between the surface of the
+          layers and the clamps to prevent bruising the
+          wood. These two are then glued to layer _B_, and
+          when this is thoroughly set they are glued to the
+          layer _A_. The best glue to use for this job is
+          marine glue, which does not dry too quickly, and
+          so gives plenty of time to see that the layers
+          have not shifted. In every case one clamp should
+          be placed at each extreme end of the shorter
+          layer, so as to insure the ends making contact,
+          the other two being placed equidistant.
+
+          While waiting for the glue to set, you can be
+          preparing the four layers (shown below _D_) for
+          the lead keel pattern. The lines must be cut out,
+          in this case, with a chisel, as it will be noticed
+          that the lower faces must be left wide enough to
+          receive the top face of the layer beneath it.
+
+          It will be noticed that the under face of each of
+          these layers extends beyond the top face aft, and
+          allowance must be made for this. On laying off the
+          lines on the fin layers, do not join up with a
+          point each end, but leave about 1/8 inch
+          thickness, as shown on the drawing.
+
+          These layers must be drilled through to take the
+          keel-bolts, which are made from two motorcycle
+          spokes, twelve-gage. These should be cut to a
+          length of 5-1/2 or 6 inches. Great care should be
+          taken to insure that the midship lines are exactly
+          vertical over each other when these layers are
+          glued up.
+
+          Before gluing these four layers on to the hull
+          proper, they should be held in position by means
+          of the spokes, in which position they can be sawed
+          to shape for the keel pattern. First, with a small
+          plane or sharp chisel cut down roughly, then a
+          rasp and different grades of sandpaper are used,
+          working across the joints.
+
+          It will be realized that, if the pattern for the
+          keel were cut off dead on the line indicated on
+          the design, there would be a loss of wood through
+          the saw cut. In order to obviate this, another
+          line 3/16 inch below the proper lead line is
+          drawn, and the saw cut made between these two
+          lines. You will now plane down each face that is
+          left rough by the saw, straight and square to each
+          of these lines. On the top face of the pattern
+          for the lead, glue or tack a piece 3/16 inch thick
+          along the face, and cut down the edges flush.
+
+          You will by this means have made up for the amount
+          of wood carried away by the saw. You will no doubt
+          find a difficulty in holding the pieces of wood
+          for planing in the ordinary way, but it is simple
+          enough if you set the plane nicely, grip it in a
+          vise or bench screw upside down, and push the work
+          over the plane's face, instead of vice versa. But
+          be careful of your fingers!
+
+          Take the pieces left from the spokes when cutting
+          down to length, and put these in the holes in the
+          keel pattern. These are for cores, and if you take
+          your pattern to a foundry they will cast it for a
+          small amount, with the holes in it.
+
+          Shoot the top face of the lead in the manner
+          before described, and fit on. The hull is now
+          ready for carving out. Screw on your bench two
+          pieces of wood about 18 inches in length and 4
+          inches wide, so that they project over the edge of
+          the bench about 10 inches. These should be about
+          15 inches apart. Place your hull upside down on
+          them, and fix it by nailing upward into the top
+          layer. After cutting off the corners of the layers
+          roughly with a chisel you use a small plane set
+          fairly fine, and work all over the hull evenly,
+          taking care not to cut below any of the joints. A
+          small gouge will be required to clear the wood
+          from the region of the after fin, a round
+          rasp--sandpaper being wrapped around a small
+          stick--being used for smoothing down afterward.
+
+          Templates of the cross-sections should now be made
+          from thick white paper. This is done by pricking
+          through the design to transfer their shape onto
+          the paper. The cross-sections have on this account
+          been produced here actual size. If cross-lines
+          representing the water-lines are drawn, you will
+          have an excellent guide for fitting, as these
+          lines will, of course, come opposite each glued
+          joint.
+
+          Try your templates now and again as you work, and
+          do not try to finish one spot, but keep the whole
+          at an even stage, and you will see the hull
+          gradually grow into shape.
