diff options
Diffstat (limited to '29064-8.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 29064-8.txt | 4522 |
1 files changed, 4522 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/29064-8.txt b/29064-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8998344 --- /dev/null +++ b/29064-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4522 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Boys' Book of Model Boats, by Raymond Francis Yates + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Boys' Book of Model Boats + +Author: Raymond Francis Yates + +Release Date: June 7, 2009 [EBook #29064] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOYS' BOOK OF MODEL BOATS *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Emmy and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + + + + +BOYS' BOOK + +OF + +MODEL BOATS + +[Illustration: ©_Jack Sussman_ + +A TWO-FOOT STEAMBOAT + +Making her way across the park pond. Ten miles an hour is a common speed +for a boat of this type] + + + +BOYS' BOOK + +OF + +MODEL BOATS + +BY RAYMOND FRANCIS YATES + + WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS + FROM DRAWINGS AND + PHOTOGRAPHS + +[Illustration] + + NEW YORK + THE CENTURY CO. + + + Copyright, 1920, by + THE CENTURY CO. + + PRINTED IN U. S. A. + + + TO + LAVERNE YATES + A BUILDER OF MODEL BOATS + + + + +PREFACE + + +EVERY boy likes to build boats. The interest in boats seems to be born +in the race. The little three-year-old chap is instinctively attracted +by a puddle of water in which to sail his "boat," which may take the +form of a piece of shingle or common board. Few men have passed through +their boyhood days without having built boats at some time. + +The author was an ardent boat-builder, and he well remembers how he +combed the Children's Department of the local library in search of a +book that would tell him something about boats, and especially for +information regarding the construction of models. He found books on +model airplanes, toys, electricity, radio, and chemistry, but alas! +nothing about model boats. He vowed then that when he became a man he +would write a book on model boats--a book that would contain all the +treasured information he had accumulated during his boat-building +years. + +This book is the result of that vow, and the author earnestly hopes that +it will gladden the heart of every boy who builds and sails a boat. +There are probably few happier moments in a boy's life than when he sees +his little model steamer proudly make her way across the park pond, or +his little sail-boat respond to the summer breeze. + +The author takes this opportunity to thank his wife, who acted as his +amanuensis in the preparation of this manuscript. + + RAYMOND FRANCIS YATES. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I WHY A BOAT FLOATS 3 + + II THE HULL 12 + + III HOW TO MAKE SIMPLE BOATS, WITH AND WITHOUT POWER DRIVE 26 + + IV STEAM AND ELECTRIC PROPULSION 42 + + V AN ELECTRIC LAUNCH 66 + + VI A STEAM LAUNCH 75 + + VII AN ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN LAKE FREIGHTER 91 + + VIII AN ELECTRIC SUBMARINE-CHASER 98 + + IX BOAT FITTINGS 107 + + X THE DESIGN OF MODEL STEAM-ENGINES 126 + + XI A MODEL FLOATING DRY-DOCK 135 + + XII OPERATION OF FLASH STEAM POWER PLANTS FOR MODEL BOATS 149 + + XIII SAILING YACHTS 164 + + XIV TWO-FOOT SAILING YACHT 184 + + APPENDIX 207 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + A two-foot steam boat _Frontispiece_ + + FACING + PAGE + + Getting ready for a trip 72 + + All ready to go 73 + + A powerful gasolene blow-torch 112 + + Just after the race 113 + + A twin-cylinder steam engine for model marine use 168 + + A cup-winning model sail boat 169 + + + + +BOYS' BOOK OF MODEL BOATS + + + + +BOYS' BOOK OF MODEL BOATS + + + + +CHAPTER I + +WHY A BOAT FLOATS + + +BEFORE taking up the construction of any of the model power boats +described in this book, it will be well for the young boat-builder to +become acquainted with such terms as buoyancy, displacement, center of +gravity, etc. Knowledge of these subjects is more or less necessary if +successful boats are to be made. Aside from this, they are terms that +every boy who claims an interest in boats should understand. + +"How does a steel boat float?" is a question that many boys ask. The +reason they usually designate a steel boat is probably because steel is +so much heavier than water. But many things heavier than water can be +made to float if they are in the form of a boat. Concrete, for instance, +is now being used in ship construction, and this substance, when +reinforced with steel rods, is very much heavier than water. + +Before learning how a boat floats, what is known as "specific gravity" +must be thoroughly understood. Gravity is a force that is continuously +"pulling" everything toward the center of the earth. It is gravity that +gives a body "weight." Some substances are heavier than others; or, to +be more correct, it is said that the specific gravity of one substance +is greater than that of another. It will be well to keep in mind that +specific gravity merely refers to weight. It is simply a scientific +term. The specific gravity of a substance is always expressed by a +figure that tells how much heavier any substance is than water, because +water has been chosen as a standard. + +The specific gravity of water is 1. The specific gravity of gold is +19.26, meaning that it is about 19-1/4 times heavier than water. The +specific gravity of a piece of oak is 0.86, which shows that it is not +quite so heavy as water. One cubic foot of water weighs 62.42 pounds. +It will be understood that a cubic foot of gold would weight 19.26 x +62.42, because it is 19.26 times heavier than water. A cubic foot of +oak, however, would weigh only 54 pounds, because it has been found that +it has a specific gravity of only 0.86 which is less than water. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +A cubic foot of oak (see Fig. 1), with a weight of 54 pounds, will float +when placed in water. The cubic foot of brass (_B_), however, will not +float, because it weights 8.1 times as much as water. For the present, +then, it can be said that a substance lighter than water will float in +water, but that substances heavier than water, such as iron, lead, gold, +silver, etc., will not float. If the cubic foot of oak (_A_) were +placed in water, it would sink to the depth shown at _C_. When the block +sinks into the water, a certain amount of water will be forced away or +"displaced"; that is, the block in sinking occupies a space that was +previously occupied or filled with water. The oak block sinks to within +a short distance of the top because the oak is really just a trifle +lighter than water. If a pine block were placed in the water it would +sink only to the distance shown at _D_, since the weight of pine is less +than oak, or only 34.6 pounds per cubic foot. A pine block will, then, +displace only about 34.6 pounds of water, which leaves nearly half of +the block out of the water. Thus, it will be seen that for a given +volume (size) a cubic foot of wood will sink to a depth corresponding to +its weight. Different kinds of wood have different weights. + +If a cubic foot of brass is placed in water, it will sink rapidly to the +bottom, because the brass is much heavier than water. How is it, then, +that an iron or concrete ship will float? If the cubic foot of brass is +rolled or flattened out in a sheet, and formed or pressed into the +shape of a boat hull, as shown in Fig. 2, it will float when placed upon +the surface of the water. Why is it that brass is caused to float in +this way, when it sank so rapidly in the form of a solid square? + +[Illustration: FIG.2] + +It will be remembered that the pine and oak block were caused to float +because they displaced a greater weight of water than their own weight. +This is just what causes the brass boat-hull to float. If the amount of +water actually displaced by the hull could be weighed, it would be found +that the weight of the water would be greater than the weight of the +hull. It will be understood that the space occupied by the brass +boat-hull is far greater than the space occupied by the block of brass +before it was rolled out and formed into a hull. What is true of brass +holds true of iron, steel, etc. A block of steel will not float, because +the water it displaces does not weigh nearly as much as the block. If +this block, however, were rolled out into a sheet and the sheet formed +into a hollow hull, the hull would float, because it would displace a +volume of water that would more than total the weight of the steel in +the hull. + +In the case of the brass boat-hull, it would be found that a greater +portion of the hull would remain out of the water. The hull, then, could +be loaded until the top of it came within a safe distance from the +water. As the load is increased, the hull sinks deeper and deeper. The +capacity of big boats is reckoned in tons. If a boat had a carrying +capacity of ten tons it would sink to what is called its "load +water-line" (L.W.L.) when carrying ten tons. As a load or cargo is +removed from a vessel it rises out of the water. + +What if the hull of a boat has a hole in it? If the hole is below the +water-line, water will leak in and in time completely fill the inside of +the hull, causing the boat to sink. Also, if too great a load or cargo +were placed in a boat, it would sink. It must be understood that water +leaking into a boat increases its load, and if it is not stopped it will +cause the boat to sink. + +The center of gravity of a boat is a very important matter. First, +attention will be directed to the meaning of "center of gravity." If a +one-foot ruler is made to balance (as shown in Fig. 3) at the six-inch +mark, the point at which it balances will be very close to the center of +gravity. The real center, however, will be in the middle of the wood of +which the rule is composed. It should constantly be kept in mind that +this "center of gravity" is a purely imaginary point. + +Look at Fig. 4. If wires are arranged in a wooden frame, as shown, the +point where the wires cross will be the center of gravity if the square +formed by the wooden strips is solid. Every body, no matter what its +shape, has a center of gravity. The center of gravity is really an +imaginary point in a body, at the center of its mass. Oftentimes +engineers are heard saying that the center of gravity of a certain +object is too high or too low. Fig. 5 shows the center of gravity in a +boat. If the center of gravity in a boat is too high (as illustrated in +Fig. 6) the boat is said to be topheavy and unsafe. When a boat is +topheavy or its center of gravity is too high, the boat is liable to +capsize. In fact, some very serious marine accidents have been caused by +this fault. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + + +The center of gravity (or center of weight) in a boat should be as low +as possible. A boat with a low center of gravity will be very stable in +the water and difficult to capsize. This is true of model boats just as +much as it is true of large boats. The model boat builder must keep the +weight of his boat as near the bottom as possible. For instance, if a +heavy cabin were built on a frail little hull, the boat would be very +unstable and would probably capsize easily. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE HULL + + +MODEL boat-hulls are generally made by one of two methods. One method is +that of cutting the hull from a solid piece of wood. The other method is +commonly known as the "bread-and-butter" system. The hull is built up of +planks laid on top one of another with marine glue spread between them. +The last-mentioned method (which shall hereafter be called the built-up +method) possesses many advantages over the first. + +Cutting a model boat-hull from a solid piece of wood is by no means a +simple or easy task, especially for beginners. Of course, after several +hulls have been produced in this fashion, the worker becomes practised +in cutting them out. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + + +The construction of hulls on the built-up principle will be described +first. For the sake of convenience, the drawings of the boat-hull shown +in Figs. 7 and 8 will be followed out. Before going further it will be +well to understand drawings of boat-hulls; that is, how to know the +lines of a boat from a drawing. By the "lines" is meant its shape. +Marine architects employ a regular method in drawing boat-hulls. Fig. 7 +shows the side of a boat and half of the deck plan. It will be seen +that this drawing does not tell much about the real shape of the boat, +and if a hull were to be produced according to the shape given, the +builder would have to use his own judgment as to the outline of the hull +at different places. For convenience, the boat is divided into ten +sections, represented by the lines 0 to 10. It will be seen that the +shape of the hull at section 2 will be different from the shape of the +hull at section 8. Again, section 0 will be much narrower than section +5. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +Now look at Fig. 8. Note the shape of the cross-section of the hull at +the different sections. For instance, the line at section 1 in Fig. 8 +represents the shape of the hull at section 1 in Fig. 7. It must be +remembered, however, that this is only half of the section, and that the +line 1 in Fig. 8 would have to be duplicated by another line to show the +true shape. The cross-section of the boat at section 0 is shown in Fig. +9. One half of the drawing in Fig. 8 represents the forward half of the +hull, and the other half represents the stern half of the hull. If the +shape of the boat at section 10 is desired, the line 10 in Fig. 8 could +be traced on a piece of tissue paper. The paper could then be folded in +half and the line first made traced on the second half. This would then +produce the section of the boat at point 10. Thus, by closely examining +Fig. 8 the shape of the entire hull can be seen. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +If pieces of wire could be used to form the lines of the hull at the +various sections, it would appear as shown in Fig. 10 when assembled. + +Notice that in Fig. 8 there is a load water-line, which the vessel +sinks to when loaded, and the second and first load water-line, which +the vessel sinks to when only partially loaded or when carrying no load +aside from its regular necessary equipment. The keel line of the boat is +the line that runs along the bottom from bow to stern. (The bow of the +boat is the front and the stern the back.) + +Motor-boating and marine magazines often publish the lines of different +boats, and if the young boat-builder understands how to read boat +drawings he will be able to make a model of any boat that is so +described. + +Directions will now be given regarding the method of producing a +boat-hull similar to the lines shown in Figs. 7 and 8, by the built-up +method of construction. + +First, it will be necessary to procure the lumber. Several clean white +pine boards will be very suitable to work with, and will not require +much skill in handling. Let us assume that the boat-hull is to measure +22 inches in length, with a depth of 4 inches. The beam, which is the +width of the boat at its widest point, will be 5 inches. (It will be +well to remember what the term "beam" means, since the term will be +used constantly throughout the book.) + +On a piece of heavy wrapping-paper draw the deck plan full size, that +is, 22 inches long by 5 inches at its widest point. Next cut out along +the pencil line with a pair of shears. Now lay the paper outline on a +plank and mark out the pattern on the wood. Repeat this process with +three more planks. When this is done, cut out the boards with a keyhole +saw. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +After the boards are cut out mark them as shown in Fig. 11. The space +marked out on the board must be sawed out in two of the boards, to form +the inside of the hull, if the boat is to carry some form of power, such +as a battery-motor, or steam-engine. After the lines are marked out, +make a hole with a 3/4-inch bit, as shown in Fig. 12. Insert the point of +the keyhole saw in one of these holes to start it and cut out the +piece. Treat the second board in the same way. The third board must +have a smaller portion cut out of the center, owing to the fact that +this board is nearer the bottom of the hull, where the width of the boat +is narrower. The width of the piece cut out in the third board should +not be more than 2 inches. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12] + +When this work is done, a very thin layer of glue is placed over the +boards, and they are then laid one on top of another. The boards are +then placed in a vise or clamp and allowed to remain there over night. +In applying the glue, the builder should be careful not to put too much +on the boards. Too much glue is worse than not enough. It should be +merely a thin film. + +After the boards have been glued together the crude hull will appear, as +shown in Fig. 13. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + +At this point the hull sections from 0 to 10 must be marked off. By +referring again to Fig. 7 it will be seen that the sections 0 to 1 and 9 +to 10 are not so far apart as the other sections. Section 0 is 1 inch +from the bow of the boat and section 1 is 1 inch from section 0. +Sections 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are all 1 inch apart. Section 9 is 1 +inch from 10 and 10 is 1 inch from the stern. Lines should be drawn +across the deck to correspond with these sections, which can be measured +off with a ruler. It will now be necessary to cut some templates, or +forms, from cardboard to guide the builder in bringing the hull to +shape. It will be an easy matter to make these templates by following +Fig. 8. A template of section 9 is shown in Fig. 14. It will be necessary +to make eleven templates, corresponding to the sections 0 to 10. The +templates should be cut from heavy cardboard so they will hold their +shapes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] + +The hull of the boat is now placed in a vise and roughly brought to +shape with a draw-knife. After it has been brought to shape by this +means a spoke-shave is used. This little tool has an adjustable blade by +means of which it is possible to regulate the cut. When the builder +starts to use the spoke-shave he should also start to use his templates +or forms, applying them sectionally to determine how much more wood he +will have to remove to bring the hull to shape. For instance, when he is +working in the vicinity of sections 5, 6, and 7 he will apply these +forms at the proper points occasionally to determine when enough wood +has been removed. This procedure is followed out the entire length of +the boat, care being taken to see that both sides are the same and that +too much wood is not removed, since there is no remedy for this mistake. +The builder who proceeds carefully and is not in too great a hurry to +finish the work need not make this mistake. + +Of course, it will not be possible to bring the hull to a perfect finish +with a spoke-shave. This can be done, however, by the use of a coarse +file and sandpaper. The coarse file is used to take the rough marks of +the spoke-shave away, and the marks left by the file are in turn removed +by the sandpaper. The sandpaper must be applied unsparingly and always +with the grain. It will be necessary to use considerable "elbow grease" +to obtain a good finish. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15] + +Boat-hulls can also be hewn to shape from a solid block, but it will be +understood that this method involves more work than the one just +described. Of course, the procedure of bringing the hull to shape by the +aid of the draw-knife, spoke-shave, and templates is the same, but the +hollowing out of the inside of the hull will be a much more difficult +job. However, with a couple of good sharp chisels and a gouge the work +will not be so difficult as at first appears. The use of an auger and +bit will greatly aid in the work. After the outside of the hull is +brought to shape the wooden form is drilled with holes, as shown in Fig. +15. This will make it much easier to chip the wood away. After the major +portion of the wood has been taken out with the chisel, the gouge is +brought into use. The gouge should be used very carefully, since it will +easily go through the entire hull if it is not handled properly. For the +beginner it is not safe to make a hull less than 1/2 inch in thickness. +Of course, it is not necessary to carefully finish the inside of the +hull, since it is covered up with the deck and cabin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +The solid hull has one advantage over the built-up hull. It is not +affected by moisture and it is therefore not so liable to warp and lose +its shape. It will also stand more rough usage. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19] + + +There is still another method of producing a boat-hull. This hull is +known as the Sharpie type. A Sharpie hull is shown in Fig. 16. The +method of producing a hull of this type will be seen quite clearly by +reference to Fig. 17, which shows the boards and parts cut out ready to +assemble. The boards are made from 1/8-inch mahogany, which can be +obtained at any lumber-yard. First, the bow piece is cut to shape and +carefully finished. Then the two side pieces are fastened to it, as +shown in Fig. 18. The screws used should be brass, since iron screws +will rust and cause trouble. Three screws should be used for each side +board, and they should be driven into the bow piece so that the screws +on one side will not interfere with those on the other. The first +cross-piece is then screwed in place, as shown in Fig. 19. The second +and third cross-pieces are then screwed in place and the back or stern +piece attached. The bottom of the boat is then carefully put in place +with small screws. It will be noticed that the bottom board of the boat +is cut to fit the inside of the bottom. It is held in place with small +brass brads. The crevices or seams along the bottom of the boat should +be carefully covered with pitch or marine glue to prevent leakage when +the boat is in the water. The bow of the boat should be finished off +nicely to a point with a heavy file or a wood-rasp. + +This type of hull is extremely easy to produce and it is capable of +carrying a considerable load. However, it is not a good type to use for +all kinds of boats. It makes a splendid little pleasure yacht or +submarine-chaser, but for a torpedo-boat destroyer or a freighter it +would not be suitable. + +The young model boat builder is advised not to try to construct hulls +from metal. This is a very difficult task even for the thoroughly +experienced mechanic. Wood is much easier to work with and will produce +the same results. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +HOW TO MAKE SIMPLE BOATS, WITH AND WITHOUT POWER DRIVE + + +THIS Chapter will be devoted to the construction of very simple types of +boats. The boats described will be constructed largely with blocks of +wood cut into various shapes and sizes. The results obtainable by this +method of construction are surprising, and there are few types of boats +that cannot be modeled by following the method. After the model-builder +has constructed a few boats along this principle he will be able to +duplicate the general appearance of almost any craft he sees by +carefully planning and cutting the blocks he uses. + +The first boat described is a submarine. This is shown in Fig. 20. Four +blocks of wood form the basis of its construction, and these are cut +from 1-inch stock, as shown in the drawing. Such a submarine can be +made practically any size up to 12 inches in length. Beyond this size +they begin to look out of proportion and they are more difficult to +propel. After nailing the blocks together as shown in the drawing, a +small piece of sheet brass is bent at right angles and tacked to the +stern piece. This is to act as a bearing for the propeller. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20] + +[Illustration: FIG. 21] + +The propeller-shaft is bent into a hook over which rubber bands are +placed. The opposite end of the rubber bands are fastened to a screw-eye +driven into the under side of the bow. A heavy piece of copper wire is +fastened to the stern of the boat by staples, and bent as shown. A +rudder is then cut from thin sheet brass, and the end of it is bent +around a piece of wire larger in diameter than the wire used for the +rudder-post. It is then taken from this wire and slipped over the wire +on the boat. It should be pinched in place by a pair of pliers, so that +it will stay in any position in which it is put. The end of the wire is +bent over so that the rudder will not slip off. The boat can be steered +in a circle or it can be made to go straight, depending upon the +position of the propeller. + +The horizontal rudders are mounted forward, as shown. They are made from +thin sheet brass bent as indicated in the little insertion. A hole is +drilled in them as shown, and a screw is placed through these to hold +the rudders to the side of the craft. The screws should be tightened so +that the rudders will stay at any angle at which they are put. If the +boat is to be submerged the rudders are pointed as shown. If the boat is +to travel on the surface of the water the rudders are brought up into a +horizontal position or parallel with the deck. A little gray paint +placed on this model will greatly improve its appearance. + +Another submarine, more complicated than the one just described, is +shown in Fig. 21. The body of this submarine is formed by a part of a +broomstick or shovel-handle. This submarine is truer to type and can be +made with very little trouble. The piece of broomstick or shovel-handle +is cut 22 inches in length. It is pointed at each end, and part of it is +planed off to form the upper deck. When this is done, a small flat piece +is cut as shown, and nailed or screwed to the flat portion. The +conning-tower and periscope are placed on the upper deck, as shown. The +rudder on this craft is not made adjustable, so that it always travels +in a perfectly straight line. The horizontal rudders however, are made +adjustable, and the boat is therefore able to travel upon the surface +or submerge, depending upon the position of the rudder. + +The power plant of this boat is made up of rubber bands. The power +transmission to the propeller is a little different than the one +previously described. A gear and a pinion are salvaged from the works of +an old alarm-clock, and mounted on a piece of brass, as shown. A little +soldering will be necessary here to make a good job. By using the gear +meshing with the pinion a considerable increase in the speed of the +propeller is obtained, and therefore the speed of the boat is +considerably increased. The method of holding the power plant to the +bottom of the boat is made very clear. In order to bring the boat down +to the proper level in the water, a strip of sheet lead can be tacked to +the bottom. The builder should take care to get a piece of lead just the +correct weight to leave the surface of the deck awash. A coat of gray +paint will also greatly improve the appearance of this craft. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22] + +[Illustration: FIG. 23] + +[Illustration: FIG. 24] + +Attention is directed to the construction of boats of different types +made without power plants. Many interesting little crafts can be +produced in this way, and the energetic model-builder can produce a +whole model harbor or dock-yard by constructing a number of boats of +different types according to the following instructions. + +The first boat described will be the tug _Mary Ann_ shown in Fig. 22 and +Fig. 23. The blocks necessary to construct this boat are shown in Fig. +24. The hull of the boat is produced by three pieces of wood sawed out +to the same shape with a keyhole saw and glued together. After the glue +is dry the blocks are placed in a vise and the top one or deck block is +planed down as shown. It will be seen that the deck inclines slightly +toward the stern of the boat. When this is done the hull is turned +upside down and the bottom of the stern planed off as illustrated. The +outside of the hull can be finished up with a sharp knife and a +jack-plane. + +The little bow piece can also then be tacked in place. After this the +pieces that form the hull can be nailed together from the bottom and +from the top. This is quite necessary, for glue will not hold them in +place after the boat has become thoroughly soaked with water. + +The cabin and engine-room are shown very clearly in the illustration and +little need be said about erecting this part of the craft. The two doors +and window on the side of the cabin are made by cutting out small pieces +of cigar-box wood and gluing them to the cabin and engine-room. A good +substitute for the wood can be found in tin, but of course this would +have to be tacked on. The little skylight on the back of the tug is made +by a single block covered by two pieces of cigar-box wood. + +In order to stabilize the craft and to bring her down to the proper +water-line, a lead keel must be nailed to the bottom. The weight of this +keel will have to be adjusted until the boat rests properly in the +water. The reader will notice that no dimensions have been given for +this boat. This is because most boys will wish to build different sized +boats, and therefore it has not been deemed advisable to dimension the +boats described in this Chapter. What the author desires to do is to +impart the principles of construction, so that every boy may use his own +ingenuity in regard to size and proportion of length to beam. + +If tugs are constructed according to the design outlined above, the +model boat builder will also desire to have something that the tug can +haul. A very simple barge for this purpose is outlined in Figs. 25 and +26. This is formed of a single slab with the ends cut at an angle as +illustrated. A square flat piece is then tacked to the upper deck, which +acts as a cover. Four posts are then put in place in the same way as +those on the tug. One is placed in each corner. A boat or a scow like +this is generally painted red, and the model described can be made to +look much more realistic by painting it this color. + +[Illustration: FIG. 25] + +[Illustration: FIG. 26] + +[Illustration: FIG. 27] + +[Illustration: FIG. 28] + +These barges are so easy to construct that the model-builder should make +three or four of them at a time. If the pieces for several are cut out +at the same time, the construction will be just that much easier. If the +boat does not sink far enough into the water, a piece of lead should be +placed on the bottom to bring it down. This piece of lead should be +placed as near the center as it is possible to get it. Otherwise the +boat will list or tip at one end or the other. With a little patience +and care the weight can be so adjusted on the bottom as to bring the +scow to a perfectly level position. The reader will understand that the +water-line of a scow or any boat made according to the directions in +this book will depend largely upon the nature of the wood. In the first +Chapter of the book it was pointed out that the specific gravity of +different woods varies, and therefore the buoyancy will vary. + +A model freighter is shown in Fig. 27. The hull of this boat can be +formed by two 1-1/2-inch planks. These will require a little hard work +to cut out; but, on the other hand, the effort will be entirely +justified by the pleasing appearance of the little craft that can be +produced in this way. A bow and stern block to raise the deck are cut +out and nailed in place, as shown. A cabin is also placed on the stern +of the craft, and this is formed by a block with a piece of cigar-box +wood placed on the top. The cigar-box wood should project a little over +the edges to form a canopy. The center of the deck can be raised by a +third block; and three independent blocks, two large ones and a small +one, form the main cabin. Sandwiched in between these blocks are three +pieces of cigar-box wood. The remaining details of the craft are so +simple that they may easily be made by following the diagram. + +[Illustration: FIG. 29] + +Let us turn our attention to model war-ships. A torpedo-boat destroyer +is clearly illustrated in Figs. 28 and 29. This is very simple to +construct and makes a pleasing craft when finished. The hull is formed +by two blocks. One of these forms the raised deck on the bow of the +boat. The cabin is built up on this raised deck. It will be seen that +the part of the hull that rests in the water is formed by one block. In +building boats of this nature the constructor should be careful to keep +them long and slender, since torpedo-boat destroyers are always of this +type. They are high-speed craft, and their displacement must therefore +be as small as possible. Some of these boats carry four stacks and some +two. The author prefers four stacks as giving the boat a better +appearance than two. The two little cabins near the stern of the boat +are placed there merely to take away the plainness of construction. The +guns mounted forward and aft are merely round pieces of wood with a +piece of wire bent around them and forced into a hole in the deck. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30] + +The boat-builder should not be satisfied with one or two of these craft; +he should make a whole fleet. This will afford the average boy a great +amount of pleasure, since he can add to his fleet from time to time and +have official launchings. Each boat can also be given a name and a +number. A little gray paint on the hull of these boats and black on the +stacks gives them a very presentable appearance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31] + +[Illustration: FIG. 32] + +A battleship is shown in Fig. 30. A battleship should be at least twice +as long as a torpedo-boat destroyer. A view of the battleship as it will +look in the water is shown in Fig. 31. By carefully examining this +drawing the builder will be able to see just the number and shape of +the blocks that enter into the construction of the craft. The battleship +is provided with four main batteries mounted in turrets, one forward and +three aft. A mast is also built, and strings run from it to the top of +the main cabin and to the end of one of the turrets mounted aft. A screw +is placed through the centers of the fore and aft turrets, so they can +be turned to any position. Battleships should be painted gray. It will +be necessary to place rather a heavy keel on the boat just described in +order to bring it down to the proper depth in the water. Otherwise it +will be topheavy and will capsize very easily. A fleet of battleships +and battle-cruisers can easily be made according to the foregoing +instructions, and the builder should not be satisfied with producing +only one. + +A pleasure yacht is illustrated in Fig. 32. The hull of this craft is +formed by two boards nailed together. The cabins are very simple, being +formed by a solid block of wood with a piece of cigar-box wood tacked to +the top. The windows and doors are marked in place with a soft +lead-pencil, and the stack is mounted midway between the two cabins. A +wireless antenna should be placed on the boat, with a few guy-wires from +the masts run to various parts of the deck. A lead-in wire also runs +down into one of the cabins. The hull of this boat should be painted +pure white. The deck can be left its natural color, while the stack +should be painted black and the cabins white with green trimmings. + +Almost any type of boat can be produced by the use of simple blocks of +wood and other miscellaneous pieces easily brought to shape from +ordinary materials. This method of construction offers a wonderful +opportunity for the boy to exercise his creative faculties. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +STEAM AND ELECTRIC PROPULSION + + +BOATS are propelled by two different systems. Some inland-water boats +still employ side paddle-wheels, while ocean-going vessels use the more +modern propeller or screw. + +The paddle-wheel really acts as a continuous oar. Such a wheel is shown +in Fig. 33. As the wheel goes around the paddle dips into the water and +pushes the boat forward. If the direction of the boat is to be reversed, +the rotation of the paddle-wheels is reversed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33] + +[Illustration: FIG. 34] + +[Illustration: FIG. 35] + +[Illustration: FIG. 36] + +[Illustration: FIG. 37] + +[Illustration: FIG. 38] + +Before passing onto the screw, it may be well to explain just how a +paddle-wheel causes a boat to move. When a man gets into a rowboat, he +generally pushes himself off by placing his oar against the dock or +shore and pushing on it. That is just what the paddle does in the water. +It dips into the water and pushes against it. It must be remembered, +however, that water is unlike a solid substance and it "gives." When a +man places his oar against the bank and pushes it, the bank does not +move, and all of the man's energy is used in starting the boat. Water, +however, does not remain stationary when the paddles push against it, +and therefore all of the power it not utilized in moving the boat--part +is used in moving the water. + +The paddle-wheel is not so efficient in moving a boat as the more modern +propeller--or screw, as it is more often called. The screw receives its +name from the ordinary metal screw, because its theory of operation is +exactly the same. A wood screw, when turned, forces itself into wood. A +propeller, when turned, forces itself (and thereby the boat) through the +water. A small propeller is illustrated in Fig. 34. This is an ordinary +three-blade propeller. (The writer prefers the word propeller instead of +screw.) + +From the drawing, it will be seen that the propeller-blades are mounted +at an angle. This angle of the blades causes them to force water back as +they cut through it when the propeller is revolving. This forcing of the +water back tends to produce a forward motion of the propeller, and in +this way the boat on which the propeller is mounted moves through the +water. The propeller is caused to revolve by a steam-engine, +steam-turbine, or gasolene-engine, as shown in Fig. 35. Longer boats +have more than one propeller. A boat that has two propellers is called a +twin-screw boat. A boat driven with four propellers is called a +quadruple-screw boat. + +When a machine screw is turned around just once, it moves forward a +certain distance, as a glance at Fig. 36 will show. The distance the +screw moves forward will depend entirely upon the distance between the +threads. The distance between the threads is called the pitch of the +thread. If the threads are 1/32 inch apart, then the screw will move +1/32 inch every time it revolves. + +If a propeller acts in the same way as a screw, then it too must have a +pitch. The pitch, or the distance that a propeller will advance in one +revolution, is measured in inches. A propeller with a pitch of ten +inches should move ten inches through the water at each revolution. +However, there is a certain amount of "slip," and a propeller does not +actually advance the distance that it should theoretically. The pitch of +a propeller is really the distance it would advance in one revolution +if it were revolving in an unyielding or solid substance. + +To make a simple propeller, first cut out of thin sheet brass three +blades as shown at _A_, Fig. 37. Sheet brass with a thickness of 1/32 +inch is very suitable for this purpose. Next, a block, as shown at _B_, +is carefully carved out so that the propeller can be hammered down into +the depression. The same block is used for the three blades, so that +each will have the same curvature. The block should be cut from oak, +since this wood will not split or lose its shape when the forming is +done. + +The hub is made next. This is shown at _C_, Fig. 37. The hub, of brass, +is made according to the stream-line method. It is filed to shape from a +piece of round brass stock. A hole runs lengthwise in the brass, as +shown, and a set-screw is used to hold the hub of the propeller-shaft. +The method of cutting the slots in the hub is shown at _D_, Fig. 37. The +hub is clamped between two boards placed in the vise, and a hacksaw is +used to cut a slot in the hub. The hub is then turned around one third +of a revolution, and another slot cut, using the same saw-marks in the +boards, so that the angle of the second slot will be the same as the +first one. The third slot is cut in the same manner. The three blades +that were cut out are now fastened in these slots and held there by +solder. This completes the propeller and it is now ready to be fastened +upon the propeller-shaft. + +Let us consider the general method of putting the propeller-shaft in +place. The young boat-builder will readily understand that it would be +very impractical merely to bore a hole in the hull of the boat to put +the propeller-shaft through. In this way water would surely leak into +the hull and the boat would sink in a short time. Some method must be +evolved to keep the water out of the hull, and yet allow the +propeller-shaft to revolve freely. + +The propeller-shaft is arranged within a brass tube, as shown at Fig. +38. The brass tube should be about 1/8 inch larger in diameter than the +propeller-shaft. A little brass bushing must also be arranged at each +end, as shown. When the propeller-shaft is mounted in place in the +tube, there will be a space between it and the tube. Before the +propeller-shaft is put in place it is well smeared with vaseline, and +when it is placed in the tube the space between the shaft and the tube +will be completely filled with it. This will prevent water from +entering. Owing to the fact that vaseline is a soft, greasy substance, +it will not prevent the rotation of the propeller-shaft. The brass tube +is placed through a hole bored in the hull of the boat. The hole should +be a trifle smaller than the diameter of the brass tube, so that the +tube can be forced into the hole. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39] + +[Illustration: FIG. 40] + +[Illustration: FIG. 42] + +One of the simplest methods of propelling a boat is by means of rubber +bands. Such a boat is shown in Fig. 39. This is a small wooden hull +fitted with a two-blade propeller. The propeller is shown at Fig. 40. It +is cut in a single piece and held to the propeller-shaft merely by a +drop of solder since there will not be much strain upon it owing to the +low power of the rubber-band motor. The opposite end of the +propeller-shaft is bent into a hook, and the rubber bands run from this +to another hook placed at the bow of the boat. The rubber bands may be +similar to those employed by model airplane builders. The motor, of +course, must be wound up by turning the propeller around until the bands +become twisted into little knots, as shown at Fig. 39. Boats driven by +rubber bands cannot be very large unless a great number of rubber bands +are used. Even then the power is short-lived. However, building a few +small boats driven by rubber-band motors will do much to teach the +young boat-builder some valuable lessons in boat construction. + +Probably the best method of propelling model boats is the electric +method. By building a boat large enough to accommodate two dry batteries +or a small storage battery and a little power motor, a very reliable +method of propulsion is made possible. The boat must have sufficient +displacement to accommodate the weight of the dry-cells and storage +battery. A boat two feet long, with a beam of 4-1/2 inches, is large +enough to accommodate one dry-cell and a small motor, providing the +fittings of the boat are not too heavy. + +A suitable power motor for small boats, which will run with either one +or two dry-cells, is shown in Fig. 41. The connections for the motor are +given clearly in Fig. 42, and a suitable switch to control the motor is +shown at Fig. 43. + +Owing to its greater power, the storage battery is to be preferred. +Dry-cells are extremely heavy and occupy considerable space. They are +also costly, since they do not last long and cannot be worked too hard +unless they polarize. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41] + +[Illustration: FIG. 44] + +[Illustration: FIG. 43] + +[Illustration: FIG. 45] + +A very suitable method of mounting an electric motor is illustrated in +Figs. 44 and 45. It will be noticed that the motor is inverted. A small +pinion or gear is mounted upon the armature-shaft of the motor. A larger +gear (about three times the diameter of the small one) is placed upon +the propeller-shaft. This gives a speed reduction of three to one. It +will be seen that the propeller-tube is strapped within a strip of brass +to a small cross-piece nailed to the bottom board of the hull. The hull +is of the built-up type, and the other three boards that go to make it +up are not shown. When the three boards are glued in place, a brass +strip is run across the top board and the base of the motor is screwed +to this. This holds the motor rigidly in place so that it will not move +when the power is turned on. The brass strip used should have sufficient +thickness to hold the motor rigid. It will also be seen that the motor +is tipped slightly so that it will come in line with the +propeller-shaft. + +[Illustration: FIG. 46] + +[Illustration: FIG. 47] + +[Illustration: FIG. 48] + +It is not always possible to obtain small gears. For this reason the +model boat builder may find it necessary to use a different method of +fastening the propeller-shaft to the motor. A very good method of doing +this is shown in Fig. 46. Here a coiled wire spring is used. This is +wound to shape on a rod, and a drop of solder holds it to the propeller +and motor shafts. In the method of propulsion shown in Fig. 44 the +armature-shaft of the motor must be perfectly in line with the +propeller-shaft, or the gears will bind and unsatisfactory operation of +the motor will result. With the little spring the motor will not have to +be mounted exactly in line with the shaft, and it will also be possible +to mount the motor standing up. Of course, if the motor is mounted in +this way it will be necessary to make the propeller-shaft longer, as is +shown in Fig. 47. + +Still another method of driving the propeller is illustrated in Fig. 48. +This method is so simple that the author feels explanation to be +unnecessary. + +Clockwork can often be employed for propulsion purposes, but this method +is not very satisfactory. It is also very difficult to obtain suitable +clockworks to install in a boat. Oftentimes it will be possible to +salvage the works of an old alarm-clock, providing the main-spring is +intact. It is a very easy matter to mount the clock-spring and connect +it to the propeller. Any one of the aforementioned methods can be +employed. + +Steam propulsion has its advantages; but, on the other hand, the writer +is not inclined to recommend it as strongly as the electric method for +reliability. Of course, steam is a more powerful agency in the +propulsion of small boats and thereby greater speed is attainable by its +use. + +[Illustration: FIG. 49] + +[Illustration: FIG. 50] + +[Illustration: FIG. 51] + +Here is a very simple small power plant suitable for driving boats up to +3-1/2 feet in length. The boiler is shown in Figs. 49 and 50. The method +of assembling the boiler is pictured clearly in Fig. 49. A brass or +copper tube about 2-1/2 inches in diameter is used. Two end pieces are +cut to shape and forced into the boiler ends. A hole is drilled in the +center of these pieces before they are put in place. After the end +pieces are forced in place solder is carefully flowed around their +edges. The brass rod is then threaded at each end and placed +concentrically within the boiler, as shown in Fig. 49. A nut is placed +on each end of this rod and tightened. The nut is then soldered in +place. This brass rod, called a stay-rod, prevents the end of the boiler +from blowing out when the steam pressure has reached its maximum value. +Three holes are drilled in the brass tube, as shown. One is to +accommodate the steam feed-pipe that goes to the engine; another is for +the safety-valve, and still another for the filling plug. The +safety-valve and filling plug are both shown in Fig. 51. The little +spring on the safety-valve is adjustable, so that the valve can be +regulated in order to prevent it from blowing off at pressures lower +than that at which the engine operates. + +[Illustration: FIG. 52] + +A suitable firebox for the boiler is shown clearly in Fig. 52. This is +cut to shape from stovepipe iron and held together with small rivets. +Holes should be punched or drilled in the side of the firebox to give +the burner a sufficient supply of air. The burner is illustrated +clearly in Fig. 52. The fuel-tank can be made from an ordinary tin can +with the