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F. Hamlin</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Text-Book of the History of Architecture<br> + Seventh Edition, revised</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Alfred D. F. Hamlin</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: August 15, 2008 [eBook #26319]<br> +[Most recently updated: October 28, 2023]</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Louise Hope, Joseph R. Hauser and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE ***</div> + +<div class="mynote"> + +<p><a name="start" id="start">This text</a> uses utf-8 (unicode) +file encoding. If the apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph +appear as garbage, you may have an incompatible browser or unavailable +fonts. First, make sure that your browser’s “character set” or “file +encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to change the +default font.</p> + +<p><b>Technical Note:</b> The illustrations were scanned at 500dpi and +resized to 25% (125dpi). They will therefore display slightly +<i>larger</i> than their original size; the exact value depends on your +monitor settings. The Frontispiece and Figures 78 and 171 were printed +as full-page plates and resized to 1/6, so they will be a little smaller +proportionally. The quality of the photographs reflects the quality of +the printed book.</p> + +<p>Errors are shown with mouse-hover <ins class="correction" title="like this">popups</ins>. Spelling variations are generally unchanged. +Details about some types of inconsistencies, including names, are given +at the <a href="#errors">end of this file</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="titlepage"> + +<h3>COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART</h3> + +<h6>EDITED BY</h6> + +<h5>JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.</h5> + +<hr class="mid"> + +<h4>HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE</h4> + +<h6>A. D. F. HAMLIN</h6> + +</div> + + +<div class="titlepage"> + +<h4><b>COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART</b></h4> + +<h6>EDITED BY</h6> + +<h5><span class="sans">JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.</span></h5> + +<h5 class="smallcaps">Professor of the History of Art<br> +in Rutgers College</h5> + +<hr class="mid"> + +<h5>HISTORY OF PAINTING</h5> + +<p class="hanging"> +By <span class="smallcaps">John C. Van Dyke</span>, the Editor of the +Series. With Frontispiece and 110 Illustrations, Bibliographies, and +Index. Crown 8vo, $1.50.</p> + +<h5>HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE</h5> + +<p class="hanging"> +By <span class="smallcaps">Alfred D. F. Hamlin</span>, A.M. Adjunct +Professor of Architecture, Columbia College, New York. With Frontispiece +and 229 Illustrations and Diagrams, Bibliographies, Glossary, Index of +Architects, and a General Index. Crown 8vo, $2.00.</p> + +<h5>HISTORY OF SCULPTURE</h5> + +<p class="hanging"> +By <span class="smallcaps">Allan Marquand</span>, Ph.D., L.H.D. and +<span class="smallcaps">Arthur L. Frothingham</span>, Jr., Ph.D., +Professors of Archæology and the History of Art in Princeton University. +With Frontispiece and 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, $1.50.</p> + +</div> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="frontis"></a> +<img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="472" height="281" alt="see caption"><br> +THE PARTHENON, ATHENS, AS RESTORED BY CH. CHIPIEZ.<br> +<span class="caption"> +(From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)</span></p> + + +<div class="titlepage"> + +<h4>A TEXT-BOOK</h4> + +<h5> <br> +OF THE</h5> + +<h1 class="smallcaps">History of Architecture</h1> + +<p> </p> + +<h5>BY</h5> + +<h4>A. D. F. HAMLIN, A.M.</h4> + +<h6>PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE<br> +IN THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE,<br> +COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY</h6> + +<p> </p> + +<h5>SEVENTH EDITION</h5> + +<h6>REVISED</h6> + +<p> </p> + +<h5><span class="extended"> +LONGMANS, GREEN, AND C</span>O.<br> +<span class="smallcaps"> +91 and 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK</span><br> +<span class="smaller"> +LONDON, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA</span><br> +1909</h5> + +</div> + +<h6><span class="smallcaps">Copyright, 1895, by</span><br> +LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.</h6> + +<h6><i>All rights reserved.</i></h6> + +<p> </p> + +<h6 class="smallcaps"> +First Edition, March, 1896<br> +Printed and Revised, December, 1896.<br> +December, 1898 (Revised)<br> +October, 1900 (Revised)<br> +October, 1902 (Revised)<br> +September, 1904, June, 1906 (Revised).<br> +November, 1907 (Revised)<br> +January, 1909</h6> + +<p> </p> + +<h6>Press of J. J. Little & Ives Co.<br> +425–435 East 24th Street, New York</h6> + +<hr> + +<div class="maintext"> + +<span class="pagenum">v</span> +<a name="pagev" id="pagev"> </a> + +<h3><a name="preface"> +PREFACE.</a></h3> + +<p><span class="firstword">The</span> aim of this work has been to +sketch the various periods and styles of architecture with the broadest +possible strokes, and to mention, with such brief characterization as +seemed permissible or necessary, the most important works of each period +or style. Extreme condensation in presenting the leading facts of +architectural history has been necessary, and much that would rightly +claim place in a larger work has been omitted here. The danger was felt +to be rather in the direction of too much detail than of too little. +While the book is intended primarily to meet the special requirements of +the college student, those of the general reader have not been lost +sight of. The majority of the technical terms used are defined or +explained in the context, and the small remainder in a glossary at the +end of the work. Extended criticism and minute description were out of +the question, and discussion of controverted points has been in +consequence as far as possible avoided.</p> + +<p>The illustrations have been carefully prepared with a view to +elucidating the text, rather than for pictorial effect. With the +exception of some fifteen cuts reproduced from Lübke’s <i>Geschichte der +Architektur</i> (by kind permission of Messrs. Seemann, of Leipzig), the +illustrations are almost all entirely new. A large number are from +<span class="pagenum">vi</span> +<a name="pagevi" id="pagevi"> </a> +original drawings made by myself, or under my direction, and the +remainder are, with a few exceptions, half-tone reproductions prepared +specially for this work from photographs in my possession. +Acknowledgments are due to Messrs. H. W. Buemming, H. D. +Bultman, and A. E. Weidinger for valued assistance in preparing +original drawings; and to Professor W. R. Ware, to Professor +W. H. Thomson, M.D., and to the Editor of the Series for much +helpful criticism and suggestion.</p> + +<p>It is hoped that the lists of monuments appended to the history of +each period down to the present century may prove useful for reference, +both to the student and the general reader, as a supplement to the body +of the text.</p> + +<p class="right"> +<span class="smallcaps">A. D. F. Hamlin.</span></p> + +<p class="lefthalf"><span class="smaller smallcaps"> +Columbia College, New York,</span><br> +January 20, 1896.</p> + +<p class="note"> +The author desires to express his further acknowledgments to the friends +who have at various times since the first appearance of this book called +his attention to errors in the text or illustrations, and to recent +advances in the art or in its archæology deserving of mention in +subsequent editions. As far as possible these suggestions have been +incorporated in the various revisions and reprints which have appeared +since the first publication.</p> + +<p class="right"> +A. D. F. H.</p> + +<p class="lefthalf"><span class="smaller smallcaps"> +Columbia University,</span><br> +October 28, 1907.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">xix</span> +<a name="pagexix" id="pagexix"> </a> +<h3 class="chapter"><a name="biblio" id="biblio"> +GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.</a></h3> + + +<p class="note"> +(This includes the leading architectural works treating of more than one +period or style. The reader should consult also the special references +at the head of each chapter. Valuable material is also contained in the +leading architectural periodicals and in monographs too numerous to +mention.)</p> + + +<h4 class="smallcaps">Dictionaries and Encyclopedias.</h4> + +<p>Agincourt, <i>History of Art by its Monuments</i>; London.</p> + +<p>Architectural Publication Society, <i>Dictionary of Architecture</i>; +London.</p> + +<p>Bosc, <i>Dictionnaire raisonné d’architecture</i>; Paris.</p> + +<p>Durm and others, <i>Handbuch der Architektur</i>; Stuttgart. (This is +an encyclopedic compendium of architectural knowledge in many volumes; +the series not yet complete. It is referred to as the <i>Hdbuch. d. +Arch.</i>)</p> + +<p>Gwilt, <i>Encyclopedia of Architecture</i>; London.</p> + +<p>Longfellow and Frothingham, <i>Cyclopedia of Architecture in Italy +and the Levant</i>; New York.</p> + +<p>Planat, <i>Encyclopédie d’architecture</i>; Paris.</p> + +<p>Sturgis, <i>Dictionary of Architecture and Building</i>; New +York.</p> + + +<h4 class="smallcaps">General Handbooks and Histories.</h4> + +<p>Bühlmann, <i>Die Architektur des klassischen Alterthums und der +Renaissance</i>; Stuttgart. (Also in English, published in New +York.)</p> + +<p>Choisy, <i>Histoire de l’architecture</i>; Paris.</p> + +<p>Durand, <i>Recueil et parallèle d’édifices de tous genres</i>; +Paris.</p> + +<p>Fergusson, <i>History of Architecture in All Countries</i>; +London.</p> + +<p>Fletcher and Fletcher, <i>A History of Architecture</i>; London.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">xx</span> +<a name="pagexx" id="pagexx"> </a> + +<p>Gailhabaud, <i>L’Architecture du Vme. au XVIIIme. siècle</i>; +Paris.—<i>Monuments anciens et modernes</i>; Paris.</p> + +<p>Kugler, <i>Geschichte der Baukunst</i>; Stuttgart.</p> + +<p>Longfellow, <i>The Column and the Arch</i>; New York.</p> + +<p>Lübke, <i>Geschichte der Architektur</i>; Leipzig.—<i>History +of Art</i>, tr. and rev. by R. Sturgis; New York.</p> + +<p>Perry, <i>Chronology of Mediæval and Renaissance Architecture</i>; +London.</p> + +<p>Reynaud, <i>Traité d’architecture</i>; Paris.</p> + +<p>Rosengarten, <i>Handbook of Architectural Styles</i>; London and New +York.</p> + +<p>Simpson, <i>A History of Architectural Development</i>; London.</p> + +<p>Spiers, <i>Architecture East and West</i>; London.</p> + +<p>Stratham, <i>Architecture for General Readers</i>; London.</p> + +<p>Sturgis, <i>European Architecture</i>; New York.</p> + +<p><i>Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects</i>; +London.</p> + +<p>Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Discourses on Architecture</i>; Boston.</p> + + +<h4 class="smallcaps">Theory, the Orders, etc.</h4> + +<p>Chambers, <i>A Treatise on Civil Architecture</i>; London.</p> + +<p>Daviler, <i>Cours d’architecture de Vignole</i>; Paris.</p> + +<p>Esquié, <i>Traité élémentaire d’architecture</i>; Paris.</p> + +<p>Guadet, <i>Théorie de l’architecture</i>; Paris.</p> + +<p>Robinson, <i>Principles of Architectural Composition</i>; New +York.</p> + +<p>Ruskin, <i>The Seven Lamps of Architecture</i>; London.</p> + +<p>Sturgis, <i>How to Judge Architecture</i>; New York.</p> + +<p>Tuckerman, <i>Vignola, the Five Orders of Architecture</i>; New +York.</p> + +<p>Van Brunt, <i>Greek Lines and Other Essays</i>; Boston.</p> + +<p>Van Pelt, <i>A Discussion of Composition</i>.</p> + +<p>Ware, <i>The American Vignola</i>; Scranton.</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">xxi</span> +<a name="pagexxi" id="pagexxi"> </a> + +<h2 class="chapter">HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.</h2> + +<hr class="mid"> + +<h3><a name="intro" id="intro"> +INTRODUCTION.</a></h3> + + +<p><span class="firstword">A history</span> of architecture is a +record of man’s efforts to build beautifully. The erection of structures +devoid of beauty is mere building, a trade and not an art. Edifices +in which strength and stability alone are sought, and in designing which +only utilitarian considerations have been followed, are properly works +of engineering. Only when the idea of beauty is added to that of use +does a structure take its place among works of architecture. We may, +then, define architecture as the art which seeks to harmonize in a +building the requirements of utility and of beauty. It is the most +useful of the fine arts and the noblest of the useful arts. It touches +the life of man at every point. It is concerned not only in sheltering +his person and ministering to his comfort, but also in providing him +with places for worship, amusement, and business; with tombs, memorials, +embellishments for his cities, and other structures for the varied needs +of a complex civilization. It engages the services of a larger portion +of the community and involves greater outlays of money than any other +occupation except agriculture. Everyone at some point comes in contact +with the work of the architect, and from this universal contact +architecture derives its significance as an index of the civilization of +an age, a race, or a people.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">xxii</span> +<a name="pagexxii" id="pagexxii"> </a> +<p>It is the function of the historian of architecture to trace the +origin, growth, and decline of the architectural styles which have +prevailed in different lands and ages, and to show how they have +reflected the great movements of civilization. The migrations, the +conquests, the commercial, social, and religious changes among different +peoples have all manifested themselves in the changes of their +architecture, and it is the historian’s function to show this. It is +also his function to explain the principles of the styles, their +characteristic forms and decoration, and to describe the great +masterpieces of each style and period.</p> + +<p><b>STYLE</b> is a quality; the “historic styles” are phases of +development. <i>Style</i> is character expressive of definite +conceptions, as of grandeur, gaiety, or solemnity. An <i>historic +style</i> is the particular phase, the characteristic manner of design, +which prevails at a given time and place. It is not the result of mere +accident or caprice, but of intellectual, moral, social, religious, and +even political conditions. Gothic architecture could never have been +invented by the Greeks, nor could the Egyptian styles have grown up in +Italy. Each style is based upon some fundamental principle springing +from its surrounding civilization, which undergoes successive +developments until it either reaches perfection or its possibilities are +exhausted, after which a period of decline usually sets in. This is +followed either by a reaction and the introduction of some radically new +principle leading to the evolution of a new style, or by the final decay +and extinction of the civilization and its replacement by some younger +and more virile element. Thus the history of architecture appears as a +connected chain of causes and effects succeeding each other without +break, each style growing out of that which preceded it, or springing +out of the fecundating contact of a higher with a lower civilization. To +study architectural styles is therefore to study a branch of the history +of civilization.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">xxiii</span> +<a name="pagexxiii"> </a> +<p>Technically, architectural styles are identified by the means they +employ to cover enclosed spaces, by the characteristic forms of the +supports and other members (piers, <!-- invisible comma --> columns, +arches, mouldings, traceries, etc.), and by their decoration. The +<b>plan</b> should receive special attention, since it shows the +arrangement of the points of support, and hence the nature of the +structural design. A comparison, for example, of the plans of the +Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (<a href="#fig11">Fig. +11, <i>h</i></a>) and of the Basilica of Constantine (<a href="#fig58">Fig. 58</a>) shows at once a radical +difference in constructive principle between the two edifices, and hence +a difference of style.</p> + +<p><b>STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES.</b> All architecture is based on one or +more of three fundamental structural principles; that of the +<i>lintel</i>, of the <i>arch</i> or <i>vault</i>, and of the +<i>truss</i>. The principle of the <b>lintel</b> is that of resistance +to transverse strains, and appears in all construction in which a +cross-piece or beam rests on two or more vertical supports. The +<b>arch</b> or <b>vault</b> makes use of several pieces to span an +opening between two supports. These pieces are in compression and exert +lateral pressures or <i>thrusts</i> which are transmitted to the +supports or abutments. The thrust must be resisted either by the +massiveness of the abutments or by the opposition to it of +counter-thrusts from other arches or vaults. Roman builders used the +first, Gothic builders the second of these means of resistance. The +<b>truss</b> is a framework so composed of several pieces of wood or +metal that each shall best resist the particular strain, whether of +tension or compression, to which it is subjected, the whole forming a +compound beam or arch. It is especially applicable to very wide spans, +and is the most characteristic feature of modern construction. How the +adoption of one or another of these principles affected the forms and +even the decoration of the various styles, will be shown in the +succeeding chapters.</p> + +<p><b>HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT.</b> Geographically and chronologically, +architecture appears to have originated in the Nile +<span class="pagenum">xxiv</span> +<a name="pagexxiv" id="pagexxiv"> </a> +valley. A second centre of development is found in the valley of +the Tigris and Euphrates, not uninfluenced by the older Egyptian art. +Through various channels the Greeks inherited from both Egyptian and +Assyrian art, the two influences being discernible even through the +strongly original aspect of Greek architecture. The Romans in turn, +adopting the external details of Greek architecture, transformed its +substance by substituting the Etruscan arch for the Greek construction +of columns and lintels. They developed a complete and original system of +construction and decoration and spread it over the civilized world, +which has never wholly outgrown or abandoned it.</p> + +<p>With the fall of Rome and the rise of Constantinople these forms +underwent in the East another transformation, called the Byzantine, in +the development of Christian domical church architecture. In the North +and West, meanwhile, under the growing institutions of the papacy and of +the monastic orders and the emergence of a feudal civilization out of +the chaos of the Dark Ages, the constant preoccupation of architecture +was to evolve from the basilica type of church a vaulted structure, and +to adorn it throughout with an appropriate dress of constructive and +symbolic ornament. Gothic architecture was the outcome of this +preoccupation, and it prevailed throughout northern and western Europe +until nearly or quite the close of the fifteenth century.</p> + +<p>During this fifteenth century the Renaissance style matured in Italy, +where it speedily triumphed over Gothic fashions and produced a +marvellous series of civic monuments, palaces, and churches, adorned +with forms borrowed or imitated from classic Roman art. This influence +spread through Europe in the sixteenth century, and ran a course of two +centuries, after which a period of servile classicism was followed by a +rapid decline in taste. To this succeeded the eclecticism and confusion +of the nineteenth century, to +<span class="pagenum">xxv</span> +<a name="pagexxv" id="pagexxv"> </a> +which the rapid growth of new requirements and development of new +resources have largely contributed.</p> + +<p>In Eastern lands three great schools of architecture have grown up +contemporaneously with the above phases of Western art; one under the +influence of Mohammedan civilization, another in the Brahman and +Buddhist architecture of India, and the third in China and Japan. The +first of these is the richest and most important. Primarily inspired +from Byzantine art, always stronger on the decorative than on the +constructive side, it has given to the world the mosques and palaces of +Northern Africa, Moorish Spain, Persia, Turkey, and India. The other two +schools seem to be wholly unrelated to the first, and have no affinity +with the architecture of Western lands.</p> + +<p>Of Mexican, Central American, and South American architecture so +little is known, and that little is so remote in history and spirit from +the styles above enumerated, that it belongs rather to archæology than +to architectural history, and will not be considered in this work.</p> + + +<p class="note"> +<span class="smallcaps">Note.</span>—The reader’s attention is +called to the <a href="#appendix">Appendix</a> to +this volume, in which are gathered some of the results of recent +investigations and of the architectural progress of the last few years +which could not readily be introduced into the text of this edition. The +General Bibliography and the lists of books recommended have been +revised and brought up to date.</p> + +</div> <!-- end div maintext --> + +<hr class="mid"> + +<hr> + +<hr class="mid"> + +<div class="titlepage"> + +<h4><a name="ads" id="ads"> +<b>College Histories of Art.</b></a></h4> + +<h2><b>A HISTORY OF PAINTING.</b></h2> + +<h6>BY</h6> + +<h5>JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.</h5> + +<p class="center smaller"> +Professor of the History of Art in Rutgers College, and Author of +“Principles of Art,” “Art for Art’s Sake,” etc.</p> + +<p><b>With Frontispiece and 110 Illustrations in the text, reproduced in +half-tone from the most celebrated paintings. Crown 8vo, 307 pages, +$1.50.</b></p> + +<hr class="mid"> + +<p>“... The initial volume of a promising series ... seems a model of +pith, lucidity, and practical convenience; and that it is sound and +accurate the author’s name is a sufficient guarantee. Essential +historical and biographical facts, together with brief critical +estimates and characterizations of leading schools and painters, are +given in a few well-chosen words; and for students who wish to pursue +the subject in detail, a list of selected authorities at the head +of each chapter points the way. Serviceable lists are also provided of +principal extant works, together with the places where they are to be +found. The text is liberally sprinkled with illustrations in +half-tone.”—<span class="smallcaps">Dial, Chicago</span>.</p> + +<p>“Prof. Van Dyke has performed his task with great thoroughness and +good success.... He seems to us singularly happy in his characterization +of various artists, and amazingly just in proportion. We have hardly +found an instance in which the relative importance accorded a given +artist seemed to us manifestly wrong, and hardly one in which the +special characteristics of a style were not adequately presented.”<!-- +invisible . -->—<span class="smallcaps">Nation, N.Y.</span></p> + +<p>“... Gives a good general view of the subject, avoiding as a rule all +elaborate theories and disputed points, and aiming to distinguish the +various historical schools from one another by their differences of +subject and technique ... we do not know of anybody who has, on the +whole, accomplished the task with as much success as has Mr. Van Dyke. +The book is modern in spirit and thoroughly up-to-date in point of +information.”—<span class="smallcaps">Art Amateur</span>.</p> + +<p>“Professor Van Dyke has made a radical departure in one respect, in +purposely omitting the biographical details with which text-books on art +are usually encumbered, and substituting short critical estimates of +artists and of their rank among the painters of their time. This feature +of the work is highly to be commended, as it affords means for +comparative study that cannot fail to be beneficial.... Altogether +Professor Van Dyke’s text-book is worthy of general adoption, and as a +volume of ready reference for the family library it will have a distinct +usefulness. It is compact, comprehensive, and admirably +arranged.”—<span class="smallcaps">Beacon, Boston</span>.</p> + +<hr class="mid"> + +<h4><b>LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO.,</b></h4> + +<h5><b>91 & 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK.</b></h5> + +<p> </p> + +<hr> + +<p> </p> + +<h2><b>A History of Sculpture.</b></h2> + +<h5>BY</h5> + +<h5><b>ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D.</b></h5> + +<h6>AND</h6> + +<h5><b>ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., Ph.D.</b></h5> + +<p class="center smaller"> +Professors of Archæology and the History of Art in Princeton +University.</p> + +<p><b>With Frontispiece and 113 Illustrations in half-tone in the text, +Bibliographies, Addresses for Photographs and Casts, etc.<!-- invisible +.--> Crown 8vo, 313 pages, $1.50.</b></p> + +<hr class="mid"> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Henry W. Kent</span>, <i>Curator of the Seater +Museum, Watkins, N.Y.</i></p> + +<p>“Like the other works in this series of yours, it is simply +invaluable, filling a long-felt want. The bibliographies and lists will +be keenly appreciated by all who work with a class of students.”</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Charles H. Moore</span>, <i>Harvard +University</i>.</p> + +<p>“The illustrations are especially good, avoiding the excessively +black background which produce harsh contrasts and injure the outlines +of so many half-tone prints.”</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">J. M. Hoppin</span>, <i>Yale +University</i>.</p> + +<p>“These names are sufficient guarantee for the excellence of the book +and its fitness for the object it was designed for. I was +especially interested in the chapter on <i>Renaissance Sculpture in +Italy</i>.”</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Critic</span>, <i>New York</i>.</p> + +<p>“This history is a model of condensation.... Each period is treated +in full, with descriptions of its general characteristics and its +individual developments under various conditions, physical, political, +religious and the like.... A general history of sculpture has never +before been written in English—never in any language in convenient +textbook form. This publication, then, should meet with an enthusiastic +reception among students and amateurs of art, not so much, however, +because it is the only book of its kind, as for its intrinsic merit and +attractive form.”</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Outlook</span>, <i>New York</i>.</p> + +<p>“A concise survey of the history of sculpture is something needed +everywhere.... A good feature of this book—and one which +should be imitated—is the list indicating where casts and +photographs may best be obtained. Of course such a volume is amply +indexed.”</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Notre Dame Scholastic</span>, <i>Notre Dame, +Ind.</i></p> + +<p>“The work is orderly, the style lucid and easy. The illustrations, +numbering over a hundred, are sharply cut and well selected. Besides a +general bibliography, there is placed at the end of each period of style +a special list to which the student may refer, should he wish to pursue +more fully any particular school.”</p> + +<hr class="mid"> + +<h4><b>LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO., Publishers,</b></h4> + +<h5><b>91 & 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK.</b></h5> + +</div> <!-- end div titlepage again --> + +<span class="pagenum">vii</span> +<a name="pagevii" id="pagevii"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"><a name="contents"> +TABLE OF CONTENTS.</a></h3> + +<table class="toc" summary="contents"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="number smallroman"> +PAGE</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +<p><a href="#preface">Preface</a></p></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr class="space"> +<td class="chapname"> +List of Illustrations (<i>Figures 1–157</i>)</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#illus">xi</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER I.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Primitive and Prehistoric Architecture</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapI">1</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER II.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Egyptian Architecture</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapII">6</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER III.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Egyptian Architecture, <i>Continued</i></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapIII">16</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER IV.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Chaldæan and Assyrian Architecture</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapIV">28</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER V.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Persian, Lycian, and Jewish Architecture</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapV">35</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER VI.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Greek Architecture</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapVI">43</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +<span class="pagenum">viii</span> +<a name="pageviii" id="pageviii"> </a> +CHAPTER VII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Greek Architecture, <i>Continued</i></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapVII">60</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER VIII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Roman Architecture</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapVIII">74</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER IX.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Roman Architecture, <i>Continued</i></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapIX">88</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER X.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Early Christian Architecture</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapX">110</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XI.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Byzantine Architecture</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXI">120</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +<p>Sassanian and Mohammedan Architecture—Arabian, Moresque, +Persian, Indian, and Turkish</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXII">135</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XIII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +<p>Early Mediæval Architecture in Italy and France</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXIII">155</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XIV.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +<p>Early Mediæval Architecture in Germany, Great Britain, and +Spain</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXIV">172</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XV.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Gothic Architecture</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXV">182</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XVI.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Gothic Architecture in France</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXVI">196</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +<span class="pagenum">ix</span> +<a name="pageix" id="pageix"> </a> +CHAPTER XVII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Gothic Architecture in Great Britain</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXVII">218</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XVIII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +<p>Gothic Architecture in Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXVIII">237</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XIX.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Gothic Architecture in Italy</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXIX">254</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XX.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Early Renaissance Architecture in Italy</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXX">270</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XXI.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +<p>Renaissance Architecture in Italy—The Advanced Renaissance and +Decline</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXI">288</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XXII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Renaissance Architecture in France</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXII">308</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XXIII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +<p>Renaissance Architecture in Great Britain and the +Netherlands</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXIII">326</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XXIV.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +<p>Renaissance Architecture in Germany, Spain, and Portugal</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXIV">338</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XXV.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +The Classic Revivals in Europe</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXV">354</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +<span class="pagenum">x</span> +<a name="pagex" id="pagex"> </a> +CHAPTER XXVI.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Recent Architecture in Europe</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXVI">368</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XXVII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Architecture in the United States</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXVII">383</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapnum" colspan="2"> +CHAPTER XXVIII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +<p>Oriental Architecture—India, China, and Japan</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXVIII">401</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr class="space"> +<td class="chapname"> +Appendix</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#appendix">417</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr class="space"> +<td class="chapname"> +Glossary</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#glossary">429</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Index of Architects</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#index_arch">431</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="chapname"> +Index</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#index">435</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class="pagenum">xi</span> +<a name="pagexi" id="pagexi"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"><a name="illus" id="illus"> +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</a></h3> + +<div class="mynote"> +<p>A few illustrations include links to larger versions. Figure 24 has +been reformatted for this e-text; it was printed vertically, with the +Plan below the Section. Figure 138 is shown as printed.</p> +</div> + +<p class="note"> +<span class="firstword">The</span> authorship of the original drawings +is indicated by the initials affixed: A. = drawings by the author; +B. = H. W. Buemming; Bn. = H. D. Bultman; Ch. = +Château, <i>L’Architecture en France</i>; G. = drawings adapted +from Gwilt’s <i>Encyclopædia of Architecture</i>; L. = Lübke’s +<i>Geschichte der Architektur</i>; W. = A. E. Weidinger. All +other illustrations are from photographs.</p> + +<table class="toc" summary="illustrations"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="number smallroman" colspan="2"> +PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> +<p><a href="#frontis"> +<span class="smallcaps">Frontispiece.</span></a> +The Parthenon Restored (from model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)</p> +</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig1">1</a></td> +<td><p>Section of Great Pyramid (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">8</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig2">2</a></td> +<td><p>Section of King’s Chamber (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">9</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig3">3</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Sphinx Temple (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">9</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig4">4</a></td> +<td><p>Ruins of Sphinx Temple (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">10</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig5">5</a></td> +<td><p>Tomb at Abydos (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">11</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig6">6</a></td> +<td><p>Tomb at Beni-Hassan (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">11</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig7">7</a></td> +<td><p>Section and Half-plan of same (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">12</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig8">8</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of the Ramesseum (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">14</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig9">9</a></td> +<td><p>Temple of Edfou. Plan (B.)</p></td> +<td class="number">17</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig10">10</a></td> +<td><p>Temple of Edfou. Section (B.)</p></td> +<td class="number">17</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig11">11</a></td> +<td><p>Temple of Karnak. Plan (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">18</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig12">12</a></td> +<td><p>Central Portion of Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (from model in +Metropolitan Museum, New York)</p></td> +<td class="number">20</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig13">13</a></td> +<td><p>Great Temple of Ipsamboul</p></td> +<td class="number">21</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig14">14</a></td> +<td><p>Edfou. Front of Hypostyle Hall</p></td> +<td class="number">23</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig15">15</a></td> +<td><p>Osirid Pier (Medinet Abou) (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">24</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig16">16</a></td> +<td><p>Types of Column (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">25</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig17">17</a></td> +<td><p>Egyptian Floral Ornament-Forms (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">26</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig18">18</a></td> +<td><p>Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad. Plan (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">30</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig19">19</a></td> +<td><p>Gate, Khorsabad (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">32</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig20">20</a></td> +<td><p>Assyrian Ornament (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">34</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig21">21</a></td> +<td><p>Column from Persepolis (B.)</p></td> +<td class="number">37</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig22">22</a></td> +<td><p>Lion Gate at Mycenæ (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">44</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"> +<span class="pagenum">xii</span> +<a name="pagexii" id="pagexii"> </a> +<a href="#fig23">23</a></td> +<td><p>Polygonal Masonry, Mycenæ (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">45</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig24">24</a></td> +<td><p>Tholos of Atreus; Plan and Section (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">46</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig25">25</a></td> +<td><p>Tholos of Atreus, Doorway (after Clarke) (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">46</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig26">26</a></td> +<td><p>Greek Doric Order (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">48</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig27">27</a></td> +<td><p>Doric Order of the Parthenon. (From cast in Metropolitan Museum, +New York)</p></td> +<td class="number">49</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig28">28</a></td> +<td><p>Greek Ionic Order, Miletus (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">51</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig29">29</a></td> +<td><p>Side View of Ionic Capital (B.)</p></td> +<td class="number">52</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig30">30</a></td> +<td><p>Greek Corinthian Order (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">53</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig31">31</a></td> +<td><p>Types of Greek Temple Plans (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">54</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig32">32</a></td> +<td><p>Carved Anthemion Ornament, Athens</p></td> +<td class="number">57</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig33">33</a></td> +<td><p>Temple of Zeus, Agrigentum; Plan (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">61</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig34">34</a></td> +<td><p>Ruins of the Parthenon</p></td> +<td class="number">63</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig35">35</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of the Erechtheum (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">64</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig36">36</a></td> +<td><p>West End of the Erechtheum (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">64</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig37">37</a></td> +<td><p>Propylæa at Athens. Plan (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">65</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig38">38</a></td> +<td><p>Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. (From model in Metropolitan +Museum, New York)</p></td> +<td class="number">67</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig39">39</a></td> +<td><p>Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens. Plan (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">68</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig40">40</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Greek Theatre (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">70</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig41">41</a></td> +<td><p>Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">72</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig42">42</a></td> +<td><p>Roman Doric Order from Theatre of Marcellus. (Model in +Metropolitan Museum, New York)</p></td> +<td class="number">77</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig43">43</a></td> +<td><p>Roman Ionic Order (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">78</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig44">44</a></td> +<td><p>Roman Corinthian Order. (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New +York)</p></td> +<td class="number">79</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig45">45</a></td> +<td><p>Roman Arcade with Engaged Columns (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">80</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig46">46</a></td> +<td><p>Barrel Vault (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">81</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig47">47</a></td> +<td><p>Groined Vault (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">81</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig48">48</a></td> +<td><p>Roman Wall Masonry (B.)</p></td> +<td class="number">83</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig49">49</a></td> +<td><p>Roman Carved Ornament. (Lateran Museum)</p></td> +<td class="number">85</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig50">50</a></td> +<td><p>Roman Ceiling Panels (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">86</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig51">51</a></td> +<td><p>Temple of Fortuna Virilis. Plan</p></td> +<td class="number">89</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig52">52</a></td> +<td><p>Circular Temple, Tivoli (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">90</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig53">53</a></td> +<td><p>Temple of Venus and Rome. Plan (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">93</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig54">54</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of the Pantheon (B.)</p></td> +<td class="number">94</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig55">55</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of the Pantheon</p></td> +<td class="number">95</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig56">56</a></td> +<td><p>Exterior of the Pantheon. (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New +York)</p></td> +<td class="number">96</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig57">57</a></td> +<td><p>Forum and Basilica of Trajan (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">97</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"> +<span class="pagenum">xiii</span> +<a name="pagexiii" id="pagexiii"> </a> +<a href="#fig58">58</a></td> +<td><p>Basilica of Constantine. Plan (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">98</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig59">59</a></td> +<td><p>Ruins of Basilica of Constantine</p></td> +<td class="number">99</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig60">60</a></td> +<td><p>Central Block, Thermæ of Caracalla. Plan (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">100</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig61">61</a></td> +<td><p>Roman Theatre, Herculanum</p></td> +<td class="number">101</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig62">62</a></td> +<td><p>Colosseum at Rome. Half Plan (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">102</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig63">63</a></td> +<td><p>Arch of Constantine. (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New +York)</p></td> +<td class="number">104</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig64">64</a></td> +<td><p>Palace of Diocletian, Spalato. Plan (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">106</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig65">65</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of House of Pansa, Pompeii (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">107</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig66">66</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Santa Costanza, Rome (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">111</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig67">67</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of the Basilica of St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls, Rome +(A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">113</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig68">68</a></td> +<td><p>St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls. Interior</p></td> +<td class="number">114</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig69">69</a></td> +<td><p>Church at Kalb Louzeh (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">116</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig70">70</a></td> +<td><p>Cathedral at Bozrah. Plan (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">117</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig71">71</a></td> +<td><p>Diagram of Pendentives (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">123</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig72">72</a></td> +<td><p>Spandril, Hagia Sophia</p></td> +<td class="number">125</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig73">73</a></td> +<td><p>Capital with Impost Block, S. Vitale</p></td> +<td class="number">126</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig74">74</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of St. Sergius, Constantinople (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">127</td> +</tr> +<!-- 8th edn. add Plan of San Vitale, Ravenna (S.) --> + +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig75">75</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">128</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig76">76</a></td> +<td><p>Section of Hagia Sophia (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">128</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig77">77</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of Hagia Sophia (full page)</p></td> +<td class="number">129</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig78">78</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of St. Mark’s, Venice (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">132</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig79">79</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of St. Mark’s</p></td> +<td class="number">133</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig80">80</a></td> +<td><p>Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo. Sanctuary</p></td> +<td class="number">137</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig81">81</a></td> +<td><p>Mosque of Kaîd Bey, Cairo</p></td> +<td class="number">139</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig82">82</a></td> +<td><p>Moorish Detail, Alhambra</p></td> +<td class="number">141</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig83">83</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of Great Mosque, Cordova</p></td> +<td class="number">142</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig84">84</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of the Alhambra (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">144</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig85">85</a></td> +<td><p>Tomb of Mahmûd, <!-- missing accent--> Bijapur. Section +(A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">147</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig86">86</a></td> +<td><p>The Taj Mahal, Agra</p></td> +<td class="number">149</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig87">87</a></td> +<td><p>Mosque of Mehmet II., Constantinople. Plan (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">151</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig88">88</a></td> +<td><p>Exterior of Ahmediyeh Mosque, Constantinople</p></td> +<td class="number">152</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig89">89</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of Suleimaniyeh Mosque, Constantinople</p></td> +<td class="number">153</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig90">90</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of San Ambrogio, Milan</p></td> +<td class="number">157</td> +</tr> + +<!-- 8th edn. add Plan of San Michele, Pavia (A.) --> + +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig91">91</a></td> +<td><p>West Front and Campanile, Cathedral of Piacenza</p></td> +<td class="number">158</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig92">92</a></td> +<td><p>Baptistery, Cathedral, and Leaning Tower, Pisa</p></td> +<td class="number">160</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig93">93</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of Pisa Cathedral</p></td> +<td class="number">161</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig94">94</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of St. Front, Perigueux (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">164</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig95">95</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of St. Front (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">165</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig96">96</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Notre Dame du Port, Clermont (Ch.)</p></td> +<td class="number">166</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"> +<span class="pagenum">xiv</span> +<a name="pagexiv" id="pagexiv"> </a> +<a href="#fig97">97</a></td> +<td><p>Section of same (Ch.)</p></td> +<td class="number">166</td> +</tr> + +<!-- 8th edn. add Plan of St. Sernin, Toulouse (A.) --> + +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig98">98</a></td> +<td><p>A Six-part Ribbed Vault (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">167</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig99">99</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Minster at Worms (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">173</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig100">100</a></td> +<td><p>One Bay, Cathedral of Spires (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">174</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig101">101</a></td> +<td><p>East End, Church of the Apostles, Cologne</p></td> +<td class="number">175</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig102">102</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Durham Cathedral (Bn.)</p></td> +<td class="number">177</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig103">103</a></td> +<td><p>One Bay, Transept of Winchester Cathedral (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">178</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig104">104</a></td> +<td><p>Front of Iffley Church (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">179</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig105">105</a></td> +<td><p>Constructive System of Gothic Church (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">183</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig106">106</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Sainte Chapelle, Paris (Bn.)</p></td> +<td class="number">184</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig107">107</a></td> +<td><p>Early Gothic Flying Buttress (Bn.)</p></td> +<td class="number">185</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig108">108</a></td> +<td><p>Ribbed Vault, English Type (Bn. after Babcock)</p></td> +<td class="number">186</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig109">109</a></td> +<td><p>Penetrations and Intersections of Vaults (Bn.)</p></td> +<td class="number">187</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig110">110</a></td> +<td><p>Plate Tracery, Charlton-on-Oxmore</p></td> +<td class="number">188</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig111">111</a></td> +<td><p>Bar Tracery, St. Michael’s, Warfield (W.)</p></td> +<td class="number">189</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig112">112</a></td> +<td><p>Rose Window from St. Ouen, Rouen (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">190</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig113">113</a></td> +<td><p>Flamboyant Detail, Strasburg</p></td> +<td class="number">191</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig114">114</a></td> +<td><p>Early Gothic Carving (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">192</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig115">115</a></td> +<td><p>Carving, Decorated Period, from Southwell Minster</p></td> +<td class="number">193</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig116">116</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Notre Dame, Paris (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">198</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig117">117</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of Notre Dame</p></td> +<td class="number">199</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig118">118</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of Le Mans Cathedral</p></td> +<td class="number">200</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig119">119</a></td> +<td><p>Vaulting with Zigzag Ridge Joints (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">201</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig120">120</a></td> +<td><p>One Bay, Abbey of St. Denis (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">203</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig121">121</a></td> +<td><p>The Sainte Chapelle, Paris. Exterior</p></td> +<td class="number">204</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig122">122</a></td> +<td><p>Amiens Cathedral; Plan (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">205</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig123">123</a></td> +<td><p>Alby Cathedral. Plan (A. after Lübke)</p></td> +<td class="number">206</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig124">124</a></td> +<td><p>West Front of Notre Dame, Paris</p></td> +<td class="number">207</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig125">125</a></td> +<td><p>West Front of St. Maclou, Rouen</p></td> +<td class="number">208</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig126">126</a></td> +<td><p>French Gothic Capitals (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">210</td> +</tr> + +<!-- 8th edn. add Openwork Gable, Rouen Cathedral --> +<!-- 8th edn. add North Porch, Chartres Cathedral --> + +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig127">127</a></td> +<td><p>House of Jacques Cœur, Bourges (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">215</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig128">128</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Salisbury Cathedral (Bn.)</p></td> +<td class="number">219</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig129">129</a></td> +<td><p>Ribbed Vaulting, Choir of Exeter Cathedral</p></td> +<td class="number">221</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig130">130</a></td> +<td><p>Lierne Vaulting, Tewkesbury Abbey</p></td> +<td class="number">222</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig131">131</a></td> +<td><p>Vault of Chapter House, Wells</p></td> +<td class="number">223</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig132">132</a></td> +<td><p>Cloisters of Salisbury Cathedral</p></td> +<td class="number">225</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig133">133</a></td> +<td><p>Perpendicular Tracery, St. George’s, Windsor</p></td> +<td class="number">226</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig134">134</a></td> +<td><p>West Front, Lichfield Cathedral</p></td> +<td class="number">228</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig135">135</a></td> +<td><p>One Bay of Choir, Lichfield Cathedral (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">229</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig136">136</a></td> +<td><p>Fan Vaulting, Henry VII.’s Chapel</p></td> +<td class="number">231</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"> +<span class="pagenum">xv</span> +<a name="pagexv" id="pagexv"> </a> +<a href="#fig137">137</a></td> +<td><p>Eastern Part, Westminster Abbey. Plan (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">232</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig138">138</a></td> +<td><p>Roof of Nave, St. Mary’s, Westonzoyland (W.)</p></td> +<td class="number">233</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig139">139</a></td> +<td><p>One Bay, Cathedral of St. George, Limburg (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">239</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig140">140</a></td> +<td><p>Section of St. Elizabeth, Marburg (Bn.)</p></td> +<td class="number">240</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig141">141</a></td> +<td><p>Cologne Cathedral, Plan (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">242</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig142">142</a></td> +<td><p>Church of Our Lady, Treves (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">243</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig143">143</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Ulm Cathedral (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">244</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig144">144</a></td> +<td><p>Town Hall, Louvain</p></td> +<td class="number">247</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig145">145</a></td> +<td><p>Façade of Burgos Cathedral</p></td> +<td class="number">249</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig146">146</a></td> +<td><p>Detail from S. Gregorio, Valladolid</p></td> +<td class="number">251</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig147">147</a></td> +<td><p>Duomo at Florence, Plan (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">256</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig148">148</a></td> +<td><p>Duomo at Florence, Nave</p></td> +<td class="number">257</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig149">149</a></td> +<td><p>One Bay, Cathedral of S. Martino, Lucca (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">258</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig150">150</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of Sienna Cathedral</p></td> +<td class="number">259</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig151">151</a></td> +<td><p>Façade of Sienna Cathedral</p></td> +<td class="number">261</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig152">152</a></td> +<td><p>Exterior of the Certosa, Pavia</p></td> +<td class="number">262</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig153">153</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of the Certosa, Pavia</p></td> +<td class="number">263</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig154">154</a></td> +<td><p>Upper Part of Campanile, Florence</p></td> +<td class="number">265</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig155">155</a></td> +<td><p>Upper Part of Palazzo Vecchio, Florence</p></td> +<td class="number">266</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig156">156</a></td> +<td><p>Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence</p></td> +<td class="number">267</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig157">157</a></td> +<td><p>West Front of Doge’s Palace, Venice</p></td> +<td class="number">268</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig158">158</a></td> +<td><p>Capital, Palazzo Zorzi, Venice</p></td> +<td class="number">275</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig159">159</a></td> +<td><p>Section of Dome, Duomo of Florence (Bn.)</p></td> +<td class="number">276</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig160">160</a></td> +<td><p>Exterior of Dome, Duomo of Florence</p></td> +<td class="number">277</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig161">161</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of S. Spirito, Florence</p></td> +<td class="number">278</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig162">162</a></td> +<td><p>Court of Riccardi Palace, Florence</p></td> +<td class="number">279</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig163">163</a></td> +<td><p>Façade of Strozzi Palace, Florence</p></td> +<td class="number">280</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig164">164</a></td> +<td><p>Tomb of Pietro di Noceto, Lucca</p></td> +<td class="number">282</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig165">165</a></td> +<td><p>Vendramini Palace, Venice</p></td> +<td class="number">285</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig166">166</a></td> +<td><p>Façade of Giraud Palace, Rome (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">290</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig167">167</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Farnese Palace, Rome (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">292</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig168">168</a></td> +<td><p>Court of Farnese Palace, Rome</p></td> +<td class="number">293</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig169">169</a></td> +<td><p>Bramante’s Plan for St. Peter’s, Rome (L.)</p></td> +<td class="number">294</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig170">170</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of St. Peter’s, Rome, as now standing (Bn. after +G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">295</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig171">171</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of St. Peter’s (full page)</p></td> +<td class="number">297</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig172">172</a></td> +<td><p>Library of St. Mark, Venice</p></td> +<td class="number">301</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig173">173</a></td> +<td><p>Interior of San Severo, Naples</p></td> +<td class="number">302</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig174">174</a></td> +<td><p>Church of Santa Maria della Salute, Naples</p></td> +<td class="number">303</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig175">175</a></td> +<td><p>Court Façade, East Wing of Blois</p></td> +<td class="number">311</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig176">176</a></td> +<td><p>Staircase Tower, Blois</p></td> +<td class="number">313</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"> +<span class="pagenum">xvi</span> +<a name="pagexvi" id="pagexvi"> </a> +<a href="#fig177">177</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Château of Chambord (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">314</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig178">178</a></td> +<td><p>Upper Part of Château of Chambord</p></td> +<td class="number">314</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig179">179</a></td> +<td><p>Detail of Court of Louvre, southwest portion</p></td> +<td class="number">315</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig180">180</a></td> +<td><p>The Luxemburg Palace, Paris</p></td> +<td class="number">318</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig181">181</a></td> +<td><p>Colonnade of the Louvre</p></td> +<td class="number">321</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig182">182</a></td> +<td><p>Dome of the Invalides, Paris</p></td> +<td class="number">322</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig183">183</a></td> +<td><p>Façade of St. Sulpice, Paris</p></td> +<td class="number">323</td> +</tr> + +<!-- 8th edn. MOVED FROM BELOW Plan of Panthéon, Paris (G.) --> +<!-- 8th edn. MOVED FROM BELOW Exterior of Panthéon, Paris --> + +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig184">184</a></td> +<td><p>Burghley House</p></td> +<td class="number">327</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig185">185</a></td> +<td><p>Whitehall Palace. The Banqueting Hall</p></td> +<td class="number">329</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig186">186</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">330</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig187">187</a></td> +<td><p>Exterior of St. Paul’s Cathedral</p></td> +<td class="number">331</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig188">188</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Blenheim (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">332</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig189">189</a></td> +<td><p>St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, London</p></td> +<td class="number">333</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig190">190</a></td> +<td><p>Renaissance Houses, Brussels</p></td> +<td class="number">335</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig191">191</a></td> +<td><p>The Castle, Hämelschenburg <!-- missing umlaut --></p></td> +<td class="number">341</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig192">192</a></td> +<td><p>The Friedrichsbau, Heidelberg Castle</p></td> +<td class="number">344</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig193">193</a></td> +<td><p>Pavilion of Zwinger Palace, Dresden</p></td> +<td class="number">345</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig194">194</a></td> +<td><p>Marienkirche, Dresden</p></td> +<td class="number">346</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig195">195</a></td> +<td><p>Portal of University, Salamanca</p></td> +<td class="number">349</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig196">196</a></td> +<td><p>Court (Patio) of Casa de Zaporta</p></td> +<td class="number">350</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig197">197</a></td> +<td><p>Palace of Charles V., Granada</p></td> +<td class="number">351</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig198">198</a></td> +<td><p>Façade of British Museum, London</p></td> +<td class="number">357</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig199">199</a></td> +<td><p>St. George’s Hall, Liverpool</p></td> +<td class="number">358</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig200">200</a></td> +<td><p>The Old Museum, Berlin</p></td> +<td class="number">359</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig201">201</a></td> +<td><p>The Propylæa, Munich</p></td> +<td class="number">360</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig202">202</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of the Panthéon, Paris (G.)</p></td> +<td class="number">361</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig203">203</a></td> +<td><p>Exterior of the Panthéon</p></td> +<td class="number">362</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig204">204</a></td> +<td><p>Arch of Triumph of l’Étoile, Paris</p></td> +<td class="number">363</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig205">205</a></td> +<td><p>The Madeleine, Paris</p></td> +<td class="number">364</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig206">206</a></td> +<td><p>Door of École des Beaux-Arts, Paris</p></td> +<td class="number">365</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig207">207</a></td> +<td><p>St. Isaac’s Cathedral, St. Petersburg</p></td> +<td class="number">366</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig208">208</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of Louvre and Tuileries (A.)</p></td> +<td class="number">371</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig209">209</a></td> +<td><p>Pavilion Richelieu, Louvre</p></td> +<td class="number">372</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig210">210</a></td> +<td><p>Grand Staircase, Paris Opera House</p></td> +<td class="number">373</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig211">211</a></td> +<td><p>Fountain of Longchamps, Marseilles</p></td> +<td class="number">374</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig212">212</a></td> +<td><p>Galliéra Museum, Paris</p></td> +<td class="number">375</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig213">213</a></td> +<td><p>Royal Theatre, Dresden</p></td> +<td class="number">376</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig214">214</a></td> +<td><p>Maria-Theresienhof, Vienna</p></td> +<td class="number">377</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig215">215</a></td> +<td><p>Houses of Parliament, London</p></td> +<td class="number">379</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig216">216</a></td> +<td><p>Assize Courts, Manchester</p></td> +<td class="number">380</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"> +<span class="pagenum">xvii</span> +<a name="pagexvii" id="pagexvii"> </a> +<a href="#fig217">217</a></td> +<td><p>Natural History Museum, South Kensington</p></td> +<td class="number">381</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig218">218</a></td> +<td><p>Christ Church, Philadelphia</p></td> +<td class="number">386</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig219">219</a></td> +<td><p>Craigie House, Cambridge (Mass.)</p></td> +<td class="number">387</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig220">220</a></td> +<td><p>National Capitol, Washington</p></td> +<td class="number">389</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig221">221</a></td> +<td><p>Custom House, New York</p></td> +<td class="number">390</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig222">222</a></td> +<td><p>Trinity Church, Boston</p></td> +<td class="number">394</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig223">223</a></td> +<td><p>Public Library, Woburn (Mass.)</p></td> +<td class="number">395</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig224">224</a></td> +<td><p>Times Building, New York</p></td> +<td class="number">396</td> +</tr> + +<!-- 8th edn. delete following, add Country House at Nyack, N.Y. and +Country House in Colonial Style --> + +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig225">225</a></td> +<td><p>Country House (Mass.)</p></td> +<td class="number">398</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig226">226</a></td> +<td><p>Porch of Temple of Vimalah Sah, Mount Abu.</p></td> +<td class="number">406</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig227">227</a></td> +<td><p>Tower of Victory, Chittore</p></td> +<td class="number">407</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig228">228</a></td> +<td><p>Double Temple at Hullabîd: Detail</p></td> +<td class="number">410</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig229">229</a></td> +<td><p>Shrine of Soubramanya, Tanjore</p></td> +<td class="number">412</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="maintext"> + +<span class="pagenum">1</span> +<a name="page1" id="page1"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapI" id="chapI">CHAPTER I.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Desor, <i>Les +constructions lacustres du lac de Neufchatel</i>. Fergusson, <i>Rude +Stone Monuments</i>. R. C. Hoare, <i>Ancients Wiltshire</i>. Lyell, +<i>The Antiquity of Man</i>. Lubbock, <i>Prehistoric Times</i>. +Nadaillac, <i>Prehistoric America</i>. Rougemont, <i>L’age du +Bronze</i>. Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>.</p> + +<p><b>EARLY BEGINNINGS.</b> It is impossible to trace the early stages +of the process by which true architecture grew out of the first rude +attempts of man at building. The oldest existing monuments of +architecture—those of Chaldæa and Egypt—belong to an +advanced civilization. The rude and elementary structures built by +savage and barbarous peoples, like the Hottentots or the tribes of +Central Africa, are not in themselves works of architecture, nor is any +instance known of the evolution of a civilized art from such beginnings. +So far as the monuments testify, no savage people ever raised itself to +civilization, and no primitive method of building was ever developed +into genuine architecture, except by contact with some existing +civilization of which it appropriated the spirit, the processes, and the +forms. How the earliest architecture came into existence is as yet an +unsolved problem.</p> + +<p><b>PRIMITIVE ARCHITECTURE</b> is therefore a subject for the +archæologist rather than the historian of art, and needs here only the +briefest mention. If we may judge of the condition of the primitive +races of antiquity by that of the savage and barbarous peoples of our +own time, they required +<span class="pagenum">2</span> +<a name="page2" id="page2"> </a> +only the simplest kinds of buildings, though the purposes which they +served were the same as those of later times in civilized communities. +A hut or house for shelter, a shrine of some sort for worship, +a stockade for defence, a cairn or mound over the grave of the +chief or hero, were provided out of the simplest materials, and these +often of a perishable nature. Poles supplied the framework; wattles, +skins, or mud the walls; thatching or stamped earth the roof. Only the +simplest tools were needed for such elementary construction. There was +ingenuity and patient labor in work of this kind; but there was no +planning, no fitting together into a complex organism of varied +materials shaped with art and handled with science. Above all, there was +no progression toward higher ideals of fitness and beauty. Rudimentary +art displayed itself mainly in objects of worship, or in carvings on +canoes and weapons, executed as talismans to ward off misfortune or to +charm the unseen powers; but even this art was sterile and never grew of +itself into civilized and progressive art.</p> + +<p>Yet there must have been at some point in the remote past an +exception to this rule. Somewhere and somehow the people of Egypt must +have developed from crude beginnings the architectural knowledge and +resource which meet us in the oldest monuments, though every vestige of +that early age has apparently perished. But although nothing has come +down to us of the actual work of the builders who wrought in the +primitive ages of mankind, there exist throughout Europe and Asia almost +countless monuments of a primitive character belonging to relatively +recent times, but executed before the advent of historic civilization to +the regions where they are found. A general resemblance among them +suggests a common heritage of traditions from the hoariest antiquity, +and throws light on the probable character of the transition from +barbaric to civilized architecture.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">3</span> +<a name="page3" id="page3"> </a> +<p><b>PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS.</b> These monuments vary widely as well as +in excellence; some of them belong to Roman or even Christian times; +others to a much remoter period. They are divided into two principal +classes, the megalithic structures and lake dwellings. The latter class +may be dismissed with the briefest mention. It comprises a considerable +number of very primitive houses or huts built on wooden piles in the +lakes of Switzerland and several other countries in both hemispheres, +and forming in some cases villages of no mean size. Such villages, built +over the water for protection from attack, are mentioned by the writers +of antiquity and portrayed on Assyrian reliefs. The objects found in +them reveal an incipient but almost stationary civilization, extending +back from three thousand to five thousand years or more, and lasting +through the ages of stone and bronze down into historic times.</p> + +<p>The <b>megalithic</b> remains of Europe and Asia are far more +important. They are very widely distributed, and consist in most cases +of great blocks of stone arranged in rows, circles, or avenues, +sometimes with huge lintels resting upon them. Upright stones without +lintels are called <i>menhirs</i>; standing in pairs with lintels they +are known as <i>dolmens</i>; the circles are called <i>cromlechs</i>. +Some of the stones are of gigantic size, some roughly hewn into shape; +others left as when quarried. Their age and purpose have been much +discussed without reaching positive results. It is probable that, like +the lake dwellings, they cover a long range of time, reaching from the +dawn of recorded history some thousands of years back into the unknown +past, and that they were erected by races which have disappeared before +the migrations to which Europe owes her present populations. That most +of them were in some way connected with the worship of these prehistoric +peoples is generally admitted; but whether as temples, tombs, or +memorials +<span class="pagenum">4</span> +<a name="page4" id="page4"> </a> +of historical or mythical events cannot, in all cases, be positively +asserted. They were not dwellings or palaces, and very few were even +enclosed buildings. They are imposing by the size and number of their +immense stones, but show no sign of advanced art, or of conscious +striving after beauty of design. The small number of “carved stones,” +bearing singular ornamental patterns, symbolic or mystical rather than +decorative in intention, really tends to prove this statement rather +than to controvert it. It is not impossible that the dolmens were +generally intended to be covered by mounds of earth. This would group +them with the tumuli referred to below, and point to a sepulchral +purpose in their erection. Some antiquaries, Fergusson among them, +contend that many of the European circles and avenues were intended as +battle-monuments or trophies.</p> + +<p>There are also <b>walls</b> of great antiquity in various parts of +Europe, intended for fortification; the most important of these in +Greece and Italy will be referred to in later chapters. They belong to a +more advanced art, some of them even deserving to be classed among works +of archaic architecture.</p> + +<p>The <b>tumuli</b>, or burial mounds, which form so large a part of +the prehistoric remains of both continents, are interesting to the +architect only as revealing the prototypes of the pyramids of Egypt and +the subterranean tombs of Mycenæ and other early Greek centres. The +piling of huge cairns or commemorative heaps of stone is known from the +Scriptures and other ancient writings to have been a custom of the +greatest antiquity. The pyramids and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus are +the most imposing and elaborate outgrowths of this practice, of which +the prehistoric tumuli are the simpler manifestations.</p> + +<p>These crude and elementary products of undeveloped civilizations have +no place, however, in any list of genuine architectural works. They +belong rather to the domain of +<span class="pagenum">5</span> +<a name="page5" id="page5"> </a> +archæology and ethnology, and have received this brief mention only as +revealing the beginnings of the builder’s art, and the wide gap that +separates them from that genuine architecture which forms the subject of +the following chapters.</p> + +<p class="monuments"> +<b>MONUMENTS</b>: The most celebrated in England are at Avebury, an +avenue, large and small circles, barrows, and the great tumuli of +Bartlow and Silbury “Hills;” at Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain, great +megalithic circles and many barrows; “Sarsen stones” at Ashdown; tumuli, +dolmens, chambers, and circles in Derbyshire. In Ireland, many cairns +and circles. In Scotland, circles and barrows in the Orkney Islands. In +France, Carnac and Lokmariaker in Brittany are especially rich in +dolmens, circles, and avenues. In Scandinavia, Germany, and Italy, in +India and in Africa, are many similar remains.</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">6</span> +<a name="page6" id="page6"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapII" id="chapII">CHAPTER II.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Champollion, +<i>Monuments de l’Egypte et de la Nubie</i>. Choisy, <i>L’art de bâtir +chez les Egyptiens</i>. Flinders-Petrie, <i>History of Egypt; Ten Years +Digging in Egypt, 1881–91</i>. Jomard, <i>Description de l’Egypte, +Antiquités</i>. Lepsius, <i>Denkmäler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien</i>. +Mariette, <i>Monuments of Upper Egypt</i>. Maspero, <i>Egyptian +Archæology</i>. Perrot and Chipiez, <i>History of Art in Ancient +Egypt</i>. Prisse d’Avennes, <i>Histoire de l’art égyptien</i>. Reber, +<i>History of Ancient Art</i>. Rossellini, <i>Monumenti del Egitto</i>. +Wilkinson, <i>Manners and Customs of Ancient Egyptians</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>LAND AND PEOPLE.</b> As long ago as 5000 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, the Egyptians were a people already highly +civilized, and skilled in the arts of peace and war. The narrow valley +of the Nile, fertilized by the periodic overflow of the river, was +flanked by rocky heights, nearly vertical in many places, which afforded +abundance of excellent building stone, while they both isolated the +Egyptians and protected them from foreign aggression. At the Delta, +however, the valley widened out, with the falling away of these heights, +into broad lowlands, from which there was access to the outer world.</p> + +<p>The art history of Egypt may be divided into five periods as +follows:</p> + +<p>I. <span class="smallcaps">The Ancient Empire</span> (cir. +4500?-3000 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), comprising the first +ten dynasties, with Memphis as the capital.</p> + +<p>II. <span class="smallcaps">The First Theban Monarchy</span> or +<span class="smallcaps">Middle Empire</span> (3000–2100 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) comprising the eleventh, twelfth, and +thirteenth dynasties reigning at Thebes.<!-- invisible . --></p> + +<span class="pagenum">7</span> +<a name="page7" id="page7"> </a> +<p>The Hyksos invasion, or incursion of the Shepherd Kings, interrupted +the current of Egyptian art history for a period of unknown length, +probably not less than four or five centuries.</p> + +<p>III. <span class="smallcaps">The Second Theban Monarchy</span> +(1700?-1000 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), comprising the +eighteenth to twentieth dynasties inclusive, was the great period of +Egyptian history; the age of conquests and of vast edifices.</p> + +<p>IV. <span class="smallcaps">The Decadence</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Saitic Period</span> (1000–324 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), comprising the dynasties twenty-one to thirty +(Saitic, Bubastid, Ethiopic, etc.), reigning at Sais, Tanis, and +Bubastis, and the Persian conquest; a period almost barren of +important monuments.</p> + +<p>(Periods III. and IV. constitute together the period of the <span +class="smallcaps">New Empire</span>, if we omit the Persian +dominion.)</p> + +<p>V. <span class="smallcaps">The Revival</span> (from 324 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> to cir. 330 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) comprises the Ptolemaic or Macedonian and +Roman dominations.</p> + + +<p><b>THE ANCIENT EMPIRE: THE PYRAMIDS.</b> The great works of this +period are almost exclusively sepulchral, and include the most ancient +buildings of which we have any remains. While there is little of +strictly architectural art, the overwhelming size and majesty of the +Pyramids, and the audacity and skill shown in their construction, +entitle them to the first place in any sketch of this period. They +number over a hundred, scattered in six groups, from Abu-Roash in the +north to Meidoum in the south, and are of various shapes and sizes. They +are all royal tombs and belong to the first twelve dynasties; each +contains a sepulchral chamber, and each at one time possessed a small +chapel adjacent to it, but this has, in almost every case, perished.</p> + +<p>Three pyramids surpass all the rest by their prodigious size; these +are at Ghizeh and belong to the fourth dynasty. They are known by the +names of their builders; the oldest and greatest being that of +<b>Cheops</b>, or Khufu;<a class="tag" name="tag1" id="tag1" href="#note1">1</a> the second, +<span class="pagenum">8</span> +<a name="page8" id="page8"> </a> +that of <b>Chephren</b>, or Khafra; and the third, that of +<b>Mycerinus</b>, or Menkhara. Other smaller ones stand at the feet of +these giants.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig1" id="fig1"> </a> +<img src="images/fig1.png" width="342" height="217" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 1.—SECTION OF GREAT PYRAMID.<br> +<span class="caption"> +<i>a, King’s Chamber; b, Queen’s Chamber; c, Chamber cut in +Rock.</i></span></p> + +<p>The base of the “Great Pyramid” measures 764 feet on a side; its +height is 482 feet, and its volume must have originally been nearly +three and one-half million cubic yards (Fig. 1). It is constructed +of limestone upon a plateau of rock levelled to receive it, and was +finished externally, like its two neighbors, with a coating of polished +stone, supposed by some to have been disposed in bands of different +colored granites, but of which it was long ago despoiled. It contained +three principal chambers and an elaborate system of inclined passages, +all executed in finely cut granite and limestone. The sarcophagus was in +the uppermost chamber, above which the superincumbent weight was +relieved by open spaces and a species of rudimentary arch of <span class="sans">Λ</span>-shape (Fig. 2). The other two pyramids differ +from that of Cheops in the details of their arrangement and in size, not +in the principle of their construction. Chephren is 454 feet high, with +a base 717 +<span class="pagenum">9</span> +<a name="page9" id="page9"> </a> +feet square. Mycerinus, which still retains its casing of pink granite, +is but 218 feet in height, with a base 253 feet on a side.</p> + +<p class="illustration floatleft w180"> +<a name="fig2" id="fig2"> </a> +<img src="images/fig2.png" width="159" height="228" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 2.—SECTION OF KING’S CHAMBER.</p> + +<p>Among the other pyramids there is considerable variety both of type +and material. At Sakkarah is one 190 feet high, constructed in six +unequal steps on a slightly oblong base measuring nearly 400 × 357 feet. +It was attributed by Mariette to Ouenephes, of the first dynasty, though +now more generally ascribed to Senefrou of the third. At Abu-Seir and +Meidoum are other stepped pyramids; at Dashour is one having a broken +slope, the lower part steeper than the upper. Several at Meroë with +unusually steep slopes belong to the Ethiopian dynasties of the +Decadence. A number of pyramids are built of brick.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig3" id="fig3"> </a> +<img src="images/fig3.png" width="204" height="209" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 3.—PLAN OF SPHINX TEMPLE.</p> + +<p><b>TOMBS.</b> The Ancient Empire has also left us a great number of +tombs of the type known as <i>Mastabas</i>. These are oblong rectangular +structures of stone or brick with slightly inclined sides and flat +ceilings. They uniformly face the east, and are internally divided into +three parts; the chamber or chapel, the <i>serdab</i>, and the well. In +the first of these, next the entrance, were placed the offerings made to +the <i>Ka</i> or “double,” for whom +<span class="pagenum">10</span> +<a name="page10" id="page10"> </a> +also scenes of festivity or worship were carved and painted on its walls +to minister to his happiness in his incorporeal life. The serdabs, or +secret inner chambers, of which there were several in each mastaba, +contained statues of the defunct, by which the existence and identity of +the Ka were preserved. Finally came the well, leading to the mummy +chamber, deep underground, which contained the sarcophagus. The +sarcophagi, both of this and later ages, are good examples of the minor +architecture of Egypt; many of them are panelled in imitation of wooden +construction and richly decorated with color, symbols, and +hieroglyphs.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig4" id="fig4"> </a> +<img src="images/fig4.png" width="236" height="122" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 4.—RUINS OF SPHINX TEMPLE.</p> + +<p><b>OTHER MONUMENTS.</b> Two other monuments of the Ancient Empire +also claim attention: the <b>Sphinx</b> and the adjacent so-called +“<b>Sphinx temple</b>” at Ghizeh. The first of these, a huge +sculpture carved from the rock, represents Harmachis in the form of a +human-headed lion. It is ordinarily partly buried in the sand; is 70 +feet long by 66 feet high, and forms one of the most striking monuments +of Egyptian art. Close to it lie the nearly buried ruins of the temple +once supposed to be that of the Sphinx, but now proved by Petrie to have +been erected in connection with the second pyramid. The plan and present +aspect of this venerable edifice are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The +hall was roofed with stone lintels carried on sixteen square monolithic +piers of alabaster. The whole was buried in a rectangular mass of +masonry and revetted internally with alabaster, but was wholly destitute +internally as well as externally of decoration or even of mouldings. +With the exception of scanty remains of a few of the pyramid-temples or +chapels, and the +<span class="pagenum">11</span> +<a name="page11" id="page11"> </a> +temple discovered by Petrie in Meidoum, it is the only survival from the +temple architecture of that early age.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig5" id="fig5"> </a> +<img src="images/fig5.png" width="243" height="176" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 5.—TOMB AT ABYDOS.</p> + +<p><b>THE MIDDLE EMPIRE: TOMBS.</b> The monuments of this period, as of +the preceding, are almost wholly sepulchral. We now encounter two types +of tombs. One, structural and pyramidal, is represented by many examples +at Abydos, the most venerated of all the burial grounds of Egypt +(Fig. 5). All of these are built of brick, and are of moderate size +and little artistic interest. The second type is that of tombs cut in +the vertical cliffs of the west bank of the Nile Valley. The entrance to +these faces eastward as required by tradition; the remoter end of the +excavation pointing toward the land of the Sun of Night. But such +tunnels only become works of architecture when, in addition to the +customary mural paintings, they receive a decorative treatment in the +design of their structural forms. +<span class="illustration floatleft"> +<a name="fig6" id="fig6"> </a> +<img src="images/fig6.png" width="252" height="187" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 6.—TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.</span> +Such a treatment appears in several tombs at Beni-Hassan, in which +columns are reserved in cutting away the rock, both in the +chapel-chambers and in the vestibules or porches which precede them. +These columns are polygonal in some cases, clustered +<span class="pagenum">12</span> +<a name="page12" id="page12"> </a> +in others. The former type, with eight, sixteen, or thirty-two sides (in +these last the <i>arrises</i> or edges are emphasized by a slight +concavity in each face, like embryonic fluting), have a square abacus, +suggesting the Greek Doric order, and giving rise to the name +<i>proto-Doric</i> (Fig. 6). Columns of this type are also found at +Karnak, Kalabshé, Amada, and Abydos. A reminiscence of primitive +wood construction is seen in the dentils over the plain architrave of +the entrance, which in other respects recalls the triple entrances to +certain mastabas of the Old Empire. These dentils are imitations of the +ends of rafters, and to some archæologists suggest a wooden origin for +the whole system of columnar design. But these rock-cut shafts and heavy +architraves in no respect resemble wooden prototypes, but point rather +to an imitation cut in the rock of a well-developed, pre-existing system +of stone construction, some of whose details, however, were undoubtedly +derived from early methods of building in wood. The vault was below the +chapel and reached by a separate entrance. The serdab was replaced by a +niche in which was the figure of the defunct carved from the native +rock. Some of the +<span class="pagenum">13</span> +<a name="page13" id="page13"> </a> +tombs employed in the chapel-chamber columns of quatrefoil section with +capitals like clustered buds (Fig. 7), and this type became in the +next period one of the most characteristic forms of Egyptian +architecture.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig7" id="fig7"> </a> +<img src="images/fig7.png" width="291" height="214" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 7.—SECTION AND HALF-PLAN OF A TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.</p> + + +<p><b>TEMPLES.</b> Of the temples of this period only two have left any +remains of importance. Both belong to the twelfth dynasty (cir. 2200 +<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). Of one of these many badly +shattered fragments have been found in the ruins of Bubastis; these show +the clustered type of lotus-bud column mentioned above. The other, of +which a few columns have been identified among the ruins of the Great +Temple at Karnak, constituted the oldest part of that vast agglomeration +of religious edifices, and employed columns of the so-called proto-Doric +type. From these remains it appears that structural stone columns as +well as those cut in the rock were used at this early period (2200 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). Indeed, it is probable that the whole +architectural system of the New Empire was based on models developed in +the age we are considering; that the use of multiplied columns of +various types and the building of temples of complex plan adorned with +colossal statues, obelisks, and painted reliefs, were perfectly +understood and practised in this period. But the works it produced have +perished, having been most probably demolished to make way for the more +sumptuous edifices of later times.</p> + + +<p><b>THE NEW EMPIRE.</b> This was the grand age of Egyptian +architecture and history. An extraordinary series of mighty men ruled +the empire during a long period following the expulsion of the Hyksos +usurpers. The names of Thothmes, Amenophis, Hatasu, Seti, and Rameses +made glorious the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties. Foreign conquests +in Ethiopia, Syria, and Assyria enlarged the territory and increased the +splendor of the empire. The majority of the most impressive ruins of +Egypt belong to this period, and it was in these buildings that the +characteristic +<span class="pagenum">14</span> +<a name="page14" id="page14"> </a> +elements of Egyptian architecture were brought to perfection and carried +out on the grandest scale.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig8" id="fig8"> </a> +<img src="images/fig8.png" width="169" height="362" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 8.—PLAN OF THE RAMESSEUM.</p> + +<p class="caption w180"> +<i>a, Sanctuary; b, Hypostyle Hall; c, Second court; d, Entrance court; +e, Pylons.</i></p> + +<p><b>TOMBS OF THE NEW EMPIRE.</b> Some of these are structural, others +excavated; both types displaying considerable variety in arrangement and +detail. The rock-cut tombs of Bab-el-Molouk, among which are twenty-five +royal sepulchres, are striking both by the simplicity of their openings +and the depth and complexity of their shafts, tunnels, and chambers. +From the pipe-like length of their tunnels they have since the time of +Herodotus been known by the name <i>syrinx</i>. Every precaution was +taken to lead astray and baffle the intending violator of their +sanctity. They penetrated hundreds of feet into the rock; their +chambers, often formed with columns and vault-like roofs, were +resplendent with colored reliefs and ornament destined to solace and +sustain the shadowy Ka until the soul itself, the Ba, should arrive +before the tribunal of Osiris, the Sun of Night. Most impressively do +these brilliant pictures,<a class="tag" name="tag2" id="tag2" href="#note2">2</a> intended to be forever shut away from human eyes, +attest the sincerity of the Egyptian belief and the conscientiousness of +the art which it inspired.</p> + +<p>While the tomb of the private citizen was complete in itself, +containing the Ka-statues and often the chapel, as well as the mummy, +the royal tomb demanded something more elaborate in scale and +arrangement. In some cases +<span class="pagenum">15</span> +<a name="page15" id="page15"> </a> +external structures of temple-form took the place of the underground +chapel and serdab. The royal effigy, many times repeated in painting and +sculpture throughout this temple-like edifice, and flanking its gateways +with colossal seated figures, made buried Ka-statues unnecessary. Of +these sepulchral temples three are of the first magnitude. They are that +of <b>Queen Hatasu</b> (XVIIIth dynasty) at Deir-el-Bahari; that of +<b>Rameses II.</b> (XIXth dynasty), the <b>Ramesseum</b>, near by to the +southwest; and that of <b>Rameses III.</b> (XXth dynasty) at Medinet +Abou still further to the southwest. Like the tombs, these were all on +the west side of the Nile; so also was the sepulchral temple of +Amenophis III.<!-- invisible . --> (XVIIIth dynasty), the +<b>Amenopheum</b>, of which hardly a trace remains except the two seated +colossi which, rising from the Theban plain, have astonished travellers +from the times of Pausanias and Strabo down to our own. These mutilated +figures, one of which has been known ever since classic times as the +“vocal Memnon,” are 56 feet high, and once flanked the entrance to the +forecourt of the temple of Amenophis. The plan of the Ramesseum, with +its sanctuary, hypostyle hall, and forecourts, its pylons and obelisks, +is shown in Figure 8, and may be compared with those of other +temples given on pp. 17 and 18. That of Medinet Abou resembles it +closely. The Ramesseum occupies a rectangle of 590 × 182 feet; the +temple of Medinet Abou measures 500 × 160 feet, not counting the extreme +width of the entrance pylons. The temple of Hatasu at Deir-el-Bahari is +partly excavated and partly structural, a model which is also +followed on a smaller scale in several lesser tombs. Such an edifice is +called a <i>hemispeos</i>.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="note1" id="note1" href="#tag1">1.</a> +The Egyptian names known to antiquity are given here first in the more +familiar classic form, and then in the Egyptian form.</p> + +<p><a name="note2" id="note2" href="#tag2">2.</a> +See Van Dyke’s <i>History of Painting</i>, Figure 1.</p> + +</div> + + + +<span class="pagenum">16</span> +<a name="page16" id="page16"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapIII" id="chapIII">CHAPTER III.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE—<i>Continued</i>.</h3> + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Same as for +Chapter II.</p> + + +<p><b>TEMPLES.</b> The surpassing glory of the New Empire was its great +temples. Some of them were among the most stupendous creations of +structural art. To temples rather than palaces were the resources and +energies of the kings devoted, and successive monarchs found no more +splendid outlet for their piety and ambition than the founding of new +temples or the extension and adornment of those already existing. By the +forced labor of thousands of fellaheen (the system is in force to this +day and is known as the <i>corvée</i>) architectural piles of vast +extent could be erected within the lifetime of a monarch. As in the +tombs the internal walls bore pictures for the contemplation of the Ka, +so in the temples the external walls, for the glory of the king and the +delectation of the people, were covered with colored reliefs reciting +the monarch’s glorious deeds. Internally the worship and attributes of +the gods were represented in a similar manner, in endless iteration.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig9" id="fig9"> </a> +<img src="images/fig9.png" width="180" height="377" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 9.—TEMPLE OF EDFOU. PLAN.</p> + +<p><b>THE TEMPLE SCHEME.</b> This is admirably shown in the temple of +Khonsu, at Karnak, built by Rameses III. (XXth dynasty), and in the +temple of Edfou (Figs. 9 and 10), though this belongs to the Roman +period. It comprised a sanctuary or <i>sekos</i>, a hypostyle +(columnar) hall, known as the “hall of assembly,” and a forecourt +preceded by a double pylon or +<span class="pagenum">17</span> +<a name="page17" id="page17"> </a> +gateway. Each of these parts might be made more or less complex in +different temples, but the essential features are encountered everywhere +under all changes of form. The building of a temple began with the +sanctuary, which contained the sacred chamber and the shrine of the god, +with subordinate rooms for the priests and for various rites and +functions. These chambers were low, dark, mysterious, accessible only to +the priests and king. They were given a certain dignity by being raised +upon a sort of platform above the general level, and reached by a few +steps. They were sumptuously decorated internally with ritual pictures +in relief. The hall was sometimes loftier, but set on a slightly lower +level; its massive columns supported a roof of stone lintels, and light +was admitted either through clearstory windows under the roof of a +central portion higher than the sides, as at Karnak, or over a low +screen-wall built between the columns of the front row, as at Edfou and +Denderah. This method was peculiar to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. +The court was usually surrounded +<span class="pagenum">18</span> +<a name="page18" id="page18"> </a> +by a single or double colonnade; sometimes, however, this colonnade only +flanked the sides or fronted the hall, or again was wholly wanting. The +<i>pylons</i> were twin buttress-like masses flanking the entrance gate +of the court. They were shaped like oblong truncated pyramids, crowned +by flaring cornices, and were decorated on the outer face with masts +carrying banners, with obelisks, or with seated colossal figures of the +royal builder. An avenue of sphinxes formed the approach to the +entrance, and the whole temple precinct was surrounded by a wall, +usually of crude brick, pierced by one or more gates with or without +pylons. The piety of successive monarchs was displayed in the addition +of new hypostyle halls, courts, pylons, or obelisks, by which the temple +was successively extended in length, and sometimes also in width, by the +increased dimensions of the new courts. The great Temple of Karnak most +strikingly illustrates this growth. Begun by Osourtesen (XIIth dynasty) +more than 2000 years <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, it was not +completed in its present form until the time of the Ptolemies, when the +last of the pylons and external gates were erected.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig10" id="fig10"> </a> +<img src="images/fig10.png" width="441" height="99" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 10.—TEMPLE OF EDFOU. SECTION.</p> + +<p>The variations in the details of this general type were numerous. +Thus, at El Kab, the temple of Amenophis III. +<span class="pagenum">19</span> +<a name="page19" id="page19"> </a> +has the sekos and hall but no forecourt. At Deir-el-Medineh the hall of +the Ptolemaic Hathor-temple is a mere porch in two parts, while the +enclosure within the circuit wall takes the place of the forecourt. At +Karnak all the parts were repeated several times, and under Amenophis +III. (XVIIIth dynasty) a wing was built at a nearly right angle to +the main structure. At Luxor, to a complete typical temple were added +three aisles of an unfinished hypostyle hall, and an elaborate +forecourt, whose axis is inclined to that of the other buildings, owing +to a bend of the river at that point. At Abydos a complex sanctuary of +many chambers extends southeast at right angles to the general mass, and +the first court is without columns. But in all these structures a +certain unity of effect is produced by the lofty pylons, the flat roofs +diminishing in height over successive portions from the front to the +sanctuary, the sloping windowless walls covered with carved and painted +pictures, and the dim and massive interiors of the columnar halls.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig11" id="fig11"> </a> +<img src="images/fig11.png" width="445" height="203" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 11.—TEMPLE OF KARNAK. PLAN.<br> +<a class="closeup" href="images/fig11_large.png" target="_blank"> +Larger View</a></p> + + +<p><b>TEMPLES OF KARNAK.</b> Of these various temples that of +<b>Amen-Ra</b> is incomparably the largest and most imposing. Its +construction extended through the whole duration of the New Empire, of +whose architecture it is a splendid <i>résumé</i> (Fig. 11). Its extreme +length is 1,215 feet, and its greatest width 376 feet. The sanctuary and +its accessories, mainly built by Thothmes I. and Thothmes III., +cover an area nearly 456 × 290 feet in extent, and comprise two +hypostyle halls and countless smaller halls and chambers. It is preceded +by a narrow columnar vestibule and two pylons enclosing a columnar +atrium and two obelisks. This is entered from the <b>Great Hypostyle +Hall</b> (<i>h</i> in Fig. 11; Fig. 12), the noblest single work of +Egyptian architecture, measuring 340 × 170 feet, and containing 134 +columns in sixteen rows, supporting a massive stone roof. The central +columns with bell-capitals are 70 feet high and nearly 12 feet in +diameter; the others are smaller and lower, with lotus-bud capitals, +supporting +<span class="pagenum">20</span> +<a name="page20" id="page20"> </a> +a roof lower than that over the three central aisles. +A clearstory of stone-grated windows makes up the difference in +height between these two roofs. The interior, thus lighted, was splendid +with painted reliefs, which helped not only to adorn the hall but to +give scale to its massive parts. The whole stupendous creation was the +work of three kings—Rameses I., Seti I., and Rameses II. +(XIXth dynasty).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig12" id="fig12"> </a> +<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="415" height="202" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 12.—CENTRAL PORTION OF HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK.<br> +<span class="caption"> +(From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)</span></p> + +<p>In front of it was the great court, flanked by columns, and still +showing the ruins of a central avenue of colossal pillars begun, but +never completed, by the Bubastid kings of the XXIId dynasty. One or two +smaller structures and the curious lateral wing built by Amenophis III., +interrupt the otherwise orderly and symmetrical advance of this plan +from the sanctuary to the huge first pylon (last in point of date) +erected by the Ptolemies.</p> + +<p>The smaller temple of Khonsu, south of that of Amen-Ra, has already +been alluded to as a typical example of templar design. Next to Karnak +in importance comes the <b>Temple of Luxor</b> in its immediate +neighborhood. It has two forecourts adorned with double-aisled +colonnades and +<span class="pagenum">21</span> +<a name="page21" id="page21"> </a> +connected by what seems to be an unfinished hypostyle hall. The +<b>Ramesseum</b> and the temples of <b>Medinet Abou</b> and +<b>Deir-El-Bahari</b> have already been mentioned (<a href="#page15">p. 15</a>). At Gournah and Abydos are the next most +celebrated temples of this period; the first famous for its rich +clustered lotus-columns, the latter for its beautiful sanctuary +chambers, dedicated each to a different deity, and covered with delicate +painted reliefs of the time of Seti I.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig13" id="fig13"> </a> +<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="434" height="333" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 13.—GREAT TEMPLE OF IPSAMBOUL.</p> + +<p><b>GROTTO TEMPLES.</b> Two other styles of temple remain to be +noticed. The first is the subterranean or grotto temple, of which the +two most famous, at Ipsamboul (Abou-simbel), were excavated by Rameses +II. They are truly colossal conceptions, reproducing in the native rock +the main features of structural temples, the court being represented by +the larger of two chambers in the Greater Temple (Fig. 13) +<span class="pagenum">22</span> +<a name="page22" id="page22"> </a> +Their façades are adorned with colossal seated figures of the builder; +the smaller has also two effigies of Nefert-Ari, his consort. Nothing +more striking and boldly impressive is to be met with in Egypt than +these singular rock-cut façades. Other rock-cut temples of more modest +dimensions are at Addeh, Feraig, Beni-Hassan (the “Speos Artemidos”), +Beit-el-Wali, and Silsileh. At Gherf-Hossein, Asseboua, and Derri are +temples partly excavated and partly structural.</p> + + +<p><b>PERIPTERAL TEMPLES.</b> The last type of temple to be noticed is +represented by only three or four structures of moderate size; it is the +<i>peripteral</i>, in which a small chamber is surrounded by columns, +usually mounted on a terrace with vertical walls. They were mere +chapels, but are among the most graceful of existing ruins. At Philæ are +two structures, one by Nectanebo, the other Ptolemaic, resembling +peripteral temples, but without cella-chambers or roofs. They may have +been waiting-courts for the adjoining temples. That at Elephantine +(Amenophis III.) has square piers at the sides, and columns only at the +ends. Another by Thothmes II., at Medinet Abou, formed only a part (the +sekos?) of a larger plan. At Edfou is another, belonging to the +Ptolemaic period.</p> + + +<p><b>LATER TEMPLES.</b> After the architectural inaction of the +Decadence came a marvellous recrudescence of splendor under the +Ptolemies, whose Hellenic origin and sympathies did not lead them into +the mistaken effort to impose Greek models upon Egyptian art. The +temples erected under their dominion, and later under Roman rule, vied +with the grandest works of the Ramessidæ, and surpassed them in the rich +elaboration and variety of their architectural details. The temple at +Edfou (Figs. <a href="#fig9">9</a>, <a href="#fig10">10</a>, 14) is +the most perfectly preserved, and conforms most closely to the typical +plan; that of Isis, at Philæ, is the most elaborate and ornate. Denderah +also possesses a group of admirably +<span class="pagenum">23</span> +<a name="page23" id="page23"> </a> +preserved temples of the same period. At Esneh, and at Kalabshé and +Kardassy or Ghertashi in Nubia are others.<!-- invisible . --> In all +these one notes innovations of detail and a striving for effect quite +different from the simpler majesty of the preceding age (Fig. 14). One +peculiar feature is the use of screen walls built into the front rows of +columns of the hypostyle hall. Light was admitted above these walls, +which measured about half the height of the columns and were interrupted +at the centre by a curious doorway cut through their whole height and +without any lintel. Long disused types of capital were revived and +others greatly elaborated; and the wall-reliefs were arranged in bands +and panels with a regularity and symmetry rather Greek than +Egyptian.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig14" id="fig14"> </a> +<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="432" height="248" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 14.—EDFOU. FRONT OF HYPOSTYLE HALL.</p> + +<p><b>ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.</b> With the exception of a few purely +utilitarian vaulted structures, all Egyptian architecture was based on +the principle of the lintel. Artistic splendor depended upon the use of +painted and carved pictures, and the decorative treatment of the very +simple supports +<span class="pagenum">24</span> +<a name="page24" id="page24"> </a> +employed. Piers and columns sustained the roofs of such chambers as were +too wide for single lintels, and produced, in halls like those of +Karnak, of the Ramesseum, or of Denderah, a stupendous effect by +their height, massiveness, number, and colored decoration. The simplest +piers were plain square shafts; others, more elaborate, had lotus stalks +and flowers or heads of Hathor carved upon them. The most striking were +those against whose front faces were carved colossal figures of Osiris, +as at Luxor, Medmet Abou, and Karnak (Fig. 15). The columns, which were +seldom over six diameters in height, were treated with greater variety; +the shafts, slightly tapering upward, were either round or clustered in +section, and usually contracted at the base. The capitals with which +they were crowned were usually of one of the five chief types described +below. Besides round and clustered shafts, the Middle Empire and a few +of the earlier monuments of the New Empire employed polygonal or +slightly fluted shafts (see <a href="#page11">p. 11</a>), as at +Beni Hassan and Karnak; these had a plain square abacus, with sometimes +a cushion-like echinus beneath it. A round plinth served as a base +for most of the columns.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig15" id="fig15"> </a> +<img src="images/fig15.png" width="154" height="258" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 15.—OSIRID PIER (MEDINET ABOU).</p> + +<p><b>CAPITALS.</b> The five chief types of capital were: +<i>a</i>, the plain lotus bud, as at Karnak (Great Hall); +<i>b</i>, the clustered lotus bud (Beni-Hassan, Karnak, Luxor, +Gournah, etc.); <i>c</i>, the <i>campaniform</i> or inverted bell +(central aisles at Karnak, Luxor, the Ramesseum); <i>d</i>, the +palm-capital, frequent in the later temples; and <i>e</i>, the +Hathor-headed, in which heads of Hathor adorn the four faces of a +cubical mass surmounted by a model of a shrine (Sedinga, Edfou, +Denderah, +<span class="pagenum">25</span> +<a name="page25" id="page25"> </a> +Esneh). These types were richly embellished and varied by the Ptolemaic +architects, who gave a clustered or quatrefoil plan to the bell-capital, +or adorned its surface with palm leaves. A few other forms are met +with as exceptions. The first four are shown in Fig. 16.</p> + +<p>Every part of the column was richly decorated in color. Lotus-leaves +or petals swathed the swelling lower part of the shaft, which was +elsewhere covered with successive bands of carved pictures and of +hieroglyphics. The capital was similarly covered with carved and painted +ornament, usually of lotus-flowers or leaves, or alternate stalks of +lotus and papyrus.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig16" id="fig16"> </a> +<img src="images/fig16.png" width="246" height="175" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 16.—TYPES OF COLUMN.<br> +<span class="caption"> +<i>a, Campaniform; b, Clustered Lotus-Column;<br> +c, Simple Lotus-Column; d, Palm-Column.</i></span></p> + +<p>The lintels were plain and square in section, and often of prodigious +size. Where they appeared externally they were crowned with a simple +cavetto cornice, its curved surface covered with colored flutings +alternating with <i>cartouches</i> of hieroglyphics. Sometimes, +especially on the screen walls of the Ptolemaic age, this was surmounted +by a cresting of adders or uræi in closely serried rank. No other form +of cornice or cresting is met with. Mouldings as a means of +architectural effect were singularly lacking in Egyptian architecture. +The only moulding known is the clustered torus (<i>torus</i> = a convex +moulding of semicircular profile), which resembles a bundle of reeds +tied together with cords or ribbons. It forms an astragal under the +cavetto cornice and runs down the angles of the pylons and walls.</p> + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig17" id="fig17"> </a> +<img src="images/fig17.png" width="136" height="156" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 17.—EGYPTIAN FLORAL<br> +ORNAMENT-FORMS.</p> + +<p><b>POLYCHROMY AND ORNAMENT.</b> Color was absolutely +<span class="pagenum">26</span> +<a name="page26" id="page26"> </a> +essential to the decorative scheme. In the vast and dim interiors, as +well as in the blinding glare of the sun, mere sculpture or relief would +have been wasted. The application of brilliant color to pictorial forms +cut in low relief, or outlined by deep incision with the edges of the +figures delicately rounded (<i>intaglio rilievo</i>) was the most +appropriate treatment possible. The walls and columns were covered with +pictures treated in this way, and the ceilings and lintels were +embellished with symbolic forms in the same manner. All the ornaments, +as distinguished from the paintings, were symbolical, at least in their +origin. Over the gateway was the solar disk or globe with wide-spread +wings, the symbol of the sun winging its way to the conquest of night; +upon the ceiling were sacred vultures, zodiacs, or stars spangled on a +blue ground. Externally the temples presented only masses of unbroken +wall; but these, as well as the pylons, were covered with huge pictures +of a historical character. Only in the tombs do we find painted ornament +of a purely conventional sort (Fig. 17). Rosettes, diaper patterns, +spirals, and checkers are to be met with in them; but many of these can +be traced to symbolic origins.<a class="tag" name="tag3" id="tag3" +href="#note3">3</a></p> + + +<p><b>DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> The only remains of palaces are the +pavilion of Rameses III. at Medinet Abou, and another at Semneh. The +Royal Labyrinth has so completely perished that even its site is +uncertain. The Egyptians lived so much out of doors that the house was a +less important edifice than in colder climates. Egyptian dwellings were +probably in most cases built of wood or crude +<span class="pagenum">27</span> +<a name="page27" id="page27"> </a> +brick, and their disappearance is thus easily explained. Relief pictures +on the monuments indicate the use of wooden framing for the walls, which +were probably filled in with crude brick or panels of wood. The +architecture was extremely simple. Gateways like those of the temples on +a smaller scale, the cavetto cornice on the walls, and here and there a +porch with carved columns of wood or stone, were the only details +pretending to elegance. The ground-plans of many houses in ruined +cities, as at Tel-el-Amarna and a nameless city of Amenophis IV., are +discernible in the ruins; but the superstructures are wholly wanting. It +was in religious and sepulchral architecture that the constructive and +artistic genius of the Egyptians was most fully manifested.</p> + +<div class="monuments"> + +<p><b>MONUMENTS</b>: The principal necropolis regions of Egypt are +centred about Ghizeh and ancient Memphis for the Old Empire (pyramids +and mastabas), Thebes for the Middle Empire (Silsileh, Beni Hassan), and +Thebes (Vale of the Kings, Vale of the Queens) and Abydos for the New +Empire.</p> + +<p>The Old Empire has also left us the Sphinx, Sphinx temple, and the +temple at Meidoum.</p> + +<p>The most important temples of the New Empire were those of Karnak +(the great temple, the southern or temple of Khonsu), of Luxor, Medinet +Abou (great temple of Rameses III., lesser temples of Thothmes II. and +III. with peripteral sekos; also Pavilion of Rameses III.); of Abydos; +of Gournah; of Eilithyia (Amenophis III.); of Soleb and Sesebi in Nubia; +of Elephantine (peripteral); the tomb temple of Deir-el-Bahari, the +Ramesseum, the Amenopheum; hemispeos at Gherf Hossein; two grotto +temples at Ipsamboul.</p> + +<p>At Meroë are pyramids of the Ethiopic kings of the Decadence.</p> + +<p>Temples of the Ptolemaic period<ins class="correction" title="text has ; for :">: </ins>Philæ, Denderah.</p> + +<p>Temples of the Roman period: Koum Ombos, Edfou; Kalabshé,<!-- +invisible , --> Kardassy and Dandour in Nubia; Esneh.</p> + +</div> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="note3" id="note3" href="#tag3">3.</a> +See Goodyear’s <i>Grammar of the Lotus</i> for an elaborate and +ingenious presentation of the theory of a common lotus-origin for all +the conventional forms occurring in Egyptian ornament.</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">28</span> +<a name="page28" id="page28"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapIV" id="chapIV">CHAPTER IV.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +CHALDÆAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Reber. +Also, Babelon, <i>Manual of Oriental Antiquities</i>. Botta and Flandin, +<i>Monuments de Ninive</i>. Layard, <i>Discoveries in Nineveh</i>; +<i>Nineveh and its Remains</i>. Loftus, <i>Travels and Researches in +Chaldæa and Susiana</i>. Perrot and Chipiez, <i>History of Art in +Chaldæa and Assyria</i>. Peters, <i>Nippur</i>. Place, <i>Ninive et +l’Assyrie</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>SITUATION; HISTORIC PERIODS.</b> The Tigro-Euphrates valley was +the seat of a civilization nearly or quite as old as that of the Nile, +though inferior in its monumental art. The kingdoms of Chaldæa and +Assyria which ruled in this valley, sometimes as rivals and sometimes as +subjects one of the other, differed considerably in character and +culture. But the scarcity of timber and the lack of good building-stone +except in the limestone table-lands and more distant mountains of upper +Mesopotamia, the abundance of clay, and the flatness of the country, +imposed upon the builders of both nations similar restrictions of +conception, form, and material. Both peoples, moreover, were probably, +in part at least, of Semitic race.<a class="tag" name="tag4" id="tag4" href="#note4">4</a> The Chaldæans attained civilization as +early as 4000 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, and had for +centuries maintained fixed institutions and practised the arts and +sciences when the Assyrians began their career as a nation of conquerors +by reducing Chaldæa to subjection.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">29</span> +<a name="page29" id="page29"> </a> +<p>The history of Chaldæo-Assyrian art may be divided into three main +periods, as follows:</p> + +<p>1. The <span class="smallcaps">Early Chaldæan</span>, 4000 to 1250 +<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>2. The <span class="smallcaps">Assyrian</span>, 1250 to 606 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>3. The <span class="smallcaps">Babylonian</span>, 606 to 538 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>In 538 the empire fell before the Persians.</p> + + +<p><b>GENERAL CHARACTER OF MONUMENTS.</b> Recent excavations at Nippur +(Niffer), the sacred city of Chaldæa, have uncovered ruins older than +the Pyramids. Though of slight importance architecturally, they reveal +the early knowledge of the arch and the possession of an advanced +culture. The poverty of the building materials of this region afforded +only the most limited resources for architectural effect. Owing to the +flatness of the country and the impracticability of building lofty +structures with sun-dried bricks, elevation above the plain could be +secured only by erecting buildings of moderate height upon enormous +mounds or terraces, built of crude brick and faced with hard brick or +stone. This led to the development of the stepped pyramid as the typical +form of Chaldæo-Assyrian architecture. Thick walls were necessary both +for stability and for protection from the burning heat of that climate. +The lack of stone for columns and the difficulty of procuring heavy +beams for long spans made broad halls and chambers impossible. The plans +of Assyrian palaces look like assemblages of long corridors and small +cells (Fig. 18). Neither the wooden post nor the column played any part +in this architecture except for window-mullions and subordinate +members.<a class="tag" name="tag5" id="tag5" href="#note5">5</a><!-- invisible . --> It is probable that the vault was +used for roofing many of the halls; the arch was certainly employed for +doors and the barrel-vault for the drainage-tunnels +<span class="pagenum">30</span> +<a name="page30" id="page30"> </a> +under the terraces, made necessary by the heavy rainfall. What these +structures lacked in durability and height was made up in decorative +magnificence. The interior walls were wainscoted to a height of eight or +nine feet with alabaster slabs covered with those low-relief pictures of +hunting scenes, battles, and gods, which now enrich the museums of +London, Paris, and other modern cities. Elsewhere painted plaster or +more durable enamelled tile in brilliant colors embellished the walls, +and, doubtless, rugs and tapestries added their richness to this +architectural splendor.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig18" id="fig18"> </a> +<img src="images/fig18.png" width="357" height="375" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 18.—PALACE OF SARGON AT KHORSABAD.</p> + + +<p><b>CHALDÆAN ARCHITECTURE.</b> The ruins at Mugheir (the Biblical Ur), +dating, perhaps, from 2200 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, +belong to the two-storied terrace or platform of a temple to Sin or +Hurki. +<span class="pagenum">31</span> +<a name="page31" id="page31"> </a> +The wall of sun-dried brick is faced with enamelled tile. The shrine, +which was probably small, has wholly disappeared from the summit of the +mound. At Warka (the ancient Erech) are two terrace-walls of palaces, +one of which is ornamented with convex flutings and with a species of +mosaic in checker patterns and zigzags, formed by terra-cotta cones or +spikes driven into the clay, their exposed bases being enamelled in the +desired colors. The other shows a system of long, narrow panels, in a +style suggesting the influence of Egyptian models through some as yet +unknown channel. This panelling became a common feature of the later +Assyrian art (see Fig. 19). At Birs-Nimroud are the ruins of a stepped +pyramid surmounted by a small shrine. Its seven stages are said to have +been originally faced with glazed tile of the seven planetary colors, +gold, silver, yellow, red, blue, white, and black. The ruins at Nippur, +which comprise temples, altars, and dwellings dating from 4000 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, have been alluded to. Babylon, the +later capital of Chaldæa, to which the shapeless mounds of Mujehbeh and +Kasr seem to have belonged, has left no other recognizable vestige of +its ancient magnificence.</p> + + +<p><b>ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE.</b> Abundant ruins exist of Nineveh, the +Assyrian capital, and its adjacent palace-sites. Excavations at +Koyunjik, Khorsabad, and Nimroud have laid bare a number of these royal +dwellings. Among them are the palace of Assur-nazir-pal (885 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) and two palaces of Shalmaneser II.<!-- +invisible . --> (850 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span><!-- missing +second . -->) at Nimroud; the great palace of Sargon at Khorsabad (721 +<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span><!-- invisible first . -->); that +of Sennacherib at Koyunjik (704 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>); +of Esarhaddon at Nimroud (650 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>); +and of Assur-bani-pal at Koyunjik (660 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). All of these palaces are designed on the same +general principle, best shown by the plan (Fig. 18) of the palace of +Sargon at Khorsabad, excavated by Botta and Place.</p> + +<p>In this palace two large and several smaller courts are surrounded by +a complex series of long, narrow halls and +<span class="pagenum">32</span> +<a name="page32" id="page32"> </a> +small, square chambers. One court probably belonged to the harem, +another to the king’s apartments, others to dependents and to the +service of the palace. The crude brick walls are immensely thick and +without windows, the only openings being for doors. The absence of +columns made wide halls impossible, and great size could only be +attained in the direction of length. A terraced pyramid supported +an altar or shrine to the southwest of the palace; at the west corner +was a temple, the substructure of which was crowned by a cavetto cornice +showing plainly the influence of Egyptian models. The whole palace stood +upon a stupendous platform faced with cut stone, an unaccustomed +extravagance in Assyria.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig19" id="fig19"> </a> +<img src="images/fig19.png" width="315" height="227" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 19.—GATE, KHORSABAD.</p> + +<p><b>ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.</b> There is no evidence that the Assyrians +ever used columnar supports except in minor or accessory details. There +are few halls in any of the ruins too wide to be spanned by good Syrian +cedar beams or palm timbers, and these few cases seem to have had +vaulted ceilings. So clumsy a feature as the central wall in the great +hall of Esarhaddon’s palace at Nimroud would never have been resorted to +for the support of the ceiling, had +<span class="pagenum">33</span> +<a name="page33" id="page33"> </a> +the Assyrians been familiar with the use of columns. That they +understood the arch and vault is proved by their admirable +terrace-drains and the fine arched gate in the walls of Khorsabad (Fig. +19), as well as by bas-reliefs representing dwellings with domes of +various forms. Moreover, a few vaulted chambers of moderate size, +and fallen fragments of crude brick vaulting of larger span, have been +found in several of the Assyrian ruins.</p> + +<p>The construction was extremely simple. The heavy clay walls were +faced with alabaster, burned brick, or enamelled tiles. The roofs were +probably covered with stamped earth, and sometimes paved on top with +tiles or slabs of alabaster to form terraces. Light was introduced most +probably through windows immediately under the roof and divided by small +columns forming mullions, as suggested by certain relief pictures. No +other system seems consistent with the windowless walls of the ruins. It +is possible that many rooms depended wholly on artificial light or on +the scant rays coming through open doors. To this day, in the hot season +the population of Mosul takes refuge from the torrid heats of summer in +windowless basements lighted only by lamps.</p> + + +<p><b>ORNAMENT.</b> The only structural decorations seem to have been +the panelling of exterior walls in a manner resembling the Chaldæan +terrace-walls, and a form of parapet like a stepped cresting. There were +no characteristic mouldings, architraves, capitals, or cornices. Nearly +all the ornament was of the sort called <i>applied</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, +added after the completion of the structure itself. Pictures in low +relief covered the alabaster revetment. They depicted hunting-scenes, +battles, deities, and other mythological subjects, and are interesting +to the architect mainly for their occasional representations of +buildings and details of construction. Above this wainscot were friezes +of enamelled brick ornamented with symbolic forms used as decorative +<span class="pagenum">34</span> +<a name="page34" id="page34"> </a> +motives; winged bulls, the “sacred tree” and mythological monsters, with +rosettes, palmettes, lotus-flowers, and <i>guilloches</i> (ornaments of +interlacing bands winding about regularly spaced buttons or eyes). These +ornaments were also used on the archivolts around the great arches of +palace gates. The most singular adornments of these gates were the +carved “portal guardians” set into the deep jambs—colossal +monsters with the bodies of bulls, the wings of eagles, and human heads +of terrible countenance. Of mighty bulk, they were yet minutely wrought +in every detail of head-dress, beard, feathers, curly hair, and +anatomy.</p> + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig20" id="fig20"> </a> +<img src="images/fig20.png" width="183" height="143" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 20.—ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT.</p> + +<p>The purely conventional ornaments mentioned above—the rosette, +guilloche, and lotus-flower, and probably also the palmette, were +derived from Egyptian originals. They were treated, however, in a quite +new spirit and adapted to the special materials and uses of their +environment. Thus the form of the palmette, even if derived, as is not +unlikely, from the Egyptian lotus-motive, was assimilated to the more +familiar palm-forms of Assyria (Fig. 20).</p> + +<p>Assyrian architecture never rivalled the Egyptian in grandeur or +constructive power, in seriousness, or the higher artistic qualities. It +did, however, produce imposing results with the poorest resources, and +in its use of the arch and its development of ornamental forms it +furnished prototypes for some of the most characteristic features of +later Asiatic art, which profoundly influenced both Greek and Byzantine +architecture.</p> + +<p class="monuments"> +<b>MONUMENTS</b>: The most important Chaldæan and Assyrian monuments of +which there are extant remains, have already been enumerated in the +text. It is therefore unnecessary to duplicate the list here.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="note4" id="note4" href="#tag4">4.</a> +This is denied by some recent writers, so far as the Chaldæans are +concerned, and is not intended here to apply to the Accadians and +Summerians of primitive Chaldæa.</p> + +<p><a name="note5" id="note5" href="#tag5">5.