+
+          The topsides (which is the name given to that part
+          of the vessel's hull above the water-line) are
+          responsible for the boat's appearance when afloat,
+          and until the top sheer is cut off the boat looks
+          very disappointing. The cross-lines being still on
+          the upper layer, draw square lines from them down
+          the topsides and from the drawing mark the points
+          through which the sheer-line runs. The thickness
+          of the deck must be allowed for, and as this will
+          be just over 1/16 inch, the line must be drawn
+          this much below the finished sheer-line. The arch
+          of the transom must be marked, and the hull cut
+          down to the sheer. To avoid the risk of splitting,
+          a number of fine saw cuts are made down each
+          section line and two or three at the transom.
+
+          You now proceed to carve out the inside. Pad your
+          bench bearers and rest your hull upon them. A
+          curved wood gouge with a fairly flat edge is the
+          best tool. Get it nicely sharpened, and work all
+          over the inside of hull until it is about 3/16
+          inch thick, the top edge being left 3/8 inch wide.
+
+          Keep holding up to the light until it is showing a
+          blood-red color, and smooth down the gouge marks
+          with coarse sandpaper.
+
+          The hole for the stern-tube must now be drilled,
+          and the tube made and fitted. The hole should be
+          1/4 inch in diameter. First drill a smaller hole,
+          and then with a 1/4-inch rat-tail file slowly open
+          it out, at the same time rubbing a groove down the
+          stern-post. The stern-tube is made from a piece of
+          light-gage brass tube, it being cut away with a
+          piercing saw to leave a strip the length of the
+          stern-post. Drill three holes in the strip at
+          equal distance and large enough to take a 1/4 inch
+          brass screw, No. 0 size. Temporarily screw the
+          tube in position, and from a piece of thin brass
+          make a plate for the inside. An oval hole will
+          have to be made in the plate to enable it to seat
+          flat over the tube. Solder this while in position.
+          Then remove the whole, and replace, after
+          white-leading where wood touches brass.
+
+          The deck-beams, three in number and 1/4 inch
+          square in section, must now be fitted. The sheer
+          edge which we left 3/8 inch wide must be recessed
+          to receive the beams, the recess being made with a
+          1/4-inch chisel.
+
+          Before gluing beams in, three coats of good
+          varnish must be applied to the inside of shell.
+
+          The deck should now be prepared and fitted. You
+          will require a piece of pine of ample length and
+          breadth, 1/8 inch in thickness, and after planing
+          finely and sand-papering, pieces of the same stuff
+          should be glued on the under face to reinforce it
+          where the bowsprit, keel-plate, hatch rim, and
+          mast will be fitted. Cut these pieces to shape
+          before gluing on.
+
+          Before doing the latter, apply a coat of clear
+          size to the upper face of the deck; this will
+          bring up the grain, so paper it down when dry.
+          This process should be repeated three times.
+
+          Three coats of varnish should be given to the
+          under side of the deck after the pieces have been
+          glued on, and when dry the deck can be fitted,
+          3/8-inch veneer pins being used for fixing on, and
+          care being taken to get it true to position. A
+          center line is drawn down the under side of the
+          deck, and marks made to correspond at the stern
+          and transom on the shell.
+
+          The planking lines on the deck can be drawn to
+          suit your fancy, India ink and a draftsman's
+          ruling pen being used to do it, afterward applying
+          two coats of carriage varnish.
+
+          To paint the hull, white lead and dryers, in the
+          proportion of 5 to 1 by weight respectively,
+          should be dissolved in turpentine, a few drops of
+          linseed oil being mixed to make it work freely.
+          Have this about the consistency of milk, and,
+          after straining, give the hull about eight coats,
+          one every twenty-four hours, rubbing each down
+          when dry with No. 00 sandpaper. Keep the joint
+          representing the load water-line always in sight
+          by penciling over after each coat of paint is dry.
+          When a sufficient body of paint has been applied,
+          the colors can be applied. Enamel is best for
+          this. Stick strips of gummed paper around the hull
+          at the water-line, and paint up to the edge. When
+          the paint is dry the paper can be soaked off, the
+          paper being again applied, but reversed for the
+          other color. If you can use a lining brush the
+          paper is not necessary for the second color.