cover soldered on, and a hole made for a cork by means of which +it is filled with denatured alcohol. A little pipe runs from the +fuel-tank to the burner. It is advisable, if possible, to place a small +valve in this pipe to cut off the fuel supply when necessary. The only +other method of putting the burner out would be to stand it on its end. +The burner consists of a rectangular tin box with a top cut out as +illustrated. A piece of brass or copper gauze is placed in the top. +Asbestos wool is used to fill the can, and the alcohol is drawn into the +wool by capillary attraction, where it burns with a steady hot flame at +the surface of the copper gauze. In the corner of the can near the +feed-pipe another small piece of copper gauze is soldered as shown. This +covers up the feed-pipe entrance so that the asbestos will not plug up +the pipe. + +[Illustration: FIG. 53] + +[Illustration: FIG. 54] + +The engine to be used in connection with the boiler just described is +shown in Fig. 53. This is a very simple engine of the oscillation type, +and there should be little trouble in making it. A more mechanical +drawing of the engine is shown in Fig. 54. The details of the engine are +shown in Fig. 55. + +[Illustration: FIG. 55] + +The cylinder of the engine should be made first. This is made from a +piece of brass tubing with an internal diameter of 3/4 inch. Two end +pieces, or a cylinder-end cover and cylinder head, must be cut to fit +inside the cylinder. These should be cut to shape from 1/16 inch brass, +and a hole drilled in the cylinder head 1/8 inch in diameter to +accommodate the piston-rod. The cylinder head is then soldered in place. +The cylinder-end cover should be left until the piston-rod and piston +are made. + +The piston head is cut to shape from a piece of 3/16-inch sheet brass, +or it can be cut from a piece of 3/4-inch round brass with a hacksaw. +The piston-rod is soldered into a hole in the piston-head. A small +square piece of brass is placed on the opposite end of the piston-rod to +act as a bearing. This little piece is cut and drilled as shown in the +drawing. Before it is soldered in place on the piston-rod the +cylinder-end cover should be placed on the rod. Both the piston and the +cylinder-end cover can then be placed inside the cylinder, and the +piston-end cover is soldered in place. Before final assembling the +piston should be made to fit nicely into the cylinder. This can be +brought about by applying emery cloth to the piston-head until it slips +nicely into the cylinder with little or no play. Thus a steam-tight fit +is made, and this contributes greatly to the efficiency and power of the +engine. + +[Illustration: FIG. 56] + +[Illustration: FIG. 57] + +The cylinder blocks are shown in Fig. 55. These are cut and brought to +shape with a hacksaw and file. With a half-round file one side of one of +the blocks is filed slightly concave, so that it will fit on the outside +of the cylinder. Two 1/8-inch holes are drilled in this piece as shown +in the drawing. The hole at the top is the steam entrance and exhaust +for the engine; that is, when the cylinder is at one side steam enters +this hole, and when the crank throws the cylinder over to the other side +steam leaves through the same hole after having expanded in the +cylinder. This cylinder block is soldered to the piston as shown in +Fig. 56. The pivot upon which the cylinder swings is then put in place +in the hole at the bottom of the block. Solder is flowed around the +pivot to hold it securely in place. + +The second cylinder block is now finished according to the drawing. This +has two holes 1/8 inch in diameter bored in it. One of these holes is +the steam inlet and the other the exhaust. When the cylinder is at one +side of its stroke the hole that was bored in the top of the steam block +which was soldered on the cylinder is in line with the inlet hole in the +block under consideration. Steam then enters the cylinder and forces the +piston down. This turns the crank around, and the crank in turn pulls +the piston over to the opposite side, so that the hole in the first +piston block of the cylinder now comes in line with the exhaust hole on +the second cylinder block. The steam in the cylinder escapes and the +same operation is repeated over again. Of course, it must be understood +that this steam admission and exhaust takes place very rapidly. The hole +in the second cylinder block, which goes over the pivot, must be made a +trifle more than 1/8 inch in diameter, so that it will slide freely over +the pivot. + +The engine is mounted on a very simple frame, which is a piece of +1/16-inch brass cut and bent as illustrated. After it is cut and bent to +shape the second cylinder block is soldered in place. The cylinder can +then be mounted. It will be seen that the pivot goes through both the +second cylinder block and the engine standard. A small spring is placed +over the protruding end of the pivot and a nut put in place. By turning +this nut the pressure on the face of the two cylinder blocks can be +adjusted, and the model engineer must always remember that the pressure +on these springs must be greater than the steam pressure in the +feed-pipe. Otherwise the steam pressure will force the cylinder-block +faces apart and steam leakage will result. On the other hand, the +pressure of the spring should not be too great, since that would +interfere with the free movement of the engine cylinder. + +Nothing now remains to be made except the crank and the flywheel. The +crank revolves in a small brass bearing which is soldered in place on +the engine standard. It will be seen that the sheet brass that makes up +the engine standard is not thick enough to offer a good bearing for the +crank. The crank is bent to shape from a piece of 1/8-inch brass rod, +and the author advises the builder to heat the brass rod red-hot while +the bending is done. This will prevent it from fracturing, and will also +permit a sharp bend to be made. + +The flywheel is a circular piece of brass 1 inch in diameter. Its center +is drilled out and it is soldered to the crank as illustrated in Fig. +54. Two other holes 1/8 inch in diameter are drilled in the flywheel as +illustrated, and two small brass pins are cut out from 1/8-inch brass +rod and forced into these holes and then soldered. These provide a +method of driving the propeller-shaft that is shown very clearly at Fig. +57. + +The steam feed-pipe that runs from the boiler to the engine can be of +small copper tubing. It may be necessary to mount the engine on a small +block, as shown in Fig. 53. After the steam in the boiler has reached a +sufficient pressure the engine crank should be given a couple of twists +in order to start it. Before operating the engine a little lubricating +oil should be run into the cylinder through the inlet or exhaust ports. +The cylinder should always be kept well lubricated. The contacting faces +of the cylinder blocks should also be kept lubricated. + +_Caution._ Always keep water in the boiler. Never permit it to run dry, +as this would cause a boiler explosion. When the engine is started and +cannot be made to run, take the burner from under the boiler so that +steam will cease to be generated. With the safety-valve the model boat +builder need have little fear of an explosion. Nevertheless the +foregoing directions should be carefully adhered to. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +AN ELECTRIC LAUNCH + + +THE little electric launch to be described is of very simple +construction, and when finished it will provide the builder with a very +shipshape little model from which he will be able to derive a good deal +of pleasure. It has a speed of from 2-1/2 to 3 miles an hour when +equipped with dry batteries or storage batteries. The hull is of the +Sharpie type, and this offers very little trouble in cutting out and +assembling. + +The general appearance of the boat and hull will be gathered from the +drawings. The pieces necessary to assemble the hull are shown in Fig. +58. Only five pieces are necessary: two side pieces, a stern piece, a +bow piece, and a bottom piece. The length of the boat over all is 40 +inches with a 7-inch beam. The widest part of the boat is 1 foot 10 +inches from the bow. + +After the pieces that form the hull are cut they are thoroughly +sandpapered to produce a smooth surface. The heavy imperfections in the +wood can be taken out with coarse paper, and the finishing can be done +with a finer paper. It is understood that sandpapering should always be +done with the grain, never across the grain. The sides of the boat are +cut about 1/4 inch thick, but they are planed thinner in places where +the bend is most pronounced. The side pieces are 2-3/4 inches deep at +the stern and 2-1/4 inches at the stern. There is a gradual curve from +the bow to the stern, which is more marked toward the head. + +The stern piece is thicker than the side pieces, being made of 1/2-inch +wood. It is cut to the shape shown at Fig. 58, and beveled along the +bottom edge to enable it to be fixed on the slant. The bow piece is a +triangle 2-3/4 inches in length. + +After the parts are thoroughly finished with sandpaper the stern piece +is fixed in position. In making all the joints on the boat the builder +should see that plenty of fairly thick paint is run in while the joint +is being screwed up. This will help greatly in making the boat +water-tight. Plenty of 3/4-inch brass wood-screws are used in assembling +the hull. All the holes for the wood-screws should be countersunk so +that the heads will come flush with the surface of the hull. Now one of +the sides should be screwed to the stern piece, at the same time bending +the bottom and side to meet. This is done gradually, inch by inch, and +screws are put in place at equal distances. When the bow is reached, the +side piece is beveled to fit the bow piece, which should already have +been screwed into place. The other side of the boat is treated in a +similar manner, and the young worker should take care to keep the side +and bow piece perfectly square and upright. This may sound easy on +paper, but it will be found that a good deal of care must be exercised +to produce this result. + +After the hull has been assembled it is given a good coat of paint +inside and out. When the first coat is dry the holes left by the +screw-heads are carefully puttied over, and the hull is given a second +coat of paint. This procedure will produce a perfectly water-tight +hull. + +[Illustration: FIG. 58] + +[Illustration: FIG. 59] + +[Illustration: FIG. 63] + +The stern tube is 3/8 inch, outside diameter. A hole is bored in the +bottom of the boat to receive the stern tube. This job must be done +cautiously; otherwise the bottom of the boat may be ruined. It is best +to screw a substantial block to the inside of the boat. This block +should be cut to fit the bottom and will act as a support for drilling. +It will also help greatly to make a water-tight joint around the tube. +The distance from the point where the stern tube passes through the +bottom to the stern should be about 12-1/2 inches. The stern tube should +be mounted as nearly parallel with the bottom as possible, since on this +depends the speed of the boat. As the angle of the propeller-shaft +increases, the speed of the boat will decrease. In drilling the hole the +boat-builder should be careful to keep the drill running along the +central line of the boat. + +As before mentioned, the stern tube is a piece of brass tubing 3/8 inch +in diameter and 8 inches long. It is filed square at both ends, and a +brass plug is fastened with solder in each end. The tube is then filled +with melted vaseline, which is allowed to cool. The hole in the hull +around the tube is then well smeared with thick paint. When this is +done, a layer of red lead or putty is placed around the joint both on +the inside and the outside of the boat. + +While the putty is drying the spray-hood or turtle-deck can be made. +This is bent to shape from a piece of tinplate and extends half way +down the boat. When the turtle-deck is finished, it is best to lay it +aside, before finally fastening it in place, until the entire boat is +completed. + +The wooden part of the deck is made of 1/8-inch wood and scribed with a +sharp knife to represent planking. This method of producing planking was +described in detail in Chapter II. + +Toward the stern of the boat and just behind the motor a hatchway is +fitted to give access to the batteries and starting switch. + +The finished Sharpie hull without its driving batteries or motor should +weigh about 1 pound 3 ounces. The hull being finished, let us consider +the electric propelling equipment. + +A 1/8-inch cold-rolled steel driving or propeller-shaft is used. The +shaft is 13 inches long and a gear-wheel 1 inch in diameter is fixed to +one end of this shaft. This gear-wheel meshes with a brass pinion on the +motor-shaft. This forms a 3-1/2 to 1 reduction gear, which produces a +greatly increased speed of the boat. The other end of the +propeller-shaft rests in the skeg bearing. In this present case this +consists of a tube about 1/2 inch long, which is made for a revolving +fit on the propeller-shaft and supported by a sheet-metal bracket. This +is shown in Fig. 63. The end of the propeller also revolves adjacent to +the bearing in the skeg. + +[Illustration: ©_Jack Sussman_ + +GETTING READY FOR A TRIP + +Heating the blow-torch to a point where it will burn automatically] + +The propeller is a three-blade affair with a diameter of 2-1/4 inches. +It is attached to the propeller-shaft with a set-screw. The motor is a +very simple type obtainable in the open market. It is similar to one +shown in Fig. 41. As before mentioned, either dry or storage batteries +may be used as a source of current. The writer strongly advises the use +of storage batteries if possible. The initial cost of these batteries is +greater than that for dry batteries; but, on the other hand, the small +storage battery can be charged repeatedly and will outlast many dry +batteries. If the boat is used much the storage battery will probably be +the more economical of the two. + +The steering gear of the boat is very simple. The rudder works in a +bearing that is screwed to the stern piece. The end of the rudder-shaft +is tapped, and a brass screw is used to clamp it in position after +setting it with the fingers. The rudder-shaft is a 3/4-inch brass rod. +The lower end of this rod is slit with a hacksaw and the rudder is +placed in this. Solder is then flowed along the joint. + +[Illustration: ©_Jack Sussman_ + +ALL READY TO GO! + +A little boat with steam up, ready for a trip when her owner releases +her] + +[Illustration: FIG. 60] + +Of course, the builder may paint his boat whatever color he may select; +but a maroon hull with a white-enameled spray-hood or turtle-deck makes +a very pleasing combination. Fig. 60 shows a rough plan of the general +arrangement of the power machinery. Figs. 61, 62 and 63 will do much to +give the reader a clear idea of the method of construction which could +not be gained by reading a description. + +[Illustration: FIG. 61] + +The general appearance of the boat can be improved materially in many +ways. For instance, a little stack or ventilator may be added to the +turtle-deck, and a little flag-stick carrying a tiny flag may be placed +on the bow and on the stern. + +[Illustration: FIG. 62] + +The motor current should be turned on only when necessary, for dry-cells +deteriorate rapidly when in use, and small storage batteries quickly +lose their charge, although they will last much longer than dry-cells +and give much better service. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +A STEAM LAUNCH + + +THE steam launch _Nancy Lee_ is an attractive little craft when finished +and it is capable of attaining considerable speed. It is really designed +after the cruising type of motor-boats. This type of boat is +particularly adaptable for simple model-making, owing to the elimination +of awkward fittings. The power machinery is of very simple construction +and presents no real difficulty. + +The following materials are necessary to construct the _Nancy Lee_: + + Large wood block for hull. + Thin white pine for deck, etc. + Sheet-metal tube, rod and wire for the boiler, engine, etc. + Lamp-wick, paint, screws, and brads + Miscellaneous fittings + +The actual expense necessary to construct the boat is very small. + +Having obtained the block for the hull, you are ready to start work. The +hull, when planed on all sides, should be 30 inches long, 6-1/2 inches +wide, and 3-3/4 inches deep. A center line is drawn down the length of +the hull, and five cross-section lines are drawn at right angles to the +center line 5 inches apart. On these lines the builder should mark off +the greatest lengths of the boat, taking the dimensions from the +half-breadth drawing shown in Fig. 64. It will be noted that the deck is +wider than the L. W. L. forward and narrower than the L. W. L. at the +stern. The block should be cut to the widest line on the half-breadth +part. + +[Illustration: FIG. 65] + +[Illustration: FIG. 67] + +[Illustration: FIG. 64] + +The half-widths in Fig. 64 are drawn each side of the center line on the +block. The block will be cut out to this line and planed up as true as +possible. The builder should then project the section lines with a set +square on each side of the boat, mark off the profile from the sheer +plan, Fig. 65, and cut the block to this line, afterward planing it up +true. + +[Illustration: FIG. 66] + +The blocks should now appear as sketched in Fig. 66. It is now ready for +the shaping of its exterior. A plane, a chisel, and a draw-knife are the +only tools necessary to bring the hull to the correct shape. The +cardboard templates must be cut, one for each half-section, as shown in +the body plan, Fig. 67. These templates serve to show the proper outside +shape of the hull. The block for the hull must be cut away until each +one of these templates fits properly into place. The various stages are +indicated in Figs. 68 and 69. + +[Illustration: FIG. 68] + +The interior of the board is gouged out with a gouging chisel, and if +the builder desires a uniform result he should make inside templates. In +gouging out the interior of the hull the chisel or gouge should be +handled very carefully; otherwise it is liable to slip and spoil the +entire hull. + +[Illustration: FIG. 69] + +The next job is to cut and properly fit the raised portion or +forecastle. A piece of wood 1-1/4 inches thick, 15 inches long, and +6-1/4 inches wide must be prepared and laid in place on the hull. The +shape of the hull is marked off with a pencil and the wood sawed along +this line. The inner portion is also cut out, thus making a V-shaped +piece which must be glued and screwed in place, as shown in Fig. 70. + +[Illustration: FIG. 71] + +[Illustration: FIG. 70] + +The oval air-vents shown in the drawing can be cut at this time. The +hull is neatly finished by cutting in the sheer or curvature of the hull +and sandpapering it all over. A cross-beam or support, _C_, Fig. 70, is +cut and fitted as illustrated. This particular piece supports the +fore-deck, and also carries the main-deck, as well as bracing the boat +together. This piece should be 3/16 inch thick and cut from solid oak. + +The decks can be made of a good quality of white pine. The builder +should select clean pieces, free from knots and blemishes. It only +requires to be cut to shape and then fixed to the hull with a few brads. +The edge should be cleaned up flush with the hull by the aid of a plane. +The opening for the cock-pit, shown in the drawing in Fig. 71, is to be +cut in the deck. The coamings and seats are cut to the sizes indicated +in the drawings. They are then glued and pinned together. When fitted to +the deck the result will be somewhat as shown in Fig. 71. + +The fore-deck is prepared in a similar manner; but, since this is to be +removable, two battens must be fitted to the under side to keep it in +place. The openings for the hatchways can be cut and the hatch-covers +made by cutting another piece of wood 3/16 inch thick to form an edging. +A cover piece to go over the small pieces, removed from cutting out the +hatch opening, is shown at Fig. 72. A coping-saw will be found very +useful for this work. The covers are neatly rounded on the edge and +nicely finished. + +[Illustration: FIG. 72] + +[Illustration: FIG. 73] + +[Illustration: FIG. 74] + +[Illustration: FIG. 76] + +Fig. 73 will give the reader a very good idea of the appearance of the +boat at this stage. It will be seen that the sketch shows the deck +broken away so as to render the cross-batten visible, which also shows +the fair-lead at _F_, Fig. 73. This is cut from two small pieces of +3/16-inch stuff, glued and pinned in place. The forward deck is +completed by the addition of cowl-ventilators, cut from hard wood and +screwed in place. The flag-mast is made from a short piece of 1/16-inch +wire. The details of the mooring-cleats are shown in Fig. 74. They are +fashioned by using a small screw-eye and soldering a short piece of +brass wire through the eye. An oblong metal plate is then cut and a +central hole drilled. This plate is soldered to the shank of the +screw-eye and the cleat is complete. One of these devices is to be +fitted to the fore-deck and two on the main-deck and stern. + +[Illustration: FIG. 75] + +The rudder and steering gear will be considered next. Fig. 75 shows the +stern of the boat with the rudder gear mounted in place. It will be +noted that the rudder-blade is merely a piece of sheet brass cut to +shape and soldered into the rudder-post _M_, which is slit to +accommodate it. The rudder-post is hung in two screw-eyes on the stern +of the boat. A small wheel about 1 inch in diameter, with an edge filed +in it, is soldered to the top of the rudder-post. A fine cord or string, +well stretched and oiled, is attached to the wheel and led through two +screw-eyes on the deck. From this it is led through an opening in the +coaming to a drum on the steering column, which is turned by another +small wheel similar to that used on the rudder-post, but with a round +edge. The steering column is merely a piece of 1/8-inch wire, held in +place by two small screw-eyes fixed in the coaming and with a tube-brush +soldered on to keep the wire in position. The drum is simply a hard-wood +bushing driven tightly in place. + +The power machinery for the _Nancy Lee_ must be considered at this time. +This is really one of the most interesting parts of the construction. +The general appearance of the power plant can be seen by referring to +Fig. 77, which is a view of the complete boiler and engine mounted +together on the same base. The boiler is shown at _A_ and the +safety-valve and filler at _L_. The base or firebox _B_ protects the +burner from stray drafts of air, and also supports the boiler. + +The lamp or burner consists of a receptacle _C_ for containing the +denatured alcohol. The denatured alcohol is inserted through the +filler-tube _E_, which is kept closed with a cork. The upright tube _D_ +is fitted so that air can go into the receptacle containing the alcohol. +Three burners are necessary to fire the boiler. These are fitted as +shown in _F_, and they give sufficient heat to produce steam enough to +drive the cylinder _G_. The steam is conducted to the cylinder through +the short pipe _K_. The steam-cylinder has the usual piston and rod, +which drives the circular crank _H_. This crank is mounted on a +crankshaft carried on the metal tube _M_. As will be noticed, the +cylinder is of the simple oscillating type mounted on a standard, formed +as part of the boiler casing, and stiffened by two angle-plates _L_. + +A heavy flywheel, _J_, is now fitted to the inside end of the +crankshaft. This wheel should be a lead casting, and as heavy as +possible. A heavy flywheel contributes much to the operating efficiency +of the engine. The propeller-shaft and crank are shown at _N_ in the +insert. + +The boiler is made from a strong tin can about 1-3/4 inches in diameter +and 4-1/2 inches long. It is cleaned inside and out, and all the seams +are double-soldered. The lid is also soldered on the can. This little +boiler, although not elaborately made, will be found capable of standing +up under considerable steam-pressure, and so no fear need be had of +accidents by explosion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 83] + +[Illustration: FIG. 78] + +[Illustration: FIG. 77] + +[Illustration: FIG. 79] + +[Illustration: FIG. 80] + +[Illustration: FIG. 81] + +[Illustration: FIG. 82] + +A little safety-valve