</a> +See Fergusson, <i>Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis</i>, for an +ingenious but unsubstantiated argument for the use of columns in +Assyrian palaces.</p> + +</div> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">35</span> +<a name="page35" id="page35"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapV" id="chapV">CHAPTER V.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +PERSIAN, LYCIAN AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Babelon; +Bliss, <i>Excavations at Jerusalem</i>. Reber. Also Dieulafoy, <i>L’Art +antique de la Perse</i>. Fellows, <i>Account of Discoveries in +Lycia</i>. Fergusson, <i>The Temple at Jerusalem</i>. Flandin et Coste, +<i>Perse ancienne</i>. Perrot and Chipiez, <i>History of Art in +Persia</i>; <i>History of Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Caria, and Lycia</i>; +<i>History of Art in Sardinia and Judæa</i>. Texier, <i>L’Arménie et la +Perse</i>; <i>L’Asie Mineure</i>. De Vogüé, <i>Le Temple de +Jérusalem</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE.</b> With the Persians, who under Cyrus (536 +<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) and Cambyses (525 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) became the masters of the Orient, the Aryan +race superseded the Semitic, and assimilated in new combinations the +forms it borrowed from the Assyrian civilization. Under the Achæmenidæ +(536 to 330 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) palaces were built +in Persepolis and Susa of a splendor and majesty impossible in +Mesopotamia, and rivalling the marvels in the Nile Valley. The +conquering nation of warriors who had overthrown the Egyptians and +Assyrians was in turn conquered by the arts of its vanquished foes, and +speedily became the most luxurious of all nations. The Persians were not +great innovators in art; but inhabiting a land of excellent building +resources, they were able to combine the Egyptian system of interior +columns with details borrowed from Assyrian art, and suggestions, +derived most probably from the general use in Persia and Central Asia, +of wooden posts or columns as intermediate supports. Out of these +elements they evolved an architecture which +<span class="pagenum">36</span> +<a name="page36" id="page36"> </a> +has only become fully known to us since the excavations of M. and Mme. +Dieulafoy at Susa in 1882.</p> + + +<p><b>ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE.</b> The Persians used both crude +and baked bricks, the latter far more freely than was practicable in +Assyria, owing to the greater abundance of fuel. Walls when built of the +weaker material were faced with baked brick enamelled in brilliant +colors, or both moulded and enamelled, to form colored pictures in +relief. Stone was employed for walls and columns, and, in conjunction +with brick, for the jambs and lintels of doors and windows. Architraves +and ceiling-beams were of wood. The palaces were erected, as in Assyria, +upon broad platforms, partly cut in the rock and partly structural, +approached by imposing flights of steps. These palaces were composed of +detached buildings, propylæa or gates of honor, vast audience-halls open +on one or two sides, and chambers or dwellings partly enclosing or +flanking these halls, or grouped in separate buildings. Temples appear +to have been of small importance, perhaps owing to habits of out-of-door +worship of fire and sun. There are few structural tombs, but there are a +number of imposing royal sepulchres cut in the rock at +Naksh-i-Roustam.</p> + + +<p><b>ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.</b> The Persians, like the Egyptians, used +the column as an internal feature in hypostyle halls of great size, and +externally to form porches, and perhaps, also, open kiosks without +walls. The great <b>Hall of Xerxes</b> at Persepolis covers 100,000 +square feet—more than double the area of the Hypostyle Hall at +Karnak. But the Persian column was derived from wooden prototypes and +used with wooden architraves, permitting a wider spacing than is +possible with stone. In the present instance thirty-six columns sufficed +for an area which in the Karnak hall contained one hundred and +thirty-four. The shafts being slender and finely fluted instead of +painted or carved, the effect produced was totally different from that +<span class="pagenum">37</span> +<a name="page37" id="page37"> </a> +sought by the Egyptians. The most striking peculiarity of the column was +the capital, which was forked (Fig. 21).<!-- invisible . --> In one of +the two principal types the fork, formed by the coupled fore-parts of +bulls or symbolic monsters, rested directly on the top of the shaft. In +the other, two singular members were interposed between the fork and the +shaft; the lower, a sort of double bell or bell-and-palm capital, +and above it, just beneath the fork, a curious combination of +vertical scrolls or volutes, resembling certain ornaments seen in +Assyrian furniture. The transverse architrave rested in the fork; the +longitudinal architrave was supported on the heads of the monsters. +A rich moulded base, rather high and in some cases adorned with +carved leaves or flutings, supported the columns, which in the Hall of +Xerxes were over 66 feet high and 6 feet in diameter. The architraves +have perished, but the rock-cut tomb of Darius at Naksh-i-Roustam +reproduces in its façade a palace-front, showing a banded architrave +with dentils—an obvious imitation of the ends of wooden rafters on +a lintel built up of several beams.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig21" id="fig21"> </a> +<img src="images/fig21.png" width="158" height="374" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 21.—COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS.</p> + +<p>These features of the architrave, as well as the fine flutings and +moulded bases of the columns, are found in Ionic architecture, and in +part, at least, in Lycian tombs. As all these examples date from nearly +the same period, the origin of these forms and their mutual relations +have not been fully determined. The Persian capitals, however, are +<span class="pagenum">38</span> +<a name="page38" id="page38"> </a> +unique, and so far as known, without direct prototypes or derivatives. +Their constituent elements may have been borrowed from various sources. +One can hardly help seeing the Egyptian palm-capital in the lower member +of the compound type (Fig. 21).</p> + +<p>The doors and windows had banded architraves or trims and cavetto +cornices very Egyptian in character. The portals were flanked, as in +Assyria, by winged monsters; but these were built up in several courses +of stone, not carved from single blocks like their prototypes. Plaster +or, as at Susa, enamelled bricks, replaced as a wall-finish the Assyrian +alabaster wainscot. These bricks, splendid in color, and moulded into +relief pictures covering large surfaces, are the oldest examples of the +skill of the Persians in a branch of ceramic art in which they have +always excelled down to our own day.</p> + + +<p><b>LYCIAN ARCHITECTURE.</b> The architecture of those Asiatic peoples +which served as intermediaries between the ancient civilizations of +Egypt and Assyria on the one hand and of the Greeks on the other, need +occupy us only a moment in passing. None of them developed a complete +and independent style or produced monuments of the first rank. Those +chiefly concerned in the transmission of ideas were the Cypriotes, +Phœnicians, and Lycians. The part played by other Asiatic nations is too +slight to be considered here. From Cyprus the Greeks could have learned +little beyond a few elementary notions regarding sculpture and pottery, +although it is possible that the volute-form in Ionic architecture was +originally derived from patterns on Cypriote pottery and from certain +Cypriote steles, where it appears as a modified lotus motive. The +Phœnicians were the world’s traders from a very early age down to the +Persian conquest. They not only distributed through the Mediterranean +lands the manufactures of Egypt and Assyria, but also counterfeited them +and adopted their forms in decorating +<span class="pagenum">39</span> +<a name="page39" id="page39"> </a> +their own wares. But they have bequeathed us not a single architectural +ruin of importance, either of temples or palaces, nor are the few tombs +still extant of sufficient artistic interest to deserve even brief +mention in a work of this scope.</p> + +<p>In Lycia, however, there arose a system of tomb-design which came +near creating a new architectural style, and which doubtless influenced +both Persia and the Ionian colonies. The tombs were mostly cut in the +rock, though a few are free-standing monolithic monuments, resembling +sarcophagi or small shrines mounted on a high base or pedestal.</p> + +<p>In all of these tombs we recognize a manifest copying in stone of +framed wooden structures. The walls are panelled, or imitate open +structures framed of squared timbers. The roofs are often gabled, +sometimes in the form of a pointed arch; they generally show a banded +architrave, dentils, and a raking cornice, or else an imitation of +broadly projecting eaves with small round rafters. There are several +with porches of Ionic columns; of these, some are of late date and +evidently copied from Asiatic Greek models. Others, and notably one at +Telmissus, seem to be examples of a primitive Ionic, and may indeed have +been early steps in the development of that splendid style which the +Ionic Greeks, both in Asia Minor and in Attica, carried to such +perfection.</p> + + +<p><b>JEWISH ARCHITECTURE.</b> The Hebrews borrowed from the art of +every people with whom they had relations, so that we encounter in the +few extant remains of their architecture Egyptian, Assyrian, Phœnician, +Greek, Roman, and Syro-Byzantine features, but nothing like an +independent national style. Among the most interesting of these remains +are tombs of various periods, principally occurring in the valleys near +Jerusalem, and erroneously ascribed by popular tradition to the judges, +prophets, and kings of +<span class="pagenum">40</span> +<a name="page40" id="page40"> </a> +Israel. Some of them are structural, some cut in the rock; the former +(tomb of Absalom, of Zechariah) decorated with Doric and Ionic engaged +orders, were once supposed to be primitive types of these orders and of +great antiquity. They are now recognized to be debased imitations of +late Greek work of the third or second century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> They have Egyptian cavetto cornices and +pyramidal roofs, like many Asiatic tombs. The openings of the rock-cut +tombs have frames or pediments carved with rich surface ornament showing +a similar mixture of types—Roman triglyphs and garlands, +Syrian-Greek acanthus leaves, conventional foliage of Byzantine +character, and naturalistic carvings of grapes and local plant-life. The +carved arches of two of the ancient city gates (one the so-called Golden +Gate) in Jerusalem display rich acanthus foliage somewhat like that of +the tombs, but more vigorous and artistic. If of the time of Herod or +even of Constantine, as claimed by some, they would indicate that Greek +artists in Syria created the prototypes of Byzantine ornament. They are +more probably, however, Byzantine restorations of the 6th +century <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span></p> + +<p>The one great achievement of Jewish architecture was the national +<b>Temple of Jehovah</b>, represented by three successive edifices on +Mount Moriah, the site of the present so-called “Mosque of Omar.” The +first, built by Solomon (1012 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) +appears from the Biblical description<a class="tag" name="tag6" id="tag6" href="#note6">6</a> to have combined Egyptian conceptions +(successive courts, lofty entrance-pylons, the Sanctuary and the sekos +or “Holy of Holies”) with Phœnician and Assyrian details and workmanship +(cedar woodwork, empaistic decoration or overlaying with <i>repoussé</i> +metal work, the isolated brazen columns Jachin and Boaz). The whole +stood on a mighty platform built up with stupendous masonry and vaulted +chambers from the valley surrounding the rock on three +<span class="pagenum">41</span> +<a name="page41" id="page41"> </a> +sides. This precinct was nearly doubled in size by Herod (18 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) who extended it southward by a terrace-wall +of still more colossal masonry. Some of the stones are twenty-two feet +long; one reaches the prodigious length of forty feet. The “Wall of +Lamentations” is a part of this terrace, upon which stood the Temple on +a raised platform. As rebuilt by Herod, the Temple reproduced in part +the antique design, and retained the porch of Solomon along the east +side; but the whole was superbly reconstructed in white marble with +abundance of gilding. Defended by the Castle of Antonia on the +northwest, and embellished with a new and imposing triple colonnade on +the south, the whole edifice, a conglomerate of Egyptian, Assyrian, +and Roman conceptions and forms, was one of the most singular and yet +magnificent creations of ancient art.</p> + +<p>The temple of Zerubbabel (515 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), intermediate between those above described, +was probably less a re-edification of the first, than a new design. +While based on the scheme of the first temple, it appears to have +followed more closely the pattern described in the vision of Ezekiel +(chapters xl.-xlii.). It was far inferior to its predecessor in splendor +and costliness. No vestiges of it remain.</p> + + +<div class="monuments"> +<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> <span class="smallcaps">Persian</span>: at +Murghab, the tomb of Cyrus, known as +Gabré-Madré-Soleiman—a gabled structure on a seven-stepped +pyramidal basement (525 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). At +Persepolis the palace of Darius (521 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>); the Propylæa of Xerxes, his palace and his +harem (?) or throne-hall (480 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). +These splendid structures, several of them of vast size, resplendent +with color and majestic with their singular and colossal columns, must +have formed one of the most imposing architectural groups in the world. +At various points, tower-like tombs, supposed erroneously by Fergusson +to have been fire altars. At Naksh-i-Roustam, the tomb of Darius, cut in +the rock. Other tombs near by at Persepolis proper and at Pasargadæ. At +the latter place remains of the palace of Cyrus. At Susa the palace of +Xerxes and Artaxerxes (480–405 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>).</p> + +<p>There are no remains of private houses or temples.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Lycian</span>: the principal Lycian +monuments are found in Myra, Antiphellus, +<span class="pagenum">42</span> +<a name="page42" id="page42"> </a> +and Telmissus. Some of the monolithic tombs have been removed to the +British and other European museums.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Jewish</span>: the temples have been +mentioned above. The palace of Solomon. The rock-cut monolithic tomb of +Siloam. So-called tombs of Absalom and Zechariah, structural; probably +of Herod’s time or later. Rock-cut Tombs of the Kings; of the Prophets, +etc. City gates (Herodian or early Christian period).</p> +</div> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="note6" id="note6" href="#tag6">6.</a> +1 Kings vi.-vii.; 2 Chronicles iii.-iv.</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">43</span> +<a name="page43" id="page43"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapVI" id="chapVI">CHAPTER VI.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +GREEK ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Reber. +Also, Anderson and Spiers, <i>Architecture of Greece and Rome</i>. +Baumeister, <i>Denkmäler <!-- invisible umlaut --> der Klassischen +Alterthums</i>. Bötticher, <i>Tektonik der Hellenen</i>. Chipiez, +<i>Histoire critique des ordres grecs</i>. Curtius, Adler and Treu, +<i>Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia</i>. Durm, <i>Antike Baukunst</i> (in +<i>Handbuch d. Arch.</i><!-- missing .-->). Frazer, <i>Pausanias’ +Description of Greece</i>. Hitorff, <i>L’architecture polychrome chez +les Grecs</i>. Michaelis, <i>Der Parthenon</i>. Penrose, <i>An +Investigation, etc., of Athenian Architecture</i>. Perrot and Chipiez, +<i>History of Art in Primitive Greece</i>; <i>La Grèce de l’Epopée</i>; +<i>La Grèce archaïque</i>. Stuart and Revett, <i>Antiquities of +Athens</i>. Tarbell, <i>History of Greek Art</i>. Texier, <i>L’Asie +Mineure</i>. Wilkins, <i>Antiquities of Magna Græcia</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.</b> Greek art marks the beginning of +European civilization. The Hellenic race gathered up influences and +suggestions from both Asia and Africa and fused them with others, whose +sources are unknown, into an art intensely national and original, which +was to influence the arts of many races and nations long centuries after +the decay of the Hellenic states. The Greek mind, compared with the +Egyptian or Assyrian, was more highly intellectual, more logical, more +symmetrical, and above all more inquiring and analytic. Living nowhere +remote from the sea, the Greeks became sailors, merchants, and +colonizers. The Ionian kinsmen of the European Greeks, speaking a +dialect of the same language, populated the coasts of Asia Minor and +many of the islands, so that through them the +<span class="pagenum">44</span> +<a name="page44" id="page44"> </a> +Greeks were open to the influences of the Assyrian, Phœnician, Persian, +and Lycian civilizations. In Cyprus they encountered Egyptian +influences, and finally, under Psammetichus, they established in Egypt +itself the Greek city of Naukratis. They were thus by geographical +situation, by character, and by circumstances, peculiarly fitted to +receive, develop, and transmit the mingled influences of the East and +the South.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig22" id="fig22"> </a> +<img src="images/fig22.png" width="232" height="233" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 22.—LION GATE AT MYCENÆ.</p> + +<p><b>PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS.</b><a class="tag" name="tag7" id="tag7" href="#note7">7</a> Authentic Greek history begins with the +first Olympiad, 776 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> The earliest +monuments of that historic architecture which developed into the +masterpieces of the Periclean and Alexandrian ages, date from the middle +of the following century. But there are a number of older buildings, +belonging presumably to the so-called Heroic Age, which, though +seemingly unconnected with the later historic development of Greek +architecture, are still worthy of note. They are the work of a people +somewhat advanced in civilization, probably the Pelasgi, who preceded +the Dorians on Greek soil, and consist mainly of fortifications, walls, +gates, and tombs, the most important of which are at <b>Mycenæ</b> and +<b>Tiryns</b>. At the latter place is a well-defined acropolis, with +massive walls in which are passages covered by stones successively +overhanging or corbelled until they meet. The masonry is of huge stones +piled without cement. At Mycenæ the city wall is pierced by the +remarkable <b>Lion Gate</b> (Fig. 22), consisting of two jambs and a +huge lintel, +<span class="pagenum">45</span> +<a name="page45" id="page45"> </a> +over which the weight is relieved by a triangular opening. This is +filled with a sculptured group, now much defaced, representing two +rampant lions flanking a singular column which tapers downward. This +symbolic group has relations with Hittite and Phrygian sculptures, and +with the symbolism of the worship of Rhea Cybele. The masonry of the +wall is carefully dressed but not regularly coursed. Other primitive +walls and gates showing openings and embryonic arches of various forms, +are found widely scattered, at Samos and Delos, at Phigaleia, Thoricus, +Argos and many other points. +<span class="illustration floatleft"> +<a name="fig23" id="fig23"> </a> +<img src="images/fig23.png" width="192" height="93" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 23.—POLYGONAL MASONRY.</span> +The very earliest are hardly more than random piles of rough stone. +Those which may fairly claim notice for their artistic masonry are of a +later date and of two kinds: the coursed, and the polygonal or +Cyclopean, so called from the tradition that they were built by the +Cyclopes. These Cyclopean walls were composed of large, irregular +polygonal blocks carefully fitted together and dressed to a fairly +smooth face (Fig. 23). Both kinds were used contemporaneously, though in +the course of time the regular coursed masonry finally superseded the +polygonal.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig24" id="fig24"> </a> +<img src="images/fig24.png" width="441" height="174" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 24.—THOLOS OF ATREUS. PLAN AND SECTION.</p> + +<p><b>THOLOS OF ATREUS.</b> All these structures present, however, only +the rudiments of architectural art. The so-called <b>Tholos</b> (or +Treasury) of <b>Atreus</b>, at Mycenæ, on the other hand, shows the +germs of truly artistic design (Fig. 24). It is in reality a tomb, and +is one of a large class of prehistoric tombs found in almost every part +of the globe, consisting of a circular stone-walled and stone-roofed +chamber buried under a tumulus of earth. This one is a beehive-shaped +construction of horizontal courses of masonry, with a stone-walled +passage, the <i>dromos</i>, leading to the entrance door. +<span class="pagenum">46</span> +<a name="page46" id="page46"> </a> +Though internally of domical form, its construction with horizontal beds +in the masonry proves that the idea of the true dome with the beds of +each course pitched at an angle always normal to the curve of the vault, +was not yet grasped. A small sepulchral chamber opens from the +great one, by a door with the customary relieving triangle +over it.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w120"> +<a name="fig25" id="fig25"> </a> +<img src="images/fig25.png" width="128" height="180" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 25.—THOLOS OF ATREUS. DOORWAY.</p> + +<p>Traces of a metal lining have been found on the inner surface of the +dome and on the jambs of the entrance door. This entrance is the most +artistic and elaborate part of the edifice (Fig. 25). The main opening +is enclosed in a three-banded frame, and was once flanked by columns +which, as shown by fragments still existing and by marks on either side +the door, tapered downward as in the sculptured column over the Lion +Gate. Shafts, bases, and capitals were covered with zig-zag bands or +chevrons of fine spirals. This well-studied decoration, the banded +jambs, and the curiously inverted columns (of which several other +examples exist in or near Mycenæ), all point to a fairly developed art, +derived partly from Egyptian and partly from Asiatic sources. That +Egyptian influences had affected this early art is further +<span class="pagenum">47</span> +<a name="page47" id="page47"> </a> +proved by a fragment of carved and painted ornament on a ceiling in +Orchomenos, imitating with remarkable closeness certain ceiling +decorations in Egyptian tombs.</p> + + +<p><b>HISTORIC MONUMENTS; THE ORDERS.</b> It was the Dorians and Ionians +who developed the architecture of classic Greece. This fact is +perpetuated in the traditional names, Doric and Ionic, given to the two +systems of columnar design which formed the most striking feature of +that architecture. While in Egypt the column was used almost exclusively +as an internal support and decoration, in Greece it was chiefly employed +to produce an imposing exterior effect. It was the most important +element in the temple architecture of the Greeks, and an almost +indispensable adornment of their gateways, public squares, and temple +enclosures. To the column the two races named above gave each a special +and radically distinct development, and it was not until the Periclean +age that the two forms came to be used in conjunction, even by the mixed +Doric-Ionic people of Attica. Each of the two types had its own special +shaft, capital, entablature, mouldings, and ornaments, although +considerable variation was allowed in the proportions and minor details. +The general type, however, remained substantially unchanged from first +to last. The earliest examples known to us of either order show it +complete in all its parts, its later development being restricted to the +refining and perfecting of its proportions and details. The probable +origin of these orders will be separately considered later on.</p> + + +<p class="illustration floatleft"> +<a name="fig26" id="fig26"> </a> +<img src="images/fig26.png" width="173" height="266" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 26.—GREEK DORIC ORDER.</p> + +<p class="caption w180"> +<i>A, Crepidoma, or stylobate; b, Column; c, Architrave; d, Tænia; e, +Frieze; f, Horizontal cornice; g, Raking cornice; h, Tympanum of +pediment; k, Metope</i>.</p> + +<p><b>THE DORIC.</b> The column of the Doric order (Figs. 26, 27) +consists of a tapering shaft rising directly from the stylobate or +platform and surmounted by a capital of great simplicity and beauty. The +shaft is fluted with sixteen to twenty shallow channellings of segmental +or elliptical section, meeting in sharp edges or <i>arrises</i>. The +capital is made up of a circular cushion or <i>echinus</i> adorned with +fine +<span class="pagenum">48</span> +<a name="page48" id="page48"> </a> +grooves called <i>annulæ</i>, and a plain square <i>abacus</i> or cap +Upon this rests a plain architrave or <i>epistyle</i>, with a narrow +fillet, the <i>tænia</i>, running along its upper edge. The frieze above +it is divided into square panels, called the <i>metopes</i>, separated +by vertical <i>triglyphs</i> having each two vertical grooves and +chamfered edges. There is a triglyph over each column and one over each +intercolumniation, or two in rare instances where the columns are widely +spaced. The cornice consists of a broadly projecting <i>corona</i> +resting on a <i>bed-mould</i> of one or two simple mouldings. Its under +surface, called the <i>soffit</i>, is adorned with <i>mutules</i>, +square, flat projections having each eighteen <i>guttæ</i> depending +from its under side. Two or three small mouldings run along the upper +edge of the corona, which has in addition, over each slope of the gable, +a gutter-moulding or <i>cymatium</i>. The cornices along the +horizontal edges of the roof have instead of the cymatium a row of +<i>antefixæ</i>, ornaments of terra-cotta or marble placed opposite the +foot of each tile-ridge of the roofing. The enclosed triangular field of +the gable, called the <i>tympanum</i>, was in the larger monuments +adorned with sculptured groups resting on the shelf formed by the +horizontal cornice below. Carved ornaments called <i>acroteria</i> +commonly embellished the three angles of the gable or pediment.</p> + + +<p><b>POLYCHROMY.</b> It has been fully proved, after a century of +debate, that all this elaborate system of parts, severe +<span class="pagenum">49</span> +<a name="page49" id="page49"> </a> +and dignified in their simplicity of form, received a rich decoration of +color. While the precise shades and tones employed cannot be predicated +with certainty, it is well established that the triglyphs were painted +blue and the metopes red, and that all the mouldings were decorated with +leaf-ornaments, “eggs-and-darts,” and frets, in red, green, blue, and +gold. The walls and columns were also colored, probably with pale tints +of yellow or buff, to reduce the glare of the fresh marble or the +whiteness of the fine stucco with which the surfaces of masonry of +coarser stone were primed. In the clear Greek atmosphere and outlined +against the brilliant sky, the Greek temple must have presented an +aspect of rich, sparkling gayety.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig27" id="fig27"> </a> +<img src="images/fig27.jpg" width="243" height="227" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 27.—DORIC ORDER OF THE PARTHENON.</p> + +<p><b>ORIGIN OF THE ORDER.</b> It is generally believed that the details +of the Doric frieze and cornice were reminiscences of a primitive wood +construction. The triglyph suggests the chamfered ends of cross-beams +made up of three planks each; the mutules, the sheathing of the eaves; +and the guttæ, the heads of the spikes or trenails by which the +sheathing was secured. It is known that in early astylar temples the +metopes were left open like the spaces between the ends of +ceiling-rafters. In the earlier peripteral temples, as at Selinus, the +triglyph-frieze is retained around the cella-wall under the ceiling of +the colonnade, where it has no functional significance, as a survival +from times antedating the adoption of the colonnade, when +<span class="pagenum">50</span> +<a name="page50" id="page50"> </a> +the tradition of a wooden roof-construction showing externally had not +yet been forgotten.</p> + +<p>A similar wooden origin for the Doric column has been advocated by +some, who point to the assertion of Pausanias that in the Doric Heraion +at Olympia the original wooden columns had with one exception been +replaced by stone columns as fast as they decayed. (See <a href="#page62">p. 62</a>.) This, however, only proves that wooden +columns were sometimes used in early buildings, not that the Doric +column was derived from them. Others would derive it from the Egyptian +columns of Beni Hassan (<a href="#page12">p. 12</a>), which it +certainly resembles. But they do not explain how the Greeks could have +been familiar with the Beni Hassan column long before the opening of +Egypt to them under Psammetichus; nor why, granting them some knowledge +of Egyptian architecture, they should have passed over the splendors of +Karnak and Luxor to copy these inconspicuous tombs perched high up on +the cliffs of the Nile. It would seem that the Greeks invented this form +independently, developing it in buildings which have perished; unless, +indeed, they brought the idea with them from their primitive Aryan home +in Asia.</p> + + +<p><b>THE IONIC ORDER</b> was characterized by greater slenderness of +proportion and elegance of detail than the Doric, and depended more on +carving than on color for the decoration of its members (Fig. 28). It +was adopted in the fifth century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> +by the people of Attica, and used both for civic and religious +buildings, sometimes alone and sometimes in conjunction with the Doric. +The column was from eight to ten diameters in height, against four and +one-third to seven for the Doric. It stood on a base which was usually +composed of two tori (see <a href="#page25">p. 25</a> for +definition) separated by a <i>scotia</i> (a concave moulding of +semicircular or semi-elliptical profile), and was sometimes provided +also with a square flat base-block, the <i>plinth</i>. There was much +variety in the proportions and details of these mouldings, which were +often +<span class="pagenum">51</span> +<a name="page51" id="page51"> </a> +enriched by flutings or carved guilloches. The tall shaft bore +twenty-four deep narrow flutings separated by narrow fillets. The +capital was the most peculiar feature of the order. It consisted of a +bead or <i>astragal</i> and echinus, over which was a horizontal band +ending on either side in a scroll or volute, the sides of which +presented the aspect shown in Fig. 29. A thin moulded abacus was +interposed between this member and the architrave.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig28" id="fig28"> </a> +<img src="images/fig28.png" width="144" height="192" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 28.—GREEK IONIC ORDER. (MILETUS.)</p> + +<p>The Ionic capital was marked by two awkward features which all its +richness could not conceal. One was the protrusion of the echinus beyond +the face of the band above it, the other was the disparity between the +side and front views of the capital, especially noticeable at the +corners of a colonnade. To obviate this, various contrivances were +tried, none wholly successful. Ordinarily the two adjacent exterior +sides of the corner capital were treated alike, the scrolls at their +meeting being bent out at an angle of 45°, while the two inner faces +simply intersected, cutting each other in halves.</p> + +<p>The entablature comprised an architrave of two or three flat bands +crowned by fine mouldings; an uninterrupted frieze, frequently +sculptured in relief; and a simple cornice of great beauty. In addition +to the ordinary bed-mouldings there was in most examples a row of narrow +blocks or <i>dentils</i> under the corona, which was itself crowned by a +high cymatium of extremely graceful profile, carved with the rich +“honeysuckle” (<i>anthemion</i>) ornament. All the mouldings were carved +with the “egg-and-dart,” heart-leaf and anthemion ornaments, so designed +as to recall by their outline +<span class="pagenum">52</span> +<a name="page52" id="page52"> </a> +the profile of the moulding itself. The details of this order were +treated with much more freedom and variety than those of the Doric. The +pediments of Ionic buildings were rarely or never adorned with groups of +sculpture. The volutes and echinus of the capital, the fluting of the +shaft, the use of a moulded circular base, and in the cornice the high +corona and cymatium, these were constant elements in every Ionic order, +but all other details varied widely in the different examples.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig29" id="fig29"> </a> +<img src="images/fig29.png" width="172" height="156" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 29.—SIDE VIEW OF IONIC CAPITAL.</p> + +<p><b>ORIGIN OF THE IONIC ORDER.</b> The origin of the Ionic order has +given rise to almost as much controversy as that of the Doric. Its +different elements were apparently derived from various sources. The +Lycian tombs may have contributed the denticular cornice and perhaps +also the general form of the column and capital. In the Persian +architecture of the sixth century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, the high moulded base, the narrow flutings of +the shaft, the carved bead-moulding and the use of scrolls in the +capital are characteristic features, which may have been borrowed by the +Ionians during the same century, unless, indeed, they were themselves +the work of Ionic or Lycian workmen in Persian employ. The banded +architrave and the use of the volute in the decoration of stele-caps +(from <span class="greek" title="stêlê">στηλη</span> = a memorial +stone or column standing isolated and upright), furniture, and minor +structures are common features in Assyrian, Lycian, and other Asiatic +architecture of early date. The volute or scroll itself as an +independent decorative +<span class="pagenum">53</span> +<a name="page53" id="page53"> </a> +motive may have originated in successive variations of Egyptian +lotus-patterns.<a class="tag" name="tag8" id="tag8" href="#note8">8</a> But the combination of these diverse elements and their +development into the final form of the order was the work of the Ionian +Greeks, and it was in the Ionian provinces of Asia Minor that the most +splendid examples of its use are to be found (Halicarnassus, Miletus, +Priene, Ephesus), while the most graceful and perfect are those of +Doric-Ionic Attica.</p> + + +<p class="illustration floatleft w180"> +<a name="fig30" id="fig30"> </a> +<img src="images/fig30.png" width="147" height="347" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 30.—GREEK CORINTHIAN ORDER.<br> +<span class="caption"> +(From the monument of Lysicrates.)</span></p> + +<p><b>THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.</b> This was a late outgrowth of the Ionic +rather than a new order, and up to the time of the Roman conquest was +only used for monuments of small size (see <a href="#fig38">Fig. 38</a>). Its entablature in pure Greek examples was +identical with the Ionic; the shaft and base were only slightly changed +in proportion and detail. The capital, however, was a new departure, +based probably on metallic embellishments of altars, pedestals, etc., of +Ionic style. It consisted in the best examples of a high bell-shaped +core surrounded by one or two rows of acanthus leaves, above which were +pairs of branching scrolls meeting at the corners in spiral volutes. +These served to support the angles of a moulded abacus with concave +sides (Fig. 30). One example, from the Tower of the Winds (the clepsydra +of Andronicus Cyrrhestes) at Athens, has only smooth pointed palm-leaves +and no scrolls above a single row of acanthus leaves. Indeed, the +variety and disparity among the different +<span class="pagenum">54</span> +<a name="page54" id="page54"> </a> +examples prove that we have here only the first steps toward the +evolution of an independent order, which it was reserved for the Romans +to fully develop.</p> + + +<p><b>GREEK TEMPLES; THE TYPE.</b> With the orders as their chief +decorative element the Greeks built up a splendid architecture of +religious and secular monuments. Their noblest works were temples, which +they designed with the utmost simplicity of general scheme, but carried +out with a mastery of proportion and detail which has never been +surpassed. Of moderate size in most cases, they were intended primarily +to enshrine the simulacrum of the deity, and not, like Christian +churches, to accommodate great throngs of worshippers. Nor were they, on +the other hand, sanctuaries designed, like those of Egypt, to exclude +all but a privileged few from secret rites performed only by the priests +and king. The statue of the deity was enshrined in a chamber, the +<i>naos</i> (see plan, Fig. 31), often of considerable size, and +accessible to the public through a columnar porch the <i>pronaos</i>. +A smaller chamber, the <i>opisthodomus</i>, was sometimes added in +the rear of the main sanctuary, to serve as a treasury or depository for +votive offerings. Together these formed a windowless structure called +the <i>cella</i>, beyond which was the rear porch, the <i>posticum</i> +or <i>epinaos</i>. This whole structure was in the larger temples +surrounded by a colonnade, the <i>peristyle</i>, which formed the most +splendid feature of Greek architecture. The external aisle on either +side of the cella was called the <i>pteroma</i>. A single gabled +roof covered the entire building.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig31" id="fig31"> </a> +<img src="images/fig31.png" width="164" height="172" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 31.—TYPES OF GREEK TEMPLE PLANS.</p> + +<p class="caption w180"> +<i>a, In Antis; b, Prostyle; c, Amphiprostyle; d, Peripteral (The +Parthenon); N, Naos; O, Opisthodomus; S, Statue.</i></p> + +<p class="closeup w180"> +<a href="images/fig31d_large.png" target="_blank"> +Larger View of plan <b>d</b></a></p> + +<p>The Greek colonnade was thus an exterior feature, surrounding +<span class="pagenum">55</span> +<a name="page55" id="page55"> </a> +the solid cella-wall instead of being enclosed by it as in Egypt. The +temple was a public, not a royal monument; and its builders aimed, not +as in Egypt at size and overwhelming sombre majesty, but rather at sunny +beauty and the highest perfection of proportion, execution, and detail +(<a href="#fig34">Fig. 34</a>).</p> + +<p>There were of course many variations of the general type just +described. Each of these has received a special name, which is given +below with explanations and is illustrated in Fig. 31.</p> + +<p><i>In antis</i>; with a porch having two or more columns enclosed +between the projecting side-walls of the cella.</p> + +<p><i>Prostylar</i> (or prostyle); with a columnar porch in front and no +peristyle.</p> + +<p><i>Amphiprostylar</i> (or -style); with columnar porches at both ends +but no peristyle.</p> + +<p><i>Peripteral</i>; surrounded by columns.</p> + +<p><i>Pseudoperipteral</i>; with false or engaged columns built into the +walls of the cella, leaving no pteroma.</p> + +<p><i>Dipteral</i>; with double lateral ranges of columns (see <a href="#fig39">Fig. 39</a>).</p> + +<p><i>Pseudodipteral</i>; with a single row of columns on each side, +whose distance from the wall is equal to two intercolumniations of the +front.</p> + +<p><i>Tetrastyle</i>, <i>hexastyle</i>, <i>octastyle</i>, +<i>decastyle</i>, etc.; with four, six, eight, or ten columns in the end +rows.</p> + + +<p><b>CONSTRUCTION.</b> All the temples known to us are of stone, though +it is evident from allusions in the ancient writers that wood was +sometimes used in early times. (See <a href="#page62">p. 62</a>.) +The finest temples, especially those of Attica, Olympia, and Asia Minor, +were of marble. In Magna Græcia, at Assos, and in other places where +marble was wanting, limestone, sandstone, or lava was employed and +finished with a thin, fine stucco. The roof was almost invariably of +wood and gabled, forming at the ends pediments decorated in most cases +with sculpture. The disappearance of these inflammable +<span class="pagenum">56</span> +<a name="page56" id="page56"> </a> +and perishable roofs has given rise to endless speculations as to the +lighting of the cellas, which in all known ruins, except one at +Agrigentum, are destitute of windows. It has been conjectured that light +was admitted through openings in the roof, and even that the central +part of the cella was wholly open to the sky. Such an arrangement is +termed <i>hypæthral</i>, from an expression used in a description by +Vitruvius;<a class="tag" name="tag9" id="tag9" href="#note9">9</a> but this description corresponds to no known structure, +and the weight of opinion now inclines against the use of the hypæthral +opening, except possibly in one or two of the largest temples, in which +a part of the cella in front of the statue may have been thus left open. +But even this partial <i>hypæthros</i> is not substantiated by direct +evidence. It hardly seems probable that the magnificent chryselephantine +statues of such temples were ever thus left exposed to the extremes of +the climate, which are often severe even in Greece. In the model of the +Parthenon designed by Ch. Chipiez for the Metropolitan Museum in New +York, a small clerestory opening through the roof admits a moderate +amount of light to the cella; but this ingenious device rests on no +positive evidence (see <a href="#frontis">Frontispiece</a>). +It seems on the whole most probable that the cella was lighted entirely +by artificial illumination; but the controversy in its present state is +and must be wholly speculative.</p> + +<p>The wooden roof was covered with tiles of terra-cotta or marble. It +was probably ceiled and panelled on the under side, and richly decorated +with color and gold. The pteroma had under the exterior roof a ceiling +of stone or marble, deeply panelled between transverse architraves.</p> + +<p>The naos and opisthodomus being in the larger temples too wide to be +spanned by single beams, were furnished with interior columns to afford +intermediate support. To avoid the extremes of too great massiveness and +excessive slenderness in these columns, they were built in two stages, +<span class="pagenum">57</span> +<a name="page57" id="page57"> </a> +and advantage was taken of this arrangement, in some cases, at least, to +introduce lateral galleries into the naos.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig32" id="fig32"> </a> +<img src="images/fig32.jpg" width="246" height="372" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 32.—CARVED ANTHEMION ORNAMENT. ATHENS.</p> + +<p><b>SCULPTURE AND CARVING.</b> All the architectural membering was +treated with the greatest refinement of design and execution, and the +aid of sculpture, both in relief and in the round, was invoked to give +splendor and significance to the monument. The statue of the deity was +the focus of internal interest, while externally, groups of statues +representing the Olympian deities or the mythical exploits of gods, +demigods, and heroes, adorned the gables. Relief carvings in the friezes +and metopes commemorated the favorite national myths. In these +sculptures we have the finest known adaptations of pure +sculpture—<i>i.e.</i>, sculpture treated as such and complete in +itself—to an architectural framework. The noblest examples of this +decorative sculpture are those of the Parthenon, consisting of figures +in the full round from the pediments, groups in high relief from the +metopes, and the beautiful frieze of the Panathenaic procession from the +cella-wall under the pteroma ceiling. The greater part of these splendid +works are now in the British Museum, whither they were removed by Lord +Elgin in 1801. From Olympia, <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Aegina’">Ægina</ins>, and +<span class="pagenum">58</span> +<a name="page58" id="page58"> </a> +Phigaleia, other master-works of the same kind have been transferred to +the museums of Europe. In the Doric style there was little carving other +than the sculpture, the ornament being mainly polychromatic. Greek Ionic +and Corinthian monuments, however, as well as minor works such as +steles, altars, etc., were richly adorned with carved mouldings and +friezes, festoons, acroteria, and other embellishments executed with the +chisel. The anthemion ornament, a form related to the Egyptian +lotus and Assyrian palmette, most frequently figures in these. It was +made into designs of wonderful vigor and beauty (Fig. 32).</p> + + +<p><b>DETAIL AND EXECUTION.</b> In the handling and cutting of stone the +Greeks displayed a surpassing skill and delicacy. While ordinarily they +were content to use stones of moderate size, they never hesitated at any +dimension necessary for proper effect or solid construction. The lower +drums of the Parthenon peristyle are 6 feet 6½ inches in diameter, +and 2 feet 10 inches high, cut from single blocks of Pentelic +marble. The architraves of the Propylæa at Athens are each made up of +two lintels placed side by side, the longest 17 feet 7 inches long, +3 feet 10 inches high, and 2 feet 4 inches thick. In the +colossal temples of Asia Minor, where the taste for the vast and +grandiose was more pronounced, blocks of much greater size were used. +These enormous stones were cut and fitted with the most scrupulous +exactness. The walls of all important structures were built in regular +courses throughout, every stone carefully bedded with extremely close +joints. The masonry was usually laid up without cement and clamped with +metal; there is no filling in with rubble and concrete between mere +facings of cut stone, as in most modern work. When the only available +stone was of coarse texture it was finished with a coating of fine +stucco, in which sharp edges and minute detail could be worked.</p> + +<p>The details were, in the best period, executed with the +<span class="pagenum">59</span> +<a name="page59" id="page59"> </a> +most extraordinary refinement and care. The profiles of capitals and +mouldings, the carved ornament, the arrises of the flutings, were cut +with marvellous precision and delicacy. It has been rightly said that +the Greeks “built like Titans and finished like jewellers.” But this +perfect finish was never petty nor wasted on unworthy or vulgar design. +The just relation of scale between the building and all its parts was +admirably maintained; the ornament was distributed with rare judgment, +and the vigor of its design saved it from all appearance of +triviality.</p> + +<p>The sensitive taste of the Greeks led them into other refinements +than those of mere mechanical perfection. In the Parthenon especially, +but also in lesser degree in other temples, the seemingly straight lines +of the building were all slightly curved, and the vertical faces +inclined. This was done to correct the monotony and stiffness of +absolutely straight lines and right angles, and certain optical +illusions which their acute observation had detected. The long +horizontal lines of the stylobate and cornice were made convex upward; +a similar convexity in the horizontal corona of the pediment +counteracted the seeming concavity otherwise resulting from its meeting +with the multiplied inclined lines of the raking cornice. The columns +were almost imperceptibly inclined toward the cella, and the corner +intercolumniations made a trifle narrower than the rest; while the +vertical lines of the arrises of the flutings were made convex outward +with a curve of the utmost beauty and delicacy. By these and other like +refinements there was imparted to the monument an elasticity and vigor +of aspect, an elusive and surprising beauty impossible to describe and +not to be explained by the mere composition and general proportions, yet +manifest to every cultivated eye.<a class="tag" name="tag10" id="tag10" href="#note10">10</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="note7" id="note7" href="#tag7">7.</a> +For enlargement on this topic see <a href="#appA">Appendix A</a>.</p> + +<p><a name="note8" id="note8" href="#tag8">8.</a> +As contended by W. H. Goodyear in his <i>Grammar of the Lotus</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="note9" id="note9" href="#tag9">9.</a> +Lib.<!-- missing . --> III., Cap. I.</p> + +<p><a name="note10" id="note10" href="#tag10">10.</a> +These refinements, first noticed by Allason in 1814, and later confirmed +by Cockerell and Haller as to the columns, were published to the world +in 1838 by Hoffer, verified by Penrose in 1846, and further developed by +the investigations of Ziller and later observers.</p> + +</div> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">60</span> +<a name="page60" id="page60"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapVII" id="chapVII">CHAPTER VII.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +GREEK ARCHITECTURE—<i>Continued</i>.</h3> + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Same as for Chapter +VI. Also, Bacon and Clarke, <i>Investigations at Assos</i>. Espouy, +<i>Fragments d’architecture antique</i>. Harrison and Verrall, +<i>Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens</i>. Hitorff et Zanth, +<i>Recueil des Monuments de Ségeste et Sélinonte</i>. Magne, <i>Le +Parthénon</i>. Koldewey and Puchstein, <i>Die griechischen Tempel in +Unteritalien und Sicilien</i>. Waldstein, <i>The Argive Heræum</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT.</b> The history of Greek architecture, +subsequent to the Heroic or Primitive Age, may be divided into periods +as follows:</p> + +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Archaic</span>; from 650 to 500 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Transitional</span>; from 500 to 460 +<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, or to the revival of prosperity +after the Persian wars.</p> + +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Periclean</span>; from 460 to 400 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Florid</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Alexandrian</span>; from 400 to 300 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Decadent</span>; 300 to 100 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Roman</span>; 100 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> to 200 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span></p> + +<p>These dates are, of course, somewhat arbitrary; it is impossible to +set exact bounds to style-periods, which must inevitably overlap at +certain points, but the dates, as given above, will assist in +distinguishing the successive phases of the history.</p> + +<p><b>ARCHAIC PERIOD.</b> The archaic period is characterized by the +exclusive use of the Doric order, which appears in the earliest +monuments complete in all its parts, but heavy in its proportions and +coarse in its execution. The oldest known temples of this period are the +<b>Apollo Temple</b> at Corinth (650 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>?), and the <b>Northern Temple</b> on the +acropolis at <b>Selinus</b> in Sicily (cir. 610–590 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). They are both of a coarse limestone covered +with stucco. The columns are low and massive (4⅓ to 4⅔ diameters in +height), widely spaced, and +<span class="pagenum">61</span> +<a name="page61" id="page61"> </a> +carry a very high entablature. The triglyphs still appear around the +cella wall under the pteroma ceiling, an illogical detail destined to +disappear in later buildings. Other temples at Selinus date from the +middle or latter part of the sixth century; they have higher columns and +finer profiles than those just mentioned. The great <b>Temple of +Zeus</b> at <b>Selinus</b> was the earliest of five colossal Greek +temples of very nearly identical dimensions; it measured 360 feet by 167 +feet in plan, but was never completed. During the second half of the +sixth century important Doric temples were built at Pæstum in South +Italy, and Agrigentum in Sicily; the somewhat primitive temple at Assos +in Asia Minor, with uncouth carvings of centaurs and monsters on its +architrave, belongs to this same period. The <b>Temple of Zeus</b> at +<b>Agrigentum</b> (Fig. 33) is another singular and exceptional design, +and was the second of the five colossal temples mentioned above. The +pteroma was entirely enclosed by walls with engaged columns showing +externally, and was of extraordinary width. The walls of the narrow +cella were interrupted by heavy piers supporting atlantes, or applied +statues under the ceiling. There seem to have been windows between these +figures, but it is not clear whence they borrowed their light, unless it +was admitted by the omission of the metopes between the external +triglyphs.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig33" id="fig33"> </a> +<img src="images/fig33.png" width="205" height="120" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 33.—TEMPLE OF ZEUS. AGRIGENTUM.</p> + + +<p><b>THE TRANSITION.</b> During the transitional period there was a +marked improvement in the proportions, detail, and workmanship of the +temples. The cella was made broader, the columns more slender, the +entablature lighter. The triglyphs disappeared from the cella wall, and +sculpture of a higher order enhanced the architectural effect. The +profiles +<span class="pagenum">62</span> +<a name="page62" id="page62"> </a> +of the mouldings and especially of the capitals became more subtle and +refined in their curves, while the development of the Ionic order in +important monuments in Asia Minor was preparing the way for the +splendors of the Periclean age. Three temples especially deserve notice: +the <b>Athena Temple</b> on the island of <b>Ægina</b>, the <b>Temple of +Zeus</b> at <b>Olympia</b>, and the so-called +<b>Theseum</b>—perhaps a temple of Heracles—in Athens. They +belong to the period 470–450 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; they are all hexastyle and peripteral, and +without triglyphs on the cella wall. Of the three the second in the list +is interesting as the scene of those rites which preceded and +accompanied the Panhellenic Olympian games, and as the central feature +of the Altis, the most complete temple-group and enclosure among all +Greek remains. It was built of a coarse conglomerate, finished with fine +stucco, and embellished with sculpture by the greatest masters of the +time. The adjacent <b>Heraion</b> (temple of Hera) was a highly +venerated and ancient shrine, originally built with wooden columns +which, according to Pausanias, were replaced one by one, as they +decayed, by stone columns. The truth of this statement is attested by +the discovery of a singular variety of capitals among its ruins, +corresponding to the various periods at which they were added. The +Theseum is the most perfectly preserved of all Greek temples, and in the +refinement of its forms is only surpassed by those of the Periclean +age.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig34" id="fig34"> </a> +<img src="images/fig34.jpg" width="425" height="322" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 34.—RUINS OF THE PARTHENON.</p> + +<p><b>THE PERICLEAN AGE.</b> The Persian wars may be taken as the +dividing line between the Transition period and the Periclean age. The +<i>élan</i> of national enthusiasm that followed the expulsion of the +invader, and the glory and wealth which accrued to Athens as the +champion of all Hellas, resulted in a splendid reconstruction of the +Attic monuments as well as a revival of building activity in Asia Minor. +By the wise administration of Pericles and by the genius of Ictinus, +Phidias, and other artists of surpassing +<span class="pagenum">63</span> +<a name="page63" id="page63"> </a> +skill, the Acropolis at Athens was crowned with a group of buildings and +statues absolutely unrivalled. Chief among them was the +<b>Parthenon</b>, the shrine of Athena Parthenos, which the critics of +all schools have agreed in considering the most faultless in design and +execution of all buildings erected by man (Figs. <a href="#fig31">31</a>, 34, and <a href="#frontis">Frontispiece</a>). It was an octastyle peripteral +temple, with seventeen columns on the side, and measured 220 by 100 feet +on the top of the stylobate. It was the work of Ictinus and Callicrates, +built to enshrine the noble statue of the goddess by Phidias, +a standing chryselephantine figure forty feet high. It was the +masterpiece of Greek architecture not only by reason of its refinements +of detail, but also on account of the beauty of its sculptural +adornments. The frieze about the cella wall under the pteroma ceiling, +representing in low relief +<span class="pagenum">64</span> +<a name="page64" id="page64"> </a> +with masterly skill the Panathenaic procession; the sculptured groups in +the metopes, and the superb assemblages of Olympic and symbolic figures +of colossal size in the pediments, added their majesty to the perfection +of the architecture. +<span class="illustration"> +<a name="fig35" id="fig35"> </a> +<img src="images/fig35.png" width="173" height="150" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 35.—PLAN OF ERECHTHEUM.</span> +<span class="illustration"> +<a name="fig36" id="fig36"> </a> +<img src="images/fig36.png" width="280" height="183" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 36.—WEST END OF ERECHTHEUM,<br> +RESTORED.</span> +Here also the horizontal curvatures and other refinements are found in +their highest development. Northward from it, upon the Acropolis, stood +the <b>Erechtheum</b>, an excellent example of the Attic-Ionic style +(Figs. 35, 36). Its singular irregularities of plan and level, and the +variety of its detail, exhibit in a striking way the Greek indifference +to mere formal symmetry when confronted by practical considerations. The +motive in this case was the desire to include in one design several +existing and venerated shrines to Attic deities and heroes—Athena +Polias, Poseidon, Pandrosus, Erechtheus, Boutes, etc. Begun by unknown +architects in 479 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, and not +completed until 408 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, it remains +in its ruin still one of the most interesting and attractive of ancient +buildings. Its two colonnades of differing design, its beautiful north +doorway, and the unique and noble caryatid porch or balcony on the south +side are unsurpassed in delicate beauty combined with vigor of design.<a +class="tag" name="tag11" id="tag11" href="#note11">11</a> +A smaller monument of the Ionic order, the amphiprostyle temple to +<b>Nike Apteros</b>—the +<span class="pagenum">65</span> +<a name="page65" id="page65"> </a> +Wingless Victory—stands on a projecting spur of the Acropolis to +the southwest. It measures only 27 feet by 18 feet in plan; the cella is +nearly square; the columns are sturdier than those of the Erechtheum, +and the execution of the monument is admirable. It was the first +completed of the extant buildings of the group of the Acropolis and +dates from 466 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig37" id="fig37"> </a> +<img src="images/fig37.png" width="237" height="213" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 37.—PROPYLÆA AT ATHENS. PLAN.</p> + +<p>In the <b>Propylæa</b> (Fig. 37), the monumental gateway to the +Acropolis, the Doric and Ionic orders appear to have been combined for +the first time (437 to 432 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). It +was the master work of Mnesicles. The front and rear façades were Doric +hexastyles; adjoining the front porch were two projecting lateral wings +employing a smaller Doric order. The central passageway led between two +rows of Ionic columns to the rear porch, entered by five doorways and +crowned, like the front, with a pediment. The whole was executed with +the same splendor and perfection as the other buildings of the +Acropolis, and was a worthy gateway to the group of noble monuments +which crowned that citadel of the Attic capital. The two orders were +also combined in the temple of <b>Apollo Epicurius</b> at +<b>Phigalæa</b> (Bassæ). This temple was erected in 430 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> by Ictinus, who used the Ionic order internally +to decorate a row of projecting piers instead of free-standing columns +in the naos, in which there was also a single Corinthian column of +rather archaic design, which may have been used as a support for a +statue or votive offering.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">66</span> +<a name="page66" id="page66"> </a> +<p><b>ALEXANDRIAN AGE.</b> A period of reaction followed the splendid +architectural activity of the Periclean age. A succession of +disastrous wars—the Sicilian, Peloponnesian, and +Corinthian—drained the energies and destroyed the peace of +European Greece for seventy-five years, robbing Athens of her supremacy +and inflicting wounds from which she never recovered. In the latter part +of the fourth century, however, the triumph of the Macedonian empire +over all the Mediterranean lands inaugurated a new era of architectural +magnificence, especially in Asia Minor. The keynote of the art of this +time was splendor, as that of the preceding age was artistic perfection. +The Corinthian order came into use, as though the Ionic were not rich +enough for the sumptuous taste of the time, and capitals and bases of +novel and elaborate design embellished the Ionic temples of Asia Minor. +In the temple of <b>Apollo Didymæus</b> at Miletus, the plinths of the +bases were made octagonal and panelled with rich scroll-carvings; and +the piers which buttressed the interior faces of the cella-walls were +given capitals of singular but elegant form, midway between the Ionic +and Corinthian types. This temple belongs to the list of colossal +edifices already referred to; its dimensions were 366 by 163 feet, +making it the largest of them all. The famous <b>Artemisium</b> (temple +of Artemis or Diana) measured 342 by 163 feet. Several of the columns of +the latter were enriched with sculptured figures encircling the lower +drums of the colossal shafts. +<span class="illustration"> +<a name="fig38" id="fig38"> </a> +<img src="images/fig38.jpg" width="179" height="286" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 38.—CHORAGIC<br> +MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES.<br> +<span class="caption"> +(Restored model, N.Y.)</span></span> +The most lavish expenditure was bestowed upon small structures, shrines, +and sarcophagi. The graceful monument still visible in Athens, erected +by the <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘choraegus’">choragus</ins> Lysicrates in token of his victory in the +choral competitions, belongs to this period (330 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span><!-- invisible second . -->). It is circular, +with a slightly domical imbricated roof, and is decorated with elegant +engaged Corinthian columns (Fig. 38). In the Imperial Museum at +Constantinople are several sarcophagi of this period found at Sidon, but +<span class="pagenum">67</span> +<a name="page67" id="page67"> </a> +executed by Greek artists, and of exceptional beauty. They are in the +form of temples or shrines; the finest of them, supposed by some to have +been made for Alexander’s favorite general Perdiccas, and by others for +the Persian satrap who figures prominently on its sculptured reliefs, is +the most sumptuous work of the kind in existence. The exquisite +polychromy of its beautiful reliefs and the perfection of its rich +details of cornice, pediment, tiling, and crestings, make it an +exceedingly interesting and instructive example of the minor +architecture of the period.</p> + + +<p><b>THE DECADENCE.</b> After the decline of Alexandrian magnificence +Greek art never recovered its ancient glory, but the flame was not +suddenly extinguished. While in Greece proper the works of the second +and third centuries <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, are for the +most part weak and lifeless, like the <b>Stoa of Attalus</b> (175 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) and the <b>Tower of the Winds</b> (the +Clepsydra of Andronicus Cyrrhestes, 100 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) at Athens or the Portico of Philip in Delos, +there were still a few worthy works built in Asia Minor. The splendid +<b>Altar</b> erected at <b>Pergamon</b> by Eumenes II. (circ. 180 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) in the Ionic order, combined sculpture +of extraordinary vigor with imposing architecture in masterly fashion. +At <b>Aizanoi</b> an Ionic <b>Temple to Zeus</b>, by some attributed to +the Roman period, but showing rather the character of good late Greek +work, deserves mention for its elegant details, and especially for its +frieze-decoration of acanthus leaves and scrolls resembling those of a +Corinthian capital.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">68</span> +<a name="page68" id="page68"> </a> + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig39" id="fig39"> </a> +<img src="images/fig39.png" width="220" height="112" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 39.—TEMPLE OF OLYMPIAN ZEUS. ATHENS.<br> +<a class="closeup" href="images/fig39_large.png" target="_blank"> +Larger View</a></p> + +<p><b>ROMAN PERIOD.</b> During this period, <i>i.e.</i>, throughout the +second and first centuries <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, the +Roman dominion was spreading over Greek territory, and the structures +erected subsequent to the conquest partake of the Roman character and +mingle Roman conceptions with Greek details and <i>vice versâ</i>. The +temple of the <b>Olympian Zeus</b> at Athens (Fig. 39), a mighty +dipteral Corinthian edifice measuring 354 by 171 feet, standing on a +vast terrace or temenos surrounded by a buttressed wall, was begun by +Antiochus Epiphanes (170 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) on the +site of an earlier unfinished Doric temple of the time of Pisistratus, +and carried out under the direction of the Roman architect, Cossutius. +It was not, however, finally completed until the time of Hadrian, 130 +<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> Meanwhile Sulla had despoiled it +of several columns<a class="tag" name="tag12" id="tag12" href="#note12">12</a> which he carried to Rome (86 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), to use in the rebuilding of the temple of +Jupiter on the Capitol, where they undoubtedly served as models in the +development of the Roman Corinthian order. The columns were 57 feet +high, with capitals of the most perfect Corinthian type; fifteen are now +standing, and one lies prostrate near by. To the Roman period also +belong the <b>Agora Gate</b> (circ. 35 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), the <b>Arch of Hadrian</b> (117 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>), the <b>Odeon of Regilla</b> or of Herodes +Atticus (143 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>), at Athens, and +many temples and tombs, theatres, arches, etc., in the Greek +provinces.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">69</span> +<a name="page69" id="page69"> </a> +<p><b>SECULAR MONUMENTS; PROPYLÆA.</b> The stately gateway by which the +Acropolis was entered has already been described. It was the noblest and +most perfect of a class of buildings whose prototype is found in the +monumental columnar porches of the palace-group at Persepolis. The +Greeks never used the arch in these structures, nor did they attach to +them the same importance as did most of the other nations of antiquity. +The Altis of Olympia, the national shrine of Hellenism, appears to have +had no central gateway of imposing size, but a number of insignificant +entrances disposed at random. The <b>Propylæa</b> of <b>Sunium</b>, +<b>Priene</b> and <b>Eleusis</b> are the most conspicuous, after those +of the Athenian Acropolis. Of these the Ionic gateway at Priene is the +finest, although the later of the two at Eleusis is interesting for its +anta-capitals. (<i>Anta</i> = a flat pilaster decorating the end of a +wing-wall and treated with a base and capital usually differing from +those of the adjacent columns.) These are of Corinthian type, adorned +with winged horses, scrolls, and anthemions of an exuberant richness of +design, characteristic of this late period.</p> + + +<p><b>COLONNADES, STOÆ.</b> These were built to connect public monuments +(as the Dionysiac theatre and Odeon at Athens); or along the sides of +great public squares, as at Assos and Olympia (the so-called <b>Echo +Hall</b>); or as independent open public halls, as the <b>Stoa Diple</b> +at Thoricus. They afforded shelter from sun and rain, places for +promenading, meetings with friends, public gatherings, and similar +purposes. They were rarely of great size, and most of them are of rather +late date, though the archaic structure at Pæstum, known as the +<b>Basilica</b>, was probably in reality an open hall of this kind.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig40" id="fig40"> </a> +<img src="images/fig40.png" width="222" height="178" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 40.—PLAN OF GREEK THEATRE.</p> + +<p class="caption w210"> +<i>o, Orchestra; l, Logeion; p, Paraskenai; s, s, Stoa.</i></p> + +<p class="closeup w210"> +<a href="images/fig40_large.png" target="_blank"> +Larger View</a></p> + +<p><b>THEATRES, ODEONS.</b> These were invariably cut out of the rocky +hillsides, though in a few cases (Mantinæa, Myra, Antiphellus) +a part of the seats were sustained by a built-up substructure and +walls to eke out the deficiency of the hill-slope +<span class="pagenum">70</span> +<a name="page70" id="page70"> </a> +under them. The front of the excavation was enclosed by a stage and a +set scene or background, built up so as to leave somewhat over a +semicircle for the <i>orchestra</i> or space enclosed by the lower tier +of seats (Fig. 40). An altar to Dionysus (Bacchus) was the essential +feature in the foreground of the orchestra, where the Dionysiac choral +dance was performed. The seats formed successive steps of stone or +marble sweeping around the sloping excavation, with carved marble +thrones for the priests, archons, and other dignitaries. The only +architectural decoration of the theatre was that of the set scene or +<i>skene</i>, which with its wing-walls (<i>paraskenai</i>) enclosing +the stage (<i>logeion</i>) was a permanent structure of stone or marble +adorned with doors, cornices, pilasters, etc. This has perished in +nearly every case; but at Aspendus, in Asia Minor, there is one still +fairly well preserved, with a rich architectural decoration on its inner +face. The extreme diameter of the theatres varied greatly; thus at +Aizanoi it is 187 feet, and at Syracuse 495 feet. The theatre of +Dionysus at Athens (finished 325 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) +could accommodate thirty thousand spectators.</p> + +<p>The odeon differed from the theatre principally in being smaller and +entirely covered in by a wooden roof. The <b>Odeon of Regilla</b>, built +by Herodes Atticus in Athens (143 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>), is a well-preserved specimen of this class, +but all traces of its cedar ceiling and of its intermediate supports +have disappeared.</p> + + +<p><b>BUILDINGS FOR ATHLETIC CONTESTS.</b> These comprised stadia and +hippodromes for races, and gymnasia and +<span class="pagenum">71</span> +<a name="page71" id="page71"> </a> +palæstræ for individual exercise, bathing, and amusement. The +<i>stadia</i> and <i>hippodromes</i> were oblong enclosures surrounded +by tiers of seats and without conspicuous architectural features. The +<i>palæstra</i> or <i>gymnasium</i>—for the terms are not clearly +distinguished—was a combination of courts, chambers, tanks +(<i>piscinæ</i>) for bathers and <i>exedræ</i> or semicircular recesses +provided with tiers of seats for spectators and auditors, destined not +merely for the exercises of athletes preparing for the stadium, but also +for the instruction and diversion of the public by recitations, +lectures, and discussions. It was the prototype of the Roman thermæ, but +less imposing, more simple in plan and adornment. Every Greek city had +one or more of them, but they have almost wholly disappeared, and the +brief description by Vitruvius and scanty remains at Alexandria Troas +and Ephesus furnish almost the only information we possess regarding +their form and arrangement.</p> + + +<p><b>TOMBS.</b> These are not numerous, and the most important are +found in Asia Minor. The greatest of these is the famed <b>Mausoleum</b> +at Halicarnassus in Caria, the monument erected to the king Mausolus by +his widow Artemisia (354 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; Fig. +41). It was designed by Satyrus and Pythius in the Ionic style, and +comprised a podium or base 50 feet high and measuring 80 feet by 100 +feet, in which was the sepulchre. Upon this base stood a cella +surrounded by thirty-six Ionic columns; and crowned by a pyramidal roof, +on the peak of which was a colossal marble quadriga at a height of 130 +feet. It was superbly decorated by Scopas and other great sculptors with +statues, marble lions, and a magnificent frieze. The British Museum +possesses fragments of this most imposing monument. At Xanthus the +<b>Nereid Monument</b>, so called from its sculptured figures of +Nereides, was a somewhat similar design on a smaller scale, with sixteen +Ionic columns. At Mylassa was another tomb with an open Corinthian +colonnade supporting a roof formed +<span class="pagenum">72</span> +<a name="page72" id="page72"> </a> +in a stepped pyramid. Some of the later rock-cut tombs of Lycia at Myra +and Antiphellus may also be counted as Hellenic works.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig41" id="fig41"> </a> +<img src="images/fig41.png" width="328" height="318" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 41.—MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS.<br> +<span class="caption"> +(As restored by the author.)</span></p> + + +<p><b>DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> This never attained great importance in +Greece, and our knowledge of the typical Greek house is principally +derived from literary sources. Very few remains of Greek houses have +been found sufficiently well preserved to permit of restoring even the +plan. It is probable that they resembled in general arrangement the +houses of Pompeii (see <a href="#page107">p. 107</a>); but that +they were generally insignificant in size and decoration. The exterior +walls were pierced only by the entrance doors, all light being derived +from one or more interior courts. In the Macedonian epoch there must +have been greater display and luxury in domestic architecture, but no +remains have +<span class="pagenum">73</span> +<a name="page73" id="page73"> </a> +come down to us of sufficient importance or completeness to warrant +further discussion.</p> + + +<div class="monuments"> + +<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> In addition to those already mentioned in the text +the following should be enumerated:</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Prehistoric Period.</span> In the Islands +about Santorin, remains of houses antedating 1500 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; at Tiryns the Acropolis, walls, and +miscellaneous ruins; the like also at Mycenæ, besides various tombs; +walls and gates at Samos, Thoricus, Menidi, Athens, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Archaic Period.</span> Doric Temples at +Metapontium (by Durm assigned to 610 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), Selinus, Agrigentum, <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Paestum’">Pæstum</ins>; at Athens the +first Parthenon; in Asia Minor the primitive Ionic Artemisium at Ephesus +and the Heraion at Samos, the latter the oldest of colossal Greek +temples.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Transitional Period.</span> At Agrigentum, +temples of Concord, Castor and Pollux, Demeter, <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Aesculapius’">Æsculapius</ins>, all +circ. 480 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; temples at Selinus and +Segesta.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Periclean Period.</span> In Athens the +Ionic temple on the Illissus, destroyed during the present century; on +Cape Sunium the temple of Athena, 430 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, partly standing; at Nemea, the temple of Zeus; +at Tegea, the temple of Athena Elea (400? <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>); at Rhamnus, the temples of Themis and of +Nemesis; at Argos, two temples, stoa, and other buildings; all these +were Doric.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Alexandrian Period.</span> The temple of +Dionysus at Teos; temple of Artemis Leucophryne at Magnesia, both about +330 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> and of the Ionic order.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Decadence and Roman Period.</span> At +Athens the Stoa of Eumenes, circ. 170 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; the monument of Philopappus on the Museum +hill, 110 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; the Gymnasium of +Hadrian, 114 to 137 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; the last two +of the Corinthian order.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Theatres.</span> Besides those already +mentioned there are important remains of theatres at Epidaurus, Argos, +Segesta, Iassus (400? <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), Delos, +Sicyon, and Thoricus; at Aizanoi, Myra, Telmissus, and Patara, besides +many others of less importance scattered through the Hellenic world. At +Taormina are extensive ruins of a large Greek theatre rebuilt in the +Roman period.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="note11" id="note11" href="#tag11">11.</a> +See <a href="#appF">Appendix</a>, p. 427.</p> + +<p><a name="note12" id="note12" href="#tag12">12.</a> +L. Bevier, in <i>Papers of the American Classical School at Athens</i> +(vol. i., pp. 195, 196), contends that these were columns left from the +old Doric temple. This is untenable, for Sulla would certainly not have +taken the trouble to carry away archaic Doric columns, with such +splendid Corinthian columns before him.</p> + +</div> + +<span class="pagenum">74</span> +<a name="page74" id="page74"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapVIII" id="chapVIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended:</span> As before, Anderson +and Spiers, Baumeister, Reber. Choisy, <i>L’Art de bâtir chez les +Romains</i>. Desgodetz, <i>Rome in her Ancient Grandeur</i>. Durm, +<i>Die Baukunst der Etrusker</i>; <i>Die Baukunst der Romer</i>. +Lanciani, <i>Ancient Rome in the Light of Modern Discovery</i>; <i>New +Tales of Old Rome</i>; <i>Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome</i>. De +Martha, <i>Archéologie étrusque et romaine</i>. Middleton, <i>Ancient +Rome in 1888</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>LAND AND PEOPLE.</b> The geographical position of Italy conferred +upon her special and obvious advantages for taking up and carrying +northward and westward the arts of civilization. A scarcity of good +harbors was the only drawback amid the blessings of a glorious climate, +fertile soil, varied scenery, and rich material resources. From a remote +antiquity Dorian colonists had occupied the southern portion and the +island of Sicily, enriching them with splendid monuments of Doric art; +and Phœnician commerce had brought thither the products of Oriental art +and industry. The foundation of Rome in 753 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> established the nucleus about which the sundry +populations of Italy were to crystallize into the Roman nation, under +the dominating influence of the Latin element. Later on, the absorption +of the conquered Etruscans added to this composite people a race of +builders and engineers, as yet rude and uncouth in their art, but +destined to become a powerful factor in developing the new architecture +that was to spring from the contact of the practical Romans with the +noble art of the Greek centres.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">75</span> +<a name="page75" id="page75"> </a> +<p><b>GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.</b> While the Greeks bequeathed to +posterity the most perfect models of form in literary and plastic art, +it was reserved for the Romans to work out the applications of these to +every-day material life. The Romans were above all things a practical +people. Their consummate skill as organizers is manifest in the +marvellous administrative institutions of their government, under which +they united the most distant and diverse nationalities. Seemingly +deficient in culture, they were yet able to recast the forms of Greek +architecture in new moulds, and to evolve therefrom a mighty +architecture adapted to wholly novel conditions. They brought +engineering into the service of architecture, which they fitted to the +varied requirements of government, public amusement, private luxury, and +the common comfort. They covered the antique world with arches and +amphitheatres, with villas, baths, basilicas, and temples, all bearing +the unmistakable impress of Rome, though wrought by artists and artisans +of divers races. Only an extraordinary genius for organization could +have accomplished such results.</p> + +<p>The architects of Rome marvellously extended the range of their art, +and gave it a flexibility by which it accommodated itself to the widest +variety of materials and conditions. They made the arch and vault the +basis of their system of design, employing them on a scale previously +undreamed of, and in combinations of surpassing richness and majesty. +They systematized their methods of construction so that soldiers and +barbarians could execute the rough mass of their buildings, and +formulated the designing of the decorative details so that artisans of +moderate skill could execute them with good effect. They carried the +principle of repetition of motives to its utmost limit, and sought to +counteract any resulting monotony by the scale and splendor of the +design. Above all they developed planning into a fine art, displaying +their genius in a wonderful +<span class="pagenum">76</span> +<a name="page76" id="page76"> </a> +variety of combinations and in an unfailing sense of the demands of +constructive propriety, practical convenience, and artistic effect. +Where Egyptian or Greek architecture shows one type of plan, the Roman +shows a score.</p> + + +<p><b>GREEK INFLUENCE.</b> Previous to the closing years of the Republic +the Romans had no art but the Etruscan. The few buildings of importance +they possessed were of Etruscan design and workmanship, excepting a +small number built by Greek hands. It was not until the Empire that +Roman architecture took on a truly national form. True Roman +architecture is essentially imperial. The change from the primitive +Etruscan style to the splendors of the imperial age was due to the +conquest of the Greek states. Not only did the Greek campaigns enrich +Rome with an unprecedented wealth of artistic spoils; they also brought +into Italy hosts of Greek artists, and filled the minds of the +campaigners with the ambition to realize in their own dominions the +marble colonnades, the temples, theatres, and propylæa of the Greek +cities they had pillaged. The Greek orders were adopted, altered, and +applied to arcaded designs as well as to peristyles and other open +colonnades. The marriage of the column and arch gave birth to a system +of forms as characteristic of Roman architecture as the Doric or Ionic +colonnade is of the Greek.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig42" id="fig42"> </a> +<img src="images/fig42.jpg" width="154" height="370" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 42.—ROMAN DORIC ORDER. (THEATRE OF MARCELLUS).</p> + +<p><b>THE ROMAN ORDERS.</b> To meet the demands of Roman taste the +Etruscan column was retained with its simple entablature; the Doric and +Ionic were adopted in a modified form; the Corinthian was developed into +a complete and independent order, and the Composite was added to the +list. A regular system of proportions for all these five orders was +gradually evolved, and the mouldings were profiled with arcs of circles +instead of the subtler Greek curves. In the building of many-storied +structures the +<span class="pagenum">77</span> +<a name="page77" id="page77"> </a> +orders were superposed, the more slender over the sturdier, in an +orderly and graded succession. The immense extent and number of the +Roman buildings, the coarse materials often used, the relative scarcity +of highly trained artisans, and above all, the necessity of making a +given amount of artistic design serve for the largest possible amount of +architecture, combined to direct the designing of detail into uniform +channels. Thus in time was established a sort of canon of proportions, +which was reduced to rules by Vitruvius, and revived in much more +detailed and precise form by Vignola in the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p class="illustration floatleft"> +<a name="fig43" id="fig43"> </a> +<img src="images/fig43.png" width="165" height="330" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 43.—ROMAN IONIC ORDER.</p> + +<p>In each of the orders, including the Doric, the column was given a +base one half of a diameter in height (the unit of measurement being the +diameter of the lower part of the shaft, the <i>crassitudo</i> of +Vitruvius). The shaft was made to contract about one-sixth in diameter +toward the capital, under which it was terminated by an <i>astragal</i> +or collar of small mouldings; at the base it ended in a slight flare and +fillet called the <i>cincture</i>. The entablature was in all cases +given not far from one quarter the height of the whole column. The +<b>Tuscan</b> order was a rudimentary or Etruscan Doric with a column +seven diameters high and a simple entablature without triglyphs, +mutules, or dentils. But few examples of its use are known. The +<b>Doric</b> (Fig. 42) retained the triglyphs and metopes, the mutules +and guttæ of the Greek; but the column was made eight diameters high, +<span class="pagenum">78</span> +<a name="page78" id="page78"> </a> +the shaft was smooth or had deep flutings separated by narrow fillets, +and was usually provided with a simple moulded base on a square plinth. +Mutules were used only over the triglyphs, and were even replaced in +some cases by dentils; the corona was made lighter than the Greek, and a +cymatium replaced the antefixæ on the lateral cornices. The Ionic +underwent fewer changes, and these principally in the smaller mouldings +and details of the capital. The column was nine diameters high (Fig. +43). The <b>Corinthian</b> was made into an independent order by the +designing of a special base of small <i>tori</i> and <i>scotiæ</i>, and +by sumptuously carved <i>modillions</i> or brackets enriching the +cornice and supporting the corona above a denticulated bed-mould (Fig. +44). Though the first designers of the modillion were probably Greeks, +it must, nevertheless, be taken as really a Roman device, worthily +completing the essentially Roman Corinthian order. The <b>Composite</b> +was formed by combining into one capital portions of the Ionic and +Corinthian, and giving to it a simplified form of the Corinthian +cornice. The Corinthian order remained, however, the favorite order of +Roman architecture.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig44" id="fig44"> </a> +<img src="images/fig44.jpg" width="247" height="405" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 44.—CORINTHIAN ORDER (TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX).</p> + +<p><b>USE OF THE ORDERS.</b> The Romans introduced many innovations in +the general use and treatment of the orders. Monolithic shafts were +preferred to those built up of superposed drums. The fluting was omitted +on these, and when hard and semi-precious stone like porphyry or +verd-antique was the material, it was highly polished to bring out its +color. These polished monoliths were often +<span class="pagenum">79</span> +<a name="page79" id="page79"> </a> +of great size, and they were used in almost incredible numbers.</p> + +<p>Another radical departure from Greek usage was the mounting of +columns on pedestals to secure greater height without increasing the +size of the column and its entablature. The Greek <i>anta</i> was +developed into the Roman pilaster or flattened wall-column, and every +free column, or range of columns perpendicular to the façade, had its +corresponding pilaster to support the wall-end of the architrave. But +the most radical innovation was the general use of engaged columns as +wall-decorations or buttresses. The engaged column projected from the +wall by more than half its diameter, and was built up with the wall as a +part of its substance (Fig. 45). The entablature was in many cases +advanced only over the columns, between which it was set back almost to +the plane of the wall. This practice is open to the obvious criticism +that it makes the column appear superfluous by depriving it of its +function of supporting the continuous entablature. The objection has +less weight when the projecting entablature over the column serves as a +pedestal for a statue or +<span class="pagenum">80</span> +<a name="page80" id="page80"> </a> +similar object, which restores to the column its function as a support +(see the Arch of Constantine, <a href="#fig63">Fig. 63</a>).</p> + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig45" id="fig45"> </a> +<img src="images/fig45.png" width="205" height="335" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 45.—ROMAN ARCADE WITH ENGAGED COLUMNS<br> +<span class="caption"> +(From the Colosseum.)</span></p> + +<p><b>ARCADES.</b> The orders, though probably at first used only as +free supports in porticos and colonnades, were early applied as +decorations to arcaded structures. This practice became general with the +multiplication of many-storied arcades like those of the amphitheatres, +the engaged columns being set between the arches as buttresses, +supporting entablatures which marked the divisions into stories (Fig. +45). This combination has been assailed as a false and illogical device, +but the criticism proceeds from a too narrow conception of architectural +propriety. It is defensible upon both artistic and logical grounds; for +it not only furnishes a most desirable play of light and shade and a +pleasing contrast of rectangular and curved lines, but by emphasizing +the constructive divisions and elements of the building and the vertical +support of the piers, it also contributes to the expressiveness and +vigor of the design.</p> + + +<p><b>VAULTING.</b> The Romans substituted vaulting in brick, concrete, +or masonry for wooden ceilings wherever possible, both in public and +private edifices. The Etruscans were +<span class="pagenum">81</span> +<a name="page81" id="page81"> </a> +the first vault-builders, and the Cloaca Maxima, the great sewer of +Republican Rome (about 500 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) still +remains as a monument of their engineering skill. Probably not only +Etruscan engineers (whose traditions were perhaps derived from Asiatic +sources in the remote past), but Asiatic builders also from conquered +eastern provinces, were engaged together in the development of the +wonderful system of vaulted construction to which Roman architecture so +largely owed its grandeur. Three types of vault were commonly used: the +barrel-vault, the groined or four-part vault, and the dome.</p> + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig46" id="fig46"> </a> +<img src="images/fig46.png" width="154" height="141" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 46.—BARREL VAULT.</p> + +<p>The barrel vault (Fig. 46) was generally semi-cylindrical in section, +and was used to cover corridors and oblong halls, like the +temple-cellas, or was bent around a curve, as in amphitheatre +passages.</p> + +<p class="illustration floatleft"> +<a name="fig47" id="fig47"> </a> +<img src="images/fig47.png" width="152" height="157" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 47.—GROINED VAULT.<br> +<span class="caption"> +<i>g, g, Groins.</i></span></p> + +<p>The groined vault is formed by the intersection of two barrel-vaults +(Fig. 47). When several compartments of groined vaulting are placed +together over an oblong plan, a double advantage is secured. +Lateral windows can be carried up to the full height of the vaulting +instead of being stopped below its springing; and the weight and thrust +of the vaulting are concentrated upon a number of isolated points +instead of being exerted along the whole extent of the side walls, as +with the barrel-vault. The Romans saw that it was sufficient to dispose +the masonry at these points in masses at right angles to the length of +the hall, to best resist the lateral +<span class="pagenum">82</span> +<a name="page82" id="page82"> </a> +thrust of the vault. This appears clearly in the plan of the Basilica of +Constantine (<a href="#fig58">Fig. 58</a>).</p> + +<p>The dome was in almost all Roman examples supported on a circular +wall built up from the ground, as in the Pantheon (<a href="#fig54">Fig. 54</a>). The pendentive dome, sustained by four or +eight arches over a square or octagonal plan, is not found in true Roman +buildings.</p> + +<p>The Romans made of the vault something more than a mere constructive +device. It became in their hands an element of interior effect at least +equally important with the arch and column. No style of architecture has +ever evolved nobler forms of ceiling than the groined vault and the +dome. Moreover, the use of vaulting made possible effects of +unencumbered spaciousness and amplitude which could never be compassed +by any combination of piers and columns. It also assured to the Roman +monuments a duration and a freedom from danger of destruction by fire +impossible with any wooden-roofed architecture, however noble its form +or careful its execution.</p> + + +<p><b>CONSTRUCTION.</b> The constructive methods of the Romans varied +with the conditions and resources of different provinces, but were +everywhere dominated by the same practical spirit. Their vaulted +architecture demanded for the support of its enormous weights and for +resistance to its disruptive thrusts, piers and buttresses of great +mass. To construct these wholly of cut stone appeared preposterous and +wasteful to the Roman. Italy abounds in clay, lime, and a volcanic +product, <i>pozzolana</i> (from Puteoli or Pozzuoli, where it has always +been obtained in large quantities), which makes an admirable hydraulic +cement. With these materials it was possible to employ unskilled labor +for the great bulk of this massive masonry, and to erect with the +greatest rapidity and in the most economical manner those stupendous +piles which, even in their ruin, excite the admiration of every +beholder.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">83</span> +<a name="page83" id="page83"> </a> + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig48" id="fig48"> </a> +<img src="images/fig48.png" width="133" height="117" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 48.—ROMAN WALL MASONRY.</p> + +<p class="caption w150"> +<i>a, Brickwork; b, Tufa ashlar; r, Opus reticulatum; i, Opus +incertum.</i></p> + +<p><b>STONE, CONCRETE, AND BRICK MASONRY.</b> For buildings of an +externally decorative character such as temples, arches of triumph, and +amphitheatres, as well as in all places where brick and concrete were +not easily obtained, stone was employed. The walls were built by laying +up the inner and outer faces in <i>ashlar</i> or cut stone, and filling +in the intermediate space with rubble (random masonry of uncut stone) +laid up in cement, or with concrete of broken stone and cement dumped +into the space in successive layers. The cement converted the whole into +a conglomerate closely united with the face-masonry. In Syria and Egypt +the local preference for stones of enormous size was gratified, and even +surpassed, as in Herod’s terrace-walls for the temple at Jerusalem (<a +href="#page41">p. 41</a>), and in the splendid structures of +Palmyra and Baalbec. In Italy, however, stones of moderate size were +preferred, and when blocks of unusual dimensions occur, they are in many +cases marked with false joints, dividing them into apparently smaller +blocks, lest they should dwarf the building by their large scale. The +general use in the Augustan period of marble for a decorative lining or +wainscot in interiors led in time to the objectionable practice of +coating buildings of concrete with an apparel of sham marble masonry, by +carving false joints upon an external veneer of thin slabs of that +material. Ordinary concrete walls were frequently faced with small +blocks of tufa, called, according to the manner of its application, +<i>opus reticulatum</i>, <i>opus incertum</i>, <i>opus spicatum</i>, +etc. (Fig. 48). In most cases, however, the facing was of carefully +executed brickwork, covered sometimes by a coating of stucco. The bricks +were large, measuring from one to two feet square where used for quoins +or arches, but triangular +<span class="pagenum">84</span> +<a name="page84" id="page84"> </a> +where they served only as facings. Bricks were also used in the +construction of skeleton ribs for concrete vaults of large span.</p> + + +<p><b>VAULTING.</b> Here, as in the wall-masonry, economy and common +sense devised methods extremely simple for accomplishing vast designs. +While the smaller vaults were, so to speak, cast in concrete upon moulds +made of rough boards, the enormous weight of the larger vaults precluded +their being supported, while drying or “setting,” upon timber centrings +built up from the ground. Accordingly, a skeleton of light ribs was +first built on wooden centrings, and these ribs, when firmly “set,” +became themselves supports for intermediate centrings on which to cast +the concrete fillings between the ribs. The whole vault, once hardened, +formed really a monolithic curved lintel, exerting no thrust whatever, +so that the extraordinary precautions against lateral disruption +practised by the Romans were, in fact, in many cases quite +superfluous.</p> + + +<p><b>DECORATION.</b> The temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum (long +miscalled the temple of <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Jupitor’">Jupiter</ins> Stator), is a typical example of Roman +architectural decoration, in which richness was preferred to the subtler +refinements of design (see <a href="#fig44">Fig. 44</a>). The +splendid figure-sculpture which adorned the Greek monuments would have +been inappropriate on the theatres and thermæ of Rome or the provinces, +even had there been the taste or the skill to produce it. Conventional +carved ornament was substituted in its place, and developed into a +splendid system of highly decorative forms. Two principal elements +appear in this decoration—the acanthus-leaf, as the basis of a +whole series of wonderfully varied motives; and symbolism, represented +principally by what are technically termed +<i>grotesques</i>—incongruous combinations of natural forms, as +when an infant’s body terminates in a bunch of foliage (Fig. 49). Only +to a limited extent do we find true sculpture employed as +<span class="pagenum">85</span> +<a name="page85" id="page85"> </a> +decoration, and that mainly for triumphal arches or memorial +columns.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig49" id="fig49"> </a> +<img src="images/fig49.jpg" width="422" height="230" +alt="see caption"><br> +FIG. 49—ROMAN CARVED ORNAMENT.<br> +<span class="caption"> +(Lateran Museum.)</span></p> + +<p>The architectural mouldings were nearly always carved, the Greek +water-leaf and egg-and-dart forming the basis of most of the +enrichments; but these were greatly elaborated and treated with more +minute detail than the Greek prototypes. Friezes and bands were commonly +ornamented with the foliated scroll or <i>rinceau</i> (a convenient +French term for which we have no equivalent). This motive was as +characteristic of Roman art as the anthemion was of the Greek. It +consists of a continuous stem throwing out alternately on either side +branches which curl into spirals and are richly adorned with rosettes, +acanthus-leaves, scrolls, tendrils, and blossoms. In the best examples +the detail was modelled with great care and minuteness, and the motive +itself was treated with extraordinary variety and fertility of +invention. A derived and enriched form of the anthemion was +sometimes used for bands and friezes; and grotesques, dolphins, +griffins, infant genii, wreaths, +<span class="pagenum">86</span> +<a name="page86" id="page86"> </a> +festoons, ribbons, eagles, and masks are also common features in Roman +relief carving.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig50" id="fig50"> </a> +<img src="images/fig50.png" width="187" height="260" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 50.—ROMAN CEILING PANELS.<br> +<span class="caption"> +(<i>a</i>, From Palmyra; <i>b</i>, Basilica of Constantine.)</span></p> + +<p>The Romans made great use of panelling and of moulded plaster in +their interior decoration, especially for ceilings. The panelling of +domes and vaults was usually roughly shaped in their first construction +and finished afterward in stucco with rich moulding and rosettes. The +panels were not always square or rectangular, as in Greek ceilings, but +of various geometric forms in pleasing combinations (Fig. 50). In works +of a small scale the panels and decorations were wrought in relief in a +heavy coating of plaster applied to the finished structure, and these +stucco reliefs are among the most refined and charming products of Roman +art. (Baths of Titus; Baths at Pompeii; Palace of the Cæsars and tombs +at Rome.)</p> + +<p> +<b>COLOR DECORATION.</b> Plaster was also used as a ground for painting, +executed in distemper or by the encaustic process, wax liquefied by a hot iron +being the medium for applying the color in the latter case. Pompeii and +Herculaneum furnish countless examples of brilliant wall-painting in which +strong primary colors form the ground, and a semi-naturalistic, semi-fantastic +representation of figures, architecture and landscape is mingled with festoons, +vines, and purely conventional ornament. Mosaic was also employed to decorate +floors and wall-spaces, and sometimes for ceilings.<a class="tag" name="tag13" +href="#note13">13</a> The later imperial baths and palaces were especially +<span class="pagenum">87</span> +<a name="page87" id="page87"> </a> +rich in mosaic of the kind called opus Grecanicum, executed with +numberless minute cubes of stone or glass, as in the Baths of Caracalla +and the Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli.</p> + +<p>To the walls of monumental interiors, such as temples, basilicas, and +thermæ, splendor of color was given by veneering them with thin slabs of +rare and richly colored marble. No limit seems to have been placed upon +the costliness or amount of these precious materials. Byzantine +architecture borrowed from this practice its system of interior color +decoration.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="note13" id="note13" href="#tag13">13.</a> +See Van Dyke’s <i>History of Paintings</i>, p. 33.</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">88</span> +<a name="page88" id="page88"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapIX" id="chapIX">CHAPTER IX.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +ROMAN ARCHITECTURE—<i>Continued</i>.</h3> + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Same as for Chapter +VIII. Also, Guhl and Kohner, <i>Life of the Ancient Greeks and +Romans</i>. Adams, <i>Ruins of the Palace of <ins class="correction" +title="text reads ‘Spalatro’">Spalato</ins></i>. Burn, <i>Rome and the +Campagna</i>. Cameron, <i>Roman Baths</i>. Mau, tr. by Kelcey, +<i>Pompeii, its Life and Art</i>. Mazois, <i>Ruines de Pompeii</i>. Von +Presuhn, <i>Die neueste Ausgrabungen zu Pompeii</i>. Wood, <i>Ruins of +Palmyra and Baalbec</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>THE ETRUSCAN STYLE.</b> Although the first Greek architects were +employed in Rome as early as 493 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, +the architecture of the Republic was practically Etruscan until nearly +100 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> Its monuments, consisting +mainly of city walls, tombs, and temples, are all marked by a general +uncouthness of detail, denoting a lack of artistic refinement, but they +display considerable constructive skill. In the Etruscan walls we meet +with both polygonal and regularly coursed masonry; in both kinds the +true arch appears as the almost universal form for gates and openings. +A famous example is the Augustan Gate at Perugia, a late work +rebuilt about 40 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, but thoroughly +Etruscan in style. At Volaterræ (Volterra) is another arched gate, and +in Perugia fragments of still another appear built into the modern +walls.</p> + +<p>The Etruscans built both structural and excavated tombs; they +consisted in general of a single chamber with a slightly arched or +gabled roof, supported in the larger tombs on heavy square piers. The +interiors were covered with pictures; externally there was little +ornament except about the gable and doorway. The latter +<span class="pagenum">89</span> +<a name="page89" id="page89"> </a> +had a stepped or moulded frame with curious <i>crossettes</i> or ears +projecting laterally at the top. The gable recalled the wooden roofs of +Etruscan temples, but was coarse in detail, especially in its mouldings. +Sepulchral monuments of other types are also met with, such as +<i>cippi</i> or memorial pillars, sometimes in groups of five on a +single pedestal (tomb at Albano).</p> + +<p>Among the temples of Etruscan style that of <b>Jupiter +Capitolinus</b> on the Capitol at Rome, destroyed by fire in 80 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, was the chief. Three narrow chambers +side by side formed a cella nearly square in plan, preceded by a +hexastyle porch of huge Doric, or rather Tuscan, columns arranged in +three aisles, widely spaced and carrying ponderous wooden architraves. +The roof was of wood; the cymatium and ornaments, as well as the statues +in the pediment, were of terra-cotta, painted and gilded. The details in +general showed acquaintance with Greek models, which appeared in debased +and awkward imitations of triglyphs, cornices, antefixæ, etc.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig51" id="fig51"> </a> +<img src="images/fig51.png" width="154" height="283" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 51.—TEMPLE FORTUNA VIRILIS. PLAN.</p> + +<p><b>GREEK STYLE.</b> The victories of Marcellus at Syracuse, 212 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, Fabius Maximus at Tarentum (209 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), Flaminius (196 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), Mummius (146 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), Sulla (86 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), and others in the various Greek provinces, +steadily increased the vogue of Greek architecture and the number of +Greek artists in Rome. The temples of the last two centuries <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, and some of earlier date, though still +Etruscan in plan, were in many cases strongly Greek in the character of +their details. A few have remained to our time in tolerable +preservation. The temple of <b>Fortuna +<span class="pagenum">90</span> +<a name="page90" id="page90"> </a> +Virilis</b> (really of Fors Fortuna), of the second century (?) <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, is a tetrastyle prostyle +pseudoperipteral temple with a high <i>podium</i> or base, +a typical Etruscan cella, and a deep porch, now walled up, but +thoroughly Greek in the elegant details of its Ionic order (Fig. 51). +Two circular temples, both called erroneously <b>Temples of Vesta</b>, +one at Rome near the Cloaca Maxima, the other at Tivoli, belong among +the monuments of Greek style. The first was probably dedicated to +Hercules, the second probably to the Sibyls; the latter being much the +better preserved of the two. Both were surrounded by peristyles of +eighteen Corinthian columns, and probably covered by domical roofs with +gilded bronze tiles. The Corinthian order appears here complete with its +modillion cornice, but the crispness of the detail and the fineness of +the execution are Greek and not Roman. These temples date from about 72 +<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, though the one at Rome was +probably rebuilt in the first century <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (Fig. 52).</p> + +<p class="illustration floatleft w210"> +<a name="fig52" id="fig52"> </a> +<img src="images/fig52.png" width="208" height="398" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 52.—CIRCULAR TEMPLE. TIVOLI.</p> + + +<p><b>IMPERIAL ARCHITECTURE; AUGUSTAN AGE.</b> Even in the temples of +Greek style Roman conceptions of plan and composition are dominant. The +Greek architect was not free to reproduce textually Greek designs or +details, however strongly he might impress with the Greek character +whatever he touched. The demands of imperial splendor +<span class="pagenum">91</span> +<a name="page91" id="page91"> </a> +and the building of great edifices of varied form and complex structure, +like the thermæ and amphitheatres, called for new adaptations and +combinations of planning and engineering. The reign of Augustus (27 +<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>-14 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) inaugurated the imperial epoch, but many works +erected before and after his reign properly belong to the Augustan age +by right of style. In general, we find in the works of this period the +happiest combination of Greek refinement with Roman splendor. It was in +this period that Rome first assumed the aspect of an opulent and +splendid metropolis, though the way had been prepared for this by the +regularization and adornment of the Roman Forum and the erection of many +temples, basilicas, fora, arches, and theatres during the generation +preceding the accession of Augustus. His reign saw the inception or +completion of the portico of Octavia, the Augustan forum, the Septa +Julia, the first Pantheon, the adjoining Thermæ of Agrippa, the theatre +of Marcellus, the first of the imperial palaces on the Palatine, and a +long list of temples, including those of the Dioscuri (Castor and +Pollux), of Mars Ultor, of Jupiter Tonans on the Capitol, and others in +the provinces; besides colonnades, statues, arches, and other +embellishments almost without number.</p> + + +<p><b>LATER IMPERIAL WORKS.</b> With the successors of Augustus splendor +increased to almost fabulous limits, as, for instance, in the vast +extent and the prodigality of ivory and gold in the famous Golden House +of Nero. After the great fire in Rome, presumably kindled by the agents +of this emperor, a more regular and monumental system of +street-planning and building was introduced, and the first municipal +building-law was decreed by him. To the reign of Vespasian (68–79 +<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) we owe the rebuilding in Roman +style and with the Corinthian order of the temple of Jupiter +Capitolinus, the Baths of Titus, and the beginning of the Flavian +amphitheatre or Colosseum. The two last-named +<span class="pagenum">92</span> +<a name="page92" id="page92"> </a> +edifices both stood on the site of Nero’s Golden House, of which the +greater part was demolished to make way for them. During the last years +of the first century the arch of Titus was erected, the Colosseum +finished, amphitheatres built at Verona, Pola, Reggio, Tusculum, Nîmes +(France), Constantine (Algiers), Pompeii and Herculanum (these last two +cities and Stabiæ rebuilt after the earthquake of 63 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>), and arches, bridges, and temples erected all +over the Roman world.</p> + +<p>The first part of the second century was distinguished by the +splendid architectural achievements of the reign of Hadrian +(117–138 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) in Rome and the +provinces, especially Athens. Nearly all his works were marked by great +dignity of conception as well as beauty of detail. During the latter +part of the century a very interesting series of buildings were erected +in the Hauran (Syria), in which Greek and Arab workmen under Roman +direction produced examples of vigorous stone architecture of a mingled +Roman and Syrian character.</p> + +<p>The most-remarkable thermæ of Rome belong to the third +century—those of Caracalla (211–217 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) and of Diocletian (284–305 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>)—their ruins to-day ranking among the +most imposing remains of antiquity. In Syria the temples of the Sun at +Baalbec and Palmyra (273 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, under +Aurelian), and the great palace of Diocletian at Spalato, in Dalmatia +(300 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>), are still the wonder of +the few travellers who reach those distant spots.</p> + +<p>While during the third and fourth centuries there was a marked +decline in purity and refinement of detail, many of the later works of +the period display a remarkable freedom and originality in conception. +But these works are really not Roman, they are foreign, that is, +provincial products; and the transfer of the capital to Byzantium +revealed the increasing degree in which Rome was coming to look to the +East for her strength and her art.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">93</span> +<a name="page93" id="page93"> </a> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig53" id="fig53"> </a> +<img src="images/fig53.png" width="262" height="439" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 53.—TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME. PLAN.</p> + +<p><b>TEMPLES.</b> The Romans built both rectangular and circular +temples, and there was much variety in their treatment. In the +rectangular temples a high <i>podium</i>, or basement, was substituted +for the Greek stepped stylobate, and the prostyle plan was more common +than the peripteral. The cella was relatively short and wide, the front +porch inordinately deep, and frequently divided by longitudinal rows of +columns into three aisles. In most cases the exterior of the cella in +prostyle temples was decorated by engaged columns. A barrel vault +gave the interior an aspect of spaciousness impossible with the Greek +system of a wooden ceiling supported on double ranges of columns. In the +place of these, free or engaged columns along the side-walls received +the ribs of the vaulting. Between these ribs the ceiling was richly +panelled, or coffered and sumptuously gilded. The temples of <b>Fortuna +Virilis</b> and of <b>Faustina</b> at Rome (the latter built 141 <span +class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, and its ruins incorporated into the +modern church of S. Lorenzo in Miranda), and the beautiful and +admirably preserved <b>Maison +<span class="pagenum">94</span> +<a name="page94" id="page94"> </a> +Carrée</b>, at Nîmes (France) (4 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) are examples of this type. The temple of +<b>Concord</b>, of which only the podium remains, and the small temple +of Julius (both of these in the Forum) illustrate another form of +prostyle temple in which the porch was on a long side of the cella. Some +of the larger temples were peripteral. The temple of the <b>Dioscuri</b> +(Castor and Pollux) in the Forum, was one of the most magnificent of +these, certainly the richest in detail (<a href="#fig44">Fig. 44</a>). Very remarkable was the double temple of +<b>Venus and Rome</b>, east of the Forum, designed by the Emperor +Hadrian about 130 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (Fig. 53). It +was a vast pseudodipteral edifice containing two cellas in one +structure, their statue-niches or apses meeting back to back in the +centre. The temple stood in the midst of an imposing columnar peribolus +entered by magnificent gateways. Other important temples have already +been mentioned on <a href="#page91">p. 91</a>.</p> + +<p>Besides the two circular temples already described, the temple of +Vesta, adjoining the House of the Vestals, at the east end of the Forum +should be mentioned. At Baalbec is a circular temple whose entablature +curves inward between the widely-spaced columns until it touches the +cella in the middle of each intercolumniation. It illustrates the +caprices of design which sometimes resulted from the disregard of +tradition and the striving after originality (273 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>).</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig54" id="fig54"> </a> +<img src="images/fig54.png" width="162" height="243" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 54.—PLAN OF THE PANTHEON.</p> + +<p><b>THE PANTHEON.</b> The noblest of all circular temples of Rome and +of the world was the <b>Pantheon</b>. It was built by Hadrian, +117–138 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, on the site of the +earlier rectangular temple of the same name erected by Agrippa. It +measures 142 feet in diameter +<span class="pagenum">95</span> +<a name="page95" id="page95"> </a> +internally; the wall is 20 feet thick and supports a hemispherical dome +rising to a height of 140 feet (Figs. 54, 55). Light is admitted solely +through a round opening 28 feet in diameter at the top of the dome, the +simplest and most impressive method of illumination conceivable. +The rain and snow that enter produce no appreciable effect upon the +temperature of the vast hall. There is a single entrance, with noble +bronze doors, admitting directly to the interior, around which seven +niches, alternately rectangular and semicircular in plan and fronted by +Corinthian columns, lighten, without weakening, the mass of the +encircling wall. This wall was originally incrusted with rich marbles, +and the great dome, adorned with deep coffering in rectangular panels, +was decorated with rosettes and mouldings in gilt stucco. The dome +appears to have been composed of numerous arches and ribs, filled in and +finally coated with concrete. A recent examination of a denuded +portion of its inner surface has convinced the writer that the interior +panelling was executed after, and not during, its construction, by +hewing the panels out of the mass of brick and concrete, without regard +to the form and position of the origin skeleton of ribs.</p> + +<p class="illustration floatleft"> +<a name="fig55" id="fig55"> </a> +<img src="images/fig55.jpg" width="263" height="311" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 55.—INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON.</p> + +<p>The exterior (Fig. 56) was less successful than the interior. +<span class="pagenum">96</span> +<a name="page96" id="page96"> </a> +The gabled porch of twelve superb granite columns 50 feet high, +three-aisled in plan after the Etruscan mode, and covered originally by +a ceiling of bronze, was a rebuilding with the materials and on the plan +of the original pronaos of the Pantheon of Agrippa. The circular wall +behind it is faced with fine brickwork, and displays, like the dome, +many curious arrangements of discharging arches, reminiscences of +traditional constructive precautions here wholly useless and fictitious +because only skin-deep. A revetment of marble below and plaster +above once concealed this brick facing. The portico, in spite of its too +steep gable (once filled with a “gigantomachia” in gilt bronze) and its +somewhat awkward association with a round building, is nevertheless a +noble work, its capitals in Pentelic marble ranking among the finest +known examples of the Roman Corinthian. Taken as a whole, the Pantheon +is one of the great masterpieces of the world’s architecture.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig56" id="fig56"> </a> +<img src="images/fig56.jpg" width="428" height="273" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 56.—EXTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON.<br> +<span class="caption"> +(From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.<!-- invisible . +-->)</span></p> + + +<span class="pagenum">97</span> +<a name="page97" id="page97"> </a> + +<p><b>FORA AND BASILICAS.</b> The fora were the places for general +public assemblage. The chief of those in Rome, the <b>Forum Magnum</b>, +or <b>Forum Romanum</b>, was at first merely an irregular vacant space, +about and in which, as the focus of the civic life, temples, halls, +colonnades, and statues gradually accumulated. These chance aggregations +the systematic Roman mind reduced in time to orderly and monumental +form; successive emperors extended them and added new fora at enormous +cost and with great splendor of architecture. Those of Julius, Augustus, +Vespasian, and Nerva (or Domitian), adjoining the Roman Forum, were +magnificent enclosures surrounded by high walls and single or double +colonnades. Each contained a temple or basilica, besides gateways, +memorial columns or arches, and countless statues. The <b>Forum of +Trajan</b> surpassed all the rest; it covered an area of thirty-five +thousand square yards, and included, besides the main area, entered +through a triumphal arch, the Basilica Ulpia, the temple of Trajan, and +his colossal Doric column of Victory. Both in size and beauty it ranked +as the chief architectural glory of the city (Fig. 57). The six fora +together contained thirteen temples, three basilicas, eight triumphal +arches, a mile of porticos, and a number of other public +edifices.<a class="tag" name="tag14" id="tag14" href="#note14">14</a> Besides +<span class="pagenum">98</span> +<a name="page98" id="page98"> </a> +these, a net-work of colonnades covered large tracts of the city, +affording sheltered communication in every direction, and here and there +expanding into squares or gardens surrounded by peristyles.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig57" id="fig57"> </a> +<img src="images/fig57.png" width="253" height="344" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 57.—FORUM AND BASILICA OF TRAJAN.<br> +<a class="closeup" href="images/fig57_large.png" target="_blank"> +Larger View</a></p> + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig58" id="fig58"> </a> +<img src="images/fig58.png" width="148" height="131" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 58.—BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE. PLAN.</p> + +<p>The public business of Rome, both judicial and commercial, was +largely transacted in the <i>basilicas</i>, large buildings consisting +usually of a wide and lofty central nave flanked by lower side-aisles, +and terminating at one or both ends in an apse or semicircular recess +called the <i>tribune</i>, in which were the seats for the magistrates. +The side-aisles were separated from the nave by columns supporting a +clearstory wall, pierced by windows above the roofs of the side-aisles. +In some cases the latter were two stories high, with galleries; in +others the central space was open to the sky, as at Pompeii, suggesting +the derivation of the basilica from the open square surrounded by +colonnades, or from the forum itself, with which we find it usually +associated. The most important basilicas in Rome were the +<b>Sempronian</b>, the <b>Æmilian</b> (about 54 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), the <b>Julian</b> in the Forum Magnum (51 +<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), and the <b>Ulpian</b> in the +Forum of Trajan (113 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>). The last +two were probably open basilicas, only the side-aisles being roofed. The +Ulpian (Fig. 57) was the most magnificent of all, and in conjunction +with the Forum of Trajan formed one of the most imposing of those +monumental aggregations of columnar architecture which contributed so +largely to the splendor of the Roman capital.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig59" id="fig59"> </a> +<img src="images/fig59.jpg" width="430" height="315" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 59.—BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE.<!-- invisible . --> RUINS.</p> + +<p>These monuments frequently suffered from the burning of their wooden +roofs. It was Constantine who completed the first vaulted and fireproof +basilica, begun by his predecessor and rival, Maxentius, on the site of +the former Temple of Peace (Figs. 58, 59). Its design reproduced on a +<span class="pagenum">99</span> +<a name="page99" id="page99"> </a> +grand scale the plan of the tepidarium-halls of the thermæ, the +side-recesses of which were converted into a continuous side-aisle by +piercing arches through the buttress-walls that separated them. Above +the imposing vaults of these recesses and under the cross-vaults of the +nave were windows admitting abundant light. A <i>narthex</i>, or +porch, preceded the hall at one end; there were also a side entrance +from the Via Sacra, and an apse or tribune for the magistrates opposite +each of these entrances. The dimensions of the main hall (325 × 85 +feet), the height of its vault (117 feet), and the splendor of its +columns and incrustations excited universal admiration, and exercised a +powerful influence on later architecture.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig60" id="fig60"> </a> +<img src="images/fig60.png" width="240" height="174" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 60.—THERMÆ OF CARACALLA. PLAN OF CENTRAL BLOCK.</p> + +<p class="caption w240"> +<i>A, Caldarium, or Hot Bath; B, Intermediate Chamber; C, Tepidarium, or +Warm Bath; D, Frigidarium, or Cold Bath; E, Peristyles; a, Gymnastic +Rooms; b, Dressing Rooms; c, Cooling Rooms; d, Small Courts; e, +Entrances; v, Vestibules.</i></p> + +<p class="closeup w240"> +<a href="images/fig60_large.png" target="_blank"> +Larger View</a></p> + +<p><b>THERMÆ.</b> The leisure of the Roman people was largely spent in +the great baths, or <i>thermæ</i>, which took the place substantially of +the modern club. The establishments +<span class="pagenum">100</span> +<a name="page100" id="page100"> </a> +erected by the emperors for this purpose were vast and complex congeries +of large and small halls, courts, and chambers, combined with a masterly +comprehension of artistic propriety and effect in the sequence of +oblong, square, oval, and circular apartments, and in the relation of +the greater to the lesser masses. They were a combination of the Greek +<i>palæstra</i> with the Roman <i>balnea</i>, and united in one +harmonious design great public swimming-baths, private baths for +individuals and families, places for gymnastic exercises and games, +courts, peristyles, gardens, halls for literary entertainments, +lounging-rooms, and all the complex accommodation required for the +service of the whole establishment. They were built with apparent +disregard of cost, and adorned with splendid extravagance. The earliest +were the <b>Baths of Agrippa</b> (27 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) behind the Pantheon; next may be mentioned +those of <b>Titus</b>, built on the substructions of Nero’s Golden +House. The remains of the <b>Thermæ of Caracalla</b> (211 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) form the most extensive mass of ruins in Rome, +and clearly display the admirable planning of this and similar +establishments. A gigantic block of buildings containing the three +great halls for cold, warm, and hot baths, stood in the centre of a vast +enclosure surrounded by private baths, <i>exedræ</i>, and halls for +lecture-audiences and other gatherings. The enclosure was adorned with +statues, flower-gardens, and places for out-door games. The <b>Baths of +Diocletian</b> (302 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) embodied +this arrangement +<span class="pagenum">101</span> +<a name="page101" id="page101"> </a> +on a still more extensive scale; they could accommodate 3,500 bathers at +once, and their ruins cover a broad territory near the railway terminus +of the modern city. The church of S. Maria degli Angeli was formed +by Michael Angelo out of the <i>tepidarium</i> of these +baths—a colossal hall 340 × 87 feet, and 90 feet high. The +original vaulting and columns are still intact, and the whole interior +most imposing, in spite of later stucco disfigurements. The circular +<i>laconicum</i> (sweat-room) serves as the porch to the present church. +It was in the building of these great halls that Roman architecture +reached its most original and characteristic expression. Wholly +unrelated to any foreign model, they represent distinctively Roman +ideals, both as to plan and construction.</p> + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig61" id="fig61"> </a> +<img src="images/fig61.jpg" width="250" height="178" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 61.—ROMAN THEATRE.<!-- invisible . --> (HERCULANUM.)<br> +<span class="caption"> +(From model.)</span></p> + + +<p><b>PLACES OF AMUSEMENT.</b> The earliest Roman theatres differed from +the Greek in having a nearly semicircular plan, and in being built up +from the level ground, not excavated in a hillside (Fig. 61). The first +theatre was of wood, built by Mummius 145 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, and it was not until ninety years later that +stone was first substituted for the more perishable material, in the +theatre of Pompey. The <b>Theatre of Marcellus</b> (23–13 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) is in part still extant, and later +theatres in Pompeii, Orange (France), and in the Asiatic provinces are +in excellent preservation. The orchestra was not, as in the Greek +theatre, reserved for the choral dance, but was given up to spectators +of rank; the stage was adorned with a permanent architectural background +of columns and +<span class="pagenum">102</span> +<a name="page102" id="page102"> </a> +arches, and sometimes roofed with wood, and an arcade or colonnade +surrounded the upper tier of seats. The amphitheatre was a still more +distinctively Roman edifice. It was elliptical in plan, surrounding an +elliptical arena, and built up with continuous encircling tiers of +seats. The earliest stone amphitheatre was erected by Statilius Taurus +in the time of Augustus. It was practically identical in design with the +later and much larger Flavian amphitheatre, commonly known as the +<b>Colosseum</b>, begun by Vespasian and completed 82 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (Fig. 62). This immense structure measured 607 +× 506 feet in plan and was 180 feet high; it could accommodate +eighty-seven thousand spectators. Engaged columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, +and Corinthian orders decorated three stories of the exterior; the +fourth was a nearly unbroken wall with slender Corinthian pilasters. +Solidly constructed of travertine, concrete, and tufa, the Colosseum, +with its imposing but monotonous exterior, almost sublime by its scale +and seemingly endless repetition, but lacking in refinement or +originality of detail and dedicated to bloody and cruel sports, was a +characteristic product of the Roman character and civilization. At +Verona, Pola, +<span class="pagenum">103</span> +<a name="page103" id="page103"> </a> +Capua, and many cities in the foreign provinces there are well-preserved +remains of similar structures.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig62" id="fig62"> </a> +<img src="images/fig62.png" width="429" height="227" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 62.—COLOSSEUM. HALF PLAN.</p> + +<p>Closely related to the amphitheatre were the circus and the stadium. +The <b>Circus Maximus</b> between the Palatine and Aventine hills was +the oldest of those in Rome. That erected by Caligula and Nero on the +site afterward partly occupied by St. Peter’s, was more splendid, and is +said to have been capable of accommodating over three hundred thousand +spectators after its enlargement in the fourth century. The long, narrow +race-course was divided into two nearly equal parts by a low parapet, +the <i>spina</i>, on which were the goals (<i>metæ</i>) and many small +decorative structures and columns. One end of the circus, as of the +stadium also, was semicircular; the other was segmental in the circus, +square in the stadium; a colonnade or arcade ran along the top of +the building, and the entrances and exits were adorned with monumental +arches.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig63" id="fig63"> </a> +<img src="images/fig63.jpg" width="249" height="208" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 63.—ARCH OF CONSTANTINE.<br> +<span class="caption"> +(From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)</span></p> + +<p><b>TRIUMPHAL ARCHES AND COLUMNS.</b> Rome and the provincial cities +abounded in monuments commemorative of victory, usually single or triple +arches with engaged columns and rich sculptural adornments, or single +colossal columns supporting statues. The arches were characteristic +products of Roman design, and some of them deserve high praise for the +excellence of their proportions and the elegance of their details. There +were in Rome in the second century <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, thirty-eight of these monuments. The <b>Arch +of Titus</b> (71–82 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) is the +simplest and most perfect of those still extant in Rome; the arch of +<b>Septimius Severus</b> in the Forum (203 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) and that of <b>Constantine</b> (330 <span +class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) near the Colosseum, are more sumptuous +but less pure in detail. The last-named was in part enriched with +sculptures taken from the earlier arch of Trajan. The statues of Dacian +captives on the attic (<i>attic</i> = a species of subordinate story +added above the main cornice) of this arch were a fortunate addition, +furnishing a <i>raison-d’être</i> +<span class="pagenum">104</span> +<a name="page104" id="page104"> </a> +for the columns and broken entablatures on which they rest. Memorial +columns of colossal size were erected by several emperors, both in Rome +and abroad. Those of <b>Trajan</b> and of <b>Marcus Aurelius</b> are +still standing in Rome in perfect preservation. The first was 140 feet +high including the pedestal and the statue which surmounted it; its +capital marked the height of the ridge levelled by the emperor for the +forum on which the column stands. Its most striking peculiarity is the +spiral band of reliefs winding around the shaft from bottom to top and +representing the Dacian campaigns of Trajan. The other column is of +similar design and dimensions, but greatly inferior to the first in +execution. Both are really towers, with interior stair-cases leading to +the top.</p> + + +<p><b>TOMBS.