+
+          While the painting is going on, spars, sails, and
+          fittings can be made. As the spars have to be
+          varnished, it is best to make them first. Pine
+          should be used, and after cutting strips of
+          suitable length and diameter, plane them square in
+          section. With the batten draw on the face the
+          amount of taper to be given, and plane down to
+          this line, still keeping the spar square in
+          section. This having been done, the corners are
+          planed off carefully until the spar is octagonal
+          in section, when it is easy to make it perfectly
+          round with sandpaper by rubbing with the paper
+          rolled around the stick. The diameter of our mast
+          is 1/2 inch parallel until the hoist of the fore
+          triangle is reached, tapering from there to 1/4
+          inch at the masthead or truck. The boom is 1/4
+          inch at the gooseneck, thickening to 3/8 inch
+          where the main-sheet is attached, down to 1/4
+          inch at the outboard end. The jib-boom is slightly
+          less than 1/4 inch parallel.
+
+          All spars should be treated with clear size and
+          fine sandpaper before varnishing. This will
+          prevent discoloring by the latter, and will also
+          allow the India ink markings to be made, which
+          latter will be a guide for the trimming of the
+          sails.
+
+          In order that any yacht, model or otherwise, may
+          be able to perform her best, it is essential that
+          she should have well setting sails. In fact, in a
+          model a badly setting sail will sometimes even be
+          enough to prevent her going to windward at all. By
+          well setting sails we mean sails that are
+          naturally flat and not made so by straining them
+          out on the spars. Light material, such as cambric
+          or light union silk, is best for this purpose, but
+          not a material that has any dressing in it.
+
+          This particular sail plan is very easy to mark
+          out. Lay your material out on a table or smooth
+          surface and pin it down with drawing-pins,
+          sufficiently stretching it so as to pull out any
+          creases. The length of the back edge of the
+          mainsail (which is called the leech) is measured
+          off 1-1/4 inches inside the edge of the cloth, and
+          a curve struck as illustrated. The other two sides
+          of the mainsail are then laid off and pencil lines
+          drawn. You will note that allowance must be made
+          for hemming the back edge of the mainsail. If your
+          sewing-machine has a hemmer, find out how wide a
+          hem it makes (the smaller the better), and make
+          allowance accordingly, twice the width of the hem
+          being necessary. Much depends upon the tension at
+          which the machine is set, so be careful that the
+          latter is sufficiently slack so that it does not
+          draw up the material.
+
+          The jib is marked out in the same manner, and, as
+          illustrated, the lines representing the positions
+          of the batten sleeves are drawn. The batten
+          sleeves are small pockets into which thin pieces
+          of cane (called battens) are inserted to help the
+          sail to set nicely. Unless the sail is a good cut
+          to begin with, however, the insertion of these
+          battens will never make it right. The sails should
+          now be cut out with a sharp penknife or scissors,
+          care being taken not to pull the cloth, and
+          especially not along the edges that run across the
+          threads. You then hem the backs and also the foot
+          of the jib. The batten sleeves (which should be of
+          white satin ribbon about 3/8 inch in width) should
+          now be sewn on by stitching down along the extreme
+          edge to the line drawn, and then down the other
+          edge, the ends being left open. A strip of narrow
+          tape is sewn across the foot of the jib-sail to
+          take the strain of the pull, the part of the jib
+          contained by the curve of the foot and the tape
+          being known as the bonnet of the jib.
+
+          To prevent the edges of the sails (other than
+          those hemmed) being stretched, you bind them with
+          good tape. The tape is first folded and creased
+          by rubbing over an edge. The end of the tape is
+          then turned in. Take a corner of the sail and
+          place it inside the fold of the tape, care being
+          taken to get the raw edge right up against the
+          crease. The needle of the machine should then be
+          lowered through it as near to the edge of the tape
+          as practicable, taking care that it goes through
+          both edges. Keeping a slight pull on the binding,
+          arrange the cloth in it without pulling the edge.