and filler-plug suitable for use on the boiler +are shown clearly in Fig. 78. A piece of sheet tin is cut out to the +size and shape illustrated in Fig. 79 at _A_. The piece is bent up at +the dotted lines and the seams are soldered. Two angle-plates, _B_, are +then cut and fitted and soldered in place. Next a piece of brass tube +with a 1/8-inch bore and 1 inch long is cut and soldered in place for +the bearing of the crankshaft. A lead flywheel 1-1/4 inches in diameter +and 1/2 inch thick is then mounted firmly on a piece of straight steel +wire 1-3/4 inches long, which acts as a shaft. + +The shaft is made to run freely in the crankshaft bearing that was +previously soldered in place. The cylinder is shown in section in Fig. +80. If the reader will refer back to the construction of the engine +described in Chapter 4 he will readily understand the operation and +construction of this particular engine. + +A little crank must be cut from 1/16-inch brass, and soldered to the +crankshaft after fitting a wire crank-pin to the outer edge. This +crank-pin should be of such a size that the joint on the end of the +piston-rod shown at _A_, Fig. 80, turns on it easily. The throw should +be only half the stroke of the engine, which is 3/8 of an inch. + +The boiler is now fixed in place by bending the lugs _B_, Fig. 79, so +that they just support the boiler nicely. They are then soldered in +place. Next fit the short steam-pipe _K_ between the boiler and the +steam block on the cylinder. The builder should take care to keep the +steam-pipe well up to the top of the boiler. + +The lamp should be built at this time. The container for the denatured +alcohol is made from a well soldered tin box of suitable size. It can +also be made by cutting a sheet of tin to the size and shape shown in +Fig. 81. The corner joints are soldered and then a tin lid is soldered +in place. The builder should not forget to make the filler-tube _E_ and +air-tube _D_, as shown in Fig. 77, before soldering the top piece in +place. The burners should be made as high as the container, and these +should be made from little pieces of tin bent to shape and soldered on +to a bottom pipe, as shown in Fig. 77. The builder should also remember +to cut the holes through this pipe so that the alcohol can get into the +burner-tubes, and also to solder the open end of the bottom or feed +tube. Before the wicks are put into the lamps, the container should be +tested by filling it with alcohol to see that it is perfectly tight at +all joints. If it is not the container should be gone over again with +solder to assure its being leak-proof. + +Before operating the engine with steam, it can be tested with a small +bicycle pump through the opening for the safety-valve. The engine should +turn over briskly at every stroke of the pump, providing it does not +come to rest at "dead center." If it does come to rest at "dead center," +where no air can enter the piston, the crankshaft should be given a +little twist and the engine will then start. Before steam is applied it +will be well to experiment until the engine runs with the air-pump. + +Having made the engine run smoothly with air, steam can be generated in +the boiler. The wicks should not be placed too tightly in the burners. +After they are in place the container may be filled with denatured +alcohol, and the burners lighted and placed under the boiler. In a very +few minutes steam will be up. At the first indication of pressure in the +boiler the engine should be given a twist with the fingers until it +starts and goes of its own accord. The constructor should remember to +keep his engine well lubricated. + +The propeller-shaft is merely a piece of steel wire, perfectly straight +and fitted with a crank _A_, Fig. 82. This crank is similar to the one +fitted to the engine, but with a small slot cut out for the crank-pin to +fit into. This is done so that, as the crank-pin on the engine turns +around, it also turns a slotted crank on the propeller-shaft. + +A short piece of tube, _C_, is now fitted to a flat brass plate, _D_. +The plate is mounted at an angle to the tube, so that when it is in +place on the stern of the boat the propeller-shaft will be in line with +the crankshaft of the engine. + +A clearance hole is now drilled through the hull, so that the +propeller-shaft can be put in place. Solder the tube to the plate, and +punch four small holes in the plate, so that it can be screwed firmly +to the hull. Solder a short piece of tube, as shown at _B_, Fig. 82, to +keep the propeller-shaft in position. + +The propeller must now be made. This is easily done by cutting out a +disk of brass 1-1/2 inches in diameter, as shown in Fig. 83. The shaded +portions of the brass disk are cut away. The blades are bent to shape, +care being taken to see that they are all alike. This done, the +propeller is soldered to the propeller-shaft. + +The only part of the job that remains is to screw the boiler in place +under the fore-deck of the boat. This done, the _Nancy Lee_ is ready for +her trial. The fore-deck should be made removable by fitting it with +pins or screws with the heads cut off, so that the deck only needs +pushing into place. This little boat should be capable of attaining a +speed of from four to five miles an hour if it is made carefully and +according to the directions outlined in this Chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +AN ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN LAKE FREIGHTER + + +A PROTOTYPE of the model lake freighter described in this Chapter will +probably be familiar to many readers. It is a type of boat used on the +Great Lakes, and, owing to its peculiarity of design, it lends itself +very well to construction in model form. + +The lines of the boat may be seen very clearly in Fig. 84. + +The hull of the model freighter measures four feet over all, and the +beam at the water-line is 8 inches. The extreme draft will be in the +neighborhood of 5 inches. This model, when completed, will be capable of +carrying considerable weight; in fact, it is able to accommodate +thirty-five pounds in weight when used in fresh water. This will give +the builder an opportunity to install a very substantial power +equipment with little regard for weight. + +[Illustration: FIG. 84] + +[Illustration: FIG. 85] + +The hull is made according to the built-up principle, and the +constructor will have to cut his templates before attempting the shaping +of the hull. Owing to the depth of the model, it will be necessary to +use about ten planks. The plank that is used to form the bottom of the +boat is not gouged out. Every other plank is gouged out with a saw and +chisel. + +The bottom plank is shaped with a knife to conform to the lines of the +boat. In building up the hull with the planks, they should first be +smeared with glue, and when put in place a few brass brads should be +driven in. As mentioned in an earlier part of this book, iron nails +should not be used in work of this nature, owing to the fact that they +will rust and cause trouble. The brass brads are placed about one inch +apart the entire length of the boards. The hull is finished with a plane +and sandpaper, and after it has been brought to shape in this way and +finished, a coat of paint is applied. Black with dark red trimmings +makes a very good combination for a boat of this type. + +The deck is made from a piece of 1/4-inch pine board. Seven hatches are +added to the deck. Six of these hatches can be made by merely gluing a +square piece of 1/4-inch wood to the deck. The seventh hatch should be +made with a hole cut in the deck, so that access can be had to the power +motor. + +The deck-house, wheel-house, and chart-house, as well as the bridge, +should be constructed of tin, which may be salvaged from clean tin +cans. The bridge is provided with spray-cloths made from white adhesive +tape, as outlined in Chapter 9. The port-holes in the deck-house and +hull are made by little pieces of brass forced in place over a small +piece of mica. The life-boats, which are carried on top of the +engine-house, are whittled out of a solid piece of wood and painted +white. Life-boats are always painted white, regardless of the color of +the boat upon which they are used. The life-boats are held by means of +string and small dummy pulleys to davits made of heavy stovepipe wire. A +rub-streak made of a piece of 1/4-inch square pine is tacked to each +side of the hull just below the sheer-line. The rub-streak should be +tacked in place with nails such as those used on cigar-boxes. + +The funnel measures 1 inch in diameter by 4 inches long. A small exhaust +steam pipe, which can be made from a piece of brass tubing, is mounted +directly aft of the funnel. The forward deck fittings consist mainly of +a steering-boom, two bollards, two fair-heads, and four life-buoys +mounted on the bridge. The main-deck is equipped with six bollards and +two covered ventilators, each 1/2 inch in diameter. The foremast is +properly stayed in the deck, and should be fitted with rat-lines. The +rat-lines can be made with black thread and finished with varnish, which +when dry will tend to hold the threads in shape. + +The rudder is cut from a piece of sheet brass to the shape shown, and +fitted with a quadrant. The engine cabin can be made from cigar-box +wood. The windows and doors can either be painted in place, or the +windows can be cut and backed up with sheet celluloid. A good substitute +for painted doors will be found in small pieces of tin painted a +different color from the cabin. The same procedure may be followed in +fitting the windows and doors to the forward cabin. + +We are now ready to consider the power plant. Owing to the large +displacement of the boat, it will carry a fairly heavy storage battery. +The electric motor and storage battery are mounted in the manner shown +in Fig. 85, which will also give the reader an idea of the appearance of +the finished model. As the drawing indicates, it will not be necessary +to tilt the motor to any great degree in order to bring the propeller to +the proper depth. This is because of the depth of the boat. Instead of a +string or belt to connect the motor with the propeller, the shaft of the +motor is taken out and replaced by a longer steel rod that will serve +both as a motor-shaft and a propeller-shaft. The propeller-shaft extends +from the motor through the stern-tube. The propeller used for this model +is a three-blade affair, 3 inches in diameter. It must be of this size +in order to propel a boat of these dimensions at a consistent speed. + +Care must be taken in mounting the motor in this way. If it is not +mounted directly in line with the stern-tube the propeller-shaft will +have a tendency to bind. However, with a little care no trouble should +be experienced from this source. The storage battery used should be of +the four-volt forty-ampere hour variety. This boat will be capable of +carrying such a battery and this weight should just bring the craft down +to her load water-line. The whole deck is made removable, so that the +storage battery can be taken in and out at times when it is necessary to +recharge it. A battery of this capacity, however, will drive a small +motor similar to the type used on the boat for some time. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +AN ELECTRIC SUBMARINE-CHASER + + +THE submarine chaser design given in the drawings and described in the +text of this Chapter is a presentable little boat with pleasing lines +and deck fittings. There is nothing difficult about its construction, +and, considering the amount of work necessary to produce it, it is +probably one of the most pleasing boats described in the book. If made +correctly it will look "speedy" and shipshape. + +The general outline of the boat can be gathered from Figs. 86, 87, and +88. Fig. 86 gives a side view of the craft; Fig. 87 shows the bow, while +Fig. 88 gives the deck-plan. + +[Illustration: FIG. 86] + +[Illustration: FIG. 87] + +[Illustration: FIG. 88] + +Notice first the construction of the hull. This is made according to the +Sharpie type, but the lines are changed to give the boat a more graceful +appearance. This is done by changing the shape of the deck and the +bottom pieces. Fig. 89 shows the various pieces necessary to construct +the hull. It will be seen that the forward portion of the bottom piece +is narrower than the deck piece, and broadens out so that it is wider at +the stern than the deck piece. The deck piece has a maximum width of 5 +inches, while the bottom piece has a width of 4 inches at the forward +section. The deck measures 3-1/2 inches at the stern, while the bottom +piece measures 4-1/2 inches at the stern. This produces a half-inch +taper on each side of the stern. A half-inch taper is also produced on +the bow portion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 90] + +[Illustration: FIG. 91] + +[Illustration: FIG. 89] + +The hull of the boat can be made from 1/8-inch mahogany. If this is not +available, choose some other close-grained wood, free from knots and +blemishes. Paper patterns are made to correspond with the general shape +of the pieces that form the hull as given in Fig. 89. The pieces, after +being marked, are cut to shape with a keyhole-saw. After this is done +their edges should be trimmed neatly with a jack-plane. + +The two sides pieces are now screwed to the bow piece by small brass +screws. After this is done the bottom piece is fastened to the side +pieces the entire length of the boat. Next the first cross-piece, as +shown in Fig. 90, is screwed in place. This cross-piece should be 4-3/4 +inches in length, so that the width of the hull at this point is just 5 +inches. The next cross-piece should correspond to the width of the deck +piece at the section of the hull where it is placed. The same holds true +for the third cross-piece. When the third cross-piece has been screwed +in place, the stern piece is put in position. + +The joints of the hull should then be smeared with either pitch or +bath-tub enamel or a thick mixture of white lead may be used. + +After having made sure that the hull is perfectly water-tight the worker +can proceed to install the power equipment. This consists of a small +battery motor driven with two dry cells. The design and installation of +such things as stern-tubes and propeller-shafts have been taken up in +detail in an earlier part of this book. The strut that holds the +propeller-shaft is shown in Fig. 91. This consists merely of a brass +bushing held in a bracket made of a strip of brass 1/2 inch wide. The +brass strip is wound around the bushing and soldered. It is held to the +bottom of the hull by means of two 8-32 brass machine screws. These +screws should be tightened to prevent leakage. It would be inadvisable +to use wood-screws for this purpose, owing to the fact that the bottom +piece of the boat is thin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 93] + +[Illustration: FIG. 92] + +The two dry batteries for the motor are held in two tin troughs, as +illustrated in Fig. 92. These troughs are fastened to the side of the +boat by means of small bolts. They will prevent the boat from shifting +its cargo; in other words, they hold the batteries in place and thereby +prevent the boat from listing. + +The deck and deck fittings should now be furnished. The construction of +the forward cabin is shown in Fig. 93. The sides and back are formed +with cigar-box wood, while the curved front can best be made with a +piece of tin. The top is also cut to shape from cigar-box wood, and +should overlap about 1/4 inch. The pilot-house is simplicity itself, +being made of a piece of curved tin with three windows cut in it. Four +little lugs cut in the tin are bent on the inside and each provided with +a hole. These lugs are used to tack the pilot-house to the deck. A small +skylight is produced from a solid piece of wood and tacked in place as +illustrated in the drawing. + +The builder is cautioned not to destroy the appearance of his boat by +making the mast too large. After the mast has been nicely sandpapered, a +little wire frame is bent to shape and fastened to the top, as shown in +Fig. 87. The little wire railing that is placed in front of the mast is +then bent to shape, and this and the mast are put in their permanent +position. The mast can be held to the deck by boring a hole a little +under size and smearing the bottom of the mast with a little glue before +it is forced in. Pieces of black thread are run from the top of the mast +to the railing at the bottom, as shown. These threads are used to hoist +signal flags. Two little angle-pieces are placed on the forward deck, +one on each side of the pilot-house. These are for the harbor lights. +One should be painted green and one red. + +This finishes the forward cabin. It should be placed in the center of +the deck and the position it occupies should be marked out with a +pencil. This portion of the deck should be carefully cut out with a +coping-saw. The cabin is then forced into the opening. The fit should be +fairly tight, so that it will not be necessary to employ nails or glue, +as this is the only way in which the interior of the hull is made +accessible. + +Two ventilators are placed just back of the forward cabin. Between the +forward cabin and the cabin aft there is placed a rapid-fire gun. The +details of this gun are given in Fig. 94. The barrel of the gun is made +of a piece of brass rod. A hole is drilled through this rod with a small +drill and a piece of copper wire is inserted. A square piece of brass +for the breech is then drilled out to receive the barrel. One end of the +barrel is placed in this hole and held with a drop of solder. A drop of +solder should also be used on the copper wire that runs through the +barrel. The bearing and shield of the gun are made from thin sheet +brass, as illustrated. Three holes are drilled in the bearing bracket, +two through which the wire passes and one through which the small nail +is placed to hold the bearing to the wooden standard. The shield is +forced over the barrel and held in place with a drop of solder. When the +barrel is mounted in the bearing, a drop of solder should be put in +place to prevent the barrel of the gun from tipping. + +[Illustration: FIG. 94] + +The cabin which is placed aft on the boat, is of very simple +construction. It is made up entirely of cigar-box wood tacked together, +and the top should overlap 1/4 inch. The cabin is then tacked to the +deck of the boat. The mast should be only three-fourths as high as the +forward mast, and a tiny hole is drilled near the top. Into this hole a +small piece of soft wire is placed, and from this wire a thread runs to +the cabin. A small flag can then be placed on the thread, as illustrated +in Fig. 86. + +Six port-holes are now bored in each side of the hull with a 1/2-inch +bit. These can be backed up with mica or celluloid. Five smaller +port-holes made with a 1/4-inch drill are then bored in each side of the +forward cabin. Three are placed in the aft cabin. + +With the exception of painting, the hull is now ready to be launched. +Before finally applying the paint the hull should be given a thorough +rubbing with sandpaper. A battleship gray with maroon trimmings makes a +pleasing color combination for this boat. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +BOAT FITTINGS + + +THE model boat builder generally has some trouble in producing the +necessary fittings for his boats. It is practically impossible to buy +such things in this country, and so it is necessary to make them. + +Using a little care, it is possible to make presentable fittings by +utilizing odds and ends found about the household and shop. In this +Chapter the author will describe the construction of the more important +fittings necessary to model boats, such as stacks, searchlights, +bollards, cowl-ventilators, davits, and binnacles. + +The smokestack is probably one of the easiest things to produce. A very +suitable method of producing a smokestack is shown in Fig. 95. The stack +itself is cut from a piece of thin brass tubing. It is also possible to +use a small tin can of the proper diameter. In both cases, of course, +paint must be applied to improve the appearance of the brass or tin. If +the stack is painted either gray or white a red band near the top of the +stack produces a good finish and makes it look more shipshape. + +[Illustration: FIG. 95] + +[Illustration: FIG. 97] + +The method of anchoring the stack to the deck of the boat is shown very +clearly. First a block of wood is cut about the same diameter as the +internal diameter of the stack. This block of wood is then forced up +into the stack. A small square base is then cut, and fastened to the +block on the inside of the stack with a wood-screw. It might be +mentioned here that it is often necessary to drill a hole with a small +hand drill before driving the screw in, to prevent splitting the wood. + +After the base piece is fastened to the stack, the base in turn is held +to the deck of the boat by two small screws driven up from beneath. The +guy-wires can then be fastened on. The guy-wires should be made of very +fine wire, since heavy wire would be entirely out of proportion. The +wire can be fastened on the stack by drilling a tiny hole through the +stack. A knot is then tied in one end of the wire, and the opposite end +threaded through the hole. Small screw-eyes driven into the base piece +are used to anchor the guy-wires. + +Ventilators are a very important part of the boat. The model-builder +will encounter considerable trouble if he attempts to make his +cowl-ventilator from metal, unless he is very experienced in drawing +copper out by hand. The writer has found a method of producing +cowl-ventilators by the use of clay pipes. Clay pipes can be purchased +for a few cents each, and when cut down as shown in Fig. 96 they form +very suitable ventilators. The pipe can be cut as shown by the use of a +file. The ventilator is held to the deck of the boat by being forced +into a hole in the deck that is just a trifle under size. Of course, the +forcing will have to be done carefully to prevent the stem from +cracking. The inside of the ventilator should always be painted red, and +the outside should be the same color as the boat. Ventilators made in +this way absolutely defy detection and do much toward bettering the +general appearance of the craft upon which they are used. + +[Illustration: FIG. 98] + +[Illustration: FIG. 96] + +A simple searchlight, easily made by the model boat builder, is shown +in Fig. 97. This is an electric light, and the batteries used to propel +the boat can be used for the light. First a small circular piece of wood +is cut out, as shown at _A_, Fig. 97. The center of this is drilled out +to accommodate a small flashlight bulb. A tiny brass screw is then +driven into the piece of wood, so that it will come in contact with the +center of the base of the flashlight bulb. This little screw forms one +of the electrical contacts, and one of the wires from the battery is +attached to it. + +A little strip of brass is then cut as shown in _B_, Fig. 97, and +provided with three holes, one hole at each end and one in the middle. +The brass is bent into a semicircular shape, so that it will be just a +little larger in diameter than the outside of the wooden piece in which +the flashlight bulb is mounted. This little piece is then fastened to a +wooden post with a small brass pin, as shown in Fig. 97. Two more pins +are used to hold the wooden piece to the searchlight proper. One of +these pins is driven through the wooden piece until it comes in contact +with the base of the flashlight bulb. This forms the other electrical +connection, and the second feed wire from the battery can be attached to +the little brass piece that holds the searchlight. Both the feed wires +from the battery can come up through a hole in the deck close to the +wooden post upon which the searchlight is mounted. + +Bollards are very easily made. Reference to Fig. 98 will make this +clear. First a little strip of brass is cut, and this is drilled as +shown with two holes, one at each end and two smaller holes in the +center. Two little circular pieces of wood are then cut, with a hole +through the center. A brass screw passes through these and into the deck +of the boat. The brass screw should not be driven in too far, since the +bollards should be free to revolve. It is also possible to use brass +tubing instead of wood if the proper size is in the model-builder's +shop. + +[Illustration: A POWERFUL GASOLENE BLOW-TORCH + +For a metre racing boat. Such a torch will deliver a steady, hot