</b> The Romans developed no special and national type of +tomb, and few of their sepulchral monuments were of large dimensions. +The most important in Rome were the pyramid of <b>Caius Cestius</b> +(late first century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), and the +circular tombs of <b>Cecilia Metella</b> (60 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), <b>Augustus</b> (14 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) and <b>Hadrian</b>, now the Castle of +S. Angelo (138 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>). The latter +was composed of a huge cone of marble supported on a cylindrical +structure 230 feet in diameter standing on a square podium 300 feet long +and wide. The cone probably once terminated in the gilt bronze pine-cone +now in the Giardino della Pigna of the Vatican. In the Mausoleum of +Augustus a mound of earth planted with trees +<span class="pagenum">105</span> +<a name="page105" id="page105"> </a> +crowned a similar circular base of marble on a podium 220 feet square, +now buried.</p> + +<p>The smaller tombs varied greatly in size and form. Some were vaulted +chambers, with graceful internal painted decorations of figures and vine +patterns combined with low-relief enrichments in stucco. Others were +designed in the form of altars or sarcophagi, as at Pompeii; while +others again resembled ædiculæ, little temples, shrines, or small towers +in several stories of arches and columns, as at St. Rémy (France).</p> + + +<p><b>PALACES AND DWELLINGS.</b> Into their dwellings the Romans carried +all their love of ostentation and personal luxury. They anticipated in +many details the comforts of modern civilization in their furniture, +their plumbing and heating, and their utensils. Their houses may be +divided into four classes: the palace, the villa, the <i>domus</i> or +ordinary house, and the <i>insula</i> or many-storied tenement built in +compact blocks. The first three alone concern us, and will be taken up +in the above order.</p> + +<p>The imperial <b>palaces</b> on the Palatine Hill comprised a wide +range in style and variety of buildings, beginning with the first simple +house of Augustus (26 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), burnt and +rebuilt 3 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> Tiberius, +Caligula, and Nero added to the Augustan group; Domitian rebuilt a +second time and enlarged the palace of Augustus, and Septimius Severus +remodelled the whole group, adding to it his own extraordinary +seven-storied palace, the Septizonium. The ruins of these successive +buildings have been carefully excavated, and reveal a remarkable +combination of dwelling-rooms, courts, temples, libraries, basilicas, +baths, gardens, peristyles, fountains, terraces, and covered passages. +These were adorned with a profusion of precious marbles, mosaics, +columns, and statues. Parts of the demolished palace of Nero were +incorporated in the substructions of the Baths of Titus. The beautiful +arabesques and plaster reliefs +<span class="pagenum">106</span> +<a name="page106" id="page106"> </a> +which adorned them were the inspiration of much of the fresco and stucco +decoration of the Italian Renaissance. At Spalato, in Dalmatia, are the +extensive ruins of the great <b>Palace of Diocletian</b>, which was laid +out on the plan of a Roman camp, with two intersecting avenues (Fig. +64). It comprised a temple, mausoleum, basilica, and other structures +besides those portions devoted to the purposes of a royal residence.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig64" id="fig64"> </a> +<img src="images/fig64.png" width="248" height="300" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 64.—PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN. SPALATO.</p> + +<p>The <b>villa</b> was in reality a country palace, arranged with +special reference to the prevailing winds, exposure to the sun and +shade, and the enjoyment of a wide prospect. Baths, temples, +<i>exedræ</i>, theatres, tennis-courts, sun-rooms, and shaded porticoes +were connected with the house proper, which was built around two or +three interior courts or peristyles. Statues, fountains, and colossal +vases of marble adorned the grounds, which were laid out in terraces and +treated with all the fantastic arts of the Roman landscape-gardener. The +most elaborate and extensive villa was that of <b>Hadrian</b>, at Tibur +(Tivoli); its ruins, covering hundreds of acres, form one of the most +interesting spots to visit in the neighborhood of Rome.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig65" id="fig65"> </a> +<img src="images/fig65.png" width="211" height="403" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 65.—HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII.</p> + +<p class="caption w240"> +<i>s, Shops; v, Vestibule; f, Family Rooms; k, Kitchen; l, Lavarium; +P, P, P, Peristyles.</i></p> + +<p>There are few remains in Rome of the <b>domus</b> or private house. +Two, however, have left remarkably interesting ruins—the <b>Atrium +Vestæ</b>, or House of the Vestal Virgins, +<span class="pagenum">107</span> +<a name="page107" id="page107"> </a> +east of the Forum, a well-planned and extensive house surrounding a +cloister or court; and the <b>House of Livia</b>, so-called, on the +Palatine Hill, the walls and decorations of which are excellently +preserved. The typical Roman house in a provincial town is best +illustrated by the ruins of Pompeii and Herculanum, which, buried by an +eruption of Vesuvius in 79 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, have +been partially excavated since 1721. The Pompeiian house (Fig. 65) +consisted of several courts or <i>atria</i>, some of which were +surrounded by colonnades and called <i>peristyles</i>. The front portion +was reserved for shops, or presented to the street a wall unbroken save +by the entrance; all the rooms and chambers opened upon the interior +courts, from which alone they borrowed their light. In the brilliant +climate of southern Italy windows were little needed, as sufficient +light was admitted by the door, closed only by portières for the most +part; especially as the family life was passed mainly in the shaded +courts, to which fountains, parterres of shrubbery, statues, and other +adornments lent their inviting charm. The general plan of these houses +seems to have been of Greek origin, as well as the system of decoration +used on the walls. These, when not wainscoted with +<span class="pagenum">108</span> +<a name="page108" id="page108"> </a> +marble, were covered with fantastic, but often artistic, painted +decorations, in which an imaginary architecture as of metal, +a fantastic and arbitrary perspective, illusory pictures, and +highly finished figures were the chief elements. These were executed in +brilliant colors with excellent effect. The houses were lightly built, +with wooden ceilings and roofs instead of vaulting, and usually with but +one story on account of the danger from earthquakes. That the +workmanship and decoration were in the capital often superior to what +was to be found in a provincial town like Pompeii, is evidenced by +beautiful wall-paintings and reliefs discovered in Rome in 1879 and now +preserved in the Museo delle Terme. More or less fragmentary remains of +Roman houses have been found in almost every corner of the Roman empire, +but nowhere exhibiting as completely as in Pompeii the typical Roman +arrangement.</p> + + +<p><b>WORKS OF UTILITY.</b> A word should be said about Roman +engineering works, which in many cases were designed with an artistic +sense of proportion and form which raises them into the domain of +genuine art. Such were especially the bridges, in which a remarkable +effect of monumental grandeur was often produced by the form and +proportions of the arches and piers, and an appropriate use of rough and +dressed masonry, as in the Pons Ælius (Ponte S. Angelo), the great +bridge at Alcantara (Spain), and the Pont du Gard, in southern France. +The aqueducts are impressive rather by their length, scale, and +simplicity, than by any special refinements of design, except where +their arches are treated with some architectural decoration to form +gates, as in the Porta Maggiore, at Rome.</p> + + +<p class="monuments"> +<b>MONUMENTS:</b> (Those which have no important extant remains are +given in italics.) <span class="smallcaps">Temples</span>: <i>Jupiter +Capitolinus</i>, 600 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>Ceres, +Liber, and Libera</i>, 494 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> (ruins +of later rebuilding in S. Maria in Cosmedin); <i>first T. of +Concord</i> (rebuilt in Augustan age), 254 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>first marble temple</i> in <i>portico of +Metellus</i>, by a Greek, Hermodorus, 143 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; temples of Fortune at +<span class="pagenum">109</span> +<a name="page109" id="page109"> </a> +Præneste and at Rome, and of “Vesta” at Rome, 83–78 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; of “Vesta” at Tivoli, and of Hercules at Cori, +72 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>first Pantheon</i>, 27 +<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> In Augustan Age temples of +<i>Apollo</i>, Concord rebuilt, Dioscuri, <i>Julius</i>, <i>Jupiter +Stator</i>, <i>Jupiter Tonans</i>, Mars Ultor, Minerva (<i>at Rome</i> +and Assisi), Maison Carrée at Nîmes, Saturn; at Puteoli, Pola, etc. +<i>T. of Peace</i>; <i>T. Jupiter Capitolinus</i>, rebuilt 70 +<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; temple at Brescia. Temple of +Vespasian, 96 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; also <i>of +Minerva</i> in Forum of Nerva; <i>of Trajan</i>, 117 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; second Pantheon; T. of Venus and Rome at +Rome, and of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, 135–138 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Faustina, 141 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; many in Syria; temples of Sun at <i>Rome</i>, +Baalbec, and Palmyra, cir. 273 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; +of Romulus, 305 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (porch +S. Cosmo and Damiano). <span class="smallcaps">Places of +Assembly</span>: <span class="smallcaps">Fora</span>—Roman, +Julian, 46 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; Augustan, 40–42 +<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>of Peace</i>, 75 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Nerva, 97 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Trajan (by Apollodorus of Damascus, 117 <ins +class="correction" title=") missing"><span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>)</ins> <span class="smallcaps">Basilicas</span>: <i>Sempronian</i>, <i>Æmilian</i>, 1st +century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; Julian, 51 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>Septa Julia</i>, 26 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; the Curia, later rebuilt by Diocletian, 300 +<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (now Church of S. Adriano); +<i>at Fano</i>, 20 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (?); Forum and +Basilica at Pompeii, 60 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; of +Trajan; of Constantine, 310–324 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> <span class="smallcaps">Theatres</span> (th.) +and <span class="smallcaps">Amphitheatres</span> (amp.): th. +<i>Pompey</i>, 55 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; of +<i>Balbus</i> and of Marcellus, 13 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; th. and amp. at Pompeii and Herculanum; +Colosseum at Rome, 78–82 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; +th. at Orange and in Asia Minor; amp. at Albano, Constantine, Nîmes, +Petra, Pola, Reggio, Trevi, Tusculum, Verona, etc.; amp. Castrense at +Rome, 96 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> Circuses and stadia at +Rome. <span class="smallcaps">Thermæ</span>: of Agrippa, 27 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>of Nero</i>; of Titus, 78 <span +class="smallroman">A.D.</span> <i>Domitian</i>, 90 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Caracalla, 211 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Diocletian, 305 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; <i>Constantine</i>, 320 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; “Minerva Medica,” 3d or 4th century <span +class="smallroman">A.D.</span> <span class="smallcaps">Arches</span>: <i>of Stertinius</i>, 196 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>Scipio</i>, 190 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>Augustus</i>, 30 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; Titus, 71–82 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; <i>Trajan</i>, 117 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Severus, 203 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Constantine, 320 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; of Drusus, Dolabella, Silversmiths, 204 <span +class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Janus Quadrifrons, 320 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (?); all at Rome. Others at Benevento, Ancona, +Rimini in Italy; also at Athens, and at Reims and St. Chamas in France. +Columns of Trajan, <i>Antoninus</i>, Marcus Aurelius at Rome, others at +Constantinople, Alexandria, etc. <span class="smallcaps">Tombs</span>: +along Via Appia and Via Latina, at Rome; Via Sacra at Pompeii; +tower-tombs at St. Rémy in France; rock-cut at Petra; at Rome, of Caius +Cestius and Cecilia Metella, 1st century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; of Augustus, 14 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Hadrian, 138 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> <span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span> and +<span class="smallcaps">Private Houses</span>: On Palatine, of +Augustus, Tiberius, Nero, Domitian, Septimius Severus, +<i>Elagabalus</i>; Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli; palaces of Diocletian at +Spalato and <i>of Constantine</i> at Constantinople. House of Livia on +Palatine (Augustan period); of Vestals, rebuilt by Hadrian, cir. 120 +<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> Houses at Pompeii and Herculanum, +cir. 60–79 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Villas of +Gordianus (“Tor’ de’ Schiavi,” 240 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>), and <i>of Sallust</i> at Rome and <i>of +Pliny</i> at Laurentium.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="note14" id="note14" href="#tag14">14.</a> +Lanciani: <i>Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries</i>, +p. 89.</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">110</span> +<a name="page110" id="page110"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapX" id="chapX">CHAPTER X.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Bunsen, <i>Die +Basiliken christlichen Roms</i>. Butler, <i>Architecture and other Arts +in Northern Central Syria</i>. Corroyer, <i>L’architecture romane</i>. +Cummings, <i>A History of Architecture in Italy</i>. Essenwein +(Handbuch d. Architektur), <i>Ausgänge der klassischen Baukunst</i>. +Gutensohn u. Knapp, <i>Denkmäler <!-- missing umlaut --> der +christlichen Religion</i>. Hübsch, <i>Monuments de l’architecture +chrétienne</i>. Lanciani, <i>Pagan and Christian Rome</i>. Mothes, +<i>Die Basilikenform bei den Christen</i>, etc. Okely, <i>Development of +Christian Architecture in Italy</i>. Von Quast, <i>Die altchristlichen +Bauwerke zu Ravenna</i>. De Rossi, <i>Roma Sotterranea</i>. De Vogüé, +<i>Syrie Centrale</i>; <i>Églises de la Terre Sainte</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>INTRODUCTORY.</b> The official recognition of Christianity in the +year 328 by Constantine simply legalized an institution which had been +for three centuries gathering momentum for its final conquest of the +antique world. The new religion rapidly enlisted in its service for a +common purpose and under a common impulse races as wide apart in blood +and culture as those which had built up the art of imperial Rome. It was +Christianity which reduced to civilization in the West the Germanic +hordes that had overthrown Rome, bringing their fresh and hitherto +untamed vigor to the task of recreating architecture out of the decaying +fragments of classic art. So in the East its life-giving influence awoke +the slumbering Greek art-instinct to new triumphs in the arts of +building, less refined and perfect indeed, but not less sublime than +those of the Periclean age. Long before the Constantinian edict, the +Christians in the Eastern provinces had enjoyed substantial freedom of +worship. Meeting often in the private basilicas of wealthy converts, and +<span class="pagenum">111</span> +<a name="page111" id="page111"> </a> +finding these, and still more the great public basilicas, suited to the +requirements of their worship, they early began to build in imitation of +these edifices. There are many remains of these early churches in +northern Africa and central Syria.</p> + + +<p><b>EARLY CHRISTIAN ART IN ROME.</b> This was at first wholly +sepulchral, developing in the catacombs the symbols of the new faith. +Once liberated, however, Christianity appropriated bodily for its public +rites the basilica-type and the general substance of Roman architecture. +Shafts and capitals, architraves and rich linings of veined marble, even +the pagan Bacchic symbolism of the vine, it adapted to new uses in its +own service. Constantine led the way in architecture, endowing Bethlehem +and Jerusalem with splendid churches, and his new capital on the +Bosphorus with the first of the three historic basilicas dedicated to +the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia). One of the greatest of innovators, he +seems to have had a special predilection for circular buildings, and the +tombs and baptisteries which he erected in this form, especially that +for his sister Constantia in Rome (known as Santa Costanza, Fig. 66), +furnished the prototype for numberless Italian baptisteries in later +ages.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig66" id="fig66"> </a> +<img src="images/fig66.png" width="142" height="176" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 66.—STA. COSTANZA, ROME.</p> + +<p>The Christian basilica (see Figs. 67, 68) generally comprised a broad +and lofty nave, separated by rows of columns from the single or double +side-aisles. The aisles had usually about half the width and height of +the nave, and like it were covered with wooden roofs and ceilings. Above +the columns which flanked the nave rose the lofty clearstory wall, +pierced with windows above the side-aisle roofs and supporting the +immense trusses of the roof of the nave. The timbering of +<span class="pagenum">112</span> +<a name="page112" id="page112"> </a> +the latter was sometimes bare, sometimes concealed by a richly panelled +ceiling, carved, gilded, and painted. At the further end of the nave was +the sanctuary or apse, with the seats for the clergy on a raised +platform, the <i>bema</i>, in front of which was the altar. Transepts +sometimes expanded to right and left before the altar, under which was +the <i>confessio</i> or shrine of the titular saint or martyr.</p> + +<p>An <i>atrium</i> or forecourt surrounded by a covered arcade preceded +the basilica proper, the arcade at the front of the church forming a +porch or <i>narthex</i>, which, however, in some cases existed without +the atrium. The exterior was extremely plain; the interior, on the +contrary, was resplendent with incrustations of veined marble and with +sumptuous decorations in glass mosaic (called <i>opus Grecanicum</i>) on +a blue or golden ground. Especially rich were the half-dome of the apse +and the wall-space surrounding its arch and called the <i>triumphal +arch</i>; next in decorative importance came the broad band of wall +beneath the clearstory windows. Upon these surfaces the mosaic-workers +wrought with minute cubes of colored glass pictures and symbols almost +imperishable, in which the glow of color and a certain decorative +grandeur of effect in the composition went far to atone for the uncouth +drawing. With growing wealth and an increasingly elaborate ritual, the +furniture and equipments of the church assumed greater architectural +importance. A large rectangular space was retained for the choir in +front of the bema, and enclosed by a breast-high parapet of marble, +richly inlaid. On either side were the pulpits or <i>ambones</i> for the +Gospel and Epistle. A lofty canopy was built over the altar, the +<i>baldaquin</i>, supported on four marble columns. A few basilicas +were built with side-aisles, in two stories, as in S. Lorenzo and +Sta. Agnese. Adjoining the basilica in the earlier examples were the +baptistery and the tomb of the saint, circular or polygonal buildings +usually; but in later times these were replaced +<span class="pagenum">113</span> +<a name="page113" id="page113"> </a> +by the font or baptismal chapel in the church and the <i>confessio</i> +under the altar.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig67" id="fig67"> </a> +<img src="images/fig67.png" width="234" height="116" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 67.—PLAN OF THE BASILICA OF ST. PAUL.</p> + +<p>Of the two Constantinian basilicas in Rome, the one dedicated to +<b>St. Peter</b> was demolished in the fifteenth century; that of <b>St. +John Lateran</b> has been so disfigured by modern alterations as to be +unrecognizable. The former of the two adjoined the site of the martyrdom +of St. Peter in the circus of Caligula and Nero; it was five-aisled, 380 +feet in length by 212 feet in width. The nave was 80 feet wide and 100 +feet high, and the disproportionately high clearstory wall rested on +horizontal architraves carried by columns. The impressive dimensions and +simple plan of this structure gave it a majesty worthy of its rank as +the first church of Christendom. <b>St. Paul beyond the Walls</b> +(S. Paolo fuori le mura), built in 386 by Theodosius, resembled St. +Peter’s closely in plan (Figs. 67, 68). Destroyed by fire in 1821, it +has been rebuilt with almost its pristine splendor, and is, next to the +modern St. Peter’s and the Pantheon, the most impressive place of +worship in Rome. <b>Santa Maria Maggiore</b>,<a class="tag" name="tag15" id="tag15" href="#note15">15</a> though smaller in size, is +more interesting because it so largely retains its original aspect, its +Renaissance ceiling happily harmonizing with its simple antique lines. +Ionic columns support architraves to carry the clearstory, as in St. +Peter’s. In most other examples, St. Paul’s included, arches turned from +column to column perform this function. The first known case of such use +of classic columns as arch-bearers was in the palace of Diocletian at +Spalato; it also appears in Syrian buildings of the third and fourth +centuries <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span></p> + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig68" id="fig68"> </a> +<img src="images/fig68.jpg" width="216" height="339" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 68.—ST. PAUL BEYOND THE WALLS. INTERIOR.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">114</span> +<a name="page114" id="page114"> </a> +<p>The basilica remained the model for ecclesiastical architecture in +Rome, without noticeable change either of plan or detail, until the time +of the Renaissance. All the earlier examples employed columns and +capitals taken from ancient ruins, often incongruous and ill-matched in +size and order. <b>San Clemente</b> (1084) has retained almost intact +its early aspect, its choir-enclosure, baldaquin, and ambones having +been well preserved or carefully restored. Other important basilicas are +mentioned in the list of monuments on pages 118, 119.</p> + + +<p><b>RAVENNA.</b> The fifth and sixth centuries endowed Ravenna with a +number of notable buildings which, with the exception of the cathedral, +demolished in the last century, have been preserved to our day. Subdued +by the Byzantine emperor Justinian in 537, Ravenna became the +meeting-ground for Early Christian and Byzantine traditions and the +basilican and circular plans are both represented. The two churches +dedicated to St. Apollinaris, <b>S. Apollinare Nuovo</b> (520) in +the city, and <b>S. Apollinare in Classe</b> (538) three miles +distant from the city, in what was formerly the port, are especially +interesting for their fine mosaics, and for the impost-blocks interposed +above the capitals of their columns to receive the springing of the +pier-arches. These blocks appear to be somewhat crude modifications +<span class="pagenum">115</span> +<a name="page115" id="page115"> </a> +of the fragmentary architraves or entablatures employed in classic Roman +architecture to receive the springing of vaults sustained by columns, +and became common in Byzantine structures (<a href="#fig73">Fig. 73</a>). The use of external arcading to give some +slight adornment to the walls of the second of the above-named churches, +and the round bell-towers of brick which adjoined both of them, were +first steps toward the development of the “wall-veil” or arcaded +decoration, and of the campaniles, which in later centuries became so +characteristic of north Italian churches (see Chapter XIII.). In Rome +the campaniles which accompany many of the mediæval basilicas are square +and pierced with many windows.</p> + +<p>The basilican form of church became general in Italy, a large +proportion of whose churches continued to be built with wooden roofs and +with but slight deviations from the original type, long after the +appearance of the Gothic style. The chief departures from early +precedent were in the exterior, which was embellished with marble +incrustations as in S. Miniato (Florence); or with successive +stories of wall-arcades, as in many churches in Pisa and Lucca (see <a +href="#fig90">Fig. 90</a>); until finally the introduction of +clustered piers, pointed arches, and vaulting, gradually transformed the +basilican into the Italian Romanesque and Gothic styles.</p> + + +<p><b>SYRIA AND THE EAST.</b> In Syria, particularly the central +portion, the Christian architecture of the 3d to 8th centuries produced +a number of very interesting monuments. The churches built by +Constantine in Syria—the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem +(nominally built by his mother), of the Ascension at Jerusalem, the +magnificent octagonal church on the site of the Temple, and finally the +somewhat similar church at Antioch—were the most notable Christian +monuments in Syria. The first three on the list, still extant in part at +least, have been so altered by later +<span class="pagenum">116</span> +<a name="page116" id="page116"> </a> +additions and restorations that their original forms are only +approximately known from early descriptions. They were all of large +size, and the octagonal church on the Temple platform was of exceptional +magnificence.<a class="tag" name="tag16" id="tag16" href="#note16">16</a> The columns and a part of the marble incrustations of +the early design are still visible in the “Mosque of Omar,” but most of +the old work is concealed by the decoration of tiles applied by the +Moslems, and the whole interior aspect altered by the wood-and-plaster +dome with which they replaced the simpler roof of the original.</p> + +<p class="illustration floatleft w240"> +<a name="fig69" id="fig69"> </a> +<img src="images/fig69.png" width="211" height="215" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 69.—CHURCH AT KALB LOUZEH.</p> + +<p>Christian architecture in Syria soon, however, diverged from Roman +traditions. The abundance of hard stone, the total lack of clay or +brick, the remoteness from Rome, led to a peculiar independence and +originality in the forms and details of the ecclesiastical as well as of +the domestic architecture of central Syria. These innovations upon Roman +models resulted in the development of distinct types which, but for the +arrest of progress by the Mohammedan conquest in the seventh century, +would doubtless have inaugurated a new and independent style of +architecture. Piers of masonry came +<span class="pagenum">117</span> +<a name="page117" id="page117"> </a> +to replace the classic column, as at Tafkha (third or fourth century), +Rouheiha and Kalb Louzeh (fifth century? Fig. 69); the ceilings in the +smaller churches were often formed with stone slabs; the apse was at +first confined within the main rectangle of the plan, and was sometimes +square. The exterior assumed a striking and picturesque variety of forms +by means of turrets, porches, and gables. Singularly enough, vaulting +hardly appears at all, though the arch is used with fine effect. +Conventional and monastic groups of buildings appear early in Syria, and +that of <b>St. Simeon Stylites</b> at Kelat Seman is an impressive and +interesting monument. Four three-aisled wings form the arms of a cross, +meeting in a central octagonal open court, in the midst of which stood +the column of the saint. The eastern arm of the cross forms a complete +basilica of itself, and the whole cross measures 330 × 300 feet. +Chapels, cloisters, and cells adjoin the main edifice.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig70" id="fig70"> </a> +<img src="images/fig70.png" width="179" height="229" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 70.—CATHEDRAL AT BOZRAH.</p> + +<p>Circular and polygonal plans appear in a number of Syrian examples of +the early sixth century. Their most striking feature is the inscribing +of the circle or polygon in a square which forms the exterior outline, +and the use of four niches to fill out the corners. This occurs at Kelat +Seman in a small double church, perhaps the tomb and chapel of a martyr; +in the cathedral at <b>Bozrah</b> (Fig. 70), and in the small domical +church of <b>St. George</b> at <b>Ezra</b>. These were probably the +prototypes of many Byzantine churches like St. Sergius at +Constantinople, and San Vitale at Ravenna (<a href="#fig74">Fig. 74</a>), though the exact dates of the Syrian +<span class="pagenum">118</span> +<a name="page118" id="page118"> </a> +churches are not known. The one at Ezra is the only one of the three +which has a dome, the others having been roofed with wood.</p> + +<p>The interesting domestic architecture of this period is preserved in +whole towns and villages in the Hauran, which, deserted at the Arab +conquest, have never been reoccupied and remain almost intact but for +the decay of their wooden roofs. They are marked by dignity and +simplicity of design, and by the same picturesque massing of gables and +roofs and porches which has already been remarked of the churches. The +arches are broad, the columns rather heavy, the mouldings few and +simple, and the scanty carving vigorous and effective, often strongly +Byzantine in type.</p> + +<p>Elsewhere in the Eastern world are many early churches of which even +the enumeration would exceed the limits of this work. Salonica counts a +number of basilicas and several domical churches. The church of <b>St. +George</b>, now a mosque, is of early date and thoroughly Roman in plan +and section, of the same class with the Pantheon and the tomb of Helena, +in both of which a massive circular wall is lightened by eight niches. +At Angora (Ancyra), Hierapolis, Pergamus, and other points in Asia +Minor; in Egypt, Nubia, and Algiers, are many examples of both circular +and basilican edifices of the early centuries of Christianity. In +Constantinople there remains but a single representative of the +basilican type, the church of <b>St. John Studius</b>, now the Emir +Akhor mosque.</p> + +<p class="monuments"> +<b>MONUMENTS</b>: <span class="smallcaps">Rome</span>: 4th century: +St. Peter’s, Sta. Costanza, 330?; Sta. Pudentiana, 335 (rebuilt 1598); +tomb of St. Helena; Baptistery of Constantine; St. Paul’s beyond the +Walls, 386; St. John Lateran (wholly remodelled in modern times). 5th +century: Baptistery of St. John Lateran; Sta. Sabina, 425; Sta. Maria +Maggiore, 432; S. Pietro in Vincoli, 442 (greatly altered in modern +times). 6th century: S. Lorenzo, 580 (the older portion in two +stories); SS. Cosmo e Damiano. 7th century: Sta. Agnese, 625; +S. Giorgio in Velabro, 682. 8th century: Sta. Maria in +<span class="pagenum">119</span> +<a name="page119" id="page119"> </a> +Cosmedin; S. Crisogono. 9th century: S. Nereo ed Achilleo; +Sta. Prassede; Sta. Maria in Dominica. 12th and 13th centuries: +S. Clemente, 1118; Sta. Maria in Trastevere; S. Lorenzo +(nave); Sta. Maria in Ara Coeli. <span class="smallcaps">Ravenna</span>: Baptistery of S. John, 400 (?); +S. Francesco; S. Giovanni Evangelista, 425; Sta. Agata, 430; +S. Giovanni Battista, 439; tomb of Galla Placidia, 450; +S. Apollinare Nuovo, 500–520; S. Apollinare in Classe, +538; St. Victor; Sta. Maria in Cosmedin (the Arian Baptistery); tomb of +Theodoric (Sta. Maria della Rotonda, a decagonal two-storied +mausoleum, with a low dome cut from a single stone 36 feet in diameter), +530–540. <span class="smallcaps">Italy in General</span>: +basilica at Parenzo, 6th century; cathedral and Sta. Fosca at Torcello, +640–700; at Naples Sta. Restituta, 7th century; others, mostly of +10th-13th centuries, at Murano near Venice, at Florence +(S. Miniato), Spoleto, Toscanella, etc.; baptisteries at Asti, +Florence, Nocera dei Pagani, and other places. <span class="smallcaps">In Syria and The East</span>: basilicas of the Nativity at +Bethlehem, of the Sepulchre and of the Ascension at Jerusalem; also +polygonal church on Temple platform; these all of 4th century. Basilicas +at Bakouzah, Hass, Kelat Seman, Kalb Louzeh, Rouheiha, Tourmanin, etc.; +circular churches, tombs, and baptisteries at Bozrah, Ezra, Hass, Kelat +Seman, Rouheiha, etc.; all these 4th-8th centuries. Churches at +Constantinople (Holy Wisdom, St. John Studius, etc.), Hierapolis, +Pergamus, and Thessalonica (St. Demetrius, “Eski Djuma”); in Egypt and +Nubia (Djemla, Announa, Ibreem, Siout, etc.); at Orléansville in +Algeria. (For churches, etc., of 8th-10th centuries in the West, see +Chapter XIII.)</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="note15" id="note15" href="#tag15">15.</a> +Hereafter the abbreviation S. M. will be generally used instead of the +name Santa Maria.</p> + +<p><a name="note16" id="note16" href="#tag16">16.</a> +Fergusson (<i>History of Architecture</i>, vol. ii., pp. 408, 432) +contends that this was the real Constantinian church of the Holy +Sepulchre, and that the one called to-day by that name was erected by +the Crusaders in the twelfth century. The more general view is that the +latter was originally built by Constantine as the Church of the +Sepulchre, though subsequently much altered, and that the octagonal +edifice was also his work, but erected under some other name. Whether +this church was later incorporated in the “Mosque of Omar,” or merely +furnished some of the materials for its construction, is not quite +clear.</p> + +</div> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">120</span> +<a name="page120" id="page120"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXI" id="chapXI">CHAPTER XI.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, +Essenwein, Hübsch, Von Quast. Also, Bayet, <i>L’Art Byzantin</i>. +Choisy, <i>L’Art de bâtir chez les Byzantins</i>. Lethaby and Swainson, +<i>Sancta Sophia</i>. Ongania, <i>La Basilica di San Marco</i>. Pulgher, +<i>Anciennes Églises Byzantines de Constantinople</i>. Salzenberg, +<i>Altchristliche Baudenkmäle <!--missing umlaut --> von +Constantinopel</i>. Texier and Pullan, <i>Byzantine +Architecture</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>ORIGIN AND CHARACTER.</b> The decline and fall of Rome arrested +the development of the basilican style in the West, as did the Arab +conquest later in Syria. It was otherwise in the new Eastern capital +founded by Constantine in the ancient Byzantium, which was rising in +power and wealth while Rome lay in ruins. Situated at the strategic +point of the natural highway of commerce between East and West, +salubrious and enchantingly beautiful in its surroundings, the new +capital grew rapidly from provincial insignificance to metropolitan +importance. Its founder had embellished it with an extraordinary wealth +of buildings, in which, owing to the scarcity of trained architects, +quantity and cost doubtless outran quality. But at least the tameness of +blindly followed precedent was avoided, and this departure from +traditional tenets contributed undoubtedly to the originality of +Byzantine architecture. A large part of the artisans employed in +building were then, as now, from Asia Minor and the Ægean Islands, Greek +in race if not in name. An Oriental taste for brilliant and harmonious +color and for minute decoration spread over broad +<span class="pagenum">121</span> +<a name="page121" id="page121"> </a> +surfaces must have been stimulated by trade with the Far East and by +constant contact with Oriental peoples, costumes, and arts. An Asiatic +origin may also be assigned to the methods of vaulting employed, far +more varied than the Roman, not only in form but also in materials and +processes. From Roman architecture, however, the Byzantines borrowed the +fundamental notion of their structural art; that, namely, of +distributing the weights and strains of their vaulted structures upon +isolated and massive points of support, strengthened by deep buttresses, +internal or external, as the case might be. Roman, likewise, was the use +of polished monolithic columns, and the incrustation of the piers and +walls with panels of variegated marble, as well as the decoration of +plastered surfaces by fresco and mosaic, and the use of <i>opus +sectile</i> and <i>opus Alexandrinum</i> for the production of sumptuous +marble pavements. In the first of these processes the color-figures of +the pattern are formed each of a single piece of marble cut to the shape +required; in the second the pattern is compounded of minute squares, +triangles, and curved pieces of uniform size. Under these combined +influences the artists of Constantinople wrought out new problems in +construction and decoration, giving to all that they touched a new and +striking character.</p> + +<p>There is no absolute line of demarcation, chronological, +geographical, or structural, between Early Christian and Byzantine +architecture. But the former was especially characterized by the +basilica with three or five aisles, and the use of wooden roofs even in +its circular edifices; the vault and dome, though not unknown, being +exceedingly rare. Byzantine architecture, on the other hand, rarely +produced the simple three-aisled or five-aisled basilica, and nearly all +its monuments were vaulted. The dome was especially frequent, and +Byzantine architecture achieved its highest triumphs in the use of the +<i>pendentive</i>, as the triangular spherical surfaces are called, by +the aid of which a +<span class="pagenum">122</span> +<a name="page122" id="page122"> </a> +dome can be supported on the summits of four arches spanning the four +sides of a square, as explained later. There is as little uniformity in +the plans of Byzantine buildings as in the forms of the vaulting. +A few types of church-plan, however, predominated locally in one or +another centre; but the controlling feature of the style was the dome +and the constructive system with which it was associated. The dome, it +is true, had long been used by the Romans, but always on a circular +plan, as in the Pantheon. It is also a fact that pendentives have been +found in Syria and Asia Minor older than the oldest Byzantine examples. +But the special feature characterizing the Byzantine dome on pendentives +was its almost exclusive association with plans having piers and columns +or aisles, with the dome as the central and dominant feature of the +complex design (see plans, Figs. <a href="#fig74">74</a>, <a href="#fig75">75</a>, <a href="#fig78">78</a>). Another strictly Byzantine +practice was the piercing of the lower portion of the dome with windows +forming a circle or crown, and the final development of this feature +into a high drum.</p> + + +<p><b>CONSTRUCTION.</b> Still another divergence from Roman methods was +in the substitution of brick and stone masonry for concrete. Brick was +used for the mass as well as the facing of walls and piers, and for the +vaulting in many buildings mainly built of stone. Stone was used either +alone or in combination with brick, the latter appearing in bands of +four or five courses at intervals of three or four feet. In later work a +regular alternation of the two materials, course for course, was not +uncommon. In piers intended to support unusually heavy loads the stone +was very carefully cut and fitted, and sometimes tied and clamped with +iron.</p> + +<p>Vaults were built sometimes of brick, sometimes of cut stone; in a +few cases even of earthenware jars fitting into each other, and laid up +in a continuous contracting spiral from the base to the crown of a dome, +as in San Vitale at +<span class="pagenum">123</span> +<a name="page123" id="page123"> </a> +Ravenna. Ingenious processes for building vaults without centrings were +made use of—processes inherited from the drain-builders of ancient +Assyria, and still in vogue in Armenia, Persia, and Asia Minor. The +groined vault was common, but always approximated the form of a dome, by +a longitudinal convexity upward in the intersecting vaults. The aisles +of Hagia Sophia<a class="tag" name="tag17" id="tag17" href="#note17">17</a> display a remarkable variety of forms in the +vaulting.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig71" id="fig71"> </a> +<img src="images/fig71.png" width="220" height="246" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 71.—DIAGRAM OF PENDENTIVES.</p> + +<p><b>DOMES.</b> The dome, as we have seen, early became the most +characteristic feature of Byzantine architecture; and especially the +dome on pendentives. If a hemisphere be cut by five planes, four +perpendicular to its base and bounding a square inscribed therein, and +the fifth plane parallel to the base and tangent to the semicircular +intersections made by the first four, there will remain of the original +surface only four triangular spaces bounded by arcs of circles. These +are called <i>pendentives</i> (Fig. 71 <i>a</i>). When these are +built up of masonry, each course forms a species of arch, by virtue of +its convexity. At the crown of the four arches on which they rest, these +courses meet and form a complete circle, perfectly stable and capable of +sustaining any superstructure that does not by excessive weight disrupt +the whole fabric by overthrowing +<span class="pagenum">124</span> +<a name="page124" id="page124"> </a> +the four arches which support it. Upon these pendentives, then, +a new dome may be started of any desired curvature, or even a +cylindrical drum to support a still loftier dome, as in the later +churches (Fig. 71 <i>b</i>). This method of covering a square is +simpler than the groined vault, having no sharp edges or intersections; +it is at least as effective architecturally, by reason of its greater +height in the centre; and is equally applicable to successive bays of an +oblong, cruciform, and even columnar building. In the great cisterns at +Constantinople vast areas are covered by rows of small domes supported +on ranges of columns.</p> + +<p>The earlier domes were commonly pierced with windows at the base, +this apparent weakening of the vault being compensated for by strongly +buttressing the piers between the windows, as in Hagia Sophia. Here +forty windows form a crown of light at the spring of the dome, producing +an effect almost as striking as that of the simple <i>oculus</i> of the +Pantheon, and celebrated by ancient writers in the most extravagant +terms. In later and smaller churches a high drum was introduced beneath +the dome, in order to secure, by means of longer windows, more light +than could be obtained by merely piercing the diminutive domes.</p> + +<p>Buttressing was well understood by the Byzantines, whose plans were +skilfully devised to provide internal abutments, which were often +continued above the roofs of the side-aisles to prop the main vaults, +precisely as was done by the Romans in their thermæ and similar halls. +But the Byzantines, while adhering less strictly than the Romans to +traditional forms and processes, and displaying much more ready +contrivance and special adaptation of means to ends, never worked out +this pregnant structural principle to its logical conclusion as did the +Gothic architects of Western Europe a few centuries later.</p> + + +<p><b>DECORATION</b>. The exteriors of Byzantine buildings (except in +some of the small churches of late date) were +<span class="pagenum">125</span> +<a name="page125" id="page125"> </a> +generally bare and lacking in beauty. The interiors, on the contrary, +were richly decorated, color playing a much larger part than carving in +the designs. Painting was resorted to only in the smaller buildings, the +more durable and splendid medium of mosaic being usually preferred. This +was, as a rule, confined to the vaults and to those portions of the +wall-surfaces embraced by the vaults above their springing. The colors +were brilliant, the background being usually of gold, though sometimes +of blue or a delicate green. Biblical scenes, symbolic and allegorical +figures and groups of saints adorned the larger areas, particularly the +half-dome of the apse, as in the basilicas. The smaller vaults, the +soffits of arches, borders of pictures, and other minor surfaces, +received a more conventional decoration of crosses, monograms, and set +patterns.</p> + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig72" id="fig72"> </a> +<img src="images/fig72.jpg" width="249" height="287" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 72.—SPANDRIL. HAGIA SOPHIA.</p> + +<p>The walls throughout were sheathed with slabs of rare marble in +panels so disposed that the veining should produce symmetrical figures. +The panels were framed in billet-mouldings, derived perhaps from classic +dentils; the billets or projections on one side the moulding coming +opposite the spaces on the other. This seems to have been a purely +Byzantine feature.</p> + + +<p><b>CARVED DETAILS.</b> Internally the different stories were marked +by horizontal bands and cornices of white or inlaid marble richly +carved. The arch-soffits, the archivolts or +<span class="pagenum">126</span> +<a name="page126" id="page126"> </a> +bands around the arches, and the spandrils between them were covered +with minute and intricate incised carving. The motives used, though +based on the acanthus and anthemion, were given a wholly new aspect. The +relief was low and flat, the leaves sharp and crowded, and the effect +rich and lacelike, rather than vigorous. It was, however, well adapted +to the covering of large areas where general effect was more important +than detail. Even the capitals were treated in the same spirit. The +impost-block was almost universal, except where its use was rendered +unnecessary by giving to the capital itself the massive pyramidal form +required to receive properly the spring of the arch or vault. In such +cases (more frequent in Constantinople than elsewhere) the surface of +the capital was simply covered with incised carving of foliage, +basketwork, monograms, etc.; rudimentary volutes in a few cases +recalling classic traditions (Figs. 72, 73). The mouldings were weak and +poorly executed, and the vigorous profiles of classic cornices were only +remotely suggested by the characterless aggregations of mouldings which +took their place.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig73" id="fig73"> </a> +<img src="images/fig73.jpg" width="248" height="312" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 73.—CAPITAL WITH IMPOST BLOCK, S. VITALE.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig74" id="fig74"> </a> +<img src="images/fig74.png" width="159" height="204" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 74.—ST. SERGIUS, CONSTANTINOPLE.</p> + +<p><b>PLANS.</b> The remains of Byzantine architecture are almost +exclusively of churches and baptisteries, but the plans of these are +exceedingly varied. The first radical departure +<span class="pagenum">127</span> +<a name="page127" id="page127"> </a> +from the basilica-type seems to have been the adoption of circular or +polygonal plans, such as had usually served only for tombs and +baptisteries. The Baptistery of St. John at Ravenna (early fifth +century) is classed by many authorities as a Byzantine monument. In the +early years of the sixth century the adoption of this model had become +quite general, and with it the development of domical design began to +advance. The church of <b>St. Sergius</b> at Constantinople (Fig. 74), +originally joined to a short basilica dedicated to St. Bacchus +(afterward destroyed by the Turks), as in the double church at Kelat +Seman, was built about 520; that of <b>San Vitale</b> at Ravenna was +begun a few years later; both are domical churches on an octagonal plan, +with an exterior aisle. Semicircular niches—four in St. Sergius +and eight in San Vitale—projecting into the aisle, enlarge +somewhat the area of the central space and give variety to the internal +effect. The origin of this characteristic feature may be traced to the +eight niches of the Pantheon, through such intermediate examples as the +temple of Minerva Medica at Rome. The true pendentive does not appear in +these two churches. +<span class="illustration floatleft"> +<a name="fig75" id="fig75"> </a> +<img src="images/fig75.png" width="174" height="254" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 75.—PLAN OF HAGIA SOPHIA.</span> +Timidly employed up to that time in small structures, it received a +remarkable development in the magnificent church of <b>Hagia Sophia</b>, +built by Anthemius of Tralles and Isodorus of Miletus, under Justinian, +532–538 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> In the plan of this +marvellous edifice (Fig. 75) the dome rests upon four mighty arches +bounding a square, into two of which open the half-domes of semicircular +apses. These apses are penetrated and extended each by two smaller +niches and a central arch, and the whole vast nave, measuring over 200 × +100 feet, is flanked by +<span class="pagenum">128</span> +<a name="page128" id="page128"> </a> +enormously wide aisles connecting at the front with a majestic narthex. +Huge transverse buttresses, as in the Basilica of Constantine (with +whose structural design this building shows striking affinities), divide +the aisles each into three sections. The plan suggests that of St. +Sergius cut in two, with a lofty dome on pendentives over a square plan +inserted between the halves. Thus was secured a noble and unobstructed +hall of unrivalled proportions and great beauty, covered by a +combination of half-domes increasing in span and height as they lead up +successively to the stupendous central vault, which rises 180 feet into +the air and fitly crowns the whole. The imposing effect of this +low-curved but loftily-poised dome, resting as it does upon a crown of +windows, and so disposed that its summit is visible from every point of +the nave (as may be easily seen from an examination of the section, Fig. +76), is not surpassed in any interior ever erected.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig76" id="fig76"> </a> +<img src="images/fig76.png" width="377" height="205" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 76.—SECTION OF HAGIA SOPHIA.</p> + +<a name="page131" id="page131"> </a> +<p>The two lateral arches under the dome are filled by clearstory walls +pierced by twelve windows, and resting on arcades in two stories carried +by magnificent columns taken from ancient ruins. These separate the nave +from the side-aisles, which are in two stories forming galleries, and +are vaulted with a remarkable variety of groined vaults. All the masses +are disposed with studied reference to the resistance required by the +many and complex thrusts exerted by the dome and other vaults. That the +earthquakes of one thousand three hundred and fifty years have not +destroyed the church is the best evidence of the sufficiency of these +precautions.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">[129]</span> +<a name="page129" id="page129"> </a> +<a name="page130" id="page130"> </a> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig77" id="fig77"> </a> +<img src="images/fig77.jpg" width="485" height="309" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 77.—INTERIOR OF HAGIA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">131</span> +<p>Not less remarkable than the noble planning and construction of this +church was the treatment of scale and decoration in its interior design. +It was as conspicuously the masterpiece of Byzantine architecture as the +Parthenon was of the classic Greek. With little external beauty, it is +internally one of the most perfectly composed and beautifully decorated +halls of worship ever erected. Instead of the simplicity of the Pantheon +it displays the complexity of an organism of admirably related parts. +The division of the interior height into two stories below the spring of +the four arches, reduces the component parts of the design to moderate +dimensions, so that the scale of the whole is more easily grasped and +its vast size emphasized by the contrast. The walls are incrusted with +precious marbles up to the spring of the vaulting; the capitals, +spandrils, and soffits are richly and minutely carved with incised +ornament, and all the vaults covered with splendid mosaics. Dimmed by +the lapse of centuries and disfigured by the vandalism of the Moslems, +this noble interior, by the harmony of its coloring and its impressive +grandeur, is one of the masterpieces of all time (Fig. 77).</p> + + +<p><b>LATER CHURCHES.</b> After the sixth century no monuments were +built at all rivalling in scale the creations of the +<span class="pagenum">132</span> +<a name="page132" id="page132"> </a> +former period. The later churches were, with few exceptions, relatively +small and trivial. Neither the plan nor the general aspect of Hagia +Sophia seems to have been imitated in these later works. The crown of +dome-windows was replaced by a cylindrical drum under the dome, which +was usually of insignificant size. The exterior was treated more +decoratively than before, by means of bands and incrustations of colored +marble, or alternations of stone and brick; and internally mosaic +continued to be executed with great skill and of great beauty until the +tenth century, when the art rapidly declined. These later churches, of +which a number were spared by the Turks, are, therefore, generally +pleasing and elegant rather than striking or imposing.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig78" id="fig78"> </a> +<img src="images/fig78.png" width="169" height="224" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 78.—PLAN OF ST. MARK’S, VENICE.</p> + +<p><b>FOREIGN MONUMENTS.</b> The influence of Byzantine art was +wide-spread, both in Europe and Asia. The leading city of civilization +through the Dark Ages, Constantinople influenced Italy through her +political and commercial relations with Ravenna, Genoa, and Venice. The +church of <b>St. Mark</b> in the latter city was one result of this +influence (Figs. 78, 79). Begun in 1063 to replace an earlier church +destroyed by fire, it received through several centuries additions not +always Byzantine in character. Yet it was mainly the work of Byzantine +builders, who copied most probably the church of the Apostles at +Constantinople, built by Justinian. The picturesque but wholly +unstructural use of columns in the entrance porches, the upper parts of +the façade, the wooden cupolas over the five domes, and the pointed +arches in the narthex, are deviations from Byzantine traditions dating +in part from the later Middle Ages +<span class="pagenum">133</span> +<a name="page133" id="page133"> </a> +Nothing could well be conceived more irrational, from a structural point +of view, than the accumulation of columns in the entrance-arches; but +the total effect is so picturesque and so rich in color, that its +architectural defects are easily overlooked. The external veneering of +white and colored marble occurs rarely in the East, but became a +favorite practice in Venice, where it continued in use for five hundred +years. The interior of St. Mark’s, in some respects better preserved +than that of Hagia Sophia, is especially fine in color, though not equal +in scale and grandeur to the latter church. With its five domes it has +less unity of effect than Hagia Sophia, but more of the charm of +picturesqueness, and its less brilliant and simpler lighting enhances +the impressiveness of its more modest dimensions.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig79" id="fig79"> </a> +<img src="images/fig79.jpg" width="441" height="364" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 79.—INTERIOR OF ST. MARK’S.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">134</span> +<a name="page134" id="page134"> </a> +<p>In Russia and Greece the Byzantine style has continued to be the +official style of the Greek Church. The Russian monuments are for the +most part of a somewhat fantastic aspect, the Muscovite taste having +introduced many innovations in the form of bulbous domes and other +eccentric details. In Greece there are few large churches, and some of +the most interesting, like the Cathedral at Athens, are almost toy-like +in their diminutiveness. On <b>Mt. Athos</b> (Hagion Oros) is an ancient +monastery which still retains its Byzantine character and traditions. In +Armenia (as at Ani, Etchmiadzin, etc.) are also interesting examples of +late Armeno-Byzantine architecture, showing applications to exterior +carved detail of elaborate interlaced ornament looking like a re-echo of +Celtic MSS. illumination, itself, no doubt, originating in Byzantine +traditions. But the greatest and most prolific offspring of Byzantine +architecture appeared after the fall of Constantinople (1453) in the new +mosque-architecture of the victorious Turks.</p> + +<p class="monuments"> +<b>MONUMENTS.</b> <span class="smallcaps">Constantinople</span>: St. +Sergius, 520; Hagia Sophia, 532–538; Holy Apostles by Justinian +(demolished); Holy Peace (St. Irene) originally by Constantine, rebuilt +by Justinian, and again in 8th century by Leo the Isaurian; Hagia +Theotokos, 12th century (?); Monétes Choras (“Kahiré Djami”), 10th +century; Pantokrator; “Fetiyeh Djami.” Cisterns, especially the “Bin Bir +Direk” (1,001 columns) and “Yere Batan Serai;” palaces, few vestiges +except the great hall of the Blachernæ palace. <span class="smallcaps">Salonica</span>: Churches—of Divine Wisdom (“Aya +Sofia”) St. Bardias, St. Elias. <span class="smallcaps">Ravenna</span>: San Vitale, 527–540. <span class="smallcaps">Venice</span>: St. Mark’s, 977–1071; “Fondaco dei +Turchi,” now Civic Museum, 12th century. Other churches at Athens and +Mt. Athos; at Misitra, Myra, Ancyra, Ephesus, etc.; in Armenia at Ani, +Dighour, Etchmiadzin, Kouthais, Pitzounda, Usunlar, etc.; tombs at Ani, +Varzhahan, etc.; in Russia at Kieff (St. Basil, Cathedral), Kostroma, +Moscow (Assumption, St. Basil, Vasili Blaghennoi, etc.), Novgorod, +Tchernigoff; at Kurtea Darghish in Wallachia, and many other places.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="note17" id="note17" href="#tag17">17.</a> +“St. Sophia,” the common name of this church, is a misnomer. It was not +dedicated to a saint at all, but to the Divine Wisdom (Hagia Sophia), +which name the Turks have retained in the softened form “Aya Sofia.”</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">135</span> +<a name="page135" id="page135"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXII" id="chapXII">CHAPTER XII.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + +<h3 class="subsub"> +(ARABIAN, MORESQUE, PERSIAN, INDIAN, AND TURKISH.)</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Bourgoin, <i>Les +Arts Arabes</i>. Coste, <i>Monuments du Caire</i>; <i>Monuments modernes +de la Perse</i>. Cunningham, <i>Archæological Survey of India</i>. +Fergusson, <i>Indian and Eastern Architecture</i>. De Forest, <i>Indian +Architecture and Ornament</i>. Flandin et Coste, <i>Voyage en Perse</i>. +Franz-Pasha, <i>Die Baukunst des Islam</i>. Gayet, <i>L’Art Arabe</i>; +<i>L’Art Persan</i>. Girault de Prangey, <i>Essai sur l’architecture des +Arabes en Espagne</i>, etc. Goury and Jones, <i>The Alhambra</i>. Jacob, +<i>Jeypore Portfolio of Architectural Details</i>. Le Bon, <i>La +civilisation des Arabes</i>; <i>Les monuments de l’Inde</i>. Owen Jones, +<i>Grammar of Ornament</i>. Parvillée, <i>L’Architecture Ottomane</i>. +Prisse d’Avennes, <i>L’Art Arabe</i>. Texier, <i>Description de +l’Arménie, la Perse</i>, etc.</p> + + +<p><b>GENERAL SURVEY.</b> While the Byzantine Empire was at its zenith, +the new faith of Islam was conquering Western Asia and the Mediterranean +lands with a fiery rapidity, which is one of the marvels of history. The +new architectural styles which grew up in the wake of these conquests, +though differing widely in conception and detail in the several +countries, were yet marked by common characteristics which set them +quite apart from the contemporary Christian styles. The predominance of +decorative over structural considerations, a predilection for +minute surface-ornament, the absence of pictures and sculpture, are +found alike in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Indian buildings, though in +varying degree. These new styles, however, were almost entirely the +handiwork of artisans belonging to the +<span class="pagenum">136</span> +<a name="page136" id="page136"> </a> +conquered races, and many traces of Byzantine, and even after the +Crusades, of Norman and Gothic design, are recognizable in Moslem +architecture. But the Orientalism of the conquerors and their common +faith, tinged with the poetry and philosophic mysticism of the Arab, +stamped these works of Copts, Syrians, and Greeks with an unmistakable +character of their own, neither Byzantine nor Early Christian.</p> + + +<p><b>ARABIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> In the building of mosques and tombs, +especially at Cairo, this architecture reached a remarkable degree of +decorative elegance, and sometimes of dignity. It developed slowly, the +Arabs not being at the outset a race of builders. The early monuments of +Syria and Egypt were insignificant, and the sacred <i>Kaabah</i> at +Mecca and the mosque at Medina hardly deserve to be called architectural +monuments at all. The most important early works were the mosques of +<b>’Amrou</b> at Cairo (642, rebuilt and enlarged early in the eighth +century), of <b>El Aksah</b> on the Temple platform at Jerusalem (691, +by Abd-el-Melek), and of <b>El Walid</b> at Damascus (705–732, +recently seriously injured by fire). All these were simple one-storied +structures, with flat wooden roofs carried on parallel ranges of columns +supporting pointed arches, the arcades either closing one side of a +square court, or surrounding it completely. The long perspectives of the +aisles and the minute decoration of the archivolts and ceilings alone +gave them architectural character. The beautiful <b>Dome of the Rock</b> +(Kubbet-es-Sakhrah, miscalled the Mosque of Omar) on the Temple platform +at Jerusalem is either a remodelled Constantinian edifice, or in large +part composed of the materials of one (see <a href="#page116">p. 116</a>).</p> + +<p>The splendid mosque of <b>Ibn Touloun</b> (876–885) was built +on the same plan as that of Amrou, but with cantoned piers instead of +columns and a corresponding increase in variety of perspective and +richness of effect. With the incoming +<span class="pagenum">137</span> +<a name="page137" id="page137"> </a> +of the Fatimite dynasty, however, and the foundation of the present city +of Cairo (971), vaulting began to take the place of wooden ceilings, and +then appeared the germs of those extraordinary applications of geometry +to decorative design which were henceforth to be the most striking +feature of Arabic ornament. Under the Ayûb dynasty, which began with +Salâh-ed-din (Saladin) in 1172, these elements, of which the great +<b>Barkouk</b> mosque (1149) is the most imposing early example, +developed slowly in the domical tombs of the <i>Karafah</i> at Cairo, +and prepared the way for the increasing richness and splendor of a long +series of mosques, among which those of <b>Kalaoun</b> +(1284–1318), <b>Sultan Hassan</b> (1356), <b>El Mu’ayyad</b> +(1415), and <b>Kaîd Bey</b> (1463), were the most conspicuous examples +(Fig. 80). They mark, indeed, successive advances in complexity of +planning, ingenuity of construction, and elegance of decoration. +Together they constitute an epoch in Arabic architecture, which +coincides closely with the development of Gothic +<span class="pagenum">138</span> +<a name="page138" id="page138"> </a> +vaulted architecture in Europe, both in the stages and the duration of +its advances.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig80" id="fig80"> </a> +<img src="images/fig80.jpg" width="265" height="440" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 80.—MOSQUE OF SULTAN HASSAN, CAIRO: SANCTUARY.<br> +<span class="caption"> +<i>a, Mihrâb, b, Mimber.</i></span></p> + +<p>The mosques of these three centuries are, like the mediæval +monasteries, impressive aggregations of buildings of various sorts about +a central court of ablutions. The tomb of the founder, residences for +the <i>imams</i>, or priests, schools (<i>madrassah</i>), and hospitals +(<i>mâristân</i>) rival in importance the prayer-chamber. This last is, +however, the real focus of interest and splendor; in some cases, as in +Sultan Hassan, it is a simple barrel-vaulted chamber open to the court; +in others an oblong arcaded hall with many small domes; or again, +a square hall covered with a high pointed dome on pendentives of +intricately beautiful stalactite-work (see below). The ceremonial +requirements of the mosque were simple. The-court must have its fountain +of ablutions in the centre. The prayer-hall, or mosque proper, must have +its <i>mihrâb</i>, or niche, to indicate the <i>kibleh</i>, the +direction of Mecca; and its <i>mimber</i>, or high, slender pulpit for +the reading of the Kôran. These were the only absolutely indispensable +features of a mosque, but as early as the ninth century the +<i>minaret</i> was added, from which the call to prayer could be sounded +over the city by the <i>mueddin</i>. Not until the Ayubite period, +however, did it begin to assume those forms of varied and picturesque +grace which lend to Cairo so much of its architectural charm.</p> + + +<p><b>ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.</b> While Arabic architecture, in Syria and +Egypt alike, possesses more decorative than constructive originality, +the beautiful forms of its domes, pendentives, and minarets, the simple +majesty of the great pointed barrel-vaults of the Hassan mosque and +similar monuments, and the graceful lines of the universally used +pointed arch, prove the Coptic builders and their later Arabic +successors to have been architects of great ability. The Arabic domes, +as seen both in the mosques and in the remarkable group of tombs +commonly called “tombs of the +<span class="pagenum">139</span> +<a name="page139" id="page139"> </a> +Khalîfs,” are peculiar not only in their pointed outlines and their rich +external decoration of interlaced geometric motives, but still more in +the external and internal treatment of the pendentives, exquisitely +decorated with stalactite ornament. This ornament, derived, no doubt, +from a combination of minute corbels with rows of small niches, and +presumably of Persian origin, was finally developed into a system of +extraordinary intricacy, applicable alike to the topping of a niche or +panel, as in the great doorways of the mosques, and to the bracketing +out of minaret galleries (Figs. 81, <a href="#fig82">82</a>). Its +applications show a bewildering variety of forms and an extraordinary +aptitude for intricate geometrical design.</p> + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig81" id="fig81"> </a> +<img src="images/fig81.jpg" width="257" height="342" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 81.—MOSQUE OF KAÎD BEY, CAIRO.</p> + + +<p><b>DECORATION.</b> Geometry, indeed, vied with the love of color in +its hold on the Arabic taste. Ceiling-beams were carved into highly +ornamental forms before receiving their rich color-decoration of red, +green, blue, and gold. The doors and the <i>mimber</i> were framed in +geometric patterns with slender intersecting bars forming complicated +star-panelling. The voussoirs of arches were cut into curious +interlocking forms; doorways and niches were covered with stalactite +corbelling, and pavements and wall-incrustations, +<span class="pagenum">140</span> +<a name="page140" id="page140"> </a> +whether of marble or tiling, combined brilliancy and harmony of color +with the perplexing beauty of interlaced star-and-polygon patterns of +marvellous intricacy. Stained glass added to the interior color-effect, +the patterns being perforated in plaster, with a bit of colored glass +set into each perforation—a device not very durable, perhaps, +but singularly decorative.</p> + + +<p><b>OTHER WORKS.</b> Few of the mediæval Arabic palaces have remained +to our time. That they were adorned with a splendid prodigality appears +from contemporary accounts. This splendor was internal rather than +external; the palace, like all the larger and richer dwellings in the +East, surrounded one or more courts, and presented externally an almost +unbroken wall. The fountain in the chief court, the <i>diwân</i> +(a great, vaulted reception-chamber opening upon the court and +raised slightly above it), the <i>dâr</i>, or men’s court, rigidly +separated from the <i>hareem</i> for the women, were and are universal +elements in these great dwellings. The more common city-houses show as +their most striking features successively corbelled-out stories and +broad wooden eaves, with lattice-screens covering single windows, or +almost a whole façade, composed of turned work (<i>mashrabiyya</i>), in +designs of great beauty.</p> + +<p>The fountains, gates, and minor works of the Arabs display the same +beauty in decoration and color, the same general forms and details which +characterize the larger works, but it is impossible here to +particularize further with regard to them.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig82" id="fig82"> </a> +<img src="images/fig82.jpg" width="249" height="487" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 82.—MOORISH DETAIL, ALHAMBRA.</p> + +<p class="caption w240"> +<i>Showing stalactite and perforated work, Moorish cusped arch, +Hispano-Moresque capitals, and decorative inscriptions.</i></p> + +<p><b>MORESQUE.</b> Elsewhere in Northern Africa the Arabs produced no +such important works as in Egypt, nor is the architecture of the other +Moslem states so well preserved or so well known. Constructive design +would appear to have been there even more completely subordinated to +decoration; tiling and plaster-relief took the place of more +architectural elements and materials, while horseshoe and cusped +<span class="pagenum">141</span> +<a name="page141" id="page141"> </a> +arches were substituted for the simpler and more architectural pointed +arch (Fig. 82). The courts of palaces and public buildings were +surrounded by ranges of horseshoe arches on slender columns; these last +being provided with capitals of a form rarely seen in Cairo. Towers were +built of much more massive design than the Cairo minarets, usually with +a square, almost solid shaft and a more open lantern at the top, +sometimes in several diminishing stories.</p> + + +<p><b>HISPANO-MORESQUE.</b> The most splendid phase of this branch of +Arabic architecture is found not in Africa but in Spain, which was +overrun in 710–713 by the Moors, who established there the +independent Khalifate of Cordova. This was later split up into petty +kingdoms, of which the most important were Granada, Seville, Toledo, and +Valencia. This dismemberment of the Khalifate led in time to the loss of +these cities, which were one by one recovered by the Christians during +the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; +<span class="pagenum">142</span> +<a name="page142" id="page142"> </a> +the capture of Granada, in 1492, finally destroying the Moorish +rule.</p> + +<p>The dominion of the Moors in Spain was marked by a high civilization +and an extraordinary activity in building. The style they introduced +became the national style in the regions they occupied, and even after +the expulsion of the Moors was used in buildings erected by Christians +and by Jews. The “House of Pilate,” at Seville, is an example of this, +and the general use of the Moorish style in Jewish synagogues, down to +our own day, both in Spain and abroad, originated in the erection of +synagogues for the Jews in Spain by Moorish artisans and in Moorish +style, both during and after the period of Moslem supremacy.</p> + +<p>Besides innumerable mosques, castles, bridges, aqueducts, gates, and +fountains, the Moors erected several monuments of remarkable size and +magnificence. Specially worthy of notice among them are the Great Mosque +at Cordova, the Alcazars of Seville and Malaga, the Giralda at Seville, +and the Alhambra at Granada.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig83" id="fig83"> </a> +<img src="images/fig83.jpg" width="245" height="363" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 83.—INTERIOR OF THE GREAT MOSQUE AT CORDOVA.</p> + +<p>The <b>Mosque at Cordova</b>, begun in 786 by ‘Abd-er-Rahman, +enlarged in 876, and again by El Mansour in 976, is a vast arcaded hall +375 feet × 420 feet in extent, but only 30 +<span class="pagenum">143</span> +<a name="page143" id="page143"> </a> +feet high (Fig. 83). The rich wooden ceiling rests upon seventeen rows +of thirty to thirty-three columns each, and two intersecting rows of +piers, all carrying horseshoe arches in two superposed ranges, +a large portion of those about the sanctuary being cusped, the +others plain, except for the alternation of color in the voussoirs. The +<i>mihrâb</i> niche is particularly rich in its minutely carved +incrustations and mosaics, and a dome ingeniously formed by intersecting +ribs covers the sanctuary before it. This form of dome occurs frequently +in Spain.</p> + +<p>The <b>Alcazars</b> at Seville and Malaga, which have been restored +in recent years, present to-day a fairly correct counterpart of the +castle-palaces of the thirteenth century. They display the same general +conceptions and decorative features as the Alhambra, which they +antedate. The <b>Giralda</b> at Seville is, on the other hand, unique. +It is a lofty rectangular tower, its exterior panelled and covered with +a species of quarry-ornament in relief; it terminated originally in two +or three diminishing stages or lanterns, which were replaced in the +sixteenth century by the present Renaissance belfry.</p> + +<p>The <b>Alhambra</b> is universally considered to be the masterpiece +of Hispano-Moresque art, partly no doubt on account of its excellent +preservation. It is most interesting as an example of the splendid +citadel-palaces built by the Moorish conquerors, as well as for its +gorgeous color-decoration of minute quarry-ornament stamped or moulded +in the wet plaster wherever the walls are not wainscoted with tiles. It +was begun in 1248 by Mohammed-ben-Al-Hamar, enlarged in 1279 by his +successor, and again in 1306, when its mosque was built. Its plan (Fig. +84) shows two large courts and a smaller one next the mosque, with three +great square chambers and many of minor importance. Light arcades +surround the Court of the Lions with its fountain, and adorn the ends of +the other chief court; and the stalactite +<span class="pagenum">144</span> +<a name="page144" id="page144"> </a> +pendentive, rare in Moorish work, appears in the “Hall of Ambassadors” +and some other parts of the edifice. But its chief glory is its +ornamentation, less durable, less architectural than that of the Cairene +buildings, but making up for this in delicacy and richness. Minute +vine-patterns and Arabic inscriptions are interwoven with waving +intersecting lines, forming a net-like framework, to all of which deep +red, blue, black, and gold give an indescribable richness of effect.</p> + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig84" id="fig84"> </a> +<img src="images/fig84.png" width="273" height="222" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 84.—PLAN OF THE ALHAMBRA.</p> + +<p class="caption w270"> +<i>A, Hall of Ambassadors; a, Mosque; b, Court of Mosque; c, Sala della +Barca; d, d, Baths; e, Hall of the Two Sisters; f, f, f, +Hall of the Tribunal; g, Hall of the Abencerrages.</i></p> + +<p class="closeup w270"> +<a href="images/fig84_large.png" target="_blank"> +Larger View</a></p> + +<p>The Moors also overran Sicily in the eighth century, but while their +architecture there profoundly influenced that of the Christians who +recovered Sicily in 1090, and copied the style of the conquered Moslems, +there is too little of the original Moorish architecture remaining to +claim mention here.</p> + + +<p><b>SASSANIAN.</b> The Sassanian empire, which during the four +centuries from 226 to 641 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> had +withstood Rome and extended its own sway almost to India, left on +Persian soil a number of interesting monuments which powerfully +influenced the Mohammedan style of that region. The Sassanian buildings +appear to have been principally palaces, and were all vaulted. With +their long barrel-vaulted halls, combined with square domical chambers, +as in Firouz-Abad and Serbistan, they exhibit reminiscences of antique +Assyrian tradition. +<span class="pagenum">145</span> +<a name="page145" id="page145"> </a> +The ancient Persian use of columns was almost entirely abandoned, but +doors and windows were still treated with the banded frames and +cavetto-cornices of Persepolis and Susa. The Sassanians employed with +these exterior details others derived perhaps from Syrian and Byzantine +sources. A sort of engaged buttress-column and blind arches +repeated somewhat aimlessly over a whole façade were characteristic +features; still more so the huge arches, elliptical or horse-shoe +shaped, which formed the entrances to these palaces, as in the Tâk-Kesra +at Ctesiphon. Ornamental details of a debased Roman type appear, mingled +with more gracefully flowing leaf-patterns resembling early Christian +Syrian carving. The last great monument of this style was the palace at +Mashita in Moab, begun by the last Chosroes (627), but never finished, +an imposing and richly ornamented structure about 500 × 170 feet, +occupying the centre of a great court.</p> + + +<p><b>PERSIAN-MOSLEM ARCHITECTURE.</b> These Sassanian palaces must have +strongly influenced Persian architecture after the Arab conquest in 641. +For although the architecture of the first six centuries after that date +suffered almost absolute extinction at the hands of the Mongols under +Genghis Khan, the traces of Sassanian influence are still perceptible in +the monuments that rose in the following centuries. The dome and vault, +the colossal portal-arches, and the use of brick and tile are evidences +of this influence, bearing no resemblance to Byzantine or Arabic types. +The Moslem monuments of Persia, so far as their dates can be +ascertained, are all subsequent to 1200, unless tradition is correct in +assigning to the time of Haroun <ins class="correction" title="spelling unchanged">Ar</ins> Rashid (786) certain curious tombs near +Bagdad with singular pyramidal roofs. The ruined mosque at Tabriz +(1300), and the beautiful domical <b>Tomb</b> at <b>Sultaniyeh</b> +(1313) belong to the Mogul period. They show all the essential features +of the later architecture of the Sufis +<span class="pagenum">146</span> +<a name="page146" id="page146"> </a> +(1499–1694), during whose dynastic period were built the still +more splendid and more celebrated <b>Meidan</b> or square, the great +mosque of Mesjid Shah, the Bazaar and the College or Medress of Hussein +Shah, all at Ispahan, and many other important monuments at Ispahan, +Bagdad, and Teheran. In these structures four elements especially claim +attention; the pointed bulbous dome, the round minaret, the portal-arch +rising above the adjacent portions of the building, and the use of +enamelled terra-cotta tiles as an external decoration. To these may be +added the ogee arch (<i>ogee</i> = double-reversed curve), as an +occasional feature. The vaulting is most ingenious and beautiful, and +its forms, whether executed in brick or in plaster, are sufficiently +varied without resort to the perplexing complications of stalactite +work. In Persian decoration the most striking qualities are the harmony +of blended color, broken up into minute patterns and more subdued in +tone than in the Hispano-Moresque, and the preference of flowing lines +and floral ornament to the geometric puzzles of Arabic design. Persian +architecture influenced both Turkish and Indo-Moslem art, which owe to +it a large part of their decorative charm.</p> + + +<p><b>INDO-MOSLEM.</b> The Mohammedan architecture of India is so +distinct from all the native Indian styles and so related to the art of +Persia, if not to that of the Arabs, that it properly belongs here +rather than in the later chapter on Oriental styles. It was in the +eleventh century that the states of India first began to fall before +Mohammedan invaders, but not until the end of the fifteenth century that +the great Mogul dynasty was established in Hindostan as the dominant +power. During the intervening period local schools of Moslem +architecture were developing in the Pathan country of Northern India +(1193–1554), in Jaunpore and Gujerat (1396–1572), in Scinde, +where Persian influence predominated; in Kalburgah and Bidar +(1347–1426). These +<span class="pagenum">147</span> +<a name="page147" id="page147"> </a> +schools differed considerably in spirit and detail; but under the Moguls +(1494–1706) there was less diversity, and to this dynasty we owe +many of the most magnificent mosques and tombs of India, among which +those of Bijapur retain a marked and distinct style of their own.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig85" id="fig85"> </a> +<img src="images/fig85.png" width="240" height="239" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 85.—TOMB OF MAHMUD, BIJAPUR. SECTION.</p> + +<p>The Mohammedan monuments of India are characterized by a grandeur and +amplitude of disposition, a symmetry and monumental dignity of +design which distinguishes them widely from the picturesque but +sometimes trivial buildings of the Arabs and Moors. Less dependent on +color than the Moorish or Persian structures, they are usually built of +marble, or of marble and sandstone, giving them an air of permanence and +solidity wanting in other Moslem styles except the Turkish. The dome, +the round minaret, the pointed arch, and the colossal portal-arch, are +universal, as in Persia, and enamelled tiles are also used, but chiefly +for interior decoration. Externally the more dignified if less +resplendent decoration of surface carving is used, in patterns of minute +and graceful scrolls, leaf forms, and Arabic inscriptions covering large +surfaces. The Arabic stalactite pendentive star-panelling and +geometrical interlace are rarely if ever seen. The dome on the square +plan is almost universal, but neither the Byzantine nor the Arabic +pendentive is used, striking and original combinations of vaulting +surfaces, of corner squinches, of corbelling and ribs, being used in its +place. Many of the Pathan +<span class="pagenum">148</span> +<a name="page148" id="page148"> </a> +domes and arches at Delhi, Ajmir, Ahmedabad, Shepree, etc., are built in +horizontal or corbelled courses supported on slender columns, and exert +no thrust at all, so that they are vaults only in form, like the dome of +the Tholos of Atreus (<a href="#fig24">Fig. 24</a>). The most +imposing and original of all Indian domes are those of the <b>Jumma +Musjid</b> and of the <b>Tomb of Mahmud</b>, both at Bijapur, the latter +137 feet in span (Fig. 85). These two monuments, indeed, with the Mogul +Taj Mahal at Agra, not only deserve the first rank among Indian +monuments, but in constructive science combined with noble proportions +and exquisite beauty are hardly, if at all, surpassed by the greatest +triumphs of western art. The Indo-Moslem architects, moreover, +especially those of the Mogul period, excelled in providing artistic +settings for their monuments. Immense platforms, superb courts, imposing +flights of steps, noble gateways, minarets to mark the angles of +enclosures, and landscape gardening of a high order, enhance greatly the +effect of the great mosques, tombs, and palaces of Agra, Delhi, +Futtehpore Sikhri, Allahabad, Secundra, etc.</p> + +<p>The most notable monuments of the Moguls are the <b>Mosque of +Akbar</b> (1556–1605) at Futtehpore Sikhri, the tomb of that +sultan at Secundra, and his palace at Allahabad; the <b>Pearl Mosque</b> +at Agra and the <b>Jumma Musjid</b> at Delhi, one of the largest and +noblest of Indian mosques, both built by Shah Jehan about 1650; his +immense but now ruined palace in the same city; and finally the +unrivalled mausoleum, the <b>Taj Mahal</b> at Agra, built during his +lifetime as a festal hall, to serve as his tomb after death (Fig. 86). +This last is the pearl of Indian architecture, though it is said to have +been designed by a European architect, French or Italian. It is a white +marble structure 185 feet square, centred in a court 313 feet square, +forming a platform 18 feet high. The corners of this court are marked by +elegant minarets, and the whole is dominated by +<span class="pagenum">149</span> +<a name="page149" id="page149"> </a> +the exquisite white marble dome, 58 feet in diameter, 80 feet high, +internally rising over four domical corner chapels, and covered +externally by a lofty marble bulb-dome on a high drum. The rich +materials, beautiful execution, and exquisite inlaying of this mausoleum +are worthy of its majestic design. On the whole, in the architecture of +the Moguls in Bijapur, Agra, and Delhi, Mohammedan architecture reaches +its highest expression in the totality and balance of its qualities of +construction, composition, detail, ornament, and settings. The later +monuments show the decline of the style, and though often rich and +imposing, are lacking in refinement and originality.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig86" id="fig86"> </a> +<img src="images/fig86.jpg" width="435" height="350" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 86.—TAJ MAHAL, AGRA.</p> + + +<p><b>TURKISH.</b> The Ottoman Turks, who began their conquering career +under Osman I. in Bithynia in 1299, had for a +<span class="pagenum">150</span> +<a name="page150" id="page150"> </a> +century been occupying the fairest portions of the Byzantine empire +when, in 1453, they became masters of Constantinople. Hagia Sophia was +at once occupied as their chief mosque, and such of the other churches +as were spared, were divided between the victors and the vanquished. The +conqueror, Mehmet II., at the same time set about the building of a new +mosque, entrusting the design to a Byzantine, Christodoulos, whom he +directed to reproduce, with some modifications, the design of the “Great +Church”—Hagia Sophia. The type thus officially adopted has ever +since remained the controlling model of Turkish mosque design, so far, +at least, as general plan and constructive principles are concerned. +Thus the conquering Turks, educated by a century of study and imitation +of Byzantine models in Brusa, Nicomedia, Smyrna, Adrianople, and other +cities earlier subjugated, did what the Byzantines had, during nine +centuries, failed to do. The noble idea first expressed by Anthemius and +Isidorus in the Church of Hagia Sophia had remained undeveloped, +unimitated by later architects. It was the Turk who first seized upon +its possibilities, and developed therefrom a style of architecture less +sumptuous in color and decoration than the sister styles of Persia, +Cairo, or India, but of great nobility and dignity, notwithstanding. The +low-curved dome with its crown of buttressed windows, the plain +spherical pendentives, the great apses at each end, covered by +half-domes and penetrated by smaller niches, the four massive piers with +their projecting buttress-masses extending across the broad lateral +aisles, the narthex and the arcaded atrium in front—all these +appear in the great Turkish mosques of Constantinople. In the +Conqueror’s mosque, however, two apses with half-domes replace the +lateral galleries and clearstory of Hagia Sophia, making a perfectly +quadripartite plan, destitute of the emphasis and significance of a plan +drawn on one main axis (Fig. 87). +<span class="pagenum">151</span> +<a name="page151" id="page151"> </a> +The same treatment occurs in the mosque of Ahmed I., the +<b>Ahmediyeh</b> (1608; Fig. 88), and the <b>Yeni Djami</b> (“New +Mosque”) at the port (1665). In the mosque of <b>Osman III.</b> (1755) +the reverse change was effected; the mosque has no great apses, four +clearstories filling the four arches under the dome, as also in several +of the later and smaller mosques. The greatest and noblest of the +Turkish mosques, the <b>Suleimaniyeh</b>, built in 1553 by Soliman the +Magnificent, returned to the Byzantine combination of two half-domes +with two clearstories (Fig. 89).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig87" id="fig87"> </a> +<img src="images/fig87.png" width="274" height="197" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 87.—MOSQUE OF MEHMET II.<!-- invisible . -->, CONSTANTINOPLE. +PLAN.<br> +<span class="caption"> +(The dimensions figured in metres.<!-- invisible . -->)</span></p> + +<p>In none of these monuments is there the internal magnificence of +marble and mosaic of the Byzantine churches. These are only in a measure +replaced by Persian tile-wainscoting and stained-glass windows of the +Arabic type. The division into stories and the treatment of scale are +less well managed than in the Hagia Sophia; on the other hand, the +proportion of height to width is generally admirable. The exterior +treatment is unique and effective, far superior to the Byzantine +practice. The massing of domes and half-domes and roofs is more +artistically arranged; and while there is little of that minute carved +detail found in Egypt and India, the composition of the lateral arcades, +the simple but impressive domical peristyles of the courts, and the +graceful forms of the pointed arches, with alternating voussoirs of +white and black marble, are artistic in a high degree. The minarets are, +however, +<span class="pagenum">152</span> +<a name="page152" id="page152"> </a> +inferior to those of Indian, Persian, and Arabic art, though graceful in +their proportions.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig88" id="fig88"> </a> +<img src="images/fig88.jpg" width="433" height="385" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 88.—EXTERIOR AHMEDIYEH MOSQUE.<!-- invisible . --></p> + +<p>Nearly all the great mosques are accompanied by the domical tombs +(<i>turbeh</i>) of their imperial founders. Some of these are of noble +size and great beauty of proportion and decoration. The <b>Tomb of +Roxelana</b> (Khourrem), the favorite wife of Soliman the Magnificent +(1553), is the most beautiful of all, and perhaps the most perfect gem +of Turkish architecture, with its elegant arcade surrounding the +octagonal domical mausoleum-chamber. The <b>monumental fountains</b> of +Constantinople also deserve mention. Of these, the one erected by Ahmet +III. (1710), near Hagia +<span class="pagenum">153</span> +<a name="page153" id="page153"> </a> +Sophia, is the most beautiful. They usually consist of a rectangular +marble reservoir with pagoda-like roof and broad eaves, the four faces +of the fountain adorned each with a niche and basin, and covered with +relief carving and gilded inscriptions.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig89" id="fig89"> </a> +<img src="images/fig89.jpg" width="267" height="361" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 89.—INTERIOR OF SULEIMANIYEH,<br> +CONSTANTINOPLE.<!-- invisible . --></p> + + +<p><b>PALACES.</b> In this department the Turks have done little of +importance. The buildings in the Seraglio gardens are low and +insignificant. The <b>Tchinli Kiosque</b>, now the Imperial Museum, is +however, a simple but graceful two-storied edifice, consisting of +four vaulted chambers in the angles of a fine cruciform hall, with domes +treated like those of Bijapur on a small scale; the tiling and the +veranda in front are particularly elegant; the design suggests Persian +handiwork. The later palaces, designed by Armenians, are picturesque +white marble and stucco buildings on the water’s edge; they possess +richly decorated halls, but the details are of a debased European rococo +style, quite unworthy of an Oriental monarch.</p> + +<div class="monuments"> + +<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> <span class="smallcaps">Arabian</span>: “Mosque +of Omar,” or Dome of the Rock, 638; El Aksah, by ’Abd-el-Melek, 691, +both at Jerusalem; Mosque ’Amrou at Cairo, 642; mosques at Cyrene, 665; +great mosque of El Walîd, +<span class="pagenum">154</span> +<a name="page154" id="page154"> </a> +Damascus, 705–717. Bagdad built, 755. Great mosque at Kairouân, +737. At Cairo, Ibn Touloun, 876; Gama-El-Azhar, 971; Barkouk, 1149; +“Tombs of Khalîfs” (Karafah), 1250–1400; Moristan Kalaoun, 1284; +Medresseh Sultan Hassan, 1356; El Azhar enlarged; El Mûayed, 1415; Kaïd +Bey, 1463; Sinan Pacha, 1468; “Tombs of Mamelukes,” 16th century. Also +palaces, baths, fountains, mosques, and tombs. <span class="smallcaps">Moresque</span>: Mosque at Saragossa, 713; mosque and +arsenal at Tunis, 742; great mosque at Cordova, 786, 876, 975; +sanctuary, 14th century. Mosques, baths, etc., at Cordova, Tarragona, +Segovia, Toledo, 960–980; mosque of Sobeiha at Cordova, 981. +Palaces and mosques at Fez; great mosque at Seville, 1172. Extensive +building in Morocco close of 12th century. Giralda at Seville, 1160; +Alcazars in Malaga and Seville, 1225–1300; Alhambra and Generalife +at Granada, 1248, 1279, 1306; also mosques, baths, etc. Yussuf builds +palace at Malaga, 1348; palaces at Granada. <span class="smallcaps">Persian</span>: Tombs near Bagdad, 786 (?); mosque at +Tabriz, 1300; tomb of Khodabendeh at Sultaniyeh, 1313; Meidan Shah +(square) and Mesjid Shah (mosque) at Ispahan, 17th century; Medresseh +(school) of Sultan Hussein, 18th century; palaces of Chehil Soutoun +(forty columns) and Aineh Khaneh (Palace of Mirrors). Baths, tombs, +bazaars, etc., at Cashan, Koum, Kasmin, etc. Aminabad Caravanserai +between Shiraz and Ispahan; bazaar at Ispahan.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Indian</span>: Mosque and “Kutub Minar” +(tower) <i>cir.</i> 1200; Tomb of Altumsh, 1236; mosque at Ajmir, +1211–1236; tomb at Old Delhi; Adina Mosque, Maldah, 1358. Mosques +Jumma Musjid and Lal Durwaza at Jaunpore, first half of 15th century. +Mosque and bazaar, Kalburgah, 1435 (?). <!-- invisible . --> Mosques at +Ahmedabad and Sirkedj, middle 15th century. Mosque Jumma Musjid and Tomb +of Mahmûd, Bijapur, <i>cir.</i> 1550. Tomb of Humayûn, Delhi; of +Mohammed Ghaus, Gwalior; mosque at Futtehpore Sikhri; palace at +Allahabad; tomb of Akbar at Secundra, all by Akbar, 1556–1605. +Palace and Jumma Musjid at Delhi; Muti Musjid (Pearl mosque) and Taj +Mahal at Agra, by Shah Jehan, 1628–1658.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Turkish</span>: Tomb of Osman, Brusa, 1326; +Green Mosque (Yeshil Djami) Brusa, <i>cir.</i> 1350. Mosque at Isnik +(Nicæa), 1376. Mehmediyeh (mosque Mehmet II.) Constantinople, 1453; +mosque at Eyoub; Tchinli Kiosque, by Mehmet II., 1450–60; mosque +Bayazid, 1500; Selim I., 1520; Suleimaniyeh, by Sinan, 1553; +Ahmediyeh by Ahmet I., 1608; Yeni Djami, 1665; Nouri Osman, by +Osman III.<!-- invisible . -->, 1755; mosque Mohammed Ali in Cairo, +1824. Mosque at Adrianople. <span class="smallcaps">Khans</span>, +cloistered courts for public business and commercial lodgers, various +dates, 16th and 17th centuries (Validé Khan, Vizir Khan), vaulted +bazaars, fountains, Seraskierat Tower, all at Constantinople.</p> + +</div> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">155</span> +<a name="page155" id="page155"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXIII" id="chapXIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +EARLY MEDIÆVAL ARCHITECTURE</h3> + +<h3 class="subsub"> +IN ITALY AND FRANCE.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Cattaneo, +<i>L’Architecture en Italie</i>. Chapuy, <i>Le moyen age monumental</i>. +Corroyer, <i>Architecture romane</i>. Cummings, <i>A History of +Architecture in Italy</i>. Enlart, <i>Manuel d’archéologie +française</i>. Hübsch, <i>Monuments de l’architecture chrétienne</i>. +Knight, <i>Churches of Northern Italy</i>. Lenoir, <i>Architecture +monastique</i>. Osten, <i>Bauwerke in der Lombardei</i>. Quicherat, +<i>Mélanges d’histoire et d’archéologie</i>. Reber, <i>History of +Mediæval Architecture</i>. Révoil, <i>Architecture romane du midi de la +France</i>. Rohault de Fleury, <i>Monuments de Pise</i>. Sharpe, +<i>Churches of Charente</i>. De Verneilh, <i>L’Architecture byzantine en +France</i>. Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture +française</i> (especially in Vol. I., Architecture religieuse); +<i>Discourses on Architecture</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>EARLY MEDIÆVAL EUROPE.</b> The fall of the Western Empire in 476 +<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> marked the beginning of a new era +in architecture outside of the Byzantine Empire. The so-called Dark Ages +which followed this event constituted the formative period of the new +Western civilization, during which the Celtic and Germanic races were +being Christianized and subjected to the authority and to the educative +influences of the Church. Under these conditions a new architecture was +developed, founded upon the traditions of the early Christian builders, +modified in different regions by Roman or Byzantine influences. For Rome +recovered early her antique prestige, and Roman monuments covering the +soil of Southern Europe, were a constant +<span class="pagenum">156</span> +<a name="page156" id="page156"> </a> +object lesson to the builders of that time. To this new architecture of +the West, which in the tenth and eleventh centuries first began to +achieve worthy and monumental results, the generic name of +<b>Romanesque</b> has been commonly given, in spite of the great +diversity of its manifestations in different countries.</p> + + +<p><b>CHARACTER OF THE ARCHITECTURE.</b> Romanesque architecture was +pre-eminently ecclesiastical. Civilization and culture emanated from the +Church, and her requirements and discipline gave form to the builder’s +art. But the basilican style, which had so well served her purposes in +the earlier centuries and on classic soil, was ill-suited to the new +conditions. Corinthian columns, marble incrustations, and splendid +mosaics were not to be had for the asking in the forests of Gaul or +Germany, nor could the Lombards and Ostrogoths in Italy or their +descendants reproduce them. The basilican style was complete in itself, +possessing no seeds of further growth. The priests and monks of Italy +and Western Europe sought to rear with unskilled labor churches of stone +in which the general dispositions of the basilica should reappear in +simpler, more massive dress, and, as far as possible, in a fireproof +construction with vaults of stone. This problem underlies all the varied +phases of Romanesque architecture; its final solution was not, however, +reached until the Gothic period, to which the Romanesque forms the +transition and stepping-stone.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig90" id="fig90"> </a> +<img src="images/fig90.jpg" width="432" height="263" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 90.—INTERIOR OF SAN AMBROGIO, MILAN.</p> + +<p><b>MEDIÆVAL ITALY.</b> Italy in the Dark Ages stood midway between +the civilization of the Eastern Empire and the semi-barbarism of the +West. Rome, Ravenna, and Venice early became centres of culture and +maintained continuous commercial relations with the East. Architecture +did not lack either the inspiration or the means for advancing on new +lines. But its advance was by no means the same everywhere. The unifying +influence of the church was +<span class="pagenum">157</span> +<a name="page157" id="page157"> </a> +counterbalanced by the provincialism and the local diversities of the +various Italian states, resulting in a wide variety of styles. These, +however, may be broadly grouped in four divisions: the <b>Lombard</b>, +the <b>Tuscan-Romanesque</b>, the <b>Italo-Byzantine</b>, and the +unchanged <b>Basilican</b> or Early Christian, which last, as was shown +in Chapter X., continued to be practised in Rome throughout the +Middle Ages.</p> + + +<p class="illustration floatleft null"> +<a name="fig91" id="fig91"> </a> +<img class="null" src="images/fig91a.jpg" +width="100" height="246" alt="see caption and text"></p> + +<p class="illustration floatleft"> +<img src="images/fig91b.jpg" width="269" height="332" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 91.—WEST FRONT AND CAMPANILE<br> +OF CATHEDRAL, PIACENZA.</p> + +<p><b>LOMBARD STYLE.</b> Owing to the general rebuilding of ancient +churches under the more settled social conditions of the eleventh and +twelfth centuries, little remains to us of the architecture of the three +preceding centuries in Italy, except the Roman basilicas and a few +baptisteries and circular churches, already mentioned in Chapter X. +The so-called Lombard monuments belong mainly to the eleventh and +twelfth centuries. They are found not only in Lombardy, but also in +Venetia and the Æmilia. Milan, Pavia, Piacenza, Bologna, and Verona were +important centres of development of this style. The churches were nearly +all vaulted, but the plans were basilican, with such variations +<span class="pagenum">158</span> +<a name="page158" id="page158"> </a> +as resulted from efforts to meet the exigencies of vaulted construction. +The nave was narrowed, and instead of rows of columns carrying a thin +clearstory wall, a few massive piers of masonry, connected by broad +pier-arches, supported the heavy ribs of the groined vaulting, as in +S. Ambrogio, Milan (Fig. 90). To resist the thrust of the main +vault, the clearstory was sometimes suppressed, the side aisle carried +up in two stories forming galleries, and rows of chapels added at the +sides, their partitions forming buttresses. The piers were often of +clustered section, the better to receive the various arches and ribs +they supported. The vaulting was in square divisions or +<i>vaulting-bays</i>, each embracing two pier-arches which met upon an +intermediate pier lighter than the others. Thus the whole aspect of the +interior was revolutionized. The lightness, spaciousness, and decorative +elegance of the basilicas were here exchanged for a sombre and massive +dignity severe in its plainness. The Choir was sometimes raised a few +feet above the nave, to allow of a crypt and <i>confessio</i> beneath, +reached by broad flights of steps from the nave. Sta.<!-- invisible . +--> +<span class="pagenum">159</span> +<a name="page159" id="page159"> </a> +Maria della Pieve at Arezzo (9th-11th century), <b>S. Michele</b> +at Pavia (late 11th century), the <b>Cathedral of Piacenza</b> (1122), +<b>S. Ambrogio</b> at Milan (12th century), and <b>S. Zeno</b> +at Verona (1139) are notable monuments of this style.</p> + + +<p><b>LOMBARD EXTERIORS.</b> The few architectural embellishments +employed on the simple exteriors of the Lombard churches were usually +effective and well composed. Slender columnettes or long pilasters, +blind arcades, and open arcaded galleries under the eaves gave light and +shade to these exteriors. The façades were mere frontispieces with a +single broad gable, the three aisles of the church being merely +suggested by flat or round pilasters dividing the front (Fig 91). Gabled +porches, with columns resting on the backs of lions or monsters, adorned +the doorways. The carving was often of a fierce and grotesque character. +Detached bell-towers or <i>campaniles</i> adjoined many of these +churches; square and simple in mass, but with well-distributed openings +and well-proportioned belfries (Piacenza S. Zeno at Verona, +etc.).<a class="tag" name="tag18" id="tag18" href="#note18">18</a></p> + + +<p><b>THE TUSCAN ROMANESQUE.</b> The churches of this style (sometimes +called the <b>Pisan</b>) were less vigorous but more elegant and +artistic in design than the Lombard. They were basilicas in plan, with +timber ceilings and high clearstories on columnar arcades. In their +decoration, both internal and external, they betray the influence of +Byzantine traditions, especially in the use of white and colored marble +in alternating bands or in panelled veneering. Still more striking is +the external decorative application of wall-arcades, sometimes occupying +the whole height of the wall and carried on flat pilasters, sometimes in +superposed stages of small arches on slender columns standing free of +the wall. In general the decorative element prevailed over the +constructive in the design of these picturesquely beautiful churches, +some of which are of noble size. The <b>Duomo</b> (cathedral) of +<b>Pisa</b>, built 1063–1118, is the finest monument +<span class="pagenum">160</span> +<a name="page160" id="page160"> </a> +of the style (Figs. 92, 93). It is 312 feet long and 118 wide, with long +transepts and an elliptical dome of later date over the <i>crossing</i> +(the intersection of nave and transepts). Its richly arcaded front and +banded flanks strikingly exemplify the illogical and unconstructive but +highly decorative methods of the Tuscan Romanesque builders. The +circular <b>Baptistery</b> (1153), with its lofty domical central hall +surrounded by an aisle, an imposing development of the type established +by Constantine (<a href="#page111">p. 111</a>), and the famous +<b>Leaning Tower</b> (1174), both designed with external arcading, +combine with the Duomo to form the most remarkable group of +ecclesiastical buildings in Italy, if not in Europe (Fig. 92).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig92" id="fig92"> </a> +<img src="images/fig92.jpg" width="430" height="359" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 92.—BAPTISTERY, CATHEDRAL, AND LEANING TOWER, PISA.</p> + +<p>The same style appears in more flamboyant shape in +<span class="pagenum">161</span> +<a name="page161" id="page161"> </a> +some of the churches of Lucca. The cathedral <b>S. Martino</b> +(1060; façade, 1204; nave altered in fourteenth century) is the finest +and largest of these; <b>S. Michele</b> (façade, 1288) and +S. Frediano (twelfth century) have the most elaborately decorated +façades. The same principles of design appear in the cathedral and +several other churches in Pistoia and Prato; but these belong, for the +most part, to the Gothic period.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig93" id="fig93"> </a> +<img src="images/fig93.jpg" width="430" height="290" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 93.—INTERIOR OF PISA CATHEDRAL.</p> + + +<p><b>FLORENCE.</b> The church of <b>S. Miniato</b>, in the suburbs of +Florence, is a beautiful example of a modification of the Pisan style. +It is in plan a basilica with two piers interrupting the colonnade on +each side of the nave and supporting powerful transverse arches. The +interior is embellished with bands and patterns in black and white, and +the woodwork of the open-timber roof is elegantly decorated with fine +patterns in red, green, blue, and gold—a treatment common in +early mediæval churches, as at Messina, Orvieto, etc. The exterior is +adorned with wall-arches of +<span class="pagenum">162</span> +<a name="page162" id="page162"> </a> +classic design and with panelled veneering in white and dark marble, +instead of the horizontal bands of the Pisan churches. This system of +external decoration, a blending of Pisan and Italo-Byzantine +methods, became the established practice in Florence, lasting through +the whole Gothic period. The <b>Baptistery</b> of Florence, originally +the cathedral, an imposing polygonal domical edifice of the tenth +century, presents externally one of the most admirable examples of this +practice. Its marble veneering in black and white, with pilasters and +arches of excellent design, is attributed by Vasari to Arnolfo di +Cambio, but is by many considered to be much older, although restored by +that architect in 1294.</p> + +<p>Suggestions of the Pisan arcade system are found in widely scattered +examples in the east and south of Italy, mingled with features of +Lombard and Byzantine design. In Apulia, as at Bari, Caserta Vecchia +(1100), Molfetta (1192), and in Sicily, the Byzantine influence is +conspicuous in the use of domes and in many of the decorative details. +Particularly is this the case at Palermo and Monreale, where the +churches erected after the Norman conquest—some of them domical, +some basilican—show a strange but picturesque and beautiful +mixture of Romanesque, Byzantine, and Arabic forms. The <b>Cathedral</b> +of <b>Monreale</b> and the churches of the <b>Eremiti</b> and <b>La +Martorana</b> at Palermo are the most important.</p> + +<p>The <b>Italo-Byzantine</b> style has already found mention in the +latter part of Chapter XI. Venice and Ravenna were its chief centres; +while the influence, both of the parent style and of its Italian +offshoot was, as we have just shown, very widespread.</p> + + +<p><b>WESTERN ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.</b> In Western Europe the unrest +and lawlessness which attended the unsettled relations of society under +the feudal system long retarded the establishment of that social order +without +<span class="pagenum">163</span> +<a name="page163" id="page163"> </a> +which architectural progress is impossible. With the eleventh century +there began, however, a great activity in building, principally +among the monasteries, which represented all that there was of culture +and stability amid the prevailing disorder. Undisturbed by war, the only +abodes of peaceful labor, learning, and piety, they had become rich and +powerful, both in men and land. Probably the more or less general +apprehension of the supposed impending end of the world in the year 1000 +contributed to this result by driving unquiet consciences to seek refuge +in the monasteries, or to endow them richly.</p> + +<p>The monastic builders, with little technical training, but with +plenty of willing hands, sought out new architectural paths to meet +their special needs. Remote from classic and Byzantine models, and +mainly dependent on their own resources, they often failed to realize +the intended results. But skill came with experience, and with advancing +civilization and a surer mastery of construction came a finer taste and +greater elegance of design. Meanwhile military architecture developed a +new science of building, and covered Europe with imposing castles, +admirably constructed and often artistic in design as far as military +exigencies would permit.</p> + + +<p><b>CHARACTER OF THE STYLE.</b> The Romanesque architecture of the +eleventh and twelfth centuries in Western Europe (sometimes called the +<b>Round-Arched Gothic</b>) was thus predominantly though not +exclusively monastic. This gave it a certain unity of character in spite +of national and local variations. The problem which the wealthy orders +set themselves was, like that of the Lombard church-builders in Italy, +to adapt the basilica plan to the exigencies of vaulted construction. +Massive walls, round arches stepped or recessed to lighten their +appearance, heavy mouldings richly carved, clustered piers and +jamb-shafts, capitals either of the <i>cushion</i> type or imitated from +the Corinthian, +<span class="pagenum">164</span> +<a name="page164" id="page164"> </a> +and strong and effective carving—all these are features alike of +French, German, English, and Spanish Romanesque architecture.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig94" id="fig94"> </a> +<img src="images/fig94.png" width="185" height="288" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 94.—PLAN OF ST. FRONT.<!-- invisible . --></p> + +<p><b>THE FRENCH ROMANESQUE.</b> Though monasticism produced remarkable +results in France, architecture there did not wholly depend upon the +monasteries. Southern Gaul (Provence) was full of classic remains and +classic traditions while at the same time it maintained close trade +relations with Venice and the East.<a class="tag" name="tag19" id="tag19" href="#note19">19</a> The church of <b>St. Front</b> at +Perigueux, built in 1120, reproduced the plan of St. Mark’s with +singular fidelity, but without its rich decoration, and with pointed +instead of round arches (Figs. 94, 95). The domical cathedral of +<b>Cahors</b> (1050–1100), an obvious imitation of S. Irene +at Constantinople, and the later and more Gothic Cathedral of +<b>Angoulême</b> display a notable advance in architectural skill +outside of the monasteries. Among the abbeys, <b>Fontevrault</b> +(1101–1119) closely resembles Angoulême, but surpasses it in the +elegance of its choir and chapels. In these and a number of other +domical churches of the same Franco-Byzantine type in Aquitania, the +substitution of the Latin cross in the plan for the Greek cross used in +St. Front, evinces the Gallic tendency to work out to their logical end +new ideas or new applications of old ones. These striking variations on +Byzantine themes might have developed into an independent local style +but for the overwhelming +<span class="pagenum">165</span> +<a name="page165" id="page165"> </a> +tide of Gothic influence which later poured in from the North.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig95" id="fig95"> </a> +<img src="images/fig95.png" width="246" height="326" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 95.—INTERIOR OF ST. FRONT, PERIGUEUX.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, farther south (at Arles, Avignon, etc.), classic models +strongly influenced the details, if not the plans, of an interesting +series of churches remarkable especially for their porches rich with +figure sculpture and for their elaborately carved details. The classic +archivolt, the Corinthian capital, the Roman forms of enriched +mouldings, are evident at a glance in the porches of Notre Dame des Doms +at Avignon, of the church of St. Gilles, and of St. Trophime at +Arles.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w120"> +<a name="fig96" id="fig96"> </a> +<img src="images/fig96.png" width="111" height="200" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 96.—PLAN OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT, CLERMONT.</p> + +<p><b>DEVELOPMENT OF VAULTING.</b> It was in Central France, and mainly +along the Loire, that the systematic development of vaulted church +architecture began. Naves covered with barrel-vaults appear in a number +of large churches built during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, with +apsidal and transeptal chapels and aisles carried around the apse, as in +St. Etienne, Nevers, <b>Notre Dame du Port</b> at Clermont-Ferrand (Fig. +96), and <b>St. Paul</b> at Issoire. The thrust of these ponderous +vaults was clumsily resisted by half-barrel vaults over the side-aisles, +transmitting the strain to massive side-walls (Fig. 97), or by high +side-aisles with transverse barrel or groined vaults over each bay. In +either case the clearstory was suppressed—a fact which +mattered +<span class="pagenum">166</span> +<a name="page166" id="page166"> </a> +little in the sunny southern provinces. In the more cloudy North, in +Normandy, Picardy, and the Royal Domain, the nave-vault was raised +higher to admit of clearstory windows, and its section was in some cases +made like a pointed arch, to diminish its thrust, as at <b>Autun</b>. +But these eleventh-century vaults nearly all fell in, and had to be +reconstructed on new principles. In this work the Clunisians seem to +have led the way, as at <b>Cluny</b> (1089) and <b>Vézelay</b> (1100). +In the latter church, one of the finest and most interesting French +edifices of the twelfth century, a groined vault replaced the +barrel-vault, though the oblong plan of the vaulting-bays, due to the +nave being wider than the pier-arches, led to somewhat awkward twisted +surfaces in the vaulting. But even here the vaults had insufficient +lateral buttressing, and began to crack and settle; so that in the great +ante-chapel, built thirty years later, the side-aisles were made in two +stories, the better to resist the thrust, and the groined vaults +themselves were constructed of pointed section. These seem to be the +earliest pointed groined vaults in France. It was not till the second +half of that century, however (1150–1200), that the flying +buttress was combined with such vaults, so as to permit of high +clearstories for the better lighting of the nave; and +<span class="pagenum">167</span> +<a name="page167" id="page167"> </a> +the problem of satisfactorily vaulting an oblong space with a groined +vault was not solved until the following century.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig97" id="fig97"> </a> +<img src="images/fig97.png" width="232" height="230" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 97.—SECTION OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT, CLERMONT.</p> + + +<p><b>ONE-AISLED CHURCHES.</b> In the Franco-Byzantine churches already +described (<a href="#page164">p. 164</a>) this difficulty of the +oblong vaulting-bay did not occur, owing to the absence of side-aisles +and pier-arches. Following this conception of church-planning, +a number of interesting parish churches and a few cathedrals were +built in various parts of France in which side-recesses or chapels took +the place of side-aisles. The partitions separating them served as +abutments for the groined or barrel-vaults of the nave. The cathedrals +of <b>Autun</b> (1150) and <b>Langres</b> (1160), and in the fourteenth +century that of Alby, employed this arrangement, common in many earlier +Provençal churches which have disappeared.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig98" id="fig98"> </a> +<img src="images/fig98.png" width="245" height="216" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 98.—A SIX-PART RIBBED VAULT, SHOWING TWO COMPARTMENTS WITH +THE FILLINGS COMPLETE.</p> + +<p class="caption w240"> +<i>a, a, Transverse ribs (doubleaux); b, b, Wall-ribs (formerets); +c, c, Groin-ribs (diagonaux).</i><br> +(All the ribs are semicircles.)</p> + +<p><b>SIX-PART VAULTING.</b> In the Royal Domain great architectural +activity does not appear to have begun until the beginning of the Gothic +period in the middle of the twelfth century. But in Normandy, and +especially at Caen and Mont St. Michel, there were produced, between +1046 and 1120, some remarkable churches, in which a high clearstory was +secured in conjunction with a vaulted nave, by the use of “six-part” +vaulting (Fig. 98). This was an awkward expedient, by which a square +vaulting-bay was divided into six parts by the groins and by a middle +transverse rib, necessitating two narrow skew vaults meeting at +<span class="pagenum">168</span> +<a name="page168" id="page168"> </a> +the centre. This unsatisfactory device was retained for over a century, +and was common in early Gothic churches both in France and Great +Britain. It made it possible to resist the thrust by high side-aisles, +and yet to open windows above these under the cross-vaults. The abbey +churches of <b>St. Etienne</b> (the Abbaye aux Hommes) and <b>Ste. +Trinité</b> (Abbaye aux Dames), at Caen, built in the time of William +the Conqueror, were among the most magnificent churches of their time, +both in size and in the excellence and ingenuity of their construction. +The great abbey church of <b>Mont St. Michel</b> (much altered in later +times) should also be mentioned here. At the same time these and other +Norman churches showed a great advance in their internal composition. +A well-developed triforium or subordinate gallery was introduced +between the pier-arches and clearstory, and all the structural membering +of the edifice was better proportioned and more logically expressed than +in most contemporary work.</p> + + +<p><b>ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.</b> The details of French Romanesque +architecture varied considerably in the several provinces, according as +classic, Byzantine, or local influences prevailed. Except in a few of +the Aquitanian churches, the round arch was universal. The walls were +heavy and built of rubble between facings of stones of moderate size +dressed with the axe. Windows and doors were widely splayed to diminish +the obstruction of the massive walls, and were treated with jamb-shafts +and recessed arches. These were usually formed with large cylindrical +mouldings, richly carved with leaf ornaments, zigzags, billets, and +grotesques. Figure-sculpture was more generally used in the South than +in the North. The interior piers were sometimes cylindrical, but more +often clustered, and where square bays of four-part or six-part vaulting +were employed, the piers were alternately lighter and heavier. Each +shaft had its independent capital either of the block type or of a form +<span class="pagenum">169</span> +<a name="page169" id="page169"> </a> +resembling somewhat that of the Corinthian order. During the eleventh +century it became customary to carry up to the main vaulting one or more +shafts of the compound pier to support the vaulting ribs. Thus the +division of the nave into <i>bays</i> was accentuated, while at the same +time the horizontal three-fold division of the height by a well-defined +triforium between the pier-arches and clearstory began to be likewise +emphasized.</p> + + +<p><b>VAULTING.</b> The vaulting was also divided into bays by +transverse ribs, and where it was groined the groins themselves began in +the twelfth century to be marked by groin-ribs. These were constructed +independently of the vaulting, and the four or six compartments of each +vaulting-bay were then built in, the ribs serving, in part at least, to +support the centrings for this purpose. This far-reaching principle, +already applied by the Romans in their concrete vaults (see <a href="#page84">p. 84</a>), appears as a re-discovery, or rather an +independent invention, of the builders of Normandy at the close of the +eleventh century. The flying buttress was a later invention; in the +round-arched buildings of the eleventh and twelfth centuries the +buttressing was mainly internal, and was incomplete and timid in its +arrangement.</p> + + +<p><b>EXTERIORS.</b> The exteriors were on this account plain and flat. +The windows were small, the mouldings simple, and towers were rarely +combined with the body of the church until after the beginning of the +twelfth century. Then they appeared as mere belfries of moderate height, +with pyramidal roofs and effectively arranged openings, the germs of the +noble Gothic spires of later times. Externally the western porches and +portals were the most important features of the design, producing an +imposing effect by their massive arches, clustered piers, richly carved +mouldings, and deep shadows.</p> + + +<p><b>CLOISTERS, ETC.</b> Mention should be made of the other monastic +buildings which were grouped around the abbey +<span class="pagenum">170</span> +<a name="page170" id="page170"> </a> +churches of this period. These comprised refectories, chapter-halls, +cloistered courts surrounded by the conventual cells, and a large number +of accessory structures for kitchens, infirmaries, stores, etc. The +whole formed an elaborate and complex aggregation of connected +buildings, often of great size and beauty, especially the refectories +and cloisters. Most of these conventual buildings have disappeared, many +of them having been demolished during the Gothic period to make way for +more elegant structures in the new style. There remain, however, +a number of fine cloistered courts in their original form, +especially in Southern France. Among the most remarkable of these are +those of <b>Moissac</b>, <b>Elne</b>, and <b>Montmajour</b>.</p> + + +<div class="monuments"> +<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> <span class="smallcaps">Italy.</span> (For +basilicas and domical churches of 6th-12th centuries see pp. 118, +119.)—Before 11th century: Sta. Maria at Toscanella, altered 1206; +S. Donato, Zara; chapel at Friuli; baptistery at Boella. 11th +century: S. Giovanni, Viterbo; Sta. Maria della Pieve, Arezzo; +S. Antonio, Piacenza, 1014; Eremiti, 1132, and La Martorana, 1143, +both at Palermo; Duomo at Bari, 1027 (much altered); Duomo and +baptistery, Novara, 1030; Duomo at Parma, begun 1058; Duomo at Pisa, +1063–1118; S. Miniato, Florence, 1063–12th century; +S. Michele at Pavia and Duomo at Modena, late 11th +century.—12th century: in Calabria and Apulia, cathedrals of +Trani, 1100; Caserta, Vecchia, 1100–1153; Molfetta, 1162; +Benevento; churches S. Giovanni at Brindisi, S. Niccolo at +Bari, 1139. In Sicily, Duomo at Monreale, 1174–1189. In Northern +Italy, S. Tomaso in Limine, Bergamo, 1100 (?); Sta. Giulia, +Brescia; S. Lorenzo, Milan, rebuilt 1119; Duomo at Piacenza, 1122; +S. Zeno at Verona, 1139; S. Ambrogio, Milan, 1140, vaulted in +13th century; baptistery at Pisa, 1153–1278; Leaning Tower, Pisa, +1174.—14th century: S. Michele, Lucca, 1188; S. Giovanni +and S. Frediano, Lucca. In Dalmatia, cathedral at Zara, +1192–1204. Many castles and early town-halls, as at Bari, Brescia, +Lucca, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">France</span>: Previous to 11th century: +St. Germiny-des-Prés, 806, Chapel of the Trinity, St. +Honorat-des-Lérins; Ste. Croix de Montmajour.—11th century: +Cérisy-la-Forêt and abbey church of Mont St. Michel, 1020 (the latter +altered in 12th and 16th centuries<ins class="correction" title=") missing">);</ins> Vignory; St. Genou; porch of St. Bénoit-sur-Loire, +1030; St. Sépulchre at Neuvy, 1045; Ste. Trinité +<span class="pagenum">171</span> +<a name="page171" id="page171"> </a> +(Abbaye aux Dames) at Caen, 1046, vaulted 1140; St. Etienne (Abbaye aux +Hommes) at Caen, same date; St. Front at Perigueux, 1120; Ste. Croix at +Quimperlé, 1081; cathedral, Cahors, 1050–1110; abbey churches of +Cluny (demolished) and Vézelay, 1089–1100; circular church of +Rieux-Mérinville, church of St. Savin in Auvergne, the churches of St. +Paul at Issoire and Notre-Dame-du-Port at Clermont, St. Hilaire and +Notre-Dame-la-Grande at Poitiers; also St. Sernin (Saturnin) at +Toulouse, all at close of 11th and beginning of 12th century.—12th +century: Domical churches of Aquitania and vicinity; Solignac and +Fontévrault, 1120; St. Etienne (Périgueux), St. Avit-Sénieur; Angoulême, +Souillac, Broussac, etc., early 12th century; St. Trophime at Arles, +1110, cloisters later; church of Vaison; abbeys and cloisters at +Montmajour, Tarascon, Moissac (with fragments of a 10th-century cloister +built into present arcades); St. Paul-du-Mausolée; Puy-en-Vélay, with +fine church. Many other abbeys, parish churches, and a few cathedrals in +Central and Northern France especially.<!-- invisible . --></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="note18" id="note18" href="#tag18">18.</a> +See <a href="#appB">Appendix B</a>.</p> + +<p><a name="note19" id="note19" href="#tag19">19.</a> +See Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Dictionnaire raisonné</i>, article <span class="smallcaps">Architecture</span>, vol. i., pp. 66 <i>et seq.</i>; also de +Verneilh, <i>L’Architecture byzantine en France</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<span class="pagenum">172</span> +<a name="page172" id="page172"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXIV" id="chapXIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +EARLY MEDIÆVAL ARCHITECTURE.—<i>Continued.</i></h3> + +<h3 class="subsub"> +IN GERMANY, GREAT BRITAIN, AND SPAIN.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Hübsch +and Reber. Bond, <i>Gothic Architecture in England</i>. Also Brandon, +<i>Analysis of Gothic Architecture</i>. Boisserée, <i>Nieder Rhein</i>. +Ditchfield, <i>The Cathedrals of England</i>. Hasak, <i>Die romanische +und die gotische Baukunst</i> (in <i>Handbuch d. Arch.</i>). Lübke, +<i>Die Mittelalterliche Kunst in Westfalen</i>. Möller, <i>Denkmäler der +deutschen Baukunst</i>. Puttrich, <i>Baukunst des Mittelalters in +Sachsen</i>. Rickman, <i>An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of +Architecture</i>. Scott, <i>English Church Architecture</i>. Van +Rensselaer, <i>English Cathedrals</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>MEDIÆVAL GERMANY.</b> Architecture developed less rapidly and +symmetrically in Germany than in France, notwithstanding the strong +centralized government of the empire. The early churches were of wood, +and the substitution of stone for wood proceeded slowly. During the +Carolingian epoch (800–919), however, a few important +buildings were erected, embodying Byzantine and classic traditions. +Among these the most notable was the <b>Minster</b> or palatine chapel +of Charlemagne at <b>Aix-la-Chapelle</b>, an obvious imitation of San +Vitale at Ravenna. It consisted of an octagonal domed hall surrounded by +a vaulted aisle in two stories, but without the eight niches of the +Ravenna plan. It was preceded by a porch flanked by turrets. The +Byzantine type thus introduced was repeated in later churches, as in the +Nuns’ Choir at Essen (947) and at Ottmarsheim (1050). In the great +monastery at Fulda a basilica with +<span class="pagenum">173</span> +<a name="page173" id="page173"> </a> +transepts and with an apsidal choir at either end was built in 803. +These choirs were raised above the level of the nave, to admit of crypts +beneath them, as in many Lombard churches; a practice which, with +the reduplication of the choir and apse just mentioned, became very +common in German Romanesque architecture.</p> + + +<p><b>EARLY CHURCHES.</b> It was in Saxony that this architecture first +entered upon a truly national development. The early churches of this +province and of Hildesheim (where architecture flourished under the +favor of the bishops, as elsewhere under the royal influence) were of +basilican plan and destitute of vaulting, except in the crypts. They +were built with massive piers, sometimes rectangular, sometimes +clustered, the two kinds often alternating in the same nave. Short +columns were, however, sometimes used instead of piers, either alone, as +at Paulinzelle and Limburg-on-the-Hardt (1024–39), or alternating +with piers, as at Hecklingen, <b>Gernrode</b> (958–1050), and +<b>St. Godehard</b> at Hildesheim (1133). A triple eastern apse, +with apsidal chapels projecting eastward from the transepts, were common +elements in the plans, and a second apse, choir, and crypt at the west +end were not infrequent. Externally the most striking feature was the +association of two, four, or even six square or circular towers with the +mass of the church, and the elevation of square or polygonal turrets or +cupolas over the crossing. These adjuncts gave a very picturesque aspect +to edifices otherwise somewhat wanting in artistic interest.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w90"> +<a name="fig99" id="fig99"> </a> +<img src="images/fig99.png" width="83" height="240" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 99.—PLAN OF MINSTER AT WORMS.</p> + +<p><b>RHENISH CHURCHES.</b> It was in the Rhine provinces that vaulting +was first applied to the naves of German churches, nearly a half century +after its general adoption in France. Cologne possesses an +<span class="pagenum">174</span> +<a name="page174" id="page174"> </a> +interesting trio of churches in which the Byzantine dome on squinches or +on pendentives, with three apses or niches opening into the central +area, was associated with a long three aisled nave (<b>St. +Mary-in-the-Capitol</b>, begun in 9th century; <b>Great St. +Martin’s</b>, 1150–70; <b>Apostles’ Church</b>, 1160–99: the +naves vaulted later). The double chapel at <b>Schwarz-Rheindorf</b>, +near Bonn (1151), also has the crossing covered by a dome on +pendentives.</p> + +<p class="illustration floatleft w180"> +<a name="fig100" id="fig100"> </a> +<img src="images/fig100.png" width="182" height="376" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 100.—ONE BAY OF CATHEDRAL AT SPIRES.</p> + +<p>The vaulting of the nave itself was developed in another series of +edifices of imposing size, the cathedrals of <b>Mayence</b> (1036), +<b>Spires</b> (Speyer), and <b>Worms</b>, and the <b>Abbey of Laach</b>, +all built in the 11th century and vaulted early in the 12th. In the +first three the main vaulting is in square bays, each covering two bays +of the nave, the piers of which are alternately lighter and heavier +(Figs. 99, 100). At Laach the vaulting-bays are oblong, both in nave and +aisles. There was no triforium gallery, and stability was secured only +by excessive thickness in the piers and clearstory walls, and by +bringing down the main vault as near to the side-aisle roofs as +possible.</p> + + +<p><b>RHENISH EXTERIORS.</b> These great churches, together with those +of <b>Bonn</b> and <b>Limburg-on-the-Lahn</b> and the cathedral of +<b>Treves</b> (Trier, 1047), are interesting, not only by their size and +dignity of plan and the somewhat rude massiveness of their construction, +but even more so by the picturesqueness +<span class="pagenum">175</span> +<a name="page175" id="page175"> </a> +of their external design (Fig. 101). Especially successful is the +massing of the large and small turrets with the lofty nave-roof and with +the apses at one or both ends. The systematic use of arcading to +decorate the exterior walls, and the introduction of open arcaded dwarf +galleries under the cornices of the apses, gables, and dome-turrets, +gave to these Rhenish churches an external beauty hardly equalled in +other contemporary edifices. This method of exterior design, and the +system of vaulting in square bays over double bays of the nave, were +probably derived from the Lombard churches of Northern Italy, with which +the <ins class="correction" title="spelling unchanged">Hohenstauffen</ins> emperors had many political +relations.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig101" id="fig101"> </a> +<img src="images/fig101.jpg" width="242" height="350" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 101.—EAST END OF CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES, COLOGNE.</p> + +<p>The Italian influence is also encountered in a number of circular +churches of early date, as at Fulda (9th-11th century), Drügelte, Bonn +(baptistery, demolished), and in façades like that at Rosheim, which is +a copy in little of San Zeno at Verona.</p> + +<p>Elsewhere in Germany architecture was in a backward state, especially +in the southern provinces. Outside of Saxony, Franconia, and the Rhine +provinces, very few works of importance were erected until the +thirteenth century.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">176</span> +<a name="page176" id="page176"> </a> +<p><b>SECULAR ARCHITECTURE.</b> Little remains to us of the secular +architecture of this period in Germany, if we except the great feudal +castles, especially those of the Rhine, which were, after all, rather +works of military engineering than of architectural art. The palace of +Charlemagne at Aix (the chapel of which was mentioned on <a href="#page172">p. 172</a>) is known to have been a vast and splendid +group of buildings, partly, at least of marble; but hardly a vestige of +it remains. Of the extensive <b>Palace of Henry III.</b> at +<b>Goslar</b> there remain well-defined ruins of an imposing hall of +assembly in two aisles with triple-arched windows. At Brunswick the east +wing of the <b>Burg Dankwargerode</b> displays, in spite of modern +alterations, the arrangement of the chapel, great hall, two fortified +towers, and part of the residence of Henry the Lion. The <b>Wartburg</b> +palace (Ludwig III., <i>cir.</i> 1150) is more generally +known—a rectangular hall in three stories, with windows +effectively grouped to form arcades; while at Gelnhausen and Münzenberg +are ruins of somewhat similar buildings. A few of the Romanesque +monasteries of Germany have left partial remains, as at +<b>Maulbronn</b>, which was almost entirely rebuilt in the Gothic +period, and isolated buildings in Cologne and elsewhere. There remain +also in Cologne a number of Romanesque private houses with coupled +windows and stepped gables.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig102" id="fig102"> </a> +<img src="images/fig102.png" width="184" height="388" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 102.—PLAN OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL.</p> + +<p><b>GREAT BRITAIN.</b> Previous to the Norman conquest (1066) there +was in the British Isles little or no architecture worthy of mention. +The few extant remains of Saxon and Celtic buildings reveal a singular +poverty of ideas and want of technical skill. These scanty remains are +mostly of towers (those in Ireland nearly all round and tapering, with +conical tops, their use and date being the subjects of much controversy) +and crypts. The tower of Earl’s Barton is the most important and best +preserved of those in England. With the Norman conquest, however, began +an extraordinary activity in the building of churches and abbeys. +<span class="pagenum">177</span> +<a name="page177" id="page177"> </a> +William the Conqueror himself founded a number of these, and his Norman +ecclesiastics endeavored to surpass on British soil the contemporary +churches of Normandy. The new churches differed somewhat from their +French prototypes; they were narrower and lower, but much longer, +especially as to the choir and transepts. The cathedrals of +<b>Durham</b> (1096–1133) and <b>Norwich</b> (same date) are +important examples (Fig. 102). They also differed from the French +churches in two important particulars externally; a huge tower rose +usually over the crossing, and the western portals were small and +insignificant. Lateral entrances near the west end were given greater +importance and called <i>Galilees</i>. At Durham a Galilee chapel (not +shown in the plan), takes the place of a porch at the west end, like the +ante-churches of St. Benoît-sur-Loire and Vézelay.</p> + + +<p><b>THE NORMAN STYLE.</b> The Anglo-Norman builders employed the same +general features as the Romanesque builders of Normandy, but with more +of picturesqueness and less of refinement and technical elegance. Heavy +walls, recessed arches, round mouldings, cubic cushion-caps, clustered +piers, and in doorways a jamb-shaft for each stepping of the arch were +common to both styles. But in England the Corinthian form of capital is +rare, its place being taken by simpler forms.</p> + + +<p class="illustration floatleft w120"> +<a name="fig103" id="fig103"> </a> +<img src="images/fig103.png" width="118" height="378" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 103.—ONE BAY OF TRANSEPT, WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL.</p> + +<p><b>NORMAN INTERIORS.</b> The interior design of the larger churches +of this period shows a close general analogy to +<span class="pagenum">178</span> +<a name="page178" id="page178"> </a> +contemporaneous French Norman churches, as appears by comparing the nave +of Waltham or Peterboro’ with that of Cérisy-la-Forêt, in Normandy. +Although the massiveness of the Anglo-Norman piers and walls plainly +suggests the intention of vaulting the nave, this intention seems never +to have been carried out except in small churches and crypts. All the +existing abbeys and cathedrals of this period had wooden ceilings or +were, like Durham, Norwich, and Gloucester, vaulted at a later date. +Completed as they were with wooden nave-roofs, the clearstory was, +without danger, made quite lofty and furnished with windows of +considerable size. These were placed near the outside of the thick wall, +and a passage was left between them and a triple arch on the inner face +of the wall—a device imitated from the abbeys at Caen. The +vaulted side-aisles were low, with disproportionately wide pier-arches, +above which was a high triforium gallery under the side-roofs. Thus a +nearly equal height was assigned to each of the three stories of the +bay, disregarding that subordination of minor to major parts which gives +interest to an architectural composition. The piers were quite often +round, as at Gloucester, Hereford, and Bristol. Sometimes round piers +alternated with clustered piers, as at Durham and Waltham; and in some +cases clustered piers alone were employed, as at Peterboro’ and in the +transepts of Winchester (Fig. 103).</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig104" id="fig104"> </a> +<img src="images/fig104.png" width="212" height="306" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 104.—FRONT OF IFFLEY CHURCH.</p> + +<p><b>FAÇADES AND DOORWAYS.</b> All the details were of the simplest +character, except in the doorways. These were richly adorned with +clustered jamb-shafts and elaborately carved +<span class="pagenum">179</span> +<a name="page179" id="page179"> </a> +mouldings, but there was little variety in the details of this carving. +The zigzag was the most common feature, though birds’ heads with the +beaks pointing toward the centre of the arch were not uncommon. In the +smaller churches (Fig. 104) the doorways were better proportioned to the +whole façade than in the larger ones, in which they appear as relatively +insignificant features. Very few examples remain of important Norman +façades in their original form, nearly all of these having been altered +after the round arch was displaced by the pointed arch in the latter +part of the twelfth century. Iffley church (Fig. 104) is a good example +of the style.</p> + + +<p><b>SPAIN.</b> During the Romanesque period a large part of Spain was +under Moorish dominion. The capture of Toledo, in 1062, by the +Christians, began the gradual emancipation of the country from Moslem +rule, and in the northern provinces a number of important churches were +erected under the influence of French Romanesque models. The use of +domical pendentives (as in the <b>Panteon</b> of <b>S. Isidoro</b>, +at Leon, and in the <i>cimborio</i> or dome over the choir at the +intersection of nave and transepts in old Salamanca cathedral) was +probably derived from the domical churches of Aquitania and Anjou. +Elsewhere the northern Romanesque type prevailed under various +modifications, with long nave and transepts, a short choir, and a +<span class="pagenum">180</span> +<a name="page180" id="page180"> </a> +complete <i>chevet</i> with apsidal chapels. The church of <b>St. +Iago</b> at Compostella (1078) is the finest example of this class. +These churches nearly all had groined vaulting over the side-aisles and +barrel-vaults over the nave, the constructive system being substantially +that of the churches of Auvergne and the Loire Valley (<a href="#page165">p. 165</a>). They differed, however, in the treatment of +the crossing of nave and transepts, over which was usually erected a +dome or cupola or pendentives or squinches, covered externally by an +imposing square lantern or tower, as in the <b>Old Cathedral</b> at +<b>Salamanca</b>, already mentioned (1120–78) and the +<b>Collegiate Church</b> at <b>Toro</b>. Occasional exceptions to these +types are met with, as in the basilican wooden-roofed church of +S. Millan at Segovia; in <b>S. Isidoro</b> at Leon, with +chapels and a later-added square eastern end, and the circular church of +the Templars at Segovia.</p> + +<p>The architectural details of these Spanish churches did not differ +radically from contemporary French work. As in France and England, the +doorways were the most ornate parts of the design, the mouldings being +carved with extreme richness and the jambs frequently adorned with +statues, as in <b>S. Vincente</b> at Avila. There was no such +logical and reasoned-out system of external design as in France, and +there is consequently greater variety in the façades. Perhaps the most +remarkable thing about the architecture of this period is its apparent +exemption from the influence of the Moorish monuments which abounded on +every hand. This may be explained by the hatred which was felt by the +Christians for the Moslems and all their works.</p> + +<div class="monuments"> + +<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> <span class="smallcaps">Germany</span>: Previous +to 11th century: Circular churches of Holy Cross at Münster, and of +Fulda; palace chapel of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, 804; St. +Stephen, Mayence, 990; primitive nave and crypt of St. Gereon, Cologne, +10th century; Lorsch.—11th century: Churches of Gernrode, Goslar, +and Merseburg in Saxony; cathedral +<span class="pagenum">181</span> +<a name="page181" id="page181"> </a> +of Bremen; first restoration of cathedral of Treves (Trier), 1010, west +front, 1047; Limburg-on-Hardt, 1024; St. Willibrod, Echternach, 1031; +east end of Mayence Cathedral, 1036; Church of Apostles and nave St. +Mary-in-Capitol at Cologne, 1036; cathedral of Spires (Speyer) begun +1040; Cathedral Hildesheim, 1061; St. Joseph, Bamberg, 1073; Abbey of +Laach, 1093–1156; round churches of Bonn, Drügelte, Nimeguen; +cathedrals of Paderborn and Minden.—12th century: Churches of +Klus, Paulinzelle, Hamersleben, 1100–1110; Johannisberg, 1130; St. +Godehard. Hildesheim, 1133; Worms, the Minster, 1118–83; Jerichau, +1144–60; Schwarz-Rheindorf, 1151; St. Michael, Hildesheim, 1162; +Cathedral Brunswick, 1172–94; Lubeck, 1172; also churches of +Gaudersheim, Würzburg, St. Matthew at Treves, Limburg-on-Lahn, Sinzig, +St. Castor at Coblentz, Diesdorf, Rosheim; round churches of Ottmarsheim +and Rippen (Denmark); cathedral of Basle, cathedral and cloister of +Zurich (Switzerland).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">England</span>: Previous to 11th century: +Scanty vestiges of Saxon church architecture, as tower of Earl’s Barton, +round towers and small chapels in Ireland.—11th century: Crypt of +Canterbury Cathedral, 1070; chapel St. John in Tower of London, 1070; +Winchester Cathedral, 1076–93 (nave and choir rebuilt later); +Gloucester Cathedral nave, 1089–1100 (vaulted later); Rochester +Cathedral nave, west front cloisters, and chapter-house, +1090–1130; Carlisle Cathedral nave, transepts, 1093–1130; +Durham Cathedral, 1095–1133, vaulted 1233; Galilee and +chapter-house, 1133–53; Norwich Cathedral, 1096, largely rebuilt +1118–93; Hereford Cathedral, nave and choir, +1099–1115.—12th century: Ely Cathedral, nave, 1107–33; +St. Alban’s Abbey, 1116; Peterboro’ Cathedral, 1117–45; Waltham +Abbey, early 12th century; Church of Holy Sepulchre, Cambridge, +1130–35; Worcester Cathedral chapter-house, 1140 (?); Oxford +Cathedral (Christ Church), 1150–80; Bristol Cathedral +chapter-house (square), 1155; Canterbury Cathedral, choir of present +structure by William of Sens, 1175; Chichester Cathedral, +1180–1204; Romsey Abbey, late 12th century; St. Cross Hospital +near Winchester, 1190 (?). Many more or less important parish churches +in various parts of England.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Spain.</span> For principal monuments of +9th-12th centuries, see text, latter part of this chapter.</p> + +</div> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">182</span> +<a name="page182" id="page182"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXV" id="chapXV">CHAPTER XV.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Adamy, +<i>Architektonik des gotischen Stils</i>. Corroyer, <i>L’Architecture +gothique</i>. Enlart, <i>Manuel d’archéologie française</i>. Hasak, +<i>Einzelheiten des Kirchenbaues</i> (in <i>Hdbuch d. Arch.</i>). Moore, +<i>Development and Character of Gothic Architecture</i>. Parker, +<i>Introduction to Gothic Architecture.</i> Scott, <i>Mediæval +Architecture</i>. Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Discourses on Architecture</i>; +<i>Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>INTRODUCTORY.</b> The architectural styles which were developed in +Western Europe during the period extending from about 1150 to 1450 or +1500, received in an unscientific age the wholly erroneous and inept +name of Gothic. This name has, however, become so fixed in common usage +that it is hardly possible to substitute for it any more scientific +designation. In reality the architecture to which it is applied was +nothing more than the sequel and outgrowth of the Romanesque, which we +have already studied. Its fundamental principles were the same; it was +concerned with the same problems. These it took up where the Romanesque +builders left them, and worked out their solution under new conditions, +until it had developed out of the simple and massive models of the early +twelfth century the splendid cathedrals of the thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries in England, France, Germany, the Low Countries and Spain.</p> + + +<p><b>THE CHURCH AND ARCHITECTURE.</b> The twelfth century was an era of +transition in society, as in architecture. The ideas of Church and State +were becoming more clearly defined in the common mind. In the conflict +between feudalism +<span class="pagenum">183</span> +<a name="page183" id="page183"> </a> +and royalty the monarchy was steadily gaining ground. The problem of +human right was beginning to present itself alongside of the problem of +human might. The relations between the crown, the feudal barons, the +pope, bishops, and abbots, differed widely in France, Germany, England, +and other countries. The struggle among them for supremacy presented +itself, therefore, in varied aspects; but the general outcome was +essentially the same. The church began to appear as something behind and +above abbots, bishops, kings, and barons. The supremacy of the papal +authority gained increasing recognition, and the episcopacy began to +overshadow the monastic institutions; the bishops appearing generally, +but especially in France, as the champions of popular rights. The +prerogatives of the crown became more firmly established, and thus the +Church and the State emerged from the social confusion as the two +institutions divinely appointed for the government of men.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig105" id="fig105"> </a> +<img src="images/fig105.png" width="278" height="284" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 105.—CONSTRUCTIVE SYSTEM OF GOTHIC CHURCH,<br> +ILLUSTRATING PRINCIPLES OF ISOLATED SUPPORTS AND BUTTRESSING.</p> + +<p>Under these influences ecclesiastical architecture advanced with +rapid strides. No longer hampered by monastic restrictions, it called +into its service the laity, whose guilds of masons and builders carried +from one diocese to another their constantly increasing stores of +constructive +<span class="pagenum">184</span> +<a name="page184" id="page184"> </a> +knowledge. By a wise division of labor, each man wrought only such parts +as he was specially trained to undertake. The +master-builder—bishop, abbot, or mason—seems to have planned +only the general arrangement and scheme of the building, leaving the +precise form of each detail to be determined as the work advanced, +according to the skill and fancy of the artisan to whom it was +intrusted. Thus was produced that remarkable variety in unity of the +Gothic cathedrals; thus, also, those singular irregularities and +makeshifts, those discrepancies and alterations in the design, which are +found in every great work of mediæval architecture. Gothic architecture +was constantly changing, attacking new problems or devising new +solutions of old ones. In this character of constant flux and +development it contrasts strongly with the classic styles, in which the +scheme and the principles were easily fixed and remained substantially +unchanged for centuries.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig106" id="fig106"> </a> +<img src="images/fig106.png" width="140" height="344" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 106.—PLAN OF SAINTE CHAPELLE, PARIS, SHOWING SUPPRESSION OF +SIDE-WALLS.</p> + +<p><b>STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES.</b> The pointed arch, so commonly regarded +as the most characteristic feature of the Gothic styles, was merely an +incidental feature of their development. What really distinguished them +most strikingly was the systematic application of two principles which +the Roman and Byzantine builders had recognized and applied, but which +seem to have been afterward forgotten until they were revived by the +later Romanesque architects. The first of these was the <i>concentration +of strains</i> upon isolated points of support, made possible by the +substitution +<span class="pagenum">185</span> +<a name="page185" id="page185"> </a> +of groined for barrel vaults. This led to a corresponding concentration +of the masses of masonry at these points; the building was constructed +as if upon legs (Fig. 105). The wall became a mere filling-in between +the piers or buttresses, and in time was, indeed, practically +suppressed, immense windows filled with stained glass taking its place. +This is well illustrated in the <b>Sainte Chapelle</b> at Paris, built +1242–47 (Figs. 106, <a href="#fig122">122</a>). In this +remarkable edifice, a series of groined vaults spring from slender +shafts built against deep buttresses which receive and resist all the +thrusts. The wall-spaces between them are wholly occupied by superb +windows filled with stone tracery and stained glass. It would be +impossible to combine the materials used more scientifically or +effectively. The cathedrals of Gerona (Spain) and of Alby (France; <a +href="#fig123">Fig. 123</a>) illustrate the same principle, +though in them the buttresses are internal and serve to separate the +flanking chapels.</p> + +<p class="illustration floatleft w210"> +<a name="fig107" id="fig107"> </a> +<img src="images/fig107.png" width="202" height="322" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 107.—EARLY GOTHIC FLYING BUTTRESS.</p> + +<p>The second distinctive principle of Gothic architecture was that of +<i>balanced thrusts</i>. In Roman buildings the thrust of the vaulting +was resisted wholly by the inertia of mass in the abutments. In Gothic +architecture thrusts were as far as possible resisted by +counter-thrusts, and the final resultant pressure was transmitted by +flying half-arches across the intervening portions of the structure to +external buttresses placed at convenient points. This combination +<span class="pagenum">186</span> +<a name="page186" id="page186"> </a> +of flying half-arches and buttresses is called the +<i>flying-buttress</i> (Fig. 107). It reached its highest development in +the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in the cathedrals of central and +northern France.</p> + + +<p><b>RIBBED VAULTING.</b> These two principles formed the structural +basis of the Gothic styles. Their application led to the introduction of +two other elements, second only to them in importance, <i>ribbed +vaulting</i> and the <i>pointed arch</i>.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig108" id="fig108"> </a> +<img src="images/fig108.png" width="146" height="158" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 108.—RIBBED VAULT, ENGLISH TYPE, WITH DIVIDED GROIN-RIBS AND +RIDGE-RIBS.</p> + +<p>The first of these resulted from the effort to overcome certain +practical difficulties encountered in the building of large groined +vaults. As ordinarily constructed, a groined vault like that in <a +href="#fig47">Fig. 47</a>, must be built as one structure, upon +wooden centrings supporting its whole extent. The Romanesque architects +conceived the idea of constructing an independent skeleton of ribs. Two +of these were built against the wall (<i>wall-ribs</i>), two across the +nave (transverse ribs); and two others were made to coincide with the +groins (Figs. <a href="#fig98">98</a>, 108). The <i>groin-ribs</i>, +intersecting at the centre of the vault, divided each bay into four +triangular portions, or <i>compartments</i>, each of which was really an +independent vault which could be separately constructed upon light +centrings supported by the groin-ribs themselves. This principle, though +identical in essence with the Roman system of brick skeleton-ribs for +concrete vaults, was, in application and detail, superior to it, both +from the scientific and artistic point of view. The ribs, richly +moulded, became, in the hands of the Gothic architects, important +decorative features. In practice the builder gave to each set of ribs +independently the curvature he desired. The vaulting-surfaces were then +easily twisted or warped so as to fit the +<span class="pagenum">187</span> +<a name="page187" id="page187"> </a> +various ribs, which, being already in place, served as guides for their +construction.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig109" id="fig109"> </a> +<img src="images/fig109.png" width="203" height="225" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 109.—PENETRATIONS AND INTERSECTIONS OF VAULTS.</p> + +<p class="caption w210"> +<i>a, a, Penetrations by small semi-circular vaults sprung from same +level. b, Intersection by small semi-circular vault sprung from higher +level; groins form wavy lines. c, Intersection by narrow pointed vault +sprung from same level; groins are plane curves.</i></p> + +<p><b>THE POINTED ARCH</b> was adopted to remedy the difficulties +encountered in the construction of oblong vaults. It is obvious that +where a narrow semi-cylindrical vault intersects a wide one, it produces +either what are called <i>penetrations</i>, as at <i>a</i> (Fig. 109), +or intersections like that at <i>b</i>, both of which are awkward +in aspect and hard to construct. If, however, one or both vaults be +given a pointed section, the narrow vault may be made as high as the +wide one. It is then possible, with but little warping of the vaulting +surfaces, to make them intersect in groins <i>c</i>, which are +vertical plane curves instead of wavy loops like <i>a</i> +and <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>The Gothic architects availed themselves to the full of these two +devices. They built their groin-ribs of semi-circular or pointed form, +but the wall-ribs and the transverse ribs were, without exception, +pointed arches of such curvature as would bring the apex of each nearly +or quite to the level of the groin intersection. The pointed arch, thus +introduced as the most convenient form for the vaulting-ribs, was soon +applied to other parts of the structure.<!-- invisible . --> This was a +necessity with the windows and pier-arches, which would not otherwise +fit well the wall-spaces under the wall-ribs of the nave and aisle +vaulting.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig110" id="fig110"> </a> +<img src="images/fig110.png" width="193" height="233" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 110.—PLATE TRACERY, CHARLTON-ON-OXMORE.</p> + +<p><b>TRACERY AND GLASS.</b> With the growth in the size of the windows +and the progressive suppression of the lateral walls +<span class="pagenum">188</span> +<a name="page188" id="page188"> </a> +of vaulted structures, stained glass came more and more generally into +use. Its introduction not only resulted in a notable heightening and +enriching of the colors and scheme of the interior decoration, but +reacted on the architecture, intensifying the very causes which led to +its introduction. It stimulated the increase in the size of windows, and +the suppression of the walls, and contributed greatly to the development +of <i>tracery</i>. This latter feature was an absolute necessity for the +support of the glass. Its evolution can be traced (Figs, 110, 111, 112) +from the simple coupling of twin windows under a single hood-mould, or +discharging arch, to the florid net-work of the fifteenth century. In +its earlier forms it consisted merely of decorative openings, circles, +and quatrefoils, pierced through slabs of stone (<i>plate-tracery</i>), +filling the window-heads over coupled windows. Later attention was +bestowed upon the form of the stonework, which was made lighter and +richly moulded (<i>bar-tracery</i>), rather than upon that of the +openings (Fig. 111). Then the circular and geometric patterns employed +were abandoned for more flowing and capricious designs +(<i>Flamboyant</i> tracery, Fig. 112) or (in England) for more rigid and +rectangular arrangements (<i>Perpendicular</i>, <a href="#fig134">Fig. 134</a>). It will be shown later that the periods +and styles of Gothic architecture are more easily identified by the +tracery than by any other feature.</p> + + +<p><b>CHURCH PLANS.</b> The original basilica-plan underwent radical +modifications during the 12th-15th centuries. These resulted in part +from the changes in construction +<span class="pagenum">189</span> +<a name="page189" id="page189"> </a> +which have been described, and in part from altered ecclesiastical +conditions and requirements. Gothic church architecture was based on +cathedral design; and the requirements of the cathedral differed in many +respects from those of the monastic churches of the preceding +period.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig111" id="fig111"> </a> +<img src="images/fig111.jpg" width="243" height="320" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 111.—BAR TRACERY, ST. MICHAEL’S, WARFIELD.</p> + +<p>The most important alterations in the plan were in the choir and +transepts. The choir was greatly lengthened, the transepts often +shortened. The choir was provided with two and often four side-aisles, +and one or both of these was commonly carried entirely around the +apsidal termination of the choir, forming a single or double +<i>ambulatory</i>. This combination of choir, apse, and ambulatory was +called, in French churches, the <i>chevet</i>.</p> + +<p>Another advance upon Romanesque models was the multiplication of +chapels—a natural consequence of the more popular character +of the cathedral as compared with the abbey. Frequently lateral chapels +were built at each bay of the side-aisles, filling up the space between +the deep buttresses, flanking the nave as well as the choir. They were +also carried around the <i>chevet</i> in most of the French cathedrals +(Paris, Bourges, Reims, Amiens, Beauvais, and many others); in many of +those in Germany (Magdeburg, Cologne, Frauenkirche at Treves), Spain +(Toledo, Leon, Barcelona, +<span class="pagenum">190</span> +<a name="page190" id="page190"> </a> +Segovia, etc.), and Belgium (Tournay, Antwerp). In England the choir had +more commonly a square eastward termination. Secondary transepts occur +frequently, and these peculiarities, together with the narrowness and +great length of most of the plans, make of the English cathedrals a +class by themselves.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig112" id="fig112"> </a> +<img src="images/fig112.png" width="254" height="256" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 112.—ROSE WINDOW, CHURCH OF ST. OUEN, ROUEN.</p> + +<p><b>PROPORTIONS AND COMPOSITION.</b> Along with these modifications of +the basilican plan should be noticed a great increase in the height and +slenderness of all parts of the structure. The lofty clearstory, the +arcaded triforium-passage or gallery beneath it, the high pointed +pier-arches, the multiplication of slender clustered shafts, and the +reduction in the area of the piers, gave to the Gothic churches an +interior aspect wholly different from that of the simpler, lower, and +more massive Romanesque edifices. The perspective effects of the plans +thus modified, especially of the complex choir and <i>chevet</i> with +their lateral and radial chapels, were remarkably enriched and +varied.</p> + +<p>The exterior was even more radically transformed by these changes, +and by the addition of towers and spires to the fronts, and sometimes to +the transepts and to their intersection with the nave. The deep +buttresses, terminating in pinnacles, the rich traceries of the great +lateral windows, the triple portals profusely sculptured, rose-windows +of great size under the front and transept gables, combined to produce +<span class="pagenum">191</span> +<a name="page191" id="page191"> </a> +effects of marvellously varied light and shadow, and of complex and +elaborate structural beauty, totally unlike the broad simplicity of the +Romanesque exteriors.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig113" id="fig113"> </a> +<img src="images/fig113.jpg" width="231" height="459" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 113.—FLAMBOYANT DETAIL FROM PULPIT IN STRASBURG +CATHEDRAL.</p> + +<p><b>DECORATIVE DETAIL.</b> The mediæval designers aimed to enrich +every constructive feature with the most effective play of lights and +shades, and to embody in the decorative detail the greatest possible +amount of allegory and symbolism, and sometimes of humor besides. The +deep jambs and soffits of doors and pier-arches were moulded with a rich +succession of hollow and convex members, and adorned with carvings of +saints, apostles, martyrs, and angels. Virtues and vices, allegories of +reward and punishment, and an extraordinary world of monstrous and +grotesque beasts, devils, and goblins filled the capitals and +door-arches, peeped over tower-parapets, or leered and grinned from +gargoyles and corbels. Another source of decorative detail was the +application of tracery like that of the windows to wall-panelling, to +balustrades, to open-work gables, to spires, to choir-screens, and other +features, especially in +<span class="pagenum">192</span> +<a name="page192" id="page192"> </a> +the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (cathedrals of York, Rouen, +Cologne; Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster). And finally in the carving +of capitals and the ornamentation of mouldings the artists of the +thirteenth century and their successors abandoned completely the classic +models and traditions which still survived in the early twelfth +century.<!-- invisible . --> The later monastic builders began to look +directly to nature for suggestions of decorative form. The lay builders +who sculptured the capitals and crockets and finials of the early Gothic +cathedrals adopted and followed to its finality this principle of +recourse to nature, especially to plant life. At first the budding +shoots of early spring were freely imitated or skilfully +conventionalized, as being by their thick and vigorous forms the best +adapted for translation into stone (Fig. 114). During the thirteenth +century the more advanced stages of plant growth, and leaves more +complex and detailed, furnished the models for the carver, who displayed +his skill in a closer and more literal imitation of their minute +veinings and indentations (Fig. 115). +<span class="illustration floatleft"> +<a name="fig114" id="fig114"> </a> +<img src="images/fig114.png" width="256" height="160" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 114.—EARLY GOTHIC CARVING.</span> +This artistic adaptation of natural forms to architectural decoration +degenerated later into a minutely realistic copying of natural foliage, +in which cleverness of execution took the place of original invention. +The spirit of display is characteristic of all late Gothic work. +Slenderness, minuteness of detail, extreme complexity and intricacy of +design, an unrestrained profusion of decoration covering every surface, +a lack of largeness and vigor in the conceptions, are conspicuous +traits of Gothic design in the fifteenth century, +<span class="pagenum">193</span> +<a name="page193" id="page193"> </a> +alike in France, England, Germany, Spain, and the Low Countries. Having +worked out to their conclusion the structural principles bequeathed to +them by the preceding centuries, the authors of these later works seemed +to have devoted themselves to the elaboration of mere decorative detail, +and in technical finish surpassed all that had gone before (Fig. +113).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig115" id="fig115"> </a> +<img src="images/fig115.jpg" width="262" height="264" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 115.—CARVING, DECORATED PERIOD, FROM SOUTHWELL MINSTER.</p> + + +<p><b>CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARIZED.</b> In the light of the preceding +explanations Gothic architecture may be defined as that system of +structural design and decoration which grew up out of the effort to +combine, in one harmonious and organic conception, the basilican plan +with a complete and systematic construction of groined vaulting. Its +development was controlled throughout by considerations of stability and +structural propriety, but in the application of these considerations the +artistic spirit was allowed full scope for its exercise. Refinement, +good taste, and great fertility of imagination characterize the details +and ornaments of Gothic structures. While the Greeks in harmonizing the +requirements of utility and beauty in architecture approached the +problem from the æsthetic side, the Gothic architects did the same from +the structural side. Their admirably reasoned structures express as +perfectly the idea of vastness, mystery, and complexity as do the Greek +temples that of simplicity and monumental repose.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">194</span> +<a name="page194" id="page194"> </a> +<p>The excellence of Gothic architecture lay not so much in its +individual details as in its perfect adaptation to the purposes for +which it was developed—its triumphs were achieved in the building +of cathedrals and large churches. In the domain of civil and domestic +architecture it produced nothing comparable with its ecclesiastical +edifices, because it was the requirements of the cathedral and not of +the palace, town-hall, or dwelling, that gave it its form and +character.</p> + + +<p><b>PERIODS.</b> The history of Gothic architecture is commonly +divided into three periods, which are most readily distinguished by the +character of the window-tracery. These periods were not by any means +synchronous in the different countries; but the order of sequence was +everywhere the same. They are here given, with a summary of the +characteristics of each.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Early Pointed Period.</span> [<i>Early +French</i>; <i>Early English</i> or <i>Lancet</i> Period in England; +<i>Early German</i>, etc.] Simple groined vaults; general simplicity and +vigor of design and detail; conventionalized foliage of small plants; +plate tracery, and narrow windows coupled under pointed arch with +circular foiled openings in the window-head. (In France, 1160 to +1275.)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Middle Pointed Period.</span> +[<i>Rayonnant</i> in France; <i>Decorated</i> or <i>Geometric</i> in +England.] Vaults more perfect; in England multiple ribs and liernes; +greater slenderness and loftiness of proportions; decoration much +richer, less vigorous; more naturalistic carving of mature foliage; +walls nearly suppressed, windows of great size, bar tracery with slender +moulded or columnar mullions and geometric combinations (circles and +cusps) in window-heads, circular (rose) windows. (In France, 1275 to +1375.)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Florid Gothic Period.</span> +[<i>Flamboyant</i> in France; <i>Perpendicular</i> in England.] Vaults +of varied and richly decorated design; fan-vaulting and pendants in +England, vault-ribs +<span class="pagenum">195</span> +<a name="page195" id="page195"> </a> +curved into fanciful patterns in Germany and Spain; profuse and minute +decoration and cleverness of technical execution substituted for dignity +of design; highly realistic carving and sculpture, flowing or flamboyant +tracery in France; perpendicular bars with horizontal transoms and +four-centred arches in England; “branch-tracery” in Germany. (In France, +1375 to 1525.)</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">196</span> +<a name="page196" id="page196"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXVI" id="chapXVI">CHAPTER XVI.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Adamy, +Corroyer, Enlart, Hasak, Moore, Reber, Viollet-le-Duc.<a class="tag" +name="tag20" id="tag20" href="#note20">20</a> Also Chapuy, <i>Le +moyen age monumental</i>. Chateau, <i>Histoire et caractères de +l’architecture française</i>. Davies, <i>Architectural Studies in +France</i>. Ferree, <i>The Chronology of the Cathedral Churches of +France</i>. Johnson, <i>Early French Architecture</i>. King, <i>The +Study book of Mediæval Architecture and Art</i>. Lassus and +Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Notre Dame de Paris</i>. Nesfield, <i>Specimens of +Mediæval Architecture</i>. Pettit, <i>Architectural Studies in +France</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>CATHEDRAL-BUILDING IN FRANCE.</b> In the development of the +principles outlined in the foregoing chapter the church-builders of +France led the way. They surpassed all their contemporaries in readiness +of invention, in quickness and directness of reasoning, and in artistic +refinement. These qualities were especially manifested in the +extraordinary architectural activity which marked the second half of the +twelfth century and the first half of the thirteenth. This was the great +age of cathedral-building in France. The adhesion of the bishops to the +royal cause, and their position in popular estimation as the champions +of justice and human rights, led to the rapid advance of the episcopacy +in power and influence. The cathedral, as the throne-church of the +bishop, became a truly popular institution. New cathedrals were founded +on every side, especially in the +<span class="pagenum">197</span> +<a name="page197" id="page197"> </a> +Royal Domain and the adjoining provinces of Normandy, Burgundy, and +Champagne, and their construction was warmly seconded by the people, the +communes, and the municipalities. “Nothing to-day,” says +Viollet-le-Duc,<a class="tag" name="tag21" id="tag21" href="#note21">21</a> “unless it be the commercial movement which has covered +Europe with railway lines, can give an idea of the zeal with which the +urban populations set about building cathedrals; . . . +a necessity at the end of the twelfth century because it was an +energetic protest against feudalism.” The collapse of the unscientific +Romanesque vaulting of some of the earlier cathedrals and the +destruction by fire of others stimulated this movement by the necessity +for their immediate rebuilding. The entire reconstruction of the +cathedrals of Bayeux, Bayonne, Cambray, Evreux, Laon, Lisieux, Le Mans, +Noyon, Poitiers, Senlis, Soissons, and Troyes was begun between 1130 and +1200.<a class="tag" name="tag22" id="tag22" href="#note22">22</a> The cathedrals of Bourges, Chartres, Paris, and Tours, +and the abbey of St. Denis, all of the first importance, were begun +during the same period, and during the next quarter-century those of +Amiens, Auxerre, Rouen, Reims, Séez, and many others. After 1250 the +movement slackened and finally ceased. Few important cathedrals were +erected during the latter half of the thirteenth century, the chief +among them being at Beauvais (actively begun 1247), Clermont, Coutances, +Limoges, Narbonne, and Rodez. During this period, and through the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, French architecture was concerned +rather with the completion and remodelling of existing cathedrals than +the founding of new ones. There were, however, many important parish +churches and civil or domestic edifices erected within this period.</p> + + +<p><b>STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT: VAULTING.</b> By the middle of the twelfth +century the use of barrel-vaulting over the nave had been generally +abandoned and groined vaulting with +<span class="pagenum">198</span> +<a name="page198" id="page198"> </a> +its isolated points of support and resistance had taken its place. The +timid experiments of the Clunisian architects at Vézelay in the use of +the pointed arch and vault-ribs also led, in the second half of the +twelfth century, to far-reaching results. The builders of the great +<b>Abbey Church</b> of <b>St. Denis</b>, near Paris, begun in 1140 by +the Abbot Suger, appear to have been the first to develop these +tentative devices into a system. In the original choir of this noble +church all the arches, alike of the vault-ribs (except the groin-ribs, +which were semi-circles) and of the openings, were pointed and the +vaults were throughout constructed with cross-ribs, wall-ribs, and +groin-ribs. Of this early work only the chapels remain. In other +contemporary monuments, as for instance in the cathedral of Sens, the +adoption of these devices was only partial and hesitating.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w120"> +<a name="fig116" id="fig116"> </a> +<img src="images/fig116.png" width="127" height="341" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 116.—PLAN OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.</p> + +<p><b>NOTRE DAME AT PARIS.</b> The next great step in advance was taken +in the cathedral of <b>Notre Dame</b><a class="tag" name="tag23" id="tag23" href="#note23">23</a> at Paris (Figs. 116, 117, <a href="#fig125">125</a>). This was begun, under Maurice de Sully in 1163, on +the site of the twin cathedrals of Ste. Marie and St. Étienne, and the +choir was, as usual, the first portion erected. By 1196 the choir, +transepts, and one or two bays of the nave were substantially finished. +The completeness, harmony, and vigor of conception of this remarkable +church contrast strikingly with the makeshifts and hesitancy displayed +in many contemporary monuments +<span class="pagenum">199</span> +<a name="page199" id="page199"> </a> +in other provinces. The difficult vaulting over the radiating bays of +the double ambulatory was here treated with great elegance. By doubling +the number of supports in the exterior circuit of each aisle (Fig. 116) +each trapezoidal bay of the vaulting was divided into three easily +managed triangular compartments. Circular shafts were used between the +central and side aisles. The side aisles were doubled and those next the +centre were built in two stories, providing ample galleries behind a +very open triforium. The nave was unusually lofty and covered with +six-part vaults of admirable execution. The vault-ribs were vigorously +moulded and each made to spring from a distinct vaulting-shaft, of which +three rested upon the cap of each of the massive piers below (Fig. 117). +The <b>Cathedral</b> of <b>Bourges</b>, begun 1190, closely resembled +that of Paris in plan. Both were designed to accommodate vast throngs in +their exceptionally broad central aisles and double side aisles, but +Bourges has no side-aisle galleries, though the inner aisles are much +loftier than the outer ones. Though +<span class="pagenum">200</span> +<a name="page200" id="page200"> </a> +later in date the vaulting of Bourges is inferior to that of Notre Dame, +especially in the treatment of the trapezoidal bays of the +ambulatory.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig117" id="fig117"> </a> +<img src="images/fig117.jpg" width="367" height="262" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 117.—INTERIOR OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.</p> + +<p>The masterly examples set by the vault-builders of St. Denis and +Notre Dame were not at once generally followed. Noyon, Senlis, and +Soissons, contemporary with these, are far less completely Gothic in +style. At <b>Le Mans</b> the groined vaulting which in 1158 was +substituted for the original barrel-vault of the cathedral is of very +primitive design, singularly heavy and awkward, although nearly +contemporary with that of Notre Dame (Fig. 118).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig118" id="fig118"> </a> +<img src="images/fig118.jpg" width="248" height="292" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 118.—LE MANS CATHEDRAL. NAVE.</p> + + +<p><b>DOMICAL GROINED VAULTING.</b> The builders of the South and West, +influenced by Aquitanian models, adhered to the square plan and domical +form of vaulting-bay, even after they had begun to employ groin-ribs. +The latter, as at first used by them in imitation of Northern examples, +had no organic function in the vault, which was still built like a dome. +About 1145–1160 the cathedral of <b>St. Maurice</b> at +<b>Angers</b> was vaulted with square, groin-ribbed vaults, domical in +form but not in construction. The joints no longer described horizontal +circles as in a dome, but oblique lines perpendicular to the groins and +meeting in zigzag lines at the ridge (Fig. 119). This method became +common in the West and was afterward generally adopted +<span class="pagenum">201</span> +<a name="page201" id="page201"> </a> +by the English architects. The <b>Cathedrals</b> of <b>Poitiers</b> +(1162) and <b>Laval</b> (La Trinité, 1180–1185) are examples of +this system, which at Le Mans met with the Northern system and produced +in the cathedral the awkward compromise described above.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig119" id="fig119"> </a> +<img src="images/fig119.png" width="243" height="199" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 119.—GROINED VAULT WITH ZIG-ZAG RIDGE-JOINTS.</p> + +<p class="caption w240"> +<i>a</i> shows a small section of filling with courses parallel to the +ridge, for comparison with the other compartments.<!-- invisible . +--></p> + +<p><b>THIRTEENTH-CENTURY VAULTING.</b> Early in the thirteenth century +the church-builders of Northern France abandoned the use of square +vaulting-bays and six-part vaults. By the adoption of groin-ribs and the +pointed arch, the building of vaults in oblong bays was greatly +simplified. Each bay of the nave could now be covered with its own +vaulting-bay, thus doing away with all necessity for alternately light +and heavy piers. It is not quite certain when and where this system was +first adopted for the complete vaulting of a church. It is, however, +probable that the <b>Cathedral</b> of <b>Chartres</b>, begun in 1194 and +completed before 1240, deserves this distinction, although it is +possible that the vaults of Soissons and Noyon may slightly antedate it. +<b>Troyes</b> (1170–1267), <b>Rouen</b> (1202–1220), +<b>Reims</b> (1212–1242), <b>Auxerre</b> (1215–1234, nave +fourteenth century), <b>Amiens</b> (1220–1288), and nearly all the +great churches and chapels begun after 1200, employ the fully developed +oblong vault.</p> + + +<p><b>BUTTRESSING.</b> Meanwhile the increasing height of the +clearstories and the use of double aisles compelled the bestowal of +especial attention upon the buttressing. The nave and choir of Chartres, +the choirs of Notre Dame, +<span class="pagenum">202</span> +<a name="page202" id="page202"> </a> +Bourges, Rouen, and Reims, the chevet and later the choir of St. Denis, +afford early examples of the flying-buttress (<a href="#fig107">Fig. 107</a>). These were at first simple and of moderate +height. Single half-arches spanned the side aisles; in Notre Dame they +crossed the double aisles in a single leap. Later the buttresses were +given greater stability by the added weight of lofty pinnacles. An +intermediate range of buttresses and pinnacles was built over the +intermediate piers where double aisles flanked the nave and choir, thus +dividing the single flying arch into two arches. At the same time a +careful observation of statical defects in the earlier examples led to +the introduction of subordinate arches and of other devices to stiffen +and to beautify the whole system. At <b>Reims</b> and <b>Amiens</b> +these features received their highest development, though later examples +are frequently much more ornate.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w120"> +<a name="fig120" id="fig120"> </a> +<img src="images/fig120.png" width="129" height="363" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 120.—ONE BAY, ABBEY OF ST. DENIS.</p> + +<p><b>INTERIOR DESIGN.</b> The progressive change outlined in the last +chapter, by which the wall was practically suppressed, the windows +correspondingly enlarged, and every part of the structure made loftier +and more slender, resulted in the evolution of a system of interior +design well represented by the nave of Amiens. The second story or +gallery over the side aisle disappeared, but the aisle itself was very +high. The triforium was no longer a gallery, but a richly arcaded +passage in the thickness of the wall, corresponding to the roofing-space +over the aisle, and generally treated like a lower stage of the +clearstory. Nearly the whole space above it was occupied in each bay by +the vast clearstory window filled with simple but effective geometric +tracery over slender mullions. The side aisles were lighted by windows +which, like those in the clearstory, occupied nearly the whole available +wall-space under the vaulting. The piers and shafts were all clustered +and remarkably slender. The whole construction of this vast edifice, +which covers nearly eighty thousand square feet, is a marvel of +<span class="pagenum">203</span> +<a name="page203" id="page203"> </a> +lightness, of scientific combinations, and of fine execution. Its great +vault rises to a height of one hundred and forty feet. The nave of St. +Denis, though less lofty, resembles it closely in style (Fig. 120). +Earlier cathedrals show less of the harmony of proportion, the perfect +working out of the relation of all parts of the composition of each bay, +so conspicuous in the Amiens type, which was followed in most of the +later churches.</p> + + +<p><b>WINDOWS: TRACERY.</b> The clearstory windows of Noyon, Soissons, +Sens, and the choir of Vézelay (1200) were simple arched openings +arranged singly, in pairs, or in threes. In the cathedral of Chartres +(1194–1220) they consist of two arched windows with a circle above +them, forming a sort of plate tracery under a single arch. In the chapel +windows of the choir at Reims (1215) the tracery of mullions and circles +was moulded inside and out, and the intermediate triangular spaces all +pierced and glazed. Rose windows were early used in front and transept +façades. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they were made +of vast size and great lightness of tracery, as in the transepts of +Notre Dame (1257) and the west front of Amiens (1288). From the design +of these windows is derived the name <i>Rayonnant</i>, often applied to +the French Gothic style of the period 1275–1375.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig121" id="fig121"> </a> +<img src="images/fig121.jpg" width="232" height="385" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 121.—THE STE. CHAPELLE, PARIS.</p> + +<p><b>THE SAINTE CHAPELLE.</b> In this beautiful royal chapel at Paris, +built 1242–47, Gothic design was admirably exemplified in the +noble windows 15 by 50 feet in size, which perhaps furnished the models +for those of Amiens and St. +<span class="pagenum">204</span> +<a name="page204" id="page204"> </a> +Denis. Each was divided by slender mullions into four lancet-like lights +gathered under the rich tracery of the window-head. They were filled +with stained glass of the most brilliant but harmonious hues. They +occupy the whole available wall-space, so that the ribbed vault +internally seems almost to rest on walls of glass, so slender are the +visible supports and so effaced by the glow of color in the windows. +Certainly lightness of construction and the suppression of the +wall-masonry could hardly be carried further than here (Fig. 121). Among +other chapels of the same type are those in the palace of St. +Germain-en-Laye (1240), and a later example in the château of Vincennes, +begun by Charles VI., but not finished till 1525.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig122" id="fig122"> </a> +<img src="images/fig122.png" width="145" height="329" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 122.—PLAN OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL.</p> + +<p><b>PLANS.</b> The most radical change from the primitive basilican +type was, as already explained in the last chapter, the continuation of +the side aisles around the apse to form a <i>chevet</i>; and later, the +addition of chapels between the external buttresses. Radiating chapels, +usually semi-octagons or semi-decagons in plan, early appeared as +additions to the <i>chevet</i> (Fig. 122). These may have originated in +the apsidal chapels of Romanesque churches in Auvergne and the South, as +at Issoire, Clermont-Ferrand, Le Puy, and Toulouse.<!-- invisible . --> +<span class="pagenum">205</span> +<a name="page205" id="page205"> </a> +They generally superseded the transept-chapels of earlier churches, and +added greatly to the beauty of the interior perspective, especially when +the encircling aisles of the chevet were doubled. Notre Dame, as at +first erected, had a double ambulatory, but no chapels. Bourges has only +five very small semicircular chapels. Chartres (choir 1220) and Le Mans, +as reconstructed about the same date, have double ambulatories and +radial chapels. After 1220 the second ambulatory no longer appears. +Noyon, Soissons, Reims, Amiens, Troyes, and Beauvais, Tours, Bayeux, and +Coutances, Clermont, Limoges, and Narbonne all have the single +ambulatory and radiating chevet-chapels. The Lady-chapel in the axis of +the church was often made longer and more important than the other +chapels, as at Amiens, Le Mans, Rouen, Bayeux, and Coutances. Chapels +also flanked the choir in most of the cathedrals named above, and Notre +Dame and Tours also have side chapels to the nave. The only cathedrals +with complete double side aisles alike to nave, choir, and chevet, were +Notre Dame and Bourges. It is somewhat singular that the German +cathedral of Cologne is the only one in which all these various +characteristic French features were united in one design (see <a href="#fig140">Fig. 140</a>).</p> + +<p class="illustration float null"> +<a name="fig123" id="fig123"> </a> +<img class="null" src="images/fig123a.png" +width="179" height="85" alt="see caption and text"></p> + +<p class="illustration float"> +<img src="images/fig123b.png" width="129" height="188" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 123.—PLAN OF<br> +CATHEDRAL OF ALBY.<!-- invisible . --></p> + +<p>Local considerations had full sway in France, in spite of the +tendency toward unity of type. Thus Dol, Laon, and Poitiers have square +eastward terminations; Châlons has no ambulatory; Bourges no transept. +In Notre Dame the transept was almost suppressed. At Soissons one +transept, at Noyon both, had semicircular ends. <b>Alby</b>, a late +cathedral of brick, +<span class="pagenum">206</span> +<a name="page206" id="page206"> </a> +founded in 1280, but mostly built during the fourteenth century, has +neither side aisles nor transepts, its wide nave being flanked by +chapels separated by internal buttresses (Fig. 123).</p> + + +<p><b>SCALE.</b> The French cathedrals were nearly all of imposing +dimensions. Noyon, one of the smallest, is 333 feet long; Sens measures +354. Laon, Bourges, Troyes, Notre Dame, Le Mans, Rouen, and Chartres +vary from 396 to 437 feet in extreme length; Reims measures 483, and +Amiens, the longest of all, 521 feet. Notre Dame is 124 feet wide across +the five aisles of the nave; Bourges, somewhat wider. The central aisles +of these two cathedrals, and of Laon, Amiens, and Beauvais, have a span +of not far from 40 feet from centre to centre of the piers; while the +ridge of the vaulting, which in Notre Dame is 108 feet above the +pavement, and in Bourges 125, reaches in Amiens a height of 140 feet, +and of nearly 160 in Beauvais. This emphasis of the height, from 3 to 3½ +times the clear width of the nave or choir, is one of the most striking +features of the French cathedrals. It produces an impressive effect, but +tends to dwarf the great width of the central aisle.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig124" id="fig124"> </a> +<img src="images/fig124.jpg" width="257" height="390" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 124.<!-- invisible both . -->—WEST FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, +PARIS.</p> + +<p><b>EXTERIOR DESIGN.</b> Here, as in the interior, every feature had +its constructive <i>raison d’être</i>, and the total effect was +determined by the fundamental structural scheme. This was especially +true of the lateral elevations, in which the pinnacled buttresses, the +flying arches, and the traceried windows of the side aisle and +clearstory, repeated uniformly at each bay, were the principal elements +of the design. +<span class="pagenum">207</span> +<a name="page207" id="page207"> </a> +The transept façades and main front allowed greater scope for invention +and fancy, but even here the interior membering gave the key to the +composition. Strong buttresses marked the division of the aisles and +resisted the thrust of the terminal pier arches, and rose windows filled +the greater part of the wall space under the end of the lofty vaulting. +The whole structure was crowned by a steep-pitched roof of wood, covered +with lead, copper, or tiles, to protect the vault from damage by snow +and moisture. This roof occasioned the steep gables which crowned the +transept and main façades. The main front was frequently adorned, above +the triple portal, with a gallery of niches or tabernacles filled with +statues of kings. Different types of composition are represented by +Chartres, Notre Dame, Amiens, Reims, and Rouen, of which Notre Dame +(Fig. 124) and Reims are perhaps the finest. Notre Dame is especially +remarkable for its stately simplicity and the even balancing of +horizontal and vertical elements.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig125" id="fig125"> </a> +<img src="images/fig125.jpg" width="431" height="324" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 125.—WEST FRONT OF ST. MACLOU, ROUEN.<!-- invisible both . +--></p> + +<p><b>PORCHES.</b> In most French church façades the porches were the +most striking features, with their deep shadows and sculptured +arches.<!-- invisible . --> The Romanesque porches were +<span class="pagenum">208</span> +<a name="page208" id="page208"> </a> +usually limited in depth to the thickness of the front wall. The Gothic +builders secured increased depth by projecting the portals out beyond +the wall, and crowned them with elaborate gables. The vast central door +was divided in two by a pier adorned with a niche and statue. Over this +the tympanum of the arch was carved with scriptural reliefs; the jambs +and arches were profusely adorned with figures of saints, apostles, +martyrs, and angels, under elaborate canopies. The porches of Laon, +Bourges, Amiens, and Reims are especially deep and majestic in effect, +the last-named (built 1380) being the richest of all. Some of the +transept façades also had imposing portals. Those of <b>Chartres</b> +(1210–1245) rank among the finest works of Gothic decorative +architecture, the south porch in some respects surpassing that of the +north transept. The portals +<span class="pagenum">209</span> +<a name="page209" id="page209"> </a> +of the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries were remarkable for the +extraordinary richness and minuteness of their tracery and sculpture, as +at Abbeville, Alençon, the cathedral and St. Maclou at Rouen (Fig. 125), +Tours, Troyes, Vendôme, etc.</p> + + +<p><b>TOWERS AND SPIRES.</b> The emphasizing of vertical elements +reached its fullest expression in the towers and spires of the churches. +What had been at first merely a lofty belfry roof was rapidly developed +into the spire, rising three hundred feet or more into the air. This +development had already made progress in the Romanesque period, and the +south spire of Chartres is a notable example of late twelfth-century +steeple design. The transition from the square tower to the slender +octagonal pyramid was skilfully effected by means of corner pinnacles +and dormers. During and after the thirteenth century the development was +almost wholly in the direction of richness and complexity of detail, not +of radical constructive modification. The northern spire of Chartres +(1515) and the spires of Bordeaux, Coutances, Senlis, and the Flamboyant +church of St. Maclou at Rouen, illustrate this development. In Normandy +central spires were common, rising over the crossing of nave and +transepts. In some cases the designers of cathedrals contemplated a +group of towers; this is evident at Chartres, Coutances, and Reims. This +intention was, however, never realized; it demanded resources beyond +even the enthusiasm of the thirteenth century. Only in rare instances +were the spires of any of the towers completed, and the majority of the +French towers have square terminations, with low-pitched wooden roofs, +generally invisible from below. In general, French towers are marked by +their strong buttresses, solid lower stories, twin windows in each side +of the belfry proper—these windows being usually of great +size—and a skilful management of the transition to an octagonal +plan for the belfry or the spire.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">210</span> +<a name="page210" id="page210"> </a> +<p><b>CARVING AND SCULPTURE.</b> The general superiority of French +Gothic work was fully maintained in its decorative details. Especially +fine is the figure sculpture, which in the thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries attained true nobility of expression, combined with great +truthfulness and delicacy of execution. Some of its finest productions +are found in the great doorway jambs of the west portals of the +cathedrals, and in the ranks of throned and adoring angels which adorned +their deep arches. These reach their highest beauty in the portals of +Reims (1380). The <i>tabernacles</i> or carved niches in which such +statues were set were important elements in the decoration of the +exteriors of churches.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig126" id="fig126"> </a> +<img src="images/fig126.png" width="434" height="205" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 126.—FRENCH GOTHIC CAPITALS.</p> + +<p class="caption"> +<i>a</i>, From Sainte Chapelle, Paris, 13th century. <i>b</i>, +14th-century capital from transept of Notre Dame, Paris. <i>c</i>, +15th-century capital from north spire of Chartres.</p> + +<p>Foliage forms were used for nearly all the minor carved ornaments, +though grotesque and human figures sometimes took their place. The +gargoyles through which the roof-water was discharged clear of the +building, were almost always composed in the form of hideous monsters; +and symbolic beasts, like the oxen in the towers of Laon, or monsters +like those which peer from the tower balustrades +<span class="pagenum">211</span> +<a name="page211" id="page211"> </a> +of Notre Dame, were employed with some mystical significance in various +parts of the building. But the capitals corbels, crockets, and finials +were mostly composed of floral or foliage forms. Those of the twelfth +and thirteenth centuries were for the most part simple in mass, and +crisp and vigorous in design, imitating the strong shoots of early +spring. The <b>capitals</b> were tall and slender, concave in profile, +with heavy square or octagonal abaci. With the close of the thirteenth +century this simple and forcible style of detail disappeared. The +carving became more realistic; the leaves, larger and more mature, were +treated as if applied to the capital or moulding, not as if they grew +out of it. The execution and detail were finer and more delicate, in +harmony with the increasing slenderness and lightness of the +architecture (Fig. 126 <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>). <b>Tracery forms</b> +now began to be profusely applied to all manner of surfaces, and +open-work gables, wholly unnecessary from the structural point of view, +but highly effective as decorations, adorned the portals and crowned the +windows.</p> + + +<p><b>LATE GOTHIC MONUMENTS.</b> So far our attention has been mainly +occupied with the masterpieces erected previous to 1250. Among the +cathedrals, relatively few in number, whose construction is referable to +the second half of the century, that of <b>Beauvais</b> stands first in +importance. Designed on a colossal scale, its foundations were laid in +1225, but it was never completed, and the portion built—the choir +and chapels—belonged really to the second half of the century, +having been completed in 1270. But the collapse in 1284 of the central +tower and vaulting of this incomplete cathedral, owing to the excessive +loftiness and slenderness of its supports, compelled its entire +reconstruction, the number of the piers being doubled and the span of +the pier arches correspondingly reduced. As thus rebuilt, the cathedral +aisle was 47 feet wide from centre to centre of opposite piers, and 163 +feet high to the top of the vault. +<span class="pagenum">212</span> +<a name="page212" id="page212"> </a> +Transepts were added after 1500. <b>Limoges</b> and <b>Narbonne</b>, +begun in 1272 on a large scale (though not equal in size to Beauvais), +were likewise never completed. Both had choirs of admirable plan, with +well-designed chevet-chapels. Many other cathedrals begun during this +period were completed only after long delays, as, for instance, Meaux, +Rodez (1277), Toulouse (1272), and Alby (1282), finished in the +sixteenth century, and Clermont (1248), completed under Napoleon III. +But between 1260 or 1275 and 1350, work was actively prosecuted on many +still incomplete cathedrals. The choirs of Beauvais (rebuilding), +Limoges, and Narbonne were finished after 1330; and towers, +transept-façades, portals, and chapels added to many others of earlier +date.</p> + +<p>The style of this period is sometimes designated as <b>Rayonnant</b>, +from the characteristic wheel tracery of the rose-windows, and the +prevalence of circular forms in the lateral arched windows, of the late +thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. The great rose windows in the +transepts of Notre Dame, dating from 1257, are typical examples of the +style. Those of Rouen cathedral belong to the same category, though of +later date. The façade of Amiens, completed by 1288, is one of the +finest works of this style, of which an early example is the elaborate +parish church of <b>St. Urbain</b> at Troyes.</p> + + +<p><b>THE FLAMBOYANT STYLE.</b> The geometric treatment of the tracery +and the minute and profuse decoration of this period gradually merged +into the fantastic and unrestrained extravagances of the +<b>Flamboyant</b> style, which prevailed until the advent of the +Renaissance—say 1525. The continuous logical development of forms +ceased, and in its place caprice and display controlled the arts of +design. The finest monument of this long period is the fifteenth-century +nave and central tower of the church of <b>St. Ouen</b> at Rouen, +a parish church of the first rank, begun in 1318, but not finished +<span class="pagenum">213</span> +<a name="page213" id="page213"> </a> +until 1515. The tracery of the lateral windows is still chiefly +geometric, but the western rose window (<a href="#fig112">Fig. 112</a>) and the magnificent central tower or +lantern, exhibit in their tracery the florid decoration and wavy, +flame-like lines of this style. Slenderness of supports and the +suppression of horizontal lines are here carried to an extreme; and the +church, in spite of its great elegance of detail, lacks the vital +interest and charm of the earlier Gothic churches. The cathedral of +Alençon and the church of <b>St. Maclou</b> at Rouen, have portals with +unusually elaborate detail of tracery and carving; while the façade of +Rouen cathedral (1509) surpasses all other examples in the lace-like +minuteness of its open-work and its profusion of ornament. The churches +of <b>St. Jacques</b> at Dieppe, and of <b>St. Wulfrand</b> at +Abbeville, the façades of Tours and Troyes, are among the masterpieces +of the style. The upper part of the façade of Reims (1380–1428) +belongs to the transition from the Rayonnant to the Flamboyant. While +some works of this period are conspicuous for the richness of their +ornamentation, others are noticeably bare and poor in design, like St. +Merri and St. Séverin in Paris.</p> + + +<p><b>SECULAR AND MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> The building of cathedrals +did not absorb all the architectural activity of the French during the +Gothic period, nor did it by any means put an end to monastic building. +While there are few Gothic cloisters to equal the Romanesque cloisters +of Puy-en-Vélay, Montmajour, Elne, and Moissac, many of the abbeys +either rebuilt their churches in the Gothic style after 1150, or +extended and remodelled their conventual buildings. The cloisters of +Fontfroide, Chaise-Dieu, and the Mont St. Michel rival those of +Romanesque times, while many new refectories and chapels were built in +the same style with the cathedrals. The most complete of these Gothic +monastic establishments, that of the <b>Mont St. Michel</b> in Normandy, +presented a remarkable aggregation +<span class="pagenum">214</span> +<a name="page214" id="page214"> </a> +of buildings clustering around the steep isolated rock on which stands +the abbey church. This was built in the eleventh century, and the choir +and chapels remodelled in the sixteenth. The great refectory and +dormitory, the cloisters, lodgings, and chapels, built in several +vaulted stories against the cliffs, are admirable examples of the +vigorous pointed-arch design of the early thirteenth century.</p> + +<p><b>Hospitals</b> like that of St. Jean at Angers (late twelfth +century), or those of Chartres, Ourscamps, Tonnerre, and Beaune, +illustrate how skilfully the French could modify and adapt the details +of their architecture to the special requirements of civil architecture. +Great numbers of charitable institutions were built in the middle +ages—asylums, hospitals, refuges, and the like—but very few +of those in France are now extant. Town halls were built in the +fifteenth century in some places where a certain amount of popular +independence had been secured. The florid fifteenth-century <b>Palais de +Justice</b> at <b>Rouen</b> (1499–1508) is an example of another +branch of secular Gothic architecture. In all these monuments the +adaptation of means to ends is admirable. Wooden ceilings and roofs +replaced stone, wherever required by great width of span or economy of +construction. There was little sculpture; the wall-spaces were not +suppressed in favor of stained glass and tracery; while the roofs were +usually emphasized and adorned with elaborate crestings and finials in +lead or terra-cotta.</p> + + +<p><b>DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> These same principles controlled the +designing of houses, farm buildings, barns, granaries, and the like. The +common closely-built French city house of the twelfth and thirteenth +century is illustrated by many extant examples at Cluny, Provins, and +other towns. A shop opening on the street by a large arch, +a narrow stairway, and two or three stories of rooms lighted by +clustered, pointed-arched windows, constituted the common +<span class="pagenum">215</span> +<a name="page215" id="page215"> </a> +type. The street front was usually gabled and the roof steep. In the +fourteenth or fifteenth century half-timbered construction began to +supersede stone for town houses, as it permitted of encroaching upon the +street by projecting the upper stories. Many of the half-timbered houses +of the fifteenth century were of elaborate design. The heavy oaken +uprights were carved with slender colonnettes; the horizontal sills, +bracketed out over the street, were richly moulded; picturesque dormers +broke the sky-line, and the masonry filling between the beams was +frequently faced with enamelled tiles.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig127" id="fig127"> </a> +<img src="images/fig127.png" width="358" height="308" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 127.—HOUSE OF JACQUES CŒUR, BOURGES.<br> +<span class="caption"> +(After Viollet-le-Duc.)</span></p> + +<p>The more considerable houses or palaces of royalty, nobles, and +wealthy citizens rivalled, and in time surpassed, the monastic buildings +in richness and splendor. The earlier examples retain the military +aspect, with moat and donjon, as in the Louvre of Charles V., +demolished in +<span class="pagenum">216</span> +<a name="page216" id="page216"> </a> +the sixteenth century. The finest palaces are of late date, and the type +is well represented by the Ducal Palace at Nancy (1476), the <b>Hotel de +Cluny</b> (1485) at Paris, the <b>Hotel Jacques Cœur</b> at Bourges +(Fig. 127), and the east wing of Blois (1498–1515). These palaces +are not only excellently and liberally planned, with large halls, many +staircases, and handsome courts; they are also extremely picturesque +with their square and circular towers, slender turrets, elaborate +dormers, and rich carved detail.</p> + + +<p class="monuments"> +<b>MONUMENTS</b>: (C. = cathedral; A. = abbey; trans. = transept; each +edifice is given under the date of its commencement; subsequent +alterations in parentheses.) Between 1130 and 1200: Vézelay A., +ante-chapel, 1130; St. Germer-de-Fly C., 1130–1150 (chapel +later); St. Denis A., choir, 1140 (choir rebuilt, nave and trans., +1240); Sens C., 1140–68 (W. front, 13th century; +chapels, spire, 14th); Senlis C., 1145–83 (trans., spire, +13th century); Noyon C., 1149–1200 (W. front, vaults, +13th century); St. Germain-des-Prés A., Paris, choir, 1150 +(Romanesque nave); Angers C., 1150 (choir, trans., 1274); Langres, +1150–1200; Laon C., 1150–1200; Le Mans C., nave, +1150–58 (choir, 1217–54); Soissons C., 1160–70 +(choir, 1212; nave chapels, 14th century); Poitiers C., +1162–1204; Notre Dame, Paris, choir, 1163–96 (nave, +W. front finished, 1235; trans. fronts, and chapels, +1257–75); Chartres C., W. end, 1170; rest, mainly +1194–98 (trans. porches, W. rose, 1210–1260; +N. spire, 1506); Tours C., 1170 (rebuilt, 1267; trans., +portals, 1375; W. portals, chapels, 15th century; towers finished, +1507–47); Laval C., 1180–85 (choir, 16th century); +Mantes, church Notre Dame, 1180–1200; Bourges C., +1190–95 (E. end, 1210; W. end, 1275); St. Nicholas at +Caen, 1190 (vaults, 15th century); Reims, church St. Rémy, choir, end of +12th century (Romanesque nave); church St. Leu d’Esserent, choir late +12th century (nave, 13th century); Lyons C., choir, end of 12th +century (nave, 13th and 14th centuries); Etampes, church Notre Dame, +12th and 13th centuries.—13th century: Evreux C., +1202–75 (trans., central tower, 1417; W. front rebuilt, 16th +century); Rouen C., 1202–20 (trans. portals, 1280; +W. front, 1507); Nevers, 1211, N. portal, 1280 (chapels, +S. portal, 15th century); Reims C., 1212–42 +(W. front, 1380; W. towers, 1420); Bayonne C., 1213 +(nave, vaults, W. portal, 14th century); Troyes C., choir, +1214 (central tower, nave, W. portal, and towers, 15th century); +Auxerre C., 1215–34 (nave, W. end, trans., 14th +century); Amiens C., 1220–88; St. Etienne at +Chalons-sur-Marne, 1230 (spire, 1520); Séez C., +<span class="pagenum">217</span> +<a name="page217" id="page217"> </a> +1230, rebuilt 1260 (remodelled 14th century); Notre Dame de Dijon, 1230; +Reims, Lady chapel of Archbishop’s palace, 1230; Chapel Royal at St. +Germain-en-Laye, 1240; Ste. Chapelle at Paris, 1242–47 +(W. rose, 15th century); Coutances C., 1254–74; +Beauvais C., 1247–72 (rebuilt 1337–47; trans. portals, +1500–48); Notre Dame de Grace at Clermont, 1248 (finished 1350); +Dôl C., 13th century; St. Martin-des-Champs at Paris, nave 13th +century (choir Romanesque); Bordeaux C., 1260; Narbonne C., +1272–1320; Limoges, 1273 (finished 16th century); St. Urbain, +Troyes, 1264; Rodez C., 1277–1385 (altered, completed 16th +century); church St. Quentin, 1280–1300; St. Benigne at Dijon, +1280–91; Alby C., 1282 (nave, 14th; choir, 15th century; +S. portal, 1473–1500); Meaux C., mainly rebuilt 1284 +(W. end much altered 15th, finished 16th century); Cahors C., +rebuilt 1285–93 (W. front, 15th century); Orléans, +1287–1328 (burned, rebuilt 1601–1829).—14th century: +St. Bertrand de Comminges, 1304–50; St. Nazaire at Carcassonne, +choir and trans. on Romanesque nave; Montpellier C., 1364; St. Ouen +at Rouen, choir, 1318–39 (trans., 1400–39; nave, +1464–91; W. front, 1515); Royal Chapel at Vincennes, 1385 +(?)-1525.—15th and 16th century: St. Nizier at Lyons rebuilt; St. +Séverin, St. Merri, St. Germain l’Auxerrois, all at Paris; Notre Dame de +l’Epine at Chalons-sur-Marne; choir of St. Etienne at Beauvais; +Saintes C., rebuilt, 1450; St. Maclou at Rouen (finished 16th +century); church at Brou; St. Wulfrand at Abbeville; abbey of St. +Riquier—these three all early 16th century.—<span class="smallcaps">Houses, Castles, and Palaces</span>: Bishop’s palace at +Paris, 1160 (demolished); castle of Coucy, 1220–30; Louvre at +Paris (the original château), 1225–1350; Palais de Justice at +Paris, originally the royal residence, 1225–1400; Bishop’s palace +at Laon, 1245 (addition to Romanesque hall); castle Montargis, 13th +century; castle Pierrefonds, Bishop’s palace at Narbonnne, palace of +Popes at Avignon—all 14th century; donjon of palace at Poitiers, +1395; Hôtel des Ambassadeurs at Dijon, 1420; house of Jacques Cœur at +Bourges, 1443; Palace, Dijon, 1467; Ducal palace at Nancy, 1476; Hôtel +Cluny at Paris, 1490; castle of Creil, late 15th century, finished in +16th; E. wing palace of Blois, 1498–1515, for Louis XII.; +Palace de Justice at Rouen, 1499–1508.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="note20" id="note20" href="#tag20">20.</a> +Consult especially articles <span class="smallcaps">Architecture</span>, <span class="smallcaps">Cathédrale</span>, <span class="smallcaps">Chapelle</span>, <span class="smallcaps">Construction</span>, <span class="smallcaps">Église</span>, <span class="smallcaps">Maison</span>, +<span class="smallcaps">Voûte</span>.</p> + +<p><a name="note21" id="note21" href="#tag21">21.</a> +<i>Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française</i>, vol. ii., pp. +280, 281.</p> + +<p><a name="note22" id="note22" href="#tag22">22.</a> +See Ferree, <i>Chronology of Cathedral Churches of France</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="note23" id="note23" href="#tag23">23.</a> +This cathedral will be hereafter referred to, for the sake of brevity, +by the name of <i>Notre Dame</i>. Other cathedrals having the same name +will be distinguished by the addition of the name of the city, as “Notre +Dame at Clermont-Ferrand.”</p> + +</div> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">218</span> +<a name="page218" id="page218"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXVII" id="chapXVII">CHAPTER XVII.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Corroyer, +Parker, Reber. Also, Bell’s Series of <i>Handbooks of English +Cathedrals</i>. Billings, <i>The Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities +of Scotland</i>. Bond, <i>Gothic Architecture in England</i>. Brandon, +<i>Analysis of Gothic Architecture</i>. Britton, <i>Cathedral +Antiquities of Great Britain</i>. Ditchfield, <i>The Cathedrals of +England</i>. Murray, <i>Handbooks of the English Cathedrals</i>. Parker, +<i>Introduction to Gothic Architecture</i>; <i>Glossary of Architectural +Terms</i>; <i>Companion to Glossary</i>, etc. Rickman, <i>An Attempt to +Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture</i>. Sharpe, +<i>Architectural Parallels</i>; <i>The Seven Periods of English +Architecture</i>. Van Rensselaer, <i>English Cathedrals</i>. Winkles and +Moule, <i>Cathedral Churches of England and Wales</i>. Willis, +<i>Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral</i>; ditto <i>of +Winchester Cathedral</i>; <i>Treatise on Vaults</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>GENERAL CHARACTER.</b> Gothic architecture was developed in +England under a strongly established royal power, with an episcopate in +no sense hostile to the abbots or in arms against the barons. Many of +the cathedrals had monastic chapters, and not infrequently abbots were +invested with the episcopal rank.</p> + +<p>English Gothic architecture was thus by no means predominantly an +architecture of cathedrals. If architectural activity in England was on +this account less intense and widespread in the twelfth and thirteenth +centuries than in France, it was not, on the other hand, so soon +exhausted. Fewer new cathedrals were built, but the progressive +rebuilding of those already existing seems not to have ceased until the +middle or end of the fifteenth century. Architecture +<span class="pagenum">219</span> +<a name="page219" id="page219"> </a> +in England developed more slowly, but more uniformly than in France. It +contented itself with simpler problems; and if it failed to rival Amiens +in boldness of construction and in lofty majesty, it at least never +perpetrated a folly like Beauvais. In richness of internal decoration, +especially in the mouldings and ribbed vaulting, and in the picturesque +grouping of simple masses externally, the British builders went far +toward atoning for their structural timidity.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig128" id="fig128"> </a> +<img src="images/fig128.png" width="143" height="295" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 128.—PLAN OF SALISBURY CATHEDRAL.</p> + + +<p><b>EARLY GOTHIC BUILDINGS.</b> The pointed arch and ribbed vault were +importations from France. Early examples appear in the Cistercian abbeys +of Furness and Kirkstall, and in the Temple Church at London (1185). But +it was in the <b>Choir of Canterbury</b>, as rebuilt by William of Sens, +after the destruction by fire in 1170 of Anselm’s Norman choir, that +these French Gothic features were first applied in a thoroughgoing +manner. In plan this choir resembled that of the cathedral of Sens; and +its coupled round piers, with capitals carved with foliage, its pointed +arches, its six-part vaulting, and its <i>chevet</i>, were distinctly +French. The Gothic details thus introduced slowly supplanted the round +arch and other Norman features. For fifty years the styles were more or +less mingled in many buildings, though <b>Lincoln Cathedral</b>, as +rebuilt in 1185–1200, retained nothing of the earlier round-arched +style. But the first church to be designed and built from the +foundations in the new style was the cathedral of <b>Salisbury</b> +(1220–1258; Fig. 128). Contemporary with Amiens, it is a +homogeneous and typical example of the +<span class="pagenum">220</span> +<a name="page220" id="page220"> </a> +Early English style. The predilection for great length observable in the +Anglo-Norman churches (as at Norwich and Durham) still prevailed, as it +continued to do throughout the Gothic period; Salisbury is 480 feet +long. The double transepts, the long choir, the square east end, the +relatively low vault (84 feet to the ridge), the narrow grouped windows, +all are thoroughly English. Only the simple four-part vaulting recalls +French models. <b>Westminster Abbey</b> (1245–1269), on the other +hand, betrays in a marked manner the French influence in its internal +loftiness (100 feet), its polygonal <i>chevet</i> and chapels, and its +strongly accented exterior flying-buttresses (<a href="#fig137">Fig. 137</a>).</p> + + +<p><b>MIXTURE OF STYLES.</b> Very few English cathedrals are as +homogeneous as the two just mentioned, nearly all having undergone +repeated remodellings in successive periods. Durham, Norwich, and Oxford +are wholly Norman but for their Gothic vaults. Ely, Rochester, +Gloucester, and Hereford have Norman naves and Gothic choirs. +Peterborough has an early Gothic façade and late Gothic retro-choir +added to an otherwise completely Norman structure. Winchester is a +Norman church remodelled with early Perpendicular details. The purely +Gothic churches and cathedrals, except parish churches—in which +England is very rich—are not nearly as numerous in England as in +France.</p> + + +<p><b>PERIODS.</b> The development of English Gothic architecture +followed the same general sequence as the French, and like it the +successive stages were most conspicuously characterized by the forms of +the tracery.</p> + +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Early English</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Lancet</span> period extended roundly from 1175 or 1180 to +1280, and was marked by simplicity, dignity, and purity of design.</p> + +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Decorated</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Geometric</span> period covered another century, 1280 to +1380, and was characterized by its decorative richness and greater +lightness of construction.</p> + +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Perpendicular</span> period extended +from 1380, or +<span class="pagenum">221</span> +<a name="page221" id="page221"> </a> +thereabout, well into the sixteenth century. Its salient features were +the use of fan-vaulting, four-centred arches, and tracery of +predominantly vertical and horizontal lines. The tardy introduction of +Renaissance forms finally put an end to the Gothic style in England, +after a long period of mixed and transitional architecture.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig129" id="fig129"> </a> +<img src="images/fig129.jpg" width="210" height="305" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 129.—RIBBED VAULTING, CHOIR OF EXETER CATHEDRAL.</p> + +<p><b>VAULTING.</b> The richness and variety of English vaulting +contrast strikingly with the persistent uniformity of the French. +A few of the early Gothic vaults, as in the aisles of Peterborough, +and later the naves of Durham, Salisbury, and Gloucester, were simple +four-part, ribbed vaults substantially like the French. But the English +disliked and avoided the twisted and dome-like surfaces of the French +vaults, preferring horizontal ridges, and, in the filling-masonry, +straight courses meeting at the ridge in zigzag lines, as in southwest +France (see <a href="#page200">p. 200</a>). This may be seen in +Westminster Abbey. The idea of ribbed construction was then seized upon +and given a new application. By springing a large number of ribs from +each point of support, the vaulting-surfaces were divided into long, +narrow, triangles, the filling of which was comparatively easy (Fig. +129). The ridge was itself furnished with a straight rib, decorated with +carved rosettes or <i>bosses</i> at each intersection with a +vaulting-rib. The naves and choirs of Lincoln, Lichfield, Exeter, and +the nave of Westminster +<span class="pagenum">222</span> +<a name="page222" id="page222"> </a> +illustrate this method. The logical corollary of this practice was the +introduction of minor ribs called <i>liernes</i>, connecting the main +ribs and forming complex reticulated and star-shaped patterns. Vaults of +this description are among the most beautiful in England. One of the +richest is in the choir of Gloucester (1337–1377). Less correct +constructively is that over the choir of Wells, while the choir of Ely, +the nave of Tewkesbury Abbey (Fig. 130), and all the vaulting of +Winchester as rebuilt by William of Wykeham (1390), illustrate the same +system. Such vaults are called <i>lierne</i> or <i>star</i> vaults.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig130" id="fig130"> </a> +<img src="images/fig130.jpg" width="435" height="265" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 130.—NET OR LIERNE VAULTING, TEWKESBURY ABBEY.</p> + + +<p><b>FAN-VAULTING.</b> The next step in the process may be observed in +the vaults of the choir of Oxford Cathedral (Christ Church), of the +retro-choir of Peterborough, of the cloisters of Gloucester, and many +other examples. The diverging ribs being made of uniform curvature, the +<i>severeys</i> (the inverted pyramidal vaulting-masses springing from +each support) became a species of concave conoids, meeting at the +<span class="pagenum">223</span> +<a name="page223" id="page223"> </a> +ridge in such a way as to leave a series of flat lozenge-shaped spaces +at the summit of the vault (<a href="#fig136">Fig. 136</a>). The +ribs were multiplied indefinitely, and losing thus in individual and +structural importance became a mere decorative pattern of tracery on the +severeys. To conceal the awkward flat lozenges at the ridge, elaborate +panelling was resorted to; or, in some cases, long stone pendents were +inserted at those points—a device highly decorative but +wholly unconstructive. At Cambridge, in <b>King’s College Chapel</b>, at +Windsor, in <b>St. George’s Chapel</b>, and in the <b>Chapel of Henry +VII.</b> at Westminster, this sort of vaulting received its most +elaborate development. The <i>fan-vault</i>, as it is called, +illustrates the logical evolution of a decorative element from a +structural starting—point, leading to results far removed from the +original conception. Rich and sumptuous as are these ceilings, they are +with all their ornament less satisfactory than the ribbed vaults of the +preceding period.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w270"> +<a name="fig131" id="fig131"> </a> +<img src="images/fig131.jpg" width="263" height="271" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 131.—VAULT OF CHAPTER-HOUSE, WELLS.</p> + +<p><b>CHAPTER-HOUSES.</b> One of the most beautiful forms of ribbed +vaulting was developed in the polygonal halls erected for the +deliberations of the cathedral chapters of Lincoln (1225), Westminster +(1250), Salisbury (1250), and Wells (1292), in which the vault-ribs +radiated from a central column to the sides and angles of the polygon +(Fig. 131). If +<span class="pagenum">224</span> +<a name="page224" id="page224"> </a> +these vaults were less majestic than domes of the same diameter, they +were far more decorative and picturesque, while the chapter-houses +themselves were the most original and striking products of English +Gothic art. Every feature was designed with strict regard for the +structural system determined by the admirable vaulting, and the Sainte +Chapelle was not more logical in its exemplification of Gothic +principles. To the four above-mentioned examples should be added that of +York (1280–1330), which differs from them in having no central +column: by some critics it is esteemed the finest of them all. Its +ceiling is a Gothic dome, 57 feet in diameter, but unfortunately +executed in wood. Its geometrical window-tracery and richly canopied +stalls are admirable.</p> + + +<p><b>OCTAGON AT ELY.</b> The magnificent <b>Octagon</b> of Ely +Cathedral, at the intersection of the nave and transepts, belongs in the +same category with these polygonal chapter-house vaults. It was built by +Alan of Walsingham in 1337, after the fall of the central tower and the +destruction of the adjacent bays of the choir. It occupies the full +width of the three aisles, and covers the ample space thus enclosed with +a simple but beautiful groined and ribbed vault of wood reaching to a +central octagonal lantern, which rises much higher and shows externally +as well as internally. Unfortunately, this vault is of wood, and would +require important modifications of detail if carried out in stone. But +it is so noble in general design and total effect, that one wonders the +type was not universally adopted for the crossing in all cathedrals, +until one observes that no cathedral of importance was built after +Walsingham’s time, nor did any other central towers opportunely fall to +the ground.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig132" id="fig132"> </a> +<img src="images/fig132.jpg" width="154" height="195" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 132.—CLOISTERS, SALISBURY CATHEDRAL (SHOWING UPPER PART OF +CHAPTER-HOUSE).</p> + +<p><b>WINDOWS AND TRACERY.</b> In the Early English Period +(1200–1280 or 1300) the windows were tall and narrow +(<i>lancet</i> windows), and generally grouped by twos and threes, +though sometimes four and even five are seen together (as +<span class="pagenum">225</span> +<a name="page225" id="page225"> </a> +the “Five Sisters” in the N. transept of York). In the nave of +Salisbury and the retro-choir of Ely the side aisles are lighted by +coupled windows and the clearstory by triple windows, the central one +higher than the others—a surviving Norman practice. +Plate-tracery was, as in France, an intermediate step leading to the +development of bar-tracery (see <a href="#fig110">Fig. 110</a>). +The English followed here the same reasoning as the French. At first the +openings constituted the design, the intervening stonework being of +secondary importance. Later the forms of the openings were subordinated +to the pattern of the stone framework of bars, arches, circles, and +cusps. Bar-tracery of this description prevailed in England through the +greater part of the Decorated Period (1280–1380), and somewhat +resembled the contemporary French geometric tracery, though more varied +and less rigidly constructive in design. An early example of this +tracery occurs in the cloisters of Salisbury (Fig. 132); others in the +clearstories of the choirs of Lichfield, Lincoln, and Ely, the nave of +York, and the chapter-houses mentioned above, where, indeed, it seems to +have received its earliest development. After the middle of the +fourteenth century lines of double curvature were introduced, producing +what is called <i>flowing</i> tracery, somewhat resembling the French +flamboyant, though earlier in date (<a href="#fig111">Fig. 111</a>). Examples of this style are found in Wells, +in the side aisles and triforium of the choir of Ely, and in the +S. transept rose-window of Lincoln.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig133" id="fig133"> </a> +<img src="images/fig133.jpg" width="245" height="351" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 133.—PERPENDICULAR TRACERY, WEST WINDOW OF ST. GEORGE’S, +WINDSOR.<!-- invisible . --></p> + +<p><b>THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE.</b> Flowing tracery was, however, +a transitional phase of design, and was soon superseded by +<i>Perpendicular</i> tracery, in which the mullions were +<span class="pagenum">226</span> +<a name="page226" id="page226"> </a> +carried through to the top of the arch and intersected by horizontal +transoms. This formed a very rigid and mechanically correct system of +stone framing, but lacked the grace and charm of the two preceding +periods. The earliest examples are seen in the work of Edington and of +Wykeham in the reconstructed cathedral of Winchester (1360–1394), +where the tracery was thus made to harmonize with the accentuated and +multiplied vertical lines of the interior design. It was at this late +date that the English seem first to have fully appropriated the Gothic +ideas of emphasized vertical elements and wall surfaces reduced to a +minimum. The development of fan-vaulting had led to the adoption of a +new form of arch, the four-centred or <i>Tudor arch</i> (Fig. 133), to +fit under the depressed apex of the vault. The whole design internally +and externally was thenceforward controlled by the form of the vaulting +and of the openings. The windows were made of enormous size, especially +at the east end of the choir, which was square in nearly all English +churches, and in the west windows over the entrance. These windows had +already reached, in the Decorated Period, an enormous size, as at York; +in the Perpendicular Period the two ends of the +<span class="pagenum">227</span> +<a name="page227" id="page227"> </a> +church were as nearly as possible converted into walls of glass. The +East Window of Gloucester reaches the prodigious dimensions of 38 by 72 +feet. The most complete examples of the Perpendicular tracery and of the +style in general are the three chapels already mentioned (<a href="#page223">p. 223</a>); those, namely, of <b>King’s College</b> at +Cambridge, of <b>St. George</b> at Windsor, and of <b>Henry VII.</b> in +Westminster Abbey.</p> + + +<p><b>CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN.</b> The most striking peculiarity of English +Gothic design was its studious avoidance of temerity or venturesomeness +in construction. Both the height and width of the nave were kept within +very moderate bounds, and the supports were never reduced to extreme +slenderness. While much impressiveness of effect was undoubtedly lost +thereby, there was some gain in freedom of design, and there was less +obtrusion of constructive elements in the exterior composition. The +flying-buttress became a feature of minor importance where the +clearstory was kept low, as in most English churches. In many cases the +flying arches were hidden under the aisle roofs. The English cathedrals +and larger churches are long and low, depending for effect mainly upon +the projecting masses of their transepts, the imposing square central +towers which commonly crown the crossing, and the grouping of the main +structure with chapter-houses, cloisters, and Lady-chapels.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig134" id="fig134"> </a> +<img src="images/fig134.jpg" width="249" height="324" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 134.—WEST FRONT, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL.</p> + +<p><b>FRONTS.</b> The sides and east ends were, in most cases, more +successful than the west fronts. In these the English displayed a +singular indifference or lack of creative power. They produced nothing +to rival the majestic façades of Notre Dame, Amiens, or Reims, and their +portals are almost ridiculously small. The front of <b>York</b> +Cathedral is the most notable in the list for its size and elaborate +decoration. Those of <b>Lincoln</b> and <b>Peterborough</b> are, +however, more interesting in the picturesqueness and singularity of +their composition. The first-named forms a vast arcaded +<span class="pagenum">228</span> +<a name="page228" id="page228"> </a> +screen, masking the bases of the two western towers, and pierced by +three huge Norman arches, retained from the original façade. The west +front of Peterborough is likewise a mask or screen, mainly composed of +three colossal recessed arches, whose vast scale completely dwarfs the +little porches which give admittance to the church. Salisbury has a +curiously illogical and ineffective façade. Those of <b>Lichfield</b> +and <b>Wells</b> are, on the other hand, imposing and beautiful designs, +the first with its twin spires and rich arcading (Fig. 134), the second +with its unusual wealth of figure-sculpture, and massive square +towers.</p> + + +<p><b>CENTRAL TOWERS.</b> These are the most successful features of +English exterior design. Most of them form lanterns internally over the +crossing, giving to that point a considerable increase of dignity. +Externally they are usually massive and lofty square towers, and having +been for the most part completed during the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries they are marked by great richness and elegance of detail. +Durham, York, Ely, Canterbury, Lincoln, and Gloucester maybe mentioned +as notable examples of such square towers; that of Canterbury is the +finest. Two or three have lofty spires over the lantern. Among these, +that of Salisbury is chief, rising 424 feet from the ground, admirably +designed in every +<span class="pagenum">229</span> +<a name="page229" id="page229"> </a> +detail. It was not completed till the middle of the fourteenth century, +but most fortunately carries out with great felicity the spirit of the +earlier style in which it was begun. Lichfield and Chichester have +somewhat similar central spires, but less happy in proportion and detail +than the beautiful Salisbury example.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig135" id="fig135"> </a> +<img src="images/fig135.png" width="175" height="369" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 135.—ONE BAY OF CHOIR, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL.</p> + + +<p><b>INTERIOR DESIGN.</b> In the Norman churches the pier-arches, +triforium, and clearstory were practically equal. In the Gothic churches +the pier-arches generally occupy the lower half of the height, the upper +half being divided nearly equally between the triforium and clearstory, +as in Lincoln, Lichfield (nave), Ely (choir). In some cases, however (as +at Salisbury, Westminster, Winchester, choir of Lichfield), the +clearstory is magnified at the expense of the triforium (Fig. 135). +Three peculiarities of design sharply distinguish the English treatment +of these features from the French. The first is the multiplicity of fine +mouldings in the pier-arches; the second is the decorative elaboration +of design in the triforium; the third, the variety in the treatment of +the clearstory.<!-- invisible . --> In general the English interiors are +much more ornate than the French. Black Purbeck marble is frequently +used for the shafts clustered around the central core of the pier, +giving a striking and somewhat singular effect of contrasted color. The +rich vaulting, the highly decorated triforium, the moulded pier-arches, +and at the +<span class="pagenum">230</span> +<a name="page230" id="page230"> </a> +end of the vista the great east window, produce an impression very +different from the more simple and lofty stateliness of the French +cathedrals. The great length and lowness of the English interiors +combine with this decorative richness to give the impression of repose +and grace, rather than of majesty and power. This tendency reached its +highest expression in the Perpendicular churches and chapels, in which +every surface was covered with minute panelling.</p> + + +<p><b>CARVING.</b> In the Early English Period the details were carved +with a combined delicacy and vigor deserving of the highest praise. In +the capitals and corbels, crockets and finials, the foliage was crisp +and fine, curling into convex masses and seeming to spring from the +surface which it decorated. Mouldings were frequently ornamented with +foliage of this character in the hollows, and another ornament, the +<i>dog-tooth</i> or <i>pyramid</i>, often served the same purpose, +introducing repeated points of light into the shadows of the mouldings. +These were fine and complex, deep hollows alternating with round +mouldings (<i>bowtels</i>) sometimes made pear-shaped in section by a +fillet on one side. <i>Cusping</i>—the decoration of an arch or +circle by triangular projections on its inner edge—was introduced +during this period, and became an important decorative resource, +especially in tracery design. In the Decorated Period the foliage was +less crisp; sea-weed and oak-leaves, closely and confusedly bunched, +were used in the capitals, while crockets were larger, double-curved, +with leaves swelling into convexities like oak-galls. Geometrical and +flowing tracery were developed, and the mouldings of the tracery-bars, +as of other features, lost somewhat in vigor and sharpness. The +<i>ball-flower</i> or button replaced the dog’s-tooth, and the hollows +were less frequently adorned with foliage.</p> + +<p>In the Perpendicular Period nearly all flat surfaces were panelled in +designs resembling the tracery of the windows. +<span class="pagenum">231</span> +<a name="page231" id="page231"> </a> +The capitals were less important than those of the preceding periods, +and the mouldings weaker and less effective. The Tudor rose appears as +an ornament in square panels and on flat surfaces; and moulded +battlements, which first appeared in Decorated work, now become a +frequent crowning motive in place of a cornice. There is less +originality and variety in the ornament, but a great increase in its +amount (Fig. 136).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig136" id="fig136"> </a> +<img src="images/fig136.jpg" width="402" height="258" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 136.—FAN-VAULTING, HENRY VII.’S CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER +ABBEY.</p> + + +<p><b>PLANS.</b> English church plans underwent, during the Gothic +Period, but little change from the general types established previous to +the thirteenth century. The Gothic cathedrals and abbeys, like the +Norman, were very long and narrow, with choirs often nearly as long as +the nave, and almost invariably with square eastward terminations. There +is no example of double side aisles and side chapels, and apsidal +chapels are very rare. Canterbury and Westminster (Fig. 137) are the +chief exceptions to this, and both show clearly the French influence. +Another striking peculiarity of the English plans is the frequent +occurrence of secondary +<span class="pagenum">232</span> +<a name="page232" id="page232"> </a> +transepts, adding greatly to the external picturesqueness. These occur +in rudimentary form in Canterbury, and at Durham the Chapel of the Nine +Altars, added 1242–1290 to the eastern end, forms in reality a +secondary transept. This feature is most perfectly developed in the +cathedral of Salisbury (<a href="#fig128">Fig. 128</a>), and +appears also at Lincoln, Worcester, Wells, and a few other examples. The +English cathedral plans are also distinguished by the retention or +incorporation of many conventual features, such as cloisters, libraries, +and halls, and by the grouping of chapter-houses and Lady-chapels with +the main edifice. Thus the English cathedral plans and those of the +great abbey churches present a marked contrast with those of France and +the Continent generally. While Amiens, the greatest of French +cathedrals, is 521 feet long, and internally 140 feet high, Ely measures +565 feet in length, and less than 75 feet in height. Notre Dame is 148 +feet wide; the English naves are usually under 80 feet in total width of +the three aisles.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig137" id="fig137"> </a> +<img src="images/fig137.png" width="248" height="388" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 137.—EASTERN HALF OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY. PLAN.<br> +<span class="caption"> +<i>a, Henry VII.’s chapel.</i></span></p> + + +<p><b>PARISH CHURCHES.</b> Many of these were of exceptional beauty of +composition and detail. They display the greatest variety of plan, +churches with two equal-gabled naves +<span class="pagenum">233</span> +<a name="page233" id="page233"> </a> +side by side being not uncommon. A considerable proportion of them +date from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and are chiefly +interesting for their square, single, west towers and their carved +wooden ceilings (see below). The tower was usually built over the +central western porch; broad and square, with corner buttresses +terminating in pinnacles, it was usually finished without spires. +Crenelated battlements crowned the upper story. When spires were added +the transition from the square tower to the octagonal spire was effected +by <i>broaches</i> or portions of a square pyramid intersecting the base +of the spire, or by corner pinnacles and flying-buttresses.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w270"> +<a name="fig138" id="fig138"> </a> +<img src="images/fig138.png" width="258" height="262" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 138.—ROOF OF NAVE, ST. MARY’S, WESTONZOYLAND.</p> + +<p><b>WOODEN CEILINGS.</b> The English treated woodwork with consummate +skill. They invented and developed a variety of forms of roof-truss in +which the proper distribution of the strains was combined with a highly +decorative treatment of the several parts by carving, moulding, and +arcading. The ceiling surfaces between the trusses were handled +decoratively, and the oaken open-timber ceilings of many of the English +churches and civic or academic halls (Christ Church Hall, Oxford; +Westminster Hall, London) are such noble and beautiful works as quite to +justify the substitution of wooden for vaulted ceilings (Fig. 138). The +<i>hammer-beam</i> truss was in its way as highly scientific, and +æsthetically as satisfactory, as any feature of French Gothic +<span class="pagenum">234</span> +<a name="page234" id="page234"> </a> +stone construction. Without the use of tie-rods to keep the rafters from +spreading, it brought the strain of the roof upon internal brackets low +down on the wall, and produced a beautiful effect by the repetition of +its graceful curves in each truss.</p> + + +<p><b>CHAPELS AND HALLS.</b> Many of these rival the cathedrals in +beauty and dignity of design. The royal chapels at Windsor and +Westminster have already been mentioned, as well as King’s College +Chapel at Cambridge, and Christ Church Hall at Oxford. To these college +halls should be added the chapel of Merton College at Oxford, and the +beautiful chapel of St. Stephen at Westminster, most unfortunately +demolished when the present Parliament House was erected. The +Lady-chapels of Gloucester and Ely, though connected with the +cathedrals, are really independent designs of late date, and remarkable +for the richness of their decoration, their great windows, and elaborate +ribbed vaulting. Some of the halls in mediæval castles and manor-houses +are also worthy of note, especially for their timber ceilings.</p> + + +<p><b>MINOR MONUMENTS.</b> The student of Gothic architecture should +also give attention to the choir-screens, tombs, and chantries which +embellish many of the abbeys and cathedrals. The rood-screen at York is +a notable example of the first; the tomb of De Gray in the same +cathedral, and tombs and chantries in Canterbury, Winchester, +Westminster Abbey, Ely, St. Alban’s Abbey, and other churches are +deservedly admired. In these the English love for ornament, for minute +carving, and for the contrast of white and colored marble, found +unrestrained expression. To these should be added the market-crosses of +Salisbury and Winchester, and Queen Eleanor’s Cross at Waltham.</p> + + +<p><b>DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> The mediæval castles of Great Britain +belong to the domain of military engineering rather than of the history +of art, though occasionally presenting +<span class="pagenum">235</span> +<a name="page235" id="page235"> </a> +to view details of considerable architectural beauty. The growth of +peace and civic order is marked by the erection of manor-houses, the +residences of wealthy landowners. Some of these houses are of imposing +size, and show the application to domestic requirements, of the late +Gothic style which prevailed in the period to which most of them belong. +The windows are square or Tudor-arched, with stone mullions and transoms +of the Perpendicular style, and the walls terminate in merlons or +crenelated parapets, recalling the earlier military structures. The +palace of the bishop or archbishop, adjoining the cathedral, and the +residences of the dean, canons, and clergy, together with the libraries, +schools, and gates of the cathedral enclosure, illustrate other phases +of secular Gothic work. Few of these structures are of striking +architectural merit, but they possess a picturesque charm which is very +attractive.</p> + +<p>Not many stone houses of the smaller class remain from the Gothic +period in England. But there is hardly an old town that does not retain +many of the half-timbered dwellings of the fifteenth or even fourteenth +century, some of them in excellent preservation. They are for the most +part wider and lower than the French houses of the same class, but are +built on the same principle, and, like them, the woodwork is more or +less richly carved.</p> + + +<div class="monuments"> + +<p><b>MONUMENTS</b>: (A. = abbey church; C. = cathedral; r. = +ruined; trans. = transept; each monument is given under the date of the +earliest extant Gothic work upon it, with additions of later periods in +parentheses.)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Early English</span>: Kirkstall A., +1152–82, first pointed arches; Canterbury C., choir, +1175–84 (nave, 1378–1411; central tower, 1500); +Lincoln C., choir, trans., 1192–1200 (vault, 1250; nave and +E. end, 1260–80); Lichfield C., 1200–50 +(W. front, 1275; presbytery, 1325); Worcester C., choir, +1203–18, nave partly Norman (W. end, 1375–95); +Chichester C., 1204–44 (spire rebuilt 17th century); +Fountains A., 1205–46; Salisbury C., 1220–58 +(cloister, chapter-h., 1263–84; spire, 1331); Elgin C., +1224–44; Wells C., 1175–1206 (W. front 1225, choir +later, chapter-h., 1292); Rochester C., 1225–39 +<span class="pagenum">236</span> +<a name="page236" id="page236"> </a> +(nave Norman); York C., S.<!-- invisible . --> trans., 1225; +N. trans., 1260 (nave, chapter-h., 1291–1345; W. window, +1338; central tower, 1389–1407; E. window, 1407); Southwell +Minster, 1233–94 (nave Norman); Ripon C., 1233–94 +(central tower, 1459); Ely C., choir, 1229–54 (nave Norman; +octagon and presbytery, 1323–62); Peterborough C., +W. front, 1237 (nave Norman; retro-choir, late 14th century); +Netley A., 1239 (r.); Durham C., “Nine Altars” and E. end +choir, 1235–90 (nave, choir, Norman; W. window, 1341; central +tower finished, 1480); Glasgow C., (with remarkable Early English +crypt), 1242–77; Gloucester C., nave vaulted, 1239–42 +(nave mainly Norman; choir, 1337–51; cloisters, 1375–1412; +W. end, 1420–37; central tower, 1450–57); +Westminster A., 1245–69; St. Mary’s A., York, 1272–92 +(r.).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Decorated</span>: Merton College Chapel, +Oxford, 1274–1300; Hereford C., N. trans., chapter-h., +cloisters, vaulting, 1275–92 (nave, choir, Norman); +Exeter C., choir, trans., 1279–91; nave, 1331–50 +(E. end remodelled, 1390); Lichfield C., Lady-chapel, 1310; +Ely C., Lady-chapel, 1321–49; Melrose A., 1327–99 +(nave, 1500; r.); St. Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster, 1349–64 +(demolished); Edington church, 1352–61; Carlisle C., +E. end and upper parts, 1352–95 (nave in part and +S. trans. Norman; tower finished, 1419); Winchester C., +W. end remodelled, 1360–66 (nave and aisles, 1394–1410; +trans., partly Norman); York C., Lady-chapel, 1362–72; +churches of Patrington and Hull, late 14th century.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Perpendicular</span>: Holy Cross Church, +Canterbury, 1380; St. Mary’s, Warwick, 1381–91; +Manchester C., 1422; St. Mary’s, Bury St. Edmunds, 1424–33; +Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, 1439; King’s College Chapel, Cambridge, 1440; +vaults, 1508–15; St. Mary’s Redcliffe, Bristol, 1442; Roslyn +Chapel, Edinburgh, 1446–90; Gloucester C., Lady-chapel, +1457–98; St. Mary’s, Stratford-on-Avon, 1465–91; +Norwich C., upper part and E. end of choir, 1472–99 (the +rest mainly Norman); St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, 1481–1508; +choir vaulted, 1507–20; Bath A., 1500–39; Chapel of +Henry VII., Westminster, 1503–20.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Academic and Secular Buildings</span>: +Winchester Castle Hall, 1222–35; Merton College Chapel, Oxford, +1274–1300; Library Merton College, 1354–78; Norborough Hall, +1356; Windsor Castle, upper ward, 1359–73; Winchester College, +1387–93; Wardour Castle, 1392; Westminster Hall, rebuilt, +1397–99; St. Mary’s Hall, Coventry, 1401–14; Warkworth +Castle, 1440; St. John’s College, All <ins class="correction" title="apostrophe in original">Soul’s</ins> College, Oxford, 1437; Eton +College, 1441–1522; Divinity Schools, Oxford, 1445–54; +Magdalen College, Oxford, 1475–80, tower, 1500; Christ Church +Hall, Oxford, 1529.</p> + +</div> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">237</span> +<a name="page237" id="page237"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXVIII" id="chapXVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, AND SPAIN.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Corroyer, +Reber. Also, Adler, <i>Mittelalterliche Backstein-Bauwerke des +preussischen Staates</i>. Essenwein (<i>Hdbuch. d. Arch.</i>), <i>Die +romanische und die gothische Baukunst; der Wohnbau</i>. Hasak, <i>Die +romanische und die gothische Baukunst; Kirchenbau</i>; <i>Einzelheiten +des Kirchenbaues</i> (both in <i>Hdbuch. d. Arch.</i>). Hase and others, +<i>Die mittelalterlichen Baudenkmäler Niedersachsens</i>. Kallenbach, +<i>Chronologie der deutschen mittelalterlichen Baukunst</i>. Lübke, +<i>Ecclesiastical Art in Germany during the Middle Ages</i>. +Redtenbacher, <i>Leitfaden zum Studium der mittelalterlichen +Baukunst</i>. Street, <i>Gothic Architecture in Spain</i>. Uhde, +<i>Baudenkmäler in Spanien</i>. Ungewitter, <i>Lehrbuch der gothischen +Constructionen</i>. Villa Amil, <i>Hispania Artistica y +Monumental</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>EARLY GOTHIC WORKS.</b> The Gothic architecture of Germany is less +interesting to the general student than that of France and England, not +only because its development was less systematic and more provincial, +but also because it produced fewer works of high intrinsic merit. The +introduction into Germany of the pointed style was tardy, and its +progress slow. Romanesque architecture had created imposing types of +ecclesiastical architecture, which the conservative Teutons were slow to +abandon. The result was a half-century of transition and a mingling of +Romanesque and Gothic forms. St. Castor, at Coblentz, built as late as +1208, is wholly Romanesque. Even when the pointed arch and vault had +finally come into general use, the plan and the constructive system +still remained predominantly Romanesque. The western apse and short +sanctuary of the earlier plans were retained. There was no triforium, +the +<span class="pagenum">238</span> +<a name="page238" id="page238"> </a> +clearstory was insignificant, and the whole aspect low and massive. The +Germans avoided, at first, as did the English, the constructive +audacities and difficulties of the French Gothic, but showed less of +invention and grace than their English neighbors. When, however, through +the influence of foreign models, especially of the great French +cathedrals, and through the employment of foreign architects, the Gothic +styles were at last thoroughly domesticated, a spirit of +ostentation took the place of the earlier conservatism. Technical +cleverness, exaggerated ingenuity of detail, and constructive <i>tours +de force</i> characterize most of the German Gothic work of the late +fourteenth and of the fifteenth century. This is exemplified in the +slender mullions of Ulm, the lofty and complicated spire of Strasburg, +and the curious traceries of churches and houses in Nuremberg.</p> + + +<p><b>PERIODS.</b> The periods of German mediæval architecture +corresponded in sequence, though not in date, with the movement +elsewhere. The maturing of the true Gothic styles was preceded by more +than a half-century of transition. Chronologically the periods may be +broadly stated as follows:</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">The Transitional</span>, +1170–1225.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">The Early Pointed</span>, +1225–1275.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">The Middle or Decorated</span>, +1275–1350.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">The Florid</span>, 1350–1530.</p> + +<p>These divisions are, however, far less clearly defined than in France +and England. The development of forms was less logical and +consequential, and less uniform in the different provinces, than in +those western lands.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig139" id="fig139"> </a> +<img src="images/fig139.png" width="195" height="354" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 139.—ONE BAY OF CATHEDRAL OF ST. GEORGE, LIMBURG.</p> + +<p><b>CONSTRUCTION.</b> As already remarked, a tenacious hold of +Romanesque methods is observable in many German Gothic monuments. Broad +wall-surfaces with small windows and a general massiveness and lowness +of proportions were long preferred to the more slender and lofty forms +of true +<span class="pagenum">239</span> +<a name="page239" id="page239"> </a> +Gothic design. Square vaulting-bays were persistently adhered to, +covering two aisle-bays. The six-part system was only rarely resorted +to, as at Schlettstadt, and in St. George at Limburg-on-the-Lahn (Fig. +139). The ribbed vault was an imported idea, and was never +systematically developed. Under the final dominance of French models in +the second half of the thirteenth century, vaulting in oblong bays +became more general, powerfully influenced by buildings like Freiburg, +Cologne, Oppenheim, and Ratisbon cathedrals. In the fourteenth century +the growing taste for elaboration and rich detail led to the +introduction of multiplied decorative ribs. These, however, did not come +into use, as in England, through a logical development of constructive +methods, but purely as decorative features. The German multiple-ribbed +vaulting is, therefore, less satisfying than the English, though often +elegant. Conspicuous examples of its application are found in the +cathedrals of Freiburg, Ulm, Prague, and Vienna; in St. Barbara at +Kuttenberg, and many other important churches. But with all the richness +and complexity of these net-like vaults the Germans developed nothing +like the fan-vaulting or chapter-house ceilings of England.</p> + + +<p><b>SIDE AISLES.</b> The most notable structural innovation of the +Germans was the raising of the side aisles to the same height as the +central aisle in a number of important +<span class="pagenum">240</span> +<a name="page240" id="page240"> </a> +churches. They thus created a distinctly new type, to which German +writers have given the name of <i>hall-church</i>. The result of this +innovation was to transform completely the internal perspective of the +church, as well as its structural membering. The clearstory disappeared; +the central aisle no longer dominated the interior; the pier-arches and +side-walls were greatly increased in height, and flying buttresses were +no longer required. The whole design appeared internally more spacious, +but lost greatly in variety and in interest. The cathedral of <b>St. +Stephen</b> at Vienna is the most imposing instance of this treatment, +which first appeared in the church of St. Elizabeth at Marburg +(1235–83; Fig. 140). St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, St. Martin’s at +Landshut (1404), and the cathedral of Munich are others among many +examples of this type.</p> + +<p class="illustration floatleft w240"> +<a name="fig140" id="fig140"> </a> +<img src="images/fig140.png" width="224" height="252" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 140.—SECTION OF ST. ELIZABETH, MARBURG.</p> + + +<p><b>TOWERS AND SPIRES.</b> The same fondness for spires which had been +displayed in the Rhenish Romanesque churches produced in the Gothic +period a number of strikingly beautiful church steeples, in which +openwork tracery was substituted for the solid stone pyramids of earlier +examples. The most remarkable of these spires are those of Freiburg +(1300), Strasburg, and Cologne cathedrals, of the church at Esslingen, +St. Martin’s at Landshut, and the cathedral of Vienna. In these the +transition from the simple square tower below to the octagonal belfry +and spire is generally managed with skill. In the remarkable tower of +the cathedral +<span class="pagenum">241</span> +<a name="page241" id="page241"> </a> +at Vienna (1433) the transition is too gradual, so that the spire seems +to start from the ground and lacks the vigor and accent of a simpler +square lower portion. The over-elaborate spire of <b>Strasburg</b> +(1429, by Junckher of Cologne; lower parts and façade, 1277–1365, +by <i>Erwin von Steinbach</i> and his sons) reaches a height of 468 +feet; the spires of Cologne, completed in 1883 from the original +fourteenth-century drawings, long lost but recovered by a happy +accident, are 500 feet high. The spires of <b>Ratisbon</b> and +<b>Ulm</b> cathedrals have also been recently completed in the original +style.</p> + + +<p><b>DETAILS.</b> German window tracery was best where it most closely +followed French patterns, but it tended always towards the faults of +mechanical stiffness and of technical display in over-slenderness of +shafts and mullions. The windows, especially in the “hall-churches,” +were apt to be too narrow for their height. In the fifteenth century +ingenuity of geometrical combinations took the place of grace of line, +and later the tracery was often tortured into a stone caricature of +rustic-work of interlaced and twisted boughs and twigs, represented with +all their bark and knots (<i>branch-tracery</i>). The execution was far +superior to the design. The carving of foliage in capitals, finials, +etc., calls for no special mention for its originality or its departure +from French types.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig141" id="fig141"> </a> +<img src="images/fig141.png" width="176" height="308" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 141.—COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. PLAN.</p> + +<p><b>PLANS.</b> In these there was more variety than in any other part +of Europe except Italy. Some churches, like Naumburg, retained the +Romanesque system of a second western apse and short choir. The +Cistercian churches generally had square east ends, while the polygonal +eastern apse without ambulatory is seen in St. Elizabeth at Marburg, the +cathedrals of Ratisbon, Ulm and Vienna, and many other churches. The +introduction of French ideas in the thirteenth century led to the +adoption in a number of cases of the chevet with a single ambulatory and +a series of +<span class="pagenum">242</span> +<a name="page242" id="page242"> </a> +radiating apsidal chapels. <b>Magdeburg</b> cathedral (1208–11) +was the first erected on this plan, which was later followed at +Altenburg, Cologne, Freiburg, Lübeck, Prague and Zwettl, in St. Francis +at Salzburg and some other churches. Side chapels to nave or choir +appear in the cathedrals of Lübeck, Munich, Oppenheim, Prague and +Zwettl. <b>Cologne</b> <b>Cathedral</b>, by far the largest and most +magnificent of all, is completely French in plan, uniting in one design +the leading characteristics of the most notable French churches (Fig. +141). It has complete double aisles in both nave and choir, three-aisled +transepts, radial chevet-chapels and twin western towers. The ambulatory +is, however, single, and there are no lateral chapels. A typical +German treatment was the eastward termination of the church by polygonal +chapels, one in the axis of each aisle, the central one projecting +beyond its neighbors. Where there were five aisles, as at Xanten, the +effect was particularly fine. The plan of the curious polygonal church +of <b>Our Lady</b> (Liebfrauenkirche; 1227–43) built on the site +of the ancient circular baptistery at Treves, would seem to have been +produced by doubling such an arrangement on either side of the +transverse axis (Fig. 142).</p> + + +<p class="illustration floatleft w180"> +<a name="fig142" id="fig142"> </a> +<img src="images/fig142.png" width="193" height="244" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 142.—CHURCH OF OUR LADY, TREVES.</p> + +<p><b>HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.</b> The so-called <b>Golden Portal</b> of +<b>Freiburg</b> in the Erzgebirge is perhaps the first distinctively +Gothic work in Germany, dating from 1190. From that time on, Gothic +details appeared with increasing frequency, especially in the Rhine +provinces, as shown in many +<span class="pagenum">243</span> +<a name="page243" id="page243"> </a> +transitional structures. <b>Gelnhausen</b> and Aschaffenburg are early +13th-century examples; pointed arches and vaults appear in the Apostles’ +and St. Martin’s churches at Cologne; and the great church of <b>St. +Peter and St. Paul</b> at Neuweiler in Alsace has an almost purely +Gothic nave of the same period. The churches of <b>Bamberg</b>, +<b>Fritzlar</b>, and <b>Naumburg</b>, and in Westphalia those of +<b>Münster</b> and <b>Osnabrück</b>, are important examples of the +transition. The French influence, especially the Burgundian, appears as +early as 1212 in the cathedral of Magdeburg, imitating the choir of +Soissons, and in the structural design of the Liebfrauenkirche at Treves +as already mentioned; it reached complete ascendancy in Alsace at +<b>Strasburg</b> (nave 1240–75), in Baden at <b>Freiburg</b> (nave +1270) and in Prussia at <b>Cologne</b> (1248–1320). Strasburg +Cathedral is especially remarkable for its façade, the work of Erwin von +Steinbach and his sons (1277–1346), designed after French models, +and its north spire, built in the fifteenth century. Cologne Cathedral, +begun in 1248 by <i>Gerhard of Riel</i> in imitation of the newly +completed choir of Amiens, was continued by Master <i>Arnold</i> and his +son <i>John</i>, and the choir was consecrated in 1322. The nave and +W. front were built during the first half of the 14th century, +though the towers were not completed till 1883. +<span class="illustration"> +<a name="fig143" id="fig143"> </a> +<img src="images/fig143.png" width="120" height="293" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 143.<!-- invisible . -->—PLAN OF<br> +ULM CATHEDRAL.</span> +In spite of its vast size and slow construction, it is in style the most +uniform of all great Gothic cathedrals, as it is the most lofty +(excepting the choir of Beauvais) and the largest excepting Milan and +<span class="pagenum">244</span> +<a name="page244" id="page244"> </a> +Seville. Unfortunately its details, though pure and correct, are +singularly dry and mechanical, while its very uniformity deprives it of +the picturesque and varied charm which results from a mixture of styles +recording the labors of successive generations. The same criticism may +be raised against the late cathedral of <b>Ulm</b> (choir, +1377–1449; nave, 1477; Fig. 143). The Cologne influence is +observable in the widely separated cathedrals of Utrecht in the +Netherlands, Metz in the W., Minden and <b>Halberstadt</b> (begun 1250; +mainly built after 1327) in Saxony, and in the S. in the church of +<b>St. Catherine</b> at Oppenheim. To the E. and S., in the +cathedrals of <b>Prague</b> (Bohemia) by <i>Matthew of Arras</i> +(1344–52) and <b>Ratisbon</b> (or Regensburg, 1275) the French +influence predominates, at least in the details and construction. The +last-named is one of the most dignified and beautiful of German Gothic +churches—German in plan, French in execution. The French influence +also manifests itself in the details of many of the peculiarly German +churches with aisles of equal height (see <a href="#page240">p. 240</a>).</p> + +<p>More peculiarly German are the brick churches of North Germany, where +stone was almost wholly lacking. In these, flat walls, square towers, +and decoration by colored tiles and bricks are characteristic, as at +Brandenburg (St. Godehard and <b>St. Catherine</b>, 1346–1400), at +<b>Prentzlau</b>, Tängermünde, Königsberg, &c. Lübeck possesses +notable monuments of brick architecture in the churches of <b>St. +Mary</b> and St. Catherine, both much alike in plan and in the flat and +barren simplicity of their exteriors. <b>St. Martin’s</b> at +<b>Landshut</b> in the South is also a notable brick church.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">245</span> +<a name="page245" id="page245"> </a> +<p><b>LATE GOTHIC.</b> As in France and England, the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries were mainly occupied with the completion of existing +churches, many of which, up to that time, were still without naves. The +works of this period show the exaggerated attenuation of detail already +alluded to, though their richness and elegance sometimes atone for their +mechanical character. The complicated ribbed vaults of this period are +among its most striking features (see <a href="#page239">p. 239</a>). Spire-building was as general as was the +erection of central square towers in England, during the same period. To +this time also belong the overloaded traceries and minute detail of the +<b>St. Sebald</b> and St. Lorenz churches and of several secular +buildings at Nuremberg, the façade of Chemnitz Cathedral, and similar +works. The nave and tower of St. Stephen at Vienna (1359–1433), +the church of Sta. Maria in Gestade in the same city, and the cathedral +of Kaschau in Hungary, are Austrian masterpieces of late Gothic +design.</p> + + +<p><b>SECULAR BUILDINGS.</b> Germany possesses a number of important +examples of secular Gothic work, chiefly municipal buildings (gates and +town halls) and castles. The first completely Gothic castle or palace +was not built until 1280, at <b>Marienburg</b> (Prussia), and was +completed a century later. It consists of two courts, the earlier of the +two forming a closed square and containing the chapel and chapter-house +of the Order of the German knights. The later and larger court is less +regular, its chief feature being the <b>Great Hall</b> of the Order, in +two aisles. All the vaulting is of the richest multiple-ribbed type. +Other castles are at Marienwerder, Heilsberg (1350) in E. Prussia, +Karlstein in Bohemia (1347), and the <b>Albrechtsburg</b> at Meissen in +Saxony (1471–83).</p> + +<p>Among town halls, most of which date from the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries may be mentioned those of Ratisbon (Regensburg), +Münster and Hildesheim, Halberstadt, +<span class="pagenum">246</span> +<a name="page246" id="page246"> </a> +<b>Brunswick</b>, Lübeck, and Bremen—the last two of brick. These, +and the city gates, such as the <b>Spahlenthor</b> at Basle +(Switzerland) and others at Lübeck and Wismar, are generally very +picturesque edifices. Many fine guildhalls were also built during the +last two centuries of the Gothic style; and dwelling-houses of the same +period, of quaint and effective design, with stepped or traceried +gables, lofty roofs, openwork balconies and corner turrets, are to be +found in many cities. Nuremberg is especially rich in these.</p> + + +<p><b>THE NETHERLANDS</b>, as might be expected from their position, +underwent the influences of both France and Germany. During the +thirteenth century, largely through the intimate monastic relations +between Tournay and Noyon, the French influence became paramount in what +is now Belgium, while Holland remained more strongly German in style. Of +the two countries Belgium developed by far the most interesting +architecture. Some of its cathedrals, notably those of Tournay, Antwerp, +Brussels, Malines (Mechlin), Mons and Louvain, rank high among +structures of their class, both in scale and in artistic treatment. The +Flemish town halls and guildhalls merit particular attention for their +size and richness, exemplifying in a worthy manner the wealth, +prosperity, and independence of the weavers and merchants of Antwerp, +Ypres, Ghent (Gand), Louvain, and other cities in the fifteenth +century.</p> + + +<p><b>CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES.</b> The earliest purely Gothic edifice in +Belgium was the choir of <b>Ste. Gudule</b> (1225) at Brussels, followed +in 1242 by the choir and transepts of <b>Tournay</b>, designed with +pointed vaults, side chapels, and a complete <i>chevet</i>. The +transept-ends are round, as at Noyon. It was surpassed in splendor by +the <b>Cathedral</b> of <b>Antwerp</b> (1352–1422), remarkable for +its seven-aisled nave and narrow transepts. It covers some 70,000 square +feet, but its great size is not as effective internally as it should be, +owing to the poverty of the details and the lack +<span class="pagenum">247</span> +<a name="page247" id="page247"> </a> +of finely felt proportion in the various parts. The late west front +(1422–1518) displays the florid taste of the wealthy Flemish +burgher population of that period, but is so rich and elegant, +especially its lofty and slender north spire, that its over-decoration +is pardonable. The cathedral of <b>St. Rombaut</b> at Malines (choir, +1366; nave, 1454–64) is a more satisfactory church, though smaller +and with its western towers incomplete. The cathedral of <b>Louvain</b> +belongs to the same period (1373–1433). <b>St. Wandru</b> at Mons +(1450–1528) and <b>St. Jacques</b> at Liège (1522–58) are +interesting parish churches of the first rank, remarkable especially for +the use of color in their internal decoration, for their late tracery +and ribbed vaulting, and for the absence of Renaissance details at that +late period.</p> + + +<p><b>TOWN HALLS: GUILDHALLS.</b> These were really the most +characteristic Flemish edifices, and are in most cases the most +conspicuous monuments of their respective cities. The <b>Cloth Hall</b> +of <b>Ypres</b> (1304) is the earliest and most imposing among them; +similar halls were built not much later at <b>Bruges</b>, +<b>Louvain</b>, <b>Malines</b> and <b>Ghent</b>. The town halls were +mostly of later date, the earliest being that of <b>Bruges</b> (1377). +The town halls of <b>Brussels</b> with its imposing +<span class="pagenum">248</span> +<a name="page248" id="page248"> </a> +and graceful tower, of <b>Louvain</b> (1448–63; Fig. 144) and of +<b>Oudenärde</b> (early 16th century) are conspicuous monuments of this +class.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig144" id="fig144"> </a> +<img src="images/fig144.jpg" width="262" height="352" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 144.—TOWN HALL, LOUVAIN.</p> + +<p>In general, the Gothic architecture of Belgium presents the traits of +a borrowed style, which did not undergo at the hands of its borrowers +any radically novel or fundamental development. The structural design is +usually lacking in vigor and organic significance, but the details are +often graceful and well designed, especially on the exterior. The +tendency was often towards over-elaboration, particularly in the later +works.</p> + +<p>The Gothic architecture of <b>Holland</b> and of the +<b>Scandinavian</b> countries offers so little that is highly artistic +or inspiring in character, that space cannot well be given in this work, +even to an enumeration of its chief monuments.</p> + + +<p><b>SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.</b> The beginnings of Gothic architecture in +Spain followed close on the series of campaigns from 1217 to 1252, which +began the overthrow of the Moorish dominion. With the resulting spirit +of exultation and the wealth accruing from booty, came a rapid +development of architecture, mainly under French influence. Gothic +architecture was at this date, under St. Louis, producing in France some +of its noblest works. The great cathedrals of <b>Toledo</b> and +<b>Burgos</b>, begun between 1220 and 1230, were the earliest purely +Gothic churches in Spain. <b>San Vincente</b> at Avila and the <b>Old +Cathedral</b> at Salamanca, of somewhat earlier date, present a mixture +of round- and pointed-arched forms, with the Romanesque elements +predominant. <b>Toledo Cathedral</b>, planned in imitation of Notre Dame +and Bourges, but exceeding them in width, covers 75,000 square feet, and +thus ranks among the largest of European cathedrals. Internally it is +well proportioned and well detailed, recalling the early French +masterworks, but its exterior is less commendable.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">249</span> +<a name="page249" id="page249"> </a> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig145" id="fig145"> </a> +<img src="images/fig145.jpg" width="261" height="334" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 145.<!-- invisible both . -->—FAÇADE OF BURGOS CATHEDRAL.</p> + +<p>In the contemporary cathedral of Burgos the exterior is at least as +interesting as the interior. The west front, of German design, suggests +Cologne by its twin openwork spires (Fig. 145); while the crossing is +embellished with a sumptuous dome and lantern or <i>cimborio</i>, added +as late as 1567. The chapels at the east end, especially that of the +Condestabile (1487), are ornate to the point of overloading, +a fault to which late Spanish Gothic work is peculiarly prone. +Other thirteenth-century cathedrals are those of <b>Leon</b> (1260), +<b>Valencia</b> (1262), and <b>Barcelona</b> (1298), all exhibiting +strongly the French influence in the plan, vaulting, and vertical +proportions. The models of Bourges and Paris with their wide naves, +lateral chapels and semicircular chevets were followed in the cathedral +of Barcelona, in a number of fourteenth-century churches both there and +elsewhere, and in the sixteenth-century cathedral of Segovia. In Sta. +Maria del Pi at Barcelona, in the collegiate church at Manresa, and in +the imposing nave of the <b>Cathedral</b> of <b>Gerona</b> (1416, added +to choir of 1312, the latter by a Southern French architect, Henri de +Narbonne), the influence of Alby in southern France (see <a href="#page206">p. 206</a>) is discernible. These are one-aisled +churches with internal +<span class="pagenum">250</span> +<a name="page250" id="page250"> </a> +buttresses separating the lateral chapels. The nave of Gerona is 73 feet +wide, or double the average clear width of French or English cathedral +naves. The resulting effect is not commensurate with the actual +dimensions, and shows the inappropriateness of Gothic details for +compositions so Roman in breadth and simplicity.</p> + + +<p><b>SEVILLE.</b> The largest single edifice in Spain, and the largest +church built during the Middle Ages in Europe, is the <b>Cathedral of +Seville</b>, begun in 1401 on the site of a Moorish mosque. It covers +124,000 square feet, measuring 415 × 298 feet, and is a simple rectangle +comprising five aisles with lateral chapels. The central aisle is 56 ft. +wide and 145 high; the side aisles and chapels diminish gradually in +height, and with the uniform piers in six rows produce an imposing +effect, in spite of the lack of transepts or chevet. The somewhat +similar <b>New Cathedral</b> of Salamanca (1510–1560) shows the +last struggles of the Gothic style against the incoming tide of the +Renaissance.</p> + + +<p><b>LATER MONUMENTS.</b> These all partake of the over-decoration +which characterized the fifteenth century throughout Europe. In Spain +this decoration was even less constructive in character, and more purely +fanciful and arbitrary, than in the northern lands; but this very +rejection of all constructive pretense gives it a peculiar charm and +goes far to excuse its extravagance (Fig. 146). Decorative vaulting-ribs +were made to describe geometric patterns of great elegance. Some of the +late Gothic vaults by the very exuberance of imagination shown in their +designs, almost disarm criticism. Instead of suppressing the walls as +far as possible, and emphasizing all the vertical lines, as was done in +France and England, the later Gothic architects of Spain delighted in +broad wall-surfaces and multiplied horizontal lines. Upon these surfaces +they lavished carving without restraint and without any organic relation +to the structure of the building. The arcades of +<span class="pagenum">251</span> +<a name="page251" id="page251"> </a> +cloisters and interior courts (<i>patios</i>) were formed with arches of +fantastic curves resting on twisted columns; and internal chapels in the +cathedrals were covered with minute carving of exquisite workmanship, +but wholly irrational design. Probably the influence of Moorish +decorative art accounts in part for these extravagances. The eastern +chapels in Burgos cathedral, the votive church of <b>San Juan de los +Reyes</b> at Toledo and many portals of churches, convents and hospitals +illustrate these tendencies.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig146" id="fig146"> </a> +<img src="images/fig146.jpg" width="259" height="486" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 146.—DETAIL, PORTAL S. GREGORIO, VALLADOLID.</p> + + +<p><b>PORTUGAL</b> is an almost unknown land architecturally. It seems +to have adopted the Gothic styles very late in its history. Two +monuments, however, are conspicuous, the convent churches of Batalha +(1390–1520) and <b>Belem</b>, both marked by an extreme +overloading of carved ornament. The <b>Mausoleum of King Manoel</b> in +the rear of the church at Batalha is, however, a noble creation, +possibly by an English master. It is a polygonal domed edifice, some 67 +feet in diameter, and well +<span class="pagenum">252</span> +<a name="page252" id="page252"> </a> +designed, though covered with a too profuse and somewhat mechanical +decoration of panels, pinnacles, and carving.</p> + + +<div class="monuments"> +<p><b>MONUMENTS</b>: <span class="smallcaps">Germany</span> (C = +cathedral; A = abbey; tr. = transepts).—13th century: +Transitional churches: Bamberg C.; Naumburg C.; Collegiate +Church, Fritzlar; St. George, Limburg-on-Lahn; St. Castor, Coblentz; +Heisterbach A.;—all in early years of 13th century. St. +Gereon, Cologne, choir 1212–27; Liebfrauenkirche, Treves, +1227–44; St. Elizabeth, Marburg, 1235–83; Sts. Peter and +Paul, Neuweiler, 1250; Cologne C., choir 1248–1322 (nave 14th +century; towers finished 1883); Strasburg C., 1250–75 +(E. end Romanesque; façade 1277–1365; tower 1429–39); +Halberstadt C., nave 1250 (choir 1327; completed 1490); +Altenburg C., choir 1255–65 (finished 1379); Wimpfen-im-Thal +church 1259–78; St. Lawrence, Nuremberg, 1260 (choir +1439–77); St. Catherine, Oppenheim, 1262–1317 (choir 1439); +Xanten, Collegiate Church, 1263; Freiburg C., 1270 (W. tower +1300; choir 1354); Toul C., 1272; Meissen C., choir 1274 (nave +1312–42); Ratisbon C., 1275; St. Mary’s, Lübeck, 1276; +Dominican churches at Coblentz, Gebweiler; and in Switzerland at Basle, +Berne, and Zurich.<!-- invisible . -->—14th century: Wiesenkirche, +Söst, 1313; Osnabrück C., 1318 (choir 1420); St. Mary’s, Prentzlau, +1325; Augsburg C., 1321–1431; Metz C., 1330 rebuilt +(choir 1486); St. Stephen’s C., Vienna, 1340 (nave 15th century; tower +1433); Zwette C., 1343; Prague C., 1344; church at Thann, 1351 +(tower finished 16th century); Liebfrauenkirche, Nuremberg, +1355–61; St. Sebaldus Church, Nuremberg, 1361–77 (nave +Romanesque); Minden C., choir 1361; Ulm C., 1377 (choir 1449; +nave vaulted 1471; finished 16th century); Sta. Barbara, Kuttenberg, +1386 (nave 1483); Erfurt C.; St. Elizabeth, Kaschau; +Schlettstadt C.—15th century: St. Catherine’s, Brandenburg, +1401; Frauenkirche, Esslingen, 1406 (finished 1522); Minster at Berne, +1421; Peter-Paulskirche, Görlitz, 1423–97; St. Mary’s, Stendal, +1447; Frauenkirche, Munich, 1468–88; St. Martin’s, Landshut, +1473.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Secular Monuments.</span> Schloss +Marienburg, 1341; Moldau-bridge and tower, Prague, 1344; Karlsteinburg, +1348–57; Albrechtsburg, Meissen, 1471–83; Nassau House, +Nuremberg, 1350; Council houses (Rathhaüser) at Brunswick, 1393; +Cologne, 1407–15; Basle; Breslau; Lübeck; Münster; Prague; Ulm; +City Gates of Basle, Cologne, Ingolstadt, Lucerne.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">The Netherlands.</span><!-- invisible . --> +Brussels C. (Ste. Gudule), 1226–80; Tournai C., choir +1242 (nave finished 1380); Notre Dame, Bruges, 1239–97; Notre +Dame, Tongres, 1240; Utrecht C., 1251; St. Martin, Ypres, 1254; +Notre Dame,<!-- invisible , --> Dinant, 1255; church at Dordrecht; +church at Aerschot, +<span class="pagenum">253</span> +<a name="page253" id="page253"> </a> +1337; Antwerp C., 1352–1411 (W. front 1422–1518); St. +Rombaut, Malines, 1355–66 (nave 1456–64); St. Wandru, Mons, +1450–1528; St. Lawrence, Rotterdam, 1472; other 15th century +churches—St. Bavon, Haarlem; St. Catherine, Utrecht; St. +Walpurgis, Sutphen; St. Bavon, Ghent (tower 1461); St. Jaques, Antwerp; +St. Pierre, Louvain; St. Jacques, Bruges; churches at Arnheim, Breda, +Delft; St. Jacques, Liège, 1522.—<span class="smallcaps">Secular</span>: Cloth-hall, Ypres, 1200–1304; +cloth-hall, Bruges, 1284; town hall, Bruges, 1377; town hall, Brussels, +1401–55; town hall, Louvain, 1448–63; town hall, Ghent, +1481; town hall, Oudenarde, 1527; Standehuis, Delft, 1528; cloth-halls +at Louvain, Ghent, Malines.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Spain.</span>—13th century: Burgos +C., 1221 (façade 1442–56; chapels 1487; cimborio 1567); +Toledo C., 1227–90 (chapels 14th and 15th centuries); +Tarragona C., 1235; Leon C., 1250 (façade 14th century); +Valencia C., 1262 (N. transept 1350–1404; façade +1381–1418); Avila C., vault and N. portal +1292–1353 (finished 14th century); St. Esteban, Burgos; church at +Las Huelgas.—14th century: Barcelona C., choir +1298–1329 (nave and transepts 1448; façade 16th century); +Gerona C., 1312–46 (nave added 1416); S. M. del Mar, +Barcelona, 1328–83; S. M. del Pino, Barcelona, same date; +Collegiate Church, Manresa, 1328; Oviedo C., 1388 (tower very +late); Pampluna C., 1397 (mainly 15th century).—15th century: +Seville C., 1403 (finished 16th century; cimborio 1517–67); +La Seo, Saragossa (finished 1505); S. Pablo, Burgos, 1415–35; +El Parral, Segovia, 1459; Astorga C., 1471; San Juan de los Reyes, +Toledo, 1476; Carthusian church, Miraflores, 1488; San Juan, and La +Merced, Burgos.—16th century: Huesca C., 1515; Salamanca New +Cathedral, 1510–60; Segovia C., 1522; S. Juan de la +Puerta, Zamorra.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Secular.</span>—Porta Serraños, +Valencia, 1349; Casa Consistorial, Barcelona, 1369–78; Casa de la +Disputacion, same city; Casa de las Lonjas, Valencia, 1482.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Portugal.</span> At Batalha, church and +mausoleum of King Manoel, finished 1515; at Belem, monastery, late +Gothic.</p> +</div> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">254</span> +<a name="page254" id="page254"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXIX" id="chapXIX">CHAPTER XIX.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>; As before, Corroyer, +Reber.<!-- invisible . --> Also, Cummings, <i>A History of +Architecture in Italy</i>. De Fleury, <i>La Toscane au moyen âge</i>. +Gruner, <i>The Terra Cotta Architecture of Northern Italy</i>. Mothes, +<i>Die Baukunst des Mittelalters in Italien</i>. Norton, <i>Historical +Studies of Church Building in the Middle Ages</i>. Osten, <i>Bauwerke +der Lombardei</i>. Street, <i>Brick and Marble Architecture of +Italy</i>. Willis, <i>Remarks on the Architecture of the Middle Ages, +especially of Italy</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>GENERAL CHARACTER.</b> The various Romanesque styles which had +grown up in Italy before 1200 lacked that unity of principle out of +which alone a new and homogeneous national style could have been +evolved. Each province practised its own style and methods of building, +long after the Romanesque had given place to the Gothic in Western +Europe. The Italians were better decorators than builders, and cared +little for Gothic structural principles. Mosaic and carving, sumptuous +altars and tombs, veneerings and inlays of colored marble, broad flat +surfaces to be covered with painting and ornament—to secure these +they were content to build crudely, to tie their insufficiently +buttressed vaults with unsightly iron tie-rods, and to make their church +façades mere screen-walls, in form wholly unrelated to the buildings +behind them.</p> + +<p>When, therefore, under foreign influences pointed arches, tracery, +clustered shafts, crockets and finials came into use, it was merely as +an imported fashion. Even when foreign architects (usually Germans) were +employed, the +<span class="pagenum">255</span> +<a name="page255" id="page255"> </a> +composition, and in large measure the details, were still Italian and +provincial. The church of St. Francis at Assisi (1228–53, by +<i>Jacobus of Meruan</i>, a German, superseded later by an Italian, +Campello), and the cathedral of Milan (begun 1389, perhaps by <i>Henry +of Gmund</i>), are conspicuous illustrations of this. Rome built +basilicas all through the Middle Ages. Tuscany continued to prefer flat +walls veneered with marble to the broken surfaces and deep buttresses of +France and Germany. Venice developed a Gothic style of façade-design +wholly her own (see <a href="#page267">p. 267</a>). Nowhere but +in Italy could two such utterly diverse structures as the Certosa at +Pavia and the cathedral at Milan have been erected at the same time.</p> + + +<p><b>CLIMATE AND TRADITION.</b> Two further causes militated against +the domestication of Gothic art in Italy. The first was the brilliant +atmosphere, which made the vast traceried windows of Gothic design, and +its suppression of the wall-surfaces, wholly undesirable. Cool, dim +interiors, thick walls, small windows and the exclusion of sunlight, all +necessary to Italian comfort, were incompatible with Gothic ideals and +methods. The second obstacle was the persistence of classic traditions +of form, both in construction and decoration. The spaciousness and +breadth of interior planning which characterized Roman design, and its +amplitude of scale in every feature, seem never to have lost their hold +on the Italians. The narrow lofty aisles, multiplied supports and minute +detail of the Gothic style were repugnant to the classic predilections +of the Italian builders. The Roman acanthus and Corinthian capital were +constantly imitated in their Gothic buildings, and the round arch +continued all through the Middle Ages to be used in conjunction with the +pointed arch (Figs. <a href="#fig149">149</a>, <a href="#fig150">150</a>).</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig147" id="fig147"> </a> +<img src="images/fig147.png" width="183" height="308" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 147.—DUOMO AT FLORENCE. PLAN.<!-- invisible last three . +--><br> +<span class="caption"> +<i>a, Campanile.</i></span></p> + +<p><b>EARLY BUILDINGS.</b> It is hard to determine how and by whom +Gothic forms were first introduced into Italy, but it was most probably +through the agency of the monastic +<span class="pagenum">256</span> +<a name="page256" id="page256"> </a> +orders. Cistercian churches like that at Chiaravalle near Milan +(1208–21), and most of those erected by the mendicant orders of +the Franciscans (founded 1210) and Dominicans (1216), were built with +ribbed vaults and pointed arches.<!-- invisible . --> The example set by +these orders contributed greatly to the general adoption of the foreign +style. <b>S. Francesco</b> at <b>Assisi</b>, already mentioned, was +the first completely Gothic Franciscan church, although +<b>S. Francesco</b> at <b>Bologna</b>, begun a few years later, was +finished a little earlier. The Dominican church of <b>SS. Giovanni e +Paolo</b> and the great Franciscan church of <b>Sta. Maria Gloriosa dei +Frari</b>, both at Venice, were built a little later. <b>Sta. Maria +Novella</b> at Florence (1278), and <b>Sta. Maria sopra Minerva</b> at +Rome (1280), both by the brothers <i>Sisto</i> and <i>Ristoro</i>, and +<b>S. Anastasia</b> at Verona (1261) are the masterpieces of the +Dominican builders.<!-- invisible . --> <b>S. Andrea</b> at +<b>Vercelli</b> in North Italy, begun in 1219 under a foreign architect, +is an isolated early example of lay Gothic work. Though somewhat English +in its plan, and (unlike most Italian churches) provided with two +western spires in the English manner, it is in all other respects +thoroughly Italian in aspect. The church at Asti, begun in 1229, +suggests German models by its high side walls and narrow windows.<!-- +invisible . --></p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig148" id="fig148"> </a> +<img src="images/fig148.jpg" width="269" height="368" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 148.—NAVE OF DUOMO AT FLORENCE.<!-- invisible all . --></p> + +<p><b>CATHEDRALS.</b> The greatest monuments of Italian Gothic design +are the cathedrals, in which, even more than was the case in France, the +highly developed civic pride of the +<span class="pagenum">257</span> +<a name="page257" id="page257"> </a> +municipalities expressed itself. Chief among these half civic, half +religious monuments are the cathedrals of <b>Sienna</b> (begun in 1243), +<b>Arezzo</b> (1278), <b>Orvieto</b> (1290), <b>Florence</b> (the +<b>Duomo</b>, Sta. Maria del Fiore, begun 1294 by Arnolfo di Cambio), +<b>Lucca</b> (S. Martino, 1350), <b>Milan</b> (1389–1418), +and <b>S. Petronio</b> at Bologna (1390).<!-- invisible . --> They +are all of imposing size; Milan is the largest of all Gothic cathedrals +except Seville.<!-- invisible . --> S. Petronio was planned to be +600 feet long, the present structure with its three broad aisles and +flanking chapels being merely the nave of the intended edifice. The +Duomo at Florence (Fig. 147) is 500 feet long and covers 82,000 square +feet, while the octagon at the crossing is 143 feet in diameter. The +effect of these colossal dimensions is, however, as in a number of these +large Italian interiors, singularly belittled by the bareness of the +walls, by the great size of the constituent parts of the composition, +and by the lack of architectural subdivisions and multiplied detail to +serve as a scale by which to gauge the scale of the <i>ensemble</i>.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig149" id="fig149"> </a> +<img src="images/fig149.png" width="182" height="353" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 149.—ONE BAY, NAVE OF CATHEDRAL OF SAN MARTINO, LUCCA.</p> + +<p><b>INTERIOR TREATMENT.</b> It was doubtless intended to cover these +large unbroken wall-surfaces and the vast expanse of the vaults over +naves of extraordinary breadth, +<span class="pagenum">258</span> +<a name="page258" id="page258"> </a> +with paintings and color decoration. This would have remedied their +present nakedness and lack of interest, but it was only in a very few +instances carried out. The double church of S. Francesco at Assisi, +decorated by Cimabue, Giotto, and other early Tuscan painters, the Arena +Chapel at Padua, painted by Giotto, the <b>Spanish Chapel</b> of +S. M. Novella, Florence, and the east end of S. Croce, +Florence, are illustrations of the splendor of effect possible by this +method of decoration. The bareness of effect in other, unpainted +interiors was emphasized by the plainness of the vaults destitute of +minor ribs. The transverse ribs were usually broad arches with flat +soffits, and the vaulting was often sprung from so low a point as to +leave no room for a triforium. Mere bull’s-eyes often served for +clearstory windows, as in S. Anastasia at Verona, S. Petronio +at Bologna, and the Florentine Duomo. The cathedral of +<b>S. Martino</b> at Lucca (Fig. 149) is one of the most complete +and elegant of Italian Gothic interiors, having a genuine triforium with +traceried arches. Even here, however, there are round arches without +mouldings, flat pilasters, broad transverse ribs recalling Roman arches, +and insignificant bull’s-eyes in the clearstory.</p> + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig150" id="fig150"> </a> +<img src="images/fig150.jpg" width="264" height="269" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 150.—INTERIOR OF SIENNA CATHEDRAL.</p> + +<p>The failure to produce adequate results of scale in the interiors of +the larger Italian churches, has been already alluded to. It is +strikingly exemplified in the Duomo at Florence, the nave of which is 72 +feet wide, with four pier-arches +<span class="pagenum">259</span> +<a name="page259" id="page259"> </a> +each over 55 feet in span. The immense vault, in square bays, starts +from the level of the tops of these arches. The interior (Fig. 148) is +singularly naked and cold, giving no conception of its vast dimensions. +The colossal dome is an early work of the Renaissance (see <a href="#page276">p. 276</a>). It is not known how <i>Fr. +Talenti</i>, who in 1357 enlarged and vaulted the nave and planned the +east end, proposed to cover the great octagon. The east end is the most +effective part of the design both internally and externally, owing to +the relatively moderate scale of the 15 chapels which surround the +apsidal arms of the cross. In S. Petronio at Bologna, begun 1390 by +<i>Master Antonio</i>, the scale is better handled. The nave, 300 feet +long, is divided into six bays, each embracing two side chapels. It is +46 feet wide and 132 feet high, proportions which approximate those of +the French cathedrals, and produce an impression of size somewhat +unusual in Italian churches. <b>Orvieto</b> has internally little that +suggests Gothic architecture; like many Franciscan and Dominican +churches it is really a timber-roofed basilica with a few pointed +windows. The mixed Gothic and Romanesque interior of <b>Sienna +Cathedral</b> (Fig. 150), with its round arches and six-sided dome, +unsymmetrically placed over the crossing, is one of the most impressive +creations of Italian mediæval art. Alternate courses of black and white +marble add richness but not +<span class="pagenum">260</span> +<a name="page260" id="page260"> </a> +repose to the effect of this interior: the same is true of Orvieto, and +of some other churches. The basement baptistery of +<b>S. Giovanni</b>, under the east end of Sienna Cathedral, is much +more purely Gothic in detail.</p> + +<p>In these, and indeed in most Italian interiors, the main interest +centres less in the excellence of the composition than in the +accessories of pavements, pulpits, choir-stalls, and sepulchral +monuments. In these the decorative fancy and skill of the Italians found +unrestrained exercise, and produced works of surpassing interest and +merit.</p> + + +<p><b>EXTERNAL DESIGN.</b> The greatest possible disparity generally +exists between the sides and west fronts of the Italian churches. With +few exceptions the flanks present nothing like the variety of sky-line +and of light and shade customary in northern and western lands. The side +walls are high and flat, plain, or striped with black and white masonry +(Sienna, Orvieto), or veneered with marble (Duomo at Florence) or +decorated with surface-ornament of thin pilasters and arcades (Lucca). +The clearstory is low; the roof low—pitched and hardly visible +from below. Color, rather than structural richness, is generally sought +for: Milan Cathedral is almost the only exception, and goes to the other +extreme, with its seemingly countless buttresses, pinnacles and +statues.</p> + +<p>The façades, on the other hand, were treated as independent +decorative compositions, and were in many cases remarkably beautiful +works, though having little or no organic relation to the main +structure. The most celebrated are those of <b>Sienna</b> (cathedral +begun 1243; façade 1284 by <i>Giovanni Pisano</i>; Fig. 151) and +<b>Orvieto</b> (begun 1290 by <i>Lorenzo Maitani</i>; façade 1310). Both +of these are sumptuous polychromatic compositions in marble, designed on +somewhat similar lines, with three high gables fronting the three +aisles, with deeply recessed portals, pinnacled turrets flanking nave +and aisles, and a central circular window. That +<span class="pagenum">261</span> +<a name="page261" id="page261"> </a> +of Orvieto is furthermore embellished with mosaic pictures, and is the +more brilliant in color of the two. The mediæval façades of the +Florentine Gothic churches were never completed; but the elegance of the +panelling and of the tracery with twisted shafts in the flanks of the +cathedral, and the florid beauty of its side doorways (late 14th +century) would doubtless if realized with equal success on the façades, +have produced strikingly beautiful results. The modern façade of the +Duomo, by the late <i>De Fabris</i> (1887) is a correct if not highly +imaginative version of the style so applied. The front of Milan +cathedral (soon to be replaced by a new façade), shows a mixture of +Gothic and Renaissance forms. <b>Ferrara Cathedral</b>, although +internally transformed in the last century, retains its fine +13th-century three-gabled and arcaded screen front; one of the most +Gothic in spirit of all Italian façades. The <b>Cathedral</b> of +<b>Genoa</b> presents Gothic windows and deeply recessed portals in a +façade built in black and white bands, like Sienna cathedral and many +churches in Pistoia and Pisa.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig151" id="fig151"> </a> +<img src="images/fig151.jpg" width="262" height="320" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 151.—FAÇADE OF SIENNA CATHEDRAL.</p> + +<p>Externally the most important feature was frequently a cupola or dome +over the crossing. That of Sienna has already been mentioned; that of +Milan is a sumptuous many-pinnacled structure terminating in a spire 300 +feet high. +<span class="pagenum">262</span> +<a name="page262" id="page262"> </a> +The <b>Certosa</b> at Pavia (Fig. 152) and the earlier Carthusian church +of Chiaravalle have internal cupolas or domes covered externally by +many-storied structures ending in a tower dominating the whole edifice. +These two churches, like many others in Lombardy, the Æmilia and +Venetia, are built of brick, moulded terra-cotta being effectively used +for the cornices, string-courses, jambs and ornaments of the exterior. +The Certosa at Pavia is contemporary with the cathedral of Milan, to +which it offers a surprising contrast, both in style and material. It is +wholly built of brick and terra-cotta, and, save for its ribbed +vaulting, possesses hardly a single Gothic feature or detail. Its +arches, mouldings, and cloisters suggest both the Romanesque and the +Renaissance styles by their semi-classic character.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig152" id="fig152"> </a> +<img src="images/fig152.jpg" width="372" height="307" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 152.—EXTERIOR OF THE CERTOSA, PAVIA.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig153" id="fig153"> </a> +<img src="images/fig153.png" width="195" height="261" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 153.—PLAN OF CERTOSA AT PAVIA.</p> + +<p><b>PLANS.</b> The wide diversity of local styles in Italian +architecture appears in the plans as strikingly as in the details +<span class="pagenum">263</span> +<a name="page263" id="page263"> </a> +In general one notes a love of spaciousness which expresses itself in a +sometimes disproportionate breadth, and in the wide spacing of the +piers. The polygonal chevet with its radial chapels is but rarely seen; +<b>S. Lorenzo</b> at Naples, Sta. Maria dei Servi and +S. Francesco at Bologna are among the most important examples. More +frequently the chapels form a range along the east side of the +transepts, especially in the Franciscan churches, which otherwise retain +many basilican features. A comparison of the plans of +S. Andrea at Vercelli, the Duomo at Florence, the cathedrals of +Sienna and Milan, S. Petronio at Bologna and the Certosa at Pavia +(Fig. 153), sufficiently illustrates the variety of Italian Gothic +plan-types.</p> + + +<p><b>ORNAMENT.</b> Applied decoration plays a large part in all Italian +Gothic designs. Inlaid and mosaic patterns and panelled veneering in +colored marble are essential features of the exterior decoration of most +Italian churches. Florence offers a fine example of this treatment in +the Duomo, and in its accompanying <b>Campanile</b> or bell-tower, +designed by <i>Giotto</i> (1335), and completed by <i>Gaddi</i> and +<i>Talenti</i>. This beautiful tower is an epitome of Italian Gothic +art. Its inlays, mosaics, and veneering are treated with consummate +elegance, and combined with incrusted reliefs of great beauty. The +tracery of this monument and of the side windows of the adjoining +cathedral is lighter and more graceful than is common in Italy. Its +beauty consists, however, less in movement of line than in richness and +elegance of carved and inlaid ornament. In +<span class="pagenum">264</span> +<a name="page264" id="page264"> </a> +the <b>Or San Michele</b>—a combined chapel and granary in +Florence dating from 1330—the tracery is far less light and open. +In general, except in churches like the Cathedral of Milan, built under +German influences, the tracery in secular monuments is more successful +than in ecclesiastical structures. Venice developed the designing of +tracery to greater perfection in her palaces than any other Italian city +(see below).</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig154" id="fig154"> </a> +<img src="images/fig154.jpg" width="208" height="520" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 154.—UPPER PART OF CAMPANILE, FLORENCE.</p> + +<p><b>MINOR WORKS.</b> Italian Gothic art found freer expression in +semi-decorative works, like tombs, altars and votive chapels, than in +more monumental structures. The fourteenth century was particularly rich +in canopy tombs, mostly in churches, though some were erected in the +open air, like the celebrated <b>Tombs of the Scaligers</b> in Verona +(1329–1380). Many of those in churches in and near Rome, and +others in south Italy, are especially rich in inlay of <i>opus +Alexandrinum</i> upon their twisted columns and panelled sarcophagi. The +family of the <i>Cosmati</i> acquired great fame for work of this kind +during the thirteenth century.</p> + +<p>The little marble chapel of <b>Sta. Maria della Spina</b>, on the +Arno, at Pisa, is an instance of the successful decorative use of Gothic +forms in minor buildings.</p> + + +<p><b>TOWERS.</b> The Italians always preferred the square tower to the +spire, and in most cases treated it as an independent campanile. +Following Early Christian and Romanesque traditions, these square towers +were usually built with plain sides unbroken by buttresses, and +terminated in a flat roof or a low and inconspicuous cone or pyramid. +The Campanile at Florence already mentioned is by far the most beautiful +of these designs (Fig. 154). The campaniles of Sienna, Lucca, and +Pistoia are built in alternate white and black courses, like the +adjoining cathedrals. Verona and Mantua have towers with octagonal +lanterns. In general, these Gothic towers differ from the earlier +Romanesque models only in the forms of their openings. Though dignified +in +<span class="pagenum">265</span> +<a name="page265" id="page265"> </a> +their simplicity and size, and usually well proportioned, they lack the +beauty and interest of the French, English, and German steeples and +towers.</p> + +<p class="illustration float null"> +<a name="fig155" id="fig155"> </a> +<img class="null" src="images/fig155a.jpg" +width="159" height="242" alt="see caption and text"></p> + +<p class="illustration float"> +<img src="images/fig155b.jpg" width="263" height="153" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 155.<!-- invisible . -->—UPPER PART OF<br> +PALAZZO VECCHIO, FLORENCE.</p> + +<p><b>SECULAR MONUMENTS.</b> In their public halls, open <i>loggias</i>, +and domestic architecture the Italians were able to develop the +application of Gothic forms with greater freedom than in their +church-building, because unfettered by traditional methods of design. +The early and vigorous growth of municipal and popular institutions led, +as in the Netherlands, to the building of two classes of public +halls—the town hall proper or <i>Podestà</i>, and the council +hall, variously called <i>Palazzo Communale</i>, <i>Pubblico</i>, or +<i>del Consiglio</i>. The town halls, as the seat of authority, usually +have a severe and fortress-like character; the <b>Palazzo Vecchio</b> at +Florence is the most important example (1298, by Arnolfo di Cambio; Fig. +155). It is especially remarkable for its tower, which, rising 308 feet +in the air, overhangs the street nearly 6 feet, its front wall +resting on the face of the powerfully corbelled cornice of the palace. +The court and most of the interior were remodelled in the sixteenth +century. At Sienna is a somewhat +<span class="pagenum">266</span> +<a name="page266" id="page266"> </a> +similar structure in brick, the <b>Palazzo Pubblico</b>. At Pistoia the +Podestà and the Communal Palace stand opposite each other; in both of +these the courtyards still retain their original aspect. At Perugia, +Bologna, and Viterbo are others of some importance; while in Lombardy, +Bergamo, Como, Cremona, Piacenza and other towns possess smaller halls +with open arcades below, of a more elegant and pleasing aspect. More +successful still are the open loggias or tribunes erected for the +gatherings of public bodies. The <b>Loggia dei Lanzi</b> at Florence +(1376, by <i>Benci di Cione</i> and <i>Simone di Talenti</i>) is the +largest and most famous of these open vaulted halls, of which several +exist in Florence and Sienna. Gothic only in their minor details, they +are Romanesque or semi-classic in their broad round arches and strong +horizontal lines and cornices (Fig. 156).</p> + +<p><b>PALACES AND HOUSES: VENICE.</b> The northern cities, especially +Pisa, Florence, Sienna, Bologna, and Venice, are rich in mediæval public +and private palaces and dwellings in brick or marble, in which pointed +windows and open arcades are used with excellent effect. In Bologna and +Sienna brick is used, in conjunction with details executed in moulded +terra-cotta, in a highly artistic and effective way. Viterbo, nearer +Rome, also possesses many interesting +<span class="pagenum">267</span> +<a name="page267" id="page267"> </a> +houses with street arcades and open stairways or stoops leading to the +main entrance.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig156" id="fig156"> </a> +<img src="images/fig156.jpg" width="403" height="276" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 156.—LOGGIA DEI LANZI, FLORENCE.</p> + +<p>The security and prosperity of Venice in the Middle Ages, and the +ever present influence of the sun-loving East, made the massive and +fortress-like architecture of the inland cities unnecessary. Abundant +openings, large windows full of tracery of great lightness and elegance, +projecting balconies and the freest use of marble veneering and +inlay—a survival of Byzantine traditions of the 12th century +(see <a href="#page133">p. 133</a>)—give to the Venetian +houses and palaces an air of gayety and elegance found nowhere else. +While there are few Gothic churches of importance in Venice, the number +of mediæval houses and palaces is very large. Chief among these is the +<b>Doge’s Palace</b> (Fig. 157), adjoining the church of St. Mark. The +two-storied arcades of the west and south fronts date from 1354, and +originally stood out from the main edifice, which was +<span class="pagenum">268</span> +<a name="page268" id="page268"> </a> +widened in the next century, when the present somewhat heavy walls, laid +up in red, white and black marble in a species of quarry-pattern, were +built over the arcades. These arcades are beautiful designs, combining +massive strength and grace in a manner quite foreign to Western Gothic +ideas. Lighter and more ornate is the <b>Ca d’Oro</b>, on the Grand +Canal; while the Foscari, Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, and Pisani palaces, +among many others, are admirable examples of the style. In most of these +a traceried loggia occupies the central part, flanked by walls incrusted +with marble and pierced by Gothic windows with carved mouldings, +borders, and balconies. The Venetian Gothic owes its success largely to +the absence of structural difficulties to interfere with the purely +decorative development of Gothic details.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig157" id="fig157"> </a> +<img src="images/fig157.jpg" width="262" height="319" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 157.—WEST FRONT VIEW OF DOGE’S PALACE, VENICE.</p> + + +<div class="monuments"> + +<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> 13th Century: Cistercian abbeys Fossanova and +Casamari, <i>cir.</i> 1208; S. Andrea, Vercelli, 1209; +S. Francesco, Assisi, 1228–53; Church at Asti, 1229; +Sienna C., 1243–59 (cupola 1259–64; façade 1284); +S. M. Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice, 1250–80 (finished 1388); +Sta. Chiara, Assisi, 1250; Sta. Trinità, Florence, 1250; +S. Antonio, Padua, begun 1256; SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice, 1260 +(?)-1400; Sta. Anastasia, Verona, 1261; Naples C., 1272–1314 +(façade 1299; portal 1407; much altered later); S. Lorenzo, Naples, +1275; Campo Santo, Pisa, 1278–83; +<span class="pagenum">269</span> +<a name="page269" id="page269"> </a> +Arezzo C., 1278; S. M. Novella, Florence, 1278; +S. Eustorgio, Milan, 1278; S. M. sopra Minerva, Rome, 1280; +Orvieto C., 1290 (façade 1310; roof 1330); Sta. Croce, Florence, +1294 (façade 1863); S. M. del Fiore, or C., Florence, +1294–1310 (enlarged 1357; E. end 1366; dome 1420–64; +façade 1887); S. Francesco, Bologna.—14th century: +Genoa C., early 14th century; S. Francesco, Sienna, 1310; San +Domenico, Sienna, about same date; S. Giovanni in Fonte, Sienna, +1317; S. M. della Spina, Pisa, 1323; Campanile, Florence, 1335; Or +San Michele, Florence, 1337; Milan C., 1386 (cupola 16th century; +façade 16th-19th century; new façade building 1895); S. Petronio, +Bologna, 1390; Certosa, Pavia, 1396 (choir, transepts, cupola, +cloisters, 15th and 16th centuries); Como C., 1396 (choir and +transepts 1513); Lucca C. (S. Martino), Romanesque building +remodelled late in 14th century; Verona C.; S. Fermo, +Maggiore; S. Francesco, Pisa; S. Lorenzo, Vicenza.—15th +century: Perugia C.; S. M. delle Grazie, Milan, 1470 (cupola +and exterior E. part later).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Secular Buildings:</span> Pal. Pubblico, +Cremona, 1245; Pal. Podestà (Bargello), Florence, 1255 (enlarged +1333–45); Pal. Pubblico, Sienna, 1289–1305 (many later +alterations); Pal. Giureconsulti, Cremona, 1292; Broletto, Monza, 1293; +Loggia dei Mercanti, Bologna, 1294; Pal. Vecchio, Florence, 1298; +Broletto, Como; Pal. Ducale (Doge’s Palace), Venice, 1310–40 +(great windows 1404; extended 1423–38; courtyard 15th and 16th +centuries); Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence, 1335; Loggia del Bigallo, 1337; +Broletto, Bergamo, 14th century; Loggia dei Nobili, Sienna, 1407; Pal. +Pubblico, Udine, 1457; Loggia dei Mercanti, Ancona; Pal. del Governo, +Bologna; Pal. Pepoli, Bologna; Palaces Conte Bardi, Davanzati, Capponi, +all at Florence; at Sienna, Pal. Tolomei, 1205; Pal. Saracini, Pal. +Buonsignori; at Venice, Pal. Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, Foscari, Pisani, +and many others; others in Padua and Vicenza.</p> + +</div> + +</div> <!-- end div maintext --> + +<div class="maintext"> + +<span class="pagenum">270</span> +<a name="page270" id="page270"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXX" id="chapXX">CHAPTER XX.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +EARLY RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Anderson, +<i>Architecture of the Renaissance in Italy</i>. Burckhardt, <i>The +Civilization of the Renaissance</i>; <i>Geschichte der Renaissance in +Italien</i>; <i>Der Cicerone</i>. Cellesi, <i>Sei Fabbriche di +Firenze</i>. Cicognara, <i>Le Fabbriche più cospicue di Venezia</i>. +Durm, <i>Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Italien</i> (in <i>Hdbuch. d. +Arch.</i>). Fergusson, <i>History of Modern Architecture</i>. Geymüller, +<i>La Renaissance en Toscane</i>. Montigny et Famin, <i>Architecture +Toscane</i>. Moore, <i>Character of Renaissance Architecture</i>. Müntz, +<i>La Renaissance en Italie et en France à l’époque de Charles VIII.</i> +Palustre, <i>L’Architecture de la Renaissance</i>. Pater, <i>Studies in +the Renaissance</i>. Symonds, <i>The Renaissance of the Fine Arts in +Italy</i>. Tosi and Becchio, <i>Altars, Tabernacles, and Tombs</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>THE CLASSIC REVIVAL.</b> The abandonment of Gothic architecture in +Italy and the substitution in its place of forms derived from classic +models were occasioned by no sudden or merely local revolution. The +Renaissance was the result of a profound and universal intellectual +movement, whose roots may be traced far back into the Middle Ages, and +which manifested itself first in Italy simply because there the +conditions were most propitious. It spread through Europe just as +rapidly as similar conditions appearing in other countries prepared the +way for it. The essence of this far-reaching movement was the protest of +the individual reason against the trammels of external and arbitrary +authority—a protest which found its earliest organized +expression in the Humanists. In its assertion of the intellectual and +moral rights of the individual, the Renaissance laid the foundations of +modern civilization. The same spirit, in rejecting the authority and +teachings of the +<span class="pagenum">271</span> +<a name="page271" id="page271"> </a> +Church in matters of purely secular knowledge, led to the questionings +of the precursors of modern science and the discoveries of the early +navigators. But in nothing did the reaction against mediæval +scholasticism and asceticism display itself more strikingly than in the +joyful enthusiasm which marked the pursuit of classic studies. The +long-neglected treasures of classic literature were reopened, almost +rediscovered, in the fourteenth century by the immortal +trio—Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. The joy of living, the +hitherto forbidden delight in beauty and pleasure for their own sakes, +the exultant awakening to the sense of personal freedom, which came with +the bursting of mediæval fetters, found in classic art and literature +their most sympathetic expression. It was in Italy, where feudalism had +never fully established itself, and where the municipalities and guilds +had developed, as nowhere else, the sense of civic and personal freedom, +that these symptoms first manifested themselves. In Italy, and above all +in the Tuscan cities, they appeared throughout the fourteenth century in +the growing enthusiasm for all that recalled the antique culture, and in +the rapid advance of luxury and refinement in both public and private +life.</p> + + +<p><b>THE RENAISSANCE OF THE ARTS.</b> Classic Roman architecture had +never lost its influence on the Italian taste. Gothic art, already +declining in the West, had never been in Italy more than a borrowed +garb, clothing architectural conceptions classic rather than Gothic in +spirit. The antique monuments which abounded on every hand were ever +present models for the artist, and to the Florentines of the early +fifteenth century the civilization which had created them represented +the highest ideal of human culture. They longed to revive in their own +time the glories of ancient Rome, and appropriated with uncritical and +undiscriminating enthusiasm the good and the bad, the early and the late +forms of Roman art, Naïvely unconscious of the disparity +<span class="pagenum">272</span> +<a name="page272" id="page272"> </a> +between their own architectural conceptions and those they fancied they +imitated, they were, unknown to themselves, creating a new style, in +which the details of Roman art were fitted in novel combinations to new +requirements. In proportion as the Church lost its hold on the culture +of the age, this new architecture entered increasingly into the service +of private luxury and public display. It created, it is true, striking +types of church design, and made of the dome one of the most imposing of +external features; but its most characteristic products were palaces, +villas, council halls, and monuments to the great and the powerful. The +personal element in design asserted itself as never before in the growth +of schools and the development of styles. Thenceforward the history of +Italian architecture becomes the history of the achievements of +individual artists.</p> + + +<p><b>EARLY BEGINNINGS.</b> Already in the 13th century the pulpits of +Niccolo Pisano at Sienna and Pisa had revealed that master’s direct +recourse to antique monuments for inspiration and suggestion. In the +frescoes of Giotto and his followers, and in the architectural details +of many nominally Gothic buildings, classic forms had appeared with +increasing frequency during the fourteenth century. This was especially +true in Florence, which was then the artistic capital of Italy. Never, +perhaps, since the days of Pericles, had there been another community so +permeated with the love of beauty in art, and so endowed with the +capacity to realize it. Nowhere else in Europe at that time was there +such strenuous life, such intense feeling, or such free course for +individual genius as in Florence. Her artists, with unexampled +versatility, addressed themselves with equal success to goldsmiths’ +work, sculpture, architecture and engineering—often to painting +and poetry as well; and they were quick to catch in their art the spirit +of the classic revival. The new movement achieved its first +architectural +<span class="pagenum">273</span> +<a name="page273" id="page273"> </a> +triumph in the dome of the cathedral of Florence (1420–64); and it +was Florentine—or at least Tuscan—artists who planted in +other centres the seeds of the new art that were to spring up in the +local and provincial schools of Sienna, Milan, Pavia, Bologna, and +Venice, of Brescia, Lucca, Perugia, and Rimini, and many other North +Italian cities. The movement asserted itself late in Rome and Naples, as +an importation from Northern Italy, but it bore abundant fruit in these +cities in its later stages.</p> + + +<p><b>PERIODS.</b> The classic styles which grew up out of the +Renaissance may be divided for convenience into four periods.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">The Early Renaissance</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Formative Period</span>, 1420–90; characterized by +the grace and freedom of the decorative detail, suggested by Roman +prototypes and applied to compositions of great variety and +originality.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">The High Renaissance</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Formally Classic Period</span>, 1490–1550. During +this period classic details were copied with increasing fidelity, the +orders especially appearing in almost all compositions; decoration +meanwhile losing somewhat in grace and freedom.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">The Early Baroque</span> (or <span class="smallcaps">Baroco</span>), 1550–1600; a period of classic +formality characterized by the use of colossal orders, engaged columns +and rather scanty decoration.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">The Decline</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Later Baroque</span>, marked by poverty of invention in the +composition and a predominance of vulgar sham and display in the +decoration. Broken pediments, huge scrolls, florid stucco-work and a +general disregard of architectural propriety were universal.</p> + +<p>During the eighteenth century there was a reaction from these +extravagances, which showed itself in a return to the servile copying of +classic models, sometimes not without a certain dignity of composition +and restraint in the decoration.</p> + +<p>By many writers the name Renaissance is confined to the +<span class="pagenum">274</span> +<a name="page274" id="page274"> </a> +first period. This is correct from the etymological point of view; but +it is impossible to dissociate the first period historically from those +which followed it, down to the final exhaustion of the artistic movement +to which it gave birth, in the heavy extravagances of the Rococo.</p> + +<p>Another division is made by the Italians, who give the name of the +<i>Quattrocento</i> to the period which closed with the end of the +fifteenth century, <i>Cinquecento</i> to the sixteenth <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘cenury’">century</ins>, and +<i>Seicento</i> to the seventeenth century or Rococo. It has, however, +become common to confine the use of the term Cinquecento to the first +half of the sixteenth century.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w270"> +<a name="fig158" id="fig158"> </a> +<img src="images/fig158.jpg" width="264" height="284" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 158.—EARLY RENAISSANCE CAPITAL, PAL. ZORZI, VENICE.</p> + +<p><b>CONSTRUCTION AND DETAIL.</b> The architects of the Renaissance +occupied themselves more with form than with construction, and rarely +set themselves constructive problems of great difficulty. Although the +new architecture began with the colossal dome of the cathedral of +Florence, and culminated in the stupendous church of St. Peter at Rome, +it was pre-eminently an architecture of palaces and villas, of façades +and of decorative display. Constructive difficulties were reduced to +their lowest terms, and the constructive framework was concealed, not +emphasized, by the decorative apparel of the design. Among the +masterpieces of the early Renaissance are many buildings of small +dimensions, such as gates, chapels, tombs and fountains. In these the +individual fancy had full sway, and produced surprising results by the +beauty of enriched mouldings, of carved friezes with infant genii, +wreaths of fruit, griffins, masks and scrolls; by pilasters covered with +arabesques as delicate in modelling as if wrought in silver; by inlays +of marble, panels of glazed terra-cotta, marvellously carved doors, fine +stucco-work in relief, capitals and cornices of wonderful richness and +variety. The Roman orders appeared only in free imitations, with +panelled and carved pilasters for the most part instead of columns, and +capitals +<span class="pagenum">275</span> +<a name="page275" id="page275"> </a> +of fanciful design, recalling remotely the Corinthian by their volutes +and leaves (Fig. 158). Instead of the low-pitched classic pediments, +there appears frequently an arched cornice enclosing a sculptured +lunette. Doors and windows were enclosed in richly carved frames, +sometimes arched and sometimes square. Façades were flat and unbroken, +depending mainly for effect upon the distribution and adornment of the +openings, and the design of doorways, courtyards and cornices. +Internally vaults and flat ceilings of wood and plaster were about +equally common, the barrel vault and dome occurring far more frequently +than the groined vault. Many of the ceilings of this period are of +remarkable richness and beauty.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig159" id="fig159"> </a> +<img src="images/fig159.png" width="175" height="268" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 159.<!-- invisible . -->—SECTION OF DOME OF DUOMO, +FLORENCE.</p> + +<p><b>THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN FLORENCE: THE DUOMO.</b> In the year 1417 +a public competition was held for completing the cathedral of Florence +by a dome over the immense octagon, 143 feet in diameter. <i>Filippo +Brunelleschi</i>, sculptor and architect (1377–1446), who with +Donatello had journeyed to Rome to study there the masterworks of +ancient art, after demonstrating the inadequacy of all the solutions +proposed by the competitors, was finally permitted to undertake the +gigantic task according to his own plans. These provided for an +octagonal dome in two shells, connected +<span class="pagenum">276</span> +<a name="page276"> </a> +by eight major and sixteen minor ribs, and crowned by a lantern at the +top (Fig. 159). This wholly original conception, by which for the first +time (outside of Moslem art) the dome was made an external feature fitly +terminating in the light forms and upward movement of a lantern, was +carried out between the years 1420 and 1464. Though in no wise an +imitation of Roman forms, it was classic in its spirit, in its vastness +and its simplicity of line, and was made possible solely by +Brunelleschi’s studies of Roman design and construction (Fig. 160).</p> + + +<p><b>OTHER CHURCHES.</b> From Brunelleschi’s designs were also erected +the <b>Pazzi Chapel</b> in Sta. Croce, a charming design of a Greek +cross covered with a dome at the intersection, and preceded by a +vestibule with a richly decorated vault; and the two great churches of +<b>S. Lorenzo</b> (1425) and <b>S. Spirito</b> +(1433–1476, Fig. 161). Both reproduced in a measure the plan of +the Pisa Cathedral, having a three-aisled nave and transepts, with a low +dome over the crossing. The side aisles were covered with domical vaults +and the central aisles with flat wooden or plaster ceilings. All the +details of columns, arches and mouldings were imitated from Roman +models, and yet the result was something entirely new. Consciously or +unconsciously, Brunelleschi was reviving Byzantine rather than Roman +conceptions in the planning and structural design of these domical +churches, but the garb in which he clothed them was Roman, at least in +detail. The <b>Old Sacristy</b> of S. Lorenzo was another domical +design of great beauty.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">277</span> +<a name="page277" id="page277"> </a> + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig160" id="fig160"> </a> +<img src="images/fig160.jpg" width="241" height="338" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 160.<!-- invisible both . -->—EXTERIOR OF DOME OF DUOMO, +FLORENCE.</p> + +<p>From this time on the new style was in general use for church +designs. <i>L. B. Alberti</i> (1404–73), who had in Rome +mastered classic details more thoroughly than Brunelleschi, remodelled +the church of <b>S. Francesco</b> at <b>Rimini</b> with Roman +pilasters and arches, and with engaged orders in the façade, which, +however, was never completed. His great work was the church of +<b>S. Andrea</b> at <b>Mantua</b>, a Latin cross in plan, with +a dome at the intersection (the present high dome dating however, only +from the 18th century) and a façade to which the conception of a Roman +triumphal arch was skilfully adapted. His façade of incrusted marbles +for the church of S. M. Novella at Florence was a less successful +work, though its flaring consoles over the side aisles established an +unfortunate precedent frequently imitated in later churches.</p> + +<p>A great activity in church-building marked the period between 1475 +and 1490. The plans of the churches erected about this time throughout +north Italy display an interesting variety of arrangements, in nearly +all of which the dome is combined with the three-aisled cruciform plan, +either as a central feature at the crossing or as a domical vault over +each bay. Bologna and Ferrara possess a number of churches of this kind. +Occasionally the basilican arrangement was followed, with columnar +arcades separating +<span class="pagenum">278</span> +<a name="page278" id="page278"> </a> +the aisles. More often, however, the pier-arches were of the Roman type, +with engaged columns or pilasters between them. The interiors, +presumably intended to receive painted decorations, were in most cases +somewhat bare of ornament, pleasing rather by happy proportions and +effective vaulting or rich flat ceilings, panelled, painted and gilded, +than by elaborate architectural detail. A similar scantiness of +ornament is to be remarked in the exteriors, excepting the façades, +which were sometimes highly ornate; the doorways, with columns, +pediments, sculpture and carving, receiving especial attention. High +external domes did not come into general use until the next period. In +Milan, Pavia, and some other Lombard cities, the internal cupola over +the crossing was, however, covered externally by a lofty structure in +diminishing stages, like that of the Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 152), or +that erected by Bramante for the church of S. M. delle Grazie at +Milan. At Prato, in the church of the <b>Madonna delle Carceri</b> +(1495–1516), by <i>Giuliano da S. Gallo</i>, the type of the +Pazzi chapel reappears in a larger scale; the plan is cruciform, with +equal or nearly equal arms covered by barrel vaults, at whose +intersection rises a dome of +<span class="pagenum">279</span> +<a name="page279" id="page279"> </a> +moderate height on pendentives. This charming edifice, with its +unfinished exterior of white marble, its simple and dignified lines, and +internal embellishments in della-Robbia ware, is one of the masterpieces +of the period.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig161" id="fig161"> </a> +<img src="images/fig161.jpg" width="260" height="350" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 161.—INTERIOR OF S. SPIRITO, FLORENCE.</p> + +<p>In the designing of chapels and oratories the architects of the early +Renaissance attained conspicuous success, these edifices presenting +fewer structural limitations and being more purely decorative in +character than the larger churches. Such façades as that of +<b>S. Bernardino</b> at Perugia and of the <b>Frati di +S. Spirito</b> at Bologna are among the most delightful products of +the decorative fancy of the 15th century.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig162" id="fig162"> </a> +<img src="images/fig162.jpg" width="265" height="315" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 162.—COURTYARD OF RICCARDI PALACE, FLORENCE.<!-- invisible +all . --></p> + +<p><b>FLORENTINE PALACES.</b> While the architects of this period failed +to develop any new and thoroughly satisfactory ecclesiastical type, they +attained conspicuous success in palace-architecture. The <b>Riccardi</b> +palace in Florence (1430) marks the first step of the Renaissance in +this direction. It was built for the great Cosimo di Medici by +<i>Michelozzi</i> (1397–1473), a contemporary of Brunelleschi +and Alberti, and a man of great talent. Its imposing rectangular façade, +with widely spaced mullioned windows in two stories over a massive +basement, is crowned with a classic cornice of unusual and perhaps +excessive size. In +<span class="pagenum">280</span> +<a name="page280" id="page280"> </a> +spite of the bold and fortress-like character of the rusticated masonry +of these façades, and the mediæval look they seem to present to modern +eyes, they marked a revolution in style and established a type +frequently imitated in later years. The courtyard, in contrast with this +stern exterior, appears light and cheerful (Fig. 162). Its wall is +carried on round arches borne by columns with Corinthianesque capitals, +and the arcade is enriched with sculptured medallions. <b>The Pitti +Palace</b>, by Brunelleschi (1435), embodies the same ideas on a more +colossal scale, but lacks the grace of an adequate cornice. +A lighter and more ornate style appeared in 1460 in the +<b>P. Rucellai</b>, by Alberti, in which for the first time +classical pilasters in superposed stages were applied to a street +façade. To avoid the dilemma of either insufficiently crowning the +edifice or making the cornice too heavy for the upper range of +pilasters, Alberti made use of brackets, occupying the width of the +upper frieze, and converting the whole upper entablature into a cornice. +But this compromise was not quite successful, and it remained for later +architects in Venice, Verona, and Rome to work out more satisfactory +methods of applying the orders to many-storied palace façades. In the +great <b>P. Strozzi</b> (Fig. 163), erected in 1490 by <i>Benedetto +da Majano</i> and <i>Cronaca</i>, the architects reverted to the earlier +type of the P. Riccardi, treating it with greater refinement and +producing one of the noblest palaces of Italy.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig163" id="fig163"> </a> +<img src="images/fig163.jpg" width="261" height="205" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 163.—FAÇADE OF STROZZI PALACE, FLORENCE.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">281</span> +<a name="page281" id="page281"> </a> +<p><b>COURTYARDS; ARCADES.</b> These palaces were all built around +interior courts, whose walls rested on columnar arcades, as in the +P. Riccardi (Fig. 162). The origin of these arcades may be found in +the arcaded cloisters of mediæval monastic churches, which often suggest +classic models, as in those of St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls and St. John +Lateran at Rome. Brunelleschi not only introduced columnar arcades into +a number of cloisters and palace courts, but also used them effectively +as exterior features in the <b>Loggia S. Paolo</b> and the +Foundling Hospital (<b>Ospedale degli Innocenti</b>) at Florence. The +chief drawback in these light arcades was their inability to withstand +the thrust of the vaulting over the space behind them, and the +consequent recourse to iron tie-rods where vaulting was used. The +Italians, however, seemed to care little about this disfigurement.</p> + + +<p><b>MINOR WORKS.</b> The details of the new style were developed quite +as rapidly in purely decorative works as in monumental buildings. +Altars, mural monuments, tabernacles, pulpits and <i>ciboria</i> +afforded scope for the genius of the most distinguished artists. Among +those who were specially celebrated in works of this kind should be +named <i>Lucca della Robbia</i> (1400–82) and his successors, +<i>Mino da Fiesole</i> (1431–84) and <i>Benedetto da Majano</i> +(1442–97). Possessed of a wonderful fertility of invention, they +and their pupils multiplied their works in extraordinary number and +variety, not only throughout north Italy, but also in Rome and Naples. +Among the most famous examples of this branch of design may be mentioned +a pulpit in Sta. Croce by B. da Majano; a terra-cotta fountain +in the sacristy of S. M. Novella, by the della Robbias; the +Marsupini tomb in Sta. Croce, by <i>Desiderio da Settignano</i> (all in +Florence); the della Rovere tomb in S. M. del Popolo, Rome, by Mino +da Fiesole, and in the Cathedral at Lucca the Noceto tomb and the +Tempietto, by <i>Matteo Civitali</i>. It was in +<span class="pagenum">282</span> +<a name="page282" id="page282"> </a> +works of this character that the Renaissance oftenest made its first +appearance in a new centre, as was the case in Sienna, Pisa, Lucca, +Naples, etc.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig164" id="fig164"> </a> +<img src="images/fig164.jpg" width="261" height="517" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 164.—TOMB OF PIETRO DI NOCETO, LUCCA.</p> + + +<p><b>NORTH ITALY.</b> Between 1450 and 1490 the Renaissance presented +in Sienna, in a number of important palaces, a sharp contrast to +the prevalent Gothic style of that city. The +<b>P. Piccolomini</b>—a somewhat crude imitation of the +P. Riccardi in Florence—dates from 1463; the <b>P. del +Governo</b> was built 1469, and the <b>Spannocchi Palace</b> in 1470. In +1463 <i>Ant. Federighi</i> built there the <b>Loggia del Papa</b>. About +the same time <i>Bernardo di Lorenzo</i> was building for Pope Pius II. +(Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini) an entirely new city, <b>Pienza</b>, with a +cathedral, archbishop’s palace, town hall and Papal residence (the +<b>P. Piccolomini</b>), which are interesting if not strikingly +original works. Pisa possesses few early Renaissance structures, owing +to the utter prostration of her fortunes +<span class="pagenum">283</span> +<a name="page283" id="page283"> </a> +in the 15th century, and the dominance of Pisan Gothic traditions. In +Lucca, besides a wealth of minor monuments (largely the work of Matteo +Civitali, 1435–1501) in various churches, a number of palaces +date from this period, the most important being the +<b>P. Pretorio</b> and P. Bernardini. To Milan the Renaissance +was carried by the Florentine masters <i>Michelozzi</i> and +<i>Filarete</i>, to whom are respectively due the <b>Portinari +Chapel</b> in S. Eustorgio (1462) and the earlier part of the great +<b>Ospedale Maggiore</b> (1457). In the latter, an edifice of brick with +terra-cotta enrichments, the windows were Gothic in outline—an +unusual mixture of styles, even in Italy. The munificence of the +Sforzas, the hereditary tyrants of the province, embellished the +semi-Gothic <b>Certosa</b> of Pavia with a new marble façade, begun 1476 +or 1491, which in its fanciful and exuberant decoration, and the small +scale of its parts, belongs properly to the early Renaissance. +Exquisitely beautiful in detail, it resembles rather a magnified +altar-piece than a work of architecture, properly speaking. Bologna and +Ferrara developed somewhat late in the century a strong local school of +architecture, remarkable especially for the beauty of its courtyards, +its graceful street arcades, and its artistic treatment of brick and +terra-cotta (<b>P. Bevilacqua</b>, <b>P. Fava</b>, at Bologna; +<b>P. Scrofa</b>, <b>P. Roverella</b>, at Ferrara). About the +same time palaces with interior arcades and details in the new style +were erected in Verona, Vicenza, Mantua, and other cities.</p> + + +<p><b>VENICE.</b> In this city of merchant princes and a wealthy +<i>bourgeoisie</i>, the architecture of the Renaissance took on a new +aspect of splendor and display. It was late in appearing, the Gothic +style with its tinge of Byzantine decorative traditions having here +developed into a style well suited to the needs of a rich and relatively +tranquil community. These traditions the architects of the new style +appropriated in a measure, as in the marble incrustations of the +exquisite little church of <b>S. M. dei Miracoli</b> +(1480–89), and the façade +<span class="pagenum">284</span> +<a name="page284" id="page284"> </a> +of the <b>Scuola di S. Marco</b> (1485–1533), both by +<i>Pietro Lombardo</i>. Nowhere else, unless on the contemporary façade +of the Certosa at Pavia, were marble inlays and delicate carving, +combined with a framework of thin pilasters, finely profiled +entablatures and arched pediments, so lavishly bestowed upon the street +fronts of churches and palaces. The family of the <i>Lombardi</i> +(Martino, his sons Moro and Pietro, and grandsons Antonio and Tullio), +with <i>Ant. Bregno</i> and <i>Bart. Buon</i>, were the leaders in the +architectural Renaissance of this period, and to them Venice owes her +choicest masterpieces in the new style. Its first appearance is noted in +the later portions of the church of <b>S. Zaccaria</b> +(1456–1515), partly Gothic internally, with a façade whose +semicircular pediment and small decorative arcades show a somewhat timid +but interesting application of classic details. In this church, and +still more so in S. Giobbe (1451–93) and the Miracoli above +mentioned, the decorative element predominates throughout. It is hard to +imagine details more graceful in design, more effective in the swing of +their movement, or more delicate in execution than the mouldings, +reliefs, wreaths, scrolls, and capitals one encounters in these +buildings. Yet in structural interest, in scale and breadth of planning, +these early Renaissance Venetian buildings hold a relatively inferior +rank.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig165" id="fig165"> </a> +<img src="images/fig165.jpg" width="412" height="312" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 165.—VENDRAMINI PALACE, VENICE.</p> + + +<p><b>PALACES.</b> The great <b>Court</b> of the <b>Doge’s Palace</b>, +begun 1483 by <i>Ant. Rizzio</i>, belongs only in part to the first +period. It shows, however, the lack of constructive principle and of +largeness of composition just mentioned, but its decorative effect and +picturesque variety elicit almost universal admiration. Like the +neighboring façade of St. Mark’s, it violates nearly every principle of +correct composition, and yet in a measure atones for this capital defect +by its charm of detail. Far more satisfactory from the purely +architectural point of view is the façade of the +<b>P. Vendramini</b> (Vendramin-Calergi), by Pietro Lombardo +(1481). The simple, +<span class="pagenum">285</span> +<a name="page285" id="page285"> </a> +stately lines of its composition, the dignity of its broad arched and +mullioned windows, separated by engaged columns—the earliest +example in Venice of this feature, and one of the earliest in +Italy—its well-proportioned basement and upper stories, crowned by +an adequate but somewhat heavy entablature, make this one of the finest +palaces in Italy (Fig. 165) It established a type of large-windowed, +vigorously modelled façades which later architects developed, but hardly +surpassed. In the smaller contemporary, P. Dario, another type +appears, better suited for small buildings, depending for effect mainly +upon well-ordered openings and incrusted panelling of colored +marble.</p> + + +<p><b>ROME.</b> Internal disorders and the long exile of the popes had +by the end of the fourteenth century reduced Rome to utter +insignificance. Not until the second half of the fifteenth century did +returning prosperity and wealth afford +<span class="pagenum">286</span> +<a name="page286" id="page286"> </a> +the Renaissance its opportunity in the Eternal City. Pope +Nicholas V. had, indeed, begun the rebuilding of St. Peter’s from +designs by B. Rossellini, in 1450, but the project lapsed shortly +after with the death of the pope. The earliest Renaissance building in +Rome was the <b>P. di Venezia</b>, begun in 1455, together with the +adjoining porch of S. Marco. In this palace and the adjoining +unfinished Palazzetto we find the influence of the old Roman monuments +clearly manifested in the court arcades, built like those of the +Colosseum, with superposed stages of massive piers and engaged columns +carrying entablatures. The proportions are awkward, the details coarse; +but the spirit of Roman classicism is here seen in the germ. The +exterior of this palace is, however, still Gothic in spirit. The +architects are unknown; <i>Giuliano da Majano</i> (1452–90), +<i>Giacomo di Pietrasanta</i>, and <i>Meo del Caprino</i> +(1430–1501) are known to have worked upon it, but it is not +certain in what capacity.</p> + +<p>The new style, reaching, and in time overcoming, the conservatism of +the Church, overthrew the old basilican traditions. In +<b>S. Agostino</b> (1479–83), by <i>Pietrasanta</i>, and +<b>S. M. del Popolo</b>, by Pintelli (?), piers with pilasters or +half-columns and massive arches separate the aisles, and the crossing is +crowned with a dome. To the same period belong the Sistine chapel and +parts of the Vatican palace, but the interest of these lies rather in +their later decorations than in their somewhat scanty architectural +merit.</p> + +<p>The architectural renewal of Rome, thus begun, reached its +culmination in the following period.</p> + + +<p><b>OTHER MONUMENTS.</b> The complete enumeration of even the most +important Early Renaissance monuments of Italy is impossible within our +limits. Two or three only can here be singled out as suggesting types. +Among town halls of this period the first place belongs to the +<b>P. del Consiglio</b> at Verona, by <i>Fra Giocondo</i> +(1435–1515). In this beautiful edifice the façade consists of a +light and graceful +<span class="pagenum">287</span> +<a name="page287" id="page287"> </a> +arcade supporting a wall pierced with four windows, and covered with +elaborate frescoed arabesques (recently restored). Its unfortunate +division by pilasters into four bays, with a pier in the centre, is a +blemish avoided in the contemporary <b>P. del Consiglio</b> at +Padua. The <b>Ducal Palace</b> at Urbino, by <i>Luciano da Laurano</i> +(1468), is noteworthy for its fine arcaded court, and was highly famed +in its day. At Brescia <b>S. M. dei Miracoli</b> is a remarkable +example of a cruciform domical church dating from the close of this +period, and is especially celebrated for the exuberant decoration of its +porch and its elaborate detail. Few campaniles were built in this +period; the best of them are at Venice. Naples possesses several +interesting Early Renaissance monuments, chief among which are the +<b>Porta Capuana</b> (1484), by <i>Giul. da Majano</i>, the triumphal +<b>Arch of Alphonso</b> of Arragon, by <i>Pietro di Martino</i>, and the +<b>P. Gravina</b>, by <i>Gab. d’Agnolo</i>. Naples is also very +rich in minor works of the early Renaissance, in which it ranks with +Florence, Venice, and Rome.</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">288</span> +<a name="page288" id="page288"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXXI" id="chapXXI">CHAPTER XXI.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY—<i>Continued</i>.</h3> + +<h3 class="subsub"> +THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE AND DECLINE.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, +Burckhardt, Cicognara, Fergusson, Palustre. Also, Gauthier, <i>Les plus +beaux edifices de Gênes</i>. Geymüller, <i>Les projets primitifs pour la +basilique de St. Pierre de Rome</i>. Gurlitt, <i>Geschichte des +Barockstiles in Italien</i>. Letarouilly, <i>Édifices de Rome +Moderne</i>; <i>Le Vatican</i>. Palladio, <i>The Works of +A. Palladio</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>CHARACTER OF THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE.</b> It was inevitable that +the study and imitation of Roman architecture should lead to an +increasingly literal rendering of classic details and a closer copying +of antique compositions. Toward the close of the fifteenth century the +symptoms began to multiply of the approaching reign of formal +classicism. Correctness in the reproduction of old Roman forms came in +time to be esteemed as one of the chief of architectural virtues, and in +the following period the orders became the principal resource of the +architect. During the so-called Cinquecento, that is, from the close of +the fifteenth century to nearly or quite 1550, architecture still +retained much of the freedom and refinement of the Quattrocento. There +was meanwhile a notable advance in dignity and amplitude of design, +especially in the internal distribution of buildings. Externally the +orders were freely used as subordinate features in the decoration of +doors and windows, and in court arcades of the Roman type. The +lantern-crowned +<span class="pagenum">289</span> +<a name="page289" id="page289"> </a> +dome upon a high drum was developed into one of the noblest of +architectural forms. Great attention was bestowed upon all subordinate +features; doors and windows were treated with frames and pediments of +extreme elegance and refinement; all the cornices and mouldings were +proportioned and profiled with the utmost care, and the balustrade was +elaborated into a feature at once useful and highly ornate. Interior +decoration was even more splendid than before, if somewhat less delicate +and subtle; relief enrichments in stucco were used with admirable +effect, and the greatest artists exercised their talents in the painting +of vaults and ceilings, as in P. del Té at Mantua, by <i>Giulio +Romano</i> (1492–1546), and the Sistine Chapel at Rome, by Michael +Angelo. This period is distinguished by an exceptional number of great +architects and buildings. It was ushered in by <i>Bramante Lazzari</i>, +of Urbino (1444–1514), and closed during the career of <i>Michael +Angelo Buonarotti</i> (1475–1564); two names worthy to rank with +that of Brunelleschi. Inferior only to these in architectural genius +were <i>Raphael</i> (1483–1520), <i>Baldassare Peruzzi</i> +(1481–1536), <i>Antonio da San Gallo the Younger</i> +(1485–1546), and <i>G. Barozzi da Vignola</i> +(1507–1572), in Rome; <i>Giacopo Tatti Sansovino</i> +(1479–1570), in Venice, and others almost equally illustrious. +This period witnessed the erection of an extraordinary series of +palaces, villas, and churches, the beginning and much of the +construction of St. Peter’s at Rome, and a complete transformation in +the aspect of that city.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig166" id="fig166"> </a> +<img src="images/fig166.png" width="275" height="239" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 166.—FAÇADE OF THE GIRAUD PALACE, ROME.</p> + +<p><b>BRAMANTE’S WORKS.</b> While precise time limits cannot be set to +architectural styles, it is not irrational to date this period from the +maturing of Bramante’s genius. While his earlier works in Milan belong +to the Quattrocento (S. M. delle Grazie, the sacristy of San +Satiro, the extension of the Great Hospital), his later designs show the +classic tendency very clearly. The charming <b>Tempietto</b> in the +court of +<span class="pagenum">290</span> +<a name="page290" id="page290"> </a> +S. Pietro in Montorio at Rome, a circular temple-like chapel +(1502), is composed of purely classic elements. In the +<b>P. Giraud</b> (Fig. 166) and the great <b>Cancelleria</b> +Palace, pilasters appear in the external composition, and all the +details of doors and windows betray the results of classic study, as +well as the refined taste of their designer.<a class="tag" name="tag24" id="tag24" href="#note24">24</a> The beautiful courtyard of +the Cancelleria combines the Florentine system of arches on columns with +the Roman system of superposed arcades independent of the court wall. In +1506 Bramante began the rebuilding of St. Peter’s for Julius II. (see <a +href="#page294">p. 294</a>) and the construction of a new and +imposing papal palace adjoining it on the Vatican hill. Of this colossal +group of edifices, commonly known as the <b>Vatican</b>, he executed the +greater Belvedere court (afterward divided in two by the Library and the +Braccio Nuovo), the lesser octagonal court of the Belvedere, and the +court of San Damaso, with its arcades afterward frescoed by Raphael and +his school. Besides these, the cloister of S. M. della Pace, and +many other works in and out of Rome, reveal the impress of Bramante’s +genius, alike in their admirable plans and in the harmony and beauty of +their details.</p> + + +<p><b>FLORENTINE PALACES.</b> The P. Riccardi long remained the accepted +type of palace in Florence. As we have seen, it was imitated in the +Strozzi palace, as late as 1489, with +<span class="pagenum">291</span> +<a name="page291" id="page291"> </a> +greater perfection of detail, but with no radical change of conception. +In the <b>P. Gondi</b>, however, begun in the following year by +<i>Giuliano da San Gallo</i> (1445–1516), a more pronounced +classic spirit appears, especially in the court and the interior design. +Early in the 16th century classic columns and pediments began to be used +as decorations for doors and windows; the rustication was confined to +basements and corner-quoins, and niches, loggias, and porches gave +variety of light and shade to the façades (<b>P. Bartolini</b>, by +<i>Baccio d’Agnolo</i>; <b>P. Larderel</b>, 1515, by <i>Dosio</i>; +<b>P. Guadagni</b>, by <i>Cronaca</i>; <b>P. Pandolfini</b>, +1518, attributed to Raphael). In the <b>P. Serristori</b>, by +Baccio d’Agnolo (1510), pilasters were applied to the composition of the +façade, but this example was not often followed in Florence.</p> + + +<p><b>ROMAN PALACES.</b> These followed a different type. They were +usually of great size, and built around ample courts with arcades of +classic model in two or three stories. The broad street façade in three +stories with an attic or mezzanine was crowned with a rich cornice. The +orders were sparingly used externally, and effect was sought principally +in the careful proportioning of the stories, in the form and +distribution of the square-headed and arched openings, and in the design +of mouldings, string-courses, cornices, and other details. The <i>piano +nobile</i>, or first story above the basement, was given up to suites of +sumptuous reception-rooms and halls, with magnificent ceilings and +frescoes by the great painters of the day, while antique statues and +reliefs adorned the courts, vestibules, and niches of these princely +dwellings. The <b>Massimi</b> palace, by Peruzzi, is an interesting +example of this type. The Vatican, Cancelleria, and Giraud palaces have +already been mentioned; other notable palaces are the Palma (1506) and +Sacchetti (1540), by A. da San Gallo the Younger; the +<b>Farnesina</b>, by Peruzzi, with celebrated fresco decorations +designed by Raphael; +<span class="pagenum">292</span> +<a name="page292" id="page292"> </a> +and the Lante (1520) and Altemps (1530), by Peruzzi. But the noblest +creation of this period was the</p> + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig167" id="fig167"> </a> +<img src="images/fig167.png" width="210" height="276" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 167.<!-- invisible both . -->—PLAN OF FARNESE PALACE.<br> +<a class="closeup" href="images/fig167_large.png" target="_blank"> +Larger View</a></p> + +<p><b>FARNESE PALACE</b>, by many esteemed the finest in Italy. It was +begun in 1530 for Alex. Farnese (Paul III.) by A. da San Gallo the +Younger, with Vignola’s collaboration. The simple but admirable plan is +shown in Fig. 167, and the courtyard, the most imposing in Italy, in +Fig. 168. The exterior is monotonous, but the noble cornice by Michael +Angelo measurably redeems this defect. The fine vaulted columnar +entrance vestibule, the court and the <i>salons</i>, make up an +<i>ensemble</i> worthy of the great architects who designed it. The +loggia toward the river was added by <i>G. della Porta</i> in +1580.</p> + + +<p><b>VILLAS.</b> The Italian villa of this pleasure-loving period +afforded full scope for the most playful fancies of the architect, +decorator, and landscape gardener. It comprised usually a dwelling, +a <i>casino</i> or amusement-house, and many minor edifices, +summer-houses, arcades, etc., disposed in extensive grounds laid out +with terraces, cascades, and shaded alleys. The style was graceful, +sometimes trivial, but almost always pleasing, making free use of stucco +enrichments, both internally and externally, with abundance of gilding +and frescoing. The <b>Villa Madama</b> (1516), by Raphael, with +stucco-decorations by Giulio Romano, though incomplete and now +dilapidated, is a noted example of the style. More complete, the +<b>Villa of Pope Julius</b>, by Vignola (1550), belongs by its purity of +style to this period; its façade well exemplifies the simplicity, +<span class="pagenum">293</span> +<a name="page293" id="page293"> </a> +dignity, and fine proportions of this master’s work. In addition to +these Roman villas may be mentioned the <b>V. Medici</b> (1540, by +<i>Annibale Lippi</i>; now the French Academy of Rome); the <b>Casino +del Papa</b> in the Vatican Gardens, by <i>Pirro Ligorio</i> (1560); the +<b>V. Lante</b>, near Viterbo, and the <b>V. d’Este</b>, at Tivoli, as +displaying among almost countless others the Italian skill in combining +architecture and gardening.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig168" id="fig168"> </a> +<img src="images/fig168.jpg" width="205" height="277" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 168.<!-- invisible both . -->—ANGLE OF COURT OF FARNESE +PALACE, ROME.</p> + + +<p><b>CHURCHES AND CHAPELS.</b> This period witnessed the building of a +few churches of the first rank, but it was especially prolific in +memorial, votive, and sepulchral chapels added to churches already +existing, like the <b>Chigi Chapel</b> of S. M. del Popolo, by +Raphael. The earlier churches of this period generally followed +antecedent types, with the dome as the central feature dominating a +cruciform plan, and simple, unostentatious and sometimes uninteresting +exteriors. Among them may be mentioned: at Pistoia, S. M. del Letto +and <b>S. M. dell’ Umiltà</b>, the latter a fine domical rotunda by +<i>Ventura Vitoni</i> (1509), with an imposing vestibule; at Venice, +<b>S. Salvatore</b>, by <i>Tullio Lombardo</i> (1530), an admirable +edifice with alternating domical and barrel-vaulted bays; +<b>S. Georgio dei Grechi</b> (1536), by <i>Sansovino</i>, and +S. M. Formosa; at Todi, the <b>Madonna della Consolazione</b> +(1510), by <i>Cola da Caprarola</i>, a charming design with a high +dome and four apses; at Montefiascone, the <b>Madonna delle Grazie</b>, +by <i>Sammichele</i> (1523), besides several churches at Bologna, +Ferrara, Prato, Sienna, and Rome of almost or quite equal +<span class="pagenum">294</span> +<a name="page294" id="page294"> </a> +interest. In these churches one may trace the development of the dome as +an external feature, while in <b>S. Biagio</b>, at Montepulciano, +the effort was made by <i>Ant. da San Gallo the Elder</i> to combine +with it the contrasting lines of two campaniles, of which, however, but +one was completed.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig169" id="fig169"> </a> +<img src="images/fig169.png" width="241" height="240" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 169.—ORIGINAL PLAN OF ST. PETER’S, ROME.</p> + +<p><b>ST. PETER’S.</b> The culmination of Renaissance church +architecture was reached in <b>St. Peter’s</b>, at Rome. The original +project of Nicholas V. having lapsed with his death, it was the +intention of Julius II. to erect on the same site a stupendous mausoleum +over the monument he had ordered of Michael Angelo. The design of +Bramante, who began its erection in 1506, comprised a Greek cross with +apsidal arms, the four angles occupied by domical chapels and loggias +within a square outline (Fig. 169). The too hasty execution of this +noble design led to the collapse of two of the arches under the dome, +and to long delays after Bramante’s death in 1514. Raphael, Giuliano da +San Gallo, Peruzzi, and A. da San Gallo the Younger successively +supervised the works under the popes from Leo X. to Paul III., and +devised a vast number of plans for its completion. Most of these +involved fundamental alterations of the original scheme, and were +motived by the abandonment of the proposed monument of Julius II.; +a church, and not a mausoleum, being in consequence required. In +1546 Michael Angelo was assigned by Paul III. to the works, and gave +final form to the general design in a simplified +<span class="pagenum">295</span> +<a name="page295" id="page295"> </a> +version of Bramante’s plan with more massive supports, a square +east front with a portico for the chief entrance, and the unrivalled +<b>Dome</b>, which is its most striking feature. This dome, slightly +altered and improved in curvature by della Porta after M. Angelo’s +death in 1564, was completed by <i>D. Fontana</i> in 1604. It is +the most majestic creation of the Renaissance, and one of the greatest +architectural conceptions of all history. It measures 140 feet in +internal diameter, and with its two shells rises from a lofty drum, +buttressed by coupled Corinthian columns, to a height of 405 feet to the +top of the lantern. The church, as left by Michael Angelo, was +harmonious in its proportions, though the single order used internally +and externally dwarfed by its colossal scale the vast dimensions of the +edifice. Unfortunately in 1606 <i>C. Maderna</i> was employed by +Paul V. to lengthen the nave by two bays, destroying the +proportions of the whole, and hiding the dome from view on a near +approach. The present tasteless façade was Maderna’s work. The splendid +atrium or portico added (1629–67), by <i>Bernini</i>, as an +approach, mitigates but does not cure the ugliness and pettiness of this +front.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig170" id="fig170"> </a> +<img src="images/fig170.png" width="228" height="336" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 170.—PLAN OF ST. PETER’S, ROME, AS NOW STANDING.</p> + +<p class="caption"> +The portion below the line <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, and the side chapels +<i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, were added by Maderna. The remainder represents +Michael Angelo’s plan.</p> + +<p>St. Peter’s as thus completed (Fig. 170) is the largest +<span class="pagenum">296</span> +<a name="page296" id="page296"> </a> +church in existence, and in many respects is architecturally worthy of +its pre-eminence. The central aisle, nearly 600 feet long, with its +stupendous panelled and gilded vault, 83 feet in span, the vast central +area and the majestic dome, belong to a conception unsurpassed in +majestic simplicity and effectiveness. The construction is almost +excessively massive, but admirably disposed. On the other hand the nave +is too long, and the details not only lack originality and interest, but +are also too large and coarse in scale, dwarfing the whole edifice. The +interior (Fig. 171) is wanting in the sobriety of color that befits so +stately a design; it suggests rather a pagan temple than a Christian +basilica. These faults reveal the decline of taste which had already set +in before Michael Angelo took charge of the work, and which appears even +in the works of that master.</p> + + +<p><b>THE PERIOD OF FORMAL CLASSICISM.</b> With the middle of the 16th +century the classic orders began to dominate all architectural design. +While Vignola, who wrote a treatise upon the orders, employed them with +unfailing refinement and judgment, his contemporaries showed less +discernment and taste, making of them an end rather than a means. Too +often mere classical correctness was substituted for the fundamental +qualities of original invention and intrinsic beauty of composition. The +innovation of colossal orders extending through several stories, while +it gave to exterior designs a certain grandeur of scale, tended to +coarseness and even vulgarity of detail. Sculpture and ornament began to +lose their refinement; and while street-architecture gained in +monumental scale, and public squares received a more stately adornment +than ever before, the street-façades individually were too often bare +and uninteresting in their correct formality. In the interiors of +churches and large halls there appears a struggle between a cold and +dignified simplicity and a growing tendency toward pretentious sham. But +these pernicious tendencies did +<span class="pagenum">299</span> +<a name="page299" id="page299"> </a> +not fully mature till the latter part of the century, and the +half-century after 1540 or 1550 was prolific of notable works in both +ecclesiastical and secular architecture. The names of Michael Angelo and +Vignola, whose careers began in the preceding period; of Palladio and +della Porta (1541–1604) in Rome; of Sammichele and Sansovino in +Verona and Venice, and of Galeazzo Alessi in Genoa, stand high in the +ranks of architectural merit.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">[297]</span> +<a name="page297" id="page297"> </a> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig171" id="fig171"> </a> +<img src="images/fig171.jpg" width="477" height="289" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 171.—INTERIOR OF ST. PETER’S, ROME.</p> + +<a name="page298" id="page298"> </a> +<!-- moved two pages --> + + +<p><b>CHURCHES.</b> The type established by St. Peter’s was widely +imitated throughout Italy. The churches in which a Greek or Latin cross +is dominated by a high dome rising from a drum and terminating in a +lantern, and is treated both internally and externally with Roman +Corinthian pilasters and arches, are almost numberless. Among the best +churches of this type is the <b>Gesù</b> at Rome, by Vignola (1568), +with a highly ornate interior of excellent proportions and a less +interesting exterior, the façade adorned with two stories of orders and +great flanking volutes over the sides (see <a href="#page277">p. 277</a>). Two churches at Venice, by +<i>Palladio</i>—<b>S. Giorgio Maggiore</b> (1560; façade by +<i>Scamozzi</i>, 1575) and the <b>Redentore</b>—offer a strong +contrast to the Gesù, in their cold and almost bare but pure and correct +design. An imitation of Bramante’s plan for St. Peter’s appears in +<b>S. M. di Carignano</b>, at Genoa, by <i>Galeazzo Alessi</i> +(1500–72), begun 1552, a fine structure, though inferior in +scale and detail to its original. Besides these and other important +churches there were many large domical chapels of great splendor added +to earlier churches; of these the <b>Chapel of Sixtus V.</b> in +S. M. Maggiore, at Rome, by <i>D. Fontana</i> +(1543–1607), is an excellent example.</p> + + +<p><b>PALACES: ROME.</b> The palaces on the Capitoline Hill, built at +different dates (1540–1644) from designs by Michael Angelo, +illustrate the palace architecture of this period, and the imposing +effect of a single colossal order running through two stories. This +treatment, though well adapted +<span class="pagenum">300</span> +<a name="page300" id="page300"> </a> +to produce monumental effects in large squares, was dangerous in its +bareness and heaviness of scale, and was better suited for buildings of +vast dimensions than for ordinary street-façades. In other Roman palaces +of this time the traditions of the preceding period still prevailed, as +in the <b>Sapienza</b> (University), by della Porta (1575), which has a +dignified court and a façade of great refinement without columns or +pilasters. The <b>Papal palaces</b> built by Domenico Fontana on the +Lateran, Quirinal, and Vatican hills, between 1574 and 1590, externally +copying the style of the Farnese, show a similar return to earlier +models, but are less pure and refined in detail than the Sapienza. The +great pentagonal <b>Palace of Caprarola</b>, near Rome, by Vignola, is +perhaps the most successful and imposing production of the Roman classic +school.</p> + + +<p><b>VERONA.</b> Outside of Rome, palace-building took on various local +and provincial phases of style, of which the most important were the +closely related styles of Verona, Venice, and Vicenza. <i>Michele +Sammichele</i> (1484–1549), who built in Verona the +<b>Bevilacqua</b>, <b>Canossa</b>, <b>Pompei</b>, and <b>Verzi</b> +palaces and the four chief city gates, and in Venice the +<b>P. Grimani</b>, his masterpiece (1550), was a designer of great +originality and power. He introduced into his military architecture, as +in the gates of Verona, the use of rusticated orders, which he treated +with skill and taste. The idea was copied by later architects and +applied, with doubtful propriety, to palace-façades; though Ammanati’s +garden-façade for the Pitti palace, in Florence (cir. 1560), is an +impressive and successful design.</p> + + +<p><b>VENICE.</b> Into the development of the maturing classic style +<i>Giacopo Tatti Sansovino</i> (1477–1570) introduced in his +Venetian buildings new elements of splendor. Coupled columns between +arches themselves supported on columns, and a profusion of figure +sculpture, gave to his palace-façades a hitherto unknown magnificence of +effect, as +<span class="pagenum">301</span> +<a name="page301" id="page301"> </a> +in the <b>Library of St. Mark</b> (now the Royal Palace, Fig. 172), and +the <b>Cornaro</b> palace (P. Corner de Cà Grande), both dating +from about 1530–40. So strongly did he impress upon Venice these +ornate and sumptuous variations on classic themes, that later architects +adhered, in a very debased period, to the main features and spirit of +his work.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig172" id="fig172"> </a> +<img src="images/fig172.jpg" width="249" height="420" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 172.—LIBRARY OF ST. MARK, VENICE.</p> + + +<p><b>VICENZA.</b> Of <i>Palladio’s</i> churches in Venice we have +already spoken; his palaces are mainly to be found in his native city, +Vicenza. In these structures he displayed great fertility of invention +and a profound familiarity with the classic orders, but the degenerate +taste of the Baroque period already begins to show itself in his work. +There is far less of architectural propriety and grace in these +pretentious palaces, with their colossal orders and their affectation of +grandeur, than in the designs of Vignola or Sammichele. Wood and +plaster, used to mimic stone, indicate the approaching reign of sham in +all design (<b>P. Barbarano</b>, 1570; <b>Chieregati</b>, 1560; +<b>Tiene</b>, <b>Valmarano</b>, 1556; <b>Villa Capra</b>). His +masterpiece is the two-storied arcade about the mediæval +<b>Basilica</b>, in which the arches are supported on a minor order +between engaged columns serving +<span class="pagenum">302</span> +<a name="page302" id="page302"> </a> +as buttresses. This treatment has in consequence ever since been known +as the <i>Palladian Motive</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>GENOA.</b> During the second half of the sixteenth century a +remarkable series of palaces was erected in Genoa, especially notable +for their great courts and imposing staircases. These last were given +unusual prominence owing to differences of level in the courts, arising +from the slope of their sites on the hillside. Many of these palaces +were by Galeazzo Alessi (1502–72); others by architects of lesser +note; but nearly all characterized by their effective planning, fine +stairs and loggias, and strong and dignified, if sometimes +uninteresting, detail (<b>P. Balbi</b>, <b>Brignole</b>, +<b>Cambiasi</b>, <b>Doria-Tursi</b> [or Municipio], <b>Durazzo</b> [or +Reale], <b>Pallavicini</b>, and <b>University</b>).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig173" id="fig173"> </a> +<img src="images/fig173.jpg" width="248" height="393" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 173.—INTERIOR OF SAN SEVERO, NAPLES.</p> + + +<p><b>THE BAROQUE STYLE.</b> A reaction from the cold <i>classicismo</i> +of the late sixteenth century showed itself in the following period, in +the lawless and vulgar extravagances of the so-called <i>Baroque</i> +style. The wealthy Jesuit order was a notorious contributor to the +debasement of architectural taste. Most of the Jesuit churches and many +others not belonging to the order, but following its <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘pernicous’">pernicious</ins> example, +are monuments of bad taste and pretentious sham. Broken +<span class="pagenum">303</span> +<a name="page303" id="page303"> </a> +and contorted pediments, huge scrolls, heavy mouldings, ill-applied +sculpture in exaggerated attitudes, and a general disregard for +architectural propriety characterized this period, especially in its +church architecture, to whose style the name <i>Jesuit</i> is often +applied. Sham marble and heavy and excessive gilding were universal +(Fig. 173). <i>C. Maderna</i> (1556–1629), <i>Lorenzo +Bernini</i> (1589–1680), and <i>F. Borromini</i> +(1599–1667) were the worst offenders of the period, though Bernini +was an artist of undoubted ability, as proved by his colonnades or +atrium in front of St. Peter’s. There were, however, architects of purer +taste whose works even in that debased age were worthy of +admiration.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig174" id="fig174"> </a> +<img src="images/fig174.jpg" width="271" height="372" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 174.—CHURCH OF S. M. DELLA SALUTE, VENICE.</p> + + +<p><b>BAROQUE CHURCHES.</b> The Baroque style prevailed in church +architecture for almost two centuries. The majority of the churches +present varieties of the cruciform plan crowned by a high dome which is +usually the best part of the design. Everywhere else the vices of the +period appear in these churches, especially in their façades and +internal decoration. <b>S. M. della Vittoria</b>, by Maderna, and +<b>Sta. Agnese</b>, by Borromini, both at Rome, are examples of the +<span class="pagenum">304</span> +<a name="page304" id="page304"> </a> +style. Naples is particularly full of Baroque churches (Fig. 173), +a few of which, like the <b>Gesù Nuovo</b> (1584), are dignified +and creditable designs. The domical church of <b>S. M. della +Salute</b>, at Venice (1631), by Longhena, is also a majestic edifice in +excellent style (Fig. 174), and here and there other churches offer +exceptions to the prevalent baseness of architecture. Particularly +objectionable was the wholesale disfigurement of existing monuments by +ruthless remodelling, as in S. John Lateran, at Rome, the +cathedrals of Ferrara and Ravenna, and many others.</p> + + +<p><b>PALACES.</b> These were generally superior to the churches, and +not infrequently impressive and dignified structures. The two best +examples in Rome are the <b>P. Borghese</b>, by <i>Martino Lunghi +the Elder</i> (1590), with a fine court arcade on coupled Doric and +Ionic columns, and the <b>P. Barberini</b>, by Maderna and +Borromini, with an elliptical staircase by Bernini, one of the few +palaces in Italy with projecting lateral wings. In Venice, Longhena, in +the <b>Rezzonico</b> and <b>Pesaro</b> palaces (1650–80), showed +his freedom from the mannerisms of the age by reproducing successfully +the ornate but dignified style of Sansovino (see <a href="#page301">p. 301</a>). At Naples D. Fontana, whose works +overlap the Baroque period, produced in the <b>Royal Palace</b> (1600) +and the <b>Royal Museum</b> (1586–1615) designs of considerable +dignity, in some respects superior to his papal residences in Rome. In +suburban villas, like the <b>Albani</b> and <b>Borghese</b> villas near +Rome, the ostentatious style of the Decline found free and congenial +expression.</p> + + +<p><b>LATER MONUMENTS.</b> In the few eighteenth-century buildings which +are worthy of mention there is noticeable a reaction from the +extravagances of the seventeenth century, shown in the dignified +correctness of the exteriors and the somewhat frigid splendor of the +interiors. The most notable work of this period is the <b>Royal +Palace</b> at <b>Caserta</b>, by <i>Van Vitelli</i> (1752), an architect +of considerable taste and inventiveness, considering his time. This +great palace, 800 +<span class="pagenum">305</span> +<a name="page305" id="page305"> </a> +feet square, encloses four fine courts, and is especially remarkable for +the simple if monotonous dignity of the well proportioned exterior and +the effective planning of its three octagonal vestibules, its ornate +chapel and noble staircase. Staircases, indeed, were among the most +successful features of late Italian architecture, as in the <b>Scala +Regia</b> of the Vatican, and in the Corsini, Braschi, and Barberini +palaces at Rome, the Royal Palace at Naples, etc.</p> + +<p>In church architecture the <b>east front</b> of <b>S. John +Lateran</b> in Rome, by <i>Galilei</i> (1734), and the whole +<b>exterior</b> of <b>S. M. Maggiore</b>, by <i>Ferd. Fuga</i> +(1743), are noteworthy designs: the former an especially powerful +conception, combining a colossal order with two smaller orders in +superposed <i>loggie</i>, but marred by the excessive scale of the +statues which crown it. The <b>Fountain</b> of <b>Trevi</b>, conceived +in much the same spirit (1735, by <i>Niccola Salvi</i>), is a striking +piece of decorative architecture. The Sacristy of St. Peter’s, by +<i>Marchionne</i> (1775), also deserves mention as a monumental and not +uninteresting work. In the early years of the present century the +<b>Braccio Nuovo</b> of the Vatican, by <i>Stern</i>, the imposing +church of <b>S. Francesco di Paola</b> at Naples, by +<i>Bianchi</i>, designed in partial imitation of the Pantheon, and the +great <b>S. Carlo Theatre</b> at Naples, show the same coldly +classical spirit, not wholly without merit, but lacking in true +originality and freedom of conception.</p> + + +<p><b>CAMPANILES.</b> The <b>campaniles</b> of the Renaissance and +Decline deserve at least passing reference, though they are neither +numerous nor often of conspicuous interest. That of the +<b>Campidoglio</b> (Capitol) at Rome, by Martino Lunghi, is a good +example of the classical type. Venetia possesses a number of graceful +and lofty bell-towers, generally of brick with marble bell-stages, of +which the upper part of the <b>Campanile</b> of <b>St. Mark</b> and the +tower of S. Giorgio Maggiore are the finest examples.</p> + +<p>The Decline attained what the early Renaissance aimed +<span class="pagenum">306</span> +<a name="page306" id="page306"> </a> +at—the revival of Roman forms. But it was no longer a Renaissance; +it was a decrepit and unimaginative art, held in the fetters of a +servile imitation, copying the letter rather than the spirit of antique +design. It was the mistaken and abject worship of precedent which +started architecture upon its downward path and led to the atrocious +products of the seventeenth century.</p> + + +<div class="monuments"> + +<p><b>MONUMENTS</b> (mainly in addition to those mentioned in the text). +<span class="smallcaps">15th Century</span>—<span class="smallcaps">Florence</span>: Foundling Hospital (Innocenti), 1421; Old +Sacristy and Cloister S. Lorenzo; P. Quaratesi, 1440; +cloisters at Sta. Croce and Certosa, all by Brunelleschi; façade +S. M. Novella, by Alberti, 1456; Badia at Fiesole, from designs of +Brunelleschi, 1462; Court of P. Vecchio, by Michelozzi, 1464 +(altered and enriched, 1565); P. Guadagni, by Cronaca, 1490; Hall +of 500 in P. Vecchio, by same, 1495.—<span class="smallcaps">Venice</span>: S. Zaccaria, by Martino Lombardo, +1457–1515; S. Michele, by Moro Lombardo, 1466; S. M. del +Orto, 1473; S. Giovanni Crisostomo, by Moro Lombardo, atrium of +S. Giovanni Evangelista, Procurazie Vecchie, all 1481; Scuola di +S. Marco, by Martino Lombardo, 1490; P. Dario; +P. Corner-Spinelli.—<span class="smallcaps">Ferrara</span>: +P. Schifanoja, 1469; P. Scrofa or Costabili, 1485; S. M. +in Vado, P. dei Diamanti, P. Bevilacqua, S. Francesco, +S. Benedetto, S. Cristoforo, all 1490–1500.—<span +class="smallcaps">Milan</span>: Ospedale Grande (or Maggiore), begun +1457 by Filarete, extended by Bramante, cir. 1480–90 (great court +by Richini, 17th century); S. M. delle Grazie, E. end, +Sacristy of S. Satiro, S. M. presso S. Celso, all by +Bramante, 1477–1499.—<span class="smallcaps">Rome</span>: +S. Pietro in Montorio, 1472; S. M. del Popolo, 1475?; Sistine +Chapel of Vatican, 1475; S. Agostino, 1483.—<span class="smallcaps">Sienna</span>: Loggia del Papa and P. Nerucci, 1460; +P. del Governo, 1469–1500; P. Spannocchi, 1470; Sta. +Catarina, 1490, by di Bastiano and Federighi, church later by Peruzzi; +Library in cathedral by L. Marina, 1497; Oratory of +S. Bernardino, by Turrapili, 1496.—<span class="smallcaps">Pienza</span>: Cathedral, Bishop’s Palace (Vescovado), +P. Pubblico, all cir. 1460, by B. di Lorenzo (or Rosselini?). +<span class="smallcaps">Elsewhere</span> (in chronological order): +Arch of Alphonso, Naples, 1443, by P. di Martino; Oratory +S. Bernardino, Perugia, by di Duccio, 1461; Church over Casa-Santa, +Loreto, 1465–1526; P. del Consiglio at Verona, by Fra +Giocondo, 1476; Capella Colleoni, Bergamo, 1476; S. M. in Organo, +Verona, 1481; Porta Capuana, Naples, by Giul. da Majano, 1484; Madonna +della Croce, Crema, by B. Battagli, 1490–1556; Madonna di +Campagna and S. Sisto, Piacenza, both 1492–1511; +P. Bevilacqua, Bologna, by Nardi, 1492 (?); P. Gravina, +Naples; P. Fava, Bologna; P. Pretorio, Lucca; S. M. dei +Miracoli Brescia; all at close of 15th century.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">307</span> +<a name="page307" id="page307"> </a> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">16th Century</span>—<span class="smallcaps">Rome</span>: P. Sora, 1501; S. M. della Pace and +cloister, 1504, both by Bramante (façade of church by P. da +Cortona, 17th century); S. M. di Loreto, 1507, by A. da San +Gallo the Elder; P. Vidoni, by Raphael; P. Lante, 1520; Vigna +Papa Giulio, 1534, by Peruzzi; P. dei Conservatori, 1540, and +P. del Senatore, 1563 (both on Capitol), by M. Angelo, +Vignola, and della Porta; Sistine Chapel in S. M. Maggiore, 1590; +S. Andrea della Valle, 1591, by Olivieri (façade, 1670, by +Rainaldi).—<span class="smallcaps">Florence</span>: Medici +Chapel of S. Lorenzo, new <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘sacristry’">sacristy</ins> of same, and Laurentian Library, all +by M. Angelo, 1529–40; Mercato Nuovo, 1547, by B. Tasso; +P. degli Uffizi, 1560–70, by Vasari; P. Giugni, <ins +class="correction" title="text reads ‘-1560’: corrected from 8th edition">1560–8</ins>.—<span class="smallcaps">Venice</span>: P. Camerlinghi, 1525, by Bergamasco; +S. Francesco della Vigna, by Sansovino, 1539, façade by Palladio, +1568; Zecca or Mint, 1536, and Loggetta of Campanile, 1540, by +Sansovino<a class="tag" name="tag25" id="tag25" href="#note25">25</a>, Procurazie Nuove, 1584, by Scamozzi.—<span class="smallcaps">Verona</span>: Capella Pellegrini in S. Bernardino, +1514; City Gates, by Sammichele, 1530–40 (Porte Nuova, Stuppa, +S. Zeno, S. Giorgio).—<span class="smallcaps">Vicenza</span>: P. Porto, 1552; Teatro Olimpico, 1580; +both by Palladio.—<span class="smallcaps">Genoa</span>: +P. Andrea Doria, by Montorsoli, 1529; P. Ducale, by Pennone, +1550; P. Lercari, P. Spinola, P. Sauli, P. Marcello +Durazzo, all by Gal. Alessi, cir. 1550; Sta. Annunziata, 1587, by della +Porta; Loggia dei Banchi, end of 16th century.—<span class="smallcaps">Elsewhere</span> (in chronological order). +P. Roverella, Ferrara, 1508; P. del Magnifico, Sienna, 1508, +by Cozzarelli; P. Communale, Brescia, 1508, by Formentone; +P. Albergati, Bologna, 1510; P. Ducale, Mantua, 1520–40; +P. Giustiniani, Padua, by Falconetto, 1524; Ospedale del Ceppo, +Pistoia, 1525; Madonna delle Grazie, Pistoia, by Vitoni, 1535; +P. Buoncampagni-Ludovisi, Bologna, 1545; Cathedral, Padua, 1550, by +Righetti and della Valle, after M. Angelo; P. Bernardini, +1560, and P. Ducale, 1578, at Lucca, both by Ammanati.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">17th Century</span>: Chapel of the Princes +in S. Lorenzo, Florence, 1604, by Nigetti; S. Pietro, Bologna, +1605; S. Andrea delle Fratte, Rome, 1612; Villa Borghese, Rome, +1616, by Vasanzio; P. Contarini delle Scrigni, Venice, by Scamozzi; +Badia at Florence, rebuilt 1625 by Segaloni; S. Ignazio, Rome, +1626–85; Museum of the Capitol, Rome, 1644–50; Church of Gli +Scalzi, Venice, 1649; P. Pesaro, Venice, by Longhena, 1650; +S. Moisé, Venice, 1668; Brera Palace, Milan; S. M. Zobenigo, +Venice, 1680; Dogana di Mare, Venice, 1686, by Benone; Santi Apostoli, +Rome.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">18th and early 19th Century</span>: +Gesuati, at Venice, 1715–30; S. Geremia, Venice, 1753, by +Corbellini; P. Braschi, Rome, by Morelli, 1790; Nuova Fabbrica, +Venice, 1810.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="note24" id="note24" href="#tag24">24.</a> +See <a href="#appC">Appendix C</a>.</p> + +<p><a name="note25" id="note25" href="#tag25">25.</a> +See <a href="#appB">Appendix B</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<span class="pagenum">308</span> +<a name="page308" id="page308"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXXII" id="chapXXII">CHAPTER XXII.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, +Fergusson, Müntz, Palustre. Also Berty, <i>La Renaissance monumentale en +France</i>. Château, <i>Histoire et caractères de l’architecture en +France</i>. Daly, <i>Motifs historiques d’architecture et de +sculpture</i>. De Laborde, <i>La Renaissance des arts à la cour de +France</i>. Du Cerceau, <i>Les plus excellents bastiments de France</i>. +Lübke, <i>Geschichte der Renaissance in Frankreich</i>. Mathews, <i>The +Renaissance under the Valois Kings</i>. Palustre, <i>La Renaissance en +France</i>. Pattison, <i>The Renaissance of the Fine Arts in France</i>. +Rouyer et Darcel, <i>L’Art architectural en France</i>. Sauvageot, +<i>Choix de palais, châteaux, hôtels, et maisons de France</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>ORIGIN AND CHARACTER.</b> The vitality and richness of the Gothic +style in France, even in its decline in the fifteenth century, long +stood in the way of any general introduction of classic forms. When the +Renaissance appeared, it came as a foreign importation, introduced from +Italy by the king and the nobility. It underwent a protracted +transitional phase, during which the national Gothic forms and +traditions were picturesquely mingled with those of the Renaissance. The +campaigns of Charles VIII. (1489), Louis XII. (1499), and +Francis I. (1515), in vindication of their claims to the thrones of +Naples and Milan, brought these monarchs and their nobles into contact +with the splendid material and artistic civilization of Italy, then in +the full tide of the maturing Renaissance. They returned to France, +filled with the ambition to rival the splendid palaces and gardens of +Italy, taking with them Italian artists to teach their arts to the +French. But while these Italians successfully +<span class="pagenum">309</span> +<a name="page309" id="page309"> </a> +introduced many classic elements and details into French architecture, +they wholly failed to dominate the French master-masons and <i>tailleurs +de pierre</i> in matters of planning and general composition. The early +Renaissance architecture of France is consequently wholly unlike the +Italian, from which it derived only minor details and a certain +largeness and breadth of spirit.</p> + + +<p><b>PERIODS.</b> The French Renaissance and its sequent developments +may be broadly divided into three periods, with subdivisions coinciding +more or less closely with various reigns, as follows:</p> + +<p>I. <span class="smallcaps">The Valois Period</span>, or Renaissance +proper, 1483–1589, subdivided into:</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> <span class="smallcaps">The Transition</span>, comprising +the reigns of Charles VIII. and Louis XII. (1483–1515), and the +early years of that of Francis I.; characterized by a picturesque +mixture of classic details with Gothic conceptions.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> <span class="smallcaps">The Style of Francis I.</span>, +or Early Renaissance, from about 1520 to that king’s death in 1547; +distinguished by a remarkable variety and grace of composition and +beauty of detail.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> <span class="smallcaps">The Advanced Renaissance</span>, +comprising the reigns of Henry II. (1547), Francis II. (1559), Charles +IX. (1560), and Henry III. (1574–89); marked by the gradual +adoption of the classic orders and a decline in the delicacy and +richness of the ornament.</p> + +<p>II. <span class="smallcaps">The Bourbon or Classic Period</span> +(1589–1715):</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> <span class="smallcaps">Style of Henry IV.</span>, +covering his reign and partly that of Louis XIII. (1610–45), +employing the orders and other classic forms with a somewhat heavy, +florid style of ornament.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> <span class="smallcaps">Style of Louis XIV.</span>, +beginning in the preceding reign and extending through that of Louis +XIV. (1645–1715); the great age of classic architecture in France, +corresponding to the Palladian in Italy.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">310</span> +<a name="page310" id="page310"> </a> +<p>III. <span class="smallcaps">The Decline or Rococo Period</span>, +corresponding with the reign of Louis XV. (1715–74); marked by +pompous extravagance and capriciousness.</p> + +<p>During this period a reaction set in toward a severer classicism, +leading to the styles of Louis XVI. and of the Empire, to be treated of +in a later chapter.</p> + + +<p><b>THE TRANSITION.</b> As early as 1475 the new style made its +appearance in altars, tombs, and rood-screens wrought by French carvers +with the collaboration of Italian artificers. The tomb erected by +Charles of Anjou to his father in Le Mans cathedral (1475, by +<i>Francesco Laurana</i>), the chapel of St. Lazare in the cathedral of +Marseilles (1483), and the tomb of the children of Charles VIII. in +Tours cathedral (1506), by <i>Michel Columbe</i>, the greatest artist of +his time in France, are examples. The schools of Rouen and Tours were +especially prominent in works of this kind, marked by exuberant fancy +and great delicacy of execution. In church architecture Gothic +traditions were long dominant, in spite of the great numbers of Italian +prelates in France. It was in <i>châteaux</i>, palaces, and dwellings +that the new style achieved its most notable triumphs.</p> + + +<p><b>EARLY CHÂTEAUX.</b> The castle of Charles VIII., at Amboise on the +Loire, shows little trace of Italian influence. It was under Louis XII. +that the transformation of French architecture really began. The +<b>Château de Gaillon</b> (of which unfortunately only fragments remain +in the École des Beaux-Arts at Paris), built for the Cardinal George of +Amboise, between 1497 and 1509, by <i>Pierre Fain</i>, was the +masterwork of the Rouen school. It presented a curious mixture of +styles, with its irregular plan, its moat, drawbridge, and round +corner-towers, its high roofs, turrets, and dormers, which gave it, in +spite of many Renaissance details, a mediæval picturesqueness. The +<b>Château de Blois</b> (the east and south wings of the present group), +begun for Louis XII. about 1500, was the first of a remarkable series +<span class="pagenum">311</span> +<a name="page311" id="page311"> </a> +of royal palaces which are the glory of French architecture. It shows +the new influences in its horizontal lines and flat, unbroken façades of +brick and stone, rather than in its architectural details (Fig. 175). +The <b>Ducal Palace</b> at Nancy and the <b>Hôtel de Ville</b> at +Orléans, by <i>Viart</i>, show a similar commingling of the classic and +mediæval styles.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig175" id="fig175"> </a> +<img src="images/fig175.jpg" width="245" height="444" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 175.<!-- invisible both . -->—BLOIS, COURT FAÇADE OF WING OF +LOUIS XII.</p> + + +<p><b>STYLE OF FRANCIS I.</b> Early in the reign of this monarch, and +partly under the lead of Italian artists, like il Rosso, Serlio, and +Primaticcio, classic elements began to dominate the general composition +and Gothic details rapidly disappeared. A simple and effective +system of exterior design was adopted in the castles and palaces of this +period. Finely moulded belt-courses at the sills and heads of the +windows marked the different stories, and were crossed by a system of +almost equally important vertical lines, formed by superposed pilasters +flanking the windows continuously from basement to roof. The façade was +crowned by a slight cornice and open balustrade, above which rose a +steep and lofty roof, diversified by elaborate dormer windows which were +<span class="pagenum">312</span> +<a name="page312" id="page312"> </a> +adorned with gables and pinnacles (<a href="#fig178">Fig. 178</a>). Slender pilasters, treated like long +panels ornamented with arabesques of great beauty, or with a species of +baluster shaft like a candelabrum, were preferred to columns, and were +provided with graceful capitals of the Corinthianesque type. The +mouldings were minute and richly carved; pediments were replaced by +steep gables, and mullioned windows with stone crossbars were used in +preference to the simpler Italian openings. In the earlier monuments +Gothic details were still used occasionally; and round corner-towers, +high dormers, and numerous turrets and pinnacles appear even in the +châteaux of later date.</p> + + +<p><b>CHURCHES.</b> Ecclesiastical architecture received but scant +attention under Francis I., and, so far as it was practised, still +clung tenaciously to Gothic principles. Among the few important churches +of this period may be mentioned <b>St. Etienne du Mont</b>, at Paris +(1517–38), in which classic and Gothic features appear in nearly +equal proportions; the east end of <b>St. Pierre</b>, at Caen, with rich +external carving; and the great parish church of <b>St. Eustache</b>, at +Paris (1532, by <i>Lemercier</i>), in which the plan and construction +are purely Gothic, while the details throughout belong to the new style, +though with little appreciation of the spirit and proportions of classic +art. New façades were also built for a number of already existing +churches, among which <b>St. Michel</b>, at Dijon, is conspicuous, with +its vast portal arch and imposing towers. The Gothic towers of Tours +cathedral were completed with Renaissance lanterns or belfries, the +northern in 1507, the southern in 1547.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig176" id="fig176"> </a> +<img src="images/fig176.jpg" width="212" height="434" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 176.—STAIRCASE TOWER, BLOIS.</p> + +<p><b>PALACES.</b> To the palace at Blois begun by his predecessor, +Francis I. added a northern and a western wing, completing the +court. The north wing is one of the masterpieces of the style, +presenting toward the court a simple and effective composition, with a +rich but slightly projecting cornice and a high roof with elaborate +dormers. This +<span class="pagenum">313</span> +<a name="page313" id="page313"> </a> +façade is divided into two unequal sections by the open <b>Staircase +Tower</b> (Fig. 176), a <i>chef-d’œuvre</i> in boldness of +construction as well as in delicacy and richness of carving. The outer +façade of this wing is a less ornate but more vigorous design, crowned +by a continuous open loggia under the roof. More extensive than Blois +was <b>Fontainebleau</b>, the favorite residence of the king and of many +of his successors. Following in parts the irregular plan of the convent +it replaced, its other portions were more symmetrically disposed, while +the whole was treated externally in a somewhat severe, semi-classic +style, singularly lacking in ornament. Internally, however, this palace, +begun in 1528 by <i>Gilles Le Breton</i>, was at that time the most +splendid in France, the gallery of Francis I. being especially +noted. The <b>Château</b> of <b>St. Germain</b>, near Paris (1539, by +<i>Pierre Chambiges</i>), is of a very different character. Built +largely of brick, with flat balustraded roof and deep buttresses +carrying three ranges of arches, it is neither Gothic nor classic, +neither fortress nor palace in aspect, but a wholly unique +conception.</p> + +<p class="illustration floatleft"> +<a name="fig177" id="fig177"> </a> +<img src="images/fig177.png" width="250" height="188" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 177.—PLAN OF CHAMBORD.<!-- invisible . --></p> + +<p>The rural châteaux and hunting-lodges erected by Francis I. +display the greatest diversity of plan and treatment, +<span class="pagenum">314</span> +<a name="page314" id="page314"> </a> +attesting the inventiveness of the French genius, expressing itself in a +new-found language, whose formal canons it disdained. Chief among them +is the <b>Château of Chambord</b> (Figs. 177, 178)—“a Fata Morgana +in the midst of a wild, woody thicket,” to use Lübke’s language. This +extraordinary edifice, resembling in plan a feudal castle with +curtain-walls, bastions, moat, and donjon, is in its architectural +treatment a palace with arcades, open-stair towers, a noble double +spiral staircase terminating in a graceful lantern, and a roof of the +most bewildering complexity of towers, chimneys, and dormers (1526, by +<i>Pierre le Nepveu</i>). The hunting-lodges of La Muette and Chalvau, +and the so-called <b>Château de Madrid</b>—all three demolished +during or since the Revolution—deserve mention, especially +<span class="pagenum">315</span> +<a name="page315" id="page315"> </a> +the last. This consisted of two rectangular pavilions, connected by a +lofty banquet-hall, and adorned externally with arcades in Florentine +style, and with medallions and reliefs of della Robbia ware (1527, by +<i>Gadyer</i>).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig178" id="fig178"> </a> +<img src="images/fig178.jpg" width="429" height="229" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 178.<!-- invisible . -->—VIEW OF CHAMBORD.</p> + + +<p><b>THE LOUVRE.</b> By far the most important of all the architectural +enterprises of this reign, in ultimate results, if not in original +extent, was the beginning of a new palace to replace the old Gothic +fortified palace of the Louvre. To this task Pierre Lescot was summoned +in 1542, and the work of erection actually begun in 1546. The new +palace, in a sumptuous and remarkably dignified classic style, was to +have covered precisely the area of the demolished fortress. Only the +southwest half, comprising two sides of the court, was, however, +undertaken at the outset (Fig. 179). It remained for later monarchs to +amplify the original scheme, and ultimately to complete, late in the +present century, the most extensive and beautiful of all the royal +residences of Europe. (See Figs. <a href="#fig181">181</a>, <a href="#fig208">208</a>, <a href="#fig209">209</a>.)</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig179" id="fig179"> </a> +<img src="images/fig179.jpg" width="263" height="358" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 179.—DETAIL OF COURT OF LOUVRE, PARIS.<!-- invisible last two +. --></p> + +<p>Want of space forbids more than a passing reference to the rural +castles of the nobility, rivalling those of the king. Among them Bury, +La Rochefoucauld, Bournazel, and +<span class="pagenum">316</span> +<a name="page316" id="page316"> </a> +especially <b>Azay-le-Rideau</b> (1520) and <b>Chenonceaux</b> +(1515–23), may be mentioned, all displaying that love of rural +pleasure, that hatred of the city and its confinement, which so +distinguish the French from the Italian Renaissance.</p> + + +<p><b>OTHER BUILDINGS.</b> The <b>Hôtel-de-Ville</b> (town hall), of +Paris, begun during this reign, from plans by <i>Domenico di Cortona</i> +(?), and completed under Henry IV., was the most important edifice of a +class which in later periods numbered many interesting structures. The +town hall of <b>Beaugency</b> (1527) is one of the best of minor public +buildings in France, and in its elegant treatment of a simple +two-storied façade may be classed with the <b>Maison +François I.</b>, at Paris. This stood formerly at Moret, whence it +was transported to Paris and re-erected about 1830 in somewhat modified +form. The large city houses of this period are legion; we can mention +only the Hôtel Carnavalet at Paris; the Hôtel Bourgtheroude at Rouen; +the Hôtel d’Écoville at Caen; the archbishop’s palace at Sens, and a +number of houses in Orléans. The <b>Tomb of Louis XII.</b>, at St. +Denis, deserves especial mention for its fine proportions and beautiful +arabesques.</p> + + +<p><b>THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE.</b> By the middle of the sixteenth +century the new style had lost much of its earlier charm. The orders, +used with increasing frequency, were more and more conformed to antique +precedents. Façades were flatter and simpler, cornices more pronounced, +arches more Roman in treatment, and a heavier style of carving took the +place of the delicate arabesques of the preceding age. The reigns of +Henry II. (1547–59) and Charles IX. (1560–74) were +especially distinguished by the labors of three celebrated architects: +<i>Pierre Lescot</i> (1515–78), who continued the work on the +southwest angle of the Louvre; <i>Jean Bullant</i> (1515–78), to +whom are due the right wing of Ecouen and the porch of colossal +Corinthian columns in the left wing of the same, built under +Francis I.; and, finally, <i>Philibert de l’Orme</i> +(1515–70). <i>Jean Goujon</i> (1510–72) also +<span class="pagenum">317</span> +<a name="page317" id="page317"> </a> +executed during this period most of the remarkable architectural +sculptures which have made his name one of the most illustrious in the +annals of French art. Chief among the works of de l’Orme was the palace +of the <b>Tuileries</b>, built under Charles IX. for Cathérine de +Médicis, not far from the Louvre, with which it was ultimately connected +by a long gallery. Of the vast plan conceived for this palace, and +comprising a succession of courts and wings, only a part of one side was +erected (1564–72). This consisted of a domical pavilion, flanked +by low wings only a story and a half high, to which were added two +stories under Henry IV., to the great advantage of the design. Another +masterpiece was the <b>Château d’Anet</b>, built in 1552 by Henry II. +for Diane de Poitiers, of which, unfortunately, only fragments survive. +This beautiful edifice, while retaining the semi-military moat and +bastions of feudal tradition, was planned with classic symmetry, adorned +with superposed orders, court arcades, and rectangular corner-pavilions, +and provided with a domical cruciform chapel, the earliest of its class +in France. All the details were unusually pure and correct, with just +enough of freedom and variety to lend a charm wanting in later works of +the period. To the reign of Henry II. belong also the châteaux of +Ancy-le-Franc, Verneuil, Chantilly (the “petit château,” by Bullant), +the banquet-hall over the bridge at Chenonceaux (1556), several notable +residences at Toulouse, and the tomb of Francis I. at St. Denis. +The châteaux of <b>Pailly</b> and <b>Sully</b>, distinguished by the +sobriety and monumental quality of their composition, in which the +orders are important elements, belong to the reign of Charles IX., +together with the Tuileries, already mentioned.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig180" id="fig180"> </a> +<img src="images/fig180.jpg" width="414" height="277" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 180.—THE LUXEMBURG, PARIS.<!-- invisible all . --></p> + +<p><b>THE CLASSIC PERIOD: HENRY IV.</b> Under this energetic but +capricious monarch (1589–1610) and his Florentine queen, Marie de +Médicis, architecture entered upon a new period of activity and a new +stage of development. Without the +<span class="pagenum">318</span> +<a name="page318" id="page318"> </a> +charm of the early Renaissance or the stateliness of the age of Louis +XIV., it has a touch of the Baroque, attributable partly to the +influence of Marie de Médicis and her Italian prelates, and partly to +the Italian training of many of the French architects. The great work of +this period was the extension of the Tuileries by <i>J. B. du +Cerceau</i>, and the completion, by <i>Métézeau</i> and others, of the +long gallery next the Seine, begun under Henry II., with the view of +connecting the Tuileries with the Louvre. In this part of the work +colossal orders were used with indifferent effect. Next in importance +was the addition to Fontainebleau of a great court to the eastward, +whose relatively quiet and dignified style offers less contrast than one +might expect to the other wings and courts dating from Francis I. +More successful architecturally than either of the above was the +<b>Luxemburg</b> palace, built for the queen by <i>Salomon De +Brosse</i>, in 1616 (Fig. 180). Its plan presents the favorite French +arrangement of a main building separated from the street +<span class="pagenum">319</span> +<a name="page319" id="page319"> </a> +by a garden or court, the latter surrounded on three sides by low wings +containing the dependencies. Externally, rusticated orders recall the +garden front of the Pitti at Florence; but the scale is smaller, and the +projecting pavilions and high roofs give it a grace and picturesqueness +wanting in the Florentine model. The <b>Place Royale</b>, at Paris, and +the château of Beaumesnil, illustrate a type of brick-and-stone +architecture much in vogue at this time, stone quoins decorating the +windows and corners, and the orders being generally omitted.</p> + +<p>Under Louis XIII. the Tuileries were extended northward and the +Louvre as built by Lescot was doubled in size by the architect +<i>Lemercier</i>, the Pavillon de l’Horloge being added to form the +centre of the enlarged court façade.</p> + + +<p><b>CHURCHES.</b> To this reign belong also the most important +churches of the period. The church of <b>St. Paul-St. Louis</b>, at +Paris (1627, by <i>Derrand</i>), displays the worst faults of the time, +in the overloaded and meaningless decoration of its uninteresting front. +Its internal dome is the earliest in Paris. Far superior was the chapel +of the <b>Sorbonne</b>, a well-designed domical church by +<i>Lemercier</i>, with a sober and appropriate exterior treated with +superposed orders.</p> + + +<p><b>PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV.</b> This was an age of remarkable literary +and artistic activity, pompous and pedantic in many of its +manifestations, but distinguished also by productions of a very high +order. Although contemporary with the Italian Baroque—Bernini +having been the guest of Louis XIV.—the architecture of this +period was free from the wild extravagances of that style. In its often +cold and correct dignity it resembled rather that of Palladio, making +large use of the orders in exterior design, and tending rather to +monotony than to overloaded decoration. In interior design there was +more of lightness and caprice. Papier-maché and stucco were freely used +in a fanciful style of relief ornamentation by scrolls, wreaths, shells, +etc., and +<span class="pagenum">320</span> +<a name="page320" id="page320"> </a> +decorative panelling was much employed. The whole was saved from +triviality only by the controlling lines of the architecture which +framed it. But it was better suited to cabinet-work or to the +prettinesses of the boudoir than to monumental interiors. The <b>Galerie +d’Apollon</b>, built during this reign over the Petite Galerie in the +Louvre, escapes this reproach, however, by the sumptuous dignity of its +interior treatment.</p> + + +<p><b>VERSAILLES.</b> This immense edifice, built about an already +existing villa of Louis XIII., was the work of <i>Levau</i> and +<i>J. H. Mansart</i> (1647–1708). Its erection, with the +laying out of its marvellous park, almost exhausted the resources of the +realm, but with results quite incommensurate with the outlay. In spite +of its vastness, its exterior is commonplace; the orders are used with +singular monotony, which is not redeemed by the deep breaks and +projections of the main front. There is no controlling or dominant +feature; there is no adequate entrance or approach; the grand staircases +are badly placed and unworthily treated, and the different elements of +the plan are combined with singular lack of the usual French sense of +monumental and rational arrangement. The chapel is by far the best +single feature in the design.</p> + +<p>Far more successful was the completion of the Louvre, in 1688, from +the designs of <i>Claude Perrault</i>, the court physician, whose plans +were fortunately adopted in preference to those of Bernini. For the east +front he designed a magnificent Corinthian colonnade nearly 600 feet +long, with coupled columns upon a plain high basement, and with a +central pediment and terminal pavilions (Fig. 181). The whole forms one +of the most imposing façades in existence; but it is a mere decoration, +having no practical relation to the building behind it. Its height +required the addition of a third story to match it on the north and +south sides of the court, which as thus completed quadrupled the +original area +<span class="pagenum">321</span> +<a name="page321" id="page321"> </a> +proposed by Lescot. Fortunately the style of Lescot’s work was retained +throughout in the court façades, while externally the colonnade was +recalled on the south front by a colossal order of pilasters. The Louvre +as completed by Louis XIV. was a stately and noble palace, as remarkable +for the surpassing excellence of the sculptures of Jean Goujon as for +the dignity and beauty of its architecture. Taken in connection with the +Tuileries, it was unrivalled by any palace in Europe except the +Vatican.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig181" id="fig181"> </a> +<img src="images/fig181.jpg" width="432" height="248" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 181.<!-- invisible . -->—COLONNADE OF LOUVRE.</p> + + +<p><b>OTHER BUILDINGS.</b> To Louis XIV. is also due the vast but +uninteresting <b>Hôtel des Invalides</b> or veteran’s asylum, at Paris, +by J. H. Mansart. To the chapel of this institution was added, in +1680–1706, the celebrated <b>Dome</b> of the Invalides, +a masterpiece by the same architect. In plan it somewhat resembles +Bramante’s scheme for St. Peter’s—a Greek cross with domical +chapels in the four angles and a dome over the centre. The exterior +(Fig. 182), with the lofty gilded dome on a high drum adorned with +engaged columns, is somewhat high for its breadth, but is a +<span class="pagenum">322</span> +<a name="page322" id="page322"> </a> +harmonious and impressive design; and the interior, if somewhat cold, is +elegant and well proportioned. The chief innovation in the design was +the wide separation of the interior stone dome from the lofty exterior +decorative cupola and lantern of wood, this separation being designed to +meet the conflicting demands of internal and external effect. To the +same architect is due the formal monotony of the <b>Place Vendôme</b>, +all the houses surrounding it being treated with a uniform architecture +of colossal pilasters, at once monumental and inappropriate. One of the +most pleasing designs of the time is the <b>Château de Maisons</b> +(1658), by <i>F. Mansart</i>, uncle of J. H. Mansart. In this +the proportions of the central and terminal pavilions, the mass and +lines of the steep roof <i>à la Mansarde</i>, the simple and +effective use of the orders, and the refinement of all the details +impart a grace of aspect rare in contemporary works. The same qualities +appear also in the <b>Val-de-Grâce</b>, by F. Mansart and +Lemercier, a domical church of excellent proportions begun under +Louis XIII. The want of space forbids mention of other buildings of this +period.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig182" id="fig182"> </a> +<img src="images/fig182.jpg" width="263" height="459" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 182.—DOME OF THE INVALIDES.<!-- invisible last two . --></p> + + +<span class="pagenum">323</span> +<a name="page323" id="page323"> </a> +<p><b>THE DECLINE.</b> Under Louis XV. the pedantry of the classic +period gave place to a protracted struggle between license and the +severest classical correctness. The exterior designs of this time were +often even more uninteresting and bare than under Louis XIV.; while, on +the other hand, interior decoration tended to the extreme of +extravagance and disregard of constructive propriety. Contorted lines +and crowded scrolls, shells, and palm-leaves adorned the mantelpieces, +cornices, and ceilings, to the almost complete suppression of straight +lines.</p> + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig183" id="fig183"> </a> +<img src="images/fig183.jpg" width="256" height="295" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 183.—FAÇADE OF ST. SULPICE, PARIS.</p> + +<p>While these tendencies prevailed in many directions, +a counter-current of severe classicism manifested itself in the +designs of a number of important public buildings, in which it was +sought to copy the grandeur of the old Roman colonnades and arcades. The +important church of <b>St. Sulpice</b> at Paris (Fig. 183) is an +excellent example of this. Its interior, dating from the preceding +century, is well designed, but in no wise a remarkable composition, +following Italian models. The façade, added in 1755 by +<i>Servandoni</i>, is, on the other hand, one of the most striking +architectural objects in the city. It is a correct and well proportioned +classic composition in two stories—an Ionic arcade over a Doric +colonnade, surmounted by two lateral turrets. Other monuments of this +classic revival will be noticed in Chapter XXV.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">324</span> +<a name="page324" id="page324"> </a> +<p><b>PUBLIC SQUARES.</b> Much attention was given to the embellishment +of open spaces in the cities, for which the classic style was admirably +suited. The most important work of this kind was that on the north side +of the Place de la Concorde, Paris. This splendid square, perhaps, on +the whole, the finest in Europe (though many of its best features belong +to a later date), was at this time adorned with the two monumental +colonnades by <i>Gabriel</i>. These colonnades, which form the +decorative fronts for blocks of houses, deserve praise for the beauty of +their proportions, as well as for the excellent treatment of the arcade +on which they rest, and of the pavilions at the ends.</p> + + +<p><b>IN GENERAL.</b> French Renaissance architecture is marked by good +proportions and harmonious and appropriate detail. Its most interesting +phase was unquestionably that of Francis I., so far, at least, as +concerns exterior design. It steadily progressed, however, in its +mastery of planning; and in its use of projecting pavilions crowned by +dominant masses of roof, it succeeded in preserving, even in severely +classic designs, a picturesqueness and variety otherwise +impossible. Roofs, dormers, chimneys, and staircases it treated with +especial success; and in these matters, as well as in monumental +dispositions of plan, the French have largely retained their +pre-eminence to our own day.</p> + + +<div class="monuments"> + +<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> (Mainly supplementary to text. Ch. = château; +P. = palace; C. = cathedral; Chu. = church; H. = hôtel; +T.H. = town hall.)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Transition</span>: Blois, E. wing, 1499; +Ch. Meillant; Ch. Chaumont; T.H. Amboise, 1502–05.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Francis I.</span>: Ch. Nantouillet, +1517–25; Ch. Blois, W. wing (afterward demolished) and +N. wing, 1520–30; H. Lallemant, Bourges, 1520; Ch. +Villers-Cotterets, 1520–59; P. of Archbishop, Sens, +1521–35; P. Fontainebleau (Cour Ovale, Cour d’Adieux, Gallery +Francis I., 1527–34; Peristyle, Chapel St. Saturnin, +1540–47, by <i>Gilles le Breton</i>; Cour du Cheval Blanc, +1527–31, by <i>P. Chambiges</i>); H. Bernuy, Toulouse, +1528–39; P. Granvelle, Besançon, 1532–40; T.H. Niort, +T.H. Loches, 1532–43: H. de Ligeris (Carnavalet), Paris, +1544, by <i>P. Lescot</i>; churches of Gisors, +<span class="pagenum">325</span> +<a name="page325" id="page325"> </a> +nave and façade, 1530; La Dalbade, Toulouse, portal, 1530; St. +Symphorien Tours, 1531; Chu. Tillières, 1534–46.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Advanced Renaissance</span>: Fontaine des +Innocents, Paris, 1547–50, by <i>P. Lescot</i> and +<i>J. Goujon</i>; tomb Francis I., at St. Denis, 1555, by +<i>Ph. de l’Orme</i>; H. Catelan, Toulouse, 1555; tomb Henry II., +at St. Denis, 1560; portal S. Michel, Dijon, 1564; Ch. Sully, 1567; +T.H. Arras, 1573; P. Fontainebleau (Cour du Cheval Blanc +remodelled, 1564–66, by <i>P. Girard</i>; Cour de la +Fontaine, same date); T.H. Besançon, 1582; Ch. Charleval, 1585, by, +<i>J. B. du Cerceau</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Style of Henry IV.</span>: +P. Fontainebleau (Galerie des Cerfs, Chapel of the Trinity, +Baptistery, etc.); P. Tuileries (Pav. de Flore, by <i>du +Cerceau</i>, 1590–1610; long gallery continued); Hôtel Vogüé, at +Dijon, 1607; Place Dauphine, Paris, 1608; P. de Justice, Paris, +Great Hall, by <i>S. de Brosse</i>, 1618; H. Sully, Paris, +1624–39; P. Royal, Paris, by <i>J. Lemercier</i>, for +Cardinal Richelieu, 1627–39; P. Louvre doubled in size, by +the same; P. Tuileries (N. wing, and Pav. Marsan, long gallery +completed); H. Lambert, Paris; T.H. Reims, 1627; Ch. Blois, +W. wing for Gaston d’Orléans, by <i>F. Mansart</i>, 1635; +façade St. Étienne du Mont, Paris, 1610; of St. Gervais, Paris, +1616–21, by <i>S. de Brosse</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Style of Louis XIV.</span>: T.H. Lyons, +1646; P. Louvre, E. colonnade and court completed, +1660–70; Tuileries altered by Le Vau, 1664; observatory at Paris, +1667–72; arch of St. Denis, Paris, 1672, by <i>Blondel</i>; Arch +of St. Martin, 1674, by <i>Bullet</i>; Banque de France, H. de +Luyne, H. Soubise, all in Paris; Ch. Chantilly; Ch. de Tanlay; +P. St. Cloud; Place des Victoires, 1685; Chu. St. Sulpice, Paris, +by <i>Le Vau</i> (façade, 1755); Chu. St. Roch, Paris, 1653, by +<i>Lemercier</i> and <i>de Cotte</i>; Notre Dame des Victoires, Paris, +1656, by <i>Le Muet</i> and <i>Bruant</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">The Decline</span>: P. Bourbon, 1722; +T.H. Rouen; Halle aux Blés (recently demolished), 1748; École Militaire, +1752–58, by <i>Gabriel</i>; P. Louvre, court completed, 1754, +by the same; Madeleine begun, 1764; H. des Monnaies (Mint), by +<i>Antoine</i>; École de Médecine, 1774, by <i>Gondouin</i>; +P. Royal, Great Court, 1784, by <i>Louis</i>; Théâtre Français, +1784 (all the above at Paris); Grand Théâtre, Bordeaux, 1785–1800, +by <i>Louis</i>; Préfecture at Bordeaux, by the same; Ch. de Compiegne, +1770, by <i>Gabriel</i>; P. Versailles, theatre by the same; +H. Montmorency, Soubise, de Varennes, and the Petit Luxembourg, all +at Paris, by <i>de Cotte</i>; public squares at Nancy, Bordeaux, +Valenciennes, Rennes, Reims.</p> + +</div> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">326</span> +<a name="page326" id="page326"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXXIII" id="chapXXIII">CHAPTER XXIII.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, +Fergusson, Palustre. Also, Belcher and Macartney, <i>Later Renaissance +Architecture in England</i>. Billings, <i>Baronial and Ecclesiastical +Antiquities of Scotland</i>. Blomfield, <i>A Short History of +Renaissance Architecture in England</i>. Britton, <i>Architectural +Antiquities of Great Britain</i>. Ewerbeck, <i>Die Renaissance in +Belgien und Holland</i>. Galland, <i>Geschichte der Hollandischen +Baukunst im Zeitalter der Renaissance</i>. Gotch and Brown, +<i>Architecture of the Renaissance in England</i>. Loftie, <i>Inigo +Jones and Wren</i>. Nash, <i>Mansions of England</i>. Papworth, +<i>Renaissance and Italian Styles of Architecture in Great Britain</i>. +Richardson, <i>Architectural Remains of the Reigns of Elizabeth and +James I.</i> Schayes, <i>Histoire de l’architecture en +Belgique</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>THE TRANSITION.</b> The architectural activity of the sixteenth +century in England was chiefly devoted to the erection of vast country +mansions for the nobility and wealthy <i>bourgeoisie</i>. In these +seignorial residences a degenerate form of the Gothic, known as the +Tudor style, was employed during the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry +VIII., and they still retained much of the feudal aspect of the Middle +Ages. This style, with its broad, square windows and ample halls, was +well suited to domestic architecture, as well as to collegiate +buildings, of which a considerable number were erected at this time. +Among the more important palaces and manor-houses of this period are the +earlier parts of Hampton Court, Haddon and Hengreave Halls, and the now +ruined castles of Raglan and Wolterton.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig184" id="fig184"> </a> +<img src="images/fig184.jpg" width="405" height="300" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 184.—BURGHLEY HOUSE.</p> + +<p><b>ELIZABETHAN STYLE.</b> Under Elizabeth (1558–1603) the +progress of classic culture and the employment of Dutch +<span class="pagenum">327</span> +<a name="page327" id="page327"> </a> +and Italian artists led to a gradual introduction of Renaissance forms, +which, as in France, were at first mingled with others of Gothic origin. +Among the foreign artists in England were the versatile Holbein, Trevigi +and Torregiano from Italy, and Theodore Have, Bernard Jansen, and Gerard +Chrismas from Holland. The pointed arch disappeared, and the orders +began to be used as subordinate features in the decoration of doors, +windows, chimneys, and mantels. Open-work balustrades replaced +externally the heavy Tudor battlements, and a peculiar style of carving +in flat relief-patterns, resembling <i>appliqué</i> designs cut out with +the jigsaw and attached by nails or rivets, was applied with little +judgment to all possible features. Ceilings were commonly finished in +plaster, with elaborate interlacing patterns in low relief; and this, +with the increasing use of interior woodwork, gave to the mansions of +this time a more homelike but less monumental aspect internally. English +<span class="pagenum">328</span> +<a name="page328" id="page328"> </a> +architects, like Smithson and Thorpe, now began to win the patronage at +first monopolized by foreigners. In <b>Wollaton Hall</b> (1580), by +Smithson, the orders were used for the main composition with mullioned +windows, much after the fashion of <b>Longleat House</b>, completed a +year earlier by his master, John of Padua. During the following period, +however (1590–1610), there was a reaction toward the Tudor +practice, and the orders were again relegated to subordinate uses. Of +their more monumental employment, the <b>Gate of Honor</b> of Caius +College, Cambridge, is one of the earliest examples. Hardwicke and +Charlton Halls, and Burghley, Hatfield, and Holland Houses (Fig. 184), +are noteworthy monuments of the style.</p> + + +<p><b>JACOBEAN STYLE.</b> During the reign of James I. +(1603–25), details of classic origin came into more general use, +but caricatured almost beyond recognition. The orders, though much +employed, were treated without correctness or grace, and the ornament +was unmeaning and heavy. It is not worth while to dwell further upon +this style, which produced no important public buildings, and soon gave +way to a more rigid classicism.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig185" id="fig185"> </a> +<img src="images/fig185.jpg" width="259" height="286" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 185.—BANQUETING HALL, WHITEHALL.</p> + +<p><b>CLASSIC PERIOD.</b> If the classic style was late in its +appearance in England, its final sway was complete and long-lasting. It +was <i>Inigo Jones</i> (1572–1652) who first introduced the +correct and monumental style of the Italian masters of classic design. +For Palladio, indeed, he seems to have entertained a sort of veneration, +and the villa which he designed at Chiswick was a reduced copy of +Palladio’s Villa Capra, near Vicenza. This and other works of his show a +failure to appreciate the unsuitability of Italian conceptions to the +climate and tastes of Great Britain; his efforts to popularize Palladian +architecture, without the resources which Palladio controlled in the way +of decorative sculpture and painting, were consequently not always happy +in their results. His greatest work was the design +<span class="pagenum">329</span> +<a name="page329" id="page329"> </a> +for a new <b>Palace at Whitehall</b>, London. Of this colossal scheme, +which, if completed, would have ranked as the grandest palace of the +time, only the <b>Banqueting Hall</b> (now used as a museum) was ever +built (Fig. 185). It is an effective composition in two stories, +rusticated throughout and adorned with columns and pilasters, and +contains a fine vaulted hall in three aisles. The plan of the palace, +which was to have measured 1,152 × 720 feet, was excellent, largely +conceived and carefully studied in its details, but it was wholly beyond +the resources of the kingdom. The garden-front of <b>Somerset House</b> +(1632; demolished) had the same qualities of simplicity and dignity, +recalling the works of Sammichele. Wilton House, Coleshill, the Villa at +Chiswick, and St. Paul’s, Covent Garden, are the best known of his +works, showing him to have been a designer of ability, but hardly of the +consummate genius which his admirers attribute to him.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig186" id="fig186"> </a> +<img src="images/fig186.png" width="153" height="278" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 186.—PLAN OF ST. PAUL’S, LONDON.</p> + +<p><b>ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL.</b> The greatest of Jones’s successors was +<i>Sir Christopher Wren</i> (1632–1723), principally known as the +architect of <b>St. Paul’s Cathedral</b>, London, built to replace the +earlier Gothic cathedral destroyed in the great fire of 1666. It was +begun in 1675, and its designer had the rare good fortune to witness its +completion in 1710. The plan, as finally adopted, retained the general +<span class="pagenum">330</span> +<a name="page330" id="page330"> </a> +proportions of an English Gothic church, measuring 480 feet in length, +with transepts 250 feet long, and a grand rotunda 108 feet in diameter +at the crossing (Fig. 186). The style was strictly Italian, treated with +sobriety and dignity, if somewhat lacking in variety and inspiration. +Externally two stories of the Corinthian order appear, the upper story +being merely a screen to hide the clearstory and its buttresses. This is +an architectural deception, not atoned for by any special beauty of +detail. The dominant feature of the design is the dome over the central +area. It consists of an inner shell, reaching a height of 216 feet, +above which rises the exterior dome of wood, surmounted by a stone +lantern, the summit of which is 360 feet from the pavement (Fig. 187). +This exterior dome, springing from a high drum surrounded by a +magnificent peristyle, gives to the otherwise commonplace exterior of +the cathedral a signal majesty of effect. Next to the dome the most +successful part of the design is the west front, with its two-storied +porch and flanking bell-turrets. Internally the excessive relative +length, especially that of the choir, detracts from the effect of the +dome, and the poverty of detail gives the whole a somewhat bare aspect. +It is intended to relieve this ultimately by a systematic use of mosaic +decoration, especially in the dome. The central area itself, in spite of +the awkward treatment of the four smaller arches of the eight which +support the dome, is a noble design, occupying the whole width of the +three aisles, like the Octagon at Ely, and producing a striking effect +of amplitude +<span class="pagenum">331</span> +<a name="page331" id="page331"> </a> +and grandeur. The dome above it is constructively interesting from the +employment of a cone of brick masonry to support the stone lantern which +rises above the exterior wooden shell. The lower part of the cone forms +the drum of the inner dome, its contraction upward being intended to +produce a perspective illusion of increased height.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig187" id="fig187"> </a> +<img src="images/fig187.jpg" width="430" height="323" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 187.<!-- invisible . -->—EXTERIOR OF ST. PAUL’S +CATHEDRAL.</p> + +<p>St. Paul’s ranks among the five <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘of’">or</ins> six greatest domical buildings of Europe, and +is the most imposing modern edifice in England.</p> + + +<p><b>WREN’S OTHER WORKS.</b> Wren was conspicuously successful in the +designing of parish churches in London. <b>St. Stephen’s</b>, Walbrook, +is the most admired of these, with a dome resting on eight columns. Wren +may be called the inventor of the English Renaissance type of steeple, +in which a conical or pyramidal spire is harmoniously added +<span class="pagenum">332</span> +<a name="page332" id="page332"> </a> +to a belfry on a square tower with classic details. The steeple of +<b>Bow Church</b>, Cheapside, is the most successful example of the +type. In secular architecture Wren’s most important works were the plan +for rebuilding London after the Great Fire; the new courtyard of Hampton +Court, a quiet and dignified composition in brick and stone; the +pavilions and colonnade of <b>Greenwich Hospital</b>; the Sheldonian +Theatre at Oxford, and the Trinity College Library at Cambridge. Without +profound originality, these works testify to the sound good taste and +intelligence of their designer.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig188" id="fig188"> </a> +<img src="images/fig188.png" width="245" height="170" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 188.—PLAN OF BLENHEIM.<!-- invisible . --><br> +<a class="closeup" href="images/fig188_large.png" target="_blank"> +Larger View</a></p> + +<p><b>THE 18TH CENTURY.</b> The Anglo-Italian style as used by Jones and +Wren continued in use through the eighteenth century, during the first +half of which a number of important country-seats and some churches were +erected. <i>Van Brugh</i> (1666–1726), <i>Hawksmoor</i> +(1666–1736), and <i>Gibbs</i> (1683–1751) were then the +leading architects. Van Brugh was especially skilful in his dispositions +of plan and mass, and produced in the designs of Blenheim and Castle +Howard effects of grandeur and variety of perspective hardly equalled by +any of his contemporaries in France or Italy. <b>Blenheim</b>, with its +monumental plan and the sweeping curves of its front (Fig. 188), has an +unusually palatial aspect, though the striving for picturesqueness is +carried too far. Castle Howard is simpler, depending largely for effect +on a somewhat inappropriate dome. To Hawksmoor, his pupil, are due +<b>St. Mary’s, Woolnoth</b> (1715), at London, in which by a bold +rustication of the whole exterior and by windows set in +<span class="pagenum">333</span> +<a name="page333" id="page333"> </a> +large recessed arches he was enabled to dispense wholly with the orders; +St. George’s, Bloomsbury; the new quadrangle of All Souls at Oxford, and +some minor works. The two most noted designs of James Gibbs are <b>St. +Martin’s-in-the-Fields</b>, at London (1726), and the <b>Radcliffe +Library</b>, at Oxford (1747). In the former the use of a Corinthian +portico—a practically uncalled-for but decorative +appendage—and of a steeple mounted on the roof, with no visible +lines of support from the ground, are open to criticism. But the +excellence of the proportions, and the dignity and appropriateness of +the composition, both internally and externally, go far to redeem these +defects (Fig. 189). The Radcliffe Library is a circular domical hall +surrounded by a lower circuit of alcoves and rooms, the whole treated +with straightforward simplicity and excellent proportions. Colin +Campbell, Flitcroft, Kent and Wood, contemporaries of Gibbs, may be +dismissed with passing mention.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig189" id="fig189"> </a> +<img src="images/fig189.jpg" width="225" height="382" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 189.—ST. MARTIN’S-IN-THE-FIELDS, LONDON.<!-- invisible . +--></p> + +<p><i>Sir William Chambers</i> (1726–96) was the greatest of the +later 18th-century architects. His fame rests chiefly on his <i>Treatise +on Civil Architecture</i>, and the extension and remodelling of +<b>Somerset House</b>, in which he retained the general +<i>ordonnance</i> of Inigo Jones’s design, adapting it to a +<span class="pagenum">334</span> +<a name="page334" id="page334"> </a> +frontage of some 600 feet. <i>Robert <ins class="correction" title="consistent error for ‘Adam’">Adams</ins></i>, the designer of +Keddlestone Hall, <i>Robert Taylor</i> (1714–88), the architect of +the Bank of England, and <i>George Dance</i>, who designed the Mansion +House and Newgate Prison, at London—the latter a vigorous and +appropriate composition without the orders—close the list of noted +architects of the eighteenth century. It was a period singularly wanting +in artistic creativeness and spontaneity; its productions were nearly +all dull and respectable, or at best dignified, but without charm.</p> + + +<p><b>BELGIUM.</b> As in all other countries where the late Gothic style +had been highly developed, Belgium was slow to accept the principles of +the Renaissance in art. Long after the dawn of the sixteenth century the +Flemish architects continued to employ their highly florid Gothic alike +for churches and town-halls, with which they chiefly had to do. The +earliest Renaissance buildings date from 1530–40, among them being +the Hôtel du Saumon, at Malines, at Bruges the Ancien Greffe, by <i>Jean +Wallot</i>, and at Liège the <b>Archbishop’s Palace</b>, by +<i>Borset</i>. The last named, in the singular and capricious form of +the arches and baluster-like columns of its court, reveals the taste of +the age for what was <i>outré</i> and odd; a taste partly due, no +doubt, to Spanish influences, as Belgium was in reality from 1506 to +1712 a Spanish province, and there was more or less interchange of +artists between the two countries. The <b>Hôtel de Ville</b>, at +Antwerp, by <i>Cornelius de Vriendt</i> or <i>Floris</i> +(1518–75), erected in 1565, is the most important monument of the +Renaissance in Belgium. Its façade, 305 feet long and 102 feet high, in +four stories, is an impressive creation in spite of its somewhat +monotonous fenestration and the inartistic repetition in the third story +of the composition and proportions of the second. The basement story +forms an open arcade, and an open colonnade or loggia runs along under +the roof, thus imparting to the composition a considerable play of light +and shade, enhanced by the picturesque +<span class="pagenum">335</span> +<a name="page335" id="page335"> </a> +central pavilion which rises to a height of six stories in diminishing +stages. The style is almost Palladian in its severity, but in general +the Flemish architects disdained the restrictions of classic canons, +preferring a more florid and fanciful effect than could be obtained by +mere combinations of Roman columns, arches, and entablatures. De +Vriendt’s other works were mostly designs for altars, tabernacles and +the like; among them the rood screen in Tournay Cathedral. His influence +may be traced in the Hôtel<!-- invisible accent --> de Ville at Flushing +(1594).</p> + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig190" id="fig190"> </a> +<img src="images/fig190.jpg" width="230" height="312" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 190.—RENAISSANCE HOUSES, BRUSSELS.</p> + +<p>The ecclesiastical architecture of the Flemish Renaissance is almost +as destitute of important monuments as is the secular. <b>Ste. Anne</b>, +at Bruges, fairly illustrates the type, which is characterized in +general by heaviness of detail and a cold and bare aspect internally. +The Renaissance in Belgium is best exemplified, after all, by minor +works and ordinary dwellings, many of which have considerable artistic +grace, though they are quaint rather than monumental (Fig. 190). Stepped +gables, high dormers, and volutes flanking each diminishing stage of the +design, give a certain piquancy to the street architecture of the +period.</p> + + +<p><b>HOLLAND.</b> Except in the domain of realistic painting, the Dutch +have never manifested pre-eminent artistic endowments, and the +Renaissance produced in Holland few monuments of consequence. It began +there, as in many +<span class="pagenum">336</span> +<a name="page336" id="page336"> </a> +other places, with minor works in the churches, due largely to Flemish +or Italian artists. About the middle of the 16th century two native +architects, <i>Sebastian van Noye</i> and <i>William van Noort</i>, +first popularized the use of carved pilasters and of gables or steep +pediments adorned with carved scallop-shells, in remote imitation of the +style of Francis I. The principal monuments of the age were +town-halls, and, after the war of independence in which the yoke of +Spain was finally broken (1566–79), local administrative +buildings—mints, exchanges and the like. The <b>Town Hall</b> of +<b>The Hague</b> (1565), with its stepped gable or great dormer, its +consoles, statues, and octagonal turrets, may be said to have +inaugurated the style generally followed after the war. Owing to the +lack of stone, brick was almost universally employed, and stone imported +by sea was only used in edifices of exceptional cost and importance. Of +these the <b>Town Hall</b> at Amsterdam holds the first place. Its +façade is of about the same dimensions as the one at Antwerp, but +compares unfavorably with it in its monotony and want of interest. The +<b>Leyden Town Hall</b>, by the Fleming, <i>Lieven de Key</i> (1597), +the Bourse or Exchange and the Hanse House at Amsterdam, by <i>Hendrik +de Keyser</i>, are also worthy of mention, though many lesser buildings, +built of brick combined with enamelled terra-cotta and stone, possess +quite as much artistic merit.</p> + + +<p><b>DENMARK.</b> In Denmark the monuments of the Renaissance may +almost be said to be confined to the reign of Christian IV. +(1588–1648), and do not include a single church of any importance. +The royal castles of the <b>Rosenborg</b> at Copenhagen (1610) and the +<b>Fredericksborg</b> (1580–1624), the latter by a Dutch +architect, are interesting and picturesque in mass, with their fanciful +gables, mullioned windows and numerous turrets, but can hardly lay claim +to beauty of detail or purity of style. The Exchange at Copenhagen, +built of brick and stone in the same general +<span class="pagenum">337</span> +<a name="page337" id="page337"> </a> +style (1619–40), is still less interesting both in mass and +detail.</p> + +<p>The only other important Scandinavian monument deserving of special +mention in so brief a sketch as this is the <b>Royal Palace</b> at +<b>Stockholm</b>, Sweden (1698–1753), due to a foreign architect, +<i>Nicodemus de Tessin</i>. It is of imposing dimensions, and although +simple in external treatment, it merits praise for the excellent +disposition of its plan, its noble court, imposing entrances, and the +general dignity and appropriateness of its architecture.</p> + + +<div class="monuments"> +<p><b>MONUMENTS</b> (in addition to those mentioned in text). <span +class="smallcaps">England, Tudor Style</span>: Several palaces by +Henry VIII., no longer extant; Westwood, later rebuilt; Gosfield Hall; +Harlaxton.—<span class="smallcaps">Elizabethan</span>: +Buckhurst, 1565; Kirby House, 1570, both by Thorpe; Caius College, +1570–75, by Theodore Have; “The Schools,” Oxford, by Thomas Holt, +1600; Beaupré Castle, 1600.—<span class="smallcaps">Jacobean</span>: Tombs of Mary of Scotland and of Elizabeth +in Westminster Abbey; Audsley Inn; Bolsover Castle, 1613; Heriot’s +Hospital, Edinburgh, 1628.—<span class="smallcaps">Classic</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Anglo-Italian</span>: St. John’s College, Oxford; Queen’s +House, Greenwich; Coleshill; all by Inigo Jones, 1620–51; +Amesbury, by Webb; Combe Abbey; Buckingham and Montague Houses; The +Monument, London, 1670, by Wren; Temple Bar, by the same; Winchester +Palace, 1683; Chelsea College; Towers of Westminster Abbey, 1696; St. +Clement Dane’s; St. James’s, Westminster; St. Peter’s, Cornhill, and +many others, all by Wren.—<span class="smallcaps">18th +Century</span>: Seaton Delaval and Grimsthorpe, by Van Brugh; Wanstead +House, by Colin Campbell; Treasury Buildings, by Kent.</p> + +<p>The most important Renaissance buildings of <span class="smallcaps">Belgium</span> and <span class="smallcaps">Holland</span> +have been mentioned in the text.</p> +</div> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">338</span> +<a name="page338" id="page338"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXXIV" id="chapXXIV">CHAPTER XXIV.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, +Fergusson, Palustre Also, von Bezold, <i>Die Baukunst der Renaissance in +Deutschland, Holland, Belgien und Dänemark</i> <!-- invisible umlaut --> +(in <i>Hdbuch. d. Arch.</i>). Caveda (tr. Kugler), <i>Geschichte der +Baukunst in Spanien</i>. Fritsch, <i>Denkmäler der deutschen +Renaissance</i> (plates). Junghändel, <i>Die Baukunst Spaniens</i>. +Lambert und Stahl, <i>Motive der deutschen Architektur</i>. Lübke, +<i>Geschichte der Renaissance in Deutschland</i>. Prentice, +<i>Renaissance Architecture and Ornament in Spain</i>. Uhde, +<i>Baudenkmäler in Spanien</i>. Verdier et Cattois, <i>Architecture +civile et domestique</i>. Villa Amil, <i>Hispania Artistica y +Monumental</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>AUSTRIA</b>; <b>BOHEMIA</b>. The earliest appearance of the +Renaissance in the architecture of the German states was in the eastern +provinces. Before the close of the fifteenth century Florentine and +Milanese architects were employed in Austria, Bohemia, and the Tyrol, +where there are a number of palaces and chapels in an unmixed Italian +style. The portal of the castle of Mahrisch-Trübau dates from 1492; +while to the early years of the 16th century belong a cruciform chapel +at Gran, the remodelling of the castle at Cracow, and the chapel of the +Jagellons in the same city—the earliest domical structure of the +German Renaissance, though of Italian design. The <b>Schloss Porzia</b> +(1510), at Spital in Carinthia, is a fine quadrangular palace, +surrounding a court with arcades on three sides, in which the open +stairs form a picturesque interruption with their rampant arches. But +for the massiveness of the details it might be a Florentine palace. In +addition to this, the famous <b>Arsenal</b> at Wiener-Neustadt (1524), +the portal of the Imperial +<span class="pagenum">339</span> +<a name="page339" id="page339"> </a> +Palace (1552), and the <b>Castle Schalaburg</b> on the Danube +(1530–1601), are attributed to Italian architects, to whom must +also be ascribed a number of important works at Prague. Chief among +these the <b>Belvedere</b> (1536, by <i>Paolo della Stella</i>), +a rectangular building surrounded by a graceful open arcade, above +which it rises with a second story crowned by a curved roof; the +Waldstein Palace (1621–29), by <i>Giov. Marini</i>, with its +imposing loggia; <b>Schloss Stern</b>, built on the plan of a +six-pointed star (1459–1565) and embellished by Italian artists +with stucco ornaments and frescoes; and parts of the palace on the +Hradschin, by <i>Scamozzi</i>, attest the supremacy of Italian art in +Bohemia. The same is true of Styria, Carinthia, and the Tyrol; +<i>e.g.</i> <b>Schloss Ambras</b> at Innsbrück (1570).</p> + + +<p><b>GERMANY: PERIODS.</b> The earliest manifestation of the +Renaissance in what is now the German Empire, appeared in the works of +painters like Dürer and Burkmair, and in occasional buildings previous +to 1525. The real transformation of German architecture, however, hardly +began until after the Peace of Augsburg, in 1555. From that time on its +progress was rapid, its achievements being almost wholly in the domain +of secular architecture—princely and ducal castles, town halls or +<i>Rathhäuser</i>, <!-- invisible umlaut --> and houses of wealthy +burghers or corporations. It is somewhat singular that the German +emperors should not have undertaken the construction of a new imperial +residence on a worthy scale, the palaces of Munich and Berlin being +aggregations of buildings of various dates about a nucleus of mediæval +origin, and with no single portion to compare with the stately châteaux +of the French kings. Church architecture was neglected, owing to the +Reformation, which turned to its own uses the existing churches, while +the Roman Catholics were too impoverished to replace the edifices they +had lost.</p> + +<p>The periods of the German Renaissance are less well +<span class="pagenum">340</span> +<a name="page340" id="page340"> </a> +marked than those of the French; but its successive developments follow +the same general progression, divided into three stages:</p> + +<p>I. <span class="smallcaps">The Early Renaissance</span>, +1525–1600, in which the orders were infrequently used, mainly for +porches and for gable decoration. The conceptions and spirit of most +monuments were still strongly tinged with Gothic feeling.</p> + +<p>II. <span class="smallcaps">The Late Renaissance</span>, +1600–1675, characterized by a dry, heavy treatment, in which too +often neither the fanciful gayety of the previous period nor the simple +and monumental dignity of classic design appears. Broken curves, large +scrolls, obelisks, and a style of flat relief carving resembling the +Elizabethan are common. Occasional monuments exhibit a more correct and +classic treatment after Italian models.</p> + +<p>III. <span class="smallcaps">The Decline or Baroque Period</span>, +1675–1800, employing the orders in a style of composition +oscillating between the extremes of bareness and of Rococo +over-decoration. The ornament partakes of the character of the Louis XV. +and Italian Jesuit styles, being most successful in interior decoration, +but externally running to the extreme of unrestrained fancy.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig191" id="fig191"> </a> +<img src="images/fig191.jpg" width="259" height="453" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 191.—SCHLOSS HÄMELSCHENBURG.<!-- invisible umlaut --></p> + +<p><b>CHARACTERISTICS.</b> In none of these periods do we meet with the +sober, monumental treatment of the Florentine or Roman schools. +A love of picturesque variety in masses and sky-lines, inherited +from mediæval times, appears in the high roofs, stepped gables and lofty +dormers which are universal. The roofs often comprise several stories, +and are lighted by lofty gables at either end, and by dormers carried up +from the side walls through two or three stories. Gables and dormers +alike are built in diminishing stages, each step adorned with a console +or scroll, and the whole treated with pilasters or colonnettes and +entablatures breaking over each support (Fig. 191). These roofs, +dormers, and gables contribute the most noticeable element to the +general +<span class="pagenum">341</span> +<a name="page341" id="page341"> </a> +effect of most German Renaissance buildings, and are commonly the +best-designed features in them. The orders are scantily used and usually +treated with utter disregard of classic canons, being generally far too +massive and overloaded with ornament. Oriels, bay-windows, and turrets, +starting from corbels or colonnettes, or rarely from the ground, +diversify the façade, and spires of curious bulbous patterns give added +piquancy to the picturesque sky-line. The plans seldom had the +monumental symmetry and largeness of Italian and French models; +courtyards were often irregular in shape and diversified with balconies +and spiral staircase-turrets. The national leaning was always toward the +quaint and fantastic, as well in the decoration as in the composition. +Grotesques, caryatids, <i>gaînes</i> (half-figures terminating below in +sheath-like supports), fanciful rustication, and many other details give +a touch of the Baroque even to works of early date. The same principles +were applied with better success to interior decoration, especially in +the large halls of +<span class="pagenum">342</span> +<a name="page342" id="page342"> </a> +the castles and town-halls, and many of their ceilings were sumptuous +and well-considered designs, deeply panelled, painted and gilded in wood +or plaster.</p> + + +<p><b>CASTLES.</b> The <i>Schloss</i> or <i>Burg</i> of the German +prince or duke retained throughout the Renaissance many mediæval +characteristics in plan and aspect. A large proportion of these +noble residences were built upon foundations of demolished feudal +castles, reproducing in a new dress the ancient round towers and vaulted +guard-rooms and halls, as in the Hartenfels at Torgau, the Heldburg +(both in Saxony), and the castle of Trausnitz, in Bavaria, among many +others. The <b>Castle</b> at <b>Torgau</b> (1540) is one of the most +imposing of its class, with massive round and square towers showing +externally, and court façades full of picturesque irregularities. In the +great <b>Castle</b> at <b>Dresden</b> the plan is more symmetrical, and +the Renaissance appears more distinctly in the details of the +Georgenflügel (1530–50), though at that early date the classic +orders were almost ignored. The portal of the Heldburg, however, built +in 1562, is a composition quite in the contemporary French vein, with +superposed orders and a crowning pediment over a massive basement.</p> + +<p>Another important series of castles or palaces are of more regular +design, in which the feudal traditions tend to disappear. The majority +belong to the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. They +are built around large rectangular courts with arcades in two or three +stories on one or more sides, but rarely surrounding it entirely. In +these the segmental arch is more common than the semicircular, and +springs usually from short and stumpy Ionic or Corinthian columns. The +rooms and halls are arranged <i>en suite</i>, without corridors, and a +large and lofty banquet hall forms the dominant feature of the series. +The earliest of these regularly planned palaces are of Italian design. +Chief among them is the <b>Residenz</b> at <b>Landshut</b> +(1536–43), +<span class="pagenum">343</span> +<a name="page343" id="page343"> </a> +with a thoroughly Roman plan, by pupils of Giulio Romano, and exterior +and court façades of great dignity treated with the orders. More German +in its details, but equally interesting, is the <b>Fürstenhof</b> <!-- +missing umlaut --> at <b>Wismar</b>, in brick and terra-cotta, by +<i>Valentino di Lira</i> and <i>Van Aken</i> (1553); while in the +<b>Piastenschloss</b> at Brieg (1547–72), by Italian architects, +the treatment in parts suggests the richest works of the style of +Francis I. In other castles the segmental arch and stumpy columns +or piers show the German taste, as in the <b>Plassenburg</b>, by +<i>Kaspar Vischer</i> (1554–64), the castle at Plagnitz, and the +<b>Old Castle</b> at <b>Stuttgart</b>, all dating from about +1550–55. <b>Heidelberg Castle</b>, in spite of its mediæval aspect +from the river and its irregular plan, ranks as the highest achievement +of the German Renaissance in palace design. The most interesting parts +among its various wings built at different dates—the earlier +portions still Gothic in design—are the <b>Otto Heinrichsbau</b> +(1554) and the <b>Friedrichsbau</b> (1601). The first of these appears +somewhat simpler in its lines than the second, by reason of having lost +its original dormer-gables. The orders, freely treated, are superposed +in three stories, and twin windows, niches, statues, <i>gaînes</i>, +medallions and profuse carving produce an effect of great gayety and +richness. The Friedrichsbau (Fig. 192), less quiet in its lines, and +with high scroll-gabled and stepped dormers, is on the other hand more +soberly decorated and more characteristically German. The Schloss +Hämelschenburg (<a href="#fig191">Fig. 191</a>) is designed in +somewhat the same spirit, but with even greater simplicity of +detail.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig192" id="fig192"> </a> +<img src="images/fig192.jpg" width="247" height="457" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 192.—THE FRIEDRICHSBAU, HEIDELBERG.</p> + +<p><b>TOWN HALLS.</b> These constitute the most interesting class of +Renaissance buildings in Germany, presenting a considerable variety of +types, but nearly all built in solid blocks without courts, and adorned +with towers or spires. A high roof crowns the building, broken by +one or more high gables or many-storied dormers. The majority of these +town +<span class="pagenum">344</span> +<a name="page344" id="page344"> </a> +halls present façades much diversified by projecting wings, as at Lemgo +and Paderborn, or by oriels and turrets, as at <b>Altenburg</b> +(1562–64); and the towers which dominate the whole terminate +usually in bell-shaped cupolas, or in more capricious forms with +successive swellings and contractions, as at Dantzic (1587). A few, +however, are designed with monumental simplicity of mass; of these that +at <b>Bremen</b> (1612) is perhaps the finest, with its beautiful +exterior arcade on strong Doric columns. The town hall of Nuremberg is +one of the few with a court, and presents a façade of almost Roman +simplicity (1613–19); that at <b>Augsburg</b> (1615) is equally +classic and more pleasing; while at Schweinfurt, Rothenburg (1572), +Mülhausen, etc., are others worthy of mention.</p> + + +<p><b>CHURCHES.</b> <b>St. Michael’s</b>, at Munich, is almost the only +important church of the first period in Germany (1582), but it is worthy +to rank with many of the most notable contemporary Italian churches. +A wide nave covered by a majestic barrel vault, is flanked by side +chapels, separated from each other by massive piers and +<span class="pagenum">345</span> +<a name="page345" id="page345"> </a> +forming a series of gallery bays above. There are short transepts and a +choir, all in excellent proportion and treated with details which, if +somewhat heavy, are appropriate and reasonably correct. The +<b>Marienkirche</b> at Wolfenbüttel <!-- missing umlaut --> (1608) is a +fair sample of the parish churches of the second period. In the exterior +of this church pointed arches and semi-Gothic tracery are curiously +associated with heavy rococo carving. The simple rectangular mass, +square tower, and portal with massive orders and carving are +characteristic features. Many of the church-towers are well proportioned +and graceful structures in spite of the fantastic outlines of their +spires. One of the best and purest in style is that of the University +Church at Würzburg (1587–1600).</p> + + +<p><b>HOUSES.</b> Many of the German houses of the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries would merit extended notice in a larger work, as +among the most interesting lesser monuments of the Renaissance. +Nuremberg and Hildesheim are particularly rich in such houses, built +either for private citizens or for guilds and corporations. Not a few of +the half-timbered houses of the time are genuine works of art, though +interest chiefly centres in the more monumental +<span class="pagenum">346</span> +<a name="page346" id="page346"> </a> +dwellings of stone. In this domestic architecture the picturesque +quality of German design appears to better advantage than in more +monumental edifices, and their broadly stepped gables, corbelled oriels, +florid portals and want of formal symmetry imparting a peculiar and +undeniable charm. The Kaiserhaus and Wedekindsches Haus at Hildesheim; +<b>Fürstenhaus</b> at Leipzig; Peller, Hirschvogel, and Funk houses at +Nuremberg; the Salt House at Frankfurt, and Ritter House at Heidelberg, +are a few of the most noted among these examples of domestic +architecture.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig193" id="fig193"> </a> +<img src="images/fig193.jpg" width="225" height="419" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 193.—ZWINGER PALACE, DRESDEN.</p> + +<p><b>LATER MONUMENTS.</b> The <b>Zwinger Palace</b> at Dresden (Fig. +193), is the most elaborate and wayward example of the German palace +architecture of the third period. Its details are of the most +exaggerated rococo type, like confectioner’s work done in stone; and yet +the building has an air of princely splendor which partly atones for its +details. Besides this palace, Dresden possesses in the domical +<b>Marienkirche</b> (Fig. 194) a very meritorious example of late +design. The proportions are good, and the detail, if not interesting, is +at least inoffensive, while the whole is +<span class="pagenum">347</span> +<a name="page347" id="page347"> </a> +a dignified and rational piece of work. At Vienna are a number of +palaces of the third period, more interesting for their beautiful +grounds and parks than for intrinsic architectural merit. As in Italy, +this was the period of stucco, and although in Vienna this cheap and +perishable material was cleverly handled, and the ornament produced was +often quaint and effective, the results lack the permanence and dignity +of true building in stone or brick, and may be dismissed without further +mention.</p> + +<p class="illustration floatleft w240"> +<a name="fig194" id="fig194"> </a> +<img src="images/fig194.jpg" width="239" height="417" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 194.—CHURCH OF ST. MARY (MARIENKIRCHE), DRESDEN.</p> + +<p>In minor works the Germans were far less prolific than the Italians +or Spaniards. Few of their tombs were of the first importance, though +one, the <b>Sebald Shrine</b>, in Nuremberg, by <i>Peter Vischer</i> +(1506–19), is a splendid work in bronze, in the transitional +style; a richly decorated canopy on slender metal colonnettes +covering and enclosing the sarcophagus of the saint. There are a large +number of fountains in the squares of German and Swiss cities which +display a high order of design, and are among the most characteristic +minor products of German art.</p> + + +<p><b>SPAIN.</b> The flamboyant Gothic style sufficed for a while to +meet the requirements of the arrogant and luxurious period which in +Spain followed the overthrow of the Moors and the discovery of America. +But it was inevitable that the Renaissance should in time make its +influence felt in the arts of the Iberian peninsula, largely through the +employment of Flemish artists. In jewelry and silverwork, arts which +received a great impulse from the importation of the precious metals +from the New World, the forms of the Renaissance found special +acceptance, so that the new style received the name of the +<i>Plateresque</i> (from <i>platero</i>, silversmith). This was a not +inept name for the minutely detailed and sumptuous decoration of the +early Renaissance, which lasted from 1500 to the accession of Philip II. +in 1556. It was characterized by surface-decoration spreading over broad +areas, especially around doors and windows, +<span class="pagenum">348</span> +<a name="page348" id="page348"> </a> +florid escutcheons and Gothic details mingling with delicately chiselled +arabesques. Decorative pilasters with broken entablatures and carved +baluster-shafts were employed with little reference to constructive +lines, but with great refinement of detail, in spite of the exuberant +profusion of the ornament.</p> + +<p>To this style, after the artistic inaction of Philip II.’s reign, +succeeded the coldly classic style practised by <i>Berruguete</i> and +<i>Herrera</i>, and called the <i>Griego-Romano</i>. In spite of the +attempt to produce works of classical purity, the buildings of this +period are for the most part singularly devoid of originality and +interest. This style lasted until the middle of the seventeenth century, +and in the case of certain works and artists, until its close. It was +followed, at least in ecclesiastical architecture, by the so-called +<i>Churrigueresque</i>, a name derived from an otherwise +insignificant architect, <i>Churriguera</i>, who like Maderna and +Borromini in Italy, discarded all the proprieties of architecture, and +rejoiced in the wildest extravagances of an untrained fancy and debased +taste.</p> + + +<p><b>EARLY MONUMENTS.</b> The earliest ecclesiastical works of the +Renaissance period, like the cathedrals of Salamanca, Toledo, and +Segovia, were almost purely Gothic in style. Not until 1525 did the new +forms begin to dominate in cathedral design. The cathedral at +<b>Jaen</b>, by <i>Valdelvira</i> (1525), an imposing structure with +three aisles and side chapels, was treated internally with the +Corinthian order throughout. The Cathedral of <b>Granada</b> (1529, by +<i>Diego de Siloe</i>) is especially interesting for its great domical +sanctuary 70 feet in diameter, and for the largeness and dignity of its +conception and details. The cathedral of Malaga, the church of San +Domingo at Salamanca, and the monastery of San Girolamo in the same city +are either wholly or in part Plateresque, and provided with portals of +especial richness of decoration. Indeed, the portal of S. Domingo +practically forms the whole façade.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">349</span> +<a name="page349" id="page349"> </a> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig195" id="fig195"> </a> +<img src="images/fig195.jpg" width="263" height="411" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 195.<!-- invisible . -->—DOOR OF THE UNIVERSITY, +SALAMANCA.</p> + +<p>In secular architecture the <b>Hospital</b> of <b>Santa Cruz</b> at +Toledo, by <i>Enrique de Egaz</i> (1504–16), is one of the +earliest examples of the style. Here, as also in the <b>University</b> +at <b>Salamanca</b> (Fig. 195), the portal is the most notable feature, +suggesting both Italian and French models in its details. The great +<b>College</b> at <b>Alcala de Heñares</b> is another important early +monument of the Renaissance (1500–17, by <i>Pedro Gumiel</i>). In +most designs the preference was for long façades of moderate height, +with a basement showing few openings, and a <i>bel étage</i> lighted by +large windows widely spaced. Ornament was chiefly concentrated about the +doors and windows, except for the roof balustrades, which were often +exceedingly elaborate. Occasionally a decorative motive is spread over +the whole façade, as in the <b>Casa de las Conchas</b> at Salamanca, +adorned with cockle-shells carved at intervals all over the +front—a bold and effective device; or the Infantada palace +with its spangling of carved diamonds. The courtyard or <i>patio</i> was +an indispensable feature of these buildings, as in all hot countries, +and was surrounded +<span class="pagenum">350</span> +<a name="page350" id="page350"> </a> +by arcades frequently of the most fanciful design overloaded with minute +ornament, as in the <b>Infantado</b> at Guadalajara, the <b>Casa de +Zaporta</b>, formerly at Saragossa (now removed to Paris; Fig. 196), and +the Lupiana monastery. The patios in the <b>Archbishop’s Palace</b> at +Alcala de Heñares and the <b>Collegio de los Irlandeses</b> at Salamanca +are of simpler design; that of the <b>Casa de Pilatos</b> at Seville is +almost purely Moorish. Salamanca abounds in buildings of this +period.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig196" id="fig196"> </a> +<img src="images/fig196.jpg" width="244" height="467" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 196.<!-- invisible . -->—CASA DE ZAPORTA: <!-- invisible : +--> COURTYARD.</p> + + +<p><b>THE GRIEGO-ROMANO.</b> The more classic treatment of architectural +designs by the use of the orders was introduced by <i>Alonzo +Berruguete</i> (1480–1560?), who studied in Italy after 1503. The +Archbishop’s Palace and the Doric <b>Gate</b> of <b>San Martino</b>, +both at Toledo, were his work, as well as the first palace at Madrid. +The Palladio of Spain was, however, by <i>Juan de Herrera</i> (died +1597), the architect of <b>Valladolid Cathedral</b>, built under +Philip V. This vast edifice follows the general lines of the +earlier cathedrals of Jaen and Granada, but in a style of classical +correctness almost +<span class="pagenum">351</span> +<a name="page351" id="page351"> </a> +severe in aspect, but well suited to the grand scale of the church. The +masterpiece of this period was the monastery of the <b>Escurial</b>, +begun by <i>Juan Battista</i> of Toledo, in 1563, but not completed +until nearly one hundred and fifty years later. Its final architectural +aspect was largely due to Herrera. It is a vast rectangle of 740 × 580 +feet, comprising a complex of courts, halls, and cells, dominated by the +huge mass of the chapel. This last is an imposing domical church +covering 70,000 square feet, treated throughout with the Doric order, +and showing externally a lofty dome and campaniles with domical +lanterns, which serve to diversify the otherwise monotonous mass of the +monastery. What the Escurial lacks in grace or splendor is at least in a +measure redeemed by its majestic scale and varied sky-lines. The +<b>Palace of Charles V.</b> (Fig. 197), adjoining the Alhambra at +Granada, though begun as early as 1527 by <i>Machuca</i>, was mainly due +to Berruguete, and is an excellent example of the Spanish Palladian +style. With its circular court, admirable proportions and well-studied +details, this often maligned edifice deserves to be ranked among the +most successful examples of the style. During this period the cathedral +of Seville received many alterations, and the upper part of the +adjoining +<span class="pagenum">352</span> +<a name="page352" id="page352"> </a> +Moorish tower of the <b>Giralda</b>, burned in 1395, was rebuilt by +<i>Fernando Ruiz</i> in the prevalent style, and with considerable +elegance and appropriateness of design.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w270"> +<a name="fig197" id="fig197"> </a> +<img src="images/fig197.jpg" width="263" height="312" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 197.—PALACE OF CHARLES V., GRANADA.<!-- invisible last two . +--></p> + +<p>Of the <b>Palace</b> at <b>Madrid</b>, rebuilt by Philip V. +after the burning of the earlier palace in 1734, and mainly the work of +an Italian, <i>Ivara</i>; the Aranjuez palace (1739, by <i>Francisco +Herrera</i>), and the Palace at <b>San Ildefonso</b>, it need only be +said that their chief merit lies in their size and the absence of those +glaring violations of good taste which generally characterized the +successors of Churriguera. In ecclesiastical design these violations of +taste were particularly abundant and excessive, especially in the +façades and in the sanctuary—huge aggregations of misplaced and +vulgar detail, with hardly an unbroken pediment, column, or arch in the +whole. Some extreme examples of this abominable style are to be found in +the Spanish-American churches of the 17th and 18th centuries, as at +Chihuahua (Mexico), Tucson (Arizona), and other places. The least +offensive features of the churches of this period were the towers, +usually in pairs at the west end, some of them showing excellent +proportions and good composition in spite of their execrable +details.</p> + +<p>Minor architectural works, such as the rood screens in the churches +of Astorga and Medina de Rio Seco, and many tombs at Granada, Avila, +Alcala, etc., give evidence of superior skill in decorative design, +where constructive considerations did not limit the exercise of the +imagination.</p> + + +<p><b>PORTUGAL.</b> The Renaissance appears to have produced few notable +works in Portugal. Among the chief of these are the <b>Tower</b>, the +church, and the <b>Cloister</b>, at Belem. These display a riotous +profusion of minute carved ornament, with a free commingling of late +Gothic details, wearisome in the end in spite of the beauty of its +execution (1500–40?). The church of <b>Santa Cruz</b> at Coimbra, +and that of <b>Luz</b>, near Lisbon, are among the most noted of the +religious +<span class="pagenum">353</span> +<a name="page353" id="page353"> </a> +monuments of the Renaissance, while in secular architecture the royal +palace at <b>Mafra</b> is worthy of mention.</p> + + +<div class="monuments"> +<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> (Mainly supplementary to preceding text.) <span +class="smallcaps">Austria</span>, <span class="smallcaps">Bohemia</span>, etc.: At Prague, Schloss Stern, +1459–1565; Schwarzenburg Palace, 1544; Waldstein Palace, 1629; +Salvator Chapel, Vienna, 1515; Schloss Schalaburg, near Mölk, +1530–1601; Standehaus, Gratz, 1625. At Vienna: Imperial palace, +various dates; Schwarzenburg and Lichtenstein palaces, 18th century.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Germany</span>, <span class="smallcaps">First Period</span>: Schloss Baden, 1510–29 and part +1569–82; Schloss Merseburg, 1514, with late 16th-century portals; +Fuggerhaus at Augsburg, 1516; castles of Neuenstein, 1530–64; +Celle, 1532–46 (and enlarged, 1665–70); Dessau, 1533; +Leignitz, portal, 1533; Plagnitz, 1550; Schloss Gottesau, 1553–88; +castle of Güstrow, 1555–65; of Oels, 1559–1616; of Bernburg, +1565; of Heiligenburg, 1569–87; Münzhof at Munich, 1575; Lusthaus +(demolished) at Stuttgart, 1575; Wilhelmsburg Castle at Schmalkald, +1584–90; castle of Hämelschenburg, 1588–1612.—<span +class="smallcaps">Second Period</span>: Zunfthaus at Basle, 1578, in +advanced style; so also Juleum at Helmstädt, 1593–1612; gymnasium +at Brunswick, 1592–1613; Spiesshof at Basle, 1600; castle at +Berlin, 1600–1616, demolished in great part; castle Bevern, 1603; +Dantzic, Zeughaus, 1605; Wallfahrtskirche at Dettelbach, 1613; castle +Aschaffenburg, 1605–13; Schloss Weikersheim, +1600–83.—<span class="smallcaps">Third Period</span>: +Zeughaus at Berlin, 1695; palace at Berlin by Schlüter, 1699–1706; +Catholic church, Dresden. (For Classic Revival, see next +chapter.)—<span class="smallcaps">Town Halls</span>: At +Heilbronn, 1535; Görlitz, 1537; Posen, 1550; Mülhausen, 1552; Cologne, +porch with Corinthian columns and Gothic arches, 1569; Lübeck +(Rathhaushalle), 1570; Schweinfurt, 1570; Gotha, 1574; Emden, +1574–76; Lemgo, 1589; Neisse, 1604; Nordhausen, 1610; Paderborn, +1612–16; Gernsbach, 1617.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Spain</span>, <span class="smallcaps">16th Century</span>: Monastery San Marcos at Leon; palace of +the Infanta, Saragossa; Carcel del Corte at Baez; Cath. of Malaga, +W. front, 1538, by de Siloë; Tavera Hospital, Toledo, 1541, by de +Bustamente; Alcazar at Toledo, 1548; Lonja (Town Hall) at Saragossa, +1551; Casa de la Sal, Casa Monterey, and Collegio de los Irlandeses, all +at Salamanca; Town Hall, Casa de los Taveras and upper part of Giralda, +all at Seville.—<span class="smallcaps">17th Century</span>: +Cathedral del Pilar, Saragossa, 1677; Tower del Seo, 1685.—<span +class="smallcaps">18th Century</span>: palace at Madrid, 1735; at +Aranjuez, 1739; cathedral of Santiago, 1738; Lonja at Barcelona, +1772.</p> +</div> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">354</span> +<a name="page354" id="page354"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXXV" id="chapXXV">CHAPTER XXV.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, +Fergusson. Also Chateau, <i>Histoire et caractères de l’architecture en +France</i>; and Lübke, <i>Geschichte der Architektur</i>. (For the most +part, however, recourse must be had to the general histories of +architecture, and to monographs on special cities or buildings.)</p> + + +<p><b>THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</b> By the end of the seventeenth century +the Renaissance, properly speaking, had run its course in Europe. The +increasing servility of its imitation of antique models had exhausted +its elasticity and originality. Taste rapidly declined before the growth +of the industrial and commercial spirit in the eighteenth century. The +ferment of democracy and the disquiet of far-reaching political changes +had begun to preoccupy the minds of men to the detriment of the arts. By +the middle of the eighteenth century, however, the extravagances of the +Rococo, Jesuit, and Louis XV. styles had begun to pall upon the popular +taste. The creative spirit was dead, and nothing seemed more promising +as a corrective for these extravagances than a return to classic models. +But the demand was for a literal copying of the arcades and porticos of +Rome, to serve as frontispieces for buildings in which modern +requirements should be accommodated to these antique exteriors, instead +of controlling the design. The result was a manifest gain in the +splendor of the streets and squares adorned by these highly decorative +frontispieces, but at the expense of convenience +<span class="pagenum">355</span> +<a name="page355" id="page355"> </a> +and propriety in the buildings themselves. While this academic spirit +too often sacrificed logic and originality to an arbitrary symmetry and +to the supposed canons of Roman design, it also, on the other hand, led +to a stateliness and dignity in the planning, especially in the +designing of vestibules, stairs, and halls, which render many of the +public buildings it produced well worthy of study. The architecture of +the Roman Revival was pompous and artificial, but seldom trivial, and +its somewhat affected grandeur was a welcome relief from the dull +extravagance of the styles it replaced.</p> + + +<p><b>THE GREEK REVIVAL.</b> The Roman revival was, however, displaced +in England and Germany by the Greek Revival, which set in near the close +of the eighteenth century. This was the result of a newly awakened +interest in the long-neglected monuments of Attic art which the +discoveries of Stuart and Revett—sent out in 1732 by the London +Society of Dilettanti—had once more made known to the world. It +led to a veritable <i>furore</i> in England for Greek Doric and Ionic +columns, which were applied indiscriminately to every class of +buildings, with utter disregard of propriety. The British taste was at +this time at its lowest ebb, and failed to perceive the poverty of Greek +architecture when deprived of its proper adornments of carving and +sculpture, which were singularly lacking in the British examples. +Nevertheless the Greek style in England had a long run of popular favor, +yielding only during the reign of the present sovereign to the so-called +Victorian Gothic, a revival of mediæval forms. In Germany the Greek +Revival was characterized by a more cultivated taste and a more rational +application of its forms, which were often freely modified to suit +modern needs. In France, where the Roman Revival under Louis XV. had +produced fairly satisfactory results, and where the influence of the +Royal School of Fine Arts (<i>École des Beaux-Arts</i>) tended to +perpetuate the +<span class="pagenum">356</span> +<a name="page356" id="page356"> </a> +principles of Roman design, the Greek Revival found no footing. The +Greek forms were seen to be too severe and intractable for present +requirements. About 1830, however, a modified style of design, +known since as the <i>Néo-Grec</i>, was introduced by the exertions of a +small coterie of talented architects; and though its own life was short, +it profoundly influenced French art in the direction of freedom and +refinement for a long time afterward. In Italy there was hardly anything +in the nature of a true revival of either Roman or Greek forms. The few +important works of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries +were conceived in the spirit of the late Renaissance, and took from the +prevalent revival of classicism elsewhere merely a greater correctness +of detail, not any radical change of form or spirit.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig198" id="fig198"> </a> +<img src="images/fig198.jpg" width="458" height="280" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 198.—BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON.<!-- invisible . --></p> + +<p><b>ENGLAND.</b> There was, strictly speaking, no Roman revival in +Great Britain. The modified Palladian style of Wren and Gibbs and their +successors continued until superseded by the Greek revival. The first +fruit of the new movement seems to have been the <b>Bank of England</b> +at London, by <i>Sir John Soane</i> (1788). In this edifice the +Greco-Roman order of the round temple at Tivoli was closely copied, and +applied to a long façade, too low for its length and with no sufficient +stylobate, but fairly effective with its recessed colonnade and +unpierced walls. The <b>British Museum</b>, by <i>Robert Smirke</i> +(Fig. 198), was a more ambitious essay in a more purely Greek style. Its +colossal Ionic colonnade was, however, a mere frontispiece, applied +to a badly planned and commonplace building, from which it cut off +needed light. The more modest but appropriate columnar façade to the +<b>Fitzwilliam Museum</b> at Cambridge, by <i>Bassevi</i>, was a more +successful attempt in the same direction, better proportioned and +avoiding the incongruity of modern windows in several stories. These +have always been the stumbling-block of the revived Greek style. The +<span class="pagenum">357</span> +<a name="page357" id="page357"> </a> +difficulties they raise are avoided, however, in buildings presenting +but two stories, the order being applied to the upper story, upon a high +stylobate serving as a basement. The <b>High School</b> and the Royal +Institution at Edinburgh, and the University at London, by +<i>Wilkins</i>, are for this reason, if for no other, superior to the +British Museum and other many-storied Anglo-Greek edifices. In spite of +all difficulties, however, the English extended the applications of the +style with doubtful success not only to all manner of public buildings, +but also to country residences. Carlton House, Bowden Park, and Grange +House are instances of this misapplication of Greek forms. Neither did +it prove more tractable for ecclesiastical purposes. <b>St. +Pancras’s</b> Church at London, and several churches by <i>Thomson</i> +(1817–75), in Glasgow, though interesting as experiments in such +adaptation, are not to be commended for imitation. The most successful +of all British Greek designs is perhaps <b>St. George’s +<span class="pagenum">358</span> +<a name="page358" id="page358"> </a> +Hall</b> at Liverpool (Fig. 199), whose imposing peristyle and porches +are sufficiently Greek in spirit and detail to class it among the works +of the Greek Revival. But its great hall and its interior composition +are really Roman and not Greek, emphasizing the teaching of experience +that Greek architecture does not lend itself to the exigencies of modern +civilization to nearly the same extent as the Roman.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig199" id="fig199"> </a> +<img src="images/fig199.jpg" width="429" height="173" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 199.—ST.<!-- invisible . --> GEORGE’S HALL, LIVERPOOL.</p> + + +<p><b>GERMANY.</b> During the eighteenth century the classic revival in +Germany, which at first followed Roman precedents (as in the columns +carved with spirally ascending reliefs in front of the church of <b>St. +Charles Borromeo</b>, at Vienna), was directed into the channel of Greek +imitation by the literary works of Winckelmann, Lessing, Goethe, and +others, as well as by the interest aroused by the discoveries of Stuart +and Revett. The <b>Brandenburg Gate</b> at Berlin (1784, by Langhans) +was an early example of this Hellenism in architecture, and one of its +most successful applications to civic purposes. Without precisely +copying any Greek structure, it was evidently inspired from the Athenian +Propylæa, and nothing in its purpose is foreign to the style employed. +The greatest activity in the style came later, however, and was greatly +stimulated by the achievements of <i>Fr. Schinkel</i> (1771–1841), +one of the greatest of modern German architects. +<span class="pagenum">359</span> +<a name="page359" id="page359"> </a> +While in the domical church of St. Nicholas at Potsdam, he employed +Roman forms in a modernized Roman conception, and followed in one or two +other buildings the principles of the Renaissance, his predilections +were for Greek architecture. His masterpiece was the <b>Museum</b> at +Berlin, with an imposing portico of 18 Ionic columns (Fig. 200). This +building with its fine rotunda was excellently planned, and forms, in +conjunction with the <b>New Museum</b> by <i>Stuhler</i> +(1843–55), a noble palace of art, to whose monumental +requirements and artistic purpose the Greek colonnades and pediments +were not inappropriate. Schinkel’s greatest successor was <i>Leo von +Klenze</i> (1784–1864), whose more textual reproductions of Greek +models won him great favor and wide employment. The <b>Walhalla</b> near +Ratisbon is a modernized Parthenon, internally vaulted with glass; +elegant externally, but too obvious a plagiarism to be greatly admired. +The <b>Ruhmeshalle</b> at Munich, a double <span class="sans">L</span> partly enclosing a colossal statue of Bavaria, and +devoted to the commemoration of Bavaria’s great men, is copied from no +Greek building, though purely Greek in design and correct to the +smallest detail. In the <b>Glyptothek</b> (Sculpture Gallery), in the +same city, the one distinctively +<span class="pagenum">360</span> +<a name="page360" id="page360"> </a> +Greek feature introduced by Klenze, an Ionic portico, is also the one +inappropriate note in the design. The <b>Propylæa</b> at Munich, by the +same (Fig. 201), and the <b>Court Theatre</b> at Berlin, by Schinkel, +are other important examples of the style. The latter is externally one +of the most beautiful theatres in Europe, though less ornate than many. +Schinkel’s genius was here remarkably successful in adapting Greek +details to the exigent difficulties of theatre design, and there is no +suggestion of copying any known Greek building.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig200" id="fig200"> </a> +<img src="images/fig200.jpg" width="427" height="182" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 200.<!-- invisible both . -->—THE OLD MUSEUM, BERLIN.</p> + +<p>In Vienna the one notable monument of the Classic Revival is the +<b>Reichsrathsgebäude</b> or Parliament House, by <i>Th. Hansen</i> +(1843), an imposing two-storied composition with a lofty central +colonnade and lower side-wings, harmonious in general proportions and +pleasingly varied in outline and mass.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig201" id="fig201"> </a> +<img src="images/fig201.jpg" width="436" height="243" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 201.<!-- invisible both . -->—THE PROPYLÆA, MUNICH.</p> + +<p>In general, the Greek Revival in Germany presents the aspect of a +sincere striving after beauty, on the part of a limited number of +artists of great talent, misled by the idea +<span class="pagenum">361</span> +<a name="page361" id="page361"> </a> +that the forms of a dead civilization could be galvanized into new life +in the service of modern needs. The result was disappointing, in spite +of the excellent planning, admirable construction and carefully studied +detail of these buildings, and the movement here as elsewhere was +foredoomed to failure.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w180"> +<a name="fig202" id="fig202"> </a> +<img src="images/fig202.png" width="170" height="249" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 202.—PLAN OF PANTHÉON, PARIS.<!-- invisible last two . +--></p> + +<p><b>FRANCE.</b> In France the Classic Revival, as we have seen, had +made its appearance during the reign of Louis XV. in a number of +important monuments which expressed the protest of their authors against +the caprice of the Rococo style then in vogue. The colonnades of the +Garde-Meuble, the façade of St. Sulpice, and the coldly beautiful +<b>Panthéon</b> (Figs. 202, 203) testified to the conviction in the most +cultured minds of the time that Roman grandeur was to be attained only +by copying the forms of Roman architecture with the closest possible +approach to correctness. In the Panthéon, the greatest ecclesiastical +monument of its time in France (otherwise known as the church of Ste. +Genéviève), the spirit of correct classicism dominates the interior as +well as the exterior. It is a Greek cross, measuring 362 × 267 feet, +with a dome 265 feet high, and internally 69 feet in diameter. The four +arms have domical vaulting and narrow aisles separated by Corinthian +columns. The whole interior is a cold but extremely elegant composition. +The most notable features of the exterior are its imposing portico of +colossal Corinthian columns and the fine peristyle which surrounds the +drum of the dome, giving it great dignity and richness of effect.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">362</span> +<a name="page362" id="page362"> </a> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig203" id="fig203"> </a> +<img src="images/fig203.jpg" width="252" height="363" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 203.—EXTERIOR OF PANTHÉON,<br> +PARIS.<!-- invisible all . --></p> + +<p>The dome, which is of stone throughout, has three shells, the +intermediate shell serving to support the heavy stone lantern. The +architect was <i>Soufflot</i> (1713–81). The <b>Grand Théâtre</b>, +at Bordeaux (1773, by <i>Victor Louis</i>), one of the largest and +finest theatres in Europe, was another product of this movement, its +stately colonnade forming one of the chief ornaments of the city. Under +Louis XVI. there was a temporary reaction from this somewhat pompous +affectation of antique grandeur; but there were few important buildings +erected during that unhappy reign, and the reaction showed itself mainly +in a more delicate and graceful style of interior decoration. It was +reserved for the Empire to set the seal of official approval on the +Roman Revival. +<span class="illustration"> +<a name="fig204" id="fig204"> </a> +<img src="images/fig204.jpg" width="286" height="325" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 204.—ARC DE L’ÉTOILE, PARIS.<!-- invisible all . --></span> +The Arch of Triumph of the Carrousel, behind the Tuileries, by +<i>Percier and Fontaine</i>, the magnificent Arc de l’Étoile, at the +summit of the Avenue of the Champs Elysées, by <i>Chalgrin</i>; the wing +begun by Napoleon to connect the Tuileries with the Louvre on the land +side, and the church of the Madeleine, by <i>Vignon</i>, erected as a +temple to the heroes of the Grande Armée, were all designed, in +accordance with the expressed will of the Emperor himself, in a style as +Roman as the requirements +<span class="pagenum">363</span> +<a name="page363" id="page363"> </a> +of each case would permit. All these monuments, begun between 1806 and +1809, were completed after the Restoration. The <b>Arch</b> of the +<b>Carrousel</b> is a close copy of Roman models; that of the +<b>Étoile</b> (Fig. 204) was a much more original design, of colossal +dimensions. Its admirable proportions, simple composition and striking +sculptures give it a place among the noblest creations of its class. The +<b>Madeleine</b> (Fig. 205), externally a Roman Corinthian temple of the +largest size, presents internally an almost Byzantine conception with +the three pendentive domes that vault its vast nave, but all the details +are Roman. However suitable for a pantheon or mausoleum, it seems +strangely inappropriate as a design for a Christian church. To these +monuments should be added the <b>Bourse</b> or Exchange, by +<i>Brongniart</i>, heavy in spite of its Corinthian peristyle, and the +river front of the <b>Corps Législatif</b> or Palais Bourbon, by +<i>Poyet</i>, the only extant example of a dodecastyle portico with a +pediment. All of these designs are characterized by great elegance of +detail and excellence of execution, and however inappropriate in style +to modern uses, they add immensely to the splendor of the French +capital. Unquestionably no feature can take the place of a Greek or +Roman +<span class="pagenum">364</span> +<a name="page364" id="page364"> </a> +colonnade as an embellishment for broad avenues and open squares, or as +the termination of an architectural vista.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig205" id="fig205"> </a> +<img src="images/fig205.jpg" width="424" height="284" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 205.<!-- invisible . -->—THE MADELEINE, PARIS.</p> + +<p>The Greek revival took little hold of the Parisian imagination. Its +forms were too cold, too precise and fixed, too intractable to modern +requirements to appeal to the French taste. It counts but one notable +monument, the church of <b>St. Vincent de Paul</b>, by <i>Hittorff</i>, +who sought to apply to this design the principles of Greek external +polychromy; but the frescoes and ornaments failed to withstand the +Parisian climate, and were finally erased. The Néo-Grec movement already +referred to, initiated by Duc, Duban, and Labrouste about 1830, aimed +only to introduce into modern design the spirit and refinement, the +purity and delicacy of Greek art, not its forms (Fig. 206). Its chief +monuments were the remodelling, by <i>Duc</i>, of the <b>Palais de +Justice</b>, of which the new west façade is the most striking single +feature; the beautiful <b>Library of the École des Beaux-Arts</b>, by +<i>Duban</i>; the +<span class="pagenum">365</span> +<a name="page365" id="page365"> </a> +library of <b>Ste. Genéviève</b>, by <i>Labrouste</i>, in which a long +façade is treated without a pilaster or column, simple arches over a +massive basement forming the dominant motive, while in the interior a +system of iron construction with glazed domes controls the design; and +the commemorative <b>Colonne Juillet</b>, by Duc, the most elegant and +appropriate of all modern memorial columns. All these buildings, begun +between 1830 and 1850 and completed at various dates, are distinguished +by a remarkable purity and freedom of conception and detail, quite +unfettered by the artificial trammels of the official academic style +then prevalent.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig206" id="fig206"> </a> +<img src="images/fig206.jpg" width="262" height="422" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 206.—DOORWAY, ÉCOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS, PARIS.</p> + + +<p><b>THE CLASSIC REVIVAL ELSEWHERE.</b> The other countries of Europe +have little to show in the way of imitations of classic monuments or +reproductions of Roman colonnades. In Italy the church of +<b>S. Francesco di Paola</b>, at Naples, in quasi-imitation of the +Pantheon at Rome, with wing-colonnades, and the <b>Superga</b>, at Turin +(1706, by <i>Ivara</i>); the façade of the San Carlo Theatre, at Naples, +and the Braccio Nuovo of the Vatican (1817, by <i>Stern</i>) are the +monuments which come the nearest to the spirit and style of the Roman +<span class="pagenum">366</span> +<a name="page366" id="page366"> </a> +Revival. Yet in each of these there is a large element of originality +and freedom of treatment which renders doubtful their classification as +examples of that movement.</p> + +<p>A reflection of the Munich school is seen in the modern public +buildings of Athens, designed in some cases by German architects, and in +others by native Greeks. The University, the Museum buildings, the +Academy of Art and Science, and other edifices exemplify fairly +successful efforts to adapt the severe details of classic Greek art to +modern windowed structures. They suffer somewhat from the too liberal +use of stucco in place of marble, and from the conscious affectation of +an extinct style. But they are for the most part pleasing and monumental +designs, adding greatly to the beauty of the modern city.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig207" id="fig207"> </a> +<img src="images/fig207.jpg" width="224" height="254" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 207.—ST. ISAAC’S CATHEDRAL, ST. PETERSBURG.</p> + +<p>In Russia, during and after the reign of Peter the Great +(1689–1725), there appeared a curious mixture of styles. +A style analogous to the Jesuit in Italy and the Churrigueresque in +Spain was generally prevalent, but it was in many cases modified by +Muscovite traditions into nondescript forms like those of the +<b>Kremlin</b>, at Moscow, or the less extravagant Citadel Church and +Smolnoy Monastery at St. Petersburg. Along with this heavy and barbarous +style, which prevails generally in the numerous palaces of the capital, +finished in stucco with atrocious details, a more severe and +classical spirit is met with. The church of the <b>Greek Rite</b> at St. +Petersburg +<span class="pagenum">367</span> +<a name="page367" id="page367"> </a> +combines a Roman domical interior with an exterior of the Greek Doric +order. The Church of <b>Our Lady of Kazan</b> has a semicircular +colonnade projecting from its transept, copying as nearly as may be the +colonnades in front of St. Peter’s. But the greatest classic monument in +Russia is the <b>Cathedral of St. Isaac</b> (Fig. 207), at St. +Petersburg, a vast rectangular edifice with four Roman Corinthian +pedimental colonnades projecting from its faces, and a dome with a +peristyle crowning the whole. Despite many defects of detail, and the +use of cast iron for the dome, which pretends to be of marble, this is +one of the most impressive churches of its size in Europe. Internally it +displays the costliest materials in extraordinary profusion, while +externally its noble colonnades go far to redeem its bare attic and the +material of its dome. The <b>Palace of the Grand Duke Michael</b>, which +reproduces, with improvements, Gabriel’s colonnades of the Garde Meuble +at Paris on its garden front, is a nobly planned and commendable design, +agreeably contrasting with the debased architecture of many of the +public buildings of the city. The Admiralty with its Doric pilasters, +and the <b>New Museum</b>, by von Klenze of Munich, in a skilfully +modified Greek style, with effective loggias, are the only other +monuments of the classic revival in Russia which can find mention in a +brief sketch like this. Both are notable and in many respects admirable +buildings, in part redeeming the vulgarity which is unfortunately so +prevalent in the architecture of St. Petersburg.</p> + +<p>The <b>MONUMENTS</b> of the Classic Revival have been referred to in +the foregoing text at sufficient length to preclude the necessity of +further enumeration here.</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">368</span> +<a name="page368" id="page368"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXXVI" id="chapXXVI">CHAPTER XXVI.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Chateau, +Fergusson. Also Barqui, <i>L’Architecture moderne en +France</i>.—<i>Berlin und seine Bauten</i> (and a series of +similar works on the modern buildings of other German cities). Daly, +<i>Architecture privée du XIXe siècle</i>. Garnier, <i>Le nouvel +Opéra</i>. Gourlier, <i>Choix d’édifices publics</i>. Licht, +<i>Architektur Deutschlands</i>. Lübke, <i>Denkmäler der Kunst</i>. +Lützow und Tischler, <i>Wiener Neubauten</i>. Narjoux, <i>Monuments +élevés par la ville de Paris, 1850–1880</i>. Rückwardt, <i>Façaden +und Details modernen Bauten</i>.—<i><ins class="correction" +title="text reads ‘Sammel mappe’">Sammelmappe</ins> hervorragenden +Concurrenz-Entwurfen.</i> Sédille, <i>L’Architecture moderne</i>. +Selfridge, <i>Modern French Architecture</i>. Statham, <i>Modern +Architecture</i>. Villars, <i>England, Scotland, and Ireland</i> (tr. +Henry Frith). Consult also <i>Transactions of the Royal Institute of +British Architects</i>, and the leading architectural journals of recent +years.</p> + + +<p><b>MODERN CONDITIONS.<!-- invisible . --></b> The nineteenth century +has been pre-eminently an age of industrial progress. Its most striking +advances have been along mechanical, scientific, and commercial lines. +As a result of this material progress the general conditions of mankind +in civilized countries have undoubtedly been greatly bettered. Popular +education and the printing-press have also raised the intellectual level +of society, making learning the privilege of even the poorest. +Intellectual, scientific, and commercial pursuits have thus largely +absorbed those energies which in other ages found exercise in the +creation of artistic forms and objects. The critical and sceptical +spirit, the spirit of utilitarianism and realism, has checked the free +and general development of the creative imagination, at least in the +plastic arts. While +<span class="pagenum">369</span> +<a name="page369" id="page369"> </a> +in poetry and music there have been great and noble achievements, the +plastic arts, including architecture, have only of late years attained a +position at all worthy of the intellectual advancement of the times.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless the artistic spirit has never been wholly crushed out by +the untoward pressure of realism and commercialism. Unfortunately it has +repeatedly been directed in wrong channels. Modern archæology and the +publication of the forms of historic art by books and photographs have +too exclusively fastened attention upon the details of extinct styles as +a source of inspiration in design. The whole range of historic art is +brought within our survey, and while this has on the one hand tended +toward the confusion and multiplication of styles in modern work, it has +on the other led to a slavish adherence to historic precedent or a +literal copying of historic forms. Modern architecture has thus +oscillated between the extremes of archæological servitude and of an +unreasoning eclecticism. In the hands of men of inferior training the +results have been deplorable travesties of all styles, or meaningless +aggregations of ill-assorted forms.</p> + +<p>An important factor in this demoralization of architectural design +has been the development of new constructive methods, especially in the +use of iron and steel. It has been impossible for modern designers, in +their treatment of style, to keep pace with the rapid changes in the +structural use of metal in architecture. The roofs of vast span, largely +composed of glass, which modern methods of trussing have made possible +for railway stations, armories, and exhibition buildings; the immense +unencumbered spaces which may be covered by them; the introduction and +development, especially in the United States, of the post-and-girder +system of construction for high buildings, in which the external walls +are a mere screen or filling-in; these have revolutionized architecture +so rapidly and completely +<span class="pagenum">370</span> +<a name="page370" id="page370"> </a> +that architects are still struggling and groping to find the solution of +many of the problems of style, scale, and composition which they have +brought forward.</p> + +<p>Within the last thirty years, however, architecture has, despite +these new conditions, made notable advances. The artistic emulation of +repeated international exhibitions, the multiplication of museums and +schools of art, the general advance in intelligence and enlightenment, +have all contributed to this artistic progress. There appears to be more +of the artistic and intellectual quality in the average architecture of +the present time, on both sides of the Atlantic, than at any previous +period in this century. The futility of the archæological revival of +extinct styles is generally recognized. New conditions are gradually +procuring the solution of the very problems they raise. Historic +precedent sits more lightly on the architect than formerly, and the +essential unity of principle underlying all good design is coming to be +better understood.<a class="tag" name="tag26" id="tag26" href="#note26">26</a></p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig208" id="fig208"> </a> +<img src="images/fig208.png" width="430" height="203" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 208.—PLAN OF LOUVRE AND TUILERIES, PARIS.<br> +<span class="caption"> +<i>A, A, the Old Louvre, so called; B, B, the New +Louvre.</i></span></p> + +<p><b>FRANCE.</b> It is in France, Germany (including Austria), and +England that the architectural progress of this period in Europe has +been most marked. We have already noticed the results of the classic +revivals in these three countries. Speaking broadly, it may be said that +in France the influence of the <i>École des Beaux-Arts</i>, while it has +tended to give greater unity and consistency to the national +architecture, and has exerted a powerful influence in behalf of +refinement of taste and correctness of style, has also stood in the way +of a free development of new ideas. French architecture has throughout +adhered to the principles of the Renaissance, though the style has +during this century been modified by various influences. The first of +these was the Néo-Grec movement, alluded to in the last chapter, which +broke the grip of Roman tradition in matters of detail and gave greater +elasticity to the national style. Next should be mentioned the Gothic +movement represented by Viollet-le-Duc, +<span class="pagenum">371</span> +<a name="page371" id="page371"> </a> +Lassus, Ballu, and their followers. Beginning about 1845, it produced +comparatively few notable buildings, but gave a great impulse to the +study of mediæval archæology and the restoration of mediæval monuments. +The churches of Ste. Clothilde and of St. Jean de Belleville, at Paris, +and the reconstruction of the Château de Pierrefonds, were among its +direct results. Indirectly it led to a freer and more rational treatment +of constructive forms and materials than had prevailed with the academic +designers. The church of <b>St. Augustin</b>, by <i>Baltard</i>, at +Paris, illustrates this in its use of iron and brick for the dome and +vaulting, and the <b>College Chaptal</b>, by <i>E. Train</i>, in +its decorative treatment of brick and tile externally. The general +adoption of iron for roof-trusses and for the construction of markets +and similar buildings tended further in the same direction, the +<b>Halles Centrales</b> at Paris, by <i>Baltard</i>, being a notable +example.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig209" id="fig209"> </a> +<img src="images/fig209.jpg" width="215" height="404" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 209.—PAVILION OF RICHELIEU, LOUVRE.</p> + +<p><b>THE SECOND EMPIRE.</b> The reign of Napoleon III. (1852–70) +was a period of exceptional activity, especially in Paris. The greatest +monument of his reign was the completion of the <b>Louvre</b> and +<b>Tuileries</b>, under <i>Visconti</i> and +<span class="pagenum">372</span> +<a name="page372" id="page372"> </a> +<i>Lefuel</i>, including the remodelling of the pavilions de Flore and +de Marsan. The new portions constitute the most notable example of +modern French architecture, and the manner in which the two palaces were +united deserves high praise. In spite of certain defects, this work is +marked by a combination of dignity, richness, and refinement, such as +are rarely found in palace architecture (Figs. 208, 209). The <b>New +Opera</b> (1863–75), by <i>Garnier</i> (d.<!-- invisible . +--> 1898), stands next to the Louvre in importance as a national +monument. It is by far the most sumptuous building for amusement in +existence, but in purity of detail and in the balance and restraint of +its design it is inferior to the work of Visconti and Lefuel (Fig. 210). +To this reign belong the Palais de l’Industrie, by <i>Viel</i>, built +for the exhibition of 1855, and several great railway stations (Gare du +Nord, by Hitorff, Gare de l’Est, Gare d’Orléans, etc.), in which the +modern French version of the Renaissance was applied with considerable +skill to buildings largely constructed of iron and glass. Town halls and +theatres were erected in great numbers, and in decorative works like +fountains and monuments the French were particularly successful. The +fountains of <b>St. Michel</b>, Cuvier, and Molière, at Paris, and of +<b>Longchamps</b>, at Marseilles (Fig. 211), +<span class="pagenum">373</span> +<a name="page373" id="page373"> </a> +illustrate the fertility of resource and elegance of detailed treatment +of the French in this department. Mention should also here be made of +the extensive enterprises carried out by Napoleon III., in rectifying +and embellishing the street-plan of Paris by new avenues and squares on +a vast scale, adding greatly to the monumental splendor of the city.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w270"> +<a name="fig210" id="fig210"> </a> +<img src="images/fig210.jpg" width="260" height="429" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 210.<!-- invisible . -->—GRAND STAIRCASE OF THE OPERA, +PARIS.</p> + + +<p><b>THE REPUBLIC.</b> Since the disasters of 1870 a number of +important structures have been erected, and French architecture has +shown a remarkable vitality and flexibility under new conditions. Its +productions have in general been marked by a refined taste and a +conspicuous absence of eccentricity and excess; but it has for the most +part trodden in well-worn paths. The most notable recent monuments are, +in church architecture, the <b>Sacré-Cœur</b>, at Montmartre, by +<i>Abadie</i>, a votive church inspired from the Franco-Byzantine +style of Aquitania; in civil architecture the new <b>Hôtel de Ville</b>, +at Paris, by <i>Ballu</i> and <i>Déperthes</i>, recalling the original +structure destroyed by the Commune, but in reality an original creation +of great merit; in scholastic +<span class="pagenum">374</span> +<a name="page374" id="page374"> </a> +architecture the new École de Médecine, and the new <b>Sorbonne</b>, by +<i>Nénot</i>, and in other branches of the art the metal-and-glass +exhibition buildings of 1878, 1889, and 1900. In the last of these the +striving for originality and the effort to discard traditional forms +reached the extreme, although accompanied by much very clever detail and +a masterly use of color-decoration.<!-- invisible . --> To these should +be added many noteworthy theatres, town-halls, court-houses, and +<i>préfectures</i> in provincial cities, and commemorative columns and +monuments almost without number. In street architecture there is now +much more variety and originality than formerly, especially in private +houses, and the reaction against the orders and against traditional +methods of design has of late been growing stronger. +<span class="pagenum">375</span> +<a name="page375" id="page375"> </a> +The chief excellence of modern French architecture lies in its rational +planning, monumental spirit, and refinement of detail (Fig. 212).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig211" id="fig211"> </a> +<img src="images/fig211.jpg" width="348" height="357" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 211.—FOUNTAIN OF LONGCHAMPS, MARSEILLES.<!-- invisible last +two . --></p> + + +<p><b>GERMANY AND AUSTRIA.</b> German architecture has been more +affected during the past fifty years by the archæological spirit than +has the French. A pronounced mediæval revival partly accompanied, +partly followed the Greek revival in Germany, and produced a number of +churches and a few secular buildings in the basilican, Romanesque, and +Gothic styles.<!-- invisible . --> These are less interesting than those +in the Greek style, because mediæval forms are even more foreign to +modern needs than the classic, being compatible only with systems of +design and construction which are no longer practicable. At Munich the +Auekirche, by <i>Ohlmuller</i>, in an attenuated Gothic style; the +Byzantine Ludwigskirche, and <i>Ziebland’s</i> Basilica following Early +Christian models; the Basilica by <i>Hübsch<!-- invisible umlaut +--></i>, at Bulach, and the Votive Church at Vienna (1856) by +H. Von Ferstel (1828–1883) are notable neo-mediæval +monuments. The last-named church may be classed with Ste. Clothilde at +Paris (see <a href="#page371">p. 371</a>), and St. Patrick’s +Cathedral at New York, all three being of approximately the same size +and general style, recalling St. Ouen at Rouen. They are correct and +elaborate, but more or less cold and artificial.</p> + +<p class="illustration floatleft"> +<a name="fig212" id="fig212"> </a> +<img src="images/fig212.jpg" width="262" height="197" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 212.—MUSÉE GALLIÉRA, PARIS.<!-- invisible last two . --></p> + +<p>More successful are many of the German theatres and concert halls, in +which Renaissance and classic forms have been freely used. In several of +these the attempt has been +<span class="pagenum">376</span> +<a name="page376" id="page376"> </a> +made to express by the external form the curvilinear plan of the +auditorium, as in the <b>Dresden Theatre</b>, by <i>Semper</i> (1841; +Fig. 213), the theatre at Carlsruhe, by Hübsch, and the double +winter-summer <b>Victoria Theatre</b>, at Berlin, by <i>Titz</i>. But +the practical and æsthetic difficulties involved in this treatment have +caused its general abandonment. The <b>Opera House</b> at Vienna, by +<i>Siccardsburg</i> and <i>Van der Null</i> (1861–69), is +rectangular in its masses, and but for a certain triviality of detail +would rank among the most successful buildings of its kind. The new +<b>Burgtheater</b> in the same city is a more elaborately ornate +structure in Renaissance style, somewhat florid and overdone.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig213" id="fig213"> </a> +<img src="images/fig213.jpg" width="431" height="250" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 213.<!-- invisible both . -->—THEATRE AT DRESDEN.</p> + +<p>Modern German architecture is at its best in academic and residential +buildings. The <b><ins class="correction" title="text has ‘Bauschüle’ with umlaut">Bauschule</ins></b>, at Berlin, by Schinkel, in +which brick is used in a rational and dignified design without the +orders; the Polytechnic School, at Zürich, by Semper; university +buildings, and especially buildings for technical instruction, at +Carlsruhe, Stuttgart, Strasburg, Vienna, and other cities, show a +monumental +<span class="pagenum">377</span> +<a name="page377" id="page377"> </a> +treatment of the exterior and of the general distribution, combined with +a careful study of practical requirements. In administrative buildings +the Germans have hardly been as successful; and the new <b>Parliament +House</b>, at Berlin, by <i>Wallot</i>, in spite of its splendor and +costliness, is heavy and unsatisfactory in detail. The larger cities, +especially Berlin, contain many excellent examples of house +architecture, mostly in the Renaissance style, sufficiently monumental +in design, though usually, like most German work, inclined to heaviness +of detail. The too free use of stucco in imitation of stone is also open +to criticism.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig214" id="fig214"> </a> +<img src="images/fig214.jpg" width="434" height="344" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 214.—BLOCK OF DWELLINGS (MARIE-THERESIENHOF), VIENNA.<!-- +invisible all . --></p> + +<p><b>VIENNA.</b> During the last thirty years Vienna has undergone a +transformation which has made it the rival of Paris as a stately +capital. The remodelling of the central portion, the creation of a +series of magnificent boulevards and +<span class="pagenum">378</span> +<a name="page378" id="page378"> </a> +squares, and the grouping of the chief state and municipal buildings +about these upon a monumental scheme of arrangement, have given the city +an unusual aspect of splendor. Among the most important monuments in +this group are the <b>Parliament House</b>, by Hansen (see <a href="#page360">p. 360</a>), and the <b>Town Hall</b>, by +<i>Schmidt</i>. This latter is a Neo-Gothic edifice of great size and +pretentiousness, but strangely thin and meagre in detail, and quite out +of harmony with its surroundings. The university and museums are massive +piles in Renaissance style; and it is the Renaissance rather than the +classic or Gothic revival which prevails throughout the new city. The +great blocks of residences and apartments (Fig. 214) which line its +streets are highly ornate in their architecture, but for the most part +done in stucco, which fails after all to give the aspect of solidity and +durability which it seeks to counterfeit.</p> + +<p>The city of <b>Buda-Pesth</b> has also in recent years undergone a +phenomenal transformation of a similar nature to that effected in +Vienna, but it possesses fewer monuments of conspicuous architectural +interest. The <b>Synagogue</b> is the most noted of these, a rich +and pleasing edifice of brick in a modified Hispano-Moresque style.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig215" id="fig215"> </a> +<img src="images/fig215.jpg" width="324" height="349" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 215.<!-- invisible . -->—HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, WESTMINSTER, +LONDON.</p> + +<p><b>GREAT BRITAIN.</b> During the closing years of the Anglo-Greek +style a coterie of enthusiastic students of British mediæval +monuments—archæologists rather than architects—initiated a +movement for the revival of the national Gothic architecture. The first +fruits of this movement, led by Pugin, Brandon, Rickman, and others +(about 1830–40), were seen in countless pseudo-Gothic structures +in which the pointed arches, buttresses, and clustered shafts of +mediæval architecture were imitated or parodied according to the +designer’s ability, with frequent misapprehension of their proper use or +significance. This unintelligent misapplication of Gothic forms was, +however, confined to the earlier stages of the movement. With increasing +light and experience +<span class="pagenum">379</span> +<a name="page379" id="page379"> </a> +came a more correct and consistent use of the mediæval styles, dominated +by the same spirit of archæological correctness which had produced the +<i>classicismo</i> of the Late Renaissance in Italy. This spirit, +stimulated by extensive enterprises in the restoration of the great +mediæval monuments of the United Kingdom, was fatal to any free and +original development of the style along new lines. But it rescued church +architecture from the utter meanness and debasement into which it had +fallen, and established a standard of taste which reacted on all other +branches of design.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w210"> +<a name="fig216" id="fig216"> </a> +<img src="images/fig216.jpg" width="224" height="488" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 216.—ASSIZE COURTS, MANCHESTER. DETAIL.</p> + +<p><b>THE VICTORIAN GOTHIC.</b> Between 1850 and 1870 the striving after +archæological correctness gave place to the more rational effort to +adapt Gothic principles to modern +<span class="pagenum">380</span> +<a name="page380" id="page380"> </a> +requirements, instead of merely copying extinct styles. This effort, +prosecuted by a number of architects of great intelligence, culture, and +earnestness (Sir Gilbert Scott, George Edmund Street, William Burges, +and others), resulted in a number of extremely interesting buildings. +Chief among these in size and cost stand the <b>Parliament Houses</b> at +Westminster, by <i>Sir Charles Barry</i> (begun 1839), in the +Perpendicular style. This immense structure (Fig. 215), imposing in its +simple masses and refined in its carefully studied detail, is the most +successful monument of the Victorian Gothic style. It suffers, however, +from the want of proper relation of scale between its decorative +elements and the vast proportions of the edifice, which belittle its +component elements. It cannot, on the whole, be claimed as a successful +vindication of the claims of the promoters of the style as to the +adaptability of Gothic forms to structures planned and built after the +modern fashion. The <b>Assize Courts</b> at Manchester (Fig. 216), the +<b>New Museum</b> at Oxford, the gorgeous <b>Albert Memorial</b> at +London, by <i>Scott</i>, and the <b>New Law Courts</b> at London, by +<i>Street</i>, are +<span class="pagenum">381</span> +<a name="page381" id="page381"> </a> +all conspicuous illustrations of the same truth. They are conscientious, +carefully studied designs in good taste, and yet wholly unsuited in +style to their purpose. They are like labored and scholarly verse in a +foreign tongue, correct in form and language, but lacking the +naturalness and charm of true and unfettered inspiration. A later +essay of the same sort in a slightly different field is the <b>Natural +History Museum</b> at South Kensington, by <i>Waterhouse</i> (1879), an +imposing building in a modified Romanesque style (Fig. 217).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig217" id="fig217"> </a> +<img src="images/fig217.jpg" width="260" height="460" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 217.—NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, LONDON.</p> + + +<p><b>OTHER WORKS.</b> The Victorian Gothic style responded to no deep +and general movement of the popular taste, and, like the Anglo-Greek +style, was doomed to failure from the inherent incongruity between +modern needs and mediæval forms. Within the last twenty years there has +been a quite general return to Renaissance principles, and the result is +seen in a large number of town-halls, exchanges, museums, and colleges, +in which Renaissance forms, with and without the orders, have been +treated with increasing freedom and skilful +<span class="pagenum">382</span> +<a name="page382" id="page382"> </a> +adaptation to the materials and special requirements of each case. The +Albert Memorial Hall (1863, by General Scott) may be taken as an early +instance of this movement, and the <b>Imperial Institute</b> (Colonial +offices), by Collcutt, and Oxford Town Hall, by Aston Webb, as among its +latest manifestations. In domestic architecture the so-called Queen Anne +style has been much in vogue, as practised by Norman Shaw, Ernest +George, and others. It is really a modern style, originating in the +imitation of the modified Palladian style as used in the brick +architecture of Queen Anne’s time, but freely and often artistically +altered to meet modern tastes and needs.</p> + +<p>In its emancipation from the mistaken principles of archæological +revivals, and in its evidences of improved taste and awakened +originality, contemporary British architecture shows promise of good +things to come. It is still inferior to the French in the monumental +quality, in technical resource and refinement of decorative detail.</p> + + +<p><b>ELSEWHERE IN EUROPE.</b> In other European countries recent +architecture shows in general increasing freedom and improved good +taste, but both its opportunities and its performance have been nowhere +else as conspicuous as in France, Germany, and England. The costly +Bourse and the vast but overloaded Palais de Justice at Brussels, by +<i>Polaert</i>, are neither of them conspicuous for refined and +cultivated taste. A few buildings of note in Switzerland, Russia, +and Greece might find mention in a more extended review of architecture, +but cannot here even be enumerated. In Italy, especially at Rome, Milan, +Naples, and Turin, there has been a great activity in building since +1870, but with the exception of the <b>Monument to Victor Emmanuel</b> +and the National Museum at Rome, monumental arcades and passages at +Milan and Naples, and <i>Campi Santi</i> or monumental cemeteries at +Bologna, Genoa, and one or two other places, there has been almost +nothing of real importance built in Italy of late years.<!-- invisible . +--></p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="note26" id="note26" href="#tag26">26.</a> +See <a href="#appD">Appendix D</a>.</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">383</span> +<a name="page383" id="page383"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXXVII" id="chapXXVII">CHAPTER XXVII.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, +Fergusson, Statham. Also, Chandler, <i>The Colonial Architecture of +Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia</i>. Cleaveland and Campbell, +<i>American Landmarks</i>. Corner and Soderholz, <i>Colonial +Architecture in New England</i>. Crane and Soderholz, <i>Examples of +Colonial Architecture in Charleston and Savannah</i>. Drake, <i>Historic +Fields and Mansions of Middlesex</i>. Everett, <i>Historic Churches of +America</i>. King, <i>Handbook of Boston</i>; <i>Handbook of New +York</i>. Little, <i>Early New England Interiors</i>. Schuyler, +<i>American Architecture</i>. Van Rensselaer, <i>H. H. Richardson +and His Works</i>. Wallis, <i>Old Colonial Architecture and +Furniture</i>.</p> + + +<p><b>GENERAL REMARKS.</b> The colonial architecture of modern times +presents a peculiar phenomenon. The colonizing nation, carrying into its +new <i>habitat</i> the tastes and practices of a long-established +civilization, modifies these only with the utmost reluctance, under the +absolute compulsion of new conditions. When the new home is virgin soil, +destitute of cultivation, government, or civilized inhabitants, the +accompaniments and activities of civilization introduced by the +colonists manifest themselves at first in curious contrast to the +primitive surroundings. The struggle between organized life and chaos, +the laborious subjugation of nature to the requirements of our complex +modern life, for a considerable period absorb the energies of the +colonists. The amenities of culture, the higher intellectual life, the +refinements of art can, during this period, receive little +<span class="pagenum">384</span> +<a name="page384" id="page384"> </a> +attention. Meanwhile a new national character is being formed; the +people are undergoing the moral training upon which their subsequent +achievements must depend. With the conquest of brute nature, however, +and the gradual emergence of a more cultivated class, with the growth of +commerce and wealth and the consequent increase of leisure, the +humanities find more place in the colonial life. The fine arts appear in +scattered centres determined by peculiarly favorable conditions. For a +long time they retain the impress, and seek to reproduce the forms, of +the art of the mother country. But new conditions impose a new +development. Maturing commerce with other lands brings in foreign +influences, to which the still unformed colonial art is peculiarly +susceptible. Only with political and commercial independence, fully +developed internal resources, and a high national culture do the arts +finally attain, as it were, their majority, and enter upon a truly +national growth.</p> + +<p>These facts are abundantly illustrated by the architectural history +of the United States. The only one among the British colonies to attain +political independence, it is the only one among them whose architecture +has as yet entered upon an independent course of development, and this +only within the last twenty-five or thirty years. Nor has even this +development produced as yet a distinctive local style. It has, however, +originated new constructive methods, new types of buildings, and a +distinctively American treatment of the composition and the masses; the +decorative details being still, for the most part, derived from historic +precedents. The architecture of the other British colonies has retained +its provincial character, though producing from time to time individual +works of merit. In South America and Mexico the only buildings of +importance are Spanish, French, or German in style, according to the +nationality of the architects employed. The following +<span class="pagenum">385</span> +<a name="page385" id="page385"> </a> +sketch of American architecture refers, therefore, exclusively to its +development in the United States.</p> + + +<p><b>FORMATIVE PERIOD.</b> Buildings in stone were not undertaken by +the early English colonists. The more important structures in the +Southern and Dutch colonies were of brick imported from Europe. Wood +was, however, the material most commonly employed, especially in New +England, and its use determined in large measure the form and style of +the colonial architecture. There was little or no striving for +architectural elegance until well into the eighteenth century, when +Wren’s influence asserted itself in a modest way in the Middle and +Southern colonies. The very simple and unpretentious town-hall at +Williamsburg, Va., and St. Michael’s, Charleston, are attributed to him; +but the most that can be said for these, as for the brick churches and +manors of Virginia previous to 1725, is that they are simple in design +and pleasing in proportion, without special architectural elegance. The +same is true of the wooden houses and churches of New England of the +period, except that they are even simpler in design.</p> + +<p class="illustration float w240"> +<a name="fig218" id="fig218"> </a> +<img src="images/fig218.jpg" width="241" height="315" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 218.—CHRIST CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA.<!-- invisible all . --></p> + +<p>From 1725 to 1775 increased population and wealth along the coast +brought about a great advance in architecture, especially in churches +and in the dwellings of the wealthy. During this period was developed +the <i>Colonial style</i>, based on that of the reigns of Anne and the +first two Georges in England, and in church architecture on the models +set by Wren and Gibbs. All the details were, however, freely modified by +the general employment of wood. The scarcity of architects trained in +Old World traditions contributed to this departure from classic +precision of form. The style, especially in interior design, reflected +the cultured taste of the colonial aristocracy in its refined treatment +of the woodwork. But there was little or no architecture of a truly +monumental character. Edifices of stone were singularly few, and +administrative buildings were small and modest, +<span class="pagenum">386</span> +<a name="page386" id="page386"> </a> +owing to insufficient grants from the Crown, as well as to the poverty +of the colonies.</p> + +<p>The churches of this period include a number of interesting designs, +especially pleasing in the forms of their steeples. The “<b>Old +South</b>” at Boston (now a museum), Trinity at Newport, and <b>St. +Paul’s</b> at New York—one of the few built of stone +(1764)—are good examples of the style. <b>Christ Church</b> at +Philadelphia (1727–35, by Dr. Kearsley) is another example, +historically as well as architecturally interesting (Fig. 218); and +there are scores of other churches almost equally noteworthy, scattered +through New England, Maryland, Virginia, and the Middle States.</p> + + +<p><b>DWELLINGS.</b> These reflect better than the churches the varying +tastes of the different colonies. Maryland and Virginia abound in fine +brick manor-houses, set amid extensive grounds walled in and entered +through iron gates of artistic design. The interior finish of these +houses was often elaborate in conception and admirably executed. +Westover (1737), Carter’s Grove (1737) in Virginia, and the Harwood and +Hammond Houses at Annapolis, Md. (1770), are examples. The majority of +the New England houses were of wood, more compact in plan, more varied +and picturesque in design than those of the South, but wanting somewhat +of their stateliness. +<span class="pagenum">387</span> +<a name="page387" id="page387"> </a> +The interior finish of wainscot, cornices, stairs, and mantelpieces +shows, however, the same general style, in a skilful and artistic +adaptation of classic forms to the slender proportions of wood +construction. Externally the orders appear in porches and in colossal +pilasters, with well designed entablatures, and windows of Italian +model. The influence of the <ins class="correction" title="consistent error for ‘Adam’">Adams</ins> and Sheraton furniture is +doubtless to be seen in these quaint and often charming versions of +classic motives. The Hancock House, Boston (of stone, demolished); the +Sherburne House, Portsmouth (1730); Craigie House, Cambridge (1757, Fig. +219); and Rumford House, North Woburn (Mass.), are typical examples.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig219" id="fig219"> </a> +<img src="images/fig219.jpg" width="431" height="287" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 219.—CRAIGIE (LONGFELLOW) HOUSE, CAMBRIDGE.<!-- invisible . +--></p> + +<p>In the Middle States architectural activity was chiefly centred in +Philadelphia and New York, and one or two other towns, where a number of +manor-houses, still +<span class="pagenum">388</span> +<a name="page388" id="page388"> </a> +extant, attest the wealth and taste of the time. It is noticeable that +the veranda or piazza was confined to the Southern States, but that the +climate seems to have had little influence on the forms of roofs. These +were gambrelled, hipped, gabled, or flat, alike in the North and South, +according to individual taste.</p> + + +<p><b>PUBLIC BUILDINGS.</b> Of public and monumental architecture this +period has little to show. Large cities did not exist; New York, Boston, +and Philadelphia were hardly more than overgrown villages. The public +buildings—court-houses and town-halls—were modest and +inexpensive structures. The Old State House and Faneuil Hall at Boston, +the Town Hall at Newport (R.I.), and Independence Hall at Philadelphia, +the best known of those now extant, are not striking architecturally. +Monumental design was beyond the opportunities and means of the +colonies. It was in their churches, all of moderate size, and in their +dwellings that the colonial builders achieved their greatest successes; +and these works are quaint, charming, and refined, rather than +impressive or imposing.</p> + +<p>To the latter part of the colonial period belong a number of +interesting buildings which remain as monuments of Spanish rule in +California, Florida, and the Southwest. The old Fort S. Marco, now +Fort Marion (1656–1756), and the Catholic cathedral (1793; after +the fire of 1887 rebuilt in its original form with the original façade +uninjured), both at St. Augustine, Fla.; the picturesque buildings of +the California missions (mainly 1769–1800), the majority of them +now in ruins; scattered Spanish churches in California, Arizona, and New +Mexico, and a few unimportant secular buildings, display among their +modern and American settings a picturesque and interesting Spanish +aspect and character, though from the point of view of architectural +detail they represent merely a crude phase of the Churrigueresque +style.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">389</span> +<a name="page389" id="page389"> </a> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig220" id="fig220"> </a> +<img src="images/fig220.jpg" width="355" height="243" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 220.—NATIONAL CAPITOL, WASHINGTON.</p> + +<p><b>EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD.</b> Between the Revolution and the War of +1812, under the new conditions of independence and self-government, +architecture took on a more monumental character. Buildings for the +State and National administrations were erected with the rapidly +increasing resources of the country. Stone was more generally used; +colonnades, domes, and cupolas or bell-towers, were adopted as +indispensable features of civic architecture. In church-building the +Wren-Gibbs type continued to prevail, but with greater correctness of +classic forms. The gambrel roof tended to disappear from the houses of +this period, and there was some decline in the refinement and delicacy +of the details of architecture. The influence of the Louis XVI. style is +traceable in many cases, as in the New York City Hall (1803–12, by +<i>McComb</i> and <i>Mangin</i>), one of the very best designs of the +time, and in the delicate stucco-work and interior finish of many +houses, The original <b>Capitol</b> at Washington—the central +portion of the present edifice—by <i>Thornton</i>, <i>Hallet</i>, +and <i>B. H. Latrobe</i> (1793–1830; Fig. 220), +<span class="pagenum">390</span> +<a name="page390" id="page390"> </a> +the <b>State House</b> at Boston (1795, by <i>Bulfinch</i>), and the +University of Virginia, at Charlotteville, by <i>Thomas Jefferson</i> +(1817; recently destroyed in part by fire), are the most interesting +examples of the classic tendencies of this period. Their freedom from +the rococo vulgarities generally prevalent at the time in Europe is +noticeable.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w270"> +<a name="fig221" id="fig221"> </a> +<img src="images/fig221.jpg" width="264" height="327" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 221.—CUSTOM HOUSE, NEW YORK.</p> + +<p><b>THE CLASSIC REVIVAL.</b> The influence of the classic revivals of +Europe began to appear before the close of this period, and reached its +culmination about 1830–40. It left its impress most strongly on +our Federal architecture, although it invaded domestic architecture, +producing countless imitations, in brick and wooden houses, of Grecian +colonnades and porticos. One of its first-fruits was the White House, or +Executive Mansion, at Washington, by <i>Hoban</i> (1792), recalling the +large English country houses of the time. The <b>Treasury</b> and +<b>Patent Office</b> buildings at Washington, the Philadelphia Mint, the +<b>Sub-treasury</b> and <b>Custom House</b> at New York (the latter +erected originally for a bank; Fig. 221), and the <b>Boston Custom +House</b> are among the important Federal buildings of this period. +Several State capitols were also erected under the same influence; and +the Marine Exchange and <b>Girard College</b> at Philadelphia should +also be mentioned +<span class="pagenum">391</span> +<a name="page391" id="page391"> </a> +as conspicuous examples of the pseudo-Greek style. The last-named +building is a Corinthian dormitory, its tiers of small windows +contrasting strangely with its white marble columns. These classic +buildings were solidly and carefully constructed, but lacked the grace, +cheerfulness, and appropriateness of earlier buildings. The Capitol at +Washington was during this period greatly enlarged by terminal wings +with fine Corinthian porticos, of Roman rather than Greek design. The +<b>Dome</b>, by <i>Walters</i>, was not added until 1858–73; it is +a successful and harmonious composition, nobly completing the building. +Unfortunately, it is an afterthought, built of iron painted to simulate +marble, the substructure being inadequate to support a dome of masonry. +The Italian or Roman style which it exemplified, in time superseded the +less tractable Greek style.</p> + + +<p><b>THE WAR PERIOD.</b> The period from 1850 to 1876 was one of +intense political activity and rapid industrial progress. The former +culminated in the terrible upheaval of the civil war; the latter in the +completion of the Pacific Railroad (1869) and a remarkable development +of the mining resources and manufactures of the country. It was a period +of feverish commercial activity, but of artistic stagnation, and +witnessed the erection of but few buildings of architectural importance. +A number of State capitols, city halls and churches, of +considerable size and cost but of inferior design, attest the decline of +public taste and architectural skill during these years. The huge +Municipal Building at Philadelphia and the still unfinished Capitol at +Albany are full of errors of planning and detail which twenty-five years +of elaboration have failed to correct. Next to the dome of the Capitol +at Washington, completed during this period, of which it is the most +signal architectural achievement, its most notable monument was the +<b>St. Patrick’s Cathedral</b> at New York, by <i>Renwick</i>; +a Gothic church which, if somewhat cold and mechanical in detail, +is +<span class="pagenum">392</span> +<a name="page392" id="page392"> </a> +a stately and well-considered design. Its west front and spires +(completed 1886) are particularly successful. Trinity Church (1843, by +<i>Upjohn</i>) and Grace Church (1840, by Renwick), though of earlier +date, should be classed with this cathedral as worthy examples of modern +Gothic design. Indeed, the churches designed in this style by a few +thoroughly trained architects during this period are the most creditable +and worthy among its lesser productions. In general an undiscriminating +eclecticism of style prevailed, unregulated by sober taste or technical +training. The Federal buildings by <i>Mullett</i> were monuments of +perverted design in a heavy and inartistic rendering of French +Renaissance motives. The New York Post Office and the State, Army and +Navy Department building at Washington are examples of this style.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig222" id="fig222"> </a> +<img src="images/fig222.jpg" width="431" height="382" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 222.—TRINITY CHURCH, BOSTON.</p> + +<p><b>THE ARTISTIC AWAKENING.</b> Between 1870 and 1880 a remarkable +series of events exercised a powerful influence on the artistic life of +the United States. Two terrible conflagrations in Chicago (1871) and +Boston (1872) gave unexampled opportunities for architectural +improvement and greatly stimulated the public interest in the art. The +feverish and abnormal industrial activity which followed the war and the +rapid growth of the parvenu spirit were checked by the disastrous +“panic” of 1873. With the completion of the Pacific railways and the +settlement of new communities in the West, industrial prosperity, when +it returned, was established on a firmer basis. An extraordinary +expansion of travel to Europe began to disseminate the seeds of artistic +culture throughout the country. The successful establishment of schools +of architecture in Boston (1866) and other cities, and the opening or +enlargement of art museums in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, +Detroit, Milwaukee, and elsewhere, stimulated the artistic awakening +which now manifested itself. In architecture the personal influence of +two men, trained in the Paris École des Beaux-Arts,<!-- invisible hyphen +--> +<span class="pagenum">393</span> +<a name="page393" id="page393"> </a> +was especially felt—of <i>R. M. Hunt</i> (1827–95) +through his words and deeds quite as much as through his works; and of +<i>H. H. Richardson</i> (1828–86) predominantly through his +works. These two men, with others of less fame but of high ideals and +thorough culture, did much to elevate architecture as an art in the +public esteem. To all these influences new force was added by the +Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia (1876). Here for the first time +the American people were brought into contact, in their own land, with +the products of European and Oriental art. It was to them an artistic +revelation, whose results were prompt and far-reaching. Beginning first +in the domain of industrial and decorative art, its stimulating +influence rapidly extended to painting and architecture, and with +permanent consequences. American students began to throng the centres of +Old World art, while the setting of higher standards of artistic +excellence at home, and the development of important art-industries, +were other fruits of this artistic awakening. The recent Columbian +Exhibition at Chicago (1893), its latest and most important +manifestation, has added a new impulse to the movement, especially in +architecture.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig223" id="fig223"> </a> +<img src="images/fig223.jpg" width="433" height="299" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 223.—LIBRARY AT WOBURN, MASS.</p> + +<p><b>STYLE IN RECENT ARCHITECTURE.</b> The rapid increase in the number +of American architects trained in Paris or under the indirect influence +of the École des Beaux-Arts has been an important factor in recent +architectural progress. Yet it has by no means imposed the French +academic formulæ upon American architecture. The conditions, materials, +and constructive processes here prevailing, and above all the +eclecticism of the public taste, have prevented this. The French +influence is perceived rather in a growing appreciation of monumental +design in the planning, composition, and setting of buildings, than in +any direct imitation of French models. The Gothic revival which +prevailed more or less widely from 1840 to 1875, as already noticed, and +of which the <b>State Capitol</b> at Hartford +<span class="pagenum">394</span> +<a name="page394" id="page394"> </a> +(Conn.; 1875–78), and the <b>Fine Arts Museum</b> at Boston, were +among the last important products, was generally confined to church +architecture, for which Gothic forms are still largely employed, as in +the Protestant <b>Cathedral</b> of <b>All Saints</b> now building at +Albany (N.Y.), by an English architect. For the most part the works of +the last twenty years show a more or less judicious eclecticism, the +choice of style being determined partly by the person and training of +the designer, partly by the nature of the building. The powerfully +conceived works of Richardson, in a free version of the French +Romanesque, for a time exercised a wide influence, especially among the +younger architects. <b>Trinity Church</b>, Boston (<a href="#fig222">Fig. 222</a>), his earliest important work; many public +libraries and business buildings, and finally the impressive <b>County +Buildings</b> at Pittsburgh (Pa.), all +<span class="pagenum">395</span> +<a name="page395" id="page395"> </a> +treated in this style, are admirable rather for the strong individuality +of their designer, displayed in their vigorous composition, than on +account of the historic style he employed (Fig. 223). Yet it appeared in +his hands so flexible and effective that it was widely imitated. But if +easy to use, it is most difficult to use well; its forms are too massive +for ordinary purposes, and in the hands of inferior designers it was so +often travestied that it has now lost its wide popularity. While a +number of able architects have continued to use it effectively in +ecclesiastical, civic, and even commercial architecture, it is being +generally superseded by various forms of the Renaissance. Here also a +wide eclecticism prevails, the works of the same architect often varying +from the gayest Francis I. designs in domestic architecture, or +free adaptations of Quattrocento details for theatres and street +architecture, to the most formal classicism in colossal +exhibition-buildings, museums, libraries, and the like. Meanwhile there +are many more or less successful ventures in other historic +<span class="pagenum">396</span> +<a name="page396" id="page396"> </a> +styles applied to public and private edifices. Underlying this apparent +confusion, almost anarchy in the use of historic styles, the careful +observer may detect certain tendencies crystallizing into definite form. +New materials and methods of construction, increased attention to +detail, a growing sense of monumental requirements, even the +development of the elevator as a substitute for the grand staircase, are +leaving their mark on the planning, the proportions, and the artistic +composition of American buildings, irrespective of the styles used. The +art is with us in a state of transition, and open to criticism in many +respects; but it appears to be full of life and promise for the +future.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig224" id="fig224"> </a> +<img src="images/fig224.jpg" width="157" height="283" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 224.—“TIMES” BUILDING, NEW YORK.</p> + +<p><b>COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS.</b> This class of edifices has in our great +cities developed wholly new types, which have taken shape under four +imperative influences. These are the demand for fire-proof construction, +the demand for well-lighted offices, the introduction of elevators, and +the concentration of business into limited areas, within which land has +become inordinately costly. These causes have led to the erection of +buildings of excessive height (Fig. 224); the more recent among them +constructed with a framework of iron or steel columns and beams, the +visible walls being a mere filling-in. To render a building of twenty +stories attractive to the eye, especially when built on an irregular +site, is a difficult problem, of which a wholly satisfactory solution +has yet to be found. There have been, however, some notable achievements +in this line, in most of which the principle has been clearly recognized +that a lofty building should have a well-marked +<span class="pagenum">397</span> +<a name="page397" id="page397"> </a> +basement or pedestal and a somewhat ornate crowning portion or capital, +the intervening stories serving as a die or shaft and being treated with +comparative simplicity. The difficulties of scale and of handling one +hundred and fifty to three hundred windows of uniform style have been +surmounted with conspicuous skill (<b>American Surety Building</b> and +Broadway Chambers, New York; Ames Building, Boston; Carnegie Building, +Pittsburgh; Union Trust, St. Louis). In some cases, especially in +Chicago and the Middle West, the metallic framework is suggested by +slender piers between the windows, rising uninterrupted from the +basement to the top story. In others, especially in New York and the +East, the walls are treated as in ordinary masonry buildings. The +Chicago school is marked by a more utilitarian and unconventional +treatment, with results which are often extremely bold and effective, +but rarely as pleasing to the eye as those attained by the more +conservative Eastern school. In the details of American office-buildings +every variety of style is to be met with; but the Romanesque and the +Renaissance, freely modified, predominate. The tendency towards two or +three well-marked types in the external composition of these buildings, +as above suggested, promises, however, the evolution of a style in which +the historic origin of the details will be a secondary matter. Certain +Chicago architects have developed an original treatment of architectural +forms by exaggerating some of the structural lines, by suppressing the +mouldings and more familiar historic forms, and by the free use of flat +surface ornament. The Schiller, Auditorium, and Fisher Buildings, all at +Chicago, Guaranty Building, Buffalo, and Majestic Building, Detroit, are +examples of this personal style, which illustrates the untrammelled +freedom of the art in a land without traditions.<a class="tag" name="tag27" id="tag27" href="#note27">27</a></p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig225" id="fig225"> </a> +<img src="images/fig225.jpg" width="441" height="327" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 225.—COUNTRY HOUSE, MASSACHUSETTS.</p> + +<p><b>DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> It is in this field that the most +characteristic and original phases of American architecture +<span class="pagenum">398</span> +<a name="page398" id="page398"> </a> +are to be met with, particularly in rural and suburban residences. In +these the peculiar requirements of our varying climates and of American +domestic life have been studied and in large measure met with great +frankness and artistic appreciation. The broad staircase-hall, serving +often as a sort of family sitting-room, the piazza, and a picturesque +massing of steep roofs, have been the controlling factors in the +evolution of two or three general types which appear in infinite +variations. The material most used is wood, but this has had less +influence in the determination of form than might have been expected. +The artlessness of the planning, which is arranged to afford the maximum +of convenience rather than to conform to any traditional type, has been +the element of greatest artistic success. It has resulted in exteriors +which are the natural outgrowth of +<span class="pagenum">399</span> +<a name="page399" id="page399"> </a> +the interior arrangements, frankly expressed, without affectation of +style (Fig. 225). The resulting picturesqueness has, however, in many +cases been treated as an end instead of an incidental result, and the +affectation of picturesqueness has in such designs become as detrimental +as any affectation of style. In the internal treatment of American +houses there has also been a notable artistic advance, harmony of color +and domestic comfort and luxury being sought after rather than +monumental effects. A number of large city and country houses +designed on a palatial scale have, however, given opportunity for a more +elaborate architecture; notably the Vanderbilt, Villard, and Huntington +residences at New York, the great country-seat of <b>Biltmore</b>, near +Asheville (N.C.), in the Francis I. style (by R. M. Hunt), and +many others.</p> + + +<p><b>OTHER BUILDINGS.</b> American architects have generally been less +successful in public, administrative, and ecclesiastical architecture +than in commercial and domestic work. The preference for small parish +churches, treated as audience-rooms rather than as places of worship, +has interfered with the development of noble types of church-buildings. +Yet there are signs of improvement; and the new <b>Cathedral</b> of +<b>St. John the Divine</b> at New York, in a modified Romanesque style, +promises to be a worthy and monumental building. In semi-public +architecture, such as hotels, theatres, clubs, and libraries, there are +many notable examples of successful design. The <b>Ponce de Leon +Hotel</b> at St. Augustine, a sumptuous and imposing pile in a free +version of the Spanish Plateresco; the Auditorium Theatre at Chicago, +the Madison Square Garden and the Casino at New York, may be cited as +excellent in general conception and well carried out in detail, +externally and internally. The Century and Metropolitan Clubs at New +York, the <b>Boston Public Library</b>, the Carnegie Library at +Pittsburgh, the <b>Congressional Library</b> at Washington, and the +recently +<span class="pagenum">400</span> +<a name="page400" id="page400"> </a> +completed Minnesota <b>State Capitol</b> at St. Paul, exemplify in +varying degrees of excellence the increasing capacity of American +architects for monumental design. This was further shown in the +buildings of the <b>Columbian Exposition</b> at Chicago in 1893. These, +in spite of many faults of detail, constituted an aggregate of +architectural splendor such as had never before been seen or been +possible on this side the Atlantic. They further brought architecture +into closer union with the allied arts and formed an object lesson in +the value of appropriate landscape gardening as a setting to monumental +structures.</p> + +<p>It should be said, in conclusion, that with the advances of recent +years in artistic design in the United States there has been at least as +great improvement in scientific construction. The sham and flimsiness of +the Civil War period are passing away, and solid and durable building is +becoming more general throughout the country, but especially in the +Northeast and in some of the great Western cities, notably in Chicago. +In this onward movement the Federal buildings—post-offices, +custom-houses, and other governmental edifices—have not, till +lately, taken high rank. Although solidly and carefully constructed, +those built during the period 1875–1895 were generally inferior to +the best work produced by private enterprise, or by State and municipal +governments. This was in large part due to enactments devolving upon the +supervising architect at Washington the planning of all Federal +buildings, as well as a burden of supervisory and clerical duties +incompatible with the highest artistic results. Since 1898, however, +a more enlightened policy has prevailed, and a number of notable +designs for Federal buildings have been secured by carefully-conducted +competitions.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="note27" id="note27" href="#tag27">27.</a> +See <a href="#appD">Appendix, D</a> and <a href="#appE">E</a>.</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">401</span> +<a name="page401" id="page401"> </a> + +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="chapXXVIII" id="chapXXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII.</a></h3> + +<h3 class="subhead"> +ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.</h3> + +<h3 class="subsub"> +INDIA, CHINA, AND JAPAN.</h3> + + +<p class="books"> +<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Cole, <i>Monographs +of Ancient Monuments of India</i>. Conder, <i>Notes on Japanese +Architecture</i> (in Transactions of R.I.B.A., for 1886). Cunningham, +<i>Archæological Survey of India</i>. Fergusson, <i>Indian and Eastern +Architecture</i>; <i>Picturesque Illustrations of Indian +Architecture</i>. Le Bon, <i>Les Monuments de l’Inde</i>. Morse, +<i>Japanese Houses</i>. Stirling, <i>Asiatic Researches</i>. Consult +also the <i>Journal</i> and the <i>Transactions</i> of the Royal Asiatic +Society.</p> + + +<p><b>INTRODUCTORY NOTE.</b> The architecture of the non-Moslem +countries and races of Asia has been reserved for this closing chapter, +in order not to interrupt the continuity of the history of European +styles, with which it has no affinity and scarcely even a point of +contact. Among them all, India alone has produced monuments of great +architectural importance. The buildings of China and Japan, although +interesting for their style, methods, and detail, and so deserving at +least of brief mention, are for the most part of moderate size and of +perishable materials. Outside of these three countries there is little +to interest the general student of architecture.</p> + + +<p><b>INDIA: PERIODS.</b> It is difficult to classify the non-Mohammedan +styles of India, owing to their frequently overlapping, both +geographically and artistically; while the lack of precise dates in +Indian literature makes the chronology of many of the monuments more or +less doubtful. The +<span class="pagenum">402</span> +<a name="page402" id="page402"> </a> +divisions given below are a modification of those first established by +Fergusson, and are primarily based on the three great religions, with +geographical subdivisions, as follows:</p> + +<p><span class="smallroman">THE BUDDHIST STYLE</span>, from the reign +of Asoka, <i>cir.</i> 250 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, to the +7th century <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> Its monuments occupy +mainly a broad band running northeast and southwest, between the Indian +Desert and the Dekkan. Offshoots of the style are found as far north as +Gandhara, and as far south as Ceylon.</p> + +<p><span class="smallroman">THE JAINA STYLE</span>, akin to the +preceding if not derived from it, covering the same territory as well as +southern India; from 1000 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> to the +present time.</p> + +<p><span class="smallroman">THE BRAHMAN</span> or <span class="smallroman">HINDU STYLES</span>, extending over the whole peninsula. +They are sub-divided geographically into the <span class="smallroman">NORTHERN BRAHMAN</span>, the <span class="smallroman">CHALUKYAN</span> in the Dekkan, and the <span class="smallroman">DRAVIDIAN</span> in the south; this last style being +coterminous with the populations speaking the Tamil and cognate +languages. The monuments of these styles are mainly subsequent to the +10th century, though a few date as far back as the 7th.</p> + +<p>The great majority of Indian monuments are religious—temples, +shrines, and monasteries. Secular buildings do not appear until after +the Moslem conquests, and most of them are quite modern.</p> + + +<p><b>GENERAL CHARACTER.</b> All these styles possess certain traits in +common. While stone and brick are both used, sandstone predominating, +the details are in large measure derived from wooden prototypes. +Structural lines are not followed in the exterior treatment, purely +decorative considerations prevailing. Ornament is equally lavished on +all parts of the building, and is bewildering in its amount and +complexity. Realistic and grotesque sculpture is freely used, forming +multiplied horizontal bands of extraordinary richness and minuteness of +execution. Spacious and lofty +<span class="pagenum">403</span> +<a name="page403" id="page403"> </a> +interiors are rarely attempted, but wonderful effects are produced by +seemingly endless repetition of columns in halls, and corridors, and by +external emphasis of important parts of the plan by lofty tower-like +piles of masonry.</p> + +<p>The source of the various Indian styles, the origin of the forms +used, the history of their development, are all wrapped in obscurity. +All the monuments show a fully developed style and great command of +technical resources from the outset. When, where, and how these were +attained is as yet an unsolved mystery. In all its phases previous to +the Moslem conquest Indian architecture appears like an indigenous art, +borrowing little from foreign styles, and having no affinities with the +arts of Occidental nations.</p> + + +<p><b>BUDDHIST STYLE.</b> Although Buddhism originated in the sixth +century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, the earliest +architectural remains of the style date from its wide promulgation in +India under Asoka (272–236 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). Buddhist monuments comprise three chief +classes of structures: the <i>stupas</i> or <i>topes</i>, which are +mounds more or less domical in shape, enclosing relic-shrines of Buddha, +or built to mark some sacred spot; <i>chaityas</i>, or temple halls, cut +in the rock; and <i>viharas</i>, or monasteries. The style of the detail +varies considerably in these three classes, but is in general simpler +and more massive than in the other styles of India.</p> + + +<p><b>TOPES.</b> These are found in groups, of which the most important +are at or near Bhilsa in central India, at Manikyala in the northwest, +at Amravati in the south, and in Ceylon at Ruanwalli and Tuparamaya. The +best known among them is the <b>Sanchi Tope</b>, near Bhilsa, 120 feet +in diameter and 56 feet high. It is surrounded by a richly carved stone +rail or fence, with gateways of elaborate workmanship, having three +sculptured lintels crossing the carved uprights. The tope at Manikyala +is larger, and dates from the 7th century. It is exceeded in size by +many in Ceylon, that at Abayagiri measuring 360 feet in +<span class="pagenum">404</span> +<a name="page404" id="page404"> </a> +diameter. Few of the topes retain the <i>tee</i>, or model of a shrine, +which, like a lantern, once crowned each of them.</p> + +<p>Besides the topes there are a few stupas of tower-like form, square +in plan, of which the most famous is that at <b>Buddh Gaya</b>, near the +sacred Bodhi tree, where Buddha attained divine light in 588 <span +class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p> + + +<p><b>CHAITYA HALLS.</b> The Buddhist speos-temples—so far as +known the only extant halls of worship of that religion, except one at +Sanchi—are mostly in the Bombay Presidency, at Ellora, Karli, +Ajunta, Nassick, and Bhaja. The earliest, that at Karli, dates from 78 +<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, the latest (at Ellora), +<i>cir.</i> 600 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> They consist +uniformly of a broad nave ending in an apse, and covered by a roof like +a barrel vault, and two narrow side aisles. In the apse is the +<i>dagoba</i> or relic-shrine, shaped like a miniature tope. The front +of the cave was originally adorned with an open-work screen or frame of +wood, while the face of the rock about the opening was carved into the +semblance of a sumptuous structural façade. Among the finest of these +caverns is that at <b>Karli</b>, whose massive columns and impressive +scale recall Egyptian models, though the resemblance is superficial and +has no historic significance. More suggestive is the affinity of many of +the columns which stand before these caves to Persian prototypes (see <a +href="#fig21">Fig. 21</a>). It is not improbable that +both Persian and classic forms were introduced into India through the +Bactrian kingdom 250 years <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> +Otherwise we must seek for the origin of nearly all Buddhist forms in a +pre-existing wooden architecture, now wholly perished, though its +traditions may survive in the wooden screens in the fronts of the caves. +While some of these caverns are extremely simple, as at Bhaja, others, +especially at <b>Nassick</b> and <b>Ajunta</b>, are of great splendor +and complexity.</p> + + +<p><b>VIHARAS.</b> Except at Gandhara in the Punjab, the structural +monasteries of the Buddhists were probably all of wood and have long ago +perished. The Gandhara monasteries +<span class="pagenum">405</span> +<a name="page405" id="page405"> </a> +of Jamalgiri and Takht-i-Bahi present in plan three or four courts +surrounded by cells. The centre of one court is in both cases occupied +by a platform for an altar or shrine. Among the ruins there have been +found a number of capitals whose strong resemblance to the Corinthian +type is now generally attributed to Byzantine rather than Bactrian +influences. These viharas may therefore be assigned to the 6th or 7th +century <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span></p> + +<p>The rock-cut viharas are found in the neighborhood of the chaityas +already described. Architecturally, they are far more elaborate than the +chaityas. Those at Salsette, Ajunta, and Bagh are particularly +interesting, with pillared halls or courts, cells, corridors, and +shrines. The hall of the <b>Great Vihara</b> at <b>Bagh</b> is 96 feet +square, with 36 columns. Adjoining it is the school-room, and the whole +is fronted by a sumptuous rock-cut colonnade 200 feet long. These caves +were mostly hewn between the 5th and 7th centuries, at which time +sculpture was more prevalent in Buddhist works than previously, and some +of them are richly adorned with figures.</p> + + +<p><b>JAINA STYLE.</b> The religion and the architecture of the Jainas +so closely resemble those of the Buddhists, that recent authorities are +disposed to treat the Jaina style as a mere variation or continuation of +the Buddhist. Chronologically they are separated by an interval of some +three centuries, <i>cir.</i> 650–950 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, which have left us almost no monuments of +either style. The Jaina is moreover easily distinguished from the +Buddhist architecture by the great number and elaborateness of its +structural monuments. The multiplication of statues of Tirthankhar in +the cells about the temple courts, the exuberance of sculpture, the use +of domes built in horizontal courses, and the imitation in stone of +wooden braces or struts are among its distinguishing features.</p> + + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig226" id="fig226"> </a> +<img src="images/fig226.jpg" width="424" height="326" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 226.—PORCH OF TEMPLE ON MOUNT ABU.</p> + +<p><b>JAINA TEMPLES.</b> The earliest examples are on <b>Mount Abu</b> +<span class="pagenum">406</span> +<a name="page406" id="page406"> </a> +in the Indian Desert. Built by Vimalah Sah in 1032, the chief of these +consists of a court measuring 140 × 90 feet, surrounded by cells and a +double colonnade. In the centre rises the shrine of the god, containing +his statue, and terminating in a lofty tower or <i>sikhra</i>. An +imposing columnar porch, cruciform in plan, precedes this cell (Fig. +226). The intersection of the arms is covered by a dome supported on +eight columns with stone brackets or struts. The dome and columns are +covered with profuse carving and sculptured figures, and the total +effect is one of remarkable dignity and splendor. The temple of +<b>Sadri</b> is much more extensive, twenty minor domes and one of +larger size forming cruciform porches on all four sides of the central +<i>sikhra</i>. The cells about the court are each covered by a small +<i>sikhra</i>, and these, with the twenty-one domes (four of which are +<span class="pagenum">407</span> +<a name="page407" id="page407"> </a> +built in three stories), all grouped about the central tower and adorned +with an astonishing variety of detail, constitute a monument of the +first importance. It was built by Khumbo Rana, about 1450. At +<b>Girnar</b> are several 12th-century temples with enclosed instead of +open vestibules. One of these, that of <b>Neminatha</b>, retains intact +its court enclosure and cells, which in most other cases have perished. +The temple at <b>Somnath</b> resembles it, but is larger; the dome of +its porch, 33 feet in diameter, is the largest Jaina dome in India. +Other notable temples are at Gwalior, Khajuraho, and Parasnatha.</p> + +<p>In all the Jaina temples the salient feature is the sikhra or +<i>vimana</i>. This is a tower of approximately square plan, tapering by +a graceful curve toward a peculiar terminal ornament shaped like a +flattened melon. Its whole surface is variegated by horizontal bands and +vertical breaks, covered with sculpture and carving. Next in importance +are the domes, built wholly in horizontal courses and resting on stone +lintels carried by bracketed columns. These same traits appear in +relatively modern examples, as at Delhi.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float w150"> +<a name="fig227" id="fig227"> </a> +<img src="images/fig227.jpg" width="148" height="497" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 227.—TOWER OF VICTORY, CHITTORE.</p> + +<p><b>TOWERS.</b> A similar predilection for minutely broken surfaces +marks the towers which sometimes adjoin the temples, as at Chittore +(tower of <b>Sri Allat</b>, 13th century), or were erected as trophies +of victory, like that of <b>Khumbo Rana</b> in +<span class="pagenum">408</span> +<a name="page408" id="page408"> </a> +the same town (Fig. 227). The combination of horizontal and vertical +lines, the distribution of the openings, and the rich ornamentation of +these towers are very interesting, though lacking somewhat in structural +propriety of design.</p> + + +<p><b>HINDU STYLES: NORTHERN BRAHMAN.</b> The origin of this style is as +yet an unsolved problem. Its monuments were mainly built between 600 and +1200 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, the oldest being in Orissa, +at Bhuwanesevar, Kanaruk, and Puri. In northern India the temples are +about equally divided between the two forms of Brahmanism—the +worship of Vishnu or <i>Vaishnavism</i>, and that of Siva or +<i>Shaivism</i>—and do not differ materially in style. As in the +Jaina style, the <i>vimana</i> is their most striking feature, and this +is in most cases adorned with numerous reduced copies of its own form +grouped in successive stages against its sides and angles. This curious +system of design appears in nearly all the great temples, both of Vishnu +and Siva. The Jaina melon ornament is universal, surmounted generally by +an urn-shaped finial.</p> + +<p>In plan the vimana shrine is preceded by two or three chambers, +square or polygonal, some with and some without columns. The foremost of +these is covered by a roof formed like a stepped pyramid set cornerwise. +The fine porch of the ruined temple at <b>Bindrabun</b> is cruciform in +plan and forms the chief part of the building, the shrine at the further +end being relatively small and its tower unfinished or ruined. In some +modern examples the antechamber is replaced by an open porch with a +Saracenic dome, as at Benares; in others the old type is completely +abandoned, as in the temple at <b>Kantonnuggur</b> (1704–22). This +is a square hall built of terra-cotta, with four three-arched porches +and nine towers, more Saracenic than Brahman in general aspect.</p> + +<p>The <b>Kandarya Mahadeo</b>, at Khajuraho, is the most noted example +of the northern Brahman style, and one of the most splendid structures +extant. A strong and lofty basement +<span class="pagenum">409</span> +<a name="page409" id="page409"> </a> +supports an extraordinary mass of roofs, covering the six open porches +and the antechamber and hypostyle hall, which precede the shrine, and +rising in successive pyramidal masses until the vimana is reached which +covers the shrine. This is 116 feet high, but seems much loftier, by +reason of the small scale of its constituent parts and the marvellously +minute decoration which covers the whole structure. The vigor of its +masses and the grand stairways which lead up to it give it a dignity +unusual for its size, 60 × 109 feet in plan (<i>cir.</i> 1000 <span +class="smallroman">A.D.</span>).</p> + +<p>At Puri, in Orissa, the <b>Temple</b> of <b>Jugganat</b>, with its +double enclosure and numerous subordinate shrines, the Teli-ka-Mandir at +Gwalior, and temples at <b>Udaipur</b> near Bhilsa, at <b>Mukteswara</b> +in Orissa, at Chittore, Benares, and Barolli, are important examples. +The few tombs erected subsequent to the Moslem conquest, combining Jaina +bracket columns with Saracenic domes, and picturesquely situated palaces +at Chittore (1450), Oudeypore (1580), and Gwalior, should also be +mentioned.</p> + + +<p><b>CHALUKYAN STYLE.</b> Throughout a central zone crossing the +peninsula from sea to sea about the Dekkan, and extending south to +Mysore on the west, the Brahmans developed a distinct style during the +later centuries of the Chalukyan dynasty. Its monuments are mainly +comprised between 1050 and the Mohammedan conquest in 1310. The most +notable examples of the style are found along the southwest coast, at +Hullabid, Baillur, and Somnathpur.</p> + + +<p class="illustration float"> +<a name="fig228" id="fig228"> </a> +<img src="images/fig228.jpg" width="259" height="407" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 228.—TEMPLE AT HULLABÎD. DETAIL.</p> + +<p><b>TEMPLES.</b> Chalukyan architecture is exclusively religious and +its temples are easily recognized. The plans comprise the same elements +as those of the Jainas, but the Chalukyan shrine is always star-shaped +externally in plan, and the vimana takes the form of a stepped pyramid +instead of a curved outline. The Jaina dome is, moreover, wholly +wanting. All the details are of extraordinary richness and beauty, and +the breaking up of the surfaces by rectangular +<span class="pagenum">410</span> +<a name="page410" id="page410"> </a> +projections is skilfully managed so as to produce an effect of great +apparent size with very moderate dimensions. All the known examples +stand on raised platforms, adding materially to their dignity. Some are +double temples, as at Hullabid (Fig. 228); others are triple in plan. +A noticeable feature of the style is the deeply cut stratification +of the lower part of the temples, each band or stratum bearing a +distinct frieze of animals, figures or ornament, carved with masterly +skill. Pierced stone slabs filling the window openings are also not +uncommon.</p> + +<p>The richest exemplars of the style are the temples at <b>Baillur</b> +and Somnathpur, and at Hullabîd the <b>Kait Iswara</b> and the +incomplete <b>Double Temple</b>. The Kurti Stambha, or gate at Worangul, +and the Great Temple at <b>Hamoncondah</b> should also be mentioned.</p> + + +<p><b>DRAVIDIAN STYLE.</b> The Brahman monuments of southern India +exhibit a style almost as strongly marked as the Chalukyan. This appears +less in their details than in their general plan and conception. The +Dravidian temples are not single structures, but aggregations of +buildings of varied size and form, covering extensive areas enclosed by +walls +<span class="pagenum">411</span> +<a name="page411" id="page411"> </a> +and entered through gates made imposing by lofty pylons called +<i>gopuras</i>. As if to emphasize these superficial resemblances to +Egyptian models, the sanctuary is often low and insignificant. It is +preceded by much more imposing porches (<i>mantapas</i>) and hypostyle +halls or <i>choultries</i>, the latter being sometimes of extraordinary +extent, though seldom lofty. The choultrie, sometimes called the Hall of +1,000 Columns, is in some cases replaced by pillared corridors of great +length and splendor, as at <b>Ramisseram</b> and <b>Madura.</b> The +plans are in most cases wholly irregular, and the architecture, so far +from resembling the Egyptian in its scale and massiveness, is marked by +the utmost minuteness of ornament and tenuity of detail, suggesting wood +and stucco rather than stone. The <b>Great Hall</b> at Chillambaram is +but 10 to 12 feet high, and the corridors at Ramisseram, 700 feet long, +are but 30 feet high. The effect of <i>ensemble</i> of the Dravidian +temples is disappointing. They lack the emphasis of dominant masses and +the dignity of symmetrical and logical arrangement. The very loftiness +of the gopuras makes the buildings of the group within seem low by +contrast. In nearly every temple, however, some one feature attracts +merited admiration by its splendor, extent, or beauty. Such are the +<b>Choultrie</b>, built by Tirumalla Nayak at Madura (1623–45), +measuring 333 × 105 feet; the corridors already mentioned at Ramisseram +and in the <b>Great Temple</b> at Madura; the gopuras at <b>Tarputry</b> +and Vellore, and the <b>Mantapa</b> of <b>Parvati</b> at Chillambaram +(1595–1685). Very noticeable are the compound columns of this +style, consisting of square piers with slender shafts coupled to them +and supporting brackets, as at Chillambaram, Peroor, and Vellore; the +richly banded square piers, the grotesques of rampant horses and +monsters, and the endless labor bestowed upon minute carving and +ornament in superposed bands.</p> + + +<p><b>OTHER MONUMENTS.</b> Other important temples are at Tiruvalur, +Seringham, Tinevelly, and Conjeveram, all alike +<span class="pagenum">412</span> +<a name="page412" id="page412"> </a> +in general scheme of design, with enclosures varying from 300 to 1,000 +feet in length and width. At <b>Tanjore</b> is a magnificent temple with +two courts, in the larger of which stands a <i>pagoda</i> or shrine with +a pyramidal vimana, unusual in Dravidian temples, and beside it the +smaller <b>Shrine</b> of <b>Soubramanya</b> (Fig. 229), a structure +of unusual beauty of detail. In both, the vertical lower story with its +pilasters and windows is curiously suggestive of Renaissance design. The +pagoda dates from the 14th, the smaller temple from the 15th +century.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig229" id="fig229"> </a> +<img src="images/fig229.jpg" width="431" height="429" +alt="see caption and text"><br> +FIG. 229.—SHRINE OF SOUBRAMANYA, TANJORE.</p> + + +<p><b>ROCK-CUT RATHS.</b> All the above temples were built subsequently +to the 12th century. The rock-cut shrines date in some cases as far back +as the 7th century; they are called <i>kylas</i> and <i>raths</i>, and +are not caves, but isolated edifices, +<span class="pagenum">413</span> +<a name="page413" id="page413"> </a> +imitating structural designs, but hewn bodily from the rock. Those at +Mahavellipore are of diminutive size; but at <b>Purudkul</b> there is an +extensive temple with shrine, choultrie, and gopura surrounded by a +court enclosure measuring 250 × 150 feet (9th century). More famous +still is the elaborate <b>Kylas</b> at <b>Ellora</b>, of about the same +size as the above, but more complex and complete in its details.</p> + + +<p><b>PALACES.</b> At Madura, Tanjore, and Vijayanagar are Dravidian +palaces, built after the Mohammedan conquest and in a mixed style. The +domical octagonal throne-room and the <b>Great Hall</b> at Madura (17th +century), the most famous edifices of the kind, were evidently inspired +from Gothic models, but how this came about is not known. The Great Hall +with its pointed arched barrel vault of 67 feet span, its cusped arches, +round piers, vaulting shafts, and triforium, appears strangely foreign +to its surroundings.</p> + + +<p><b>CAMBODIA.</b> The subject of Indian architecture cannot be +dismissed without at least brief mention of the immense temple of +<b>Nakhon Wat</b> in Cambodia. This stupendous creation covers an area +of a full square mile, with its concentric courts, its encircling moat +or lake, its causeways, porches, and shrines, dominated by a central +structure 200 feet square with nine pagoda-like towers. The corridors +around the inner court have square piers of almost classic Roman type. +The rich carving, the perfect masonry, and the admirable composition of +the whole leading up to the central mass, indicate architectural ability +of a high order.</p> + + +<p><b>CHINESE ARCHITECTURE.</b> No purely Mongolian nation appears ever +to have erected buildings of first-rate importance. It cannot be denied, +however, that the Chinese are possessed of considerable decorative skill +and mechanical ingenuity; and these qualities are the most prominent +elements in their buildings. Great size and splendor, massiveness and +originality of construction, they do not possess. Built in large measure +of wood, cleverly framed and decorated +<span class="pagenum">414</span> +<a name="page414" id="page414"> </a> +with a certain richness of color and ornament, with a large element of +the grotesque in the decoration, the Chinese temples, pagodas, and +palaces are interesting rather than impressive. There is not a single +architectural monument of imposing size or of great antiquity, so far as +we know. The celebrated <b>Porcelain Tower</b> of Nankin is no longer +extant, having been destroyed in the Tæping rebellion in 1850. It was a +nine-storied polygonal pagoda 236 feet high, revetted with porcelain +tiles, and was built in 1412. The largest of Chinese temples, that of +the <b>Great Dragon</b> at Pekin, is a circular structure of moderate +size, though its enclosure is nearly a mile square. Pagodas with +diminishing stories, elaborately carved entrance gates and successive +terraces are mainly relied upon for effect. They show little structural +art, but much clever ornament. Like the monasteries and the vast +<i>lamaseries</i> of Thibet, they belong to the Buddhist religion.</p> + +<p>Aside from the ingenious framing and bracketing of the carpentry, the +most striking peculiarity of Chinese buildings is their broad-spreading +tiled roofs. These invariably slope downward in a curve, and the tiling, +with its hip-ridges, crestings, and finials in terra-cotta or metal, +adds materially to the picturesqueness of the general effect. Color and +gilding are freely used, and in some cases—as in a summer pavilion +at Pekin—porcelain tiling covers the walls, with brilliant effect. +The chief wonder is that this resource of the architectural decorator +has not been further developed in China, where porcelain and earthenware +are otherwise treated with such remarkable skill.</p> + + +<p><b>JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE.</b> Apparently associated in race with the +Chinese and Koreans, the Japanese are far more artistic in temperament +than either of their neighbors. The refinement and originality of their +decorative art have given it a wide reputation. Unfortunately the +prevalence of earthquakes has combined with the influence of the +traditional +<span class="pagenum">415</span> +<a name="page415" id="page415"> </a> +habits of the people to prevent the maturing of a truly monumental +architecture. Except for the terraces, gates, and enclosures of their +palaces and temples, wood is the predominant building material. It is +used substantially as in China, the framing, dovetailing, bracketing, +broad eaves and tiled roofs of Japan closely resembling those of China. +The chief difference is in the greater refinement and delicacy of the +Japanese details and the more monumental disposition of the temple +terraces, the beauty of which is greatly enhanced by skillful landscape +gardening. The gateways recall somewhat those of the Sanchi Tope in +India (<a href="#page403">p. 403</a>), but are commonly of wood. +Owing to the danger from earthquakes, lofty towers and pagodas are +rarely seen.</p> + +<p>The domestic architecture of Japan, though interesting for its +arrangements, and for its sensible and artistic use of the most flimsy +materials, is too trivial in scale, detail, and construction to receive +more than passing reference. Even the great palace at Tokio,<a class="tag" name="tag28" id="tag28" href="#note28">28</a> covering an +immense area, is almost entirely composed of one-storied buildings of +wood, with little of splendor or architectural dignity.</p> + +<div class="monuments"> +<p><b>MONUMENTS</b> (additional to those in text). <span class="smallroman">BUDDHIST</span>: Topes at Sanchi, Sonari, Satdara, Andher, +in Central India; at Sarnath, near Benares; at Jelalabad and Salsette; +in Ceylon at Anuradhapura, Tuparamaya, Lankaramaya.—Grotto temples +(chaityas), mainly in Bombay and Bengal Presidencies; at Behar, +especially the Lomash Rishi, and Cuttack; at Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajunta, and +Ellora (Wiswakarma Cave); in Salsette, the Kenheri Cave.—Viharas: +Structural at Nalanda and Sarnath, demolished; rock-cut in Bengal, at +Cuttack, Udayagiri (the Ganesa); in the west, many at Ajunta, also at +Bagh, Bedsa, Bhaja, Nassick (the Nahapana, Vadnya Sri, etc.), Salsette, +Ellora (the Dekrivaria, etc.). In Nepâl, stupas of Swayanbunath and +Bouddhama.</p> + +<p><span class="smallroman">JAINA</span>: Temples at Aiwulli, Kanaruc +(Black Pagoda), and Purudkul; +<span class="pagenum">416</span> +<a name="page416" id="page416"> </a> +groups of temples at Palitana, Gimar, Mount Abu, Somnath, Parisnath; the +Sas Bahu at Gwalior, 1093; Parswanatha and Ganthai (650) at Khajuraho; +temple at Gyraspore, 7th century; modern temples at Ahmedabad +(Huttising), Delhi, and Sonaghur; in the south at Moodbidri, Sravana +Belgula; towers at Chittore.</p> + +<p><span class="smallroman">NORTHERN BRAHMAN</span>: Temples, +Parasumareswara (500 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>), +Mukteswara, and Great Temple (600–650), all at Bhuwaneswar, among +many others; of Papanatha at Purudkul; grotto temples at Dhumnar, +Ellora, and Poonah; temples at Chandravati, Udaipur, and Amritsur (the +last modern); tombs of Singram Sing and others at Oudeypore; of Rajah +Baktawar at Ulwar, and others at Goverdhun; ghâts or landings at Benares +and elsewhere.</p> + +<p><span class="smallroman">CHALUKYAN</span>: Temples at Buchropully +and Hamoncondah, 1163; ruins at Kalyani; grottoes of Hazar Khutri.</p> + +<p><span class="smallroman">DRAVIDIAN</span>: Rock-cut temples (raths) +at Mahavellipore; Tiger Cave at Saluvan Kuppan; temples at Pittadkul +(Purudkul), Tiruvalur, Combaconum, Vellore, Peroor, Vijayanagar; +pavilions at Tanjore and Vijayanagar.</p> + +<p>There are also many temples in the Kashmir Valley difficult of +assignment to any of the above styles and religions.</p> +</div> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="note28" id="note28" href="#tag28">28.</a> +See Transactions R.I.B.A., 52d year, 1886, article by R. J. Conder, +pp. 185–214.</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum">417</span> +<a name="page417" id="page417"> </a> +<h3 class="chapter"> +<a name="appendix" id="appendix">APPENDIX.</a></h3> + +<p><a name="appA">A.</a> <b>PRIMITIVE GREEK +ARCHITECTURE.</b>—The researches of Schliemann commented by +Schuchardt, of Dörpfeld, Stamakis, Tsoundas, Perrot, and others, in +Troy, Mycenæ, and Tiryns, and the more recent discoveries of Evans at +Gnossus, in Crete, have greatly extended our knowledge of the +prehistoric art of Greece and the Mediterranean basin, and established +many points of contact on the one hand with ancient Egyptian and +Phœnician art, and on the other, with the art of historic Greece. They +have proved the existence of an active and flourishing commerce between +Egypt and the Mediterranean shores and Aegean islands more than 2000 +<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, and of a flourishing material +civilization in those islands and on the mainland of Greece, borrowing +much, but not everything, from Egypt. While the origin of the Doric +order in the structural methods of the pre-Homeric architecture of +Tiryns and Mycenæ, as set forth by Dörpfeld and by Perrot and Chipiez, +can hardly be regarded as proved in all details, since much of the +argument advanced for this derivation rests on more or less conjectural +restorations of the existing remains, it seems to be fairly well +established that the Doric order, and historic Greek architecture in +general, trace their genesis in large measure back in direct line to +this prehistoric art. The remarkable feature of this early architecture +is the apparently complete absence of temples. Fortifications, houses, +palaces, and tombs make up the ruins thus far discovered, and seem to +indicate clearly the derivation of the temple-type of later Greek art +from the primitive house, consisting of a hall or <i>megaron</i> with +four columns about the central hearth (whence +<span class="pagenum">418</span> +<a name="page418" id="page418"> </a> +no doubt, the atrium and peristyle of Roman houses, through their Greek +intermediary prototypes) and a porch or <i>aithousa</i>, with or without +columns <i>in antis</i>, opening directly into the <i>megaron</i>, or +indirectly through an ante-room called the <i>prodomos</i>. Here we have +the prototypes of the Greek temple <i>in antis</i>, with its <i>naos</i> +having interior columns, whether roofed over or hypæthral (see pp. 54, +55). It is probable also that the evidently liberal use of timber for +many of the structural details led in time to many of the forms later +developed in stone in the entablature of the Doric order. But it is hard +to discover, as Dörpfeld would have it, in the slender Mycenæan columns +with their inverted taper, the prototype of the massive Doric column +with its upward taper. The Mycenæan column was evidently derived from +wooden models; the sturdy Doric column—the earliest being the most +massive—seems plainly derived from stone or rubble piers (see <a +href="#page50">p. 50</a>), and thus to have come from a +different source from the Mycenæan forms.</p> + +<p>The <i>gynecæum</i>, or women’s apartments, the men’s apartments, and +the bath were in these ancient palaces grouped in varying relations +about the <i>megaron</i>: their plan, purpose, and arrangement are +clearly revealed in the ruins of Tiryns, where they are more complete +and perfect than either at Troy or Mycenæ.</p> + + +<p><a name="appB">B.</a> <b>CAMPANILES IN +ITALY.</b>—Reference is made on <a href="#page264">page 264</a> to the towers or campaniles of the +Italian Gothic style and period, and six of these are specifically +mentioned; and on <a href="#page305">page 305</a> mention is also made +of those of the Renaissance in Italy. The number and importance of the +Italian campaniles and the interest attaching to their origin and +design, warrant a more extended notice than has been assigned them in +the pages cited.</p> + +<p>The oldest of these bell-towers appear to be those adjoining +<span class="pagenum">419</span> +<a name="page419" id="page419"> </a> +the two churches of San Apollinare in and near Ravenna (see <a href="#page114">p. 114</a>), and date presumably from the +sixth century. They are plain circular towers with few and small +openings, except in the uppermost story, where larger arched openings +permit the issue of the sound of the bells. This type, which might have +been developed into a very interesting form of tower, does not seem to +have been imitated. It was at Rome, and not till the ninth or tenth +century, that the campanile became a recognized feature of church +architecture. It was invariably treated as a structure distinct from the +church, and was built of brick upon a square plan, rising with little or +no architectural adornment to a height usually of a hundred feet or +more, and furnished with but a few small openings below the belfry +stage, where a pair of coupled arched windows separated by a simple +column opened from each face of the tower. Above these windows a +pyramidal roof of low pitch terminated the tower. In spite of their +simplicity of design these Roman bell-towers often possess a noticeable +grace of proportions, and furnish the prototype of many of the more +elaborate campaniles erected during the Middle Ages in other central and +north Italian cities. The towers of Sta. Maria in Cosmedin, Sta. Maria +in Trastevere, and S. Giorgio in Velabro are examples of this type. +Most of the Roman examples date from the eleventh and twelfth +centuries.</p> + +<p>In other cities, the campanile was treated with some variety of form +and decoration, as well as of material. In Lombardy and Venetia the +square red-brick shaft of the tower is often adorned with long, narrow +pilaster strips, as at Piacenza (p. 158, <a href="#fig91">Fig. 91</a>) and Venice, and an arcaded cornice +not infrequently crowns the structure. The openings at the top may be +three or four in number on each face, and even the plan is sometimes +octagonal or circular. The brick octagonal campanile of +<b>S. Gottardo</b> at Milan is one of the finest Lombard church +towers. At Verona the +<span class="pagenum">420</span> +<a name="page420" id="page420"> </a> +brick tower on the Piazza <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘dell ’Erbe’ with misplaced apostrophe">dell’ Erbe</ins> and +that of S. Zeno are conspicuous; but every important town of +northern Italy possesses one or more examples of these structures dating +from the eleventh, twelfth, or thirteenth century.</p> + +<p>Undoubtedly the three most noted bell-towers in Italy are those of +Venice, Pisa, and Florence. The great <b>Campanile</b> of <b>St. +Mark</b> at Venice, first begun in 874, carried higher in the twelfth +and fourteenth centuries, and finally completed in the sixteenth century +with the marble belvedere and wooden spire so familiar in pictures of +Venice, was formerly the highest of all church campaniles in Italy, +measuring approximately 325 feet to the summit. But this superb historic +monument, weakened by causes not yet at this writing fully understood, +fell in sudden ruin on the 14th of July, 1902, to the great loss not +only of Venice, but of the world of art, though fortunately without +injuring the neighboring buildings on the Piazza and Piazzetta of St. +Mark. Since then the campanile of S. Stefano, in the same city, has +been demolished to forestall another like disaster. The <b>Leaning +Tower</b> of Pisa (see p. 160, <a href="#fig92">Fig. 92</a>) dates from 1174, and is unique in +its plan and its exterior treatment with superposed arcades. Begun +apparently as a leaning tower, it seems to have increased this lean to a +dangerous point, by the settling of its foundations during construction, +as its upper stages were made to deviate slightly towards the vertical +from the inclination of the lower portion. It has always served rather +as a watch-tower and belvedere than as a bell-tower. The +<b>Campanile</b> adjoining the Duomo at <b>Florence</b> is described on +<a href="#page263">p. 263</a> and illustrated in <a +href="#fig154">Fig. 154</a>, and does not require +further notice here. The black-and-white banded towers of Sienna, Lucca, +and Pistoia, and the octagonal lanterns crowning those of Verona and +Mantua, also referred to in the text on <a href="#page264">p. 264</a>, need here only be mentioned again +as illustrating the variety of treatment of these Italian towers.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">421</span> +<a name="page421" id="page421"> </a> +<p>The Renaissance architects developed new types of campanile, and in +such variety that they can only be briefly referred to. Some, like a +brick tower at Perugia, are simple square towers with pilasters; more +often engaged columns and entablatures mark the several stories, and the +upper portion is treated either with an octagonal lantern or with +diminishing stages, and sometimes with a spire. Of the latter class the +best example is that of S. Biagio, at Montepulciano,—one of +the two designed to flank the façade of Ant. da S. Gallo’s +beautiful church of that name. One or two good late examples are to be +found at Naples. Of the more massive square type there are examples in +the towers of S. Michele, Venice; of the cathedral at Ferrara, Sta. +Chiara at Naples, and Sta. Maria dell’ Anima—one of the +earliest—at Rome. The most complete and perfect of these square +belfries of the Renaissance is that of the <b>Campidoglio</b> at Rome, +by Martino Lunghi, dating from the end of the sixteenth century, which +groups so admirably with the palaces of the Capitol.</p> + + +<p><a name="appC" id="appC">C.</a> <b>BRAMANTE’S WORKS.</b>—A +more or less animated controversy has arisen regarding the authenticity +of many of the works attributed to Bramante, and the tendency has of +late been to deny him any part whatever in several of the most important +of these works. The first of these to be given a changed assignment was +the church of the Consolazione at Todi (<a href="#page293">p. 293</a>), now believed to be by Cola di Caprarola; +and it is now denied by many investigators that either the Cancelleria +or the Giraud palace (<a href="#page290">p. 290</a>) is his work, +or any one of two or three smaller houses in Rome showing a somewhat +similar architectural treatment. The evidence adduced in support of this +denial is rather speculative and critical than documentary, but is not +without weight. The date 1495 carved on a doorway of the Cancelleria +palace is thought to forbid its attribution to +<span class="pagenum">422</span> +<a name="page422" id="page422"> </a> +Bramante, who is not known to have come to Rome till 1503; and there is +a lack of positive evidence of his authorship of the Giraud palace and +the other houses which seem to be by the same hand as the Cancelleria. +To the advocates of this view there is not enough resemblance in style +between this group of buildings and his acknowledged work either in +Milan or in the Vatican to warrant their being attributed to him.</p> + +<p>It must, however, be remarked, that this notable group of works, +stamped with the marks and even the mannerisms of a strong personality, +reveal in their unknown author gifts amounting to genius, and heretofore +deemed not unworthy of Bramante. It is almost inconceivable that they +should have been designed by a mere beginner previously utterly unknown +and forgotten soon after. It is incumbent upon those who deny the +attribution to Bramante to find another name, if possible, on which to +fasten the credit of these works. Accordingly, they have been variously +attributed to Alberti (who died in 1472) or his followers; to Bernardo +di Lorenzo, and to other later fifteenth-century artists. The difficulty +here is to discover any name that fits the conditions even as well as +Bramante’s; for the supposed author must have been in Rome between 1495 +and 1505, and his other works must be at least as much like these as +were Bramante’s. No name has thus far been found satisfactory to careful +critics; and the alternative theory, that there existed in Rome, before +Bramante’s coming, a group of architects unknown to later fame, +working in a common style and capable of such a masterpiece as the +Cancelleria, does not harmonize with the generally accepted facts of +Renaissance art history. Moreover, the comparison of these works with +Bramante’s Milanese work on the one hand and his great Court of the +Belvedere in the Vatican on the other, yields, to some critics, +conclusions quite opposed to those of the advocates of another +authorship than Bramante’s.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">423</span> +<a name="page423" id="page423"> </a> +<p>The controversy must be considered for the present as still open. +There are manifest difficulties with either of the two opposed views, +and these can hardly be eliminated, except by the discovery of documents +not now known to exist, whose testimony will be recognized as +unimpeachable.</p> + + +<p><a name="appD" id="appD">D.</a> <b>L’ART NOUVEAU.</b>—Since +1896, and particularly since the Paris Exposition of 1900, +a movement has manifested itself in France and Belgium, and spread +to Germany and Austria and even measurably to England, looking towards a +more personal and original style of decorative and architectural design, +in which the traditions and historic styles of the past shall be +ignored. This movement has received from its adherents and the public +the name of “L’Art Nouveau,” or, according to some, “L’Art Moderne”; but +this name must not be held to connote either a really new style or a +fundamentally new principle in art. Indeed, it may be questioned whether +any clearly-defined body of principles whatever underlies the movement, +or would be acknowledged equally by all its adherents. It appears to be +a reaction against a too slavish adherence to traditional forms and +methods of design (see pp. <a href="#page370">370</a>, <a href="#page375">375</a>), a striving to ignore or forget the past rather +than a reaching out after any well-understood, positive end; as such, it +possesses the negative strength of protest rather than the affirmative +strength of a vital principle. Its lack of cohesion is seen in the +division of its adherents into groups, some looking to nature for +inspiration, while others decry this as a mistaken quest; some seeking +to emphasize structural lines, and others to ignore them altogether. +All, however, are united in the avoidance of commonplace forms and +historic styles, and this preoccupation has developed an amazing amount +of originality and individualism of style, frequently reaching the +extreme of eccentricity. The results have therefore been, as might be +expected, extremely varied in +<span class="pagenum">424</span> +<a name="page424" id="page424"> </a> +merit, ranging from the most refined and reserved in style to the most +harshly bizarre and extravagant. As a rule, they have been most +successful in small and semi-decorative objects—jewelry, +silverware, vases, and small furniture; and one most desirable feature +of the movement has been the stimulus it has given (especially in France +and England), to the organization and activity of “arts-and-crafts” +societies which occupy themselves with the encouragement of the +decorative and industrial arts and the diffusion of an improved taste. +In the field of the larger objects of design, in which the dominance of +traditional form and of structural considerations is proportionally more +imperious, the struggle to evade these restrictions becomes more +difficult, and results usually in more obvious and disagreeable +eccentricities, which the greater size and permanence of the object tend +further to exaggerate. The least successful achievements of the movement +have accordingly been in architecture. The buildings designed by its +most fervent disciples (<i>e.g.</i> the Pavillon Bleu at the Exposition +of 1900, the Castel Béranger, Paris, by <i>H. Guimard</i>, the +houses of the artist colony at Darmstadt, and others) are for the most +part characterized by extreme stiffness, eccentricity, or ugliness. The +requirements of construction and of human habitation cannot easily be +met without sometimes using the forms which past experience has +developed for the same ends; and the negation of precedent is not the +surest path to beauty or even reasonableness of design. It is +interesting to notice that in the intermediate field of furniture-design +some of the best French productions recall the style of Louis XV., +modified by Japanese ideas and spirit. This singular but not unpleasing +combination is less surprising when we reflect that the style of Louis +XV. was itself a protest against the formalism of the heavy classic +architecture of preceding reigns, and achieved its highest successes in +the domain of furniture and interior decoration.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">425</span> +<a name="page425" id="page425"> </a> +<p>It may be fair to credit the new movement with one positive +characteristic in its prevalent regard for line, especially for the +effect of long and swaying lines, whether in the contours or +ornamentation of an object. This is especially noticeable in the Belgian +work, and in that of the Viennese “Secessionists,” who have, however, +carried eccentricity to a further point of extravagance than any +others.</p> + +<p>Whether “L’Art Nouveau” will ever produce permanent results time +alone can show. Its present vogue is probably evanescent and it cannot +claim to have produced a style; but it seems likely to exert on European +architecture an influence, direct and indirect, not unlike that of the +Néo-Grec movement of 1830 in France (<a href="#page364">p. 364</a>), but even more lasting and beneficial. It +has already begun to break the hold of rigid classical tradition in +design; and recent buildings, especially in Germany and Austria, like +the works of the brilliant <i>Otto Wagner</i> in Vienna, show a pleasing +freedom of personal touch without undue striving after eccentric +novelty. Doubtless in French and other European architecture the same +result will in time manifest itself.</p> + +<p>The search for novelty and the desire to dispense wholly with +historic forms of design which are the chief marks of the Art <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Noveau’">Nouveau</ins>, were +emphatically displayed in many of the remarkable buildings of the Paris +<b>Exhibition of 1900</b>, in which a striking fertility and facility of +design in the decorative details made more conspicuous the failure to +improve upon the established precedents of architectural style in the +matters of proportion, scale, general composition, and contour. As usual +the metallic construction of these buildings was almost without +exception admirable, and the decorative details, taken by themselves, +extremely clever and often beautiful, but the combined result was not +satisfactory.</p> + +<p>In the United States the movement has not found a firm foothold +because there has been no dominant, enslaving tradition to protest +against. Not a few of the ideas, not a +<span class="pagenum">426</span> +<a name="page426" id="page426"> </a> +little of the spirit of the movement may be recognized in the work of +individual architects and decorative artists in the United States, +executed years before the movement took recognizable form in Europe: and +American decorative design has generally been, at least since 1880 or +1885, sufficiently free, individual and personal, to render unnecessary +and impossible any concerted movement of artistic revolt against slavery +to precedent.</p> + + +<p><a name="appE" id="appE">E.</a> <b>RECENT AMERICAN +ARCHITECTURE.</b>—Architectural activity in the United States +continues to share in the general prosperity which has marked the years +since 1898, and this activity has by no means been confined to +industrial and commercial architecture. Indeed, while the erection of +“sky scrapers” or excessively lofty office-buildings has continued to be +a feature of this activity in the great commercial centres, the most +notable architectural enterprises of recent years have been in the field +of educational buildings, both in the East and West. In 1898 a great +international competition resulted in the selection of the design of Mr. +<i>E. Bénard</i> of Paris for a magnificent group of buildings for +the <b>University of California</b> on a scale of unexampled grandeur, +and the erection of this colossal project has been begun. An almost +equally ambitious project, by a firm of Philadelphia architects, has +been adopted for the Washington University at St. Louis; and many other +universities and colleges have either added extensively to their +existing buildings or planned an entire rebuilding on new designs. Among +these the national military and naval academies at <b>West Point</b> and +<b>Annapolis</b> take the first rank in the extent and splendor of the +projected improvements. Museums and libraries have also been erected or +begun in various cities, and the <b>New York Public Library</b>, now +building, will rank in cost and beauty with those already erected in +Boston and Washington.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">427</span> +<a name="page427" id="page427"> </a> +<p>In other departments mention should be made of recent Federal +buildings (custom-houses, post-offices, and court-houses) erected under +the provisions of the Tarsney act from designs secured by competition +among the leading architects of the country; among those the <b>New York +Custom House</b> is the most important, but other buildings, at +Washington, Indianapolis, and elsewhere, are also conspicuous, and many +of them worthy of high praise. The tendency to award the designing of +important public buildings, such as State capitols, county court houses, +city halls, libraries, and hospitals, by competition instead of by +personal and political favor, has resulted in a marked improvement in +the quality of American public architecture.</p> + +<p><a name="appF">F.</a> <b>THE ERECHTHEUM: RECENT +INVESTIGATIONS.</b>—During the past two years, extensive repairs +and partial restorations of the Erechtheum at Athens, undertaken by the +Greek Archæological Society, have afforded opportunities for a new and +thoroughgoing study of the existing portions of the building and of the +surrounding ruins. In these investigations a prominent part has been +borne by Mr. Gorham P. Stevens, representing the Archæological +Institute of America, to whom must be credited, among other things, the +demonstration of the existence, in the east wall of the original +structure, of two windows previously unknown. Other peculiarities of +design and construction were also discovered, which add greatly to the +interest of the building. These investigations are reported in the +<i>American Journal of Archæology</i>, Second Series; <i>Journal of the +Archæological Institute of America</i>, Vol. X., No. 1, <i>et +seq.</i> The illustrations, Figures 35 and 36, are, by Mr. Stevens’ +courtesy, based upon, though not reproductions of, his original +drawings.</p> + +</div> <!-- end div maintext --> + +<a name="page428" id="page428"> </a> + + +<hr class="mid"> + +<hr> + +<hr class="mid"> + +<div class="maintext"> + +<span class="pagenum">429</span> +<a name="page429" id="page429"> </a> + +<h3><a name="glossary" id="glossary"> +GLOSSARY</a><br> +<span class="smaller"> +OF TERMS NOT DEFINED IN THE TEXT.</span></h3> + +<div class="hanging"> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Alcazar</span> (Span., from Arabic <i>Al +Kasr</i>), a palace or castle, especially of a governing +official.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Archivolt</span>, a band or group of +mouldings decorating the wall-face of an arch; or a transverse arch +projecting slightly from the surface of a barrel or groined vault.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Astylar</span>, without columns.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Balnea</span>, a Roman bathing establishment, +less extensive than the <i>thermæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bel Etage</span>, the principal story of a +building, containing the reception rooms and saloons; usually the second +story (first above the ground story).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Broken Entablature</span>, an entablature +which projects forward over each column or pilaster, returning back to +the wall and running along with diminished projection between the +columns, as in the Arch of Constantine (<a href="#fig63">Fig. 63</a>).</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Cantoned Piers</span>, piers adorned with +columns or pilasters at the corners or on the outer faces.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cartouche</span> (Fr.), an ornament shaped +like a shield or oval. In Egyptian hieroglyphics, the oval encircling +the name of a king.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cavetto</span>, a concave, quarter-round +moulding.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chevron</span>, a V-shaped ornament.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chryselephantine</span>, of ivory and gold; +used of statues in which the nude portions are of ivory and the +draperies of gold.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Console</span>, a large scroll-shaped +bracket or ornament, having its broadest curve at the bottom.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Corinthianesque</span>, resembling the +Corinthian; used of capitals having corner-volutes and acanthus leaves, +but combined otherwise than in the classic Corinthian type.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Empaistic</span>, made of, or overlaid with, +sheet-metal beaten or hammered into decorative patterns.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Exedræ</span>, curved seats of stone; +niches or recesses, sometimes of considerable size, provided with seats +for the public.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fenestration</span>, the whole system or +arrangement of windows and openings in an architectural composition.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Four-part.</span> A four-part vault is a +groined vault formed by the intersection of two barrel vaults. Its +diagonal edges or <i>groins</i> divide it into four sections, triangular +in plan, each called a <i>compartment</i>.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Gigantomachia</span>, a group or composition +representing the mythical combat between the gods and the giants.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum">430</span> +<a name="page430" id="page430"> </a> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Half-timbered</span>, constructed with a +timber framework showing externally, and filled in with masonry or +brickwork.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Imaum</span>, imâm, a Mohammedan priest.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Kaabah</span>, the sacred shrine at Meccah, +a nearly cubical structure hung with black cloth.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Karafah</span>, a region in Cairo +containing the so-called tombs of the Khalifs.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Laconicum</span>, the sweat-room in a Roman +bath; usually of domical design in the larger thermæ.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Mezzanine</span>, a low, intermediate +story.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Mueddin</span>, a Mohammedan +mosque-official who calls to prayer.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Narthex</span>, a porch or vestibule running +across the front of a basilica or church.</p> + +<table class="bracket" summary="paired definitions"> +<tr> +<td><p class="smallcaps">Neo-Gothic,</p></td> +<td class="bracket" rowspan="2"> +<p>in a style which seeks to revive and adapt or apply to modern uses +the forms of the Middle Ages.</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p class="smallcaps">Neo‑Mediæval,</p></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +</table> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Oculus</span>, a circular opening, especially +in the crown of a dome.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ogee Arch</span>, one composed of two +juxtaposed S-shaped or wavy curves, meeting in a point at the top.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Palæstra</span>, an establishment among the +ancient Greeks for physical training.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pavilion</span> (Fr. <i>pavillon</i>), +ordinarily a light open structure of ornate design. As applied to +architectural composition, a projecting section of a façade, +usually rectangular in plan, and having its own distinct mass of +roof.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Quarry Ornament</span>, any ornament covering +a surface with two series of reticulated lines enclosing approximately +quadrangular spaces or meshes.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps"><ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Quartrefoil’">Quatrefoil</ins></span>, with four leaves or +<i>foils</i>; composed of four arcs of circles meeting in cusps pointing +inward.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Quoins</span>, slightly projecting blocks +of stone, alternately long and short, decorating or strengthening a +corner or angle of a façade.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Revetment</span>, a veneering or +sheathing.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Rustication</span>, treatment of the +masonry with blocks having roughly broken faces, or with deeply grooved +or bevelled joints.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Soffit</span>, the under-side of an +architrave, beam, arch, or corona.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Spandril</span>, the triangular wall-space +between two contiguous arches.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Squinch</span>, a bit of conical vaulting +filling in the angles of a square so as to provide an octagonal or +circular base for a dome or lantern.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Stoa</span>, an open colonnade for public +resort.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Tepidarium</span>, the hot-water hall or +chamber of a Roman bath.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tympanum</span>, the flat space comprised +between the horizontal and raking cornices of a pediment, or between a +lintel and the arch over it.</p> + +<p class="space"> +<span class="smallcaps">Voussoir</span>, any one of the radial stones +composing an arch.</p> + +</div> <!-- end div hanging --> + +</div> <!-- end div maintext --> + +<div class="index arch"> + +<span class="pagenum">431</span> +<a name="page431" id="page431"> </a> + +<h3><a name="index_arch" id="index_arch"> +INDEX OF ARCHITECTS.</a></h3> + +<p class="mynote note center"> +<a href="#arch_A"> A </a> +<a href="#arch_B"> B </a> +<a href="#arch_C"> C </a> +<a href="#arch_D"> D </a> +<a href="#arch_E"> E </a> +<a href="#arch_F"> F </a> +<a href="#arch_G"> G </a> +<a href="#arch_H"> H </a> +<a href="#arch_I"> I </a> +<a href="#arch_J"> J </a> +<a href="#arch_K"> K </a> +<a href="#arch_L"> L </a><br> +<a href="#arch_M"> M </a> +<a href="#arch_N"> N </a> +<a href="#arch_O"> O </a> +<a href="#arch_P"> P </a> +<a href="#arch_R"> R </a> +<a href="#arch_S"> S </a> +<a href="#arch_T"> T </a> +<a href="#arch_U"> U </a> +<a href="#arch_V"> V </a> +<a href="#arch_W"> W </a> +<a href="#arch_Z"> Z </a><br> + <br> +Highlighted names link back to the beginning of this Index. Page numbers +link to the referenced page.</p> + +<p class="note center"> +The <i>surname</i> is in all cases followed by a comma.</p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_A" id="arch_A" href="#index_arch">Abadie</a>, +<a href="#page373">373</a></p> + +<p><ins class="correction" title="consistent error for ‘Adam’">Adams</ins>, Robert <a href="#page234">234</a></p> + +<p>Agnolo, Baccio d’ <a href="#page291">291</a></p> + +<p>Agnolo, Gabriele d’ <a href="#page287">287</a></p> + +<p>Alberti, Leo Battista <a href="#page277">277</a>, +<a href="#page280">280</a></p> + +<p>Alessi, Galeazzo <a href="#page299">299</a>, +<a href="#page302">302</a></p> + +<p>Ammanati, Bartolomeo <a href="#page300">300</a></p> + +<p>Anselm, Prior <a href="#page219">219</a></p> + +<p>Anthemius of Tralles, <a href="#page127">127</a></p> + +<p>Antonio, Master <a href="#page259">259</a></p> + +<p>Arnold, Master <a href="#page243">243</a></p> + +<p>Arnolfo di Cambio, <a href="#page162">162</a>, +<a href="#page265">265</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_B" id="arch_B" href="#index_arch">Baccio D’ Agnolo</a>, +<a href="#page291">291</a></p> + +<p>Ballu, <a href="#page371">371</a>, +<a href="#page373">373</a></p> + +<p>Baltard, Victor <a href="#page371">371</a></p> + +<p>Barry, Sir Charles <a href="#page380">380</a></p> + +<p>Bassevi, <a href="#page356">356</a></p> + +<p>Battista, Juan <a href="#page351">351</a></p> + +<p>Benci di Cione, <a href="#page266">266</a></p> + +<p>Benedetto da Majano, <a href="#page280">280</a>, +<a href="#page281">281</a></p> + +<p>Bernardo di Lorenzo, <a href="#page282">282</a></p> + +<p>Bernini, Lorenzo <a href="#page295">295</a>, +<a href="#page303">303</a>, +<a href="#page319">319</a></p> + +<p>Berruguete, Alonzo <a href="#page348">348</a>, +<a href="#page350">350</a></p> + +<p>Bianchi, <a href="#page305">305</a></p> + +<p>Bondone, Giotto di <a href="#page258">258</a>, +<a href="#page263">263</a>, +<a href="#page272">272</a></p> + +<p>Boromini, Francesco <a href="#page303">303</a>, +<a href="#page304">304</a></p> + +<p>Borset, <a href="#page334">334</a></p> + +<p>Bramante Lazzari, <a href="#page289">289</a>, +<a href="#page290">290</a>, +<a href="#page294">294</a>, +<a href="#page295">295</a>, +<a href="#page321">321</a></p> + +<p>Brandon, Richard <a href="#page378">378</a></p> + +<p>Bregno, Antonio <a href="#page284">284</a></p> + +<p>Brongniart, <a href="#page363">363</a></p> + +<p>Brunelleschi, Filippo <a href="#page275">275</a>, +<a href="#page276">276</a>, +<a href="#page280">280</a>, +<a href="#page281">281</a>, +<a href="#page289">289</a></p> + +<p>Bullant, Jean <a href="#page316">316</a>, +<a href="#page317">317</a></p> + +<p>Bulfinch, Charles <a href="#page390">390</a></p> + +<p>Buon, Bartolomeo <a href="#page284">284</a></p> + +<p>Buonarotti, Michael Angelo <a href="#page289">289</a>, +<a href="#page292">292</a>, +<a href="#page294">294</a>, +<a href="#page295">295</a>, +<a href="#page296">296</a>, +<a href="#page299">299</a></p> + +<p>Burges, William <a href="#page380">380</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_C" id="arch_C" href="#index_arch">Callicrates</a>, +<a href="#page63">63</a></p> + +<p>Cambio, Arnolfo di <a href="#page162">162</a>, +<a href="#page265">265</a></p> + +<p>Campbell, Colin <a href="#page333">333</a></p> + +<p>Campello, <a href="#page255">255</a></p> + +<p>Caprarola, Cola da <a href="#page293">293</a></p> + +<p>Caprino, Meo del <a href="#page286">286</a></p> + +<p>Chalgrin, <a href="#page362">362</a></p> + +<p>Chambers, Sir William <a href="#page333">333</a></p> + +<p>Chambiges, Pierre <a href="#page313">313</a></p> + +<p>Chrismas, Gerard <a href="#page327">327</a></p> + +<p>Christodoulos, <a href="#page150">150</a></p> + +<p>Churriguera, <a href="#page348">348</a>, +<a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p>Cimabue, <a href="#page258">258</a></p> + +<p>Civitale, Matteo <a href="#page281">281</a>, +<a href="#page283">283</a></p> + +<p>Columbe, Michel <a href="#page310">310</a></p> + +<p>Cortona, Domenico di <a href="#page316">316</a></p> + +<p>Cossutius, <a href="#page68">68</a></p> + +<p>Cronaca, <a href="#page280">280</a>, +<a href="#page291">291</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_D" id="arch_D" href="#index_arch">Dance, George</a> +<a href="#page334">334</a></p> + +<p>De Brosse, Salomon <a href="#page318">318</a>, +<a href="#page319">319</a></p> + +<p>De Fabris, <a href="#page261">261</a></p> + +<p>De Key, Lieven <a href="#page336">336</a></p> + +<p>De Keyser, Hendrik <a href="#page336">336</a></p> + +<p>Della Porta, Giacomo <a href="#page292">292</a>, +<a href="#page299">299</a>, +<a href="#page300">300</a></p> + +<p>Della Robbia, Luca <a href="#page281">281</a></p> + +<p>De l’Orme, Philibert <a href="#page316">316</a>, +<a href="#page317">317</a></p> + +<p>Déperthes, <a href="#page373">373</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum">432</span> +<a name="page432" id="page432"> </a> +<p>Derrand, François <a href="#page319">319</a></p> + +<p>Desiderio da Settignano, <a href="#page281">281</a></p> + +<p>De Tessin, Nicodemus <a href="#page337">337</a></p> + +<p>De Vriendt (or Floris), Cornelius <a href="#page334">334</a>, +<a href="#page335">335</a></p> + +<p>Diego de Siloë, <a href="#page348">348</a></p> + +<p>Domenico di Cortona, <a href="#page316">316</a></p> + +<p>Donatello, <a href="#page275">275</a></p> + +<p>Dosio, Giovanni Antonio <a href="#page291">291</a></p> + +<p>Duban, Félix <a href="#page364">364</a></p> + +<p>Duc, <a href="#page364">364</a>, +<a href="#page365">365</a></p> + +<p>Du Cerceau, Jean Batiste <a href="#page318">318</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_E" id="arch_E" href="#index_arch">Edington</a>, +<a href="#page226">226</a></p> + +<p>Emerson, William <a href="#page382">382</a></p> + +<p>Enrique de Egaz, <a href="#page349">349</a></p> + +<p>Erwin von Steinbach, <a href="#page241">241</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_F" id="arch_F" href="#index_arch">Fain, Pierre</a> +<a href="#page310">310</a></p> + +<p>Federighi, Antonio <a href="#page282">282</a></p> + +<p>Ferstel, H. von <a href="#page375">375</a></p> + +<p>Fiesole, Mino da <a href="#page281">281</a></p> + +<p>Filarete, Antonio <a href="#page283">283</a></p> + +<p>Flitcroft, <a href="#page333">333</a></p> + +<p>Floris (De Vriendt), Cornelius <a href="#page334">334</a>, +<a href="#page335">335</a></p> + +<p>Fontaine, <a href="#page362">362</a></p> + +<p>Fontana, Domenico <a href="#page295">295</a>, +<a href="#page299">299</a>, +<a href="#page300">300</a>, +<a href="#page304">304</a></p> + +<p>Fra Giocondo, <a href="#page286">286</a></p> + +<p>Fra Ristoro, <a href="#page256">256</a></p> + +<p>Fra Sisto, <a href="#page256">256</a></p> + +<p>Fuga, Ferdinando <a href="#page305">305</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_G" id="arch_G" href="#index_arch">Gabriel, Jacques Ange</a> +<a href="#page324">324</a>, +<a href="#page367">367</a></p> + +<p>Gabriele d’Agnolo, <a href="#page287">287</a></p> + +<p>Gaddi, Taddeo <a href="#page263">263</a></p> + +<p>Gadyer, Pierre <a href="#page315">315</a></p> + +<p>Galilei, Alessandro <a href="#page305">305</a></p> + +<p>Garnier, Charles <a href="#page372">372</a></p> + +<p>Gerhardt von Riel, <a href="#page243">243</a></p> + +<p>Giacomo di Pietrasanta, <a href="#page286">286</a></p> + +<p>Gibbs, James <a href="#page332">332</a>, +<a href="#page333">333</a>, +<a href="#page356">356</a>, +<a href="#page385">385</a></p> + +<p>Giocondo, Fra <a href="#page286">286</a></p> + +<p>Giotto di Bondone, <a href="#page258">258</a>, +<a href="#page263">263</a>, +<a href="#page272">272</a></p> + +<p>Giuliano da Majano, <a href="#page286">286</a>, +<a href="#page287">287</a></p> + +<p>Giulio Romano, <a href="#page289">289</a>, +<a href="#page292">292</a></p> + +<p>Goujon, Jean <a href="#page316">316</a>, +<a href="#page321">321</a></p> + +<p>Gumiel, Pedro <a href="#page349">349</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_H" id="arch_H" href="#index_arch">Hallet, Stephen (Étienne)</a> +<a href="#page389">389</a></p> + +<p>Hansen, Theophil <a href="#page360">360</a></p> + +<p>Have, Theodore <a href="#page327">327</a></p> + +<p>Hawksmoor, <a href="#page332">332</a></p> + +<p>Hendrik de Keyser, <a href="#page336">336</a></p> + +<p>Henri de Narbonne, <a href="#page249">249</a></p> + +<p>Henry of Gmünd, <a href="#page255">255</a></p> + +<p>Herrera, Francisco <a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p>Herrera, Juan d’ <a href="#page348">348</a>, +<a href="#page350">350</a>, +<a href="#page351">351</a></p> + +<p>Hitorff, J. J. <a href="#page364">364</a>, +<a href="#page372">372</a></p> + +<p>Hoban, Thomas <a href="#page390">390</a></p> + +<p>Holbein, Hans <a href="#page327">327</a></p> + +<p>Hübsch, Heinrich <a href="#page375">375</a>, +<a href="#page376">376</a></p> + +<p>Hunt, Richard M. <a href="#page393">393</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_I" id="arch_I" href="#index_arch">Ictinus</a>, +<a href="#page62">62</a>, +<a href="#page63">63</a>, +<a href="#page65">65</a></p> + +<p>Isodorus of Miletus, <a href="#page127">127</a></p> + +<p>Ivara, Ferdinando <a href="#page352">352</a>, +<a href="#page365">365</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_J" id="arch_J" href="#index_arch">Jacobus of Meruan</a>, +<a href="#page255">255</a></p> + +<p>Jansen, Bernard <a href="#page327">327</a></p> + +<p>Jefferson, Thomas <a href="#page390">390</a></p> + +<p>John, Master <a href="#page243">243</a></p> + +<p>John of Padua, <a href="#page328">328</a></p> + +<p>Jones, Inigo <a href="#page328">328</a>, +<a href="#page332">332</a>, +<a href="#page333">333</a></p> + +<p>Juan Battista, <a href="#page351">351</a></p> + +<p>Junckher of Cologne, <a href="#page241">241</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_K" id="arch_K" href="#index_arch">Kearsley, Dr.</a> +<a href="#page386">386</a></p> + +<p>Kent, <a href="#page333">333</a></p> + +<p>Klenze, Leo von <a href="#page359">359</a>, +<a href="#page360">360</a>, +<a href="#page367">367</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_L" id="arch_L" href="#index_arch">Labrouste, Henri</a> +<a href="#page364">364</a></p> + +<p>Lassus, J. B. A. <a href="#page371">371</a></p> + +<p>Latrobe, Benjamin H. <a href="#page389">389</a></p> + +<p>Laurana, Francesco <a href="#page310">310</a></p> + +<p>Laurana, Luciano <a href="#page287">287</a></p> + +<p>Le Breton, Gilles <a href="#page313">313</a></p> + +<p>Lefuel, Hector <a href="#page372">372</a></p> + +<p>Lemercier, Jacques <a href="#page312">312</a>, +<a href="#page319">319</a>, +<a href="#page322">322</a></p> + +<p>Le Nepveu, Pierre <a href="#page314">314</a></p> + +<p>Lescot, Pierre <a href="#page316">316</a>, +<a href="#page321">321</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum">433</span> +<a name="page433" id="page433"> </a> +<p>Le Vau (or Levau) <a href="#page320">320</a></p> + +<p>Lieven de Key, <a href="#page336">336</a></p> + +<p>Ligorio, Pirro <a href="#page293">293</a></p> + +<p>Lippi, Annibale <a href="#page293">293</a></p> + +<p>Lira, Valentino di <a href="#page343">343</a></p> + +<p>Lombardi, Antonio <a href="#page284">284</a></p> + +<p>Lombardi, Martino <a href="#page284">284</a></p> + +<p>Lombardi, Moro <a href="#page284">284</a></p> + +<p>Lombardi, Pietro <a href="#page284">284</a></p> + +<p>Lombardi, Tullio <a href="#page284">284</a>, +<a href="#page293">293</a></p> + +<p>Longhena, Baldassare <a href="#page304">304</a></p> + +<p>Lorenzo, Bernardo di <a href="#page282">282</a></p> + +<p>Louis, Victor <a href="#page362">362</a></p> + +<p>Luca della Robbia, <a href="#page281">281</a></p> + +<p>Lunghi, Martino (the elder) <a href="#page304">304</a>, +<a href="#page305">305</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_M" id="arch_M" href="#index_arch">Machuca</a>, +<a href="#page351">351</a></p> + +<p>Maderna, Carlo <a href="#page295">295</a>, +<a href="#page303">303</a></p> + +<p>Majano, Benedetto da <a href="#page280">280</a>, +<a href="#page281">281</a></p> + +<p>Majano, Giuliano da <a href="#page286">286</a>, +<a href="#page287">287</a></p> + +<p>Mansart, François <a href="#page322">322</a></p> + +<p>Mansart, Jules Hardouin <a href="#page320">320</a>, +<a href="#page321">321</a>, +<a href="#page322">322</a></p> + +<p>Marchionne, <a href="#page305">305</a></p> + +<p>Marini, Giovanni <a href="#page339">339</a></p> + +<p>Martino, Pietro di <a href="#page287">287</a></p> + +<p>Matthew of Arras, <a href="#page243">243</a></p> + +<p>Meo del Caprino, <a href="#page286">286</a></p> + +<p>Meruan, Jacobus of <a href="#page255">255</a></p> + +<p>Métézeau, <a href="#page318">318</a></p> + +<p>Michelozzi, Michelozzo <a href="#page279">279</a>, +<a href="#page283">283</a></p> + +<p>Mino da Fiesole, <a href="#page281">281</a></p> + +<p>Mnesicles, <a href="#page65">65</a></p> + +<p>Mullet, A. B. <a href="#page392">392</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_N" id="arch_N" href="#index_arch">Narbonne, Henri de</a> +<a href="#page249">249</a></p> + +<p>Nénot, Henri P. <a href="#page374">374</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_O" id="arch_O" href="#index_arch">Ohlmüller</a>, +<a href="#page375">375</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_P" id="arch_P" href="#index_arch">Palladio, Andrea</a> +<a href="#page299">299</a>, +<a href="#page301">301</a>, +<a href="#page319">319</a>, +<a href="#page328">328</a>, +<a href="#page350">350</a></p> + +<p>Percier, Charles <a href="#page362">362</a></p> + +<p>Perrault, Claude <a href="#page320">320</a></p> + +<p>Peruzzi, Baldassare <a href="#page289">289</a>, +<a href="#page291">291</a>, +<a href="#page292">292</a>, +<a href="#page294">294</a></p> + +<p>Phidias, <a href="#page62">62</a></p> + +<p>Philibert de l’Orme, <a href="#page316">316</a>, +<a href="#page317">317</a></p> + +<p>Pietrasanta, Giacomo di <a href="#page286">286</a></p> + +<p>Pintelli, Baccio <a href="#page286">286</a></p> + +<p>Pisano, Giovanni <a href="#page260">260</a></p> + +<p>Pisano, Niccolo <a href="#page272">272</a></p> + +<p>Polaert, <a href="#page382">382</a></p> + +<p>Poyet, <a href="#page363">363</a></p> + +<p>Pugin, A. Welby <a href="#page378">378</a></p> + +<p>Pythius, <a href="#page71">71</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_R" id="arch_R" href="#index_arch">Raphael Sanzio</a>, +<a href="#page289">289</a>, +<a href="#page290">290</a>, +<a href="#page291">291</a>, +<a href="#page292">292</a>, +<a href="#page293">293</a></p> + +<p>Renwick, James <a href="#page391">391</a>, +<a href="#page392">392</a></p> + +<p>Revett, Nicholas <a href="#page355">355</a>, +<a href="#page358">358</a></p> + +<p>Richardson, Henry H. <a href="#page393">393</a>, +<a href="#page394">394</a></p> + +<p>Rickman, Thomas <a href="#page378">378</a></p> + +<p>Riel, Gerhardt von <a href="#page243">243</a></p> + +<p>Ristoro, Fra <a href="#page256">256</a></p> + +<p>Rizzio, Antonio <a href="#page284">284</a></p> + +<p>Romano, Giulio <a href="#page289">289</a>, +<a href="#page292">292</a></p> + +<p>Rossellini, Bernardo <a href="#page286">286</a></p> + +<p>Ruiz, Fernando <a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_S" id="arch_S" href="#index_arch">Salvi, Niccola</a> +<a href="#page305">305</a></p> + +<p>Sammichele, Michele <a href="#page293">293</a>, +<a href="#page299">299</a>, +<a href="#page300">300</a>, +<a href="#page329">329</a></p> + +<p>San Gallo, Antonio da (the Elder) <a href="#page294">294</a></p> + +<p>San Gallo, Antonio da (the Younger) <a href="#page289">289</a>, +<a href="#page291">291</a>, +<a href="#page294">294</a></p> + +<p>San Gallo, Giuliano da <a href="#page278">278</a>, +<a href="#page291">291</a>, +<a href="#page292">292</a>, +<a href="#page294">294</a></p> + +<p>Sansovino, Giacopo Tatti <a href="#page289">289</a>, +<a href="#page293">293</a>, +<a href="#page299">299</a>, +<a href="#page300">300</a>, +<a href="#page304">304</a></p> + +<p>Satyrus, <a href="#page71">71</a></p> + +<p>Scamozzi, Vincenzo <a href="#page299">299</a>, +<a href="#page339">339</a></p> + +<p>Schinkel, Friedrich <a href="#page358">358</a>, +<a href="#page360">360</a>, +<a href="#page376">376</a></p> + +<p>Schmidt, F. <a href="#page378">378</a></p> + +<p>Scott (General) <a href="#page382">382</a></p> + +<p>Scott, Sir Gilbert <a href="#page380">380</a></p> + +<p>Semper, Ottfried <a href="#page376">376</a></p> + +<p>Sens, William of <a href="#page219">219</a></p> + +<p>Servandoni, <a href="#page323">323</a></p> + +<p>Settignano, Desiderio da <a href="#page281">281</a></p> + +<p>Shaw, Norman <a href="#page382">382</a></p> + +<p>Siccardsburg, <a href="#page376">376</a></p> + +<p>Smirke, Robert <a href="#page356">356</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum">434</span> +<a name="page434" id="page434"> </a> +<p>Smithson, Robert <a href="#page328">328</a></p> + +<p>Soane, Sir John <a href="#page356">356</a></p> + +<p>Soufflot, J. J. <a href="#page362">362</a></p> + +<p>Steinbach, Erwin von <a href="#page241">241</a></p> + +<p>Stella, Paolo della <a href="#page339">339</a></p> + +<p>Stern, Raphael <a href="#page305">305</a>, +<a href="#page365">365</a></p> + +<p>Street, George Edmund <a href="#page380">380</a></p> + +<p>Stuart, James <a href="#page355">355</a>, +<a href="#page358">358</a></p> + +<p>Stuhler, <a href="#page359">359</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_T" id="arch_T" href="#index_arch">Talenti, Francesco Di</a> +<a href="#page259">259</a>, +<a href="#page263">263</a></p> + +<p>Talenti, Simone di <a href="#page266">266</a></p> + +<p>Taylor, Robert <a href="#page334">334</a></p> + +<p>Tessin, Nicodemus de <a href="#page337">337</a></p> + +<p>Thomson, Alexander <a href="#page357">357</a></p> + +<p>Thornton, <a href="#page389">389</a></p> + +<p>Thorpe, John <a href="#page328">328</a></p> + +<p>Titz, <a href="#page376">376</a></p> + +<p>Torregiano, <a href="#page327">327</a></p> + +<p>Trevigi, <a href="#page327">327</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_U" id="arch_U" href="#index_arch">Upjohn, Richard</a> +<a href="#page392">392</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_V" id="arch_V" href="#index_arch">Val Del Vira</a>, +<a href="#page348">348</a></p> + +<p>Valentino di Lira, <a href="#page343">343</a></p> + +<p>Van Aken, <a href="#page343">343</a></p> + +<p>Van Brugh, Sir John <a href="#page332">332</a></p> + +<p>Van Noort, William <a href="#page336">336</a></p> + +<p>Van Noye, Sebastian <a href="#page336">336</a></p> + +<p>Van Vitelli, <a href="#page304">304</a></p> + +<p>Vasari, Giorgio <a href="#page162">162</a></p> + +<p>Viart, Charles <a href="#page311">311</a></p> + +<p>Viel, <a href="#page372">372</a></p> + +<p>Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da <a href="#page289">289</a>, +<a href="#page292">292</a>, +<a href="#page296">296</a>, +<a href="#page299">299</a>, +<a href="#page300">300</a>, +<a href="#page301">301</a></p> + +<p>Vignon, Pierre <a href="#page362">362</a></p> + +<p>Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene Emmanuel <a href="#page370">370</a>, +<a href="#page371">371</a></p> + +<p>Vischer, Kaspar <a href="#page343">343</a></p> + +<p>Vischer, Peter <a href="#page347">347</a></p> + +<p>Visconti, Louis T. J. <a href="#page371">371</a>, +<a href="#page372">372</a></p> + +<p>Vitoni, Ventura <a href="#page293">293</a></p> + +<p>Vitruvius, <a href="#page56">56</a>, +<a href="#page71">71</a>, +<a href="#page77">77</a></p> + +<p>Von der Null, <a href="#page376">376</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_W" id="arch_W" href="#index_arch">Wallot, Paul</a> +<a href="#page377">377</a></p> + +<p>Wallot, Jean <a href="#page333">333</a></p> + +<p>Walter, Thomas Ustick <a href="#page391">391</a></p> + +<p>Waterhouse, Alfred <a href="#page381">381</a></p> + +<p>Webb, Aston <a href="#page382">382</a></p> + +<p>Wilkins, <a href="#page357">357</a></p> + +<p>William of Sens, <a href="#page219">219</a></p> + +<p>William of Wykeham, <a href="#page222">222</a>, +<a href="#page226">226</a></p> + +<p>Wood, <a href="#page333">333</a></p> + +<p>Wren, Sir Christopher <a href="#page329">329</a>, +<a href="#page331">331</a>, +<a href="#page332">332</a>, +<a href="#page356">356</a>, +<a href="#page385">385</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="arch_Z" id="arch_Z" href="#index_arch">Ziebland</a>, +<a href="#page375">375</a></p> + +</div> <!-- end div index --> + +<div class="index"> + +<span class="pagenum">435</span> +<a name="page435" id="page435"> </a> + +<h3><a name="index" id="index"> +INDEX.</a></h3> + +<p class="mynote note center"> +<a href="#index_A"> A </a> +<a href="#index_B"> B </a> +<a href="#index_C"> C </a> +<a href="#index_D"> D </a> +<a href="#index_E"> E </a> +<a href="#index_F"> F </a> +<a href="#index_G"> G </a> +<a href="#index_H"> H </a> +<a href="#index_I"> I </a> +<a href="#index_J"> J </a> +<a href="#index_K"> K </a> +<a href="#index_L"> L </a> +<a href="#index_M"> M </a><br> +<a href="#index_N"> N </a> +<a href="#index_O"> O </a> +<a href="#index_P"> P </a> +<a href="#index_R"> R </a> +<a href="#index_S"> S </a> +<a href="#index_T"> T </a> +<a href="#index_U"> U </a> +<a href="#index_V"> V </a> +<a href="#index_W"> W </a> +<a href="#index_X"> X </a> +<a href="#index_Y"> Y </a> +<a href="#index_Z"> Z </a><br> + <br> +Highlighted names link back to the beginning of this Index. Page and +figure numbers link to the referenced page or figure.</p> + +<p class="note"> +The buildings are arranged according to location. Those which appear +only in the lists of monuments at the ends of chapters are omitted. +<i>Numerals in parentheses refer to illustrations.</i></p> + + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_A" id="index_A" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Abayagiri.</span></a></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tope, <a href="#page403">403</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Abbeville.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Wulfrand, <a href="#page209">209</a>, +<a href="#page213">213</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Abu-Seir.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Stepped pyramid, <a href="#page9">9</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Abydos.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Columns, <a href="#page12">12</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple, <a href="#page19">19</a>, +<a href="#page21">21</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tombs, <a href="#page11">11</a> +(<a href="#fig5"><b>5</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Addeh.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Grotto-temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Æmilia.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Churches in, <a href="#page157">157</a>, +<a href="#page262">262</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Agra</span>, +<a href="#page149">149</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pearl Mosque, <a href="#page148">148</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Taj Mahal, <a href="#page148">148</a> +(<a href="#fig86"><b>86</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Agrigentum.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Zeus, <a href="#page56">56</a>, +<a href="#page61">61</a> +(<a href="#fig33"><b>33</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ahmedabad</span>, +<a href="#page148">148</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aix-la-Chapelle.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Minster (palatine Chapel), +<a href="#page172">172</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace of Charlemagne, +<a href="#page176">176</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Aizanoi.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Zeus, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theatre, <a href="#page70">70</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ajmir</span>, +<a href="#page148">148</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ajunta.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Brahman Chaityas, <a href="#page404">404</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +viharas, <a href="#page405">405</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Albano.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tomb, <a href="#page89">89</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Albany.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +All Saints’ Cathedral, +<a href="#page394">394</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Capitol, <a href="#page391">391</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Alby</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page185">185</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page206">206</a>, +<a href="#page212">212</a>, +<a href="#page249">249</a> +(<a href="#fig123"><b>123</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Alcala de Heñares</span>, +<a href="#page352">352</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Archepiscopal Palace, <a href="#page350">350</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +College, <a href="#page349">349</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Alcantara.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Bridge, <a href="#page108">108</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Alençon</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page209">209</a>, +<a href="#page213">213</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Alexandria Troas.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palæstra, <a href="#page71">71</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Allahabad.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Akbar’s Palace, <a href="#page148">148</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Altenburg</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page242">242</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Amada.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Columns, <a href="#page12">12</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Amboise</span> Castle, +<a href="#page310">310</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Amiens</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page189">189</a>, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page201">201</a>, +<a href="#page203">203</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page206">206</a>, +<a href="#page219">219</a>, +<a href="#page232">232</a> +(<a href="#fig122"><b>122</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset1"> +west front of, <a href="#page207">207</a>, +<a href="#page208">208</a>, +<a href="#page212">212</a>, +<a href="#page227">227</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Amravati.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Topes, <a href="#page403">403</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Amsterdam.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Bourse (Exchange) Hanse House, Town hall, <a href="#page336">336</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ancy le Franc.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page317">317</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Anet.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page317">317</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Angers.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral S. Maurice, <a href="#page200">200</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hospital, <a href="#page214">214</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Angora</span> (Ancyra), +<a href="#page118">118</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Angoulême</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page164">164</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ani</span>, +<a href="#page134">134</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Annapolis.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Harwood and Hammond Houses, <a href="#page386">386</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Antioch</span>, +<a href="#page115">115</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Antiphellus.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theatre, <a href="#page70">70</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tombs, <a href="#page72">72</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Antwerp</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, +<a href="#page190">190</a>, +<a href="#page246">246</a>, +<a href="#page247">247</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town Hall, <a href="#page334">334</a>, +<a href="#page336">336</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aquitania.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Churches of, <a href="#page164">164</a>, +<a href="#page167">167</a>, +<a href="#page168">168</a>, +<a href="#page179">179</a>, +<a href="#page373">373</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aranjuez.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace, <a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Arezzo</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page257">257</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sta. Maria della Pieve, +<a href="#page159">159</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum">436</span> +<a name="page436" id="page436"> </a> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Argos.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gates, <a href="#page45">45</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Arizona.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Spanish churches in, <a href="#page388">388</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Arles.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Trophime, <a href="#page165">165</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aschaffenburg.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page243">243</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Asheville.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Biltmore House, <a href="#page399">399</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Asia Minor</span>, +<a href="#page53">53</a>, +<a href="#page55">55</a>, +<a href="#page58">58</a>, +<a href="#page62">62</a>, +<a href="#page66">66</a>, +<a href="#page122">122</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aspendus.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theatre, <a href="#page70">70</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Assisi.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. Francis (S. Francesco), <a href="#page255">255</a>, +<a href="#page256">256</a>, +<a href="#page258">258</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Assos</span>, +<a href="#page55">55</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Public cquare, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple, <a href="#page61">61</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Asti.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page256">256</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Astorga.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Rood-screen, <a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Athens.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Academy, <a href="#page365">365</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Acropolis, <a href="#page65">65</a>, +<a href="#page69">69</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Agora Gate, <a href="#page68">68</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page134">134</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, +<a href="#page66">66</a> +(<a href="#fig30"><b>30</b></a>, +<a href="#fig38"><b>38</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Erechtheum, <a href="#page64">64</a> +(<a href="#fig35"><b>35</b></a>, +<a href="#fig36"><b>36</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Museum, <a href="#page365">365</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Odeion of Regilla (of Herodes Atticus), +<a href="#page68">68</a>, +<a href="#page69">69</a>, +<a href="#page70">70</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Parthenon, <a href="#page56">56</a>, +<a href="#page58">58</a>, +<a href="#page63">63</a>, +<a href="#page64">64</a>, +<a href="#page131">131</a>, +<a href="#page359">359</a> +(<a href="#frontis">Frontispiece</a>, +<a href="#fig31"><b>31</b> <i>d</i></a>, +<a href="#fig34"><b>34</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Propylæa, <a href="#page58">58</a>, +<a href="#page65">65</a>, +<a href="#page69">69</a>, +<a href="#page358">358</a> +(<a href="#fig37"><b>37</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Stoa of Attalus, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Nike Apteros, +<a href="#page64">64</a>, +<a href="#page65">65</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Olympian Zeus, +<a href="#page68">68</a> +(<a href="#fig39"><b>39</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theatre of Dionysus, <a href="#page69">69</a>, +<a href="#page70">70</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theseum (Temple of Theseus or Heracles), +<a href="#page62">62</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tower of Winds (Clepsydra of Cyrrhestes), +<a href="#page53">53</a>, +<a href="#page67">67</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +University, <a href="#page365">365</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Attica</span>, +<a href="#page50">50</a>, +<a href="#page55">55</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Augsburg.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Austria</span>, +<a href="#page330">330</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Autun</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page166">166</a>, +<a href="#page167">167</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Auvergne.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Churches, <a href="#page204">204</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Auxerre</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page201">201</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Avignon.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Notre Dame Des Doms, <a href="#page165">165</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Avila.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Vincente, <a href="#page180">180</a>, +<a href="#page247">247</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tombs in, <a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Azay-le-rideau.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page316">316</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_B" id="index_B" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Baalbec</span></a> +(Heliopolis), <a href="#page83">83</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Circular Temple, <a href="#page94">94</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Sun, <a href="#page92">92</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bab-el-Molouk</span>, +<a href="#page14">14</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bagdad.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tombs, etc., <a href="#page145">145</a>, +<a href="#page146">146</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bagh.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Viharas, Great Vihara, <a href="#page405">405</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Baillur.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temples, <a href="#page409">409</a>, +<a href="#page410">410</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bamberg.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page243">243</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Barcelona.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page189">189</a>, +<a href="#page249">249</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sta. Maria del Pi, <a href="#page249">249</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Barolli.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hindu Temple, <a href="#page409">409</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Basle.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Spahlenthor, <a href="#page246">246</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bassæ</span> (Phigalæa).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Apollo Epicurius, +<a href="#page65">65</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Batalha.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, mausoleum, <a href="#page251">251</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bavaria</span>, +<a href="#page342">342</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bayeux</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bayonne</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Beaugency.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page316">316</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Beaumesnil.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page319">319</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Beaune.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hospital, <a href="#page214">214</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Beauvais</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page189">189</a>, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page211">211</a>, +<a href="#page219">219</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +chapels, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +size, <a href="#page206">206</a>, +<a href="#page211">211</a>, +<a href="#page212">212</a>, +<a href="#page243">243</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Beit-el-wali.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Rock-cut Temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Belem.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page251">251</a>, +<a href="#page352">352</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cloister, tower, <a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Belgium</span>, +<a href="#page334">334</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Benares.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hindu Temples, <a href="#page408">408</a>, +<a href="#page409">409</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Beni Hassan.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Columns, <a href="#page11">11</a>, +<a href="#page24">24</a>, +<a href="#page50">50</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Speos Artemidos, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tombs, <a href="#page11">11</a> +(<a href="#fig6"><b>6</b></a>, +<a href="#fig7"><b>7</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bergamo.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town Hall, <a href="#page266">266</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Berlin.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +<ins class="correction" title="text has ‘Bauschüle’ with umlaut">Bauschule</ins>, +<a href="#page376">376</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Brandenburg Gate, <a href="#page358">358</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Old Museum, <a href="#page359">359</a> +(<a href="#fig200"><b>200</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +New Museum, <a href="#page359">359</a>.</p> +<p class="inset2"> +<span class="mynote"> +Alphabetized as shown; body text has “Museum” and “New +Museum”.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Parliament House, <a href="#page377">377</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theatres, <a href="#page360">360</a>, +<a href="#page376">376</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bethlehem.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of the Nativity, <a href="#page115">115</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bhaja.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Chaityas, <a href="#page404">404</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum">437</span> +<a name="page437" id="page437"> </a> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bhilsa.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Topes, <a href="#page403">403</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bhuwaneswar.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hindu temples, <a href="#page408">408</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bidar</span>, +<a href="#page146">146</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bijapur.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tomb of Mahmud, <a href="#page148">148</a>, +<a href="#page153">153</a> +(<a href="#fig85"><b>85</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Jumma Musjid, <a href="#page148">148</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Mogul architecture, <a href="#page149">149</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Biltmore</span> House, +<a href="#page399">399</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bindrabun.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ruined temple, <a href="#page408">408</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Birs Nimroud.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Stepped pyramid, <a href="#page31">31</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Blenheim</span> House, +<a href="#page332">332</a> +(<a href="#fig188"><b>188</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Blois.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château of, <a href="#page216">216</a>, +<a href="#page310">310</a>, +<a href="#page313">313</a> +(<a href="#fig175"><b>175</b></a>, +<a href="#fig176"><b>176</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bohemia</span>, +<a href="#page338">338</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bologna</span>, +<a href="#page157">157</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Brick houses, <a href="#page266">266</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Campo Santo, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Frati di S. Spirito, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Local style, <a href="#page283">283</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pal. Bevilacqua, Pal. Fava, +<a href="#page283">283</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palazzo Communale (town Hall), +<a href="#page266">266</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Renaissance churches in, +<a href="#page277">277</a>, +<a href="#page293">293</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Francesco, <a href="#page256">256</a>, +<a href="#page263">263</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Petronio, <a href="#page257">257</a>, +<a href="#page258">258</a>, +<a href="#page259">259</a>, +<a href="#page263">263</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sta. Maria dei Servi, <a href="#page263">263</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bonn.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Minster, <a href="#page174">174</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Baptistery, <a href="#page175">175</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bordeaux.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, spires, <a href="#page209">209</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Grand Théatre, <a href="#page362">362</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Boston.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ames Building, <a href="#page397">397</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Custom House, <a href="#page390">390</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Faneuil Hall, <a href="#page388">388</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Fine Arts Museum, <a href="#page394">394</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hancock House, <a href="#page387">387</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Old State House, <a href="#page388">388</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Old South Church, <a href="#page386">386</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Public Library, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +State House, <a href="#page390">390</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Trinity Church, <a href="#page394">394</a> +(<a href="#fig222"><b>222</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bourges</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page189">189</a>, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page199">199</a>, +<a href="#page202">202</a>, +<a href="#page249">249</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +chapels, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +size, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +portals, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +House of Jacques Cœur, +<a href="#page215">215</a> +(<a href="#fig127"><b>127</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bournazel.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page315">315</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bowden Park</span>, +<a href="#page357">357</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bozrah</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page117">117</a> +(<a href="#fig70"><b>70</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Brandenburg.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Catherine, St. Godehard, <a href="#page244">244</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bremen.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page246">246</a>, +<a href="#page344">344</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Brescia.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, <a href="#page287">287</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Brieg.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Piastenschloss, <a href="#page343">343</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bristol</span> Cathedral, piers, +<a href="#page178">178</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bruges.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ancien Greffe, <a href="#page334">334</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cloth hall, <a href="#page247">247</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ste. Anne, <a href="#page334">334</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page247">247</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Brunswick.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Burg Dankwargerode, <a href="#page176">176</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page246">246</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Brusa</span>, +<a href="#page150">150</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Brussels.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Bourse, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral (ste. Gudule), +<a href="#page246">246</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pal. de Justice, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Renaissance Houses, <a href="#page335">335</a> +(<a href="#fig190"><b>190</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town Hall, <a href="#page247">247</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bubastis.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple, <a href="#page13">13</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Buda-Pesth.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Synagogue, <a href="#page378">378</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Buddh Gaya.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tope or stupa, <a href="#page404">404</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Buffalo.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Guaranty Building, <a href="#page397">397</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bulach.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Basilica, <a href="#page375">375</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Burgundy.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedrals in, <a href="#page197">197</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Burghley</span> House, +<a href="#page328">328</a> +(<a href="#fig184"><b>184</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bury.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page315">315</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Burgos</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page248">248</a>, +<a href="#page249">249</a>, +<a href="#page251">251</a> +(<a href="#fig145"><b>145</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Byzantium</span>, +<a href="#page92">92</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +See Constantinople</p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_C" id="index_C" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Caen.</span></a></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Churches, <a href="#page167">167</a>, +<a href="#page178">178</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Étienne (Abbaye aux Hommes) and Ste. Trinité (Abbaye aux Dames), +<a href="#page168">168</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Pierre, <a href="#page312">312</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hôtel D’Écoville, <a href="#page316">316</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cahors</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page164">164</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cairo.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Karafah (Tombs of Khalîfs), +<a href="#page137">137</a>, +<a href="#page138">138</a>, +<a href="#page139">139</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Mohammedan monuments (list), +<a href="#page136">136</a>, +<a href="#page153">153</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Mosque of Amrou, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Ibn Touloun, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Barkouk, <a href="#page137">137</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Kalaoun, <a href="#page137">137</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Sultan Hassan, <a href="#page137">137</a>, +<a href="#page138">138</a> +(<a href="#fig80"><b>80</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of El Muayyad, <a href="#page137">137</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Kaîd Bey, <a href="#page137">137</a> +(<a href="#fig81"><b>81</b></a>)</p> + +<span class="pagenum">438</span> +<a name="page438" id="page438"> </a> +<p><span class="smallcaps">California.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Spanish missions and churches, <a href="#page388">388</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cambodia.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Nakhon Wat, <a href="#page413">413</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cambray</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cambridge.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Caius College, Gate of Honor, +<a href="#page328">328</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Fitzwilliam Museum, <a href="#page356">356</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +King’s College Chapel, +<a href="#page223">223</a>, +<a href="#page227">227</a>, +<a href="#page234">234</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Trinity College Library, +<a href="#page332">332</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cambridge</span> (Mass.).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Craigie (Longfellow) House, +<a href="#page387">387</a> +(<a href="#fig219"><b>219</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Canterbury</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page219">219</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +central tower of, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +chapels, <a href="#page231">231</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +transepts, <a href="#page232">232</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +minor works in, <a href="#page234">234</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Caprarola.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace of, <a href="#page300">300</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Capua.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Amphitheatre, <a href="#page103">103</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Caria</span>, +<a href="#page71">71</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +see Halicamassus</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Carinthia</span>, +<a href="#page338">338</a>, +<a href="#page339">339</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Carlton</span> House, +<a href="#page357">357</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Carter’s Grove</span>, +<a href="#page386">386</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Caserta.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Royal Palace, <a href="#page304">304</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Castle Howard</span>, +<a href="#page332">332</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cérisy-la-Forêt.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page178">178</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ceylon.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Topes, <a href="#page403">403</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chaise-Dieu.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cloister, <a href="#page213">213</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Châlons</span> (Châlons-sur-Marne) +Cathedral, +<a href="#page205">205</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chalvau.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page314">314</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chambord.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page314">314</a> +(<a href="#fig177"><b>177</b></a>, +<a href="#fig178"><b>178</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chantilly.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +“Petit Château,” <a href="#page317">317</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Charleston.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Michael’s, <a href="#page385">385</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Charlotteville.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +University of Virginia, <a href="#page390">390</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Charlton</span> Hall, +<a href="#page328">328</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Charlton-on-Oxmore.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Plate tracery (<a href="#fig110"><b>110</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chartres</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page201">201</a>, +<a href="#page203">203</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +chapels of, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +size of, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +W. front, <a href="#page207">207</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +transept porches, <a href="#page208">208</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +spires, <a href="#page209">209</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +capital from (<a href="#fig126"><b>126</b></a> C).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +hospital, <a href="#page214">214</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chemnitz</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page245">245</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chenonceaux.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page316">316</a>, +<a href="#page317">317</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chiaravalle.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Certosa, <a href="#page255">255</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chicago.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Auditorium Theatre, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Columbian Exposition, <a href="#page393">393</a>, +<a href="#page399">399</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Masonic Building, <a href="#page396">396</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Fisher Building, Schiller Building, +<a href="#page397">397</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chichester</span> Cathedral, spire, +<a href="#page229">229</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chihuahua.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chillambaram.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Dravidian Temple, Mantapa of Parvati, <a href="#page411">411</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chiswick.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Villa, <a href="#page328">328</a>, +<a href="#page329">329</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chittore.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hindu temples, <a href="#page409">409</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace, <a href="#page409">409</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Towers, <a href="#page407">407</a>, +<a href="#page408">408</a> +(<a href="#fig227"><b>227</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Clermont</span> (Clermont-Ferrand)</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page197">197</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +chapels of, <a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page212">212</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Notre-Dame-du-Port, <a href="#page165">165</a>, +<a href="#page204">204</a> +(<a href="#fig96"><b>96</b></a>, +<a href="#fig97"><b>97</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cluny.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Abbey Church, <a href="#page166">166</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Houses at, <a href="#page214">214</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hôtel de (at Paris), <a href="#page216">216</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Coblentz.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. Castor, <a href="#page237">237</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Coimbra.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sta. Cruz, <a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Coleshill.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +House, <a href="#page329">329</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cologne.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Apostles’ Church, <a href="#page174">174</a>, +<a href="#page243">243</a> +(<a href="#fig101"><b>101</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page189">189</a>, +<a href="#page192">192</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page243">243</a>, +<a href="#page249">249</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +vaulting of, <a href="#page239">239</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +spires, <a href="#page240">240</a>, +<a href="#page241">241</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +plan, <a href="#page189">189</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page242">242</a> +(<a href="#fig141"><b>141</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. Mary-in-the-Capitol, +<a href="#page174">174</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Great St. Martin’s, <a href="#page174">174</a>, +<a href="#page243">243</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Romanesque Houses, Etc., +<a href="#page176">176</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Como.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall (broletto), <a href="#page266">266</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Compostella.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Iago, <a href="#page180">180</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Conjeveram.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Dravidian temple, <a href="#page411">411</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum">439</span> +<a name="page439" id="page439"> </a> +<p class="smallcaps">Constantine.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Constantinople</span>, +<a href="#page120">120</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Byzantine monuments (list), +<a href="#page134">134</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of Hagia Sophia (Santa Sophia, Divine Wisdom), +<a href="#page111">111</a>, +<a href="#page123">123</a>, +<a href="#page124">124</a>, +<a href="#page127">127–131</a>, +<a href="#page132">132</a>, +<a href="#page133">133</a>, +<a href="#page150">150</a>, +<a href="#page151">151</a> +(<a href="#fig72"><b>72</b></a>, +<a href="#fig75"><b>75</b></a>, +<a href="#fig76"><b>76</b></a>, +<a href="#fig77"><b>77</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of the Apostles, +<a href="#page132">132</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Early Christian monuments (list), +<a href="#page119">119</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Fountains, Fountain of Ahmet III., +<a href="#page152">152</a>, +<a href="#page153">153</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Mosque of Ahmet II. (Ahmediyeh), +<a href="#page151">151</a> +(<a href="#fig88"><b>88</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Mehmet II., <a href="#page150">150</a>, +<a href="#page151">151</a> +(<a href="#fig87"><b>87</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Osman III. (Nouri Osman), +<a href="#page151">151</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Soliman (Suleimaniyeh), +<a href="#page151">151</a> +(<a href="#fig89"><b>89</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Yeni Djami, <a href="#page151">151</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palaces, <a href="#page153">153</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Bacchus, <a href="#page127">127</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. John Studius (Emir Akhor mosque), +<a href="#page118">118</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Sergius, <a href="#page117">117</a>, +<a href="#page127">127</a> +(<a href="#fig74"><b>74</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tchinli Kiosque (Imperial Museum), +<a href="#page153">153</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +sarcophagi in, <a href="#page66">66</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tombs, <a href="#page152">152</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Turkish mosques, <a href="#page150">150</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Copenhagen.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Exchange, Fredericksborg, +<a href="#page336">336</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cordova</span>, +<a href="#page141">141</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Great Mosque, <a href="#page142">142</a>, +<a href="#page143">143</a> +(<a href="#fig83"><b>83</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Corinth.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Zeus, <a href="#page60">60</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Coutances</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +chapels of, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +spires, <a href="#page209">209</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cracow</span> Castle, +<a href="#page338">338</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Chapel of Jagellons, <a href="#page338">338</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Cremona.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page266">266</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Ctesiphon.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tâk-kesra, <a href="#page145">145</a></p> +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_D" id="index_D" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Damascus</span></a>, +Mosque of El-walîd, <a href="#page136">136</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Dantzic.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Dashour.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pyramid, <a href="#page9">9</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Deir-el-bahari.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tomb-temple of Hatasu, +<a href="#page15">15</a>, +<a href="#page21">21</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Deir-el-medineh.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Hathor, <a href="#page19">19</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Delhi.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Jaina Temples, <a href="#page407">407</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Jumma Musjid, <a href="#page148">148</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Mogul Architecture of, +<a href="#page149">149</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace of Shah Jehan, <a href="#page148">148</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pathan arches, Etc., <a href="#page148">148</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Delos.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gates, <a href="#page45">45</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Portico of Philip, <a href="#page67">67</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Denderah.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Hathor, <a href="#page17">17</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Group of Temples, <a href="#page22">22</a>, +<a href="#page24">24</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hathoric columns, <a href="#page24">24</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Detroit.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Majestic Building, <a href="#page397">397</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Dieppe.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. Jacques, +<a href="#page213">213</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Dijon.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Michel, <a href="#page312">312</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Dol</span> Cathedral, east end, +<a href="#page205">205</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Dresden.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Castle, Georgenflügel, +<a href="#page342">342</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. Mary (Marienkirche) <a href="#page346">346</a> +(<a href="#fig194"><b>194</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theatre, <a href="#page376">376</a> +(<a href="#fig213"><b>213</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Zwinger Palace, <a href="#page346">346</a> +(<a href="#fig193"><b>193</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Drügelte.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Circular church, <a href="#page175">175</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Durham</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page177">177</a>, +<a href="#page178">178</a>, +<a href="#page220">220</a>, +<a href="#page221">221</a> +(<a href="#fig116"><ins class="correction" title="text has ‘116’"><b>102</b></ins></a>);</p> +<p class="inset1"> +central tower of, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Chapel of Nine Altars, +<a href="#page232">232</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_E" id="index_E" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Earl’s Barton</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tower, <a href="#page176">176</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Ecouen.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page316">316</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Edfou.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Great Temple, <a href="#page16">16</a>, +<a href="#page17">17</a>, +<a href="#page22">22</a> +(<a href="#fig9"><b>9</b></a>, +<a href="#fig10"><b>10</b></a>, +<a href="#fig14"><b>14</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Peripteral Temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Edinburgh.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +High School, Royal Institution, +<a href="#page357">357</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Egypt.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Early Christian buildings in, +<a href="#page118">118</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Elephantine.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Amenophis III., +<a href="#page22">22</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">El Kab.</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Amenophis III.; <a href="#page18">18</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Eleusis.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Propylæa, <a href="#page69">69</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Ellora.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Chaityas, <a href="#page404">404</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Dravidian Kylas, <a href="#page413">413</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Elne.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cloister, <a href="#page170">170</a>, +<a href="#page213">213</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ely</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page220">220</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +choir vault, <a href="#page222">222</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +octagon, <a href="#page224">224</a>, +<a href="#page330">330</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +clearstory, <a href="#page225">225</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +towers, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +interior, <a href="#page229">229</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +size, <a href="#page232">232</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Lady Chapel, <a href="#page234">234</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum">440</span> +<a name="page440" id="page440"> </a> +<p class="smallcaps">Ephesus.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Artemis (Artemisium), +<a href="#page66">66</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ionic Order, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palæstra, <a href="#page71">71</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Erech</span>, +<a href="#page31">31</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Escurial.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Monastery, <a href="#page351">351</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Esneh.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hathoric columns, <a href="#page25">25</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple, <a href="#page23">23</a>.</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Essen.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Nun’s choir, <a href="#page172">172</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Esslingen.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church spire, <a href="#page240">240</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Etchmiadzin.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Byzantine monuments, <a href="#page134">134</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Evreux</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Exeter</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page221">221</a> +(<a href="#fig129"><b>129</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Ezra.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. George, <a href="#page117">117</a></p> +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_F" id="index_F" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Feraig</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Rock-cut Temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ferrara</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page261">261</a>, +<a href="#page304">304</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Churches, <a href="#page277">277</a>, +<a href="#page293">293</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palaces Scrofa, Roverella, +<a href="#page283">283</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Firouzabad.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sassanian Buildings, <a href="#page144">144</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Florence.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Baptistery, <a href="#page162">162</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Bartolini, Guadagni, Larderel, Pandolfini, Serristori palaces, +<a href="#page291">291</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Campanile, <a href="#page263">263</a>, +<a href="#page264">264</a> +(<a href="#fig147"><b>147</b> <i>a</i></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral (Duomo, Santa Maria del Fiore), +<a href="#page257">257</a>, +<a href="#page258">258</a>, +<a href="#page263">263</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +façade, <a href="#page261">261</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +marble incrustation, <a href="#page263">263</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +dome, +<a href="#page273">273–275</a> +(<a href="#fig147"><b>147</b></a>, +<a href="#fig148"><b>148</b></a>, +<a href="#fig159"><b>159</b></a>, +<a href="#fig160"><b>160</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of San Miniato, <a href="#page115">115</a>, +<a href="#page161">161</a>, +<a href="#page162">162</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Or San Michele, <a href="#page264">264</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gondi Palace, <a href="#page291">291</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Loggia dei Lanzi, <a href="#page266">266</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Loggia di San Paolo, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Minor works, <a href="#page287">287</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ospedale degli Innocenti, +<a href="#page281">281</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palazzo Vecchio, <a href="#page265">265</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pitti Palace, <a href="#page280">280</a>, +<a href="#page300">300</a>, +<a href="#page319">319</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Riccardi Palace, <a href="#page279">279</a>, +<a href="#page280">280</a>, +<a href="#page281">281</a>, +<a href="#page290">290</a> +(<a href="#fig162"><b>162</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Rucellai Palace, <a href="#page280">280</a>, +<a href="#page282">282</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Santa Croce, <a href="#page258">258</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pazzi Chapel of, <a href="#page276">276</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +pulpit in, <a href="#page281">281</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Marsupini tomb, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +San Lorenzo, <a href="#page276">276</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +San Spirito, <a href="#page276">276</a> +(<a href="#fig161"><b>161</b></a>),</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Santa Maria Novella, <a href="#page256">256</a>, +<a href="#page258">258</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +façade, <a href="#page277">277</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +fountain in sacristy of, +<a href="#page281">281</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Strozzi Palace, <a href="#page280">280</a>, +<a href="#page290">290</a> +(<a href="#fig163"><b>163</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Flushing.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall (Hôtel de Ville), +<a href="#page335">335</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Fontainebleau.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace, <a href="#page313">313</a>, +<a href="#page318">318</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Fontevrault.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Abbey, <a href="#page164">164</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Fontfroide.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cloister, <a href="#page213">213</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">France.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Romanesque monuments (list), +<a href="#page170">170</a>, +<a href="#page171">171</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gothic monuments (list), +<a href="#page216">216</a>, +<a href="#page217">217</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Renaissance monuments (list), +<a href="#page324">324</a>, +<a href="#page325">325</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Frankfort.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Salt House, <a href="#page346">346</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Freiburg</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page239">239</a>, +<a href="#page242">242</a>, +<a href="#page243">243</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Spire, <a href="#page240">240</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Freiberg im Erzgebirge.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Golden portal, <a href="#page242">242</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Fritzlar.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page243">243</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Fulda.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Monastery, <a href="#page172">172</a>, +<a href="#page173">173</a>, +<a href="#page175">175</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Furness.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Abbey, pointed arches, +<a href="#page219">219</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Futtehpore Sikhri.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Mosque of Akbar, <a href="#page148">148</a></p> +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_G" id="index_G" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Gandhara</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Monasteries, <a href="#page404">404</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Gaillon.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page310">310</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Gelnhausen.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Abbey Church, +<a href="#page243">243</a>. Castle ruins, +<a href="#page176">176</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Genoa.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Campo Santo, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, west front, +<a href="#page261">261</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span>:— +Balbi, Brignole, Cambiasi, Doria-tursi (municipio), Durazzo (reale), +Pallavicini, University, +<a href="#page302">302</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sta. Maria Di Carignano, +<a href="#page299">299</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Germany.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Mediæval, <a href="#page172">172</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Romanesque monuments (list), +<a href="#page180">180</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gothic monuments (list), +<a href="#page252">252</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Renaissance monuments (list), +<a href="#page353">353</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum">441</span> +<a name="page441" id="page441"> </a> +<p class="smallcaps">Gernrode.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Romanesque church, <a href="#page173">173</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Gerona</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page185">185</a>, +<a href="#page249">249</a>, +<a href="#page250">250</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ghent</span> (Gand).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cloth hall, <a href="#page247">247</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Gherf Hossein.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Rock-cut temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ghertashi</span> (Kardassy).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple, <a href="#page23">23</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Ghizeh.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pyramids, <a href="#page4">4</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pyramid of Cheops, <a href="#page7">7</a> +(<a href="#fig1"><b>1</b></a>, +<a href="#fig2"><b>2</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset1"> +of Chephren, <a href="#page8">8</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +of Mycerinus, <a href="#page8">8</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sphinx, Sphinx temple, +<a href="#page10">10</a> +(<a href="#fig3"><b>3</b></a>, +<a href="#fig4"><b>4</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Girnar.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Jaina temples, <a href="#page407">407</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Neminatha, <a href="#page407">407</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Glasgow.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Churches in Greek style, +<a href="#page357">357</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Gloucester</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page178">178</a>, +<a href="#page220">220</a>, +<a href="#page222">222</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +cloisters, <a href="#page222">222</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +east window, <a href="#page227">227</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +central tower, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Lady Chapel, <a href="#page234">234</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Goslar.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace of Henry III., <a href="#page176">176</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Gournah.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Columns, <a href="#page24">24</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple, <a href="#page21">21</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Gran.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cruciform Chapel, <a href="#page338">338</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Granada</span>, +<a href="#page141">141</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Alhambra, <a href="#page142">142</a>, +<a href="#page143">143</a>, +<a href="#page144">144</a>, +<a href="#page351">351</a> +(<a href="#fig84"><b>84</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page348">348</a>, +<a href="#page350">350</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +minor works in, <a href="#page352">352</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace of Charles V., <a href="#page352">352</a> +(<a href="#fig197"><b>197</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Grange</span> House, +<a href="#page357">357</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Great Britain.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gothic monuments (list), +<a href="#page235">235</a>, +<a href="#page236">236</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Norman monuments (list), +<a href="#page181">181</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Renaissance monuments (list), +<a href="#page337">337</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Guadalajara.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Infantado, <a href="#page350">350</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Gujerat</span>, +<a href="#page146">146</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Gwalior.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Jaina Temples, <a href="#page407">407</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace, <a href="#page409">409</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Teli-ka-mandir, <a href="#page409">409</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_H" id="index_H" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Haddon</span></a> Hall, +<a href="#page326">326</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Hague, The.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page336">336</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Hämelschenburg</span> Castle, +<a href="#page343">343</a> +(<a href="#fig191"><b>191</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Halberstadt</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page244">244</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page245">245</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Halicarnassus.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Mausoleum, <a href="#page4">4</a>, +<a href="#page53">53</a>, +<a href="#page71">71</a>, +<a href="#page72">72</a> +(<a href="#fig41"><b>41</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Hamoncondah.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple, <a href="#page410">410</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Hampton</span> Court, +<a href="#page326">326</a>, +<a href="#page332">332</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Hartford.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +State Capitol, <a href="#page393">393</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Hauran.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Roman works in, <a href="#page92">92</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +domestic buildings, <a href="#page118">118</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Hardwicke</span> Hall, +<a href="#page328">328</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Hatfield</span> House, +<a href="#page328">328</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Hecklingen.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Romanesque church, <a href="#page173">173</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Heidelberg</span> Castle, +<a href="#page343">343</a> +(<a href="#fig192"><b>192</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ritter House, <a href="#page346">346</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Heilsberg</span> Castle, +<a href="#page245">245</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Heldburg</span> Castle, +<a href="#page342">342</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Hengreave</span> Hall, +<a href="#page326">326</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Herculanum</span>, +<a href="#page86">86</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Houses, <a href="#page107">107</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theatre, (<a href="#fig61"><b>61</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Hereford</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page220">220</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Hierapolis.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Early Christian buildings in, +<a href="#page118">118</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Hildesheim.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Kaiserhaus, <a href="#page346">346</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Renaissance houses, <a href="#page345">345</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Godehard, <a href="#page173">173</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page245">245</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Wedekindsches Haus, <a href="#page346">346</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Holland</span> House, +<a href="#page328">328</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Howard</span> Castle, +<a href="#page332">332</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Hullabîd.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temples, <a href="#page409">409</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +double temple, <a href="#page410">410</a> +(<a href="#fig228"><b>228</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Kaît Iswara, <a href="#page410">410</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_I" id="index_I" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Iffley</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page179">179</a>(<a href="#fig104"><b>104</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">India</span>, +<a href="#page146">146–149</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Moslem monuments (list), +<a href="#page154">154</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Non-moslem monuments (list), +<a href="#page415">415</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Innsbrück</span>, Schloss Ambras, +<a href="#page339">339</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Ipsamboul.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +(Abou Simbel). Grotto temples, +<a href="#page21">21</a>, +<a href="#page22">22</a> +(<a href="#fig13"><b>13</b></a>)</p> + +<span class="pagenum">442</span> +<a name="page442" id="page442"> </a> +<p class="smallcaps">Ireland.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Celtic Towers, <a href="#page176">176</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Ispahan.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Meidan (Meidan-Shah), Mesjid-Shah, Bazaar, Medress, +<a href="#page146">146</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Issoire.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. Paul, <a href="#page165">165</a>, +<a href="#page204">204</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Italy.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Early Christian monuments (list), +<a href="#page119">119</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Romanesque monuments (list), +<a href="#page170">170</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gothic monuments (list), +<a href="#page268">268–269</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Renaissance monuments (list), +<a href="#page306">306–307</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_J" id="index_J" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Jaen</span></a> Cathedral, +<a href="#page348">348</a>, +<a href="#page350">350</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Jamalgiri.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Monastery, <a href="#page405">405</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Jerusalem.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of the Ascension, <a href="#page115">115</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Early Christian churches, <a href="#page111">111</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Herod’s temple, <a href="#page41">41</a>, +<a href="#page83">83</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Mosque of Omar (Dome of the Rock, Kubbet-es-sakhrah), +<a href="#page116">116</a>, +<a href="#page136">136</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Octagonal church on temple site, +<a href="#page115">115</a>, +<a href="#page116">116</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tombs of the Kings, Etc., <a href="#page39">39</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tomb of Absalom, of Hezekiah, Golden Gate, Solomon’s temple, +<a href="#page40">40</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Wall of Lamentations, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Zerubbabel’s temple, <a href="#page41">41</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Jaunpore</span>, +<a href="#page146">146</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_K" id="index_K" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Kalabshé</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Columns, <a href="#page12">12</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple, <a href="#page23">23</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Kalb Louzeh.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page117">117</a>(<a href="#fig69"><b>69</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kalburgah</span>, +<a href="#page146">146</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Kanaruk.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hindu temples, <a href="#page408">408</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Kantonnuggur.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hindu temple, <a href="#page408">408</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kardassy</span> (Ghertashi).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple, <a href="#page23">23</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Karli.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Chaityas, <a href="#page404">404</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Karlstein</span> Castle, +<a href="#page245">245</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Karnak</span>, +<a href="#page50">50</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Great Temple (of Amen Ra) and Hypostyle Hall, +<a href="#pagexxiii">xxiii.</a>, +<a href="#page17">17</a>, +<a href="#page18">18</a>, +<a href="#page19">19</a>, +<a href="#page24">24</a>, +<a href="#page36">36</a> +(<a href="#fig11"><b>11</b></a>, +<a href="#fig12"><b>12</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ancient temple, <a href="#page13">13</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Khonsu, <a href="#page16">16</a>, +<a href="#page20">20</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kaschau</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page245">245</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Kasr.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Mound, <a href="#page31">31</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Keddlestone</span> Hall, +<a href="#page334">334</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Kelat Seman.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. Simeon <!-- invisible hyphen --></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Stylites, <a href="#page117">117</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Khajuraho.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Jaina temples, <a href="#page407">407</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Kandarya Mahadeo, <a href="#page408">408</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Khorsabad.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace of Sargon, <a href="#page31">31</a>, +<a href="#page32">32</a> +(<a href="#fig18"><b>18</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +City Gate, <a href="#page32">32</a>, +<a href="#page33">33</a>, +(<a href="#fig19"><b>19</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kirkstall</span> Abbey, pointed arches, +<a href="#page219">219</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Königsberg.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church At, <a href="#page244">244</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Koyunjik.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palaces of Sennacherib and Assur-bani-pal, +<a href="#page31">31</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Kuttenberg.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. Barbara, +<a href="#page239">239</a>, +<a href="#page240">240</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_L" id="index_L" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Laach</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Abbey of, <a href="#page174">174</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Labyrinth</span> (of Moeris or Fayoum in +Egypt), +<a href="#page26">26</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">La Muette.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page314">314</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Landshut.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Residenz, <a href="#page342">342</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Martin’s, <a href="#page240">240</a>, +<a href="#page244">244</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Langres</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page167">167</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Laon</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page206">206</a>, +<a href="#page210">210</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +porches, <a href="#page208">208</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">La Rochefoucauld.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page315">315</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Laval</span> Cathedral (La Trinité), +<a href="#page201">201</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Le Mans</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page200">200</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page206">206</a> +(<a href="#fig118"><b>118</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset1"> +tomb in, <a href="#page310">310</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Leon.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page189">189</a>, +<a href="#page249">249</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Panteon of S. Isidore, +<a href="#page179">179</a>, +<a href="#page180">180</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Le Puy</span> (Puy-en-Vélay).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page204">204</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +cloister of same, <a href="#page213">213</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Leipzig.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Fürstenhaus<!-- invisible umlaut -->, +<a href="#page346">346</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Lemgo.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Leyden.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page336">336</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Lichfield</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page225">225</a>, +<a href="#page229">229</a> +(<a href="#fig135"><b>135</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset1"> +west front, <a href="#page228">228</a> +(<a href="#fig134"><b>134</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset1"> +spire, <a href="#page229">229</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum">443</span> +<a name="page443" id="page443"> </a> +<p class="smallcaps">Liège.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Archbishop’s Palace, <a href="#page334">334</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. Jacques, +<a href="#page247">247</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Limburg-on-the-Hardt.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page193">193</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Limburg-on-Lahn.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Abbey Church, <a href="#page174">174</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral of St. George, +<a href="#page239">239</a> +(<a href="#fig139"><b>139</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Limoges</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page212">212</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Lincoln</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page219">219</a>, +<a href="#page225">225</a>, +<a href="#page229">229</a>, +<a href="#page232">232</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +west front, <a href="#page227">227</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +central tower, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +chapter-house, <a href="#page223">223</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Lisbon</span>, +<a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Lisieux</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Liverpool.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. George’s Hall, <a href="#page358">358</a>(<a href="#fig199"><b>199</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Loire Valley.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Churches of, <a href="#page165">165</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Lombardy.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Romanesque Monuments In, +<a href="#page157">157</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">London.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Albert Memorial, <a href="#page380">380</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Albert Memorial Hall, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Bank of England, <a href="#page334">334</a>, +<a href="#page356">356</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +British Museum, <a href="#page356">356</a> +(<a href="#fig198"><b>198</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Elgin marbles in, <a href="#page57">57</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +mausoleum fragments in, +<a href="#page71">71</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral (St. Paul’s), +<a href="#page329">329–331</a> +(<a href="#fig186"><b>186</b></a>, +<a href="#fig187"><b>187</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Chapel Royal (Banqueting Hall, Whitehall), +<a href="#page329">329</a> +(<a href="#fig185"><b>185</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Churches</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Bow Church, <a href="#page332">332</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. George’s, Bloomsbury, +<a href="#page333">333</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, +<a href="#page333">333</a> +(<a href="#fig189"><b>189</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Mary’s, Woolnoth, <a href="#page332">332</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Pancras’s, <a href="#page357">357</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Paul’s Cathedral, +<a href="#page329">329–331</a> +(<a href="#fig186"><b>186</b></a>, +<a href="#fig187"><b>187</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Paul’s, Covent Garden, +<a href="#page329">329</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Stephen’s, Walbrook, +<a href="#page331">331</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster, +<a href="#page234">234</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Temple Church, pointed arches in, +<a href="#page219">219</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Westminster Abbey, <a href="#page220">220</a> +(<a href="#fig137"><b>137</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset3"> +Henry VII.’s chapel in same, +<a href="#page192">192</a>, +<a href="#page223">223</a>, +<a href="#page227">227</a>, +<a href="#page229">229</a>, +<a href="#page234">234</a> +(<a href="#fig136"><b>136</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Greenwich Hospital, <a href="#page332">332</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Mansion House, <a href="#page334">334</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Natural History Museum, South Kensington, +<a href="#page381">381</a> +(<a href="#fig216"><b>216</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +New Law Courts, <a href="#page380">380</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Newgate Prison, <a href="#page334">334</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Parliament Houses, <a href="#page234">234</a>, +<a href="#page380">380</a> +(<a href="#fig215"><b>215</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Somerset House, <a href="#page329">329</a>, +<a href="#page333">333</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +South Kensington Museum, new building, +<a href="#page382">382</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +University, <a href="#page357">357</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Westminster Abbey, see above.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Westminster Hall, <a href="#page233">233</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Whitehall Palace, <a href="#page329">329</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Banqueting Hall (Chapel Royal) in same, +<a href="#page329">329</a> +(<a href="#fig185"><b>185</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Longleat</span> House, +<a href="#page328">328</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Louvain</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page246">246</a>, +<a href="#page247">247</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cloth hall, <a href="#page247">247</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page248">248</a> +(<a href="#fig144"><b>144</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Lübeck.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +City Gates, <a href="#page246">246</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Mary’s, <a href="#page242">242</a>, +<a href="#page244">244</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Catharine’s, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page246">246</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Lucca.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Campanile, <a href="#page264">264</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral (S. Martino), +<a href="#page161">161</a>, +<a href="#page257">257</a>, +<a href="#page258">258</a>, +<a href="#page260">260</a> +(<a href="#fig149"><b>149</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +tempietto in same, <a href="#page281">281</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +tomb of P. di Noceto in same, +<a href="#page281">281</a> +(<a href="#fig164"><b>164</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Frediano, S. Michele, +<a href="#page161">161</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Minor works, <a href="#page282">282</a>, +<a href="#page283">283</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palazzo Pretorio, Pal. Bernardini, +<a href="#page283">283</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Lupiana</span> Monastery, +<a href="#page350">350</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Luxor</span>, +<a href="#page50">50</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple, <a href="#page19">19</a>, +<a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Osirid Piers, <a href="#page24">24</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Luz.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church at, <a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Lycia.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tombs, <a href="#page37">37</a>, +<a href="#page39">39</a>, +<a href="#page52">52</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_M" id="index_M" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Madrid</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +First Palace, <a href="#page350">350</a>.</p> +<p> New Palace, <a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Madrid</span>, Château de (at Boulogne), +<a href="#page314">314</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Madura.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Choultrie of Tirumalla Nayak, +<a href="#page411">411</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Great Temple, corridors, +<a href="#page411">411</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace, <a href="#page413">413</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mafra.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace, <a href="#page353">353</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Magdeburg</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page189">189</a>, +<a href="#page242">242</a>, +<a href="#page243">243</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum">444</span> +<a name="page444" id="page444"> </a> +<p class="smallcaps">Mahrisch Trübau.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Castle portal, <a href="#page338">338</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Maisons.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page322">322</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Malaga.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Alcazar, <a href="#page142">142</a>, +<a href="#page143">143</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page348">348</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Malines</span> (Mechlin).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral of St. Rombaut, +<a href="#page246">246</a>, +<a href="#page247">247</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cloth hall, <a href="#page247">247</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hôtel du Saumon, <a href="#page324">324</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Manchester.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Assize Courts, <a href="#page380">380</a>(<a href="#fig216"><b>216</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Manikyala.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tope, <a href="#page403">403</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Manresa.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Collegiate Church, <a href="#page249">249</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mantinæa.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theatre, <a href="#page69">69</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mantua.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Campanile, <a href="#page264">264</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of S. Andrea, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Early Renaissance palaces, +<a href="#page283">283</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palazzo del Té, <a href="#page289">289</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Marburg.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Elizabeth, <a href="#page240">240</a>, +<a href="#page242">242</a> +(<a href="#fig140"><b>140</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Marienburg</span> Castle, Great Hall, +<a href="#page245">245</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Marienwerder.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Castle, <a href="#page245">245</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Marseilles.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Chapel of St. Lazare, <a href="#page310">310</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Fountain of Longchamps, +<a href="#page372">372</a> +(<a href="#fig211"><b>211</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mashita.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace of Chosroes, <a href="#page145">145</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Massachusetts.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Country house in (<a href="#fig225"><b>225</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Maulbronn.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Monastery, <a href="#page176">176</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Mayence</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page174">174</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Meaux</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page212">212</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mecca.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Kaabah, <a href="#page136">136</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Medina de Rio Seco.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Rood-screen, <a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Medinet Abou.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Osirid piers, <a href="#page24">24</a>(<a href="#fig15"><b>15</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pavilion of Rameses III., +<a href="#page26">26</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Peripteral temple, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tomb-temple of Rameses III., +<a href="#page15">15</a>, +<a href="#page21">21</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Meissen.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Albrechtsburg, <a href="#page245">245</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Meroë.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pyramids, <a href="#page9">9</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Metz</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page244">244</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Meydoum.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Stepped Pyramid, <a href="#page9">9</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Milan</span>, +<a href="#page157">157</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Arcade, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page243">243</a>, +<a href="#page255">255</a>, +<a href="#page257">257</a>, +<a href="#page260">260</a>, +<a href="#page261">261</a>, +<a href="#page262">262</a>, +<a href="#page263">263</a>, +<a href="#page264">264</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Domical churches, <a href="#page278">278</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ospedale Maggiore, <a href="#page283">283</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Ambrogio, <a href="#page158">158</a>, +<a href="#page159">159</a> +(<a href="#fig90"><b>90</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Eustorgio, Portinari Chapel in, +<a href="#page283">283</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Satiro, sacristy of, +<a href="#page289">289</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sta. Maria delle Grazie, +<a href="#page278">278</a>, +<a href="#page289">289</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Miletus.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Apollo Didymæus, +<a href="#page53">53</a>, +<a href="#page66">66</a> +(<a href="#fig28"><b>28</b></a>, +<a href="#fig29"><b>29</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Minden</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page244">244</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mœris.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Labyrinth of, <a href="#page26">26</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Moissac.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cloister, <a href="#page170">170</a>, +<a href="#page213">213</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Monreale.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Churches, cathedral, <a href="#page162">162</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mons.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, St. Wandru, +<a href="#page246">246</a>, +<a href="#page247">247</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Montepulciano.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of S. Biagio, <a href="#page294">294</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Montmajour.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cloister, <a href="#page170">170</a>, +<a href="#page213">213</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mont St. Michel.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Abbey, <a href="#page167">167</a>, +<a href="#page168">168</a>, +<a href="#page213">213</a>, +<a href="#page214">214</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +cloister of same, <a href="#page213">213</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Moret.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +House of Francis I., <a href="#page316">316</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Moscow.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +The Kremlin, <a href="#page366">366</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Mosul</span>, +<a href="#page33">33</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mount Abu.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Jaina temples, Temple of Vimalah Sah, +<a href="#page405">405</a>, +<a href="#page406">406</a> +(<a href="#fig226"><b>226</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mount Athos.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Monastery, <a href="#page134">134</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mugheir.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Sin Or Hurki, <a href="#page30">30</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mujelibeh.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Mound, <a href="#page31">31</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mukteswara.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hindu temples, <a href="#page409">409</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mülhausen.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town Hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Munich</span>, +<a href="#page366">366</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Auekirche, <a href="#page375">375</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Basilica, <a href="#page375">375</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page240">240</a>, +<a href="#page242">242</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Glyptothek, <a href="#page359">359</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ludwigskirche, <a href="#page375">375</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Propylæa, <a href="#page360">360</a> +(<a href="#fig201"><b>201</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ruhmeshalle, <a href="#page359">359</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Michael’s, <a href="#page344">344</a>.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">445</span> +<a name="page445" id="page445"> </a> +<p class="smallcaps">Münster.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church at, <a href="#page243">243</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page245">245</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Münzenberg.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Castle ruins, <a href="#page176">176</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mycenæ.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Fortifications, <a href="#page44">44</a>(<a href="#fig23"><b>23</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Lion Gate, <a href="#page44">44</a> +(<a href="#fig22"><b>22</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tholos of Atreus, <a href="#page45">45</a>, +<a href="#page46">46</a>, +<a href="#page148">148</a> +(<a href="#fig24"><b>24</b></a>, +<a href="#fig25"><b>25</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tombs, <a href="#page4">4</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Mylassa.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tomb, <a href="#page72">72</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Myra.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theatre, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tombs, <a href="#page72">72</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_N" id="index_N" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Nakhon Wat</span></a>, +Temple of, <a href="#page413">413</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Naksh-i-roustam</span> (persepolis), +<a href="#page36">36</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tomb of Darius, <a href="#page37">37</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Nancy.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ducal Palace, <a href="#page216">216</a>, +<a href="#page311">311</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Nankin.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Porcelain Tower, <a href="#page414">414</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Naples.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Arcade, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Arch of Alphonso, <a href="#page287">287</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Gesù Nuovo, <a href="#page304">304</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of S. Francesco di Paola, <a href="#page305">305</a>, +<a href="#page365">365</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of S. Lorenzo, <a href="#page263">263</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of S. Severo (<a href="#fig173"><b>173</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Minor works, <a href="#page281">281</a>, +<a href="#page282">282</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pal. Gravina, Porta Capuana, +<a href="#page287">287</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Royal Museum, <a href="#page304">304</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Royal Palace, <a href="#page304">304</a>, +<a href="#page305">305</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theatre of S. Carlo, <a href="#page305">305</a>, +<a href="#page365">365</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Narbonne</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page211">211</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Nassick.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Chaityas, <a href="#page404">404</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Naukratis</span>, +<a href="#page44">44</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Naumburg.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church At, <a href="#page243">243</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Netherlands</span>, +<a href="#page146">146</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gothic monuments (list), +<a href="#page252">252–253</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Neuweiler.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. Peter And St. Paul, +<a href="#page243">243</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Nevers.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Étienne, <a href="#page165">165</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">New Mexico.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Spanish churches, <a href="#page388">388</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Newport.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page388">388</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Trinity Church, <a href="#page386">386</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">New York.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +American Surety Building, Broadway Chambers, +<a href="#page397">397</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Casino, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of St. John the Divine, <a href="#page399">399</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of St. Patrick, <a href="#page375">375</a>, +<a href="#page391">391</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Century Club, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +City Hall, <a href="#page389">389</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Custom House, <a href="#page390">390</a> +(<a href="#fig221"><b>221</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Grace Church, <a href="#page392">392</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Huntington house, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Madison Square Garden, Metropolitan Club, +<a href="#page399">399</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Paul’s, <a href="#page386">386</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sub-Treasury, <a href="#page390">390</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Times Building, (<a href="#fig224"><b>224</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Trinity Church, <a href="#page392">392</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Vanderbilt and Villard houses, +<a href="#page399">399</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Nîmes.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Maison Carrée, <a href="#page93">93</a>, +<a href="#page94">94</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Nimroud.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palaces of Assur-nazir-pal and Shalmaneser, +<a href="#page31">31</a>, +<a href="#page32">32</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nineveh</span>, +<a href="#page31">31</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nippur</span> (Niffer).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ruins of, <a href="#page29">29</a>, +<a href="#page31">31</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Normandy.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Romanesque churches in, +<a href="#page167">167</a>, +<a href="#page177">177</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +cathedrals in, <a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page213">213</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">North Germany.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Brick churches in, <a href="#page244">244</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">North Woburn.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Rumford House, <a href="#page387">387</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Norwich</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page177">177</a>, +<a href="#page178">178</a>, +<a href="#page220">220</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Noyon</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page200">200</a>, +<a href="#page203">203</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page246">246</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Nubia.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Early Christian buildings, +<a href="#page118">118</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nuremberg</span>, +<a href="#page238">238</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Churches of St. Sebald, St. Lorenz, +<a href="#page245">245</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Funk, Hirschvogel, and Keller houses, +<a href="#page346">346</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Renaissance houses, <a href="#page345">345</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Shrine of St. Sebald, <a href="#page347">347</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_O" id="index_O" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Olympia</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Altis, Echo Hall, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Heraion, <a href="#page50">50</a>, +<a href="#page62">62</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temples, <a href="#page55">55</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +sculptures from, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Zeus, <a href="#page62">62</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Oppenheim.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Catharine’s, <a href="#page239">239</a>, +<a href="#page242">242</a>, +<a href="#page244">244</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Oudeypore.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hindu temples, palace, +<a href="#page409">409</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Orange.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theatre, <a href="#page101">101</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Orchomenos.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ceiling, <a href="#page47">47</a></p> +<span class="pagenum">446</span> +<a name="page446" id="page446"> </a> +<p class="smallcaps">Orléans.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Houses, <a href="#page316">316</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall (hôtel de ville), +<a href="#page311">311</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Orvieto</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page257">257</a>, +<a href="#page259">259</a>, +<a href="#page261">261</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +façade of same, <a href="#page260">260</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Osnabrück.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church at, <a href="#page243">243</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Ottmarsheim.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church at, <a href="#page172">172</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Oudenärde.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page247">247</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Ourscamp.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hospital, <a href="#page214">214</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Oxford.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +All Souls’ College, <a href="#page333">333</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral (Christ Church), +<a href="#page220">220</a>, +<a href="#page222">222</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Christ Church Hall, <a href="#page233">233</a>, +<a href="#page234">234</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Merton College Chapel, +<a href="#page234">234</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Radcliffe Library, <a href="#page333">333</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sheldonian Theatre, <a href="#page332">332</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_P" id="index_P" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Paderborn</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Padua.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Arena chapel, <a href="#page258">258</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palazzo del Consiglio, +<a href="#page287">287</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Pæstum.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Basilica, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temples, <a href="#page61">61</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Pailly.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page317">317</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Palermo.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Churches of Eremitani, La Martorana, +<a href="#page162">162</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Palmyra</span>, +<a href="#page83">83</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of the Sun, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ceiling panels (<a href="#fig50"><b>50</b> <i>a</i></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Parasnatha.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Jaina temples, <a href="#page407">407</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Paris.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Arch of Triumph of the Carrousel, +<a href="#page362">362</a>, +<a href="#page363">363</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of l’Étoile, <a href="#page362">362</a>, +<a href="#page363">363</a> +(<a href="#fig204"><b>204</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Bourse (Exchange), <a href="#page363">363</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral (Notre Dame), +<a href="#page189">189</a>, +<a href="#page197">197–202</a>, +<a href="#page249">249</a> +(<a href="#fig116"><b>116</b></a>, +<a href="#fig117"><b>117</b></a>, +<a href="#fig124"><b>124</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +rose windows, <a href="#page203">203</a>, +<a href="#page212">212</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +chapels, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +size, <a href="#page206">206</a>, +<a href="#page232">232</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +west front, <a href="#page207">207</a>, +<a href="#page227">227</a> +(<a href="#fig124"><b>124</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +capital from (<a href="#fig126"><b>126</b> +<i>b</i></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +early carving (<a href="#fig114"><ins class="correction" title="text has ‘122’"><b>114</b></ins></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Churches</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Chapel and Dome of the Invalides, <a href="#page321">321</a> +(<a href="#fig182"><b>182</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Madeleine, <a href="#page362">362</a>, +<a href="#page363">363</a> +(<a href="#fig205"><b>205</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Panthéon, <a href="#page361">361</a>, +<a href="#page362">362</a> +(<a href="#fig202"><b>202</b></a>, +<a href="#fig203"><b>203</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sacré-Cœur at Montmartre, +<a href="#page373">373</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sainte Chapelle, <a href="#page185">185</a>, +<a href="#page203">203</a>, +<a href="#page224">224</a> +(<a href="#fig106"><b>106</b></a>, +<a href="#fig121"><b>121</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset3"> +capital from same (<a href="#fig126"><b>126</b> +<i>a</i></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sorbonne, <a href="#page319">319</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Augustin, <a href="#page371">371</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Ste. Clothilde, <a href="#page371">371</a>, +<a href="#page375">375</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Étienne-du-Mont, St. Eustache, +<a href="#page312">312</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Jean de Belleville, +<a href="#page371">371</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Merri, St. Sévérin, +<a href="#page213">213</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Paul-St. Louis, <a href="#page319">319</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Sulpice, <a href="#page323">323</a>, +<a href="#page361">361</a> +(<a href="#fig183"><b>183</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Vincent-de-Paul, <a href="#page364">364</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Val-de-Grâce, <a href="#page322">322</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Collège Chaptal, <a href="#page371">371</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Colonnades of the Garde-Meuble, +<a href="#page361">361</a>, +<a href="#page367">367</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Column of July (Colonne Juillet), +<a href="#page365">365</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Corps Législatif (Palais Bourbon), +<a href="#page363">363</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +École des Beaux-Arts, <a href="#page355">355</a>, +<a href="#page370">370</a>, +<a href="#page392">392</a>, +<a href="#page393">393</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +library of same, <a href="#page364">364</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +door (<a href="#fig206"><b>206</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +École de Médecine, new buildings, +<a href="#page374">374</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Exhibition buildings, <a href="#page374">374</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fountains</span>:— +of Cuvier, Molière, St. Michel, <a href="#page372">372</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Halles Centrales, <a href="#page371">371</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hôtel-de-Ville (town hall), +<a href="#page316">316</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +new building, <a href="#page373">373</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Hôtels</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Carnavalet (de Ligeris), <a href="#page316">316</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +de Cluny, <a href="#page216">216</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +des Invalides, <a href="#page321">321</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +House of Francis I. (Maison François I.), +<a href="#page316">316</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Library of the Beaux-Arts, +<a href="#page364">364</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Ste. Genéviève, <a href="#page365">365</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Louvre (see palaces). Museum (Musée) Galliéra (<a href="#fig212"><b>212</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Opera House (Nouvel Opéra), +<a href="#page372">372</a> +(<a href="#fig210"><b>210</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Palais Bourbon (Corps Législatif), <a href="#page363">363</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Palais de l’Industrie, <a href="#page364">364</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Pal. de Justice, <a href="#page364">364</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Louvre and Tuileries, <a href="#page215">215</a>, +<a href="#page315">315–319</a>, +<a href="#page321">321</a>, +<a href="#page362">362</a>, +<a href="#page371">371</a>, +<a href="#page372">372</a> +(<a href="#fig179"><b>179</b></a>, +<a href="#fig208"><b>208</b></a>, +<a href="#fig209"><b>209</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Luxemburg Palace, <a href="#page318">318</a> +(<a href="#fig180"><b>180</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Places</span> (Squares):—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +de la Concorde, <a href="#page324">324</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Royale, <a href="#page319">319</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Vendôme, <a href="#page322">322</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Railway stations (du Nord, de l’Est, d’Orléans), +<a href="#page372">372</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sorbonne, new academic buildings, +<a href="#page374">374</a>.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">447</span> +<a name="page447" id="page447"> </a> +<p class="smallcaps">Paulinzelle.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Romanesque church, <a href="#page173">173</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pavia</span>, +<a href="#page157">157</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Certosa, <a href="#page255">255</a>, +<a href="#page262">262</a>, +<a href="#page263">263</a>, +<a href="#page278">278</a>, +<a href="#page283">283</a>, +<a href="#page284">284</a> +(<a href="#fig152"><b>152</b></a>, +<a href="#fig153"><b>153</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of S. Michele, <a href="#page159">159</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Domical churches, <a href="#page278">278</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Pekin.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Summer pavilion, Temple of Great Dragon, +<a href="#page414">414</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pergamon</span> (Pergamus).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Altar of Eumenes II., <a href="#page67">67</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Christian buildings, <a href="#page118">118</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Perigueux.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Front, <a href="#page164">164</a>(<a href="#fig94"><b>94</b></a>, +<a href="#fig95"><b>95</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Peroor.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple, <a href="#page411">411</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Persepolis</span>, +<a href="#page145">145</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Columns, <a href="#page37">37</a>, +<a href="#page38">38</a> +(<a href="#fig21"><b>21</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hall of Xerxes, <a href="#page36">36</a>, +<a href="#page37">37</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palaces, <a href="#page35">35</a>, +<a href="#page69">69</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Persia.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Moslem architecture, <a href="#page145">145</a>, +<a href="#page146">146</a> +(list <a href="#page154">154</a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sassanian buildings, <a href="#page144">144</a>, +<a href="#page145">145</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Perugia.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Oratory of San Bernardino, +<a href="#page279">279</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall (Pal. Communale), +<a href="#page266">266</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Roman Gates, <a href="#page88">88</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Peterborough</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page178">178</a>, +<a href="#page220">220</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +retro-choir, <a href="#page222">222</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +west front, <a href="#page227">227</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Phigalæa</span> (Bassæ).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gate, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sculptures from, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Apollo Epicurius, +<a href="#page65">65</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Philadelphia.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Christ Church, <a href="#page386">386</a>(<a href="#fig218"><b>218</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Girard College, <a href="#page390">390</a>, +<a href="#page391">391</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Independence Hall, <a href="#page388">388</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Marine Exchange, Mint, +<a href="#page390">390</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Municipal Building, <a href="#page391">391</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Philæ.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Great Temple, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Peripteral temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Piacenza</span>, +<a href="#page157">157</a>. Campanile, +<a href="#page159">159</a> +(<a href="#fig91"><b>91</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral (<a href="#fig91"><b>91</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page266">266</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Piastenschloss</span> at Brieg, +<a href="#page343">343</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Pienza.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palazzo Piccolomini, etc., +<a href="#page282">282</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Pierrefonds.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page371">371</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Pisa.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Churches in, <a href="#page115">115</a>, +<a href="#page261">261</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +minor works in, <a href="#page282">282</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +early Renaissance in, +<a href="#page282">282–283</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Baptistery, <a href="#page160">160</a> +(<a href="#fig92"><b>92</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral (Duomo), <a href="#page159">159</a>, +<a href="#page160">160</a>, +<a href="#page276">276</a> +(<a href="#fig92"><b>92</b></a>, +<a href="#fig93"><b>93</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Leaning Tower, <a href="#page160">160</a> +(<a href="#fig92"><b>92</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sta. Maria della Spina, +<a href="#page264">264</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Pistoia.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Campanile, <a href="#page264">264</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Churches, <a href="#page161">161</a>, +<a href="#page261">261</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Podestà, Palazzo Communale, +<a href="#page266">266</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sta. Maria dell’ Umiltà, +<a href="#page293">293</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Pittsburgh.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Carnegie Building, <a href="#page397">397</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Carnegie Library, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +County Buildings, <a href="#page394">394</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Plagnitz.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Castle, <a href="#page343">343</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Plassenburg.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Castle, <a href="#page343">343</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Poitiers</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page201">201</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Pola.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a>, +<a href="#page102">102</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Pompeii.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Baths, <a href="#page86">86</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Houses, <a href="#page72">72</a>, +<a href="#page107">107</a>, +<a href="#page108">108</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +House of Pansa (<a href="#fig65"><b>65</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theatre, <a href="#page101">101</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tombs, <a href="#page105">105</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Pont Du Gard.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Bridge, <a href="#page108">108</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Portsmouth.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sherburne House, <a href="#page387">387</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Portugal</span>, +<a href="#page352">352</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gothic monuments (list), <a href="#page253">253</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Potsdam.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Nicholas Church, <a href="#page359">359</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Prague.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Belvedere, <a href="#page339">339</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page239">239</a>, +<a href="#page242">242</a>, +<a href="#page244">244</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace on Hradschin, Schloss Stern, Waldstein palace, +<a href="#page339">339</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Prato.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Churches in, <a href="#page161">161</a>, +<a href="#page293">293</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Madonna delle Carceri, +<a href="#page278">278</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Prentzlau.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page244">244</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Priene.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ionic order, <a href="#page53">53</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Propylæa, <a href="#page69">69</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Provence</span>, +<a href="#page164">164</a>.</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Provins.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Houses at, <a href="#page214">214</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Puri.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temples, <a href="#page408">408</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Jugganât, <a href="#page409">409</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Purudkul.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Rock-cut raths, <a href="#page413">413</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum">448</span> +<a name="page448" id="page448"> </a> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_R" id="index_R" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Ramesseum</span></a> +(Thebes). Tomb-temple of Rameses II., +<a href="#page15">15</a>, +<a href="#page21">21</a>, +<a href="#page24">24</a> +(<a href="#fig8"><b>8</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Ramisseram.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple, corridors, <a href="#page411">411</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ratisbon</span> (Regensburg) Cathedral, +<a href="#page239">239</a>, +<a href="#page241">241</a>, +<a href="#page244">244</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page245">245</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Walhalla, <a href="#page359">359</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ravenna</span>, +<a href="#page114">114</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Baptistery of St. John, +<a href="#page119">119</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Byzantine monuments (list), +<a href="#page134">134</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page304">304</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Early Christian monuments (list), +<a href="#page119">119</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Apollinare Nuovo, S. Apollinare in Classe, +<a href="#page114">114</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Vitale, <a href="#page117">117</a>, +<a href="#page122">122</a>, +<a href="#page127">127</a>, +<a href="#page172">172</a> +(<a href="#fig73"><b>73</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Reggio.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Reims</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page189">189</a>, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page201">201</a>, +<a href="#page202">202</a>, +<a href="#page203">203</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +size, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +west front, <a href="#page207">207</a>, +<a href="#page213">213</a>, +<a href="#page227">227</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +towers, <a href="#page209">209</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +portals, <a href="#page208">208</a>, +<a href="#page210">210</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Rimini.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Francesco, <a href="#page277">277</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Rochester</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page220">220</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Rodez</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page212">212</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Rome.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ancient monuments, (list) <a href="#page108">108</a>, +<a href="#page109">109</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus, +<a href="#page102">102</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Arches</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +in general, <a href="#page77">77</a>, +<a href="#page103">103</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Constantine, <a href="#page80">80</a>, +<a href="#page103">103</a> +(<a href="#fig63"><b>63</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Septimius Severus, <a href="#page103">103</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Titus, <a href="#page92">92</a>, +<a href="#page103">103</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Trajan, <a href="#page97">97</a>, +<a href="#page103">103</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Basilicas</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +in general, <a href="#page97">97</a>, +<a href="#page98">98</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Basilica Æmilia, <a href="#page98">98</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Constantine, xxiii, +<a href="#page80">80</a>, +<a href="#page82">82</a>, +<a href="#page98">98</a>, +<a href="#page99">99</a> +(<a href="#fig50"><b>50</b> <i>b</i></a>, +<a href="#fig58"><b>58</b></a>, +<a href="#fig59"><b>59</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Julian Basilica, <a href="#page98">98</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sempronian, <a href="#page98">98</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Ulpian, <a href="#page97">97</a>, +<a href="#page98">98</a> +(<a href="#fig57"><b>57</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset2"> +(For Early Christian Basilicas, see Churches.)</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Baths</span> (Thermæ):—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +in general, <a href="#page71">71</a>, +<a href="#page92">92</a>, +<a href="#page99">99</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Agrippa, <a href="#page91">91</a>, +<a href="#page100">100</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Caracalla, <a href="#page87">87</a>, +<a href="#page92">92</a> +(<a href="#fig60"><b>60</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Diocletian, <a href="#page92">92</a>, +<a href="#page100">100</a>, +<a href="#page101">101</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Titus, <a href="#page86">86</a>, +<a href="#page91">91</a>, +<a href="#page100">100</a>, +<a href="#page105">105</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Campanile of Campidoglio (Capitol), +<a href="#page305">305</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Capitol, <a href="#page91">91</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +palaces on, <a href="#page299">299</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Churches</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +in general, <a href="#page293">293</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Church of Gesù, <a href="#page299">299</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sistine Chapel of Vatican, +<a href="#page286">286</a>, +<a href="#page289">289</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sta. Agnese</p> +<p class="inset3"> +(basilica), <a href="#page112">112</a></p> +<p class="inset3"> +(modern church), <a href="#page303">303</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +S. Agostino, <a href="#page286">286</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +S. Clemente, <a href="#page114">114</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sta. Costanza, <a href="#page111">111</a> +(<a href="#fig66"><b>66</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. John Lateran, <a href="#page113">113</a>, +<a href="#page251">251</a>, +<a href="#page304">304</a>, +<a href="#page305">305</a>;</p> +<p class="inset3"> +cloister of same, <a href="#page281">281</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +S. Lorenzo, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +S. Lorenzo in Miranda, +<a href="#page93">93</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sta. Maria degli Angeli, +<a href="#page101">101</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sta. Maria Maggiore, <a href="#page113">113</a>, +<a href="#page305">305</a>;</p> +<p class="inset3"> +Chapel of Sixtus V. in same, +<a href="#page299">299</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sta. Maria del Popolo, +<a href="#page286">286</a>, +<a href="#page287">287</a>;</p> +<p class="inset3"> +Chigi Chapel in same, <a href="#page293">293</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sta. Maria della Vittoria, +<a href="#page303">303</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sta. Maria sopra Minerva, +<a href="#page256">256</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls, +<a href="#page113">113</a>, +<a href="#page281">281</a> +(<a href="#fig67"><b>67</b></a>, +<a href="#fig68"><b>68</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Peter’s, original basilica, +<a href="#page113">113</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +existing church of, <a href="#page274">274</a>, +<a href="#page286">286</a>, +<a href="#page289">289</a>, +<a href="#page290">290</a>, +<a href="#page294">294–296</a>, +<a href="#page299">299</a>, +<a href="#page321">321</a> +(<a href="#fig169"><b>169</b></a>, +<a href="#fig170"><b>170</b></a>, +<a href="#fig171"><b>171</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset3"> +colonnade of same, <a href="#page295">295</a>, +<a href="#page303">303</a>, +<a href="#page367">367</a>;</p> +<p class="inset3"> +sacristy of same, <a href="#page305">305</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +S. Pietro in Montorio, Tempietto in court of, +<a href="#page209">209</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Circuses</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Maximus, <a href="#page103">103</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Caligula and Nero, <a href="#page103">103</a>, +<a href="#page113">113</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cloaca Maxima, <a href="#page81">81</a>, +<a href="#page90">90</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Colosseum (Flavian amphitheatre) <a href="#page91">91</a>, +<a href="#page92">92</a>, +<a href="#page102">102</a> +(<a href="#fig45"><b>45</b></a>, +<a href="#fig62"><b>62</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Columns</span>:— +<a href="#page103">103</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#page104">104</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Trajan, <a href="#page97">97</a>, +<a href="#page104">104</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Early Christian monuments, +<a href="#page111">111</a>; (list), +<a href="#page118">118</a>, +<a href="#page119">119</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fora</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +in general, <a href="#page97">97</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Augustus, <a href="#page91">91</a>, +<a href="#page97">97</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Julius, Nerva, Vespasian, +<a href="#page97">97</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Forum Romanum (Magnum), +<a href="#page97">97</a>, +<a href="#page98">98</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Forum of Trajan, <a href="#page97">97</a>, +<a href="#page98">98</a> +(<a href="#fig57"><b>57</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Fountain of Trevi, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Houses</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +in general, <a href="#page105">105</a>, +<a href="#page106">106</a>, +<a href="#page108">108</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Vestals (Atrium Vestæ), +<a href="#page94">94</a>, +<a href="#page106">106</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Livia, <a href="#page107">107</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Lateran, carved ornament from Museum of (<a href="#fig49"><b>49</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +palace of, <a href="#page300">300</a>.</p> + +<span class="pagenum">449</span> +<a name="page449" id="page449"> </a> +<p class="inset1"> +Mausoleum of Augustus, of Hadrian, +<a href="#page104">104</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Minor Works in Rome, <a href="#page287">287</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Monument to Victor Emmanuel, +<a href="#page382">382</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +National Museum, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span> (Ancient):—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Cæsars on Palatine Hill, <a href="#page86">86</a>, +<a href="#page91">91</a>, +<a href="#page105">105</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Nero (Golden House), +<a href="#page91">91</a>, +<a href="#page92">92</a>, +<a href="#page100">100</a>, +<a href="#page105">105</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Septizonium, <a href="#page105">105</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span> (Renaissance):—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Altemps, <a href="#page292">292</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Barberini, <a href="#page304">304</a>, +<a href="#page305">305</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Borghese, <a href="#page304">304</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Braschi, <a href="#page305">305</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Capitol, <a href="#page299">299</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Cancelleria, <a href="#page290">290</a>, +<a href="#page291">291</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Corsini, <a href="#page305">305</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Farnese, <a href="#page292">292</a> +(<a href="#fig167"><b>167</b></a>, +<a href="#fig168"><b>168</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Farnesina, <a href="#page291">291</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Giraud, <a href="#page290">290</a>, +<a href="#page291">291</a> +(<a href="#fig166"><b>166</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Lante, <a href="#page292">292</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Massimi, Palma, <a href="#page291">291</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Quirinal, <a href="#page300">300</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sacchetti, <a href="#page291">291</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Vatican, Belvedere, greater and lesser court, Court of S. Damaso, +Loggie, +<a href="#page209">209</a>, +<a href="#page291">291</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Braccio Nuovo, <a href="#page305">305</a>, +<a href="#page365">365</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Casino del Papa in gardens, +<a href="#page293">293</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +papal residence, <a href="#page300">300</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Scala Reggia, <a href="#page305">305</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +palazzo di Venezia, <a href="#page286">286</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pantheon of Agrippa, <a href="#page82">82</a>, +<a href="#page91">91</a>, +<a href="#page94">94–96</a>, +<a href="#page100">100</a>, +<a href="#page118">118</a>, +<a href="#page122">122</a>, +<a href="#page127">127</a>, +<a href="#page365">365</a> +(<a href="#fig54"><b>54</b></a>, +<a href="#fig55"><b>55</b></a>, +<a href="#fig56"><b>56</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pons Ælius (Ponte S. Angelo), +<a href="#page108">108</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Porta Maggiore, <a href="#page108">108</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Portico of Octavia, <a href="#page91">91</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Temples</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Of Castor and Pollux (Dioscuri), <a href="#page84">84</a>, +<a href="#page91">91</a>, +<a href="#page94">94</a> +(<a href="#fig44"><b>44</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Concord, <a href="#page94">94</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Faustina, <a href="#page93">93</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Fortuna Virilis, <a href="#page89">89</a>, +<a href="#page90">90</a>, +<a href="#page93">93</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Hercules or Vesta, <a href="#page90">90</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Julius, <a href="#page94">94</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Jupiter Capitolinus, +<a href="#page68">68</a>, +<a href="#page89">89</a>, +<a href="#page91">91</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Jupiter Stator, so called (see Temple of Castor and Pollux);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Jupiter Tonans, <a href="#page91">91</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Mars Ultor, <a href="#page91">91</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Minerva Medica, <a href="#page127">127</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Peace, <a href="#page98">98</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Trajan, <a href="#page97">97</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Venus and Rome, <a href="#page94">94</a> +(<a href="#fig53"><b>53</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Vesta, in Forum, <a href="#page94">94</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Vesta, so called, or Hercules, +<a href="#page90">90</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Theatres</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Of Marcellus, <a href="#page91">91</a>, +<a href="#page101">101</a> +(<a href="#fig42"><b>42</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Mummius, of Pompey, +<a href="#page101">101</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Tombs</span>:— +<a href="#page86">86</a>, +<a href="#page104">104</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Caius Cestius, of Cecilia Metella, +<a href="#page104">104</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Helena, <a href="#page118">118</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Rosenborg</span> Castle, +<a href="#page336">336</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Rosheim.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church façade, <a href="#page175">175</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Rothenburg.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Rouen</span>, +<a href="#page310">310</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page192">192</a>, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page201">201</a>, +<a href="#page202">202</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +size of, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +west front, <a href="#page207">207</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +rose windows, <a href="#page212">212</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hôtel Bourgtheroude, <a href="#page316">316</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palais de Justice, <a href="#page214">214</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Maclou, <a href="#page209">209</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Ouen, <a href="#page212">212</a>, +<a href="#page213">213</a>, +<a href="#page375">375</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +rose window from (<a href="#fig112"><b>112</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Rouheiha.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Early Christian church, +<a href="#page117">117</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Royal Domain</span>, +<a href="#page166">166</a>, +<a href="#page167">167</a>, +<a href="#page197">197</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Ruanwalli.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Topes, <a href="#page403">403</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Russia</span>, +<a href="#page367">367</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Byzantine monuments (list), +<a href="#page134">134</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_S" id="index_S" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Sadri</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple, <a href="#page406">406</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Sakkarah.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pyramid, <a href="#page9">9</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Salamanca.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Casa de las Conchas, <a href="#page349">349</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral (old), <a href="#page180">180</a>, +<a href="#page248">248</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +(new), <a href="#page250">250</a>, +<a href="#page348">348</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Monastery of S. Girolamo, +<a href="#page348">348</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Domingo, <a href="#page348">348</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +University, <a href="#page349">349</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +portal of (<a href="#fig195"><b>195</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Salisbury</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page219">219</a>, +<a href="#page223">223</a>, +<a href="#page225">225</a>, +<a href="#page229">229</a>, +<a href="#page232">232</a> +(<a href="#fig128"><b>128</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +west front, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +spire, <a href="#page228">228</a>, +<a href="#page229">229</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Market cross, <a href="#page234">234</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Salonica.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. George, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Other monuments (list), +<a href="#page134">134</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Salsette.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Viharas, <a href="#page405">405</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Salzburg.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. Francis, +<a href="#page242">242</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Samos.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gate, <a href="#page45">45</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Sanchi.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Brahman temple, <a href="#page404">404</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tope, <a href="#page403">403</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum">450</span> +<a name="page450" id="page450"> </a> +<p class="smallcaps">San Ildefonso.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Royal Palace, <a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Sabagossa.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Casa de Zaporta, <a href="#page350">350</a>(<a href="#fig196"><b>196</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Saxony</span>, +<a href="#page173">173</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Schalaburg.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Castle, <a href="#page339">339</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Schlettstadt</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page239">239</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Schloss Hämelschenburg</span>, +<a href="#page343">343</a> +(<a href="#fig191"><b>191</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Schloss Porzia</span> at Spital, +<a href="#page338">338</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Schloss Stern</span> at Prague, +<a href="#page339">339</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Schwarz-Rheindorf.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page174">174</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Schweinfürth.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Scinde</span>, +<a href="#page146">146</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Secundra.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tomb of Akbar, <a href="#page148">148</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Sedinga.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hathoric columns, <a href="#page24">24</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Séez</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Segovia</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page190">190</a>, +<a href="#page249">249</a>, +<a href="#page348">348</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of S. Millan, of Templars, +<a href="#page180">180</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Selinus.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temples, <a href="#page49">49</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +northern temple, <a href="#page60">60</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Temple of Zeus, <a href="#page61">61</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Semneh.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pavilion, <a href="#page26">26</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Senlis</span> Cathedral, <a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page200">200</a>, +<a href="#page209">209</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Sens.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Archbishop’s palace, <a href="#page317">317</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page203">203</a>, +<a href="#page219">219</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Serbistan.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sassanian buildings, <a href="#page144">144</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Seville.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Alcazar, <a href="#page142">142</a>, +<a href="#page143">143</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Casa de Pilato (House of Pilate), +<a href="#page142">142</a>, +<a href="#page350">350</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page244">244</a>, +<a href="#page250">250</a>, +<a href="#page257">257</a>, +<a href="#page351">351</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Giralda, <a href="#page142">142</a>, +<a href="#page143">143</a>, +<a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Sheepree.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Pathan arches, <a href="#page148">148</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Sienna.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Brick houses, <a href="#page266">266</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Campanile, <a href="#page264">264</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral (Duomo), <a href="#page257">257</a>, +<a href="#page259">259</a>, +<a href="#page263">263</a> +(<a href="#fig150"><b>150</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +west front, <a href="#page260">260</a> +(<a href="#fig151"><b>151</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Loggia del Papa, <a href="#page282">282</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Minor works, <a href="#page282">282</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Del Governo, Piccolomini, Spannocchi, <a href="#page282">282</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Palazzo Pubblico, <a href="#page266">266</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Renaissance churches, <a href="#page293">293</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Giovanni in Fonte, <a href="#page260">260</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Silsileh.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Grotto temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Soissons</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page200">200</a>, +<a href="#page203">203</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page243">243</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Somnath.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Jaina temple, <a href="#page407">407</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Somnathpur.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Chalukyan temples, <a href="#page409">409</a>, +<a href="#page410">410</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Southwell</span> Minster, carving from, (<a +href="#fig115"><b>115</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Spain</span>, +<a href="#page347">347</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gothic monuments (list), +<a href="#page253">253</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Romanesque churches, +<a href="#page179">179–180</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Spalato.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace of Diocletian, <a href="#page92">92</a>, +<a href="#page106">106</a>, +<a href="#page113">113</a> +(<a href="#fig64"><b>64</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Spital.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Schloss Porzia, <a href="#page338">338</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Spires</span> (Speyer) Cathedral, +<a href="#page174">174</a> +(<a href="#fig100"><b>100</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">St. Alban’s</span> Abbey, tombs, etc., in, +<a href="#page234">234</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">St. Augustine.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Fort Marion (S. Marco), +<a href="#page388">388</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ponce de Leon Hotel, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Roman Catholic cathedral, +<a href="#page388">388</a>.</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">St. Benoît-sur-Loire.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Antechurch, <a href="#page177">177</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">St. Denis.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Abbey, <a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page198">198</a>, +<a href="#page200">200</a>, +<a href="#page202">202</a>, +<a href="#page203">203</a> +(<a href="#fig120"><b>120</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +tomb of Louis XII. in, +<a href="#page316">316</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Francis I., <a href="#page317">317</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">St. Germain-en-Laye.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, +<a href="#page313">313</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Royal chapel in, <a href="#page204">204</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">St. Gilles.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page165">165</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">St. Louis.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Union Trust Bdg., <a href="#page397">397</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">St. Paul.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +State Capitol, <a href="#page400">400</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">St. Petersburg</span>, +<a href="#page366">366</a>, +<a href="#page367">367</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Admiralty, <a href="#page367">367</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral of St. Isaac, +<a href="#page367">367</a> +(<a href="#fig207"><b>207</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Churches</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of the Citadel, of the Greek Rite, <a href="#page366">366</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Our Lady of Kazan, <a href="#page367">367</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +New Museum, Palace of Grand Duke Michael, +<a href="#page367">367</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Smolnoy Monastery, <a href="#page366">366</a>.</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">St. Rémy.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tombs, <a href="#page105">105</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Stabiæ</span>, +<a href="#page92">92</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Stockholm.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace, <a href="#page337">337</a></p> +<span class="pagenum">451</span> +<a name="page451" id="page451"> </a> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Strasburg</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page243">243</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +spire of, <a href="#page238">238</a>, +<a href="#page240">240</a>, +<a href="#page241">241</a>, +<a href="#page243">243</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +University Buildings, <a href="#page376">376</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Stuttgart.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Old Castle, <a href="#page343">343</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Technical School, <a href="#page376">376</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Styria</span>, +<a href="#page339">339</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Sully.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page317">317</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Sultaniyeh.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Tomb, <a href="#page145">145</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Sunium.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Propylæa, <a href="#page69">69</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Susa</span>, +<a href="#page145">145</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palaces, <a href="#page35">35</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Syracuse.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Theatre, <a href="#page70">70</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Syria</span>, +<a href="#page122">122</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +early Christian churches in, +<a href="#page115">115</a>, +<a href="#page116">116</a>, +<a href="#page117">117</a>; (list), +<a href="#page119">119</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_T" id="index_T" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Tabriz</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ruined Mosque, <a href="#page145">145</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Tafkhah.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Early <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Christain’">Christian</ins> Church, +<a href="#page117">117</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Takht-i-Bahi.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Monastery, <a href="#page405">405</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Tängermünde.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page244">244</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Tanjore.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Great temple, <a href="#page412">412</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace, <a href="#page413">413</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Shrine of Soubramanya, +<a href="#page412">412</a> +(<a href="#fig229"><b>229</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Tarputry.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gopura, <a href="#page411">411</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Teheran</span>, +<a href="#page146">146</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tel-el-Amarna</span>, +<a href="#page27">27</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tewkesbury</span> Abbey, +<a href="#page222">222</a> +(<a href="#fig130"><b>130</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Thebes.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Amenopheum, <a href="#page15">15</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ramesseum, <a href="#page15">15</a> +(<a href="#fig8"><b>8</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Thoricus.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gate, <a href="#page45">45</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Stoa Diple, <a href="#page69">69</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Tinnevelly.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Dravidian temples, <a href="#page411">411</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Tiruvalur.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Dravidian temples, <a href="#page411">411</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tiryns</span>, +<a href="#page44">44</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Tivoli.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Circular temple, <a href="#page90">90</a>, +<a href="#page356">356</a> +(<a href="#fig52"><b>52</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Villas</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +D’Este, <a href="#page293">293</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Hadrian, <a href="#page87">87</a>, +<a href="#page106">106</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Tokio.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Great Palace, <a href="#page415">415</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Toledo.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Archbishop’s Palace, <a href="#page360">360</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page189">189</a>, +<a href="#page248">248</a>, +<a href="#page348">348</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gate of S. Martino, <a href="#page350">350</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hospital of Sta. Cruz, +<a href="#page349">349</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Juan de los Reyes, <a href="#page251">251</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Tonnerre.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hospital, <a href="#page214">214</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Torgau.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Hartenfels Castle, <a href="#page342">342</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Toro.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Collegiate church, <a href="#page180">180</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Toulouse</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page212">212</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. Sernin, <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Houses, <a href="#page317">317</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tournay</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page190">190</a>, +<a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page209">209</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +rood-screen in, <a href="#page335">335</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tours</span>, +<a href="#page310">310</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page209">209</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +towers of, <a href="#page312">312</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +tomb of children of Charles VIII. in, +<a href="#page310">310</a>, +<a href="#page342">342</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Trausnitz</span> Castle, +<a href="#page342">342</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Treves</span> (Trier).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page174">174</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Frauenkirche (Liebfrauenkirche, Church of Our Lady), +<a href="#page189">189</a>, +<a href="#page242">242</a>, +<a href="#page243">243</a> +(<a href="#fig142"><b>142</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Troyes</span></p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page201">201</a>, +<a href="#page205">205</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +size, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +west portals, <a href="#page209">209</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Urbain, <a href="#page212">212</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Tucson.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page352">352</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Tuparamaya.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Topes, <a href="#page403">403</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Turin.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of La Superga, <a href="#page365">365</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Turkey</span>, +<a href="#page149">149</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Monuments (list), <a href="#page154">154</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Tusculum.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tyrol</span>, +<a href="#page338">338</a>, +<a href="#page339">339</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_U" id="index_U" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Udaipur</span></a> +(near Bhilsa). Hindu temples, +<a href="#page409">409</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ulm</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page238">238</a>, +<a href="#page239">239</a>, +<a href="#page241">241</a>, +<a href="#page243">243</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +spire, <a href="#page241">241</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ur</span>, +<a href="#page30">30</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Urbino.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ducal palace, <a href="#page287">287</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Utrecht</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page244">244</a></p> + +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_V" id="index_V" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Valencia</span></a> Cathedral, +<a href="#page249">249</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Valladolid.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral, <a href="#page350">350</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Gregorio, portal (<a href="#fig146"><b>146</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Vellore.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gopura, <a href="#page411">411</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Vendôme</span> Cathedral, portal, +<a href="#page209">209</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum">452</span> +<a name="page452" id="page452"> </a> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Venetia</span>, +<a href="#page157">157</a>, +<a href="#page262">262</a>, +<a href="#page305">305</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Venice</span>, +<a href="#page300">300</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Campaniles of St. Mark, of S. Giorgio Maggiore, +<a href="#page305">305</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Churches</span>:—</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Frari (S. M. Gloriosa dei Frari), +<a href="#page256">256</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Redentore, <a href="#page299">299</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +S. Giobbe, <a href="#page284">284</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +S. Giorgio dei Grechi, +<a href="#page293">293</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +S. Giorgio Maggiore, <a href="#page299">299</a>, +<a href="#page305">305</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +SS. Giovanni e Paolo, <a href="#page256">256</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Sta. Maria Formosa, <a href="#page293">293</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +S. M. dei Miracoli, <a href="#page283">283</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +S. M. della Salute, <a href="#page304">304</a>, +(<a href="#fig174"><b>174</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +St. Mark’s, <a href="#page132">132</a>, +<a href="#page164">164</a> +(<a href="#fig78"><b>78</b></a>, +<a href="#fig79"><b>79</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset3"> +Library of same (Royal Palace), +<a href="#page301">301</a> +(<a href="#fig172"><b>172</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +S. Salvatore, <a href="#page293">293</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +S. Zaccaria, <a href="#page284">284</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Doge’s Palace, <a href="#page267">267</a>, +<a href="#page284">284</a> +(<a href="#fig157"><b>157</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Minor works, <a href="#page287">287</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span>:— +<a href="#page267">267</a>, +<a href="#page283">283</a>, +<a href="#page284">284</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Cà d’Oro, Cavalli, Contarini-Fasan, +<a href="#page268">268</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Cornaro (Corner de Cà Grande) <a href="#page301">301</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Dario, <a href="#page285">285</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Ducale (Doge’s Palace), +<a href="#page267">267</a>, +<a href="#page284">284</a> +(<a href="#fig157"><b>157</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Foscari, <a href="#page268">268</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Grimani, <a href="#page300">300</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Pesaro, <a href="#page304">304</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Pisani, <a href="#page268">268</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Rezzonico, <a href="#page304">304</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Vendramini (Vendramin-Calergi), +<a href="#page284">284</a>, +<a href="#page285">285</a> +(<a href="#fig165"><b>165</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Zorzi, capital, <a href="#page275">275</a> +(<a href="#fig158"><b>158</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Vercelli.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +S. Andrea, <a href="#page256">256</a>, +<a href="#page263">263</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Verneuil.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Château, <a href="#page317">317</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Verona</span>, +<a href="#page157">157</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a>, +<a href="#page102">102</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Campanile, <a href="#page264">264</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of Sta. Anastasia, <a href="#page256">256</a>, +<a href="#page258">258</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +of S. Zeno, <a href="#page159">159</a>, +<a href="#page175">175</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span>:— +<a href="#page283">283</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Bevilacqua, Canossa, <a href="#page300">300</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +del Consiglio, <a href="#page286">286</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Pompeii, Verzi, <a href="#page300">300</a>.</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Tombs of Scaligers, <a href="#page264">264</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Versailles</span> Palace, +<a href="#page320">320</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Vézélay.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Abbey, <a href="#page166">166</a>, +<a href="#page198">198</a>, +<a href="#page203">203</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Vicenza</span>, +<a href="#page300">300</a>, +<a href="#page301">301</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Basilica, <a href="#page301">301</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span>:— +<a href="#page283">283</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Barbarano, Chieregati, Tiene, Valmarano, +<a href="#page301">301</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +Villa Capra, <a href="#page301">301</a>, +<a href="#page328">328</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Vienna</span>, +<a href="#page347">347</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Arsenal at Wiener Neustadt, +<a href="#page338">338</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Burgtheater, <a href="#page376">376</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cathedral (St. Stephen), +<a href="#page239">239</a>, +<a href="#page240">240</a>, +<a href="#page241">241</a>;</p> +<p class="inset2"> +spire of, <a href="#page240">240</a>, +<a href="#page241">241</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church of St. Charles Borromeo, +<a href="#page358">358</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Imperial Palace, portal, +<a href="#page339">339</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Museums, <a href="#page378">378</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Opera House, <a href="#page376">376</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Parliament House, or Reichsrathsgebäude, +<a href="#page360">360</a>, +<a href="#page378">378</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Residence-block (Maria-Theresienhof), +<a href="#page378">378</a> +(<a href="#fig214"><b>214</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Sta. Maria in Gestade, +<a href="#page245">245</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, University, +<a href="#page378">378</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Votiv Kirche, <a href="#page375">375</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Vijayanagar.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace, <a href="#page413">413</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Vincennes.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Royal chapel, <a href="#page204">204</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Viterbo.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Houses, <a href="#page267">267</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall (Palazzo Communale), +<a href="#page266">266</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Villa Lante, <a href="#page293">293</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Volterra</span> (Volaterræ).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Gate, <a href="#page88">88</a></p> +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_W" id="index_W" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Waltham</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Abbey, <a href="#page178">178</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Eleanor’s Cross, <a href="#page234">234</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Warfield.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. Michael’s, window +(<a href="#fig111"><b>111</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Warkah</span> (Erech).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Palace terraces, <a href="#page31">31</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Wartburg</span> Castle, +<a href="#page176">176</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Washington.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Capitol, <a href="#page389">389</a>, +<a href="#page391">391</a> +(<a href="#fig220"><b>220</b></a>).</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Congressional Library, +<a href="#page399">399</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Patent Office, <a href="#page390">390</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +State, Army, and Navy Building, +<a href="#page392">392</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +White House, <a href="#page390">390</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Wells</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page222">222</a>, +<a href="#page225">225</a>, +<a href="#page232">232</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +west front, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +chapter house of, <a href="#page223">223</a> +(<a href="#fig131"><b>131</b></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Westminster.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +See <span class="smallcaps">London</span></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Westonzoyland.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Ceiling of St. Mary’s +(<a href="#fig138"><b>138</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Westover</span> House, +<a href="#page386">386</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Wiener-neustadt.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +See <span class="smallcaps">Vienna</span></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Williamsburg.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Town hall, <a href="#page385">385</a></p> +<span class="pagenum">453</span> +<a name="page453" id="page453"> </a> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Wilton</span> House, +<a href="#page329">329</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Winchester</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page178">178</a>, +<a href="#page220">220</a>, +<a href="#page222">222</a>, +<a href="#page226">226</a>, +<a href="#page229">229</a> +(<a href="#fig103"><b>103</b></a>);</p> +<p class="inset1"> +tombs, etc., in, <a href="#page234">234</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Windsor.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +St. George’s Chapel, <a href="#page223">223</a>, +<a href="#page227">227</a>, +<a href="#page234">234</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Wismar.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Castle (Fürstenhof), <a href="#page343">343</a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +City Gates, <a href="#page246">246</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Woburn.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Public Library (<a href="#fig223"><b>223</b></a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Wollaton</span> Hall, +<a href="#page328">328</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Wolfenbüttel.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Marienkirche, <a href="#page345">345</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Wolterton</span> Castle, +<a href="#page326">326</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Worangul.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Kurti Stambha, <a href="#page410">410</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Worcester</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page232">232</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Worms.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Minster (cathedral), <a href="#page174">174</a> +(<a href="#fig99"><ins class="correction" title="text has ‘112’"><b>99</b></ins></a>)</p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Würzburg.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +University Church, <a href="#page345">345</a></p> +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_X" id="index_X" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Xanten</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Church, <a href="#page242">242</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Xanthus.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Nereid monument, <a href="#page71">71</a></p> +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_Y" id="index_Y" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">York</span></a> Cathedral, +<a href="#page192">192</a>, +<a href="#page225">225</a>, +<a href="#page226">226</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +west front, <a href="#page227">227</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +tower, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p> +<p class="inset1"> +minor works in, <a href="#page234">234</a></p> + +<p class="smallcaps">Ypres.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Cloth hall, <a href="#page247">247</a></p> +<p class="first"> +<a class="plain" name="index_Z" id="index_Z" href="#index"> +<span class="smallcaps">Zurich</span></a>.</p> +<p class="inset1"> +Polytechnic School, <a href="#page376">376</a></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Zwettl</span> Cathedral, +<a href="#page242">242</a></p> + +</div> <!-- end div index --> + +<div class="endnote"> +<h4><a name="errors" id="errors"> +Errors and Inconsistencies</a></h4> + +<p>Missing or invisible punctuation has been silently supplied, as have +missing umlauts and line-end hyphens. Errors of this type were assumed +to be mechanical, introduced either in printing or scanning.</p> + +<p>Hyphenization of some words was inconsistent: zigzag and zig-zag, +semicircular and semi-circular, staircase and stair-case. The plural of +“portico” is regularly “porticos”, rarely “porticoes”. Both occurrences +of “mantelpiece” are at line-break; the hyphen was omitted based on +usage in the 8th edition.</p> + +<p>Alphabetization in the Index is as printed.</p> + +<h5>Names</h5> + +<div class="hanging"> +<p>The architect Robert Adam is consistently called “Adams”; the error +was corrected in the 8th edition. The name form “Michael Angelo” is +standard for the time.</p> + +<p>Columbia College changed its name to Columbia University in 1896, +presumably after the book’s original preface (dated January 20, 1896) +was +written.</p> + +<p>The French palace is variously Luxembourg and Luxemburg.</p> +</div> + +<h5>Place Names</h5> + +<p>Spelling of place names was unchanged except when there was an +unambiguous error.</p> + +<p>The form “Herculanum” (for Herculanum) was used consistently. The +English city is Peterboro’ (with apostrophe) in its first few +appearances, and then changes to Peterborough for the remainder of the +book. The Italian city was conventionally spelled “Sienna” (with +two n’s) in English.</p> + +<p>Many names, especially non-European ones, differ significantly from +their modern form. Some of the following are conjectural.</p> + +<table class="names" summary="place names"> +<tr> +<td>Ipsamboul</td> +<td><p>Abu Simbel</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Bozrah</td> +<td><p>probably modern Bouseira, Jordan (not “Bosrah”, modern +Basra)</p></td> +</tr> +<tr class="space"> +<td>Tope</td> +<td><p>the form “stupa” is more common</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Indian desert</td> +<td><p>Thar desert</p></td> +</tr> +<tr class="space"> +<td>Baillur</td> +<td><p>Belur</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Chillambaram</td> +<td><p>probably Chidambaram; the author’s sources seem to have had +trouble with “l” in South Indian names</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Conjeveram</td> +<td><p>Kanchipuram</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Futtehpore Sikhri</p></td> +<td><p>Fatehpur Sikri</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Hullabid</td> +<td><p>Halebid</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Jaunpore</td> +<td><p>Janpur</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Jugganat</td> +<td><p>the name of the deity is Jagannath; the English name-form led to +the word “juggernaut”</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kantonnuggur</td> +<td><p>Kantanagar</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Oudeypore</td> +<td><p>the author seems not to have realized that this is the same place +as Udaipur, cited with that spelling in the same paragraph</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Scinde</td> +<td><p>Sind</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Shepree or Sheepree</td> +<td><p>could not be identified. The author’s source is probably James +Ferguson, who describes it as “near Gualior” (Gwalior)</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tanjore</td> +<td><p>Thanjavur</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Worangul</td> +<td><p>Varangal</p></td> +</tr> +<tr class="space"> +<td><p>Nakhon Wat</p></td> +<td><p>better known as Angkor Wat</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE ***</div> +<div style='text-align:left'> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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