+          Put the foot of the machine down and sew it,
+          afterward raising the foot again and proceeding as
+          before right around the raw edges of the sail,
+          leaving the needle down each time the foot is
+          raised. Do not sew where a batten sleeve passes
+          under the binding, as you will require the former
+          left open to allow the batten to pass into the
+          fold of the binding. The rings for putting up the
+          luffs of the jib- and main-sail are made by
+          winding a piece of thin brass or German silver
+          wire around a steel rod (the spokes used in the
+          keel being suitable for the latter) and sawing
+          down to divide them. A small eyelet should be put
+          in each corner of the sails, and others spaced
+          evenly at about 2-1/2 inches apart along the boom
+          and about 5 inches apart along the mast, for
+          lacing on. An extra row of stitching may be run
+          down the outer edge of the binding to smooth it
+          down.
+
+          The simpler the fittings of a model that is
+          required for practical sailing, the better. They
+          should be as light as practical. Aluminum is not
+          advisable for fittings when the boat is to be
+          sailed in salt water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 157]
+
+          The bowsprit fittings, which are known as the
+          gammon iron and heel plate (Figs. 157, 158), are
+          made by soldering pieces of brass tube (cut to
+          suitable size and shape) onto pieces of triangular
+          sheet brass, as illustrated. The horses can either
+          be of wire with the ends turned to suitable shape
+          and fitted with one screw, or they can have plates
+          for two screws, in which case the wire is either
+          threaded and screwed into the plate or
+          silver-soldered to it. Silver-soldering is done
+          with a blow-pipe. The flux used is borax made into
+          a thin paste with water. Silver-solder is bought
+          in small sheets, and a few cents' worth will go a
+          long way if used properly. Cut small pieces about
+          1/8 inch by 1/16 inch, and, after painting the
+          part to be soldered with your paste borax with a
+          very small brush, pick up the solder with the tip
+          of the brush and put it in position. It will then
+          run around the joint when the metal is raised to
+          sufficient heat.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 158]
+
+          The hatch-rim is made by cutting a strip of thin
+          brass 1/4 inch in width, the length being the
+          circumference of the oval. The two ends are
+          brought together and silver-soldered. Cut out the
+          oval in a piece of very thin brass and fit in your
+          oval strip so that the flat is just in the center
+          of it. This can then be sweated around with an
+          ordinary soldering-iron, the flat being trimmed
+          down afterward with the shears to leave a flange
+          1/4 inch in width, the latter being drilled to
+          take 1/4 inch No. 0 round-head screws.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 159]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 160]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 161]
+
+          The deck fitting for the mast, (Fig. 159) is made
+          in much the same way, a piece of tube being used
+          instead of cutting a strip of brass. To receive
+          the heel of the mast a fitting known as the
+          mast-step must be made and fitted. This, of
+          course, must be done before the deck is put on.
+          The step is made from two pieces of brass, each
+          about 1/32 inch in thickness, 1 inch long and 1/2
+          inch wide. One is hard-soldered on edge down the
+          center of the other to form something like a T
+          girder. A slot, as illustrated, is cut in the
+          upright piece with a ward file, and holes drilled
+          in the flat for screwing down on the inside of the
+          boat. A ferrule of brass tube is fitted to the
+          heel of the mast, a cut of suitable size being
+          made in it to receive the upright of the step. A
+          hole should be drilled through the heel of the
+          mast at right angles to the slot, and a wire
+          passed through and riveted, the latter being of
+          suitable thickness to be received by the slot in
+          the step.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 164]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 163]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 162]
+
+          The rudder-blade (Fig. 162) is made from a piece
+          of sheet brass fitted to a tube, the latter being
+          an easy fit into the stern-tube already fitted.
+          The blade can be soldered onto the tube. The
+          pintle on which the rudder fits and swings is a
+          strip of brass, the width of the after fin, a wire
+          pin being hard-soldered in to fit up into the
+          rudder.
+
+          The pintle (Fig. 163) should be fitted before the
+          painting is started.
+
+          In the steering gear, instead of a quadrant, as
+          the fitting on the rudder-head of the "Braine"
+          gear is called, you fit an ordinary tiller (Fig.
+          164) by bending a wire to suit your fancy and
+          soldering it on to a collar made from a piece of
+          tube that will just sleeve on the outside of the
+          rubber-tube, which latter is fixed by drilling a
+          hole right through it and the rudder head, and
+          fitting a tapered pin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 165]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 166]
+
+          The steering-gear rack (Fig. 165) by which the
+          amount of helm is adjusted is made from a strip of
+          brass cut with lugs which are bent up at right
+          angles as illustrated. This need only be of thin
+          sheet metal, as the strain is very small.