flame +for fifteen minutes] + +A word will be said here about finishing the deck of a model boat. It is +a very tedious job to cut separate planks to form the deck. In fact, +this job is quite beyond the ability, to say nothing of the patience, of +the average young model-builder. A very simple method of producing +imitation planking is shown in Fig. 99. A sharp knife and a +straight-edge are the only tools for this work. The straight-edge is +merely used to guide the knife. The cuts should not be made too deep, +and they should be made a uniform distance apart. When the deck is +finished in this manner and varnished over, a very pleasing effect is +produced. In fact, if the work is done carefully, the deck looks very +much as if it were planked. + +[Illustration: JUST AFTER THE RACE + +A line-up of the entries in one of the power boat races held at Central +Park, New York City. The author presented the cup to the owner of Elmara +III, the winning boat, which attained a speed of nearly thirty miles an +hour] + +[Illustration: FIG. 99] + +[Illustration: FIG. 100] + +[Illustration: FIG. 104] + +[Illustration: FIG. 101] + +A small life-boat is shown in Fig. 100. This can easily be carved to +shape from a small piece of soft white pine. The center is gouged out, +and tiny little seats made of thin strips of wood are glued in place. +Two small screw-eyes are placed in the boat, for fastening it to the +davits. The davits are shown in Fig. 101, at _A_ and _B_. They are made +by bending a piece of small brass rod, as shown. One end of the rod is +hammered flat, and a hole is made in it with a very small drill. Holes +a little under size are drilled in the deck, and the davits are forced +into these. The method of suspending the life-boat from the davits is +shown at _B_, Fig. 101. The little blocks of wood are glued on to a +thread to represent pulleys, and they are, of course, only imitation or +dummy pulleys. + +[Illustration: FIG. 102] + +The method of producing port-holes is shown in Fig. 102. A hole is first +bored through the wood with a bit of the proper size. The size of the +port-holes depends entirely upon the size of the boat. A piece of brass +tubing is then cut off with a hacksaw to form a brass bushing. The +outside diameter of this tubing should be the same as the size of the +bit used. For instance, if a 1/2-inch bit is used, brass tubing 1/2 inch +in diameter should be purchased. Such tubing can be obtained from any +hardware store. Celluloid, such as that used for windows in automobile +curtains, is glued to the inside of the port-holes. This makes a +splendid substitute for glass. It can be obtained at garages and +automobile supply stores for a few cents a square foot. The model boat +builder can also use either mica or glass for this purpose, although +thick glass looks somewhat out of place. + +A binnacle is shown in Fig. 103. This is made from a solid piece of wood +cut with a semi-spherical top. The steering-wheel is made of a wheel +from an old alarm clock. The teeth of the wheel should be filed off. +Tiny pieces of wire are then soldered in place on the wheel, as shown. A +pin driven through the center of the steering-wheel is used to fasten it +to the binnacle. The binnacle itself can be held to the deck either by +glue or by a small screw. + +[Illustration: FIG. 103] + +A torpedo-tube for use on model destroyers and battleships is shown in +Fig. 104. First two disks of wood are cut. Then a circular piece is +cut, as shown. Two brass nails are then driven through this piece into +one of the disks. An upholstering tack is driven into the end of the +circular piece, as pictured. The method of attaching the torpedo-tube to +the deck is clearly illustrated in Fig. 104 and no further directions +need be given. If the model-builder has a small piece of brass tube on +hand suitable for use in this case, it will make a much better appearing +tube than the piece of wood illustrated. + +A wireless antenna is shown at Fig. 105. This is a fitting that will do +much toward improving the appearance of any craft. Very fine copper wire +is used for the aërial. The little spreaders are cut to shape from wood, +and a tiny hole is punched through them through which the wire is +placed. Black beads slipped on the wire serve very well as insulators. +The lead-in wire which drops to the wireless cabin is attached to the +aërial by winding it around each one of the aërial waves. The aërial +should be suspended between the masts of the vessel. A few words should +be said about masts in general. If there is one way in which a +model-builder can destroy the appearance of a model boat, it is by using +badly proportioned masts. The average boy seems inclined to use a mast +of too great a diameter, which makes it out of proportion with the rest +of the boat. It is better to have a mast too small rather than too +large. + +The method of producing railing is shown in Fig. 106. The same small +brass rod that was used for the davits can be used for the rail +stanchions. One end of the stanchions is hammered flat and drilled out. +The stanchions are fastened to the deck by first drilling small holes +and forcing them into it. Thread or very fine wire is used for the +railing. Fine wire is preferred owing to the fact that it will not break +so easily under strain. + +[Illustration: FIG. 105] + +[Illustration: FIG. 106] + +[Illustration: FIG. 108] + +[Illustration: FIG. 107] + +[Illustration: FIG. 109] + +[Illustration: FIG. 110] + +Fig. 107 shows a good method of producing stairs. It must be remembered +that stairs are often used in model-boat construction. First a strip of +tin is bent as shown. Then two more strips, which act as side pieces, +are cut. One of these strips is soldered to each side of the stairs. +Then six stanchions, which can be made from heavy copper wire, are +soldered to the side pieces, as shown. The railing can be made from +copper wire or black thread. + +Fig. 108 shows a small skylight placed on the deck. This is easily made +from cigar-box-wood glued together. The holes in the top pieces for the +windows are cut with a very sharp knife. It will be necessary to use a +little patience in this, to prevent the piece from splitting and to +prevent cracks. A piece of celluloid is glued underneath the top pieces +before they are finally glued in place. + +A small quick-firing deck-gun is shown in Fig. 109. This is a very +simple fitting and can be made with very little difficulty. The base of +the gun is formed by cutting a thread-spool in half. A piece of small +brass tubing is used to form the barrel. A little piece of sheet tin is +looped over the back of the gun to represent the breech. A tiny piece of +wire is held to the side of the breech with a drop of solder, to +represent a handle. The shield of the gun is cut from a piece of tin, +as shown. A hole is made in the bottom of this, so that the nail that +passes through the barrel of the gun will also pass through this hole +and into the spool. The center of the spool should be plugged to hold +the nail. After the gun is painted gray or black it will appear very +businesslike, considering the small amount of labor spent in producing +it. + +Anchors are more or less difficult to make (Fig. 110), and unless the +builder is endowed with a great amount of patience he will not be able +to file them out of solid metal. A dummy anchor can be easily cut out of +wood, however, and when painted black it will answer instead of a metal +one. The anchor shown at _A_ is a very simple type made out of a solid +piece of wood. The one at _B_, however, is made out of two pieces of +wood fastened together with a pin, as shown. The bottom piece of the +anchor shown at _B_ should be rather thick to get the proper effect, and +the two points should be tapered nicely. The center of the bottom piece +should be hollowed out to accommodate the vertical piece. + +A common hatch is shown at Fig. 111. This can be made in the form of an +open box from cigar-box wood, and glued to the deck. It is not necessary +to cut a hole in the deck for this purpose. + +[Illustration: FIG. 115] + +[Illustration: FIG. 116] + +[Illustration: FIG. 111] + +[Illustration: FIG. 113] + +A cargo-hoist for use on model freight-boats is shown in Fig. 112. This +is a very simple piece of work and will need little description. Several +stay-wires should be fastened to the main-mast and held to the deck with +small screw-eyes. The boom should be made a trifle smaller in diameter +than the mast. The pulleys are dummy, like those on the life-boat. A +little hook bent to shape from copper wire is placed on the end of the +thread, as shown. + +[Illustration: FIG. 112] + +[Illustration: FIG. 114] + +Fig. 113 shows a method of making a whistle and an engine exhaust. The +engine exhaust is made of a piece of wood, and the furled top is +produced by an eyelet such as those used in shoes. The engine exhaust is +always placed immediately back of the last smokestack. The whistle is a +simple device made almost entirely of wood. The whistle-cord is of +thread attached to the small piece of wire, as shown. + +Fig. 114 shows the method of making spray-cloths for the top of the +pilot-house. Small brass brads are driven into the top of the +pilot-house, and white adhesive tape is placed on the brads, as +pictured. Advantage can be taken of the adhesive substance on the tape +which holds it in place on the brads. + +A rudder is shown in Fig. 115. The rudder-post should be a piece of +brass rod so thick that it can be split with a hacksaw. The sheet brass +that forms the rudder proper is placed in this split and soldered. In +the case of an ornamental boat the rudder can be fixed as shown in Fig. +115. It will be seen that it is quite impossible to keep the rudder in +adjustment in this way. + +If the rudder is to be kept in a certain adjustment a quadrant is +necessary. This is made by using a semicircular piece of heavy sheet +brass and filing little notches in it. The lever of the rudder rests in +these notches, and by this means the rudder can be held in any one +position, so that the boat will either turn in a circle or go straight. +Fig. 116 illustrates such an arrangement. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE DESIGN OF MODEL STEAM-ENGINES + + +INSTEAD of describing the construction of several model engines of +different design, the author thinks it advisable to put the reader in +possession of the fundamentals of model steam-engine design and +construction. In this way the model engineer will be able to design and +construct model steam-engines according to his own ideas and in +accordance with the raw materials and miscellaneous parts he may find in +his workshop. Unless the young mechanic is in possession of a very well +equipped workshop, it is quite impossible to construct a steam-engine +according to certain specifications. However, if he has in mind the +fundamental principles of steam-engine design, he can go ahead and +design his engine, for which he will have no trouble in machining or +producing the parts that enter into its construction. By this the +author means that the workman can design his engine to meet the +materials he has on hand. + +Notice Fig. 117. This is a cylinder into which is fitted a piston. If +steam is forced into the cylinder the piston will be forced to the +opposite end of the cylinder. If some means is then provided so that the +steam can escape and the piston come back, another impulse can be given +it by admitting more steam, and thus a continuous motion may be +produced. This is how the steam-engine works. + +[Illustration: FIG. 117] + +Having learned how motion is imparted to the piston by the expansion of +steam under pressure, attention is directed to what is known as the "D" +slide-valve. This slide-valve permits steam to enter the cylinder and to +exhaust at proper intervals. See Fig. 118. Steam enters the steam-chest +through the pipe _A_. The slide-valve is shown at _D_. When the +slide-valve is in the position shown, steam enters the cylinder, and by +the time the cylinder has arrived in the position shown by the dotted +line _C_, the slide-valve moves over, closing the passage _B_. The steam +under pressure forces the piston to the opposite end of the cylinder. +When the piston reaches the opposite end of the cylinder, steam that has +entered through the passage _F_ again forces the piston back to its +original position. This is caused by the slide-valve shifting its +position, because of the impulse it received at the opposite end of the +cylinder. Thus it will be seen that when the piston is at one end of the +cylinder the opposite end is exhausting. By carefully studying Fig. 118 +the action of the _D_ valve will be understood. The connecting-rod _E_ +is connected to the crankshaft and in this way the engine is caused to +revolve. + +[Illustration: FIG. 118] + +A cylinder similar to that shown in Fig. 118 is called a double-acting +cylinder. This is because the steam acts on both sides of the piston. +Single-acting cylinders are cylinders in which the steam expands on only +one side of the piston. In the single-acting engines the _D_ valve is +modified. + +The "stroke" of a steam-engine depends upon the length of the cylinder; +really, the stroke is the distance travelled by the piston. In model +engines it ranges from 3/8 of an inch to 1-1/2 inches. The bore of a +cylinder is its internal diameter. The bore is usually a trifle smaller +than the stroke. Thus it is common to have a stroke of 7/8 inch and a +cylinder-bore of 3/4 inch. + +At this juncture the author would caution the more inexperienced young +mechanics not to build double-acting engines. The valve mechanism is +somewhat intricate and very difficult to regulate. The construction is +also much more complicated, and this also holds true of the designing. +On the other hand, single-acting engines, while not so powerful for a +given size, will do very nicely in driving model boats, and will deliver +sufficient power for all ordinary purposes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 119] + +Your attention is directed to Fig. 119. This shows a design for a model +single-cylinder, single-acting steam-engine. The reader should carefully +study each drawing before continuing to digest the following matter. The +cylinder _L_ can be made from a piece of tubing. This can be either +brass or copper. Aluminum should not be used, owing to the fact that it +is difficult to solder and difficult to work with. The piston is made so +that it will fit nicely into the cylinder and move up and down without +binding. It will be seen that a groove, _M_, is cut around the piston +near the top. String soaked in oil is placed in this groove. This is +called packing, and the presence of this packing prevents steam leakage +between the piston and the cylinder walls and thereby materially +increases the efficiency of the engine. + +In this case the connecting-rod _R_ is made in a circular piece. It is +attached to the piston by a pin, _F_. The connecting-rod must be free to +revolve upon this pin. The engine shown has a stroke of 7/8 inch. +Therefore, the crank-pin _K_ on the crank-disk _N_ must be placed 1/2 of +7/8 or 7/16 inch from the center of the disk _N_, so that when this disk +makes one revolution, the piston will move 7/8 inch in the cycle. Thus +it will be seen that the distance of the crank-pin _K_ from the center +of the crank disk _N_ will depend entirely upon the stroke of the +engine. It may be well to mention here that the worker should always +start designing his engine by first determining the bore and stroke. +Everything depends upon these two factors. It is also well to mention +here that the piston should never travel completely to the top of the +cylinder--a small space must always be left for the steam to expand. +One eighth of an inch is plenty of space to leave. + +It will be noticed that the valve mechanisms on the particular engine +shown bear no resemblance to the _D_ valve previously described. The +holes _G_ which are bored around the cylinder are the exhaust ports. It +will be seen that when the piston is at the end of its downward stroke +it uncovers these exhaust ports and permits the steam to escape. The +momentum of the flywheel _A_ pushes the piston upward, closing these +holes. As these holes are closed the valve _H_ uncovers the entrance _I_ +and permits steam to enter from the boiler through _J_. By the time the +piston has reached the upward limit of its stroke a considerable steam +pressure has developed on top of the cylinder, and this again forces the +piston downward. Thus the same cycle of movement is gone through +repeatedly. + +The valve on this little engine is extremely simple. It consists of a +circular piece of brass drilled out, as shown. A hole (_I_ and _J_) is +drilled transversely through this. The little cylinder shown in the +insert at _O_ slides in the larger hole, and when it is at its upper +limit it cuts off the steam. At the proper intervals the valve is pulled +down by the eccentric _C_. It will be seen that the moving parts, i.e., +the valve and the piston, must be properly timed. That is, the eccentric +_C_ must be mounted on the crank-shaft _B_ so that the valve will close +and open at proper intervals. When the engine is made, the eccentric can +be shifted about by means of a set-screw, _Q_, until the engine operates +satisfactorily. This set-screw is used to hold the eccentric to the +crank-shaft. The word eccentric merely means "off center." Thus the +eccentric in this case is formed by a little disk of brass with the hole +drilled off center. The distances these holes are placed off center will +depend entirely upon the motion of the valve. It will be seen that the +valve is connected to the eccentric by means of the valve-rod _E_. The +valve-rod, in turn, is held to a circular strap which is placed around +the eccentric. A groove should be cut in the surface of the eccentric, +so that this strap will not slip off. If the strap is not put on too +tightly and the eccentric is free to revolve within it, the valve will +be forced up and down as the eccentric revolves. + +The crank-shaft _B_ revolves in two bearings, _D D_. The flywheel is +held to the crank-shaft by means of a set-screw _S_. + +Most small engines with a bore under one inch will operate nicely on +from 20 to 30 pounds of steam, and this pressure can easily be generated +in the boiler that was described in the chapter on model-boat power +plants. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +A MODEL FLOATING DRY-DOCK + + +AS many of the readers probably know, a dry-dock is used in assisting +disabled vessels. Some dry-docks are permanent, while others are built +so that they can be floated or towed to a disabled vessel that is not +able to get to a land dry-dock. The land dry-dock operates as follows. +It is first filled with water, and the disabled boat is towed in by +tugs. After the tugs leave, the gates are closed, and the water in the +dry-dock is pumped out, leaving the boat high and dry. Large props are +put in place to prevent the boat from tipping. + +The dry-dock here described is a model that is towed to a disabled +vessel. It is then sunk until it passes under the boat. The sinking is +brought about by filling the dry-dock with water. After it has sunk to +the proper depth it is passed under the boat to be repaired, the water +is pumped out, and the dry-dock rises, lifting the disabled boat with +it. Repairs can then be made very easily. + +The model here described does not possess all the fittings and additions +of the original. However, it is able to rise or sink as required, +carrying the machinery necessary to bring about these functions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 120] + +[Illustration: FIG. 121] + +A general view of the completed model is shown in Fig. 120. The first +part to construct is the framework for the hull. Four pieces of wood +will be required for this, and they should be cut to the shape and size +shown in Fig. 121. To make this it is best to cut the two side parts +first, as indicated by the dotted lines. This done, the bottom piece can +be clamped on from behind by means of pieces of lath. These are for the +two end pieces. The other two pieces are made in the same way, except +that they contain holes for the water to pass through, as shown at _B_. +The wood for these frames, or ribs, should be not less than 1/4 inch +thick in order to accommodate the pieces used in the construction of the +remainder of the hull. + +When the builder has made the four ribs, he should proceed to construct +the lower deck, which consists of a single piece of wood nicely planed +and finished, measuring 14-1/2 inches long by 8 inches wide and 1/8 inch +thick. This piece must be nailed to the bottom of each of the ribs, one +at each end, and the other two containing the holes at equal distances +apart. Tiny nails, similar to those used on cigar-boxes, will be found +very suitable for this work. Some old cigar-boxes may be broken apart to +obtain the nails for this purpose. Before nailing on the board it should +be marked out to present ordinary deck-boards. The reader is referred +back to Chapter 9 which describes this process, using a straight-edge +and knife. + +When this board is nailed in place, the next requirement will be two +pieces for the sides the bottom edges, of which must rest on the top of +the deck-board. These boards are the same length as the deck. They +should reach to the top of the ribs, and be fastened in the same way as +the bottom deck. It is good practice, when doing this, to place a little +white lead on the bottom edge before finally driving the nails in place. +This will tend to produce a water-tight joint. This done, three pieces +of wood 5/8 inch square must be screwed in place, flush with the bottom +ends of the ribs, to form a flat keel. They should be firmly fixed since +a lead keel is afterward screwed on the bottom of the boat. Attention +should now be directed to fitting the two middle decks. These are placed +4 inches from the top and are 4 inches wide. In this space the engine +and pumps are placed. Therefore, the top deck is made in the form of a +lid, and the outside plate made to draw out. In this way the mechanism +below the deck can be made very accessible. + +The framework of the dry-dock is now completed, and the builder can +proceed to fix on the side plates. These are made from sheet tin with a +width of 14-1/2 inches. The length must be sufficient to reach from the +top of one side, around the bottom of the hull, to the top of the other +side. Having cut the tin to the required size, one side is put in place +with small nails, spacing them an equal distance apart. + +Before securing the opposite side, the builder must first arrange the +inlet-valve. This particular member is constructed as follows. First, +obtain an old gas-pipe union which measures about 5/8 inch in diameter +and 3/4 inch long. With a hacksaw this is cut off in a sloping direction +with an angle to correspond with the slope in the bottom of the +dry-dock. When this is done, a lid must be fitted to the top by means of +a long rod, as clearly shown in Fig. 122. On the under side of this lid +a small piece of sheet rubber should be glued, so that when the lid is +screwed down the valve will be made water-tight. The valve must now be +soldered to the inside of the hull. It is placed in such a position that +it will rest just under the center of one of the upper decks when the +controlling rod is upright. + +[Illustration: FIG. 122] + +The top end of the rod must contain a thread for about 1 inch, and a +round plate made to screw on. This plate should be about 3/4 inch in +diameter, and contain three small holes around the edge. These holes are +used in fastening the plate to the deck. The top of the rod is fitted +with a small crank-handle, which is used in turning the rod in either +direction. In this way the valve can be either opened or closed. At the +bottom of the rod a small swivel should be provided, as indicated in +Fig. 122. + +The plate or sheet of tin on this side of the hull can now be +permanently fixed in place. When this is done a light hammer should be +used around the edges to turn the tin into the wood. + +With the plates secured in place, the builder must next fix a flat wood +keel along the bottom of the dry-dock. This should be screwed to the +inside keel, screws passing through the tin plate. A lead keel is then +screwed to the wooden keel, and when this is done the dry-dock can be +launched. If the foregoing instructions have been carried out carefully +the dry-dock should ride lightly on the water. + +As a trial the inlet-valve is now unscrewed and water is permitted to +enter the hull. When the water rushes in, the hull will begin to sink. +The water should be allowed to enter until the hull sinks to within an +inch of the lower or inside deck. The valve should then be closed. The +exact position of the water should now be found, and a line drawn all +around the hull, which can afterward be painted in. + +The engine and boilers must now be constructed and placed on the +dry-dock, so that the water that was permitted to enter may be pumped +out. As a temporary arrangement, a thin rubber tubing is inserted +through a hole in the lower deck and allowed to hang outside the +water-level. The siphon can then be formed by simply drawing the water +up by suction with the lips. A continuous flow will result, emptying the +hull within a short time. + +[Illustration: FIG. 123] + +Attention is now directed to the construction of the boiler and pumps. +The boiler, which is rectangular in shape, is made of thin sheet copper, +and measures 4 inches long by 3 inches wide by 2 inches deep. A hole is +made in the top, and a brass or copper tube 6 inches long and about 3/4 +inch in diameter is soldered in position, as depicted in Fig. 123. This +tube acts as a chimney on the dry-dock, but it is really used for +filling the boiler, and the top is supplied with a tightly fitting +cork. + +The ends of the boiler also act as supports, and they are made 4 inches +long. The bottom edge is turned up for about 1/4 inch to enable the +boiler to be screwed firmly to the lower deck. The boiler occupies a +position at one end of the hull, and should fit easily in between decks. +A small spirit-lamp is used to furnish heat, and no description need be +given of this particular part of the equipment. Before the boiler is +firmly fixed in place a small hole should be made near the top at one +end. The feed steam-pipe is inserted in this, and soldered in place. + +Two small oscillating cylinders, similar to those made for the engine on +the _Nancy Lee_ (Chapter 6), should be made. They should not be more +than 3/4 inch in length, with a 3/8-inch bore. If the builder has any +old model steam-engines in the shop, he may take the cylinders from them +instead of constructing new ones for the dry-dock. + +The engine is set up as shown in Fig. 124. The first job is to make the +frame or standards, and this is in one piece. Two pieces of brass (_A_), +measuring 5-1/2 inches long by 1/2 inch wide and 1/16 inch in thickness, +are cut. Next the builder should mark off 1-1/2 inches from either end, +and carefully bend at right angles, after which holes are drilled to +accommodate the crank-axle _B_. Two holes must also be made for screws +to enable the machine to be screwed to the deck. + +[Illustration: FIG. 124] + +[Illustration: FIG. 125] + +The flywheel should be 1-1/2 inches in diameter, while the bent crank +has a throw of 3/16 inch. The steam-cylinder is fixed on the outside of +one of the uprights, and the steam-pipe must, of course, be fitted from +the inside. + +The pump-cylinder is composed of a small piece of brass tube 1 inch long +and 3/8 inch in diameter. The plunger is 1/2 inch long, and the diameter +is just sufficient to enable it to work freely up and down inside the +brass tube. One end is shaped as shown in Fig. 125. This contains a saw +cut that enables the pump-rod to be placed between and connected with a +pin. The bottom end of the cylinder is now fitted with a brass disk in +which a hole is made and a 3/32-inch tube soldered in place. The inside +surface of this piece of brass should be countersunk, and the piece is +then soldered into the end of the cylinder. Before the plunger is +inserted a small lead shot is dropped in, which should be larger than +the hole at the bottom of the cylinder, thereby covering it. A hole is +drilled in at the side of the cylinder, and a small bent pipe fixed in +it. At the top of this pipe a short piece of 3/8-inch brass tube is +fixed in place, as indicated. This piece of tubing is closed at both +ends. The bottom end is treated like that of the pump-barrel and +supplied with a large shot. An outlet-pipe is soldered into the side of +the delivery-valve chamber and leads to the side of the hull. + +The pump _E_ is fixed at the bottom midway between the engine uprights +as indicated in Fig. 124. The suction-pipe passes through a hole and +down through the deck nearly to the bottom of the hull. After the +engine and boiler are connected, a trial can be made. If the foregoing +instructions have been carried out, the engine will run at a good speed +and a continuous flow of water will be pumped out of the hull. All parts +of the engine and pump should be carefully oiled and water should be +poured into the pump in order to prime it before its start. + +It is understood that two complete boilers and pump units are made for +the model, and one is mounted on each side. If the builder desires to +increase the capacity of the pumps and install a more powerful boiler +and engine, only one pump will be necessary. Otherwise the water will +not be pumped from the hull very rapidly. + +When the builder has finished the pump units, he should turn his +attention to the remainder of the fittings. Two small cranes are made, +and one is placed at each side of the hull. They are made of tin. The +cab of each crane measures 2-1/2 inches high by 2 inches long by 1-3/4 +inches wide. A small roof is fitted on, and a piece of wood fitted to +the bottom to serve as a floor. The jib measures 6 inches long by 3/4 +inch at the base, and tapers to 1/2 inch. It has 1/4 inch turned down at +each side, thus adding considerable strength. The jib is fitted to the +cab by means of a wire passed through the sides, and two guy-ropes are +arranged as shown. A small piece is now cut out at the top, and a pulley +wheel fixed in position by means of a pin passed through the sides. + +[Illustration: FIG. 126] + +The winding-drum can be made of either tin or wood. The axle passes +through both sides of the cab, the crank being attached to the outside. +Fig. 126 shows the completed crane, which is held to the deck by means +of a small bolt and nut. A washer should be placed between the bottom of +the crane and the deck, to allow the crane to turn freely with little +friction. + +A hand-rail, made of fine brass wire, is placed around the deck. + +Dummy port-holes are fixed to the sides of the dry-dock for the purpose +of lighting up the interior of the engine-room. These are furnished from +top rings taken from gas-mantles. Anchor-chains are fixed at each end of +the dry-dock. The whole dry-dock is painted with two coats of gray paint +and the water-line painted in bright red. + +[Illustration: FIG. 127] + +Fig. 127 shows the dry-dock with a model boat in position. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +OPERATION OF FLASH STEAM POWER PLANTS FOR MODEL BOATS + + +THE flash steam method of propelling model power boats of the racing +type produces a far greater speed than would otherwise be possible. +Flash steam plants are far more complicated than ordinary +steam-propelled power plants, and for this reason the author devotes a +chapter to their description. + +A considerable equipment of tools and not a little mechanical ingenuity +are required to produce and assemble a workable flash steam plant. +However, such plants have gained great popularity in the past few years, +and all of the hydroplane racing craft are propelled with such outfits. +These power plants are capable of delivering such a tremendous power +that speeds as high as thirty-five miles an hour have been reached by +boats measuring 40 inches long. + +The illustration, Fig. 128, shows a flash steam plant and its various +parts. Each part and its function will be described in this Chapter in +detail. The gasolene tank _A_ is used to hold the fuel, which is fed to +the gasolene burner _C_. The gasolene burner operates on the principle +of the ordinary gasolene torch. First the tank is filled about +three-quarters full with gasolene. An air-pressure is then produced in +the tank with a bicycle pump. The pipe leading from the gasolene-tank at +the top is coiled around the burner, and the free end of it is bent and +provided with a nipple, so that the gasolene vapor will be blown through +the center of the helix of the coil formed by the pipe bent around the +burner. This is quite clearly shown in the drawing. + +[Illustration: FIG. 128] + +The cylinder is merely a piece of stovepipe iron bent to shape and +provided with several air-holes at the burner end. To start the burner, +the vaporizing coils must first be heated in an auxiliary flame. The +flame of an ordinary blow-torch is suitable for this purpose. After +the coils have become sufficiently hot the valve at the top of the +gasolene-tank is opened, and this causes a stream of gasolene vapor to +issue at the nipple. This produces a hot flame at the center of the +vaporizing coils, and in this way the coils are kept hot. The purpose of +heating these coils is further to vaporize the gasolene as it passes +through them on the way to the burner. Once started, the action of the +burner is entirely automatic. The vaporizing coils are made of Shelby +steel tubing with an internal diameter of 1/8 inch. + +It will be seen that the flame from the gasolene-torch is blown through +the center of the boiler coils _B_. Thus, any water passing through +these boiler coils is instantly converted into steam. In other words, +the water "flashes" into steam. The heat of the blow-torch is so great +that most of the boiler coils are maintained at red heat even while the +water is passing through them. + +Notice the water-tank _G_. A little scoop, formed by a pipe of small +diameter, protrudes through the bottom of the boat, so that the forward +motion of the boat will cause water to rise in the tank _G_. An +overflow is also provided, so that, should the water not be sucked out +of the tank quickly enough, it will not flood the boat. The overflow +pipe hangs off the side of the boat. + +The water pump _E_ sucks water from the tank, and pumps it through the +check-valve _K_ (this valve permits water to pass in one direction only) +into the boiler coils. The boiler coils, being red-hot, cause the water +to flash into steam the instant it reaches them. By the time the steam +has reached the opposite end of the boiler coils, it is no longer steam, +but a hot, dry gas at a terrific pressure. From the boiler coils the +steam passes into the steam-chest of the engine, and thence into the +cylinder, where it expands, delivering its energy to the piston. + +It will be seen that the water-pump _E_ is geared to the engine. Owing +to this, it is necessary to start the water circulating through the +boiler coils by the hand pump _F_. This hand pump forces water through +the boiler coils just as the power pump does. After the hand pump is +started the engine is turned over a few times until it starts. The +valve _H_ is then closed, which cuts the starting pump _F_ entirely out +of the system, because when the engine starts it also drives the water +pump _E_, and therefore the action becomes entirely automatic. + +The relief-cock _L_ is placed in the system to be used if the engine +stalls. By opening the relief-cock the pressure in the complete system +is immediately relieved. At all other times the relief-cock is closed. + +A second pump, _I_, is also included in the system. This, like the +water-pump, is geared to the engine and driven by it. It is the duty of +this pump to convey oil from the lubricating tank _M_ into the steam +feed-pipe just before it enters the steam-chest. In this way the live +superheated steam carries a certain amount of lubricating oil with it in +the cylinder. + +Owing to the high temperature of the superheated steam, it is impossible +to use brass cylinders on the steam-engines employed with flash steam +systems. Steel seems to be the only cheap metal that is capable of +withstanding the attack of flash steam. Brass is out of the question, +since its surface will pit badly after it is in use a short time. + +The boiler of a flash steam plant is covered with sheet iron so as to +prevent drafts of air from deflecting the flame from the center of the +boiler coils. The cover is provided with ventilators, so that the burner +will not be smothered. If enough oxygen does not enter the interior of +the boiler coils, poor combustion will result, and the gasolene flame +will not develop its maximum heat. Upon referring again to the diagram, +it will be seen that the exhaust steam pipe from the engine discharges +into the stack of the boiler covering. This discharge greatly +facilitates the circulation of air through the boiler coils. + +After a flash steam plant has been started it will work automatically, +providing all the parts are in good running order. Flash steam plants, +however, are difficult to get in the proper adjustment, and once +adjusted they are easily disturbed by minor causes. Owing to the fact +that every square inch of surface in the flash coils is heating surface, +the amount of water supplied to the boiler must be exactly what is +needed. The heat must also be regulated so that the temperature of the +steam will just meet the engine's needs. Many times an increase in heat +causes the steam to reach such a temperature that it will burn up the +lubricating oil before it reaches the cylinder of the engine. This is +liable to cause trouble, because sticking is apt to occur. + +Model power boats with speeds as high as thirty-five miles an hour have +been made in America. Such high-speed boats must be assembled with +infinite care, owing to the fact that the mechanism they carry is more +or less erratic in its action, and unless it is well made results cannot +be expected. + +[Illustration: FIG. 129] + +There are probably few sports more interesting than that of model +power-boat racing. The Central Park Model Yacht Club of New York city is +one of the most progressive clubs in America, and its members not only +have a sail-boat division, but they also have a power-boat division. The +members of the power-boat section have races regularly once a week, and +the most lively competition is shown. It is indeed amusing to watch +these little high-speed boats dash across the pond, their bows high in +the air and their little engines snorting frantically. Owing to the +difficulty of keeping these small racing boats in a straight line, they +are tied to a wire or heavy cord and allowed to race around a pole +anchored in the center of the pond, as illustrated in Fig. 129. The top +of the pole should be provided with a ball-bearing arranged so that the +cord to which the boat is fastened will not wind around the post. In +this way the boats are caused to travel in a circle, and as the cord to +which they are fastened represents the radius of the circle, the +circumference can readily be found by multiplying the radius by 2, +which will give the diameter. The diameter is then multiplied by 3.1416 +to obtain the circumference. If the boats were permitted to travel wild +they would run into the bank, a fatal procedure when they are running at +high speed. + +Speed boat hulls are usually of the hydroplane or sea-sled type. This +type of hull is extremely easy to make. Such a hull is shown in Fig. +130. It will be seen that it has an aluminum bottom. The propeller and +propeller strut will be noticed in this illustration. + +[Illustration: FIG. 130] + +[Illustration: FIG. 131] + +[Illustration: FIG. 132] + +The drawing for the particular hull shown in Fig. 130 is given in Fig. +131. First the two side pieces are cut out to the shape shown. In this +particular instance the over-all length of the sides is 39-1/3 inches. +This is called a meter boat, and is built with this length to conform +with the English racing rules. Next a bow piece is cut out, and this is +produced from solid wood. Only two materials are used in the +construction of this hull, aluminum and mahogany. Square mahogany strips +are cut out and fastened inside of the side pieces by means of shellac +and 3/8-inch brass brads. The bottom of the hull is made of 22-gage +sheet aluminum. This is fastened to the square mahogany strips, since +the sides of the boat are entirely too thin for this purpose. The method +of fastening the strips of aluminum will be made evident by referring to +Fig. 132. The aluminum bottom does not run completely over the bow +piece, but merely overlaps it sufficiently to be fastened by brass +brads, as illustrated in Fig. 135. The single step in the bottom of the +boat is fastened by a mahogany strip, through which the stern-tube runs +and the water-scoop. The back of the boat is made up of mahogany. A +small aluminum hood is bent to shape, and this is fastened to the bow of +the boat and prevents the boat from shipping water. + +In building a hull of this nature the mechanic should exercise care to +see that it is in perfect balance, and that the sides are finished and +varnished as smoothly as possible. This will cut down both air and water +resistance. The position of the propeller strut and stern-tube will be +seen by referring to the drawing of the hull in Fig. 131. + +The propeller of a high-speed boat is of a high pitch and generally of +the two-blade type. It should be at least 3 inches in diameter and with +a pitch of about 10 inches. By this it is meant that the propeller +theoretically should advance 10 inches through the water for one +revolution. The rudder is generally fastened in one position, in case +the boat is not used on a string and pole. It will be found advisable, +however, always to run the boat in this way, and in such cases the +rudder can be entirely dispensed with. + +[Illustration: FIG. 133] + +The boiler of a flash steam plant is extremely simple. Such a boiler is +shown in Fig. 133. It consists merely of a coil of copper or Shelby +steel tubing with an internal diameter of 1/4 inch. The boiler coils +should be wound around a circular form of wood about 2-3/4 inches in +diameter. In the case of copper it will not be found very difficult to +do this, providing the copper is heated before being wound on the wooden +form. If the copper is heated it is advisable to wind the wood with a +layer of sheet asbestos before the copper tube is wound on. It is almost +necessary to do this winding with a lathe, but if the mechanic does not +have access to such a tool he may have to find other means of doing it, +or possibly he can take it to a local machine shop and have the work +done for a few cents. The boiler coil should be wound about 9 inches +long. + +A casing of Russian sheet iron is made to slip over the boiler, leaving +sufficient space between. Ventilating holes or slots are cut in the +cover to permit of a free circulation of air. The boiler covering is +also provided with a funnel through which the exhaust gases from the +blow-lamp pass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 134] + +[Illustration: FIG. 135] + +The blow-lamp used operates on the same principle as the ordinary +blow-torch. The details of such a lamp are given in Fig. 134, and a +finished torch is shown in Fig. 135. Instead of making the valves +necessary for the blow-torch, it is advisable to purchase them, for they +are very difficult to make accurately. The valve at the back of the +torch regulates the gasolene supply that passes through the nipple. The +hole in the nipple should be about twenty thousandths of an inch. Owing +to the fact that the copper coil wound about the burner is short, the +tube can be filled with molten resin before it is bent. In this way the +tube will not kink or lose its shape while being wound. After it is +wound it is placed in the fire and the molten resin forced out with a +bicycle-pump. Such a blow-torch produces a tremendous heat and throws a +hot flame far up into the boiler coils. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +SAILING YACHTS + + +BEFORE attempting to construct model sailing yachts the young worker +should become thoroughly conversant with the different types of yachts +and their fittings. In the following pages the author briefly outlines +the general science of yacht-making and sailing. + +Sailing yachts are made in four principal types. There is the cutter +rig, yawl rig, sloop rig, and the ketch rig. The cutter rig is shown in +Fig. 136. It consists of four sails so arranged that the top-sail may be +either removed altogether or replaced by sails of smaller area. In all +yachts it is necessary to haul the sails up into position by ropes known +as halyards. The halyards must be led down to the deck. The +model-builder, however, can dispense with much of the gear used on +larger boats. + +A sloop rig is illustrated in Fig. 137. By studying the drawing the +worker will see that the sloop rig differs from the cutter rig only in +that she carries a single sail forward of her mast. + +[Illustration: FIG. 137] + +[Illustration: FIG. 136] + +The yawl rig (See Fig. 138) is similar to a cutter rig, but has a small +sail set up on another mast abaft the mainsail. The sheet is led aft to +a spar that projects beyond the counter. The mast upon which the smaller +sail is set is known as the mizzenmast. In this rig it will be seen that +the main boom must be made considerably shorter than was the case in +the cutter rig. This is done so that it will not follow the mizzenmast +when it swings from one position to another. + +[Illustration: FIG. 138] + +[Illustration: FIG. 139] + +The ketch rig differs greatly from the yawl rig. The mizzenmast always +occupies a position forward of the rudder-post. In the yawl the +mizzenmast is always stepped aft of the rudder-post. This will be seen +by referring to the drawings of the two boats. The ketch rig is +illustrated in Fig. 139. + +The prettiest rig of all is the schooner; but, owing to the fact that it +is difficult to get them to go well to windward unless the hull is +perfectly rigged, the author has decided not to deal with this type of +boat. When the reader becomes proficient in building and sailing the +simpler types described in this book, he may turn his attention to the +construction and sailing of more complicated types. + + +_Model Yacht Parts_ + +The submerged portion of a yacht is, as in all other boats, termed the +hull. The backbone of the hull is called the keelson. Attached to the +keelson is a piece of lead, which is put in place to give the boat +stability and power to resist the heeling movement created by the +wind-pressure upon the sails. This is known as the keel. + +Yachts always have an opening in the deck giving access to the interior +of the hull. These openings are known as hatchways. When sailing in +rough weather the hatchway is closed by a hatch to prevent the yacht +from shipping water. + +The extreme forward end of a yacht hull is called the stern, while the +portions forward and aft of the midships section are known as the fore +and after-body respectively. + +[Illustration: A TWIN CYLINDER STEAM ENGINE FOR MODEL MARINE USE + +This engine will drive a boat several feet long] + +In all yachts a portion of the hull extends out over the water. These +portions are known as overhangs. The overhang aft is sometimes called +the counter-stern. The sides of the hull that rise above the deck are +called bulwarks, and the part of the bulwarks that cross the stern is +called the taffrail. The taffrail is always pierced with holes to allow +water to run off the deck quickly, so that the additional weight will +not in any way affect the course of the boat. It is understood that +yachts raise great quantities of water upon their decks when traveling +in rough sea. + +The bowsprit is passed through a ring at the top of the stern, and this +ring is termed the gammon iron. Its end is secured in a socket or +between a pair of uprights called the bowsprit bits. These are fixed to +the deck. Metal bars are fixed a short distance above the deck to take +rings attached to the sheets. This is done so that the sails may swing +freely from one side of the boat to the other. Metal eyes are screwed +into the sides to take the shrouds, and are called chain-plates. The eye +in the stern is called the bobstay plate. In the stern-post are two eyes +called gudgeons. The rudder is hooked to this by means of two hooks +called pintles. The bar or lever that is fixed to the top of the +rudder-post is called a tiller. + +[Illustration: A CUP-WINNING MODEL SAIL BOAT + +Designed and constructed by the commodore of the Central Park Model +Yacht Club, New York, N. Y.] + +The parts and fittings of a mast follow: the step, the head, the caps, +crosstrees, truck, topmast, boom, and