+
+          For running before the wind, separate lines are
+          used, two in number, as illustrated, and the
+          amount of helm is governed by the distance away
+          from midships that the lead is moved. For
+          instance, if the lead is placed amidships, the
+          pull will simply keep the rudder dead straight,
+          whereas if placed on the deck edge it will allow
+          the maximum amount of angle.
+
+          Your bowsers can be made from pieces of toothbrush
+          handle or from brass or German-silver wire. Very
+          efficient bowsers can be made from aluminum tube
+          cut in sections about 3/16 inch long, with three
+          holes drilled in each piece around its periphery.
+
+          Plaited bobbin cotton should be used for the
+          cordage, as it does not curl up when wet.
+
+          If you decide to fit the Braine steering gear, a
+          spur or bumpkin, as it is termed, must be fitted
+          to take the rubber centering line.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+BOYS' DICTIONARY OF MARINE TERMS
+
+
+        =Abaft.= Behind; toward the stern.
+
+        =Abeam.= At right angles to the side and in
+          horizontal plane.
+
+        =Aft.= Toward the stern.
+
+        =After-body.= Between amidships and stern.
+
+        =Aloft.= Overhead; on the yards or in the upper
+          rigging.
+
+        =Amidships.= The middle part of a vessel.
+
+        =Anchor.= Instrument for holding vessels at rest
+          in the water. Made of iron.
+
+        =Athwart. Athwartships.= Across; from side to
+          side.
+
+        =Ballast.= Material used to load the ship, for
+          stability or submerging purposes.
+
+        =Barge.= General name for vessels built for
+          towing.
+
+        =Bark.= Three-masted vessel, square-rigged on the
+          fore- and main-masts, and fore-and-aft rigged on
+          the mizzen.
+
+        =Barkentine.= Three-masted vessel, square-rigged
+          on the foremast and fore-and-aft on the main-and
+          mizzen-masts.
+
+        =Beam.= The widest part of a vessel.
+
+        =Bollards.= Posts of timber on sides of docks,
+          quays, etc., over which ropes are thrown for
+          hauling vessels alongside.
+
+        =Boom.= The lower spar for a fore-and-aft sail.
+
+        =Bow.= Sides of fore part of boat: the right hand
+          being the starboard bow, and the left hand the
+          port bow.
+
+        =Bowsprit.= Pole projecting from stem forward, and
+          taking forestays and bobstays.
+
+        =Bridge-house.= House built near bridge.
+
+        =Brig.= Vessel with two masts, both square-rigged
+          but having a gaff mainsail.
+
+        =Buoy.= A floating object moored over a certain
+          spot; generally a warning of danger.
+
+        =Buoyancy.= The capacity for floating which a boat
+          possesses.
+
+        =Cabin.= Room for use of officers and passengers.
+
+        =Capstan.= Consists of a long drum revolving
+          vertically and used for pulling in heavy lines.
+          Sometimes used in connection with windlass to
+          hoist anchor by hand.
+
+          _Center of Gravity._ Center of weight.
+
+        =Coaming.= Raised planking around hatchway of
+          yacht to prevent water shipped in rough weather
+          from getting below decks.
+
+        =Cockpit.= Formerly an apartment under lower
+          gun-deck of warship, used as quarters for junior
+          officers, and during a battle devoted to the
+          surgeon and his assistants.
+
+        =Cockswain.= Person who steers a boat.
+
+        =Compass.= Instrument composed of one or more
+          magnetic needles attached to a circular card which
+          turns freely on the point of a steel cone or
+          floats on a liquid. The upper surface of the card
+          is divided into the 32 points of the compass. Used
+          to find direction.
+
+        =Craft.= Usually denotes small size vessel, but
+          may be applied to any kind.
+
+        =Crane.= Machine for hoisting and moving heavy
+          equipment and material.
+
+        =Cruiser.= Boat intended for extended voyages.
+          Used in connection with yachts, to distinguish
+          from racing models.
+
+        =Davit.= Light crane on side of ship for lowering
+          and lifting boats. Sometimes applied to projecting
+          beam over which anchor is hoisted.
+
+        =Displacement.= Weight of ship and all on board
+          when at sea. It is equal to the weight of the
+          water displaced.
+
+        =Dock.= An excavation of large area for reception
+          of vessels. Wet-dock for loading and unloading or
+          dry-dock for building and repairing vessels.
+
+        =Dock-yard.= A place where ships are built and
+          repaired.
+
+        =Funnel.= Large sheet-iron tube extending from the
+          uptake high above the deck, through which smoke
+          and gases pass.
+
+        =Galley.= The kitchen of a vessel.
+
+        =Gangway.= Sides of upper deck from main-mast to
+          mizzen-mast, or from the former to the break of a
+          poop or raised quarter-deck; also a passage for
+          entering or leaving vessel.
+
+        =Gross tonnage.= Entire cubical capacity of ship,
+          including every inclosed space and all room under
+          deck from stem to stern-post, if closed in and
+          usable.
+
+        =Gunwale, gunnel.= Upper part of sheer-strake,
+          where it comes in contact with upper deck
+          stringer.
+
+        =Headlights.= Lights carried at the masthead.
+
+        =Head of the bowsprit.= The forward end.
+
+        =Hull.= The entire structure of a vessel,
+          exclusive of equipment.
+
+        =Inboard.= Within the ship.
+
+        =Inner skin.= Planking or plating covering the
+          inside of frames.
+
+        =Jack.= Name given to various sails, ropes, etc.
+
+
+        =Jib.= Triangular sail carried on a stay reaching
+          from the foremast head or from topmast to the
+          jib-boom.
+
+        =Keel.= Backbone of a vessel in wooden ships.
+          Composed of great lengths of timber connected to
+          each other by scarfs. In steel ships usually a set
+          of plates from stem to stern.
+
+        =Even keel, uneven keel.= Designates the manner in
+          which ship floats. If balanced evenly in a
+          fore-and-aft direction she is on even keel, if
+          depressed at head or stern she is on uneven keel.
+
+        =Keelson angle-bar.= Any angle-bar used in the
+          construction of a keelson.
+
+        =Lanyards.= Short lengths of rope used to tighten
+          up davit-guys, awnings, etc.
+
+        =Launching.= Sliding a boat into the water from
+          the building-berth.
+
+        =Lee side.= Opposite to the side on which the wind
+          blows.
+
+        =Lighter.= Large craft used to bring cargo
+          alongside or to lighten a grounded vessel.
+
+        =List.= When one side of a vessel lies deeper in
+          the water than the other; caused by shifting
+          cargo, etc.
+
+        =Log.= Apparatus used to determine speed of a
+          vessel.
+
+        =Main-mast.= Principal mast of a ship; the second
+          mast counting from bow to stern.
+
+        =Marine engine.= Engine especially designed for
+          the propulsion of boats.
+
+        =Mast.= A long piece, or system of pieces, of
+          timber, placed nearly perpendicularly to the
+          keelson of a vessel to support the spars and gear
+          by which the sails are set. In modern practice,
+          steel masts are built by riveting rolled plates
+          together.
+
+        =Midships.= Middle part of a ship.
+
+        =Mizzen-mast.= Third mast on a vessel with three
+          or more masts.
+
+        =Mizzen-sails.= Sails carried on a mizzen-mast.
+
+        =Mushroom Ventilator.= Short cast-iron tube with
+          movable iron rod passing through the center. A
+          metal cup is fitted to the top of the rod, which
+          may be lifted to permit air to enter, or closed to
+          prevent water from entering. Generally fitted over
+          cabins.
+
+        =Navigation Bridge.= Bridge used for taking
+          observations or handling the ship in difficult
+          situations.
+
+        =Outboard.= Outside the hull or beyond the
+          gunwale.
+
+        =Outlet cock.= Any cock used to free a receptacle
+          of water.
+
+        =Paddle-wheels.= Wheels fitted on each side of a
+          paddle steamer in connection with the
+          paddle-shaft, consisting of a cast-iron boss from
+          which wrought-iron arms radiate, strengthened by
+          rims and stays, and with a float attached to each
+          arm.
+
+        =Pawl.= Small catch to prevent moving object from
+          going beyond certain limit.
+
+        =Pile.= A piece of lumber or iron, together with
+          others, driven into the bed of a river for the
+          support of a pier, bridge, etc.
+
+        =Pilot Bridge.= Narrow thwartships platform,
+          extending from side to side above a steamer's
+          upper or bridge deck. Serves as a station for the
+          pilot or officer of the watch.
+
+        =Port.= Opening in ship's side, in bulwark, etc.
+
+        =Propeller-screw.= Propeller in which blades are
+          at an angle to the line of axis, similar to the
+          threads of a screw.
+
+        =Quarters.= Men's positions when called to their
+          duties, as during fire or boat drill; also living
+          accommodations.
+
+        =Quay.= Artificial landing-place.
+
+        =Raft.= A collection of boards fastened together
+          by ropes or chains, and capable of floating.
+
+        =Ram.= Massive projection under water at the bow
+          of a warship. The ship is also called a ram.
+
+        =Rat-line.= Three-stranded cord, of which the
+          ladder-like steps in lower rigging, topmast
+          rigging, etc., are formed.
+
+        =Rigging.= Entire equipment of a ship's masts,
+          spars, etc., with their standing and running
+          ropes.
+
+        =Rudder.= A device for steering vessels. Hinged to
+          the outside of the hull, usually at the stern.
+
+        =Sail.= A device of canvas and rope fastened to
+          spars and rigging, and extended to catch the wind
+          and drive the vessel.
+
+        =Skiff.= Long, lightly built boat sometimes used
+          in rowing races.
+
+        =Sloop.= Vessel with one mast, having a jib-sail.
+
+        =Spar.= Any shaped piece of timber used as a mast,
+          bowsprit, yard, etc., or intended for such use.
+
+        =Stanchion.= A stationary upright support.
+
+        =Superstructure.= Any structure above top full
+          deck.
+
+        =Tack.= To change the direction of sailing due to
+          wind.
+
+        =Thwart.= Seats are called thwarts when they
+          extend from side to side of a boat, athwart when
+          across.
+
+        =Tonnage.= Entire capacity or cubical contents of
+          a vessel. One ton estimated at 100 cubic English
+          feet.
+
+        =Trawler.= Fishing-vessel with ground-sweeping
+          net.
+
+        =Trim.= Term indicating the state of a ship with
+          regard to ballast; position of a vessel in the
+          water with respect to horizontal.
+
+        =Turtle-back.= Top of wheel-house, forecastle,
+          etc., formed like a turtle's back.
+
+        =Upper Works.= Same as freeboard when a vessel is
+          loaded.
+
+        =Uptake.= Part connecting smokebox to funnel.
+          Sometimes includes the smokebox.
+
+        =Ventilator.= Usually made of sheet iron in
+          tubular forms, and arranged to expel foul air and
+          permit the passage of fresh air to any part of a
+          ship.
+
+        =Vessel.= Craft requiring a licensed master.
+          (Boats do not).
+
+        =Water ballast.= Sea water let into double bottom
+          or ballast-tank.
+
+        =Water-Line.= (Light) Submerging line of vessel
+          without cargo.
+
+        =Water-Line.= (Load) Submerging line of vessel
+          with full cargo.
+
+        =Water-tight Compartment.= Compartment with
+          water-tight bulkhead at each end.
+
+        =Winch.= Machine used for loading or unloading
+          cargo. Some are hand driven and some electrically
+          driven.
+
+        =Windlass.= Special form of winch used to hoist
+          anchor.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Obvious punctuation errors repaired.
+
+Page 128, "oppositite" changed to "opposite" (the opposite end of)
+
+Page 131, N italicized to match rest of usage (center of the disk _N_)
+
+Page 132, D italicized to match rest of usage (to the _D_ valve
+previously)
+
+Page 185, "deterimental" changed to "detrimental" (detrimental to the
+speed)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Boys' Book of Model Boats, by Raymond Francis Yates
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOYS' BOOK OF MODEL BOATS ***
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