gaff. The part of the gaff that +rests on the mast is called the throat; the end of the gaff is called +the peak. The jib-boom is a term used only in connection with model +yachts. In larger boats the jib-boom is an extension of the bowsprit. +The small boom that projects over the stern of a yawl is called the +bumpkin. The spar is rather a general term applied to practically all +wooden supports of sails. The spar of a lug-sail is called the yard. It +is different from a boom or gaff, by reason of its lying against the +mast instead of having one end butting on the mast. Anything belonging +to the mainmast should be distinguished by the prefix main. Thus, there +are the mainsail, the mainboom, main-topsail, etc. + +[Illustration: FIG. 140] + +A sail for a model cutter-rigged yacht is shown in Fig. 140. The +bowsprit and masts are, when necessary, given support by ropes that are +stretched tightly to some point where they can be conveniently anchored +to the hull. The following are those largely used on model yachts: +topmast stay, bobstay, topmast shrouds, and forestay. + +The sails are pulled up and fastened by ropes termed halyards. The +halyards are fastened to the upper portions of the sail, and they are +named according to the sail to which they are attached. For instance, +there is the jib halyard and the foresail halyard. A mainsail carried by +a gaff has two halyards, the throat and peak. The movement of the sails +is controlled by ropes, called sheets, which take their names from the +sails they control. There is a mainsheet, a jibsheet, and a foresheet. +The reader should take note of this term and refrain from confusing it +with the sails. + + +_Sailing Model Yachts_ + +The sailing of model yachts is a real art, and the author warns the +reader that he cannot hope to become a proficient yachtsman by merely +digesting the information given in this book. His real knowledge must be +earned by experience in handling a model yacht on the water. However, +there are few sports that will afford more pleasure than that of sailing +model yachts. Being an outdoor sport it is very healthful. + +In sailing a model yacht the sails are set, or "trimmed," so that she +will continue to sail along the course previously decided upon by the +yachtsman. She must do this in as speedy a manner as possible and with +as little deviation from her original course as possible. The trim of +the sails will depend upon the wind. If the boat is to sail against the +wind, that is termed "beating to windward"; with the wind is called +"scudding." With the wind sideways it is called "reaching." If the boat +is sailed with the wind blowing midway between one of the sides and the +stern in such a way that it sweeps from one side of the stern across the +deck, this is called "three-quarter sailing" in a "quartering" wind. A +model yacht will continue for a great distance on a reach or while +scudding; but, on the other hand, it will not be possible for her to +sail directly against the wind. If a yachtsman is to make headway +against the wind, he must sail his boat as near dead against the wind as +it will go. + +The cutter type of yacht will move against a wind that is blowing at a +very small angle on her bowsprit. As soon as she reaches the limit of +her course, the yachtsman turns her bow at a small angle so as to bring +the wind on the opposite side of the vessel, and in this way a second +course is started. These courses are repeated in a zigzag fashion until +the yacht arrives at her destination. This zigzagging, or "tacking," as +it is called, is illustrated in Fig. 141. It will be seen that the yacht +starts at _B_, and makes 3 tacks before she arrives at her destination, +_A_. Each time she touches the shore she is "put about" and set upon a +new course, or "tack." + +[Illustration: FIG. 141] + +It will be understood that tacking is slow work, and a greater distance +must be traveled than would be covered by a power-boat, which would be +able to go in a straight line. However, with wind-propelled craft this +is the only way in which progress can be made against the wind. The +left-hand side of a yacht viewed from the stern is called the port side, +while the right-hand side is called the starboard side. Thus a yacht +sailing with the wind blowing on her port side is on the port tack, +while if the wind is blowing on the starboard side she is said to be on +the starboard tack. From this the reader will see that Fig. 142 shows an +impossible case. + +[Illustration: FIG. 142] + +[Illustration: FIG. 143] + +[Illustration: FIG. 144] + +[Illustration: FIG. 145] + +The sails in front of the mast that are placed nearest the stern of the +yacht act in such a manner as to turn the bows in the direction of the +arrow, as illustrated in Fig. 146, and the sail or sails abaft the mast +turn the boat in the direction of the arrow _A_. The boat thus revolves +upon the center of the mast much as a weathercock revolves upon its +pivot. If there is more than one mast, all the sails carried abaft the +mainmast serve to turn the boat in the direction _A_. The work of +sailing depends greatly upon the skill in balancing these two effects so +that the boat will progress in a straight line. To do this the sails are +set in a greater or less angle in relation to the center line of the +boat. The less the angle that a sail makes with the center line of the +boat, the greater is its power to determine in which direction the boat +will steer. The more the yachtsman slackens out his jib and foresail, or +the smaller he makes these sails, the less their power will be to turn +the boat in the direction _B_. On the other hand, the larger they are +and the more tightly they are pulled in, the greater will be their +power. When the mainsail and all of the sails abaft the mainsail are +slackened out and the smaller they are made, the less their power will +be to swing the boat in the direction _A_. + +The influence of a sail upon the speed of a boat also increases with the +angle that it makes with the center line of the hull. The more the +yachtsman slackens out his sail, the more it will help the boat along. +The reader will see that these two conditions interfere with each other, +and therefore the trimming of the sails becomes a compromise. It is good +for the young yachtsman to remember to sail his boat with the sails as +slack as possible, as long as she keeps a good course. He should also +remember not to overload her with sails, since the nearer to an upright +position she maintains the faster she will go. + +It is not possible to depend entirely upon the trim of the sails to keep +a model in a given course. This is because the strength of the wind +varies so that the sails are in balance one moment and out of balance +the next. The sails abaft the mainmast overpower the sails before it +when the wind increases. The result of this is that the bow of the boat +will be repeatedly turned in the direction _A_, Fig. 146. + +[Illustration: FIG. 146] + +[Illustration: FIG. 147] + +[Illustration: FIG. 148] + +Some form of automatic rudder is therefore generally used to overcome +this tendency of the yacht to "luff" in the wind. Fig. 147 shows the +course of a yacht reaching from _A_ to _B_. The dotted lines show the +course she should follow. The full line shows the effect of puffs of +wind, which repeatedly take her out of her course. Many times she may +completely turn around and make a similar course back to the +starting-point, as in Fig. 148. There is also the danger of her being +taken back when pointing directly against the wind--the wind will force +her backward stern first for some distance, as illustrated in Fig. 149. +She will do this until she manages to get around on one tack or the +other. + +The dotted line _B_ illustrates the course in which she would be driven +under these conditions. It is not practical to sail a model yacht dead +before the wind without an automatic rudder. With the use of an +automatic rudder the erratic movements shown in Fig. 148 can be entirely +overcome. The action of the rudder is such that every time the boat +leans over to luff up into the wind, the weight of the rudder causes it +to swing out, and thus prevents her from losing her course. As a +different type of rudder is required, according to the course in which +the yacht is sailing, the weight should be adjustable if the same rudder +is used. + +[Illustration: FIG. 149] + +[Illustration: FIG. 150] + +[Illustration: FIG. 152] + +Let us consider scudding before the wind. For scudding the heaviest +rudder should be used, or the weight on a loaded tiller should be in its +position of maximum power. All the sails abaft the foremast should be +slackened out as far as they will go, which will bring the booms almost +at right angles with the center line of the boat. If the craft is a +cutter or yawl with a light weight, the yachtsman should rig the +spinnaker. The head-sails may be left slack or can be tightened. Fig. +150 shows the position of the booms when scudding with a schooner and +yawl. The yawl is shown scudding goose winged. The cutter is illustrated +with the spinnaker set. The other craft is a two-mast lugger with +balanced lugs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 151] + +Attention is now directed to "reaching." For this particular work the +yachtsman should put on a medium rudder. When using a weighted tiller +the weight should be put in a midway position. The head-sails should be +pulled in fairly tight and the aft-sails made slack. The yachtsman, +however, should not slacken them as for scudding. Fig. 151 shows a +schooner reaching. The thick black lines represent the booms of the +sails. If the wind is very light a spinnaker-jib may be set or a +jib-topsail in light or moderate breezes. In the case of a wind that +comes over the stern quarter, as indicated by the arrow _A_, the next +heavier rudder, or its equivalent in weighted tiller, should be put in +operation, and the sails slackened out a little more than before. The +boat is then said to be free and sailing on the starboard tack. If the +wind is coming in the direction _B_ the jib and foresail may require +slackening and the aft sails pulled in more than when sailing with the +wind in the direction _C_. A still lighter rudder can be used as the +course gets near to beating windward, and the yacht is said to be +close-hauled on the starboard tack. + +In beating to windward, if a rudder is used at all, it should be as +light as possible, just heavy enough to keep the boat steady. However, +this is just the condition of sailing when a boat can dispense with a +rudder. It depends entirely upon the characteristics of the particular +yacht being sailed, and for this the yachtsman must depend upon his own +experience. The jib-topsail should not be used in a case like this, and +if the wind is fairly strong a smaller jib should be set than that used +for reaching. It is advisable to slacken the jib and foresail out and +pull the aft-sails in somewhat tightly. Fig. 152 shows a cutter beating +to windward on a port tack. In this case she will have to pay out to +starboard a bit before her sails fill. + +In sailing the weather must be watched very closely, and the amount of +sail carried will depend entirely upon the weather conditions. A yacht +should never be overloaded with sail. If she has more than she can +comfortably carry she will heel over and drag her sails in the water. +Not only this, but she will also drift to leeward when beating to +windward. When sailing a new boat, her best trim for various points of +sailing and force of wind must be found by painstaking experiments. The +boat should always be sailed with her sails as slack as she will take +them and keep in her course. In this way she will move faster than when +the sails are pulled in close. + +The model yachtsman should always watch the wind and note whether it +shifts its direction or alters its force. The boat is trimmed +accordingly when the boat is put about. Easing or tightening the jib or +main-sheet slightly will make a very noticeable difference. + +By taking down the top-sail or setting a jib-head top-sail in place of a +jack yard top-sail, the yacht will be caused to ride easier in puffs of +wind. In case she does not point well to windward when beating, the +yachtsman should try a smaller jib, or he can slacken the +foresail-sheet. If she runs off regularly to leeward on one tack only, +while keeping well to windward on the other, she has some defect in +construction or a bent keel. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +TWO-FOOT SAILING YACHT + + +THE model yacht described in this Chapter is the design of Mr. W. J. +Daniels, of England, and was described by him in "Junior Mechanics." Mr. +Daniels is one of the best known and most successful English designers +of model yachts, and the one here described can easily be constructed by +the average boy: + + In order that the reader may realize the obstacles + to be surmounted in designing a model yacht that + will sail in a straight line to windward, + irrespective of the different pressure that the + wind may expend on the sails, it must be pointed + out that the boat is continuously altering the + shape of the submerged part of her hull: + therefore, unless the hull is so designed that + harmony is retained at every angle to which the + pressure of wind on the sails may heel it, the + model's path through the water will be, more or + less, an arc of a circle. Whether the boat sails + toward the wind, or, in other words, in a curve + the center of the circle of which is on the same + side of the boat as the wind, or in a curve the + center of the circle of which is on the opposite + or leeward side, will depend upon the formation of + the boat. + + As these notes are intended to first initiate the + reader into the subject of model yacht building + and construction, the design supplied is one in + which all things, as far as shape is concerned, + have been considered. + + It is the endeavor of every designer to produce + the most powerful boat possible for a given + length--that is, one that can hold her sail up in + resistance to the wind-pressure best. Of course, + the reader will easily realize that breadth and + weight of keel will be the main features that will + enable the model to achieve this object; but, as + these two factors are those that tend to make a + design less slender, if pushed to extremes, the + designer has to compromise at a point when the + excess of beam and buoyancy are detrimental to the + speed lines of the hull. + + But the question of design pure and simple is a + complex one, and we do not intend to weary the + reader just now with anything of that kind, so we + will now proceed to build the hull. In order that + we may correctly interpret the shape shown in the + design without being expert woodcarvers, we must + use our ingenuity and by mechanical means achieve + our object, at the same time saving ourselves a + large amount of labor, such as we should have to + expend if we made this boat from a solid block of + wood. + + Now, as regards understanding the drawings: it is + essential to remember that a line which in one + view is a curve is always a straight line in the + other two views. Those lines which are drawn + parallel to the water-line are known as + water-lines, and it will be seen that the curves + shown on the deck plan represent the actual shapes + of the hull at the corresponding water-lines + above, below, and exactly on the load water-line. + In other words, if after the hull is made it were + sunk down to these various levels, the shapes of + the hole made in the surface of the water would be + as shown in the plan. + + Therefore, instead of making our boat from a solid + block of wood, we will make our block up from + several layers, the thickness of each layer being + equal to the space between the water-lines; but + before gluing these layers together we will cut + them out to the exact shape that the boat will be + at their various positions. + + It will not be necessary to have a separate piece + of wood for each layer, as some layers below the + actual water-line will be cut from the pieces of + wood that have been cut out from the layers above. + + In this case, the boat being 24 inches long, the + top layer will be the same length and breadth as + the boat, and 1 inch in thickness. + + Draw down the center of the board a straight + line, and other lines square to it, representing + the position of the cross-sections as shown in the + drawing. You have now to transfer the deck line to + this board, and this is done by marking the + breadth at the various sections and drawing a + curve through the spots, a thin strip of + straight-grained wood being used as a rule, the + latter being held down by such weights as are + available. For the purpose of laying off the + water-lines truly, lines spaced at 1-1/2 inches + are shown; the first, it will be noticed, is half + a section or 3/4 inch from the stem head. + + The material required will be a board of pine + about 6 feet long, 8 inches wide, and 1 inch + finished thickness. + + Nearly all wood-yards stock first-quality pine, + but it is in planks 3 inches thick. You can no + doubt pick up a short length about 4 feet long. + + If so, take it to a sawmill and have two boards + 1-1/4 inches thick cut and then machine-planed + down to a dead inch. Perhaps you can purchase a + board that is already cut, and is fully 1 inch + thick, to allow for planing. + + Prepare one edge of the board straight with a + plane, seeing that it is square to the surface. + + As a planing-machine always leaves a series of + ridges across the board, varying according to the + quality of the machine, it is necessary before + transferring the lines to the wood to just skim + the surface with a nicely sharpened plane, and set + so as to just skim the wood. + +[Illustration: FIG. 153] + + + The lengths required are: _A_, plank 24 inches + long; _B_, plank 24 inches; _C_, plank 18-1/2 + inches. + + The _D_ plank will be cut from the center of _B_, + but will have to be shifted two sections forward. + + Having transferred the various shapes from the + drawing on to their respective layers, you saw out + each carefully with a bow or a keyhole-saw, care + being taken not to cut inside the lines. It is + better to cut full, and trim down to the lines + with a chisel or plane. A good deal of trouble can + be saved by the expenditure of a few cents for + having them machine-sawed, in which case ask the + sawyer to use his finest-toothed saw. + + Having cut out layers _A_, _B_, _C_, and _D_, + fresh lines are marked, as shown by the dotted + lines in the plan. These indicate the shape of the + inside of each layer when the boat is carved out, + and save labor. + + These may as well be sawed out now as carved out + later. It will also facilitate gluing up, as it + will allow the superfluous glue to be squeezed + out, and also decrease the breadth of the joint. + + In order to get these various layers glued + together dead true to their positions as indicated + in the design, you must choose a section about + amidships, say section 11, and with a square draw + a line from that section, which is, of course, + still showing on the surface of the layer, down + the edge on either side, joining up with a line + across the opposite face. Also vertical lines at + each end of the midships line must be drawn on + the wood, great care being taken to get the + midships line on the under face of the layers dead + opposite each other. + +[Illustration: FIG. 154] + +[Illustration: FIG. 155] + + If your outfit contains half a dozen carpenter's + hand screws, these can be used; but if not, it + will be necessary to purchase from a hardware + store eight seven-inch bolts and nuts 3/8 inch in + diameter, with one washer for each, and to make up + four clamps, as shown in Fig. 156. + +[Illustration: FIG. 156] + + You will start by gluing layer _C_ to layer _D_, + blocks being placed between the surface of the + layers and the clamps to prevent bruising the + wood. These two are then glued to layer _B_, and + when this is thoroughly set they are glued to the + layer _A_. The best glue to use for this job is + marine glue, which does not dry too quickly, and + so gives plenty of time to see that the layers + have not shifted. In every case one clamp should + be placed at each extreme end of the shorter + layer, so as to insure the ends making contact, + the other two being placed equidistant. + + While waiting for the glue to set, you can be + preparing the four layers (shown below _D_) for + the lead keel pattern. The lines must be cut out, + in this case, with a chisel, as it will be noticed + that the lower faces must be left wide enough to + receive the top face of the layer beneath it. + + It will be noticed that the under face of each of + these layers extends beyond the top face aft, and + allowance must be made for this. On laying off the + lines on the fin layers, do not join up with a + point each end, but leave about 1/8 inch + thickness, as shown on the drawing. + + These layers must be drilled through to take the + keel-bolts, which are made from two motorcycle + spokes, twelve-gage. These should be cut to a + length of 5-1/2 or 6 inches. Great care should be + taken to insure that the midship lines are exactly + vertical over each other when these layers are + glued up. + + Before gluing these four layers on to the hull + proper, they should be held in position by means + of the spokes, in which position they can be sawed + to shape for the keel pattern. First, with a small + plane or sharp chisel cut down roughly, then a + rasp and different grades of sandpaper are used, + working across the joints. + + It will be realized that, if the pattern for the + keel were cut off dead on the line indicated on + the design, there would be a loss of wood through + the saw cut. In order to obviate this, another + line 3/16 inch below the proper lead line is + drawn, and the saw cut made between these two + lines. You will now plane down each face that is + left rough by the saw, straight and square to each + of these lines. On the top face of the pattern + for the lead, glue or tack a piece 3/16 inch thick + along the face, and cut down the edges flush. + + You will by this means have made up for the amount + of wood carried away by the saw. You will no doubt + find a difficulty in holding the pieces of wood + for planing in the ordinary way, but it is simple + enough if you set the plane nicely, grip it in a + vise or bench screw upside down, and push the work + over the plane's face, instead of vice versa. But + be careful of your fingers! + + Take the pieces left from the spokes when cutting + down to length, and put these in the holes in the + keel pattern. These are for cores, and if you take + your pattern to a foundry they will cast it for a + small amount, with the holes in it. + + Shoot the top face of the lead in the manner + before described, and fit on. The hull is now + ready for carving out. Screw on your bench two + pieces of wood about 18 inches in length and 4 + inches wide, so that they project over the edge of + the bench about 10 inches. These should be about + 15 inches apart. Place your hull upside down on + them, and fix it by nailing upward into the top + layer. After cutting off the corners of the layers + roughly with a chisel you use a small plane set + fairly fine, and work all over the hull evenly, + taking care not to cut below any of the joints. A + small gouge will be required to clear the wood + from the region of the after fin, a round + rasp--sandpaper being wrapped around a small + stick--being used for smoothing down afterward. + + Templates of the cross-sections should now be made + from thick white paper. This is done by pricking + through the design to transfer their shape onto + the paper. The cross-sections have on this account + been produced here actual size. If cross-lines + representing the water-lines are drawn, you will + have an excellent guide for fitting, as these + lines will, of course, come opposite each glued + joint. + + Try your templates now and again as you work, and + do not try to finish one spot, but keep the whole + at an even stage, and you will see the hull + gradually grow into shape. + + The topsides (which is the name given to that part + of the vessel's hull above the water-line) are + responsible for the boat's appearance when afloat, + and until the top sheer is cut off the boat looks + very disappointing. The cross-lines being still on + the upper layer, draw square lines from them down + the topsides and from the drawing mark the points + through which the sheer-line runs. The thickness + of the deck must be allowed for, and as this will + be just over 1/16 inch, the line must be drawn + this much below the finished sheer-line. The arch + of the transom must be marked, and the hull cut + down to the sheer. To avoid the risk of splitting, + a number of fine saw cuts are made down each + section line and two or three at the transom. + + You now proceed to carve out the inside. Pad your + bench bearers and rest your hull upon them. A + curved wood gouge with a fairly flat edge is the + best tool. Get it nicely sharpened, and work all + over the inside of hull until it is about 3/16 + inch thick, the top edge being left 3/8 inch wide. + + Keep holding up to the light until it is showing a + blood-red color, and smooth down the gouge marks + with coarse sandpaper. + + The hole for the stern-tube must now be drilled, + and the tube made and fitted. The hole should be + 1/4 inch in diameter. First drill a smaller hole, + and then with a 1/4-inch rat-tail file slowly open + it out, at the same time rubbing a groove down the + stern-post. The stern-tube is made from a piece of + light-gage brass tube, it being cut away with a + piercing saw to leave a strip the length of the + stern-post. Drill three holes in the strip at + equal distance and large enough to take a 1/4 inch + brass screw, No. 0 size. Temporarily screw the + tube in position, and from a piece of thin brass + make a plate for the inside. An oval hole will + have to be made in the plate to enable it to seat + flat over the tube. Solder this while in position. + Then remove the whole, and replace, after + white-leading where wood touches brass. + + The deck-beams, three in number and 1/4 inch + square in section, must now be fitted. The sheer + edge which we left 3/8 inch wide must be recessed + to receive the beams, the recess being made with a + 1/4-inch chisel. + + Before gluing beams in, three coats of good + varnish must be applied to the inside of shell. + + The deck should now be prepared and fitted. You + will require a piece of pine of ample length and + breadth, 1/8 inch in thickness, and after planing + finely and sand-papering, pieces of the same stuff + should be glued on the under face to reinforce it + where the bowsprit, keel-plate, hatch rim, and + mast will be fitted. Cut these pieces to shape + before gluing on. + + Before doing the latter, apply a coat of clear + size to the upper face of the deck; this will + bring up the grain, so paper it down when dry. + This process should be repeated three times. + + Three coats of varnish should be given to the + under side of the deck after the pieces have been + glued on, and when dry the deck can be fitted, + 3/8-inch veneer pins being used for fixing on, and + care being taken to get it true to position. A + center line is drawn down the under side of the + deck, and marks made to correspond at the stern + and transom on the shell. + + The planking lines on the deck can be drawn to + suit your fancy, India ink and a draftsman's + ruling pen being used to do it, afterward applying + two coats of carriage varnish. + + To paint the hull, white lead and dryers, in the + proportion of 5 to 1 by weight respectively, + should be dissolved in turpentine, a few drops of + linseed oil being mixed to make it work freely. + Have this about the consistency of milk, and, + after straining, give the hull about eight coats, + one every twenty-four hours, rubbing each down + when dry with No. 00 sandpaper. Keep the joint + representing the load water-line always in sight + by penciling over after each coat of paint is dry. + When a sufficient body of paint has been applied, + the colors can be applied. Enamel is best for + this. Stick strips of gummed paper around the hull + at the water-line, and paint up to the edge. When + the paint is dry the paper can be soaked off, the + paper being again applied, but reversed for the + other color. If you can use a lining brush the + paper is not necessary for the second color. + + While the painting is going on, spars, sails, and + fittings can be made. As the spars have to be + varnished, it is best to make them first. Pine + should be used, and after cutting strips of + suitable length and diameter, plane them square in + section. With the batten draw on the face the + amount of taper to be given, and plane down to + this line, still keeping the spar square in + section. This having been done, the corners are + planed off carefully until the spar is octagonal + in section, when it is easy to make it perfectly + round with sandpaper by rubbing with the paper + rolled around the stick. The diameter of our mast + is 1/2 inch parallel until the hoist of the fore + triangle is reached, tapering from there to 1/4 + inch at the masthead or truck. The boom is 1/4 + inch at the gooseneck, thickening to 3/8 inch + where the main-sheet is attached, down to 1/4 + inch at the outboard end. The jib-boom is slightly + less than 1/4 inch parallel. + + All spars should be treated with clear size and + fine sandpaper before varnishing. This will + prevent discoloring by the latter, and will also + allow the India ink markings to be made, which + latter will be a guide for the trimming of the + sails. + + In order that any yacht, model or otherwise, may + be able to perform her best, it is essential that + she should have well setting sails. In fact, in a + model a badly setting sail will sometimes even be + enough to prevent her going to windward at all. By + well setting sails we mean sails that are + naturally flat and not made so by straining them + out on the spars. Light material, such as cambric + or light union silk, is best for this purpose, but + not a material that has any dressing in it. + + This particular sail plan is very easy to mark + out. Lay your material out on a table or smooth + surface and pin it down with drawing-pins, + sufficiently stretching it so as to pull out any + creases. The length of the back edge of the + mainsail (which is called the leech) is measured + off 1-1/4 inches inside the edge of the cloth, and + a curve struck as illustrated. The other two sides + of the mainsail are then laid off and pencil lines + drawn. You will note that allowance must be made + for hemming the back edge of the mainsail. If your + sewing-machine has a hemmer, find out how wide a + hem it makes (the smaller the better), and make + allowance accordingly, twice the width of the hem + being necessary. Much depends upon the tension at + which the machine is set, so be careful that the + latter is sufficiently slack so that it does not + draw up the material. + + The jib is marked out in the same manner, and, as + illustrated, the lines representing the positions + of the batten sleeves are drawn. The batten + sleeves are small pockets into which thin pieces + of cane (called battens) are inserted to help the + sail to set nicely. Unless the sail is a good cut + to begin with, however, the insertion of these + battens will never make it right. The sails should + now be cut out with a sharp penknife or scissors, + care being taken not to pull the cloth, and + especially not along the edges that run across the + threads. You then hem the backs and also the foot + of the jib. The batten sleeves (which should be of + white satin ribbon about 3/8 inch in width) should + now be sewn on by stitching down along the extreme + edge to the line drawn, and then down the other + edge, the ends being left open. A strip of narrow + tape is sewn across the foot of the jib-sail to + take the strain of the pull, the part of the jib + contained by the curve of the foot and the tape + being known as the bonnet of the jib. + + To prevent the edges of the sails (other than + those hemmed) being stretched, you bind them with + good tape. The tape is first folded and creased + by rubbing over an edge. The end of the tape is + then turned in. Take a corner of the sail and + place it inside the fold of the tape, care being + taken to get the raw edge right up against the + crease. The needle of the machine should then be + lowered through it as near to the edge of the tape + as practicable, taking care that it goes through + both edges. Keeping a slight pull on the binding, + arrange the cloth in it without pulling the edge. + Put the foot of the machine down and sew it, + afterward raising the foot again and proceeding as + before right around the raw edges of the sail, + leaving the needle down each time the foot is + raised. Do not sew where a batten sleeve passes + under the binding, as you will require the former + left open to allow the batten to pass into the + fold of the binding. The rings for putting up the + luffs of the jib- and main-sail are made by + winding a piece of thin brass or German silver + wire around a steel rod (the spokes used in the + keel being suitable for the latter) and sawing + down to divide them. A small eyelet should be put + in each corner of the sails, and others spaced + evenly at about 2-1/2 inches apart along the boom + and about 5 inches apart along the mast, for + lacing on. An extra row of stitching may be run + down the outer edge of the binding to smooth it + down. + + The simpler the fittings of a model that is + required for practical sailing, the better. They + should be as light as practical. Aluminum is not + advisable for fittings when the boat is to be + sailed in salt water. + +[Illustration: FIG. 157] + + The bowsprit fittings, which are known as the + gammon iron and heel plate (Figs. 157, 158), are + made by soldering pieces of brass tube (cut to + suitable size and shape) onto pieces of triangular + sheet brass, as illustrated. The horses can either + be of wire with the ends turned to suitable shape + and fitted with one screw, or they can have plates + for two screws, in which case the wire is either + threaded and screwed into the plate or + silver-soldered to it. Silver-soldering is done + with a blow-pipe. The flux used is borax made into + a thin paste with water. Silver-solder is bought + in small sheets, and a few cents' worth will go a + long way if used properly. Cut small pieces about + 1/8 inch by 1/16 inch, and, after painting the + part to be soldered with your paste borax with a + very small brush, pick up the solder with the tip + of the brush and put it in position. It will then + run around the joint when the metal is raised to + sufficient heat. + +[Illustration: FIG. 158] + + The hatch-rim is made by cutting a strip of thin + brass 1/4 inch in width, the length being the + circumference of the oval. The two ends are + brought together and silver-soldered. Cut out the + oval in a piece of very thin brass and fit in your + oval strip so that the flat is just in the center + of it. This can then be sweated around with an + ordinary soldering-iron, the flat being trimmed + down afterward with the shears to leave a flange + 1/4 inch in width, the latter being drilled to + take 1/4 inch No. 0 round-head screws. + +[Illustration: FIG. 159] + +[Illustration: FIG. 160] + +[Illustration: FIG. 161] + + The deck fitting for the mast, (Fig. 159) is made + in much the same way, a piece of tube being used + instead of cutting a strip of brass. To receive + the heel of the mast a fitting known as the + mast-step must be made and fitted. This, of + course, must be done before the deck is put on. + The step is made from two pieces of brass, each + about 1/32 inch in thickness, 1 inch long and 1/2 + inch wide. One is hard-soldered on edge down the + center of the other to form something like a T + girder. A slot, as illustrated, is cut in the + upright piece with a ward file, and holes drilled + in the flat for screwing down on the inside of the + boat. A ferrule of brass tube is fitted to the + heel of the mast, a cut of suitable size being + made in it to receive the upright of the step. A + hole should be drilled through the heel of the + mast at right angles to the slot, and a wire + passed through and riveted, the latter being of + suitable thickness to be received by the slot in + the step. + +[Illustration: FIG. 164] + +[Illustration: FIG. 163] + +[Illustration: FIG. 162] + + The rudder-blade (Fig. 162) is made from a piece + of sheet brass fitted to a tube, the latter being + an easy fit into the stern-tube already fitted. + The blade can be soldered onto the tube. The + pintle on which the rudder fits and swings is a + strip of brass, the width of the after fin, a wire + pin being hard-soldered in to fit up into the + rudder. + + The pintle (Fig. 163) should be fitted before the + painting is started. + + In the steering gear, instead of a quadrant, as + the fitting on the rudder-head of the "Braine" + gear is called, you fit an ordinary tiller (Fig. + 164) by bending a wire to suit your fancy and + soldering it on to a collar made from a piece of + tube that will just sleeve on the outside of the + rubber-tube, which latter is fixed by drilling a + hole right through it and the rudder head, and + fitting a tapered pin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 165] + +[Illustration: FIG. 166] + + The steering-gear rack (Fig. 165) by which the + amount of helm is adjusted is made from a strip of + brass cut with lugs which are bent up at right + angles as illustrated. This need only be of thin + sheet metal, as the strain is very small. + + For running before the wind, separate lines are + used, two in number, as illustrated, and the + amount of helm is governed by the distance away + from midships that the lead is moved. For + instance, if the lead is placed amidships, the + pull will simply keep the rudder dead straight, + whereas if placed on the deck edge it will allow + the maximum amount of angle. + + Your bowsers can be made from pieces of toothbrush + handle or from brass or German-silver wire. Very + efficient bowsers can be made from aluminum tube + cut in sections about 3/16 inch long, with three + holes drilled in each piece around its periphery. + + Plaited bobbin cotton should be used for the + cordage, as it does not curl up when wet. + + If you decide to fit the Braine steering gear, a + spur or bumpkin, as it is termed, must be fitted + to take the rubber centering line. + + + + +APPENDIX + +BOYS' DICTIONARY OF MARINE TERMS + + + =Abaft.= Behind; toward the stern. + + =Abeam.= At right angles to the side and in + horizontal plane. + + =Aft.= Toward the stern. + + =After-body.= Between amidships and stern. + + =Aloft.= Overhead; on the yards or in the upper + rigging. + + =Amidships.= The middle part of a vessel. + + =Anchor.= Instrument for holding vessels at rest + in the water. Made of iron. + + =Athwart. Athwartships.= Across; from side to + side. + + =Ballast.= Material used to load the ship, for + stability or submerging purposes. + + =Barge.= General name for vessels built for + towing. + + =Bark.= Three-masted vessel, square-rigged on the + fore- and main-masts, and fore-and-aft rigged on + the mizzen. + + =Barkentine.= Three-masted vessel, square-rigged + on the foremast and fore-and-aft on the main-and + mizzen-masts. + + =Beam.= The widest part of a vessel. + + =Bollards.= Posts of timber on sides of docks, + quays, etc., over which ropes are thrown for + hauling vessels alongside. + + =Boom.= The lower spar for a fore-and-aft sail. + + =Bow.= Sides of fore part of boat: the right hand + being the starboard bow, and the left hand the + port bow. + + =Bowsprit.= Pole projecting from stem forward, and + taking forestays and bobstays. + + =Bridge-house.= House built near bridge. + + =Brig.= Vessel with two masts, both square-rigged + but having a gaff mainsail. + + =Buoy.= A floating object moored over a certain + spot; generally a warning of danger. + + =Buoyancy.= The capacity for floating which a boat + possesses. + + =Cabin.= Room for use of officers and passengers. + + =Capstan.= Consists of a long drum revolving + vertically and used for pulling in heavy lines. + Sometimes used in connection with windlass to + hoist anchor by hand. + + _Center of Gravity._ Center of weight. + + =Coaming.= Raised planking around hatchway of + yacht to prevent water shipped in rough weather + from getting below decks. + + =Cockpit.= Formerly an apartment under lower + gun-deck of warship, used as quarters for junior + officers, and during a battle devoted to the + surgeon and his assistants. + + =Cockswain.= Person who steers a boat. + + =Compass.= Instrument composed of one or more + magnetic needles attached to a circular card which + turns freely on the point of a steel cone or + floats on a liquid. The upper surface of the card + is divided into the 32 points of the compass. Used + to find direction. + + =Craft.= Usually denotes small size vessel, but + may be applied to any kind. + + =Crane.= Machine for hoisting and moving heavy + equipment and material. + + =Cruiser.= Boat intended for extended voyages. + Used in connection with yachts, to distinguish + from racing models. + + =Davit.= Light crane on side of ship for lowering + and lifting boats. Sometimes applied to projecting + beam over which anchor is hoisted. + + =Displacement.= Weight of ship and all on board + when at sea. It is equal to the weight of the + water displaced. + + =Dock.= An excavation of large area for reception + of vessels. Wet-dock for loading and unloading or + dry-dock for building and repairing vessels. + + =Dock-yard.= A place where ships are built and + repaired. + + =Funnel.= Large sheet-iron tube extending from the + uptake high above the deck, through which smoke + and gases pass. + + =Galley.= The kitchen of a vessel. + + =Gangway.= Sides of upper deck from main-mast to + mizzen-mast, or from the former to the break of a + poop or raised quarter-deck; also a passage for + entering or leaving vessel. + + =Gross tonnage.= Entire cubical capacity of ship, + including every inclosed space and all room under + deck from stem to stern-post, if closed in and + usable. + + =Gunwale, gunnel.= Upper part of sheer-strake, + where it comes in contact with upper deck + stringer. + + =Headlights.= Lights carried at the masthead. + + =Head of the bowsprit.= The forward end. + + =Hull.= The entire structure of a vessel, + exclusive of equipment. + + =Inboard.= Within the ship. + + =Inner skin.= Planking or plating covering the + inside of frames. + + =Jack.= Name given to various sails, ropes, etc. + + + =Jib.= Triangular sail carried on a stay reaching + from the foremast head or from topmast to the + jib-boom. + + =Keel.= Backbone of a vessel in wooden ships. + Composed of great lengths of timber connected to + each other by scarfs. In steel ships usually a set + of plates from stem to stern. + + =Even keel, uneven keel.= Designates the manner in + which ship floats. If balanced evenly in a + fore-and-aft direction she is on even keel, if + depressed at head or stern she is on uneven keel. + + =Keelson angle-bar.= Any angle-bar used in the + construction of a keelson. + + =Lanyards.= Short lengths of rope used to tighten + up davit-guys, awnings, etc. + + =Launching.= Sliding a boat into the water from + the building-berth. + + =Lee side.= Opposite to the side on which the wind + blows. + + =Lighter.= Large craft used to bring cargo + alongside or to lighten a grounded vessel. + + =List.= When one side of a vessel lies deeper in + the water than the other; caused by shifting + cargo, etc. + + =Log.= Apparatus used to determine speed of a + vessel. + + =Main-mast.= Principal mast of a ship; the second + mast counting from bow to stern. + + =Marine engine.= Engine especially designed for + the propulsion of boats. + + =Mast.= A long piece, or system of pieces, of + timber, placed nearly perpendicularly to the + keelson of a vessel to support the spars and gear + by which the sails are set. In modern practice, + steel masts are built by riveting rolled plates + together. + + =Midships.= Middle part of a ship. + + =Mizzen-mast.= Third mast on a vessel with three + or more masts. + + =Mizzen-sails.= Sails carried on a mizzen-mast. + + =Mushroom Ventilator.= Short cast-iron tube with + movable iron rod passing through the center. A + metal cup is fitted to the top of the rod, which + may be lifted to permit air to enter, or closed to + prevent water from entering. Generally fitted over + cabins. + + =Navigation Bridge.= Bridge used for taking + observations or handling the ship in difficult + situations. + + =Outboard.= Outside the hull or beyond the + gunwale. + + =Outlet cock.= Any cock used to free a receptacle + of water. + + =Paddle-wheels.= Wheels fitted on each side of a + paddle steamer in connection with the + paddle-shaft, consisting of a cast-iron boss from + which wrought-iron arms radiate, strengthened by + rims and stays, and with a float attached to each + arm. + + =Pawl.= Small catch to prevent moving object from + going beyond certain limit. + + =Pile.= A piece of lumber or iron, together with + others, driven into the bed of a river for the + support of a pier, bridge, etc. + + =Pilot Bridge.= Narrow thwartships platform, + extending from side to side above a steamer's + upper or bridge deck. Serves as a station for the + pilot or officer of the watch. + + =Port.= Opening in ship's side, in bulwark, etc. + + =Propeller-screw.= Propeller in which blades are + at an angle to the line of axis, similar to the + threads of a screw. + + =Quarters.= Men's positions when called to their + duties, as during fire or boat drill; also living + accommodations. + + =Quay.= Artificial landing-place. + + =Raft.= A collection of boards fastened together + by ropes or chains, and capable of floating. + + =Ram.= Massive projection under water at the bow + of a warship. The ship is also called a ram. + + =Rat-line.= Three-stranded cord, of which the + ladder-like steps in lower rigging, topmast + rigging, etc., are formed. + + =Rigging.= Entire equipment of a ship's masts, + spars, etc., with their standing and running + ropes. + + =Rudder.= A device for steering vessels. Hinged to + the outside of the hull, usually at the stern. + + =Sail.= A device of canvas and rope fastened to + spars and rigging, and extended to catch the wind + and drive the vessel. + + =Skiff.= Long, lightly built boat sometimes used + in rowing races. + + =Sloop.= Vessel with one mast, having a jib-sail. + + =Spar.= Any shaped piece of timber used as a mast, + bowsprit, yard, etc., or intended for such use. + + =Stanchion.= A stationary upright support. + + =Superstructure.= Any structure above top full + deck. + + =Tack.= To change the direction of sailing due to + wind. + + =Thwart.= Seats are called thwarts when they + extend from side to side of a boat, athwart when + across. + + =Tonnage.= Entire capacity or cubical contents of + a vessel. One ton estimated at 100 cubic English + feet. + + =Trawler.= Fishing-vessel with ground-sweeping + net. + + =Trim.= Term indicating the state of a ship with + regard to ballast; position of a vessel in the + water with respect to horizontal. + + =Turtle-back.= Top of wheel-house, forecastle, + etc., formed like a turtle's back. + + =Upper Works.= Same as freeboard when a vessel is + loaded. + + =Uptake.= Part connecting smokebox to funnel. + Sometimes includes the smokebox. + + =Ventilator.= Usually made of sheet iron in + tubular forms, and arranged to expel foul air and + permit the passage of fresh air to any part of a + ship. + + =Vessel.= Craft requiring a licensed master. + (Boats do not). + + =Water ballast.= Sea water let into double bottom + or ballast-tank. + + =Water-Line.= (Light) Submerging line of vessel + without cargo. + + =Water-Line.= (Load) Submerging line of vessel + with full cargo. + + =Water-tight Compartment.= Compartment with + water-tight bulkhead at each end. + + =Winch.= Machine used for loading or unloading + cargo. Some are hand driven and some electrically + driven. + + =Windlass.= Special form of winch used to hoist + anchor. + + * * * * * + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Obvious punctuation errors repaired. + +Page 128, "oppositite" changed to "opposite" (the opposite end of) + +Page 131, N italicized to match rest of usage (center of the disk _N_) + +Page 132, D italicized to match rest of usage (to the _D_ valve +previously) + +Page 185, "deterimental" changed to "detrimental" (detrimental to the +speed) + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Boys' Book of Model Boats, by Raymond Francis Yates + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOYS' BOOK OF MODEL BOATS *** + +***** This file should be named 29064-8.txt or 29064-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/0/6/29064/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Emmy and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |