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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Text-Book of the History of Architecture, by Alfred D. F. Hamlin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: A Text-Book of the History of Architecture
+       Seventh Edition, revised
+
+Author: Alfred D. F. Hamlin
+
+Release Date: August 15, 2008 [eBook #26319]
+[Most recently updated: October 28, 2023]
+
+Language: English
+
+Produced by: Louise Hope, Joseph R. Hauser and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+[This text uses utf-8 (unicode) file encoding. If the apostrophes and
+quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage, make sure your
+text reader’s “character set” or “file encoding” is set to Unicode
+(UTF-8). You may also need to change the default font. As a last
+resort, use the latin-1 version of the file instead.
+
+Errors and inconsistencies, including details about some place names,
+are listed at the end of the e-text. Spelling variations are as in the
+original.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+            COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART
+
+                   Edited By
+            JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.
+
+                   *   *   *
+
+            HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
+                A. D. F. Hamlin
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+            COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART
+
+                   Edited By
+
+            JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.
+
+        Professor of the History of Art
+               in Rutgers College
+
+                   *   *   *
+
+              HISTORY OF PAINTING
+
+By JOHN C. VAN DYKE, the Editor of the Series. With Frontispiece
+and 110 Illustrations, Bibliographies, and Index. Crown 8vo, $1.50.
+
+            HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
+
+By ALFRED D. F. HAMLIN, A.M. Adjunct Professor of Architecture,
+Columbia College, New York. With Frontispiece and 229 Illustrations
+and Diagrams, Bibliographies, Glossary, Index of Architects, and
+a General Index. Crown 8vo, $2.00.
+
+              HISTORY OF SCULPTURE
+
+By ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D. and ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr.,
+Ph.D., Professors of Archæology and the History of Art in Princeton
+University. With Frontispiece and 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, $1.50.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+  [Illustration: THE PARTHENON, ATHENS, AS RESTORED BY CH. CHIPIEZ.
+  (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)]
+
+
+
+
+                  A TEXT-BOOK
+
+                     of the
+
+            HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+                       by
+
+             A. D. F. HAMLIN, A.M.
+
+    Professor of the History of Architecture
+         in the School of Architecture,
+              Columbia University
+
+
+                SEVENTH EDITION
+                    Revised
+
+
+            LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+        91 and 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
+         London, Bombay, and Calcutta
+                      1909
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright, 1895, by
+  LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+
+  _All rights reserved._
+
+  First Edition, March, 1896
+  Printed and Revised, December, 1896.
+  December, 1898 (Revised)
+  October, 1900 (Revised)
+  October, 1902 (Revised)
+  September, 1904, June, 1906 (Revised).
+  November, 1907 (Revised)
+  January, 1909
+
+  Press of J. J. Little & Ives Co.
+  425-435 East 24th Street, New York
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The aim of this work has been to sketch the various periods and styles
+of architecture with the broadest possible strokes, and to mention,
+with such brief characterization as seemed permissible or necessary,
+the most important works of each period or style. Extreme condensation
+in presenting the leading facts of architectural history has been
+necessary, and much that would rightly claim place in a larger work has
+been omitted here. The danger was felt to be rather in the direction of
+too much detail than of too little. While the book is intended primarily
+to meet the special requirements of the college student, those of the
+general reader have not been lost sight of. The majority of the
+technical terms used are defined or explained in the context, and the
+small remainder in a glossary at the end of the work. Extended criticism
+and minute description were out of the question, and discussion of
+controverted points has been in consequence as far as possible avoided.
+
+The illustrations have been carefully prepared with a view to
+elucidating the text, rather than for pictorial effect. With the
+exception of some fifteen cuts reproduced from Lübke’s _Geschichte der
+Architektur_ (by kind permission of Messrs. Seemann, of Leipzig), the
+illustrations are almost all entirely new. A large number are from
+original drawings made by myself, or under my direction, and the
+remainder are, with a few exceptions, half-tone reproductions prepared
+specially for this work from photographs in my possession.
+Acknowledgments are due to Messrs. H. W. Buemming, H. D. Bultman, and
+A. E. Weidinger for valued assistance in preparing original drawings;
+and to Professor W. R. Ware, to Professor W. H. Thomson, M.D., and to
+the Editor of the Series for much helpful criticism and suggestion.
+
+It is hoped that the lists of monuments appended to the history of each
+period down to the present century may prove useful for reference, both
+to the student and the general reader, as a supplement to the body of
+the text.
+
+  A. D. F. HAMLIN.
+
+  COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK,
+  January 20, 1896.
+
+
+The author desires to express his further acknowledgments to the friends
+who have at various times since the first appearance of this book called
+his attention to errors in the text or illustrations, and to recent
+advances in the art or in its archæology deserving of mention in
+subsequent editions. As far as possible these suggestions have been
+incorporated in the various revisions and reprints which have appeared
+since the first publication.
+
+  A. D. F. H.
+
+  COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY,
+  October 28, 1907.
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+                                                            PAGE
+  Preface                                                      v
+
+  List of Illustrations                                       xi
+
+  General Bibliography                                       xix
+
+  Introduction                                               xxi
+
+    CHAPTER I.
+  Primitive and Prehistoric Architecture                       1
+
+    CHAPTER II.
+  Egyptian Architecture                                        6
+
+    CHAPTER III.
+  Egyptian Architecture, _Continued_                          16
+
+    CHAPTER IV.
+  Chaldæan and Assyrian Architecture                          28
+
+    CHAPTER V.
+  Persian, Lycian, and Jewish Architecture                    35
+
+    CHAPTER VI.
+  Greek Architecture                                          43
+
+    CHAPTER VII.
+  Greek Architecture, _Continued_                             60
+
+    CHAPTER VIII.
+  Roman Architecture                                          74
+
+    CHAPTER IX.
+  Roman Architecture, _Continued_                             88
+
+    CHAPTER X.
+  Early Christian Architecture                               110
+
+    CHAPTER XI.
+  Byzantine Architecture                                     120
+
+    CHAPTER XII.
+  Sassanian and Mohammedan Architecture--Arabian,
+      Moresque, Persian, indian, and Turkish                 135
+
+    CHAPTER XIII.
+  Early Mediæval Architecture in Italy and France            155
+
+    CHAPTER XIV.
+  Early Mediæval Architecture in Germany,
+      Great Britain, and Spain                               172
+
+    CHAPTER XV.
+  Gothic Architecture                                        182
+
+    CHAPTER XVI.
+  Gothic Architecture in France                              196
+
+    CHAPTER XVII.
+  Gothic Architecture in Great Britain                       218
+
+    CHAPTER XVIII.
+  Gothic Architecture in Germany, the Netherlands,
+      and Spain                                              237
+
+    CHAPTER XIX.
+  Gothic Architecture in Italy                               254
+
+    CHAPTER XX.
+  Early Renaissance Architecture in Italy                    270
+
+    CHAPTER XXI.
+  Renaissance Architecture in Italy--The Advanced
+      Renaissance and Decline                                288
+
+    CHAPTER XXII.
+  Renaissance Architecture in France                         308
+
+    CHAPTER XXIII.
+  Renaissance Architecture in Great Britain
+      and the Netherlands                                    326
+
+    CHAPTER XXIV.
+  Renaissance Architecture in Germany, Spain,
+      and Portugal                                           338
+
+    CHAPTER XXV.
+  The Classic Revivals in Europe                             354
+
+    CHAPTER XXVI.
+  Recent Architecture in Europe                              368
+
+    CHAPTER XXVII.
+  Architecture in the United States                          383
+
+    CHAPTER XXVIII.
+  Oriental Architecture--India, China, and Japan             401
+
+  Appendix                                                   417
+
+  Glossary                                                   429
+
+  Index of Architects                                        431
+
+  Index                                                      435
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+The authorship of the original drawings is indicated by the initials
+affixed: A. = drawings by the author; B. = H. W. Buemming; Bn. = H. D.
+Bultman; Ch. = Château, _L’Architecture en France_; G. = drawings
+adapted from Gwilt’s _Encyclopædia of Architecture_; L. = Lübke’s
+_Geschichte der Architektur_; W. = A. E. Weidinger. All other
+illustrations are from photographs.
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+  FRONTISPIECE. The Parthenon Restored
+      (from model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)
+    1 Section of Great Pyramid (A.)                            8
+    2 Section of King’s Chamber (A.)                           9
+    3 Plan of Sphinx Temple (A.)                               9
+    4 Ruins of Sphinx Temple (A.)                             10
+    5 Tomb at Abydos (A.)                                     11
+    6 Tomb at Beni-Hassan (A.)                                11
+    7 Section and Half-plan of same (A.)                      12
+    8 Plan of the Ramesseum (A.)                              14
+    9 Temple of Edfou. Plan (B.)                              17
+   10 Temple of Edfou. Section (B.)                           17
+   11 Temple of Karnak. Plan (L.)                             18
+   12 Central Portion of Hypostyle Hall at Karnak
+          (from model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)       20
+   13 Great Temple of Ipsamboul                               21
+   14 Edfou. Front of Hypostyle Hall                          23
+   15 Osirid Pier (Medinet Abou) (A.)                         24
+   16 Types of Column (A.)                                    25
+   17 Egyptian Floral Ornament-Forms (A.)                     26
+   18 Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad. Plan (L.)                30
+   19 Gate, Khorsabad (A.)                                    32
+   20 Assyrian Ornament (A.)                                  34
+   21 Column from Persepolis (B.)                             37
+   22 Lion Gate at Mycenæ (A.)                                44
+   23 Polygonal Masonry, Mycenæ (A.)                          45
+   24 Tholos of Atreus; Plan and Section (A.)                 46
+   25 Tholos of Atreus, Doorway (after Clarke) (A.)           46
+   26 Greek Doric Order (A.)                                  48
+   27 Doric Order of the Parthenon.
+          (From cast in Metropolitan Museum, New York)        49
+   28 Greek Ionic Order, Miletus (A.)                         51
+   29 Side View of Ionic Capital (B.)                         52
+   30 Greek Corinthian Order (A.)                             53
+   31 Types of Greek Temple Plans (A.)                        54
+   32 Carved Anthemion Ornament, Athens                       57
+   33 Temple of Zeus, Agrigentum; Plan (A.)                   61
+   34 Ruins of the Parthenon                                  63
+   35 Plan of the Erechtheum (A.)                             64
+   36 West End of the Erechtheum (A.)                         64
+   37 Propylæa at Athens. Plan (G.)                           65
+   38 Choragic Monument of Lysicrates.
+          (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)       67
+   39 Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens. Plan (A.)              68
+   40 Plan of Greek Theatre (A.)                              70
+   41 Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (A.)                         72
+   42 Roman Doric Order from Theatre of Marcellus.
+          (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)            77
+   43 Roman Ionic Order (A.)                                  78
+   44 Roman Corinthian Order.
+          (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)       79
+   45 Roman Arcade with Engaged Columns (A.)                  80
+   46 Barrel Vault (A.)                                       81
+   47 Groined Vault (A.)                                      81
+   48 Roman Wall Masonry (B.)                                 83
+   49 Roman Carved Ornament. (Lateran Museum)                 85
+   50 Roman Ceiling Panels (A.)                               86
+   51 Temple of Fortuna Virilis. Plan                         89
+   52 Circular Temple, Tivoli (A.)                            90
+   53 Temple of Venus and Rome. Plan (A.)                     93
+   54 Plan of the Pantheon (B.)                               94
+   55 Interior of the Pantheon                                95
+   56 Exterior of the Pantheon.
+          (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)            96
+   57 Forum and Basilica of Trajan (A.)                       97
+   58 Basilica of Constantine. Plan (G.)                      98
+   59 Ruins of Basilica of Constantine                        99
+   60 Central Block, Thermæ of Caracalla. Plan (G.)          100
+   61 Roman Theatre, Herculanum                              101
+   62 Colosseum at Rome. Half Plan (A.)                      102
+   63 Arch of Constantine.
+          (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)           104
+   64 Palace of Diocletian, Spalato. Plan (G.)               106
+   65 Plan of House of Pansa, Pompeii (A.)                   107
+   66 Plan of Santa Costanza, Rome (A.)                      111
+   67 Plan of the Basilica of
+          St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls, Rome (A.)               113
+   68 St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls. Interior                    114
+   69 Church at Kalb Louzeh (A.)                             116
+   70 Cathedral at Bozrah. Plan (A.)                         117
+   71 Diagram of Pendentives (A.)                            123
+   72 Spandril, Hagia Sophia                                 125
+   73 Capital with Impost Block, S. Vitale                   126
+   74 Plan of St. Sergius, Constantinople (A.)               127
+   75 Plan of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (A.)              128
+   76 Section of Hagia Sophia (A.)                           128
+   77 Interior of Hagia Sophia (full page)                   129
+   78 Plan of St. Mark’s, Venice (A.)                        132
+   79 Interior of St. Mark’s                                 133
+   80 Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo. Sanctuary              137
+   81 Mosque of Kaîd Bey, Cairo                              139
+   82 Moorish Detail, Alhambra                               141
+   83 Interior of Great Mosque, Cordova                      142
+   84 Plan of the Alhambra (A.)                              144
+   85 Tomb of Mahmûd, Bijapur. Section (A.)                  147
+   86 The Taj Mahal, Agra                                    149
+   87 Mosque of Mehmet II., Constantinople. Plan (L.)        151
+   88 Exterior of Ahmediyeh Mosque, Constantinople           152
+   89 Interior of Suleimaniyeh Mosque, Constantinople        153
+   90 Interior of San Ambrogio, Milan                        157
+   91 West Front and Campanile, Cathedral of Piacenza        158
+   92 Baptistery, Cathedral, and Leaning Tower, Pisa         160
+   93 Interior of Pisa Cathedral                             161
+   94 Plan of St. Front, Perigueux (G.)                      164
+   95 Interior of St. Front (L.)                             165
+   96 Plan of Notre Dame du Port, Clermont (Ch.)             166
+   97 Section of same (Ch.)                                  166
+   98 A Six-part Ribbed Vault (A.)                           167
+   99 Plan of Minster at Worms (G.)                          173
+  100 One Bay, Cathedral of Spires (L.)                      174
+  101 East End, Church of the Apostles, Cologne              175
+  102 Plan of Durham Cathedral (Bn.)                         177
+  103 One Bay, Transept of Winchester Cathedral (G.)         178
+  104 Front of Iffley Church (A.)                            179
+  105 Constructive System of Gothic Church (A.)              183
+  106 Plan of Sainte Chapelle, Paris (Bn.)                   184
+  107 Early Gothic Flying Buttress (Bn.)                     185
+  108 Ribbed Vault, English Type (Bn. after Babcock)         186
+  109 Penetrations and Intersections of Vaults (Bn.)         187
+  110 Plate Tracery, Charlton-on-Oxmore                      188
+  111 Bar Tracery, St. Michael’s, Warfield (W.)              189
+  112 Rose Window from St. Ouen, Rouen (G.)                  190
+  113 Flamboyant Detail, Strasburg                           191
+  114 Early Gothic Carving (A.)                              192
+  115 Carving, Decorated Period, from Southwell Minster      193
+  116 Plan of Notre Dame, Paris (L.)                         198
+  117 Interior of Notre Dame                                 199
+  118 Interior of Le Mans Cathedral                          200
+  119 Vaulting with Zigzag Ridge Joints (A.)                 201
+  120 One Bay, Abbey of St. Denis (G.)                       203
+  121 The Sainte Chapelle, Paris. Exterior                   204
+  122 Amiens Cathedral; Plan (G.)                            205
+  123 Alby Cathedral. Plan (A. after Lübke)                  206
+  124 West Front of Notre Dame, Paris                        207
+  125 West Front of St. Maclou, Rouen                        208
+  126 French Gothic Capitals (A.)                            210
+  127 House of Jacques Cœur, Bourges (L.)                    215
+  128 Plan of Salisbury Cathedral (Bn.)                      219
+  129 Ribbed Vaulting, Choir of Exeter Cathedral             221
+  130 Lierne Vaulting, Tewkesbury Abbey                      222
+  131 Vault of Chapter House, Wells                          223
+  132 Cloisters of Salisbury Cathedral                       225
+  133 Perpendicular Tracery, St. George’s, Windsor           226
+  134 West Front, Lichfield Cathedral                        228
+  135 One Bay of Choir, Lichfield Cathedral (A.)             229
+  136 Fan Vaulting, Henry VII.’s Chapel                      231
+  137 Eastern Part, Westminster Abbey. Plan (L.)             232
+  138 Roof of Nave, St. Mary’s, Westonzoyland (W.)           233
+  139 One Bay, Cathedral of St. George, Limburg (L.)         239
+  140 Section of St. Elizabeth, Marburg (Bn.)                240
+  141 Cologne Cathedral, Plan (G.)                           242
+  142 Church of Our Lady, Treves (L.)                        243
+  143 Plan of Ulm Cathedral (L.)                             244
+  144 Town Hall, Louvain                                     247
+  145 Façade of Burgos Cathedral                             249
+  146 Detail from S. Gregorio, Valladolid                    251
+  147 Duomo at Florence, Plan (G.)                           256
+  148 Duomo at Florence, Nave                                257
+  149 One Bay, Cathedral of S. Martino, Lucca (L.)           258
+  150 Interior of Sienna Cathedral                           259
+  151 Façade of Sienna Cathedral                             261
+  152 Exterior of the Certosa, Pavia                         262
+  153 Plan of the Certosa, Pavia                             263
+  154 Upper Part of Campanile, Florence                      265
+  155 Upper Part of Palazzo Vecchio, Florence                266
+  156 Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence                             267
+  157 West Front of Doge’s Palace, Venice                    268
+  158 Capital, Palazzo Zorzi, Venice                         275
+  159 Section of Dome, Duomo of Florence (Bn.)               276
+  160 Exterior of Dome, Duomo of Florence                    277
+  161 Interior of S. Spirito, Florence                       278
+  162 Court of Riccardi Palace, Florence                     279
+  163 Façade of Strozzi Palace, Florence                     280
+  164 Tomb of Pietro di Noceto, Lucca                        282
+  165 Vendramini Palace, Venice                              285
+  166 Façade of Giraud Palace, Rome (L.)                     290
+  167 Plan of Farnese Palace, Rome (L.)                      292
+  168 Court of Farnese Palace, Rome                          293
+  169 Bramante’s Plan for St. Peter’s, Rome (L.)             294
+  170 Plan of St. Peter’s, Rome, as now standing
+          (Bn. after G.)                                     295
+  171 Interior of St. Peter’s (full page)                    297
+  172 Library of St. Mark, Venice                            301
+  173 Interior of San Severo, Naples                         302
+  174 Church of Santa Maria della Salute, Naples             303
+  175 Court Façade, East Wing of Blois                       311
+  176 Staircase Tower, Blois                                 313
+  177 Plan of Château of Chambord (A.)                       314
+  178 Upper Part of Château of Chambord                      314
+  179 Detail of Court of Louvre, southwest portion           315
+  180 The Luxemburg Palace, Paris                            318
+  181 Colonnade of the Louvre                                321
+  182 Dome of the Invalides, Paris                           322
+  183 Façade of St. Sulpice, Paris                           323
+  184 Burghley House                                         327
+  185 Whitehall Palace. The Banqueting Hall                  329
+  186 Plan of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London (G.)              330
+  187 Exterior of St. Paul’s Cathedral                       331
+  188 Plan of Blenheim (G.)                                  332
+  189 St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, London                     333
+  190 Renaissance Houses, Brussels                           335
+  191 The Castle, Hämelschenburg                             341
+  192 The Friedrichsbau, Heidelberg Castle                   344
+  193 Pavilion of Zwinger Palace, Dresden                    345
+  194 Marienkirche, Dresden                                  346
+  195 Portal of University, Salamanca                        349
+  196 Court (Patio) of Casa de Zaporta                       350
+  197 Palace of Charles V., Granada                          351
+  198 Façade of British Museum, London                       357
+  199 St. George’s Hall, Liverpool                           358
+  200 The Old Museum, Berlin                                 359
+  201 The Propylæa, Munich                                   360
+  202 Plan of the Panthéon, Paris (G.)                       361
+  203 Exterior of the Panthéon                               362
+  204 Arch of Triumph of l’Étoile, Paris                     363
+  205 The Madeleine, Paris                                   364
+  206 Door of École des Beaux-Arts, Paris                    365
+  207 St. Isaac’s Cathedral, St. Petersburg                  366
+  208 Plan of Louvre and Tuileries (A.)                      371
+  209 Pavilion Richelieu, Louvre                             372
+  210 Grand Staircase, Paris Opera House                     373
+  211 Fountain of Longchamps, Marseilles                     374
+  212 Galliéra Museum, Paris                                 375
+  213 Royal Theatre, Dresden                                 376
+  214 Maria-Theresienhof, Vienna                             377
+  215 Houses of Parliament, London                           379
+  216 Assize Courts, Manchester                              380
+  217 Natural History Museum, South Kensington               381
+  218 Christ Church, Philadelphia                            386
+  219 Craigie House, Cambridge (Mass.)                       387
+  220 National Capitol, Washington                           389
+  221 Custom House, New York                                 390
+  222 Trinity Church, Boston                                 394
+  223 Public Library, Woburn (Mass.)                         395
+  224 Times Building, New York                               396
+  225 Country House (Mass.)                                  398
+  226 Porch of Temple of Vimalah Sah, Mount Abu.             406
+  227 Tower of Victory, Chittore                             407
+  228 Double Temple at Hullabîd: Detail                      410
+  229 Shrine of Soubramanya, Tanjore                         412
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+
+(This includes the leading architectural works treating of more than one
+period or style. The reader should consult also the special references
+at the head of each chapter. Valuable material is also contained in the
+leading architectural periodicals and in monographs too numerous to
+mention.)
+
+
+DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS.
+
+Agincourt, _History of Art by its Monuments_; London.
+
+Architectural Publication Society, _Dictionary of Architecture_; London.
+
+Bosc, _Dictionnaire raisonné d’architecture_; Paris.
+
+Durm and others, _Handbuch der Architektur_; Stuttgart. (This is an
+encyclopedic compendium of architectural knowledge in many volumes; the
+series not yet complete. It is referred to as the _Hdbuch. d. Arch._)
+
+Gwilt, _Encyclopedia of Architecture_; London.
+
+Longfellow and Frothingham, _Cyclopedia of Architecture in Italy and the
+Levant_; New York.
+
+Planat, _Encyclopédie d’architecture_; Paris.
+
+Sturgis, _Dictionary of Architecture and Building_; New York.
+
+
+GENERAL HANDBOOKS AND HISTORIES.
+
+Bühlmann, _Die Architektur des klassischen Alterthums und der
+Renaissance_; Stuttgart. (Also in English, published in New York.)
+
+Choisy, _Histoire de l’architecture_; Paris.
+
+Durand, _Recueil et parallèle d’édifices de tous genres_; Paris.
+
+Fergusson, _History of Architecture in All Countries_; London.
+
+Fletcher and Fletcher, _A History of Architecture_; London.
+
+Gailhabaud, _L’Architecture du Vme. au XVIIIme. siècle_;
+Paris.--_Monuments anciens et modernes_; Paris.
+
+Kugler, _Geschichte der Baukunst_; Stuttgart.
+
+Longfellow, _The Column and the Arch_; New York.
+
+Lübke, _Geschichte der Architektur_; Leipzig.--_History of Art_, tr. and
+rev. by R. Sturgis; New York.
+
+Perry, _Chronology of Mediæval and Renaissance Architecture_; London.
+
+Reynaud, _Traité d’architecture_; Paris.
+
+Rosengarten, _Handbook of Architectural Styles_; London and New York.
+
+Simpson, _A History of Architectural Development_; London.
+
+Spiers, _Architecture East and West_; London.
+
+Stratham, _Architecture for General Readers_; London.
+
+Sturgis, _European Architecture_; New York.
+
+_Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects_; London.
+
+Viollet-le-Duc, _Discourses on Architecture_; Boston.
+
+
+THEORY, THE ORDERS, ETC.
+
+Chambers, _A Treatise on Civil Architecture_; London.
+
+Daviler, _Cours d’architecture de Vignole_; Paris.
+
+Esquié, _Traité élémentaire d’architecture_; Paris.
+
+Guadet, _Théorie de l’architecture_; Paris.
+
+Robinson, _Principles of Architectural Composition_; New York.
+
+Ruskin, _The Seven Lamps of Architecture_; London.
+
+Sturgis, _How to Judge Architecture_; New York.
+
+Tuckerman, _Vignola, the Five Orders of Architecture_; New York.
+
+Van Brunt, _Greek Lines and Other Essays_; Boston.
+
+Van Pelt, _A Discussion of Composition_.
+
+Ware, _The American Vignola_; Scranton.
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+A history of architecture is a record of man’s efforts to build
+beautifully. The erection of structures devoid of beauty is mere
+building, a trade and not an art. Edifices in which strength and
+stability alone are sought, and in designing which only utilitarian
+considerations have been followed, are properly works of engineering.
+Only when the idea of beauty is added to that of use does a structure
+take its place among works of architecture. We may, then, define
+architecture as the art which seeks to harmonize in a building the
+requirements of utility and of beauty. It is the most useful of the fine
+arts and the noblest of the useful arts. It touches the life of man at
+every point. It is concerned not only in sheltering his person and
+ministering to his comfort, but also in providing him with places for
+worship, amusement, and business; with tombs, memorials, embellishments
+for his cities, and other structures for the varied needs of a complex
+civilization. It engages the services of a larger portion of the
+community and involves greater outlays of money than any other
+occupation except agriculture. Everyone at some point comes in contact
+with the work of the architect, and from this universal contact
+architecture derives its significance as an index of the civilization of
+an age, a race, or a people.
+
+It is the function of the historian of architecture to trace the origin,
+growth, and decline of the architectural styles which have prevailed in
+different lands and ages, and to show how they have reflected the great
+movements of civilization. The migrations, the conquests, the
+commercial, social, and religious changes among different peoples have
+all manifested themselves in the changes of their architecture, and it
+is the historian’s function to show this. It is also his function to
+explain the principles of the styles, their characteristic forms and
+decoration, and to describe the great masterpieces of each style and
+period.
+
+
++STYLE+ is a quality; the “historic styles” are phases of development.
+_Style_ is character expressive of definite conceptions, as of grandeur,
+gaiety, or solemnity. An _historic style_ is the particular phase, the
+characteristic manner of design, which prevails at a given time and
+place. It is not the result of mere accident or caprice, but of
+intellectual, moral, social, religious, and even political conditions.
+Gothic architecture could never have been invented by the Greeks, nor
+could the Egyptian styles have grown up in Italy. Each style is based
+upon some fundamental principle springing from its surrounding
+civilization, which undergoes successive developments until it either
+reaches perfection or its possibilities are exhausted, after which a
+period of decline usually sets in. This is followed either by a reaction
+and the introduction of some radically new principle leading to the
+evolution of a new style, or by the final decay and extinction of the
+civilization and its replacement by some younger and more virile
+element. Thus the history of architecture appears as a connected chain
+of causes and effects succeeding each other without break, each style
+growing out of that which preceded it, or springing out of the
+fecundating contact of a higher with a lower civilization. To study
+architectural styles is therefore to study a branch of the history of
+civilization.
+
+Technically, architectural styles are identified by the means they
+employ to cover enclosed spaces, by the characteristic forms of the
+supports and other members (piers, columns, arches, mouldings,
+traceries, etc.), and by their decoration. The +plan+ should receive
+special attention, since it shows the arrangement of the points of
+support, and hence the nature of the structural design. A comparison,
+for example, of the plans of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (Fig. 11, h)
+and of the Basilica of Constantine (Fig. 58) shows at once a radical
+difference in constructive principle between the two edifices, and hence
+a difference of style.
+
+
++STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES.+ All architecture is based on one or more of
+three fundamental structural principles; that of the _lintel_, of the
+_arch_ or _vault_, and of the _truss_. The principle of the +lintel+ is
+that of resistance to transverse strains, and appears in all
+construction in which a cross-piece or beam rests on two or more
+vertical supports. The +arch+ or +vault+ makes use of several pieces to
+span an opening between two supports. These pieces are in compression
+and exert lateral pressures or _thrusts_ which are transmitted to the
+supports or abutments. The thrust must be resisted either by the
+massiveness of the abutments or by the opposition to it of
+counter-thrusts from other arches or vaults. Roman builders used the
+first, Gothic builders the second of these means of resistance. The
++truss+ is a framework so composed of several pieces of wood or metal
+that each shall best resist the particular strain, whether of tension or
+compression, to which it is subjected, the whole forming a compound beam
+or arch. It is especially applicable to very wide spans, and is the most
+characteristic feature of modern construction. How the adoption of one
+or another of these principles affected the forms and even the
+decoration of the various styles, will be shown in the succeeding
+chapters.
+
+
++HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT.+ Geographically and chronologically, architecture
+appears to have originated in the Nile valley. A second centre of
+development is found in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, not
+uninfluenced by the older Egyptian art. Through various channels the
+Greeks inherited from both Egyptian and Assyrian art, the two influences
+being discernible even through the strongly original aspect of Greek
+architecture. The Romans in turn, adopting the external details of Greek
+architecture, transformed its substance by substituting the Etruscan
+arch for the Greek construction of columns and lintels. They developed a
+complete and original system of construction and decoration and spread
+it over the civilized world, which has never wholly outgrown or
+abandoned it.
+
+With the fall of Rome and the rise of Constantinople these forms
+underwent in the East another transformation, called the Byzantine, in
+the development of Christian domical church architecture. In the North
+and West, meanwhile, under the growing institutions of the papacy and of
+the monastic orders and the emergence of a feudal civilization out of
+the chaos of the Dark Ages, the constant preoccupation of architecture
+was to evolve from the basilica type of church a vaulted structure, and
+to adorn it throughout with an appropriate dress of constructive and
+symbolic ornament. Gothic architecture was the outcome of this
+preoccupation, and it prevailed throughout northern and western Europe
+until nearly or quite the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+During this fifteenth century the Renaissance style matured in Italy,
+where it speedily triumphed over Gothic fashions and produced a
+marvellous series of civic monuments, palaces, and churches, adorned
+with forms borrowed or imitated from classic Roman art. This influence
+spread through Europe in the sixteenth century, and ran a course of two
+centuries, after which a period of servile classicism was followed by a
+rapid decline in taste. To this succeeded the eclecticism and confusion
+of the nineteenth century, to which the rapid growth of new requirements
+and development of new resources have largely contributed.
+
+In Eastern lands three great schools of architecture have grown up
+contemporaneously with the above phases of Western art; one under the
+influence of Mohammedan civilization, another in the Brahman and
+Buddhist architecture of India, and the third in China and Japan. The
+first of these is the richest and most important. Primarily inspired
+from Byzantine art, always stronger on the decorative than on the
+constructive side, it has given to the world the mosques and palaces of
+Northern Africa, Moorish Spain, Persia, Turkey, and India. The other two
+schools seem to be wholly unrelated to the first, and have no affinity
+with the architecture of Western lands.
+
+Of Mexican, Central American, and South American architecture so little
+is known, and that little is so remote in history and spirit from the
+styles above enumerated, that it belongs rather to archæology than to
+architectural history, and will not be considered in this work.
+
+
+NOTE.--The reader’s attention is called to the Appendix to this volume,
+in which are gathered some of the results of recent investigations and
+of the architectural progress of the last few years which could not
+readily be introduced into the text of this edition. The General
+Bibliography and the lists of books recommended have been revised and
+brought up to date.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Desor, _Les constructions lacustres du lac de
+  Neufchatel_. Fergusson, _Rude Stone Monuments_. R. C. Hoare,
+  _Ancients Wiltshire_. Lyell, _The Antiquity of Man_. Lubbock,
+  _Prehistoric Times_. Nadaillac, _Prehistoric America_. Rougemont,
+  _L’age du Bronze_. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_.
+
+
++EARLY BEGINNINGS.+ It is impossible to trace the early stages of the
+process by which true architecture grew out of the first rude attempts
+of man at building. The oldest existing monuments of architecture--those
+of Chaldæa and Egypt--belong to an advanced civilization. The rude and
+elementary structures built by savage and barbarous peoples, like the
+Hottentots or the tribes of Central Africa, are not in themselves works
+of architecture, nor is any instance known of the evolution of a
+civilized art from such beginnings. So far as the monuments testify, no
+savage people ever raised itself to civilization, and no primitive
+method of building was ever developed into genuine architecture, except
+by contact with some existing civilization of which it appropriated the
+spirit, the processes, and the forms. How the earliest architecture came
+into existence is as yet an unsolved problem.
+
+
++PRIMITIVE ARCHITECTURE+ is therefore a subject for the archæologist
+rather than the historian of art, and needs here only the briefest
+mention. If we may judge of the condition of the primitive races of
+antiquity by that of the savage and barbarous peoples of our own time,
+they required only the simplest kinds of buildings, though the purposes
+which they served were the same as those of later times in civilized
+communities. A hut or house for shelter, a shrine of some sort for
+worship, a stockade for defence, a cairn or mound over the grave of the
+chief or hero, were provided out of the simplest materials, and these
+often of a perishable nature. Poles supplied the framework; wattles,
+skins, or mud the walls; thatching or stamped earth the roof. Only the
+simplest tools were needed for such elementary construction. There was
+ingenuity and patient labor in work of this kind; but there was no
+planning, no fitting together into a complex organism of varied
+materials shaped with art and handled with science. Above all, there was
+no progression toward higher ideals of fitness and beauty. Rudimentary
+art displayed itself mainly in objects of worship, or in carvings on
+canoes and weapons, executed as talismans to ward off misfortune or to
+charm the unseen powers; but even this art was sterile and never grew of
+itself into civilized and progressive art.
+
+Yet there must have been at some point in the remote past an exception
+to this rule. Somewhere and somehow the people of Egypt must have
+developed from crude beginnings the architectural knowledge and resource
+which meet us in the oldest monuments, though every vestige of that
+early age has apparently perished. But although nothing has come down to
+us of the actual work of the builders who wrought in the primitive ages
+of mankind, there exist throughout Europe and Asia almost countless
+monuments of a primitive character belonging to relatively recent times,
+but executed before the advent of historic civilization to the regions
+where they are found. A general resemblance among them suggests a common
+heritage of traditions from the hoariest antiquity, and throws light on
+the probable character of the transition from barbaric to civilized
+architecture.
+
+
++PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS.+ These monuments vary widely as well as in
+excellence; some of them belong to Roman or even Christian times; others
+to a much remoter period. They are divided into two principal classes,
+the megalithic structures and lake dwellings. The latter class may be
+dismissed with the briefest mention. It comprises a considerable number
+of very primitive houses or huts built on wooden piles in the lakes of
+Switzerland and several other countries in both hemispheres, and forming
+in some cases villages of no mean size. Such villages, built over the
+water for protection from attack, are mentioned by the writers of
+antiquity and portrayed on Assyrian reliefs. The objects found in them
+reveal an incipient but almost stationary civilization, extending back
+from three thousand to five thousand years or more, and lasting through
+the ages of stone and bronze down into historic times.
+
+The +megalithic+ remains of Europe and Asia are far more important. They
+are very widely distributed, and consist in most cases of great blocks
+of stone arranged in rows, circles, or avenues, sometimes with huge
+lintels resting upon them. Upright stones without lintels are called
+_menhirs_; standing in pairs with lintels they are known as _dolmens_;
+the circles are called _cromlechs_. Some of the stones are of gigantic
+size, some roughly hewn into shape; others left as when quarried. Their
+age and purpose have been much discussed without reaching positive
+results. It is probable that, like the lake dwellings, they cover a long
+range of time, reaching from the dawn of recorded history some thousands
+of years back into the unknown past, and that they were erected by races
+which have disappeared before the migrations to which Europe owes her
+present populations. That most of them were in some way connected with
+the worship of these prehistoric peoples is generally admitted; but
+whether as temples, tombs, or memorials of historical or mythical events
+cannot, in all cases, be positively asserted. They were not dwellings or
+palaces, and very few were even enclosed buildings. They are imposing by
+the size and number of their immense stones, but show no sign of
+advanced art, or of conscious striving after beauty of design. The small
+number of “carved stones,” bearing singular ornamental patterns,
+symbolic or mystical rather than decorative in intention, really tends
+to prove this statement rather than to controvert it. It is not
+impossible that the dolmens were generally intended to be covered by
+mounds of earth. This would group them with the tumuli referred to
+below, and point to a sepulchral purpose in their erection. Some
+antiquaries, Fergusson among them, contend that many of the European
+circles and avenues were intended as battle-monuments or trophies.
+
+There are also +walls+ of great antiquity in various parts of Europe,
+intended for fortification; the most important of these in Greece and
+Italy will be referred to in later chapters. They belong to a more
+advanced art, some of them even deserving to be classed among works of
+archaic architecture.
+
+The +tumuli+, or burial mounds, which form so large a part of the
+prehistoric remains of both continents, are interesting to the architect
+only as revealing the prototypes of the pyramids of Egypt and the
+subterranean tombs of Mycenæ and other early Greek centres. The piling
+of huge cairns or commemorative heaps of stone is known from the
+Scriptures and other ancient writings to have been a custom of the
+greatest antiquity. The pyramids and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus are
+the most imposing and elaborate outgrowths of this practice, of which
+the prehistoric tumuli are the simpler manifestations.
+
+These crude and elementary products of undeveloped civilizations have no
+place, however, in any list of genuine architectural works. They belong
+rather to the domain of archæology and ethnology, and have received this
+brief mention only as revealing the beginnings of the builder’s art, and
+the wide gap that separates them from that genuine architecture which
+forms the subject of the following chapters.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: The most celebrated in England are at Avebury, an
+  avenue, large and small circles, barrows, and the great tumuli of
+  Bartlow and Silbury “Hills;” at Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain,
+  great megalithic circles and many barrows; “Sarsen stones” at
+  Ashdown; tumuli, dolmens, chambers, and circles in Derbyshire. In
+  Ireland, many cairns and circles. In Scotland, circles and barrows
+  in the Orkney Islands. In France, Carnac and Lokmariaker in
+  Brittany are especially rich in dolmens, circles, and avenues. In
+  Scandinavia, Germany, and Italy, in India and in Africa, are many
+  similar remains.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Champollion, _Monuments de l’Egypte et de la
+  Nubie_. Choisy, _L’art de bâtir chez les Egyptiens_.
+  Flinders-Petrie, _History of Egypt; Ten Years Digging in Egypt,
+  1881-91_. Jomard, _Description de l’Egypte, Antiquités_. Lepsius,
+  _Denkmäler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien_. Mariette, _Monuments of
+  Upper Egypt_. Maspero, _Egyptian Archæology_. Perrot and Chipiez,
+  _History of Art in Ancient Egypt_. Prisse d’Avennes, _Histoire de
+  l’art égyptien_. Reber, _History of Ancient Art_. Rossellini,
+  _Monumenti del Egitto_. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of Ancient
+  Egyptians_.
+
+
++LAND AND PEOPLE.+ As long ago as 5000 B.C., the Egyptians were a people
+already highly civilized, and skilled in the arts of peace and war. The
+narrow valley of the Nile, fertilized by the periodic overflow of the
+river, was flanked by rocky heights, nearly vertical in many places,
+which afforded abundance of excellent building stone, while they both
+isolated the Egyptians and protected them from foreign aggression. At
+the Delta, however, the valley widened out, with the falling away of
+these heights, into broad lowlands, from which there was access to the
+outer world.
+
+The art history of Egypt may be divided into five periods as follows:
+
+I. THE ANCIENT EMPIRE (cir. 4500?-3000 B.C.), comprising the first ten
+dynasties, with Memphis as the capital.
+
+II. THE FIRST THEBAN MONARCHY or MIDDLE EMPIRE (3000-2100 B.C.)
+comprising the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth dynasties reigning at
+Thebes.
+
+The Hyksos invasion, or incursion of the Shepherd Kings, interrupted the
+current of Egyptian art history for a period of unknown length, probably
+not less than four or five centuries.
+
+III. THE SECOND THEBAN MONARCHY (1700?-1000 B.C.), comprising the
+eighteenth to twentieth dynasties inclusive, was the great period of
+Egyptian history; the age of conquests and of vast edifices.
+
+IV. THE DECADENCE or SAITIC PERIOD (1000-324 B.C.), comprising the
+dynasties twenty-one to thirty (Saitic, Bubastid, Ethiopic, etc.),
+reigning at Sais, Tanis, and Bubastis, and the Persian conquest;
+a period almost barren of important monuments.
+
+(Periods III. and IV. constitute together the period of the NEW EMPIRE,
+if we omit the Persian dominion.)
+
+V. THE REVIVAL (from 324 B.C. to cir. 330 A.D.) comprises the Ptolemaic
+or Macedonian and Roman dominations.
+
+
++THE ANCIENT EMPIRE: THE PYRAMIDS.+ The great works of this period are
+almost exclusively sepulchral, and include the most ancient buildings of
+which we have any remains. While there is little of strictly
+architectural art, the overwhelming size and majesty of the Pyramids,
+and the audacity and skill shown in their construction, entitle them to
+the first place in any sketch of this period. They number over a
+hundred, scattered in six groups, from Abu-Roash in the north to Meidoum
+in the south, and are of various shapes and sizes. They are all royal
+tombs and belong to the first twelve dynasties; each contains a
+sepulchral chamber, and each at one time possessed a small chapel
+adjacent to it, but this has, in almost every case, perished.
+
+Three pyramids surpass all the rest by their prodigious size; these are
+at Ghizeh and belong to the fourth dynasty. They are known by the names
+of their builders; the oldest and greatest being that of +Cheops+, or
+Khufu;[1] the second, that of +Chephren+, or Khafra; and the third, that
+of +Mycerinus+, or Menkhara. Other smaller ones stand at the feet of
+these giants.
+
+    [Footnote 1: The Egyptian names known to antiquity are given
+    here first in the more familiar classic form, and then in the
+    Egyptian form.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--SECTION OF GREAT PYRAMID.
+  a, _King’s Chamber_; b, _Queen’s Chamber_; c, _Chamber
+  cut in Rock_.]
+
+The base of the “Great Pyramid” measures 764 feet on a side; its height
+is 482 feet, and its volume must have originally been nearly three and
+one-half million cubic yards (Fig. 1). It is constructed of limestone
+upon a plateau of rock levelled to receive it, and was finished
+externally, like its two neighbors, with a coating of polished stone,
+supposed by some to have been disposed in bands of different colored
+granites, but of which it was long ago despoiled. It contained three
+principal chambers and an elaborate system of inclined passages, all
+executed in finely cut granite and limestone. The sarcophagus was in the
+uppermost chamber, above which the superincumbent weight was relieved by
+open spaces and a species of rudimentary arch of Λ-shape (Fig. 2). The
+other two pyramids differ from that of Cheops in the details of their
+arrangement and in size, not in the principle of their construction.
+Chephren is 454 feet high, with a base 717 feet square. Mycerinus, which
+still retains its casing of pink granite, is but 218 feet in height,
+with a base 253 feet on a side.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--SECTION OF KING’S CHAMBER.]
+
+Among the other pyramids there is considerable variety both of type and
+material. At Sakkarah is one 190 feet high, constructed in six unequal
+steps on a slightly oblong base measuring nearly 400 × 357 feet. It was
+attributed by Mariette to Ouenephes, of the first dynasty, though now
+more generally ascribed to Senefrou of the third. At Abu-Seir and
+Meidoum are other stepped pyramids; at Dashour is one having a broken
+slope, the lower part steeper than the upper. Several at Meroë with
+unusually steep slopes belong to the Ethiopian dynasties of the
+Decadence. A number of pyramids are built of brick.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--PLAN OF SPHINX TEMPLE.]
+
++TOMBS.+ The Ancient Empire has also left us a great number of tombs of
+the type known as _Mastabas_. These are oblong rectangular structures of
+stone or brick with slightly inclined sides and flat ceilings. They
+uniformly face the east, and are internally divided into three parts;
+the chamber or chapel, the _serdab_, and the well. In the first of
+these, next the entrance, were placed the offerings made to the _Ka_ or
+“double,” for whom also scenes of festivity or worship were carved and
+painted on its walls to minister to his happiness in his incorporeal
+life. The serdabs, or secret inner chambers, of which there were several
+in each mastaba, contained statues of the defunct, by which the
+existence and identity of the Ka were preserved. Finally came the well,
+leading to the mummy chamber, deep underground, which contained the
+sarcophagus. The sarcophagi, both of this and later ages, are good
+examples of the minor architecture of Egypt; many of them are panelled
+in imitation of wooden construction and richly decorated with color,
+symbols, and hieroglyphs.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--RUINS OF SPHINX TEMPLE.]
+
++OTHER MONUMENTS.+ Two other monuments of the Ancient Empire also claim
+attention: the +Sphinx+ and the adjacent so-called “+Sphinx temple+” at
+Ghizeh. The first of these, a huge sculpture carved from the rock,
+represents Harmachis in the form of a human-headed lion. It is
+ordinarily partly buried in the sand; is 70 feet long by 66 feet high,
+and forms one of the most striking monuments of Egyptian art. Close to
+it lie the nearly buried ruins of the temple once supposed to be that of
+the Sphinx, but now proved by Petrie to have been erected in connection
+with the second pyramid. The plan and present aspect of this venerable
+edifice are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The hall was roofed with stone
+lintels carried on sixteen square monolithic piers of alabaster. The
+whole was buried in a rectangular mass of masonry and revetted
+internally with alabaster, but was wholly destitute internally as well
+as externally of decoration or even of mouldings. With the exception of
+scanty remains of a few of the pyramid-temples or chapels, and the
+temple discovered by Petrie in Meidoum, it is the only survival from the
+temple architecture of that early age.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--TOMB AT ABYDOS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.]
+
++THE MIDDLE EMPIRE: TOMBS.+ The monuments of this period, as of the
+preceding, are almost wholly sepulchral. We now encounter two types of
+tombs. One, structural and pyramidal, is represented by many examples at
+Abydos, the most venerated of all the burial grounds of Egypt (Fig. 5).
+All of these are built of brick, and are of moderate size and little
+artistic interest. The second type is that of tombs cut in the vertical
+cliffs of the west bank of the Nile Valley. The entrance to these faces
+eastward as required by tradition; the remoter end of the excavation
+pointing toward the land of the Sun of Night. But such tunnels only
+become works of architecture when, in addition to the customary mural
+paintings, they receive a decorative treatment in the design of their
+structural forms. Such a treatment appears in several tombs at
+Beni-Hassan, in which columns are reserved in cutting away the rock,
+both in the chapel-chambers and in the vestibules or porches which
+precede them. These columns are polygonal in some cases, clustered in
+others. The former type, with eight, sixteen, or thirty-two sides (in
+these last the _arrises_ or edges are emphasized by a slight concavity
+in each face, like embryonic fluting), have a square abacus, suggesting
+the Greek Doric order, and giving rise to the name _proto-Doric_
+(Fig. 6). Columns of this type are also found at Karnak, Kalabshé,
+Amada, and Abydos. A reminiscence of primitive wood construction is seen
+in the dentils over the plain architrave of the entrance, which in other
+respects recalls the triple entrances to certain mastabas of the Old
+Empire. These dentils are imitations of the ends of rafters, and to some
+archæologists suggest a wooden origin for the whole system of columnar
+design. But these rock-cut shafts and heavy architraves in no respect
+resemble wooden prototypes, but point rather to an imitation cut in the
+rock of a well-developed, pre-existing system of stone construction,
+some of whose details, however, were undoubtedly derived from early
+methods of building in wood. The vault was below the chapel and reached
+by a separate entrance. The serdab was replaced by a niche in which was
+the figure of the defunct carved from the native rock. Some of the tombs
+employed in the chapel-chamber columns of quatrefoil section with
+capitals like clustered buds (Fig. 7), and this type became in the next
+period one of the most characteristic forms of Egyptian architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--SECTION AND HALF-PLAN OF A TOMB AT
+  BENI-HASSAN.]
+
+
++TEMPLES.+ Of the temples of this period only two have left any remains
+of importance. Both belong to the twelfth dynasty (cir. 2200 B.C.). Of
+one of these many badly shattered fragments have been found in the ruins
+of Bubastis; these show the clustered type of lotus-bud column mentioned
+above. The other, of which a few columns have been identified among the
+ruins of the Great Temple at Karnak, constituted the oldest part of that
+vast agglomeration of religious edifices, and employed columns of the
+so-called proto-Doric type. From these remains it appears that
+structural stone columns as well as those cut in the rock were used at
+this early period (2200 B.C.). Indeed, it is probable that the whole
+architectural system of the New Empire was based on models developed in
+the age we are considering; that the use of multiplied columns of
+various types and the building of temples of complex plan adorned with
+colossal statues, obelisks, and painted reliefs, were perfectly
+understood and practised in this period. But the works it produced have
+perished, having been most probably demolished to make way for the more
+sumptuous edifices of later times.
+
+
++THE NEW EMPIRE.+ This was the grand age of Egyptian architecture and
+history. An extraordinary series of mighty men ruled the empire during a
+long period following the expulsion of the Hyksos usurpers. The names of
+Thothmes, Amenophis, Hatasu, Seti, and Rameses made glorious the
+eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties. Foreign conquests in Ethiopia,
+Syria, and Assyria enlarged the territory and increased the splendor of
+the empire. The majority of the most impressive ruins of Egypt belong to
+this period, and it was in these buildings that the characteristic
+elements of Egyptian architecture were brought to perfection and carried
+out on the grandest scale.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--PLAN OF THE RAMESSEUM.
+  a, _Sanctuary_; b, _Hypostyle Hall_; c, _Second court_;
+  d, _Entrance court_; e, _Pylons_.]
+
++TOMBS OF THE NEW EMPIRE.+ Some of these are structural, others
+excavated; both types displaying considerable variety in arrangement and
+detail. The rock-cut tombs of Bab-el-Molouk, among which are twenty-five
+royal sepulchres, are striking both by the simplicity of their openings
+and the depth and complexity of their shafts, tunnels, and chambers.
+From the pipe-like length of their tunnels they have since the time of
+Herodotus been known by the name _syrinx_. Every precaution was taken to
+lead astray and baffle the intending violator of their sanctity. They
+penetrated hundreds of feet into the rock; their chambers, often formed
+with columns and vault-like roofs, were resplendent with colored reliefs
+and ornament destined to solace and sustain the shadowy Ka until the
+soul itself, the Ba, should arrive before the tribunal of Osiris, the
+Sun of Night. Most impressively do these brilliant pictures,[2] intended
+to be forever shut away from human eyes, attest the sincerity of the
+Egyptian belief and the conscientiousness of the art which it inspired.
+
+    [Footnote 2: See Van Dyke’s _History of Painting_, Figure 1.]
+
+While the tomb of the private citizen was complete in itself, containing
+the Ka-statues and often the chapel, as well as the mummy, the royal
+tomb demanded something more elaborate in scale and arrangement. In some
+cases external structures of temple-form took the place of the
+underground chapel and serdab. The royal effigy, many times repeated in
+painting and sculpture throughout this temple-like edifice, and flanking
+its gateways with colossal seated figures, made buried Ka-statues
+unnecessary. Of these sepulchral temples three are of the first
+magnitude. They are that of +Queen Hatasu+ (XVIIIth dynasty) at
+Deir-el-Bahari; that of +Rameses II.+ (XIXth dynasty), the +Ramesseum+,
+near by to the southwest; and that of +Rameses III.+ (XXth dynasty) at
+Medinet Abou still further to the southwest. Like the tombs, these were
+all on the west side of the Nile; so also was the sepulchral temple of
+Amenophis III. (XVIIIth dynasty), the +Amenopheum+, of which hardly a
+trace remains except the two seated colossi which, rising from the
+Theban plain, have astonished travellers from the times of Pausanias and
+Strabo down to our own. These mutilated figures, one of which has been
+known ever since classic times as the “vocal Memnon,” are 56 feet high,
+and once flanked the entrance to the forecourt of the temple of
+Amenophis. The plan of the Ramesseum, with its sanctuary, hypostyle
+hall, and forecourts, its pylons and obelisks, is shown in Figure 8, and
+may be compared with those of other temples given on pp. 17 and 18. That
+of Medinet Abou resembles it closely. The Ramesseum occupies a rectangle
+of 590 × 182 feet; the temple of Medinet Abou measures 500 × 160 feet,
+not counting the extreme width of the entrance pylons. The temple of
+Hatasu at Deir-el-Bahari is partly excavated and partly structural,
+a model which is also followed on a smaller scale in several lesser
+tombs. Such an edifice is called a _hemispeos_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE--_Continued_.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter II.
+
+
++TEMPLES.+ The surpassing glory of the New Empire was its great temples.
+Some of them were among the most stupendous creations of structural art.
+To temples rather than palaces were the resources and energies of the
+kings devoted, and successive monarchs found no more splendid outlet for
+their piety and ambition than the founding of new temples or the
+extension and adornment of those already existing. By the forced labor
+of thousands of fellaheen (the system is in force to this day and is
+known as the _corvée_) architectural piles of vast extent could be
+erected within the lifetime of a monarch. As in the tombs the internal
+walls bore pictures for the contemplation of the Ka, so in the temples
+the external walls, for the glory of the king and the delectation of the
+people, were covered with colored reliefs reciting the monarch’s
+glorious deeds. Internally the worship and attributes of the gods were
+represented in a similar manner, in endless iteration.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--TEMPLE OF EDFOU. PLAN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--TEMPLE OF EDFOU. SECTION.]
+
++THE TEMPLE SCHEME.+ This is admirably shown in the temple of Khonsu, at
+Karnak, built by Rameses III. (XXth dynasty), and in the temple of Edfou
+(Figs. 9 and 10), though this belongs to the Roman period. It comprised
+a sanctuary or _sekos_, a hypostyle (columnar) hall, known as the “hall
+of assembly,” and a forecourt preceded by a double pylon or gateway.
+Each of these parts might be made more or less complex in different
+temples, but the essential features are encountered everywhere under all
+changes of form. The building of a temple began with the sanctuary,
+which contained the sacred chamber and the shrine of the god, with
+subordinate rooms for the priests and for various rites and functions.
+These chambers were low, dark, mysterious, accessible only to the
+priests and king. They were given a certain dignity by being raised upon
+a sort of platform above the general level, and reached by a few steps.
+They were sumptuously decorated internally with ritual pictures in
+relief. The hall was sometimes loftier, but set on a slightly lower
+level; its massive columns supported a roof of stone lintels, and light
+was admitted either through clearstory windows under the roof of a
+central portion higher than the sides, as at Karnak, or over a low
+screen-wall built between the columns of the front row, as at Edfou and
+Denderah. This method was peculiar to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.
+The court was usually surrounded by a single or double colonnade;
+sometimes, however, this colonnade only flanked the sides or fronted the
+hall, or again was wholly wanting. The _pylons_ were twin buttress-like
+masses flanking the entrance gate of the court. They were shaped like
+oblong truncated pyramids, crowned by flaring cornices, and were
+decorated on the outer face with masts carrying banners, with obelisks,
+or with seated colossal figures of the royal builder. An avenue of
+sphinxes formed the approach to the entrance, and the whole temple
+precinct was surrounded by a wall, usually of crude brick, pierced by
+one or more gates with or without pylons. The piety of successive
+monarchs was displayed in the addition of new hypostyle halls, courts,
+pylons, or obelisks, by which the temple was successively extended in
+length, and sometimes also in width, by the increased dimensions of the
+new courts. The great Temple of Karnak most strikingly illustrates this
+growth. Begun by Osourtesen (XIIth dynasty) more than 2000 years B.C.,
+it was not completed in its present form until the time of the
+Ptolemies, when the last of the pylons and external gates were erected.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--TEMPLE OF KARNAK. PLAN.]
+
+The variations in the details of this general type were numerous. Thus,
+at El Kab, the temple of Amenophis III. has the sekos and hall but no
+forecourt. At Deir-el-Medineh the hall of the Ptolemaic Hathor-temple is
+a mere porch in two parts, while the enclosure within the circuit wall
+takes the place of the forecourt. At Karnak all the parts were repeated
+several times, and under Amenophis III. (XVIIIth dynasty) a wing was
+built at a nearly right angle to the main structure. At Luxor, to a
+complete typical temple were added three aisles of an unfinished
+hypostyle hall, and an elaborate forecourt, whose axis is inclined to
+that of the other buildings, owing to a bend of the river at that point.
+At Abydos a complex sanctuary of many chambers extends southeast at
+right angles to the general mass, and the first court is without
+columns. But in all these structures a certain unity of effect is
+produced by the lofty pylons, the flat roofs diminishing in height over
+successive portions from the front to the sanctuary, the sloping
+windowless walls covered with carved and painted pictures, and the dim
+and massive interiors of the columnar halls.
+
+
++TEMPLES OF KARNAK.+ Of these various temples that of +Amen-Ra+ is
+incomparably the largest and most imposing. Its construction extended
+through the whole duration of the New Empire, of whose architecture it
+is a splendid _résumé_ (Fig. 11). Its extreme length is 1,215 feet, and
+its greatest width 376 feet. The sanctuary and its accessories, mainly
+built by Thothmes I. and Thothmes III., cover an area nearly 456 × 290
+feet in extent, and comprise two hypostyle halls and countless smaller
+halls and chambers. It is preceded by a narrow columnar vestibule and
+two pylons enclosing a columnar atrium and two obelisks. This is entered
+from the +Great Hypostyle Hall+ (h in Fig. 11; Fig. 12), the noblest
+single work of Egyptian architecture, measuring 340 × 170 feet, and
+containing 134 columns in sixteen rows, supporting a massive stone roof.
+The central columns with bell-capitals are 70 feet high and nearly 12
+feet in diameter; the others are smaller and lower, with lotus-bud
+capitals, supporting a roof lower than that over the three central
+aisles. A clearstory of stone-grated windows makes up the difference in
+height between these two roofs. The interior, thus lighted, was splendid
+with painted reliefs, which helped not only to adorn the hall but to
+give scale to its massive parts. The whole stupendous creation was the
+work of three kings--Rameses I., Seti I., and Rameses II. (XIXth
+dynasty).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--CENTRAL PORTION OF HYPOSTYLE HALL
+  AT KARNAK.
+  (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)]
+
+In front of it was the great court, flanked by columns, and still
+showing the ruins of a central avenue of colossal pillars begun, but
+never completed, by the Bubastid kings of the XXIId dynasty. One or two
+smaller structures and the curious lateral wing built by Amenophis III.,
+interrupt the otherwise orderly and symmetrical advance of this plan
+from the sanctuary to the huge first pylon (last in point of date)
+erected by the Ptolemies.
+
+The smaller temple of Khonsu, south of that of Amen-Ra, has already been
+alluded to as a typical example of templar design. Next to Karnak in
+importance comes the +Temple of Luxor+ in its immediate neighborhood. It
+has two forecourts adorned with double-aisled colonnades and connected
+by what seems to be an unfinished hypostyle hall. The +Ramesseum+ and
+the temples of +Medinet Abou+ and +Deir-El-Bahari+ have already been
+mentioned (p. 15). At Gournah and Abydos are the next most celebrated
+temples of this period; the first famous for its rich clustered
+lotus-columns, the latter for its beautiful sanctuary chambers,
+dedicated each to a different deity, and covered with delicate painted
+reliefs of the time of Seti I.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--GREAT TEMPLE OF IPSAMBOUL.]
+
++GROTTO TEMPLES.+ Two other styles of temple remain to be noticed. The
+first is the subterranean or grotto temple, of which the two most
+famous, at Ipsamboul (Abou-simbel), were excavated by Rameses II. They
+are truly colossal conceptions, reproducing in the native rock the main
+features of structural temples, the court being represented by the
+larger of two chambers in the Greater Temple (Fig. 13) Their façades are
+adorned with colossal seated figures of the builder; the smaller has
+also two effigies of Nefert-Ari, his consort. Nothing more striking and
+boldly impressive is to be met with in Egypt than these singular
+rock-cut façades. Other rock-cut temples of more modest dimensions are
+at Addeh, Feraig, Beni-Hassan (the “Speos Artemidos”), Beit-el-Wali, and
+Silsileh. At Gherf-Hossein, Asseboua, and Derri are temples partly
+excavated and partly structural.
+
+
++PERIPTERAL TEMPLES.+ The last type of temple to be noticed is
+represented by only three or four structures of moderate size; it is the
+_peripteral_, in which a small chamber is surrounded by columns, usually
+mounted on a terrace with vertical walls. They were mere chapels, but
+are among the most graceful of existing ruins. At Philæ are two
+structures, one by Nectanebo, the other Ptolemaic, resembling peripteral
+temples, but without cella-chambers or roofs. They may have been
+waiting-courts for the adjoining temples. That at Elephantine (Amenophis
+III.) has square piers at the sides, and columns only at the ends.
+Another by Thothmes II., at Medinet Abou, formed only a part (the
+sekos?) of a larger plan. At Edfou is another, belonging to the
+Ptolemaic period.
+
+
++LATER TEMPLES.+ After the architectural inaction of the Decadence came
+a marvellous recrudescence of splendor under the Ptolemies, whose
+Hellenic origin and sympathies did not lead them into the mistaken
+effort to impose Greek models upon Egyptian art. The temples erected
+under their dominion, and later under Roman rule, vied with the grandest
+works of the Ramessidæ, and surpassed them in the rich elaboration and
+variety of their architectural details. The temple at Edfou (Figs. 9,
+10, 14) is the most perfectly preserved, and conforms most closely to
+the typical plan; that of Isis, at Philæ, is the most elaborate and
+ornate. Denderah also possesses a group of admirably preserved temples
+of the same period. At Esneh, and at Kalabshé and Kardassy or Ghertashi
+in Nubia are others. In all these one notes innovations of detail and a
+striving for effect quite different from the simpler majesty of the
+preceding age (Fig. 14). One peculiar feature is the use of screen walls
+built into the front rows of columns of the hypostyle hall. Light was
+admitted above these walls, which measured about half the height of the
+columns and were interrupted at the centre by a curious doorway cut
+through their whole height and without any lintel. Long disused types of
+capital were revived and others greatly elaborated; and the wall-reliefs
+were arranged in bands and panels with a regularity and symmetry rather
+Greek than Egyptian.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--EDFOU. FRONT OF HYPOSTYLE HALL.]
+
++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ With the exception of a few purely utilitarian
+vaulted structures, all Egyptian architecture was based on the principle
+of the lintel. Artistic splendor depended upon the use of painted and
+carved pictures, and the decorative treatment of the very simple
+supports employed. Piers and columns sustained the roofs of such
+chambers as were too wide for single lintels, and produced, in halls
+like those of Karnak, of the Ramesseum, or of Denderah, a stupendous
+effect by their height, massiveness, number, and colored decoration. The
+simplest piers were plain square shafts; others, more elaborate, had
+lotus stalks and flowers or heads of Hathor carved upon them. The most
+striking were those against whose front faces were carved colossal
+figures of Osiris, as at Luxor, Medmet Abou, and Karnak (Fig. 15). The
+columns, which were seldom over six diameters in height, were treated
+with greater variety; the shafts, slightly tapering upward, were either
+round or clustered in section, and usually contracted at the base. The
+capitals with which they were crowned were usually of one of the five
+chief types described below. Besides round and clustered shafts, the
+Middle Empire and a few of the earlier monuments of the New Empire
+employed polygonal or slightly fluted shafts (see p. 11), as at Beni
+Hassan and Karnak; these had a plain square abacus, with sometimes a
+cushion-like echinus beneath it. A round plinth served as a base for
+most of the columns.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--OSIRID PIER (MEDINET ABOU).]
+
++CAPITALS.+ The five chief types of capital were: a, the plain lotus
+bud, as at Karnak (Great Hall); b, the clustered lotus bud (Beni-Hassan,
+Karnak, Luxor, Gournah, etc.); c, the _campaniform_ or inverted bell
+(central aisles at Karnak, Luxor, the Ramesseum); d, the palm-capital,
+frequent in the later temples; and e, the Hathor-headed, in which heads
+of Hathor adorn the four faces of a cubical mass surmounted by a model
+of a shrine (Sedinga, Edfou, Denderah, Esneh). These types were richly
+embellished and varied by the Ptolemaic architects, who gave a clustered
+or quatrefoil plan to the bell-capital, or adorned its surface with palm
+leaves. A few other forms are met with as exceptions. The first four are
+shown in Fig. 16.
+
+Every part of the column was richly decorated in color. Lotus-leaves or
+petals swathed the swelling lower part of the shaft, which was elsewhere
+covered with successive bands of carved pictures and of hieroglyphics.
+The capital was similarly covered with carved and painted ornament,
+usually of lotus-flowers or leaves, or alternate stalks of lotus and
+papyrus.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--TYPES OF COLUMN.
+  a, _Campaniform_; b, _Clustered Lotus-Column_; c, _Simple
+  Lotus-Column_; d, _Palm-Column_.]
+
+The lintels were plain and square in section, and often of prodigious
+size. Where they appeared externally they were crowned with a simple
+cavetto cornice, its curved surface covered with colored flutings
+alternating with _cartouches_ of hieroglyphics. Sometimes, especially on
+the screen walls of the Ptolemaic age, this was surmounted by a cresting
+of adders or uræi in closely serried rank. No other form of cornice or
+cresting is met with. Mouldings as a means of architectural effect were
+singularly lacking in Egyptian architecture. The only moulding known is
+the clustered torus (_torus_ = a convex moulding of semicircular
+profile), which resembles a bundle of reeds tied together with cords or
+ribbons. It forms an astragal under the cavetto cornice and runs down
+the angles of the pylons and walls.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--EGYPTIAN FLORAL ORNAMENT-FORMS.]
+
++POLYCHROMY AND ORNAMENT.+ Color was absolutely essential to the
+decorative scheme. In the vast and dim interiors, as well as in the
+blinding glare of the sun, mere sculpture or relief would have been
+wasted. The application of brilliant color to pictorial forms cut in low
+relief, or outlined by deep incision with the edges of the figures
+delicately rounded (_intaglio rilievo_) was the most appropriate
+treatment possible. The walls and columns were covered with pictures
+treated in this way, and the ceilings and lintels were embellished with
+symbolic forms in the same manner. All the ornaments, as distinguished
+from the paintings, were symbolical, at least in their origin. Over the
+gateway was the solar disk or globe with wide-spread wings, the symbol
+of the sun winging its way to the conquest of night; upon the ceiling
+were sacred vultures, zodiacs, or stars spangled on a blue ground.
+Externally the temples presented only masses of unbroken wall; but
+these, as well as the pylons, were covered with huge pictures of a
+historical character. Only in the tombs do we find painted ornament of a
+purely conventional sort (Fig. 17). Rosettes, diaper patterns, spirals,
+and checkers are to be met with in them; but many of these can be traced
+to symbolic origins.[3]
+
+    [Footnote 3: See Goodyear’s _Grammar of the Lotus_ for an
+    elaborate and ingenious presentation of the theory of a common
+    lotus-origin for all the conventional forms occurring in Egyptian
+    ornament.]
+
+
++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ The only remains of palaces are the pavilion of
+Rameses III. at Medinet Abou, and another at Semneh. The Royal Labyrinth
+has so completely perished that even its site is uncertain. The
+Egyptians lived so much out of doors that the house was a less important
+edifice than in colder climates. Egyptian dwellings were probably in
+most cases built of wood or crude brick, and their disappearance is thus
+easily explained. Relief pictures on the monuments indicate the use of
+wooden framing for the walls, which were probably filled in with crude
+brick or panels of wood. The architecture was extremely simple. Gateways
+like those of the temples on a smaller scale, the cavetto cornice on the
+walls, and here and there a porch with carved columns of wood or stone,
+were the only details pretending to elegance. The ground-plans of many
+houses in ruined cities, as at Tel-el-Amarna and a nameless city of
+Amenophis IV., are discernible in the ruins; but the superstructures are
+wholly wanting. It was in religious and sepulchral architecture that the
+constructive and artistic genius of the Egyptians was most fully
+manifested.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: The principal necropolis regions of Egypt are centred
+  about Ghizeh and ancient Memphis for the Old Empire (pyramids and
+  mastabas), Thebes for the Middle Empire (Silsileh, Beni Hassan),
+  and Thebes (Vale of the Kings, Vale of the Queens) and Abydos for
+  the New Empire.
+
+  The Old Empire has also left us the Sphinx, Sphinx temple, and the
+  temple at Meidoum.
+
+  The most important temples of the New Empire were those of Karnak
+  (the great temple, the southern or temple of Khonsu), of Luxor,
+  Medinet Abou (great temple of Rameses III., lesser temples of
+  Thothmes II. and III. with peripteral sekos; also Pavilion of
+  Rameses III.); of Abydos; of Gournah; of Eilithyia (Amenophis
+  III.); of Soleb and Sesebi in Nubia; of Elephantine (peripteral);
+  the tomb temple of Deir-el-Bahari, the Ramesseum, the Amenopheum;
+  hemispeos at Gherf Hossein; two grotto temples at Ipsamboul.
+
+  At Meroë are pyramids of the Ethiopic kings of the Decadence.
+
+  Temples of the Ptolemaic period: Philæ, Denderah.
+
+  Temples of the Roman period: Koum Ombos, Edfou; Kalabshé, Kardassy
+  and Dandour in Nubia; Esneh.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+CHALDÆAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Reber. Also, Babelon, _Manual of
+  Oriental Antiquities_. Botta and Flandin, _Monuments de Ninive_.
+  Layard, _Discoveries in Nineveh_; _Nineveh and its Remains_.
+  Loftus, _Travels and Researches in Chaldæa and Susiana_. Perrot
+  and Chipiez, _History of Art in Chaldæa and Assyria_. Peters,
+  _Nippur_. Place, _Ninive et l’Assyrie_.
+
+
++SITUATION; HISTORIC PERIODS.+ The Tigro-Euphrates valley was the seat
+of a civilization nearly or quite as old as that of the Nile, though
+inferior in its monumental art. The kingdoms of Chaldæa and Assyria
+which ruled in this valley, sometimes as rivals and sometimes as
+subjects one of the other, differed considerably in character and
+culture. But the scarcity of timber and the lack of good building-stone
+except in the limestone table-lands and more distant mountains of upper
+Mesopotamia, the abundance of clay, and the flatness of the country,
+imposed upon the builders of both nations similar restrictions of
+conception, form, and material. Both peoples, moreover, were probably,
+in part at least, of Semitic race.[4] The Chaldæans attained
+civilization as early as 4000 B.C., and had for centuries maintained
+fixed institutions and practised the arts and sciences when the
+Assyrians began their career as a nation of conquerors by reducing
+Chaldæa to subjection.
+
+    [Footnote 4: This is denied by some recent writers, so far as
+    the Chaldæans are concerned, and is not intended here to apply
+    to the Accadians and Summerians of primitive Chaldæa.]
+
+The history of Chaldæo-Assyrian art may be divided into three main
+periods, as follows:
+
+1. The EARLY CHALDÆAN, 4000 to 1250 B.C.
+
+2. The ASSYRIAN, 1250 to 606 B.C.
+
+3. The BABYLONIAN, 606 to 538 B.C.
+
+In 538 the empire fell before the Persians.
+
+
++GENERAL CHARACTER OF MONUMENTS.+ Recent excavations at Nippur (Niffer),
+the sacred city of Chaldæa, have uncovered ruins older than the
+Pyramids. Though of slight importance architecturally, they reveal the
+early knowledge of the arch and the possession of an advanced culture.
+The poverty of the building materials of this region afforded only the
+most limited resources for architectural effect. Owing to the flatness
+of the country and the impracticability of building lofty structures
+with sun-dried bricks, elevation above the plain could be secured only
+by erecting buildings of moderate height upon enormous mounds or
+terraces, built of crude brick and faced with hard brick or stone. This
+led to the development of the stepped pyramid as the typical form of
+Chaldæo-Assyrian architecture. Thick walls were necessary both for
+stability and for protection from the burning heat of that climate. The
+lack of stone for columns and the difficulty of procuring heavy beams
+for long spans made broad halls and chambers impossible. The plans of
+Assyrian palaces look like assemblages of long corridors and small cells
+(Fig. 18). Neither the wooden post nor the column played any part in
+this architecture except for window-mullions and subordinate members.[5]
+It is probable that the vault was used for roofing many of the halls;
+the arch was certainly employed for doors and the barrel-vault for the
+drainage-tunnels under the terraces, made necessary by the heavy
+rainfall. What these structures lacked in durability and height was made
+up in decorative magnificence. The interior walls were wainscoted to a
+height of eight or nine feet with alabaster slabs covered with those
+low-relief pictures of hunting scenes, battles, and gods, which now
+enrich the museums of London, Paris, and other modern cities. Elsewhere
+painted plaster or more durable enamelled tile in brilliant colors
+embellished the walls, and, doubtless, rugs and tapestries added their
+richness to this architectural splendor.
+
+    [Footnote 5: See Fergusson, _Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis_,
+    for an ingenious but unsubstantiated argument for the use of
+    columns in Assyrian palaces.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--PALACE OF SARGON AT KHORSABAD.]
+
+
++CHALDÆAN ARCHITECTURE.+ The ruins at Mugheir (the Biblical Ur), dating,
+perhaps, from 2200 B.C., belong to the two-storied terrace or platform
+of a temple to Sin or Hurki. The wall of sun-dried brick is faced with
+enamelled tile. The shrine, which was probably small, has wholly
+disappeared from the summit of the mound. At Warka (the ancient Erech)
+are two terrace-walls of palaces, one of which is ornamented with convex
+flutings and with a species of mosaic in checker patterns and zigzags,
+formed by terra-cotta cones or spikes driven into the clay, their
+exposed bases being enamelled in the desired colors. The other shows a
+system of long, narrow panels, in a style suggesting the influence of
+Egyptian models through some as yet unknown channel. This panelling
+became a common feature of the later Assyrian art (see Fig. 19). At
+Birs-Nimroud are the ruins of a stepped pyramid surmounted by a small
+shrine. Its seven stages are said to have been originally faced with
+glazed tile of the seven planetary colors, gold, silver, yellow, red,
+blue, white, and black. The ruins at Nippur, which comprise temples,
+altars, and dwellings dating from 4000 B.C., have been alluded to.
+Babylon, the later capital of Chaldæa, to which the shapeless mounds of
+Mujehbeh and Kasr seem to have belonged, has left no other recognizable
+vestige of its ancient magnificence.
+
+
++ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE.+ Abundant ruins exist of Nineveh, the Assyrian
+capital, and its adjacent palace-sites. Excavations at Koyunjik,
+Khorsabad, and Nimroud have laid bare a number of these royal dwellings.
+Among them are the palace of Assur-nazir-pal (885 B.C.) and two palaces
+of Shalmaneser II. (850 B.C.) at Nimroud; the great palace of Sargon at
+Khorsabad (721 B.C.); that of Sennacherib at Koyunjik (704 B.C.); of
+Esarhaddon at Nimroud (650 B.C.); and of Assur-bani-pal at Koyunjik (660
+B.C.). All of these palaces are designed on the same general principle,
+best shown by the plan (Fig. 18) of the palace of Sargon at Khorsabad,
+excavated by Botta and Place.
+
+In this palace two large and several smaller courts are surrounded by a
+complex series of long, narrow halls and small, square chambers. One
+court probably belonged to the harem, another to the king’s apartments,
+others to dependents and to the service of the palace. The crude brick
+walls are immensely thick and without windows, the only openings being
+for doors. The absence of columns made wide halls impossible, and great
+size could only be attained in the direction of length. A terraced
+pyramid supported an altar or shrine to the southwest of the palace; at
+the west corner was a temple, the substructure of which was crowned by a
+cavetto cornice showing plainly the influence of Egyptian models. The
+whole palace stood upon a stupendous platform faced with cut stone, an
+unaccustomed extravagance in Assyria.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--GATE, KHORSABAD.]
+
++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ There is no evidence that the Assyrians ever
+used columnar supports except in minor or accessory details. There are
+few halls in any of the ruins too wide to be spanned by good Syrian
+cedar beams or palm timbers, and these few cases seem to have had
+vaulted ceilings. So clumsy a feature as the central wall in the great
+hall of Esarhaddon’s palace at Nimroud would never have been resorted to
+for the support of the ceiling, had the Assyrians been familiar with the
+use of columns. That they understood the arch and vault is proved by
+their admirable terrace-drains and the fine arched gate in the walls of
+Khorsabad (Fig. 19), as well as by bas-reliefs representing dwellings
+with domes of various forms. Moreover, a few vaulted chambers of
+moderate size, and fallen fragments of crude brick vaulting of larger
+span, have been found in several of the Assyrian ruins.
+
+The construction was extremely simple. The heavy clay walls were faced
+with alabaster, burned brick, or enamelled tiles. The roofs were
+probably covered with stamped earth, and sometimes paved on top with
+tiles or slabs of alabaster to form terraces. Light was introduced most
+probably through windows immediately under the roof and divided by small
+columns forming mullions, as suggested by certain relief pictures. No
+other system seems consistent with the windowless walls of the ruins. It
+is possible that many rooms depended wholly on artificial light or on
+the scant rays coming through open doors. To this day, in the hot season
+the population of Mosul takes refuge from the torrid heats of summer in
+windowless basements lighted only by lamps.
+
+
++ORNAMENT.+ The only structural decorations seem to have been the
+panelling of exterior walls in a manner resembling the Chaldæan
+terrace-walls, and a form of parapet like a stepped cresting. There were
+no characteristic mouldings, architraves, capitals, or cornices. Nearly
+all the ornament was of the sort called _applied_, _i.e._, added after
+the completion of the structure itself. Pictures in low relief covered
+the alabaster revetment. They depicted hunting-scenes, battles, deities,
+and other mythological subjects, and are interesting to the architect
+mainly for their occasional representations of buildings and details of
+construction. Above this wainscot were friezes of enamelled brick
+ornamented with symbolic forms used as decorative motives; winged bulls,
+the “sacred tree” and mythological monsters, with rosettes, palmettes,
+lotus-flowers, and _guilloches_ (ornaments of interlacing bands winding
+about regularly spaced buttons or eyes). These ornaments were also used
+on the archivolts around the great arches of palace gates. The most
+singular adornments of these gates were the carved “portal guardians”
+set into the deep jambs--colossal monsters with the bodies of bulls, the
+wings of eagles, and human heads of terrible countenance. Of mighty
+bulk, they were yet minutely wrought in every detail of head-dress,
+beard, feathers, curly hair, and anatomy.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT.]
+
+The purely conventional ornaments mentioned above--the rosette,
+guilloche, and lotus-flower, and probably also the palmette, were
+derived from Egyptian originals. They were treated, however, in a quite
+new spirit and adapted to the special materials and uses of their
+environment. Thus the form of the palmette, even if derived, as is not
+unlikely, from the Egyptian lotus-motive, was assimilated to the more
+familiar palm-forms of Assyria (Fig. 20).
+
+Assyrian architecture never rivalled the Egyptian in grandeur or
+constructive power, in seriousness, or the higher artistic qualities. It
+did, however, produce imposing results with the poorest resources, and
+in its use of the arch and its development of ornamental forms it
+furnished prototypes for some of the most characteristic features of
+later Asiatic art, which profoundly influenced both Greek and Byzantine
+architecture.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: The most important Chaldæan and Assyrian monuments of
+  which there are extant remains, have already been enumerated in
+  the text. It is therefore unnecessary to duplicate the list here.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+PERSIAN, LYCIAN AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Babelon; Bliss, _Excavations at
+  Jerusalem_. Reber. Also Dieulafoy, _L’Art antique de la Perse_.
+  Fellows, _Account of Discoveries in Lycia_. Fergusson, _The Temple
+  at Jerusalem_. Flandin et Coste, _Perse ancienne_. Perrot and
+  Chipiez, _History of Art in Persia_; _History of Art in Phrygia,
+  Lydia, Caria, and Lycia_; _History of Art in Sardinia and Judæa_.
+  Texier, _L’Arménie et la Perse_; _L’Asie Mineure_. De Vogüé, _Le
+  Temple de Jérusalem_.
+
+
++PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE.+ With the Persians, who under Cyrus (536 B.C.)
+and Cambyses (525 B.C.) became the masters of the Orient, the Aryan race
+superseded the Semitic, and assimilated in new combinations the forms it
+borrowed from the Assyrian civilization. Under the Achæmenidæ (536 to
+330 B.C.) palaces were built in Persepolis and Susa of a splendor and
+majesty impossible in Mesopotamia, and rivalling the marvels in the Nile
+Valley. The conquering nation of warriors who had overthrown the
+Egyptians and Assyrians was in turn conquered by the arts of its
+vanquished foes, and speedily became the most luxurious of all nations.
+The Persians were not great innovators in art; but inhabiting a land of
+excellent building resources, they were able to combine the Egyptian
+system of interior columns with details borrowed from Assyrian art, and
+suggestions, derived most probably from the general use in Persia and
+Central Asia, of wooden posts or columns as intermediate supports. Out
+of these elements they evolved an architecture which has only become
+fully known to us since the excavations of M. and Mme. Dieulafoy at Susa
+in 1882.
+
+
++ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE.+ The Persians used both crude and
+baked bricks, the latter far more freely than was practicable in
+Assyria, owing to the greater abundance of fuel. Walls when built of the
+weaker material were faced with baked brick enamelled in brilliant
+colors, or both moulded and enamelled, to form colored pictures in
+relief. Stone was employed for walls and columns, and, in conjunction
+with brick, for the jambs and lintels of doors and windows. Architraves
+and ceiling-beams were of wood. The palaces were erected, as in Assyria,
+upon broad platforms, partly cut in the rock and partly structural,
+approached by imposing flights of steps. These palaces were composed of
+detached buildings, propylæa or gates of honor, vast audience-halls open
+on one or two sides, and chambers or dwellings partly enclosing or
+flanking these halls, or grouped in separate buildings. Temples appear
+to have been of small importance, perhaps owing to habits of out-of-door
+worship of fire and sun. There are few structural tombs, but there are a
+number of imposing royal sepulchres cut in the rock at Naksh-i-Roustam.
+
+
++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ The Persians, like the Egyptians, used the
+column as an internal feature in hypostyle halls of great size, and
+externally to form porches, and perhaps, also, open kiosks without
+walls. The great +Hall of Xerxes+ at Persepolis covers 100,000 square
+feet--more than double the area of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. But the
+Persian column was derived from wooden prototypes and used with wooden
+architraves, permitting a wider spacing than is possible with stone. In
+the present instance thirty-six columns sufficed for an area which in
+the Karnak hall contained one hundred and thirty-four. The shafts being
+slender and finely fluted instead of painted or carved, the effect
+produced was totally different from that sought by the Egyptians. The
+most striking peculiarity of the column was the capital, which was
+forked (Fig. 21). In one of the two principal types the fork, formed by
+the coupled fore-parts of bulls or symbolic monsters, rested directly on
+the top of the shaft. In the other, two singular members were interposed
+between the fork and the shaft; the lower, a sort of double bell or
+bell-and-palm capital, and above it, just beneath the fork, a curious
+combination of vertical scrolls or volutes, resembling certain ornaments
+seen in Assyrian furniture. The transverse architrave rested in the
+fork; the longitudinal architrave was supported on the heads of the
+monsters. A rich moulded base, rather high and in some cases adorned
+with carved leaves or flutings, supported the columns, which in the Hall
+of Xerxes were over 66 feet high and 6 feet in diameter. The architraves
+have perished, but the rock-cut tomb of Darius at Naksh-i-Roustam
+reproduces in its façade a palace-front, showing a banded architrave
+with dentils--an obvious imitation of the ends of wooden rafters on a
+lintel built up of several beams.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS.]
+
+These features of the architrave, as well as the fine flutings and
+moulded bases of the columns, are found in Ionic architecture, and in
+part, at least, in Lycian tombs. As all these examples date from nearly
+the same period, the origin of these forms and their mutual relations
+have not been fully determined. The Persian capitals, however, are
+unique, and so far as known, without direct prototypes or derivatives.
+Their constituent elements may have been borrowed from various sources.
+One can hardly help seeing the Egyptian palm-capital in the lower member
+of the compound type (Fig. 21).
+
+The doors and windows had banded architraves or trims and cavetto
+cornices very Egyptian in character. The portals were flanked, as in
+Assyria, by winged monsters; but these were built up in several courses
+of stone, not carved from single blocks like their prototypes. Plaster
+or, as at Susa, enamelled bricks, replaced as a wall-finish the Assyrian
+alabaster wainscot. These bricks, splendid in color, and moulded into
+relief pictures covering large surfaces, are the oldest examples of the
+skill of the Persians in a branch of ceramic art in which they have
+always excelled down to our own day.
+
+
++LYCIAN ARCHITECTURE.+ The architecture of those Asiatic peoples which
+served as intermediaries between the ancient civilizations of Egypt and
+Assyria on the one hand and of the Greeks on the other, need occupy us
+only a moment in passing. None of them developed a complete and
+independent style or produced monuments of the first rank. Those chiefly
+concerned in the transmission of ideas were the Cypriotes, Phœnicians,
+and Lycians. The part played by other Asiatic nations is too slight to
+be considered here. From Cyprus the Greeks could have learned little
+beyond a few elementary notions regarding sculpture and pottery,
+although it is possible that the volute-form in Ionic architecture was
+originally derived from patterns on Cypriote pottery and from certain
+Cypriote steles, where it appears as a modified lotus motive. The
+Phœnicians were the world’s traders from a very early age down to the
+Persian conquest. They not only distributed through the Mediterranean
+lands the manufactures of Egypt and Assyria, but also counterfeited them
+and adopted their forms in decorating their own wares. But they have
+bequeathed us not a single architectural ruin of importance, either of
+temples or palaces, nor are the few tombs still extant of sufficient
+artistic interest to deserve even brief mention in a work of this scope.
+
+In Lycia, however, there arose a system of tomb-design which came near
+creating a new architectural style, and which doubtless influenced both
+Persia and the Ionian colonies. The tombs were mostly cut in the rock,
+though a few are free-standing monolithic monuments, resembling
+sarcophagi or small shrines mounted on a high base or pedestal.
+
+In all of these tombs we recognize a manifest copying in stone of framed
+wooden structures. The walls are panelled, or imitate open structures
+framed of squared timbers. The roofs are often gabled, sometimes in the
+form of a pointed arch; they generally show a banded architrave,
+dentils, and a raking cornice, or else an imitation of broadly
+projecting eaves with small round rafters. There are several with
+porches of Ionic columns; of these, some are of late date and evidently
+copied from Asiatic Greek models. Others, and notably one at Telmissus,
+seem to be examples of a primitive Ionic, and may indeed have been early
+steps in the development of that splendid style which the Ionic Greeks,
+both in Asia Minor and in Attica, carried to such perfection.
+
+
++JEWISH ARCHITECTURE.+ The Hebrews borrowed from the art of every people
+with whom they had relations, so that we encounter in the few extant
+remains of their architecture Egyptian, Assyrian, Phœnician, Greek,
+Roman, and Syro-Byzantine features, but nothing like an independent
+national style. Among the most interesting of these remains are tombs of
+various periods, principally occurring in the valleys near Jerusalem,
+and erroneously ascribed by popular tradition to the judges, prophets,
+and kings of Israel. Some of them are structural, some cut in the rock;
+the former (tomb of Absalom, of Zechariah) decorated with Doric and
+Ionic engaged orders, were once supposed to be primitive types of these
+orders and of great antiquity. They are now recognized to be debased
+imitations of late Greek work of the third or second century B.C. They
+have Egyptian cavetto cornices and pyramidal roofs, like many Asiatic
+tombs. The openings of the rock-cut tombs have frames or pediments
+carved with rich surface ornament showing a similar mixture of
+types--Roman triglyphs and garlands, Syrian-Greek acanthus leaves,
+conventional foliage of Byzantine character, and naturalistic carvings
+of grapes and local plant-life. The carved arches of two of the ancient
+city gates (one the so-called Golden Gate) in Jerusalem display rich
+acanthus foliage somewhat like that of the tombs, but more vigorous and
+artistic. If of the time of Herod or even of Constantine, as claimed by
+some, they would indicate that Greek artists in Syria created the
+prototypes of Byzantine ornament. They are more probably, however,
+Byzantine restorations of the 6th century A.D.
+
+The one great achievement of Jewish architecture was the national
++Temple of Jehovah+, represented by three successive edifices on Mount
+Moriah, the site of the present so-called “Mosque of Omar.” The first,
+built by Solomon (1012 B.C.) appears from the Biblical description[6] to
+have combined Egyptian conceptions (successive courts, lofty
+entrance-pylons, the Sanctuary and the sekos or “Holy of Holies”) with
+Phœnician and Assyrian details and workmanship (cedar woodwork,
+empaistic decoration or overlaying with _repoussé_ metal work, the
+isolated brazen columns Jachin and Boaz). The whole stood on a mighty
+platform built up with stupendous masonry and vaulted chambers from the
+valley surrounding the rock on three sides. This precinct was nearly
+doubled in size by Herod (18 B.C.) who extended it southward by a
+terrace-wall of still more colossal masonry. Some of the stones are
+twenty-two feet long; one reaches the prodigious length of forty feet.
+The “Wall of Lamentations” is a part of this terrace, upon which stood
+the Temple on a raised platform. As rebuilt by Herod, the Temple
+reproduced in part the antique design, and retained the porch of Solomon
+along the east side; but the whole was superbly reconstructed in white
+marble with abundance of gilding. Defended by the Castle of Antonia on
+the northwest, and embellished with a new and imposing triple colonnade
+on the south, the whole edifice, a conglomerate of Egyptian, Assyrian,
+and Roman conceptions and forms, was one of the most singular and yet
+magnificent creations of ancient art.
+
+    [Footnote 6: 1 Kings vi.-vii.; 2 Chronicles iii.-iv.]
+
+The temple of Zerubbabel (515 B.C.), intermediate between those above
+described, was probably less a re-edification of the first, than a new
+design. While based on the scheme of the first temple, it appears to
+have followed more closely the pattern described in the vision of
+Ezekiel (chapters xl.-xlii.). It was far inferior to its predecessor in
+splendor and costliness. No vestiges of it remain.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ PERSIAN: at Murghab, the tomb of Cyrus, known as
+  Gabré-Madré-Soleiman--a gabled structure on a seven-stepped
+  pyramidal basement (525 B.C.). At Persepolis the palace of Darius
+  (521 B.C.); the Propylæa of Xerxes, his palace and his harem (?)
+  or throne-hall (480 B.C.). These splendid structures, several of
+  them of vast size, resplendent with color and majestic with their
+  singular and colossal columns, must have formed one of the most
+  imposing architectural groups in the world. At various points,
+  tower-like tombs, supposed erroneously by Fergusson to have been
+  fire altars. At Naksh-i-Roustam, the tomb of Darius, cut in the
+  rock. Other tombs near by at Persepolis proper and at Pasargadæ.
+  At the latter place remains of the palace of Cyrus. At Susa the
+  palace of Xerxes and Artaxerxes (480-405 B.C.).
+
+  There are no remains of private houses or temples.
+
+  LYCIAN: the principal Lycian monuments are found in Myra,
+  Antiphellus, and Telmissus. Some of the monolithic tombs have been
+  removed to the British and other European museums.
+
+  JEWISH: the temples have been mentioned above. The palace of
+  Solomon. The rock-cut monolithic tomb of Siloam. So-called tombs
+  of Absalom and Zechariah, structural; probably of Herod’s time or
+  later. Rock-cut Tombs of the Kings; of the Prophets, etc. City
+  gates (Herodian or early Christian period).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Reber. Also, Anderson and Spiers,
+  _Architecture of Greece and Rome_. Baumeister, _Denkmäler der
+  Klassischen Alterthums_. Bötticher, _Tektonik der Hellenen_.
+  Chipiez, _Histoire critique des ordres grecs_. Curtius, Adler and
+  Treu, _Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia_. Durm, _Antike Baukunst_ (in
+  _Handbuch d. Arch._). Frazer, _Pausanias’ Description of Greece_.
+  Hitorff, _L’architecture polychrome chez les Grecs_. Michaelis,
+  _Der Parthenon_. Penrose, _An Investigation, etc., of Athenian
+  Architecture_. Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in Primitive
+  Greece_; _La Grèce de l’Epopée_; _La Grèce archaïque_. Stuart and
+  Revett, _Antiquities of Athens_. Tarbell, _History of Greek Art_.
+  Texier, _L’Asie Mineure_. Wilkins, _Antiquities of Magna Græcia_.
+
+
++GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.+ Greek art marks the beginning of European
+civilization. The Hellenic race gathered up influences and suggestions
+from both Asia and Africa and fused them with others, whose sources are
+unknown, into an art intensely national and original, which was to
+influence the arts of many races and nations long centuries after the
+decay of the Hellenic states. The Greek mind, compared with the Egyptian
+or Assyrian, was more highly intellectual, more logical, more
+symmetrical, and above all more inquiring and analytic. Living nowhere
+remote from the sea, the Greeks became sailors, merchants, and
+colonizers. The Ionian kinsmen of the European Greeks, speaking a
+dialect of the same language, populated the coasts of Asia Minor and
+many of the islands, so that through them the Greeks were open to the
+influences of the Assyrian, Phœnician, Persian, and Lycian
+civilizations. In Cyprus they encountered Egyptian influences, and
+finally, under Psammetichus, they established in Egypt itself the Greek
+city of Naukratis. They were thus by geographical situation, by
+character, and by circumstances, peculiarly fitted to receive, develop,
+and transmit the mingled influences of the East and the South.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--LION GATE AT MYCENÆ.]
+
++PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS.+[7] Authentic Greek history begins with the
+first Olympiad, 776 B.C. The earliest monuments of that historic
+architecture which developed into the masterpieces of the Periclean and
+Alexandrian ages, date from the middle of the following century. But
+there are a number of older buildings, belonging presumably to the
+so-called Heroic Age, which, though seemingly unconnected with the later
+historic development of Greek architecture, are still worthy of note.
+They are the work of a people somewhat advanced in civilization,
+probably the Pelasgi, who preceded the Dorians on Greek soil, and
+consist mainly of fortifications, walls, gates, and tombs, the most
+important of which are at +Mycenæ+ and +Tiryns+. At the latter place is
+a well-defined acropolis, with massive walls in which are passages
+covered by stones successively overhanging or corbelled until they meet.
+The masonry is of huge stones piled without cement. At Mycenæ the city
+wall is pierced by the remarkable +Lion Gate+ (Fig. 22), consisting of
+two jambs and a huge lintel, over which the weight is relieved by a
+triangular opening. This is filled with a sculptured group, now much
+defaced, representing two rampant lions flanking a singular column which
+tapers downward. This symbolic group has relations with Hittite and
+Phrygian sculptures, and with the symbolism of the worship of Rhea
+Cybele. The masonry of the wall is carefully dressed but not regularly
+coursed. Other primitive walls and gates showing openings and embryonic
+arches of various forms, are found widely scattered, at Samos and Delos,
+at Phigaleia, Thoricus, Argos and many other points. The very earliest
+are hardly more than random piles of rough stone. Those which may fairly
+claim notice for their artistic masonry are of a later date and of two
+kinds: the coursed, and the polygonal or Cyclopean, so called from the
+tradition that they were built by the Cyclopes. These Cyclopean walls
+were composed of large, irregular polygonal blocks carefully fitted
+together and dressed to a fairly smooth face (Fig. 23). Both kinds were
+used contemporaneously, though in the course of time the regular coursed
+masonry finally superseded the polygonal.
+
+    [Footnote 7: For enlargement on this topic see Appendix A.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--POLYGONAL MASONRY.]
+
+
++THOLOS OF ATREUS.+ All these structures present, however, only the
+rudiments of architectural art. The so-called +Tholos+ (or Treasury) of
++Atreus+, at Mycenæ, on the other hand, shows the germs of truly
+artistic design (Fig. 24). It is in reality a tomb, and is one of a
+large class of prehistoric tombs found in almost every part of the
+globe, consisting of a circular stone-walled and stone-roofed chamber
+buried under a tumulus of earth. This one is a beehive-shaped
+construction of horizontal courses of masonry, with a stone-walled
+passage, the _dromos_, leading to the entrance door. Though internally
+of domical form, its construction with horizontal beds in the masonry
+proves that the idea of the true dome with the beds of each course
+pitched at an angle always normal to the curve of the vault, was not yet
+grasped. A small sepulchral chamber opens from the great one, by a door
+with the customary relieving triangle over it.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--THOLOS OF ATREUS. PLAN AND SECTION.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--THOLOS OF ATREUS. DOORWAY.]
+
+Traces of a metal lining have been found on the inner surface of the
+dome and on the jambs of the entrance door. This entrance is the most
+artistic and elaborate part of the edifice (Fig. 25). The main opening
+is enclosed in a three-banded frame, and was once flanked by columns
+which, as shown by fragments still existing and by marks on either side
+the door, tapered downward as in the sculptured column over the Lion
+Gate. Shafts, bases, and capitals were covered with zig-zag bands or
+chevrons of fine spirals. This well-studied decoration, the banded
+jambs, and the curiously inverted columns (of which several other
+examples exist in or near Mycenæ), all point to a fairly developed art,
+derived partly from Egyptian and partly from Asiatic sources. That
+Egyptian influences had affected this early art is further proved by a
+fragment of carved and painted ornament on a ceiling in Orchomenos,
+imitating with remarkable closeness certain ceiling decorations in
+Egyptian tombs.
+
+
++HISTORIC MONUMENTS; THE ORDERS.+ It was the Dorians and Ionians who
+developed the architecture of classic Greece. This fact is perpetuated
+in the traditional names, Doric and Ionic, given to the two systems of
+columnar design which formed the most striking feature of that
+architecture. While in Egypt the column was used almost exclusively as
+an internal support and decoration, in Greece it was chiefly employed to
+produce an imposing exterior effect. It was the most important element
+in the temple architecture of the Greeks, and an almost indispensable
+adornment of their gateways, public squares, and temple enclosures. To
+the column the two races named above gave each a special and radically
+distinct development, and it was not until the Periclean age that the
+two forms came to be used in conjunction, even by the mixed Doric-Ionic
+people of Attica. Each of the two types had its own special shaft,
+capital, entablature, mouldings, and ornaments, although considerable
+variation was allowed in the proportions and minor details. The general
+type, however, remained substantially unchanged from first to last. The
+earliest examples known to us of either order show it complete in all
+its parts, its later development being restricted to the refining and
+perfecting of its proportions and details. The probable origin of these
+orders will be separately considered later on.
+
+
++THE DORIC.+ The column of the Doric order (Figs. 26, 27) consists of a
+tapering shaft rising directly from the stylobate or platform and
+surmounted by a capital of great simplicity and beauty. The shaft is
+fluted with sixteen to twenty shallow channellings of segmental or
+elliptical section, meeting in sharp edges or _arrises_. The capital is
+made up of a circular cushion or _echinus_ adorned with fine grooves
+called _annulæ_, and a plain square _abacus_ or cap Upon this rests a
+plain architrave or _epistyle_, with a narrow fillet, the _tænia_,
+running along its upper edge. The frieze above it is divided into square
+panels, called the _metopes_, separated by vertical _triglyphs_ having
+each two vertical grooves and chamfered edges. There is a triglyph over
+each column and one over each intercolumniation, or two in rare
+instances where the columns are widely spaced. The cornice consists of a
+broadly projecting _corona_ resting on a _bed-mould_ of one or two
+simple mouldings. Its under surface, called the _soffit_, is adorned
+with _mutules_, square, flat projections having each eighteen _guttæ_
+depending from its under side. Two or three small mouldings run along
+the upper edge of the corona, which has in addition, over each slope of
+the gable, a gutter-moulding or _cymatium_. The cornices along the
+horizontal edges of the roof have instead of the cymatium a row of
+_antefixæ_, ornaments of terra-cotta or marble placed opposite the foot
+of each tile-ridge of the roofing. The enclosed triangular field of the
+gable, called the _tympanum_, was in the larger monuments adorned with
+sculptured groups resting on the shelf formed by the horizontal cornice
+below. Carved ornaments called _acroteria_ commonly embellished the
+three angles of the gable or pediment.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--GREEK DORIC ORDER.
+  A, _Crepidoma, or stylobate_; b, _Column_; c, _Architrave_;
+  d, _Tænia_; e, _Frieze_; f, _Horizontal cornice_; g, _Raking
+  cornice_; h, _Tympanum of pediment_; k, _Metope_.]
+
+
++POLYCHROMY.+ It has been fully proved, after a century of debate, that
+all this elaborate system of parts, severe and dignified in their
+simplicity of form, received a rich decoration of color. While the
+precise shades and tones employed cannot be predicated with certainty,
+it is well established that the triglyphs were painted blue and the
+metopes red, and that all the mouldings were decorated with
+leaf-ornaments, “eggs-and-darts,” and frets, in red, green, blue, and
+gold. The walls and columns were also colored, probably with pale tints
+of yellow or buff, to reduce the glare of the fresh marble or the
+whiteness of the fine stucco with which the surfaces of masonry of
+coarser stone were primed. In the clear Greek atmosphere and outlined
+against the brilliant sky, the Greek temple must have presented an
+aspect of rich, sparkling gayety.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--DORIC ORDER OF THE PARTHENON.]
+
++ORIGIN OF THE ORDER.+ It is generally believed that the details of the
+Doric frieze and cornice were reminiscences of a primitive wood
+construction. The triglyph suggests the chamfered ends of cross-beams
+made up of three planks each; the mutules, the sheathing of the eaves;
+and the guttæ, the heads of the spikes or trenails by which the
+sheathing was secured. It is known that in early astylar temples the
+metopes were left open like the spaces between the ends of
+ceiling-rafters. In the earlier peripteral temples, as at Selinus, the
+triglyph-frieze is retained around the cella-wall under the ceiling of
+the colonnade, where it has no functional significance, as a survival
+from times antedating the adoption of the colonnade, when the tradition
+of a wooden roof-construction showing externally had not yet been
+forgotten.
+
+A similar wooden origin for the Doric column has been advocated by some,
+who point to the assertion of Pausanias that in the Doric Heraion at
+Olympia the original wooden columns had with one exception been replaced
+by stone columns as fast as they decayed. (See p. 62.) This, however,
+only proves that wooden columns were sometimes used in early buildings,
+not that the Doric column was derived from them. Others would derive it
+from the Egyptian columns of Beni Hassan (p. 12), which it certainly
+resembles. But they do not explain how the Greeks could have been
+familiar with the Beni Hassan column long before the opening of Egypt to
+them under Psammetichus; nor why, granting them some knowledge of
+Egyptian architecture, they should have passed over the splendors of
+Karnak and Luxor to copy these inconspicuous tombs perched high up on
+the cliffs of the Nile. It would seem that the Greeks invented this form
+independently, developing it in buildings which have perished; unless,
+indeed, they brought the idea with them from their primitive Aryan home
+in Asia.
+
+
++THE IONIC ORDER+ was characterized by greater slenderness of proportion
+and elegance of detail than the Doric, and depended more on carving than
+on color for the decoration of its members (Fig. 28). It was adopted in
+the fifth century B.C. by the people of Attica, and used both for civic
+and religious buildings, sometimes alone and sometimes in conjunction
+with the Doric. The column was from eight to ten diameters in height,
+against four and one-third to seven for the Doric. It stood on a base
+which was usually composed of two tori (see p. 25 for definition)
+separated by a _scotia_ (a concave moulding of semicircular or
+semi-elliptical profile), and was sometimes provided also with a square
+flat base-block, the _plinth_. There was much variety in the proportions
+and details of these mouldings, which were often enriched by flutings or
+carved guilloches. The tall shaft bore twenty-four deep narrow flutings
+separated by narrow fillets. The capital was the most peculiar feature
+of the order. It consisted of a bead or _astragal_ and echinus, over
+which was a horizontal band ending on either side in a scroll or volute,
+the sides of which presented the aspect shown in Fig. 29. A thin moulded
+abacus was interposed between this member and the architrave.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--GREEK IONIC ORDER. (MILETUS.)]
+
+The Ionic capital was marked by two awkward features which all its
+richness could not conceal. One was the protrusion of the echinus beyond
+the face of the band above it, the other was the disparity between the
+side and front views of the capital, especially noticeable at the
+corners of a colonnade. To obviate this, various contrivances were
+tried, none wholly successful. Ordinarily the two adjacent exterior
+sides of the corner capital were treated alike, the scrolls at their
+meeting being bent out at an angle of 45°, while the two inner faces
+simply intersected, cutting each other in halves.
+
+The entablature comprised an architrave of two or three flat bands
+crowned by fine mouldings; an uninterrupted frieze, frequently
+sculptured in relief; and a simple cornice of great beauty. In addition
+to the ordinary bed-mouldings there was in most examples a row of narrow
+blocks or _dentils_ under the corona, which was itself crowned by a high
+cymatium of extremely graceful profile, carved with the rich
+“honeysuckle” (_anthemion_) ornament. All the mouldings were carved with
+the “egg-and-dart,” heart-leaf and anthemion ornaments, so designed as
+to recall by their outline the profile of the moulding itself. The
+details of this order were treated with much more freedom and variety
+than those of the Doric. The pediments of Ionic buildings were rarely or
+never adorned with groups of sculpture. The volutes and echinus of the
+capital, the fluting of the shaft, the use of a moulded circular base,
+and in the cornice the high corona and cymatium, these were constant
+elements in every Ionic order, but all other details varied widely in
+the different examples.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--SIDE VIEW OF IONIC CAPITAL.]
+
++ORIGIN OF THE IONIC ORDER.+ The origin of the Ionic order has given
+rise to almost as much controversy as that of the Doric. Its different
+elements were apparently derived from various sources. The Lycian tombs
+may have contributed the denticular cornice and perhaps also the general
+form of the column and capital. In the Persian architecture of the sixth
+century B.C., the high moulded base, the narrow flutings of the shaft,
+the carved bead-moulding and the use of scrolls in the capital are
+characteristic features, which may have been borrowed by the Ionians
+during the same century, unless, indeed, they were themselves the work
+of Ionic or Lycian workmen in Persian employ. The banded architrave and
+the use of the volute in the decoration of stele-caps (from στηλη =
+a memorial stone or column standing isolated and upright), furniture,
+and minor structures are common features in Assyrian, Lycian, and other
+Asiatic architecture of early date. The volute or scroll itself as an
+independent decorative motive may have originated in successive
+variations of Egyptian lotus-patterns.[8] But the combination of these
+diverse elements and their development into the final form of the order
+was the work of the Ionian Greeks, and it was in the Ionian provinces of
+Asia Minor that the most splendid examples of its use are to be found
+(Halicarnassus, Miletus, Priene, Ephesus), while the most graceful and
+perfect are those of Doric-Ionic Attica.
+
+    [Footnote 8: As contended by W. H. Goodyear in his _Grammar of
+    the Lotus_.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--GREEK CORINTHIAN ORDER.
+  (From the monument of Lysicrates.)]
+
++THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.+ This was a late outgrowth of the Ionic rather
+than a new order, and up to the time of the Roman conquest was only used
+for monuments of small size (see Fig. 38). Its entablature in pure Greek
+examples was identical with the Ionic; the shaft and base were only
+slightly changed in proportion and detail. The capital, however, was a
+new departure, based probably on metallic embellishments of altars,
+pedestals, etc., of Ionic style. It consisted in the best examples of a
+high bell-shaped core surrounded by one or two rows of acanthus leaves,
+above which were pairs of branching scrolls meeting at the corners in
+spiral volutes. These served to support the angles of a moulded abacus
+with concave sides (Fig. 30). One example, from the Tower of the Winds
+(the clepsydra of Andronicus Cyrrhestes) at Athens, has only smooth
+pointed palm-leaves and no scrolls above a single row of acanthus
+leaves. Indeed, the variety and disparity among the different examples
+prove that we have here only the first steps toward the evolution of an
+independent order, which it was reserved for the Romans to fully
+develop.
+
+
++GREEK TEMPLES; THE TYPE.+ With the orders as their chief decorative
+element the Greeks built up a splendid architecture of religious and
+secular monuments. Their noblest works were temples, which they designed
+with the utmost simplicity of general scheme, but carried out with a
+mastery of proportion and detail which has never been surpassed. Of
+moderate size in most cases, they were intended primarily to enshrine
+the simulacrum of the deity, and not, like Christian churches, to
+accommodate great throngs of worshippers. Nor were they, on the other
+hand, sanctuaries designed, like those of Egypt, to exclude all but a
+privileged few from secret rites performed only by the priests and king.
+The statue of the deity was enshrined in a chamber, the _naos_ (see
+plan, Fig. 31), often of considerable size, and accessible to the public
+through a columnar porch the _pronaos_. A smaller chamber, the
+_opisthodomus_, was sometimes added in the rear of the main sanctuary,
+to serve as a treasury or depository for votive offerings. Together
+these formed a windowless structure called the _cella_, beyond which was
+the rear porch, the _posticum_ or _epinaos_. This whole structure was in
+the larger temples surrounded by a colonnade, the _peristyle_, which
+formed the most splendid feature of Greek architecture. The external
+aisle on either side of the cella was called the _pteroma_. A single
+gabled roof covered the entire building.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31.--TYPES OF GREEK TEMPLE PLANS.
+  a, _In Antis_; b, _Prostyle_; c, _Amphiprostyle_; d, _Peripteral_
+  (_The Parthenon_); N, _Naos_; O, _Opisthodomus_; S, _Statue_.]
+
+The Greek colonnade was thus an exterior feature, surrounding the solid
+cella-wall instead of being enclosed by it as in Egypt. The temple was a
+public, not a royal monument; and its builders aimed, not as in Egypt at
+size and overwhelming sombre majesty, but rather at sunny beauty and the
+highest perfection of proportion, execution, and detail (Fig. 34).
+
+There were of course many variations of the general type just described.
+Each of these has received a special name, which is given below with
+explanations and is illustrated in Fig. 31.
+
+_In antis_; with a porch having two or more columns enclosed between the
+projecting side-walls of the cella.
+
+_Prostylar_ (or prostyle); with a columnar porch in front and no
+peristyle.
+
+_Amphiprostylar_ (or -style); with columnar porches at both ends but no
+peristyle.
+
+_Peripteral_; surrounded by columns.
+
+_Pseudoperipteral_; with false or engaged columns built into the walls
+of the cella, leaving no pteroma.
+
+_Dipteral_; with double lateral ranges of columns (see Fig. 39).
+
+_Pseudodipteral_; with a single row of columns on each side, whose
+distance from the wall is equal to two intercolumniations of the front.
+
+_Tetrastyle_, _hexastyle_, _octastyle_, _decastyle_, etc.; with four,
+six, eight, or ten columns in the end rows.
+
+
++CONSTRUCTION.+ All the temples known to us are of stone, though it is
+evident from allusions in the ancient writers that wood was sometimes
+used in early times. (See p. 62.) The finest temples, especially those
+of Attica, Olympia, and Asia Minor, were of marble. In Magna Græcia, at
+Assos, and in other places where marble was wanting, limestone,
+sandstone, or lava was employed and finished with a thin, fine stucco.
+The roof was almost invariably of wood and gabled, forming at the ends
+pediments decorated in most cases with sculpture. The disappearance of
+these inflammable and perishable roofs has given rise to endless
+speculations as to the lighting of the cellas, which in all known ruins,
+except one at Agrigentum, are destitute of windows. It has been
+conjectured that light was admitted through openings in the roof, and
+even that the central part of the cella was wholly open to the sky. Such
+an arrangement is termed _hypæthral_, from an expression used in a
+description by Vitruvius;[9] but this description corresponds to no
+known structure, and the weight of opinion now inclines against the use
+of the hypæthral opening, except possibly in one or two of the largest
+temples, in which a part of the cella in front of the statue may have
+been thus left open. But even this partial _hypæthros_ is not
+substantiated by direct evidence. It hardly seems probable that the
+magnificent chryselephantine statues of such temples were ever thus left
+exposed to the extremes of the climate, which are often severe even in
+Greece. In the model of the Parthenon designed by Ch. Chipiez for the
+Metropolitan Museum in New York, a small clerestory opening through the
+roof admits a moderate amount of light to the cella; but this ingenious
+device rests on no positive evidence (see Frontispiece). It seems on the
+whole most probable that the cella was lighted entirely by artificial
+illumination; but the controversy in its present state is and must be
+wholly speculative.
+
+    [Footnote 9: Lib. III., Cap. I.]
+
+The wooden roof was covered with tiles of terra-cotta or marble. It was
+probably ceiled and panelled on the under side, and richly decorated
+with color and gold. The pteroma had under the exterior roof a ceiling
+of stone or marble, deeply panelled between transverse architraves.
+
+The naos and opisthodomus being in the larger temples too wide to be
+spanned by single beams, were furnished with interior columns to afford
+intermediate support. To avoid the extremes of too great massiveness and
+excessive slenderness in these columns, they were built in two stages,
+and advantage was taken of this arrangement, in some cases, at least, to
+introduce lateral galleries into the naos.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--CARVED ANTHEMION ORNAMENT. ATHENS.]
+
++SCULPTURE AND CARVING.+ All the architectural membering was treated
+with the greatest refinement of design and execution, and the aid of
+sculpture, both in relief and in the round, was invoked to give splendor
+and significance to the monument. The statue of the deity was the focus
+of internal interest, while externally, groups of statues representing
+the Olympian deities or the mythical exploits of gods, demigods, and
+heroes, adorned the gables. Relief carvings in the friezes and metopes
+commemorated the favorite national myths. In these sculptures we have
+the finest known adaptations of pure sculpture--_i.e._, sculpture
+treated as such and complete in itself--to an architectural framework.
+The noblest examples of this decorative sculpture are those of the
+Parthenon, consisting of figures in the full round from the pediments,
+groups in high relief from the metopes, and the beautiful frieze of the
+Panathenaic procession from the cella-wall under the pteroma ceiling.
+The greater part of these splendid works are now in the British Museum,
+whither they were removed by Lord Elgin in 1801. From Olympia, Ægina,
+and Phigaleia, other master-works of the same kind have been transferred
+to the museums of Europe. In the Doric style there was little carving
+other than the sculpture, the ornament being mainly polychromatic. Greek
+Ionic and Corinthian monuments, however, as well as minor works such as
+steles, altars, etc., were richly adorned with carved mouldings and
+friezes, festoons, acroteria, and other embellishments executed with the
+chisel. The anthemion ornament, a form related to the Egyptian lotus and
+Assyrian palmette, most frequently figures in these. It was made into
+designs of wonderful vigor and beauty (Fig. 32).
+
+
++DETAIL AND EXECUTION.+ In the handling and cutting of stone the Greeks
+displayed a surpassing skill and delicacy. While ordinarily they were
+content to use stones of moderate size, they never hesitated at any
+dimension necessary for proper effect or solid construction. The lower
+drums of the Parthenon peristyle are 6 feet 6½ inches in diameter, and
+2 feet 10 inches high, cut from single blocks of Pentelic marble. The
+architraves of the Propylæa at Athens are each made up of two lintels
+placed side by side, the longest 17 feet 7 inches long, 3 feet 10 inches
+high, and 2 feet 4 inches thick. In the colossal temples of Asia Minor,
+where the taste for the vast and grandiose was more pronounced, blocks
+of much greater size were used. These enormous stones were cut and
+fitted with the most scrupulous exactness. The walls of all important
+structures were built in regular courses throughout, every stone
+carefully bedded with extremely close joints. The masonry was usually
+laid up without cement and clamped with metal; there is no filling in
+with rubble and concrete between mere facings of cut stone, as in most
+modern work. When the only available stone was of coarse texture it was
+finished with a coating of fine stucco, in which sharp edges and minute
+detail could be worked.
+
+The details were, in the best period, executed with the most
+extraordinary refinement and care. The profiles of capitals and
+mouldings, the carved ornament, the arrises of the flutings, were cut
+with marvellous precision and delicacy. It has been rightly said that
+the Greeks “built like Titans and finished like jewellers.” But this
+perfect finish was never petty nor wasted on unworthy or vulgar design.
+The just relation of scale between the building and all its parts was
+admirably maintained; the ornament was distributed with rare judgment,
+and the vigor of its design saved it from all appearance of triviality.
+
+The sensitive taste of the Greeks led them into other refinements than
+those of mere mechanical perfection. In the Parthenon especially, but
+also in lesser degree in other temples, the seemingly straight lines of
+the building were all slightly curved, and the vertical faces inclined.
+This was done to correct the monotony and stiffness of absolutely
+straight lines and right angles, and certain optical illusions which
+their acute observation had detected. The long horizontal lines of the
+stylobate and cornice were made convex upward; a similar convexity in
+the horizontal corona of the pediment counteracted the seeming concavity
+otherwise resulting from its meeting with the multiplied inclined lines
+of the raking cornice. The columns were almost imperceptibly inclined
+toward the cella, and the corner intercolumniations made a trifle
+narrower than the rest; while the vertical lines of the arrises of the
+flutings were made convex outward with a curve of the utmost beauty and
+delicacy. By these and other like refinements there was imparted to the
+monument an elasticity and vigor of aspect, an elusive and surprising
+beauty impossible to describe and not to be explained by the mere
+composition and general proportions, yet manifest to every cultivated
+eye.[10]
+
+    [Footnote 10: These refinements, first noticed by Allason in
+    1814, and later confirmed by Cockerell and Haller as to the
+    columns, were published to the world in 1838 by Hoffer, verified
+    by Penrose in 1846, and further developed by the investigations
+    of Ziller and later observers.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE--_Continued_.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter VI. Also, Bacon and Clarke,
+  _Investigations at Assos_. Espouy, _Fragments d’architecture
+  antique_. Harrison and Verrall, _Mythology and Monuments of
+  Ancient Athens_. Hitorff et Zanth, _Recueil des Monuments de
+  Ségeste et Sélinonte_. Magne, _Le Parthénon_. Koldewey and
+  Puchstein, _Die griechischen Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien_.
+  Waldstein, _The Argive Heræum_.
+
+
++HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT.+ The history of Greek architecture, subsequent to
+the Heroic or Primitive Age, may be divided into periods as follows:
+
+The ARCHAIC; from 650 to 500 B.C.
+
+The TRANSITIONAL; from 500 to 460 B.C., or to the revival of prosperity
+after the Persian wars.
+
+The PERICLEAN; from 460 to 400 B.C.
+
+The FLORID or ALEXANDRIAN; from 400 to 300 B.C.
+
+The DECADENT; 300 to 100 B.C.
+
+The ROMAN; 100 B.C. to 200 A.D.
+
+These dates are, of course, somewhat arbitrary; it is impossible to set
+exact bounds to style-periods, which must inevitably overlap at certain
+points, but the dates, as given above, will assist in distinguishing the
+successive phases of the history.
+
+
++ARCHAIC PERIOD.+ The archaic period is characterized by the exclusive
+use of the Doric order, which appears in the earliest monuments complete
+in all its parts, but heavy in its proportions and coarse in its
+execution. The oldest known temples of this period are the +Apollo
+Temple+ at Corinth (650 B.C.?), and the +Northern Temple+ on the
+acropolis at +Selinus+ in Sicily (cir. 610-590 B.C.). They are both of a
+coarse limestone covered with stucco. The columns are low and massive
+(4⅓ to 4⅔ diameters in height), widely spaced, and carry a very high
+entablature. The triglyphs still appear around the cella wall under the
+pteroma ceiling, an illogical detail destined to disappear in later
+buildings. Other temples at Selinus date from the middle or latter part
+of the sixth century; they have higher columns and finer profiles than
+those just mentioned. The great +Temple of Zeus+ at +Selinus+ was the
+earliest of five colossal Greek temples of very nearly identical
+dimensions; it measured 360 feet by 167 feet in plan, but was never
+completed. During the second half of the sixth century important Doric
+temples were built at Pæstum in South Italy, and Agrigentum in Sicily;
+the somewhat primitive temple at Assos in Asia Minor, with uncouth
+carvings of centaurs and monsters on its architrave, belongs to this
+same period. The +Temple of Zeus+ at +Agrigentum+ (Fig. 33) is another
+singular and exceptional design, and was the second of the five colossal
+temples mentioned above. The pteroma was entirely enclosed by walls with
+engaged columns showing externally, and was of extraordinary width. The
+walls of the narrow cella were interrupted by heavy piers supporting
+atlantes, or applied statues under the ceiling. There seem to have been
+windows between these figures, but it is not clear whence they borrowed
+their light, unless it was admitted by the omission of the metopes
+between the external triglyphs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--TEMPLE OF ZEUS. AGRIGENTUM.]
+
+
++THE TRANSITION.+ During the transitional period there was a marked
+improvement in the proportions, detail, and workmanship of the temples.
+The cella was made broader, the columns more slender, the entablature
+lighter. The triglyphs disappeared from the cella wall, and sculpture of
+a higher order enhanced the architectural effect. The profiles of the
+mouldings and especially of the capitals became more subtle and refined
+in their curves, while the development of the Ionic order in important
+monuments in Asia Minor was preparing the way for the splendors of the
+Periclean age. Three temples especially deserve notice: the +Athena
+Temple+ on the island of +Ægina+, the +Temple of Zeus+ at +Olympia+, and
+the so-called +Theseum+--perhaps a temple of Heracles--in Athens. They
+belong to the period 470-450 B.C.; they are all hexastyle and
+peripteral, and without triglyphs on the cella wall. Of the three the
+second in the list is interesting as the scene of those rites which
+preceded and accompanied the Panhellenic Olympian games, and as the
+central feature of the Altis, the most complete temple-group and
+enclosure among all Greek remains. It was built of a coarse
+conglomerate, finished with fine stucco, and embellished with sculpture
+by the greatest masters of the time. The adjacent +Heraion+ (temple of
+Hera) was a highly venerated and ancient shrine, originally built with
+wooden columns which, according to Pausanias, were replaced one by one,
+as they decayed, by stone columns. The truth of this statement is
+attested by the discovery of a singular variety of capitals among its
+ruins, corresponding to the various periods at which they were added.
+The Theseum is the most perfectly preserved of all Greek temples, and in
+the refinement of its forms is only surpassed by those of the Periclean
+age.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--RUINS OF THE PARTHENON.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--PLAN OF ERECHTHEUM.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--WEST END OF ERECHTHEUM, RESTORED.]
+
++THE PERICLEAN AGE.+ The Persian wars may be taken as the dividing line
+between the Transition period and the Periclean age. The _élan_ of
+national enthusiasm that followed the expulsion of the invader, and the
+glory and wealth which accrued to Athens as the champion of all Hellas,
+resulted in a splendid reconstruction of the Attic monuments as well as
+a revival of building activity in Asia Minor. By the wise administration
+of Pericles and by the genius of Ictinus, Phidias, and other artists of
+surpassing skill, the Acropolis at Athens was crowned with a group of
+buildings and statues absolutely unrivalled. Chief among them was the
++Parthenon+, the shrine of Athena Parthenos, which the critics of all
+schools have agreed in considering the most faultless in design and
+execution of all buildings erected by man (Figs. 31, 34, and
+Frontispiece). It was an octastyle peripteral temple, with seventeen
+columns on the side, and measured 220 by 100 feet on the top of the
+stylobate. It was the work of Ictinus and Callicrates, built to enshrine
+the noble statue of the goddess by Phidias, a standing chryselephantine
+figure forty feet high. It was the masterpiece of Greek architecture not
+only by reason of its refinements of detail, but also on account of the
+beauty of its sculptural adornments. The frieze about the cella wall
+under the pteroma ceiling, representing in low relief with masterly
+skill the Panathenaic procession; the sculptured groups in the metopes,
+and the superb assemblages of Olympic and symbolic figures of colossal
+size in the pediments, added their majesty to the perfection of the
+architecture. Here also the horizontal curvatures and other refinements
+are found in their highest development. Northward from it, upon the
+Acropolis, stood the +Erechtheum+, an excellent example of the
+Attic-Ionic style (Figs. 35, 36). Its singular irregularities of plan
+and level, and the variety of its detail, exhibit in a striking way the
+Greek indifference to mere formal symmetry when confronted by practical
+considerations. The motive in this case was the desire to include in one
+design several existing and venerated shrines to Attic deities and
+heroes--Athena Polias, Poseidon, Pandrosus, Erechtheus, Boutes, etc.
+Begun by unknown architects in 479 B.C., and not completed until 408
+B.C., it remains in its ruin still one of the most interesting and
+attractive of ancient buildings. Its two colonnades of differing design,
+its beautiful north doorway, and the unique and noble caryatid porch or
+balcony on the south side are unsurpassed in delicate beauty combined
+with vigor of design.[11] A smaller monument of the Ionic order, the
+amphiprostyle temple to +Nike Apteros+--the Wingless Victory--stands on
+a projecting spur of the Acropolis to the southwest. It measures only 27
+feet by 18 feet in plan; the cella is nearly square; the columns are
+sturdier than those of the Erechtheum, and the execution of the monument
+is admirable. It was the first completed of the extant buildings of the
+group of the Acropolis and dates from 466 B.C.
+
+    [Footnote 11: See Appendix, p. 427.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--PROPYLÆA AT ATHENS. PLAN.]
+
+In the +Propylæa+ (Fig. 37), the monumental gateway to the Acropolis,
+the Doric and Ionic orders appear to have been combined for the first
+time (437 to 432 B.C.). It was the master work of Mnesicles. The front
+and rear façades were Doric hexastyles; adjoining the front porch were
+two projecting lateral wings employing a smaller Doric order. The
+central passageway led between two rows of Ionic columns to the rear
+porch, entered by five doorways and crowned, like the front, with a
+pediment. The whole was executed with the same splendor and perfection
+as the other buildings of the Acropolis, and was a worthy gateway to the
+group of noble monuments which crowned that citadel of the Attic
+capital. The two orders were also combined in the temple of +Apollo
+Epicurius+ at +Phigalæa+ (Bassæ). This temple was erected in 430 B.C. by
+Ictinus, who used the Ionic order internally to decorate a row of
+projecting piers instead of free-standing columns in the naos, in which
+there was also a single Corinthian column of rather archaic design,
+which may have been used as a support for a statue or votive offering.
+
+
++ALEXANDRIAN AGE.+ A period of reaction followed the splendid
+architectural activity of the Periclean age. A succession of disastrous
+wars--the Sicilian, Peloponnesian, and Corinthian--drained the energies
+and destroyed the peace of European Greece for seventy-five years,
+robbing Athens of her supremacy and inflicting wounds from which she
+never recovered. In the latter part of the fourth century, however, the
+triumph of the Macedonian empire over all the Mediterranean lands
+inaugurated a new era of architectural magnificence, especially in Asia
+Minor. The keynote of the art of this time was splendor, as that of the
+preceding age was artistic perfection. The Corinthian order came into
+use, as though the Ionic were not rich enough for the sumptuous taste of
+the time, and capitals and bases of novel and elaborate design
+embellished the Ionic temples of Asia Minor. In the temple of +Apollo
+Didymæus+ at Miletus, the plinths of the bases were made octagonal and
+panelled with rich scroll-carvings; and the piers which buttressed the
+interior faces of the cella-walls were given capitals of singular but
+elegant form, midway between the Ionic and Corinthian types. This temple
+belongs to the list of colossal edifices already referred to; its
+dimensions were 366 by 163 feet, making it the largest of them all. The
+famous +Artemisium+ (temple of Artemis or Diana) measured 342 by 163
+feet. Several of the columns of the latter were enriched with sculptured
+figures encircling the lower drums of the colossal shafts. The most
+lavish expenditure was bestowed upon small structures, shrines, and
+sarcophagi. The graceful monument still visible in Athens, erected by
+the choragus Lysicrates in token of his victory in the choral
+competitions, belongs to this period (330 B.C.). It is circular, with a
+slightly domical imbricated roof, and is decorated with elegant engaged
+Corinthian columns (Fig. 38). In the Imperial Museum at Constantinople
+are several sarcophagi of this period found at Sidon, but executed by
+Greek artists, and of exceptional beauty. They are in the form of
+temples or shrines; the finest of them, supposed by some to have been
+made for Alexander’s favorite general Perdiccas, and by others for the
+Persian satrap who figures prominently on its sculptured reliefs, is the
+most sumptuous work of the kind in existence. The exquisite polychromy
+of its beautiful reliefs and the perfection of its rich details of
+cornice, pediment, tiling, and crestings, make it an exceedingly
+interesting and instructive example of the minor architecture of the
+period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--CHORAGIC MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES.
+  (Restored model, N.Y.)]
+
+
++THE DECADENCE.+ After the decline of Alexandrian magnificence Greek art
+never recovered its ancient glory, but the flame was not suddenly
+extinguished. While in Greece proper the works of the second and third
+centuries B.C., are for the most part weak and lifeless, like the +Stoa
+of Attalus+ (175 B.C.) and the +Tower of the Winds+ (the Clepsydra of
+Andronicus Cyrrhestes, 100 B.C.) at Athens or the Portico of Philip in
+Delos, there were still a few worthy works built in Asia Minor. The
+splendid +Altar+ erected at +Pergamon+ by Eumenes II. (circ. 180 B.C.)
+in the Ionic order, combined sculpture of extraordinary vigor with
+imposing architecture in masterly fashion. At +Aizanoi+ an Ionic +Temple
+to Zeus+, by some attributed to the Roman period, but showing rather the
+character of good late Greek work, deserves mention for its elegant
+details, and especially for its frieze-decoration of acanthus leaves and
+scrolls resembling those of a Corinthian capital.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--TEMPLE OF OLYMPIAN ZEUS. ATHENS.]
+
++ROMAN PERIOD.+ During this period, _i.e._, throughout the second and
+first centuries B.C., the Roman dominion was spreading over Greek
+territory, and the structures erected subsequent to the conquest partake
+of the Roman character and mingle Roman conceptions with Greek details
+and _vice versâ_. The temple of the +Olympian Zeus+ at Athens (Fig. 39),
+a mighty dipteral Corinthian edifice measuring 354 by 171 feet, standing
+on a vast terrace or temenos surrounded by a buttressed wall, was begun
+by Antiochus Epiphanes (170 B.C.) on the site of an earlier unfinished
+Doric temple of the time of Pisistratus, and carried out under the
+direction of the Roman architect, Cossutius. It was not, however,
+finally completed until the time of Hadrian, 130 A.D. Meanwhile Sulla
+had despoiled it of several columns[12] which he carried to Rome (86
+B.C.), to use in the rebuilding of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol,
+where they undoubtedly served as models in the development of the Roman
+Corinthian order. The columns were 57 feet high, with capitals of the
+most perfect Corinthian type; fifteen are now standing, and one lies
+prostrate near by. To the Roman period also belong the +Agora Gate+
+(circ. 35 B.C.), the +Arch of Hadrian+ (117 A.D.), the +Odeon of
+Regilla+ or of Herodes Atticus (143 A.D.), at Athens, and many temples
+and tombs, theatres, arches, etc., in the Greek provinces.
+
+    [Footnote 12: L. Bevier, in _Papers of the American Classical
+    School at Athens_ (vol. i., pp. 195, 196), contends that these
+    were columns left from the old Doric temple. This is untenable,
+    for Sulla would certainly not have taken the trouble to carry
+    away archaic Doric columns, with such splendid Corinthian columns
+    before him.]
+
+
++SECULAR MONUMENTS; PROPYLÆA.+ The stately gateway by which the
+Acropolis was entered has already been described. It was the noblest and
+most perfect of a class of buildings whose prototype is found in the
+monumental columnar porches of the palace-group at Persepolis. The
+Greeks never used the arch in these structures, nor did they attach to
+them the same importance as did most of the other nations of antiquity.
+The Altis of Olympia, the national shrine of Hellenism, appears to have
+had no central gateway of imposing size, but a number of insignificant
+entrances disposed at random. The +Propylæa+ of +Sunium+, +Priene+ and
++Eleusis+ are the most conspicuous, after those of the Athenian
+Acropolis. Of these the Ionic gateway at Priene is the finest, although
+the later of the two at Eleusis is interesting for its anta-capitals.
+(_Anta_ = a flat pilaster decorating the end of a wing-wall and treated
+with a base and capital usually differing from those of the adjacent
+columns.) These are of Corinthian type, adorned with winged horses,
+scrolls, and anthemions of an exuberant richness of design,
+characteristic of this late period.
+
+
++COLONNADES, STOÆ.+ These were built to connect public monuments (as the
+Dionysiac theatre and Odeon at Athens); or along the sides of great
+public squares, as at Assos and Olympia (the so-called +Echo Hall+); or
+as independent open public halls, as the +Stoa Diple+ at Thoricus. They
+afforded shelter from sun and rain, places for promenading, meetings
+with friends, public gatherings, and similar purposes. They were rarely
+of great size, and most of them are of rather late date, though the
+archaic structure at Pæstum, known as the +Basilica+, was probably in
+reality an open hall of this kind.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--PLAN OF GREEK THEATRE.
+  o, _Orchestra_; l, _Logeion_; p, _Paraskenai_; _s, s_, _Stoa_.]
+
++THEATRES, ODEONS.+ These were invariably cut out of the rocky
+hillsides, though in a few cases (Mantinæa, Myra, Antiphellus) a part of
+the seats were sustained by a built-up substructure and walls to eke out
+the deficiency of the hill-slope under them. The front of the excavation
+was enclosed by a stage and a set scene or background, built up so as to
+leave somewhat over a semicircle for the _orchestra_ or space enclosed
+by the lower tier of seats (Fig. 40). An altar to Dionysus (Bacchus) was
+the essential feature in the foreground of the orchestra, where the
+Dionysiac choral dance was performed. The seats formed successive steps
+of stone or marble sweeping around the sloping excavation, with carved
+marble thrones for the priests, archons, and other dignitaries. The only
+architectural decoration of the theatre was that of the set scene or
+_skene_, which with its wing-walls (_paraskenai_) enclosing the stage
+(_logeion_) was a permanent structure of stone or marble adorned with
+doors, cornices, pilasters, etc. This has perished in nearly every case;
+but at Aspendus, in Asia Minor, there is one still fairly well
+preserved, with a rich architectural decoration on its inner face. The
+extreme diameter of the theatres varied greatly; thus at Aizanoi it is
+187 feet, and at Syracuse 495 feet. The theatre of Dionysus at Athens
+(finished 325 B.C.) could accommodate thirty thousand spectators.
+
+The odeon differed from the theatre principally in being smaller and
+entirely covered in by a wooden roof. The +Odeon of Regilla+, built by
+Herodes Atticus in Athens (143 A.D.), is a well-preserved specimen of
+this class, but all traces of its cedar ceiling and of its intermediate
+supports have disappeared.
+
+
++BUILDINGS FOR ATHLETIC CONTESTS.+ These comprised stadia and
+hippodromes for races, and gymnasia and palæstræ for individual
+exercise, bathing, and amusement. The _stadia_ and _hippodromes_ were
+oblong enclosures surrounded by tiers of seats and without conspicuous
+architectural features. The _palæstra_ or _gymnasium_--for the terms are
+not clearly distinguished--was a combination of courts, chambers, tanks
+(_piscinæ_) for bathers and _exedræ_ or semicircular recesses provided
+with tiers of seats for spectators and auditors, destined not merely for
+the exercises of athletes preparing for the stadium, but also for the
+instruction and diversion of the public by recitations, lectures, and
+discussions. It was the prototype of the Roman thermæ, but less
+imposing, more simple in plan and adornment. Every Greek city had one or
+more of them, but they have almost wholly disappeared, and the brief
+description by Vitruvius and scanty remains at Alexandria Troas and
+Ephesus furnish almost the only information we possess regarding their
+form and arrangement.
+
+
++TOMBS.+ These are not numerous, and the most important are found in
+Asia Minor. The greatest of these is the famed +Mausoleum+ at
+Halicarnassus in Caria, the monument erected to the king Mausolus by his
+widow Artemisia (354 B.C.; Fig. 41). It was designed by Satyrus and
+Pythius in the Ionic style, and comprised a podium or base 50 feet high
+and measuring 80 feet by 100 feet, in which was the sepulchre. Upon this
+base stood a cella surrounded by thirty-six Ionic columns; and crowned
+by a pyramidal roof, on the peak of which was a colossal marble quadriga
+at a height of 130 feet. It was superbly decorated by Scopas and other
+great sculptors with statues, marble lions, and a magnificent frieze.
+The British Museum possesses fragments of this most imposing monument.
+At Xanthus the +Nereid Monument+, so called from its sculptured figures
+of Nereides, was a somewhat similar design on a smaller scale, with
+sixteen Ionic columns. At Mylassa was another tomb with an open
+Corinthian colonnade supporting a roof formed in a stepped pyramid. Some
+of the later rock-cut tombs of Lycia at Myra and Antiphellus may also be
+counted as Hellenic works.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS.
+  (As restored by the author.)]
+
+
++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ This never attained great importance in Greece,
+and our knowledge of the typical Greek house is principally derived from
+literary sources. Very few remains of Greek houses have been found
+sufficiently well preserved to permit of restoring even the plan. It is
+probable that they resembled in general arrangement the houses of
+Pompeii (see p. 107); but that they were generally insignificant in size
+and decoration. The exterior walls were pierced only by the entrance
+doors, all light being derived from one or more interior courts. In the
+Macedonian epoch there must have been greater display and luxury in
+domestic architecture, but no remains have come down to us of sufficient
+importance or completeness to warrant further discussion.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ In addition to those already mentioned in the text
+  the following should be enumerated:
+
+  PREHISTORIC PERIOD. In the Islands about Santorin, remains of
+  houses antedating 1500 B.C.; at Tiryns the Acropolis, walls, and
+  miscellaneous ruins; the like also at Mycenæ, besides various
+  tombs; walls and gates at Samos, Thoricus, Menidi, Athens, etc.
+
+  ARCHAIC PERIOD. Doric Temples at Metapontium (by Durm assigned to
+  610 B.C.), Selinus, Agrigentum, Pæstum; at Athens the first
+  Parthenon; in Asia Minor the primitive Ionic Artemisium at Ephesus
+  and the Heraion at Samos, the latter the oldest of colossal Greek
+  temples.
+
+  TRANSITIONAL PERIOD. At Agrigentum, temples of Concord, Castor and
+  Pollux, Demeter, Æsculapius, all circ. 480 B.C.; temples at
+  Selinus and Segesta.
+
+  PERICLEAN PERIOD. In Athens the Ionic temple on the Illissus,
+  destroyed during the present century; on Cape Sunium the temple of
+  Athena, 430 B.C., partly standing; at Nemea, the temple of Zeus;
+  at Tegea, the temple of Athena Elea (400? B.C.); at Rhamnus, the
+  temples of Themis and of Nemesis; at Argos, two temples, stoa, and
+  other buildings; all these were Doric.
+
+  ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD. The temple of Dionysus at Teos; temple of
+  Artemis Leucophryne at Magnesia, both about 330 B.C. and of the
+  Ionic order.
+
+  DECADENCE AND ROMAN PERIOD. At Athens the Stoa of Eumenes, circ.
+  170 B.C.; the monument of Philopappus on the Museum hill, 110
+  A.D.; the Gymnasium of Hadrian, 114 to 137 A.D.; the last two of
+  the Corinthian order.
+
+  THEATRES. Besides those already mentioned there are important
+  remains of theatres at Epidaurus, Argos, Segesta, Iassus (400?
+  B.C.), Delos, Sicyon, and Thoricus; at Aizanoi, Myra, Telmissus,
+  and Patara, besides many others of less importance scattered
+  through the Hellenic world. At Taormina are extensive ruins of a
+  large Greek theatre rebuilt in the Roman period.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Anderson and Spiers, Baumeister,
+  Reber. Choisy, _L’Art de bâtir chez les Romains_. Desgodetz, _Rome
+  in her Ancient Grandeur_. Durm, _Die Baukunst der Etrusker_; _Die
+  Baukunst der Romer_. Lanciani, _Ancient Rome in the Light of
+  Modern Discovery_; _New Tales of Old Rome_; _Ruins and Excavations
+  of Ancient Rome_. De Martha, _Archéologie étrusque et romaine_.
+  Middleton, _Ancient Rome in 1888_.
+
+
++LAND AND PEOPLE.+ The geographical position of Italy conferred upon her
+special and obvious advantages for taking up and carrying northward and
+westward the arts of civilization. A scarcity of good harbors was the
+only drawback amid the blessings of a glorious climate, fertile soil,
+varied scenery, and rich material resources. From a remote antiquity
+Dorian colonists had occupied the southern portion and the island of
+Sicily, enriching them with splendid monuments of Doric art; and
+Phœnician commerce had brought thither the products of Oriental art and
+industry. The foundation of Rome in 753 B.C. established the nucleus
+about which the sundry populations of Italy were to crystallize into the
+Roman nation, under the dominating influence of the Latin element. Later
+on, the absorption of the conquered Etruscans added to this composite
+people a race of builders and engineers, as yet rude and uncouth in
+their art, but destined to become a powerful factor in developing the
+new architecture that was to spring from the contact of the practical
+Romans with the noble art of the Greek centres.
+
+
++GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.+ While the Greeks bequeathed to posterity the
+most perfect models of form in literary and plastic art, it was reserved
+for the Romans to work out the applications of these to every-day
+material life. The Romans were above all things a practical people.
+Their consummate skill as organizers is manifest in the marvellous
+administrative institutions of their government, under which they united
+the most distant and diverse nationalities. Seemingly deficient in
+culture, they were yet able to recast the forms of Greek architecture in
+new moulds, and to evolve therefrom a mighty architecture adapted to
+wholly novel conditions. They brought engineering into the service of
+architecture, which they fitted to the varied requirements of
+government, public amusement, private luxury, and the common comfort.
+They covered the antique world with arches and amphitheatres, with
+villas, baths, basilicas, and temples, all bearing the unmistakable
+impress of Rome, though wrought by artists and artisans of divers races.
+Only an extraordinary genius for organization could have accomplished
+such results.
+
+The architects of Rome marvellously extended the range of their art, and
+gave it a flexibility by which it accommodated itself to the widest
+variety of materials and conditions. They made the arch and vault the
+basis of their system of design, employing them on a scale previously
+undreamed of, and in combinations of surpassing richness and majesty.
+They systematized their methods of construction so that soldiers and
+barbarians could execute the rough mass of their buildings, and
+formulated the designing of the decorative details so that artisans of
+moderate skill could execute them with good effect. They carried the
+principle of repetition of motives to its utmost limit, and sought to
+counteract any resulting monotony by the scale and splendor of the
+design. Above all they developed planning into a fine art, displaying
+their genius in a wonderful variety of combinations and in an unfailing
+sense of the demands of constructive propriety, practical convenience,
+and artistic effect. Where Egyptian or Greek architecture shows one type
+of plan, the Roman shows a score.
+
+
++GREEK INFLUENCE.+ Previous to the closing years of the Republic the
+Romans had no art but the Etruscan. The few buildings of importance they
+possessed were of Etruscan design and workmanship, excepting a small
+number built by Greek hands. It was not until the Empire that Roman
+architecture took on a truly national form. True Roman architecture is
+essentially imperial. The change from the primitive Etruscan style to
+the splendors of the imperial age was due to the conquest of the Greek
+states. Not only did the Greek campaigns enrich Rome with an
+unprecedented wealth of artistic spoils; they also brought into Italy
+hosts of Greek artists, and filled the minds of the campaigners with the
+ambition to realize in their own dominions the marble colonnades, the
+temples, theatres, and propylæa of the Greek cities they had pillaged.
+The Greek orders were adopted, altered, and applied to arcaded designs
+as well as to peristyles and other open colonnades. The marriage of the
+column and arch gave birth to a system of forms as characteristic of
+Roman architecture as the Doric or Ionic colonnade is of the Greek.
+
+
++THE ROMAN ORDERS.+ To meet the demands of Roman taste the Etruscan
+column was retained with its simple entablature; the Doric and Ionic
+were adopted in a modified form; the Corinthian was developed into a
+complete and independent order, and the Composite was added to the list.
+A regular system of proportions for all these five orders was gradually
+evolved, and the mouldings were profiled with arcs of circles instead of
+the subtler Greek curves. In the building of many-storied structures the
+orders were superposed, the more slender over the sturdier, in an
+orderly and graded succession. The immense extent and number of the
+Roman buildings, the coarse materials often used, the relative scarcity
+of highly trained artisans, and above all, the necessity of making a
+given amount of artistic design serve for the largest possible amount of
+architecture, combined to direct the designing of detail into uniform
+channels. Thus in time was established a sort of canon of proportions,
+which was reduced to rules by Vitruvius, and revived in much more
+detailed and precise form by Vignola in the sixteenth century.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.--ROMAN DORIC ORDER.
+  (THEATRE OF MARCELLUS).]
+
+In each of the orders, including the Doric, the column was given a base
+one half of a diameter in height (the unit of measurement being the
+diameter of the lower part of the shaft, the _crassitudo_ of Vitruvius).
+The shaft was made to contract about one-sixth in diameter toward the
+capital, under which it was terminated by an _astragal_ or collar of
+small mouldings; at the base it ended in a slight flare and fillet
+called the _cincture_. The entablature was in all cases given not far
+from one quarter the height of the whole column. The +Tuscan+ order was
+a rudimentary or Etruscan Doric with a column seven diameters high and a
+simple entablature without triglyphs, mutules, or dentils. But few
+examples of its use are known. The +Doric+ (Fig. 42) retained the
+triglyphs and metopes, the mutules and guttæ of the Greek; but the
+column was made eight diameters high, the shaft was smooth or had deep
+flutings separated by narrow fillets, and was usually provided with a
+simple moulded base on a square plinth. Mutules were used only over the
+triglyphs, and were even replaced in some cases by dentils; the corona
+was made lighter than the Greek, and a cymatium replaced the antefixæ on
+the lateral cornices. The Ionic underwent fewer changes, and these
+principally in the smaller mouldings and details of the capital. The
+column was nine diameters high (Fig. 43). The +Corinthian+ was made into
+an independent order by the designing of a special base of small _tori_
+and _scotiæ_, and by sumptuously carved _modillions_ or brackets
+enriching the cornice and supporting the corona above a denticulated
+bed-mould (Fig. 44). Though the first designers of the modillion were
+probably Greeks, it must, nevertheless, be taken as really a Roman
+device, worthily completing the essentially Roman Corinthian order. The
++Composite+ was formed by combining into one capital portions of the
+Ionic and Corinthian, and giving to it a simplified form of the
+Corinthian cornice. The Corinthian order remained, however, the favorite
+order of Roman architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.--ROMAN IONIC ORDER.]
+
+
++USE OF THE ORDERS.+ The Romans introduced many innovations in the
+general use and treatment of the orders. Monolithic shafts were
+preferred to those built up of superposed drums. The fluting was omitted
+on these, and when hard and semi-precious stone like porphyry or
+verd-antique was the material, it was highly polished to bring out its
+color. These polished monoliths were often of great size, and they were
+used in almost incredible numbers.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 44.--CORINTHIAN ORDER
+  (TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX).]
+
+Another radical departure from Greek usage was the mounting of columns
+on pedestals to secure greater height without increasing the size of the
+column and its entablature. The Greek _anta_ was developed into the
+Roman pilaster or flattened wall-column, and every free column, or range
+of columns perpendicular to the façade, had its corresponding pilaster
+to support the wall-end of the architrave. But the most radical
+innovation was the general use of engaged columns as wall-decorations or
+buttresses. The engaged column projected from the wall by more than half
+its diameter, and was built up with the wall as a part of its substance
+(Fig. 45). The entablature was in many cases advanced only over the
+columns, between which it was set back almost to the plane of the wall.
+This practice is open to the obvious criticism that it makes the column
+appear superfluous by depriving it of its function of supporting the
+continuous entablature. The objection has less weight when the
+projecting entablature over the column serves as a pedestal for a statue
+or similar object, which restores to the column its function as a
+support (see the Arch of Constantine, Fig. 63).
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 45.--ROMAN ARCADE WITH ENGAGED COLUMNS
+  (From the Colosseum.)]
+
++ARCADES.+ The orders, though probably at first used only as free
+supports in porticos and colonnades, were early applied as decorations
+to arcaded structures. This practice became general with the
+multiplication of many-storied arcades like those of the amphitheatres,
+the engaged columns being set between the arches as buttresses,
+supporting entablatures which marked the divisions into stories (Fig.
+45). This combination has been assailed as a false and illogical device,
+but the criticism proceeds from a too narrow conception of architectural
+propriety. It is defensible upon both artistic and logical grounds; for
+it not only furnishes a most desirable play of light and shade and a
+pleasing contrast of rectangular and curved lines, but by emphasizing
+the constructive divisions and elements of the building and the vertical
+support of the piers, it also contributes to the expressiveness and
+vigor of the design.
+
+
++VAULTING.+ The Romans substituted vaulting in brick, concrete, or
+masonry for wooden ceilings wherever possible, both in public and
+private edifices. The Etruscans were the first vault-builders, and the
+Cloaca Maxima, the great sewer of Republican Rome (about 500 B.C.) still
+remains as a monument of their engineering skill. Probably not only
+Etruscan engineers (whose traditions were perhaps derived from Asiatic
+sources in the remote past), but Asiatic builders also from conquered
+eastern provinces, were engaged together in the development of the
+wonderful system of vaulted construction to which Roman architecture so
+largely owed its grandeur. Three types of vault were commonly used: the
+barrel-vault, the groined or four-part vault, and the dome.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 46.--BARREL VAULT.]
+
+The barrel vault (Fig. 46) was generally semi-cylindrical in section,
+and was used to cover corridors and oblong halls, like the
+temple-cellas, or was bent around a curve, as in amphitheatre passages.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 47.--GROINED VAULT.
+  _g, g_, _Groins._]
+
+The groined vault is formed by the intersection of two barrel-vaults
+(Fig. 47). When several compartments of groined vaulting are placed
+together over an oblong plan, a double advantage is secured. Lateral
+windows can be carried up to the full height of the vaulting instead of
+being stopped below its springing; and the weight and thrust of the
+vaulting are concentrated upon a number of isolated points instead of
+being exerted along the whole extent of the side walls, as with the
+barrel-vault. The Romans saw that it was sufficient to dispose the
+masonry at these points in masses at right angles to the length of the
+hall, to best resist the lateral thrust of the vault. This appears
+clearly in the plan of the Basilica of Constantine (Fig. 58).
+
+The dome was in almost all Roman examples supported on a circular wall
+built up from the ground, as in the Pantheon (Fig. 54). The pendentive
+dome, sustained by four or eight arches over a square or octagonal plan,
+is not found in true Roman buildings.
+
+The Romans made of the vault something more than a mere constructive
+device. It became in their hands an element of interior effect at least
+equally important with the arch and column. No style of architecture has
+ever evolved nobler forms of ceiling than the groined vault and the
+dome. Moreover, the use of vaulting made possible effects of
+unencumbered spaciousness and amplitude which could never be compassed
+by any combination of piers and columns. It also assured to the Roman
+monuments a duration and a freedom from danger of destruction by fire
+impossible with any wooden-roofed architecture, however noble its form
+or careful its execution.
+
+
++CONSTRUCTION.+ The constructive methods of the Romans varied with the
+conditions and resources of different provinces, but were everywhere
+dominated by the same practical spirit. Their vaulted architecture
+demanded for the support of its enormous weights and for resistance to
+its disruptive thrusts, piers and buttresses of great mass. To construct
+these wholly of cut stone appeared preposterous and wasteful to the
+Roman. Italy abounds in clay, lime, and a volcanic product, _pozzolana_
+(from Puteoli or Pozzuoli, where it has always been obtained in large
+quantities), which makes an admirable hydraulic cement. With these
+materials it was possible to employ unskilled labor for the great bulk
+of this massive masonry, and to erect with the greatest rapidity and in
+the most economical manner those stupendous piles which, even in their
+ruin, excite the admiration of every beholder.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 48.--ROMAN WALL MASONRY.
+  a, _Brickwork_; b, _Tufa ashlar_; r, _Opus reticulatum_;
+  i, _Opus incertum_.]
+
++STONE, CONCRETE, AND BRICK MASONRY.+ For buildings of an externally
+decorative character such as temples, arches of triumph, and
+amphitheatres, as well as in all places where brick and concrete were
+not easily obtained, stone was employed. The walls were built by laying
+up the inner and outer faces in _ashlar_ or cut stone, and filling in
+the intermediate space with rubble (random masonry of uncut stone) laid
+up in cement, or with concrete of broken stone and cement dumped into
+the space in successive layers. The cement converted the whole into a
+conglomerate closely united with the face-masonry. In Syria and Egypt
+the local preference for stones of enormous size was gratified, and even
+surpassed, as in Herod’s terrace-walls for the temple at Jerusalem
+(p. 41), and in the splendid structures of Palmyra and Baalbec. In
+Italy, however, stones of moderate size were preferred, and when blocks
+of unusual dimensions occur, they are in many cases marked with false
+joints, dividing them into apparently smaller blocks, lest they should
+dwarf the building by their large scale. The general use in the Augustan
+period of marble for a decorative lining or wainscot in interiors led in
+time to the objectionable practice of coating buildings of concrete with
+an apparel of sham marble masonry, by carving false joints upon an
+external veneer of thin slabs of that material. Ordinary concrete walls
+were frequently faced with small blocks of tufa, called, according to
+the manner of its application, _opus reticulatum_, _opus incertum_,
+_opus spicatum_, etc. (Fig. 48). In most cases, however, the facing was
+of carefully executed brickwork, covered sometimes by a coating of
+stucco. The bricks were large, measuring from one to two feet square
+where used for quoins or arches, but triangular where they served only
+as facings. Bricks were also used in the construction of skeleton ribs
+for concrete vaults of large span.
+
+
++VAULTING.+ Here, as in the wall-masonry, economy and common sense
+devised methods extremely simple for accomplishing vast designs. While
+the smaller vaults were, so to speak, cast in concrete upon moulds made
+of rough boards, the enormous weight of the larger vaults precluded
+their being supported, while drying or “setting,” upon timber centrings
+built up from the ground. Accordingly, a skeleton of light ribs was
+first built on wooden centrings, and these ribs, when firmly “set,”
+became themselves supports for intermediate centrings on which to cast
+the concrete fillings between the ribs. The whole vault, once hardened,
+formed really a monolithic curved lintel, exerting no thrust whatever,
+so that the extraordinary precautions against lateral disruption
+practised by the Romans were, in fact, in many cases quite superfluous.
+
+
++DECORATION.+ The temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum (long
+miscalled the temple of Jupiter Stator), is a typical example of Roman
+architectural decoration, in which richness was preferred to the subtler
+refinements of design (see Fig. 44). The splendid figure-sculpture which
+adorned the Greek monuments would have been inappropriate on the
+theatres and thermæ of Rome or the provinces, even had there been the
+taste or the skill to produce it. Conventional carved ornament was
+substituted in its place, and developed into a splendid system of highly
+decorative forms. Two principal elements appear in this decoration--the
+acanthus-leaf, as the basis of a whole series of wonderfully varied
+motives; and symbolism, represented principally by what are technically
+termed _grotesques_--incongruous combinations of natural forms, as when
+an infant’s body terminates in a bunch of foliage (Fig. 49). Only to a
+limited extent do we find true sculpture employed as decoration, and
+that mainly for triumphal arches or memorial columns.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 49--ROMAN CARVED ORNAMENT.
+  (Lateran Museum.)]
+
+The architectural mouldings were nearly always carved, the Greek
+water-leaf and egg-and-dart forming the basis of most of the
+enrichments; but these were greatly elaborated and treated with more
+minute detail than the Greek prototypes. Friezes and bands were commonly
+ornamented with the foliated scroll or _rinceau_ (a convenient French
+term for which we have no equivalent). This motive was as characteristic
+of Roman art as the anthemion was of the Greek. It consists of a
+continuous stem throwing out alternately on either side branches which
+curl into spirals and are richly adorned with rosettes, acanthus-leaves,
+scrolls, tendrils, and blossoms. In the best examples the detail was
+modelled with great care and minuteness, and the motive itself was
+treated with extraordinary variety and fertility of invention. A derived
+and enriched form of the anthemion was sometimes used for bands and
+friezes; and grotesques, dolphins, griffins, infant genii, wreaths,
+festoons, ribbons, eagles, and masks are also common features in Roman
+relief carving.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50.--ROMAN CEILING PANELS.
+  (a, From Palmyra; b, Basilica of Constantine.)]
+
+The Romans made great use of panelling and of moulded plaster in their
+interior decoration, especially for ceilings. The panelling of domes and
+vaults was usually roughly shaped in their first construction and
+finished afterward in stucco with rich moulding and rosettes. The panels
+were not always square or rectangular, as in Greek ceilings, but of
+various geometric forms in pleasing combinations (Fig. 50). In works of
+a small scale the panels and decorations were wrought in relief in a
+heavy coating of plaster applied to the finished structure, and these
+stucco reliefs are among the most refined and charming products of Roman
+art. (Baths of Titus; Baths at Pompeii; Palace of the Cæsars and tombs
+at Rome.)
+
+
++COLOR DECORATION.+ Plaster was also used as a ground for painting,
+executed in distemper or by the encaustic process, wax liquefied by a
+hot iron being the medium for applying the color in the latter case.
+Pompeii and Herculaneum furnish countless examples of brilliant
+wall-painting in which strong primary colors form the ground, and a
+semi-naturalistic, semi-fantastic representation of figures,
+architecture and landscape is mingled with festoons, vines, and purely
+conventional ornament. Mosaic was also employed to decorate floors and
+wall-spaces, and sometimes for ceilings.[13] The later imperial baths
+and palaces were especially rich in mosaic of the kind called opus
+Grecanicum, executed with numberless minute cubes of stone or glass, as
+in the Baths of Caracalla and the Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli.
+
+    [Footnote 13: See Van Dyke’s _History of Paintings_, p. 33.]
+
+To the walls of monumental interiors, such as temples, basilicas, and
+thermæ, splendor of color was given by veneering them with thin slabs of
+rare and richly colored marble. No limit seems to have been placed upon
+the costliness or amount of these precious materials. Byzantine
+architecture borrowed from this practice its system of interior color
+decoration.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ROMAN ARCHITECTURE--_Continued_.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter VIII. Also, Guhl and
+  Kohner, _Life of the Ancient Greeks and Romans_. Adams, _Ruins of
+  the Palace of Spalato_. Burn, _Rome and the Campagna_. Cameron,
+  _Roman Baths_. Mau, tr. by Kelcey, _Pompeii, its Life and Art_.
+  Mazois, _Ruines de Pompeii_. Von Presuhn, _Die neueste
+  Ausgrabungen zu Pompeii_. Wood, _Ruins of Palmyra and Baalbec_.
+
+
++THE ETRUSCAN STYLE.+ Although the first Greek architects were employed
+in Rome as early as 493 B.C., the architecture of the Republic was
+practically Etruscan until nearly 100 B.C. Its monuments, consisting
+mainly of city walls, tombs, and temples, are all marked by a general
+uncouthness of detail, denoting a lack of artistic refinement, but they
+display considerable constructive skill. In the Etruscan walls we meet
+with both polygonal and regularly coursed masonry; in both kinds the
+true arch appears as the almost universal form for gates and openings.
+A famous example is the Augustan Gate at Perugia, a late work rebuilt
+about 40 B.C., but thoroughly Etruscan in style. At Volaterræ (Volterra)
+is another arched gate, and in Perugia fragments of still another appear
+built into the modern walls.
+
+The Etruscans built both structural and excavated tombs; they consisted
+in general of a single chamber with a slightly arched or gabled roof,
+supported in the larger tombs on heavy square piers. The interiors were
+covered with pictures; externally there was little ornament except about
+the gable and doorway. The latter had a stepped or moulded frame with
+curious _crossettes_ or ears projecting laterally at the top. The gable
+recalled the wooden roofs of Etruscan temples, but was coarse in detail,
+especially in its mouldings. Sepulchral monuments of other types are
+also met with, such as _cippi_ or memorial pillars, sometimes in groups
+of five on a single pedestal (tomb at Albano).
+
+Among the temples of Etruscan style that of +Jupiter Capitolinus+ on the
+Capitol at Rome, destroyed by fire in 80 B.C., was the chief. Three
+narrow chambers side by side formed a cella nearly square in plan,
+preceded by a hexastyle porch of huge Doric, or rather Tuscan, columns
+arranged in three aisles, widely spaced and carrying ponderous wooden
+architraves. The roof was of wood; the cymatium and ornaments, as well
+as the statues in the pediment, were of terra-cotta, painted and gilded.
+The details in general showed acquaintance with Greek models, which
+appeared in debased and awkward imitations of triglyphs, cornices,
+antefixæ, etc.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 51.--TEMPLE FORTUNA VIRILIS. PLAN.]
+
++GREEK STYLE.+ The victories of Marcellus at Syracuse, 212 B.C., Fabius
+Maximus at Tarentum (209 B.C.), Flaminius (196 B.C.), Mummius (146
+B.C.), Sulla (86 B.C.), and others in the various Greek provinces,
+steadily increased the vogue of Greek architecture and the number of
+Greek artists in Rome. The temples of the last two centuries B.C., and
+some of earlier date, though still Etruscan in plan, were in many cases
+strongly Greek in the character of their details. A few have remained to
+our time in tolerable preservation. The temple of +Fortuna Virilis+
+(really of Fors Fortuna), of the second century (?) B.C., is a
+tetrastyle prostyle pseudoperipteral temple with a high _podium_ or
+base, a typical Etruscan cella, and a deep porch, now walled up, but
+thoroughly Greek in the elegant details of its Ionic order (Fig. 51).
+Two circular temples, both called erroneously +Temples of Vesta+, one at
+Rome near the Cloaca Maxima, the other at Tivoli, belong among the
+monuments of Greek style. The first was probably dedicated to Hercules,
+the second probably to the Sibyls; the latter being much the better
+preserved of the two. Both were surrounded by peristyles of eighteen
+Corinthian columns, and probably covered by domical roofs with gilded
+bronze tiles. The Corinthian order appears here complete with its
+modillion cornice, but the crispness of the detail and the fineness of
+the execution are Greek and not Roman. These temples date from about 72
+B.C., though the one at Rome was probably rebuilt in the first century
+A.D. (Fig. 52).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 52.--CIRCULAR TEMPLE. TIVOLI.]
+
+
++IMPERIAL ARCHITECTURE; AUGUSTAN AGE.+ Even in the temples of Greek
+style Roman conceptions of plan and composition are dominant. The Greek
+architect was not free to reproduce textually Greek designs or details,
+however strongly he might impress with the Greek character whatever he
+touched. The demands of imperial splendor and the building of great
+edifices of varied form and complex structure, like the thermæ and
+amphitheatres, called for new adaptations and combinations of planning
+and engineering. The reign of Augustus (27 B.C.-14 A.D.) inaugurated the
+imperial epoch, but many works erected before and after his reign
+properly belong to the Augustan age by right of style. In general, we
+find in the works of this period the happiest combination of Greek
+refinement with Roman splendor. It was in this period that Rome first
+assumed the aspect of an opulent and splendid metropolis, though the way
+had been prepared for this by the regularization and adornment of the
+Roman Forum and the erection of many temples, basilicas, fora, arches,
+and theatres during the generation preceding the accession of Augustus.
+His reign saw the inception or completion of the portico of Octavia, the
+Augustan forum, the Septa Julia, the first Pantheon, the adjoining
+Thermæ of Agrippa, the theatre of Marcellus, the first of the imperial
+palaces on the Palatine, and a long list of temples, including those of
+the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), of Mars Ultor, of Jupiter Tonans on
+the Capitol, and others in the provinces; besides colonnades, statues,
+arches, and other embellishments almost without number.
+
+
++LATER IMPERIAL WORKS.+ With the successors of Augustus splendor
+increased to almost fabulous limits, as, for instance, in the vast
+extent and the prodigality of ivory and gold in the famous Golden House
+of Nero. After the great fire in Rome, presumably kindled by the agents
+of this emperor, a more regular and monumental system of street-planning
+and building was introduced, and the first municipal building-law was
+decreed by him. To the reign of Vespasian (68-79 A.D.) we owe the
+rebuilding in Roman style and with the Corinthian order of the temple of
+Jupiter Capitolinus, the Baths of Titus, and the beginning of the
+Flavian amphitheatre or Colosseum. The two last-named edifices both
+stood on the site of Nero’s Golden House, of which the greater part was
+demolished to make way for them. During the last years of the first
+century the arch of Titus was erected, the Colosseum finished,
+amphitheatres built at Verona, Pola, Reggio, Tusculum, Nîmes (France),
+Constantine (Algiers), Pompeii and Herculanum (these last two cities and
+Stabiæ rebuilt after the earthquake of 63 A.D.), and arches, bridges,
+and temples erected all over the Roman world.
+
+The first part of the second century was distinguished by the splendid
+architectural achievements of the reign of Hadrian (117-138 A.D.) in
+Rome and the provinces, especially Athens. Nearly all his works were
+marked by great dignity of conception as well as beauty of detail.
+During the latter part of the century a very interesting series of
+buildings were erected in the Hauran (Syria), in which Greek and Arab
+workmen under Roman direction produced examples of vigorous stone
+architecture of a mingled Roman and Syrian character.
+
+The most-remarkable thermæ of Rome belong to the third century--those of
+Caracalla (211-217 A.D.) and of Diocletian (284-305 A.D.)--their ruins
+to-day ranking among the most imposing remains of antiquity. In Syria
+the temples of the Sun at Baalbec and Palmyra (273 A.D., under
+Aurelian), and the great palace of Diocletian at Spalato, in Dalmatia
+(300 A.D.), are still the wonder of the few travellers who reach those
+distant spots.
+
+While during the third and fourth centuries there was a marked decline
+in purity and refinement of detail, many of the later works of the
+period display a remarkable freedom and originality in conception. But
+these works are really not Roman, they are foreign, that is, provincial
+products; and the transfer of the capital to Byzantium revealed the
+increasing degree in which Rome was coming to look to the East for her
+strength and her art.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53.--TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME. PLAN.]
+
++TEMPLES.+ The Romans built both rectangular and circular temples, and
+there was much variety in their treatment. In the rectangular temples a
+high _podium_, or basement, was substituted for the Greek stepped
+stylobate, and the prostyle plan was more common than the peripteral.
+The cella was relatively short and wide, the front porch inordinately
+deep, and frequently divided by longitudinal rows of columns into three
+aisles. In most cases the exterior of the cella in prostyle temples was
+decorated by engaged columns. A barrel vault gave the interior an aspect
+of spaciousness impossible with the Greek system of a wooden ceiling
+supported on double ranges of columns. In the place of these, free or
+engaged columns along the side-walls received the ribs of the vaulting.
+Between these ribs the ceiling was richly panelled, or coffered and
+sumptuously gilded. The temples of +Fortuna Virilis+ and of +Faustina+
+at Rome (the latter built 141 A.D., and its ruins incorporated into the
+modern church of S. Lorenzo in Miranda), and the beautiful and admirably
+preserved +Maison Carrée+, at Nîmes (France) (4 A.D.) are examples of
+this type. The temple of +Concord+, of which only the podium remains,
+and the small temple of Julius (both of these in the Forum) illustrate
+another form of prostyle temple in which the porch was on a long side of
+the cella. Some of the larger temples were peripteral. The temple of the
++Dioscuri+ (Castor and Pollux) in the Forum, was one of the most
+magnificent of these, certainly the richest in detail (Fig. 44). Very
+remarkable was the double temple of +Venus and Rome+, east of the Forum,
+designed by the Emperor Hadrian about 130 A.D. (Fig. 53). It was a vast
+pseudodipteral edifice containing two cellas in one structure, their
+statue-niches or apses meeting back to back in the centre. The temple
+stood in the midst of an imposing columnar peribolus entered by
+magnificent gateways. Other important temples have already been
+mentioned on p. 91.
+
+Besides the two circular temples already described, the temple of Vesta,
+adjoining the House of the Vestals, at the east end of the Forum should
+be mentioned. At Baalbec is a circular temple whose entablature curves
+inward between the widely-spaced columns until it touches the cella in
+the middle of each intercolumniation. It illustrates the caprices of
+design which sometimes resulted from the disregard of tradition and the
+striving after originality (273 A.D.).
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 54.--PLAN OF THE PANTHEON.]
+
++THE PANTHEON.+ The noblest of all circular temples of Rome and of the
+world was the +Pantheon+. It was built by Hadrian, 117-138 A.D., on the
+site of the earlier rectangular temple of the same name erected by
+Agrippa. It measures 142 feet in diameter internally; the wall is 20
+feet thick and supports a hemispherical dome rising to a height of 140
+feet (Figs. 54, 55). Light is admitted solely through a round opening 28
+feet in diameter at the top of the dome, the simplest and most
+impressive method of illumination conceivable. The rain and snow that
+enter produce no appreciable effect upon the temperature of the vast
+hall. There is a single entrance, with noble bronze doors, admitting
+directly to the interior, around which seven niches, alternately
+rectangular and semicircular in plan and fronted by Corinthian columns,
+lighten, without weakening, the mass of the encircling wall. This wall
+was originally incrusted with rich marbles, and the great dome, adorned
+with deep coffering in rectangular panels, was decorated with rosettes
+and mouldings in gilt stucco. The dome appears to have been composed of
+numerous arches and ribs, filled in and finally coated with concrete.
+A recent examination of a denuded portion of its inner surface has
+convinced the writer that the interior panelling was executed after, and
+not during, its construction, by hewing the panels out of the mass of
+brick and concrete, without regard to the form and position of the
+origin skeleton of ribs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 55.--INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--EXTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON.
+  (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)]
+
+The exterior (Fig. 56) was less successful than the interior. The gabled
+porch of twelve superb granite columns 50 feet high, three-aisled in
+plan after the Etruscan mode, and covered originally by a ceiling of
+bronze, was a rebuilding with the materials and on the plan of the
+original pronaos of the Pantheon of Agrippa. The circular wall behind it
+is faced with fine brickwork, and displays, like the dome, many curious
+arrangements of discharging arches, reminiscences of traditional
+constructive precautions here wholly useless and fictitious because only
+skin-deep. A revetment of marble below and plaster above once concealed
+this brick facing. The portico, in spite of its too steep gable (once
+filled with a “gigantomachia” in gilt bronze) and its somewhat awkward
+association with a round building, is nevertheless a noble work, its
+capitals in Pentelic marble ranking among the finest known examples of
+the Roman Corinthian. Taken as a whole, the Pantheon is one of the great
+masterpieces of the world’s architecture.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 57.--FORUM AND BASILICA OF TRAJAN.]
+
++FORA AND BASILICAS.+ The fora were the places for general public
+assemblage. The chief of those in Rome, the +Forum Magnum+, or +Forum
+Romanum+, was at first merely an irregular vacant space, about and in
+which, as the focus of the civic life, temples, halls, colonnades, and
+statues gradually accumulated. These chance aggregations the systematic
+Roman mind reduced in time to orderly and monumental form; successive
+emperors extended them and added new fora at enormous cost and with
+great splendor of architecture. Those of Julius, Augustus, Vespasian,
+and Nerva (or Domitian), adjoining the Roman Forum, were magnificent
+enclosures surrounded by high walls and single or double colonnades.
+Each contained a temple or basilica, besides gateways, memorial columns
+or arches, and countless statues. The +Forum of Trajan+ surpassed all
+the rest; it covered an area of thirty-five thousand square yards, and
+included, besides the main area, entered through a triumphal arch, the
+Basilica Ulpia, the temple of Trajan, and his colossal Doric column of
+Victory. Both in size and beauty it ranked as the chief architectural
+glory of the city (Fig. 57). The six fora together contained thirteen
+temples, three basilicas, eight triumphal arches, a mile of porticos,
+and a number of other public edifices.[14] Besides these, a net-work of
+colonnades covered large tracts of the city, affording sheltered
+communication in every direction, and here and there expanding into
+squares or gardens surrounded by peristyles.
+
+    [Footnote 14: Lanciani: _Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent
+    Discoveries_, p. 89.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 58.--BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE. PLAN.]
+
+The public business of Rome, both judicial and commercial, was largely
+transacted in the _basilicas_, large buildings consisting usually of a
+wide and lofty central nave flanked by lower side-aisles, and
+terminating at one or both ends in an apse or semicircular recess called
+the _tribune_, in which were the seats for the magistrates. The
+side-aisles were separated from the nave by columns supporting a
+clearstory wall, pierced by windows above the roofs of the side-aisles.
+In some cases the latter were two stories high, with galleries; in
+others the central space was open to the sky, as at Pompeii, suggesting
+the derivation of the basilica from the open square surrounded by
+colonnades, or from the forum itself, with which we find it usually
+associated. The most important basilicas in Rome were the +Sempronian+,
+the +Æmilian+ (about 54 B.C.), the +Julian+ in the Forum Magnum (51
+B.C.), and the +Ulpian+ in the Forum of Trajan (113 A.D.). The last two
+were probably open basilicas, only the side-aisles being roofed. The
+Ulpian (Fig. 57) was the most magnificent of all, and in conjunction
+with the Forum of Trajan formed one of the most imposing of those
+monumental aggregations of columnar architecture which contributed so
+largely to the splendor of the Roman capital.
+
+These monuments frequently suffered from the burning of their wooden
+roofs. It was Constantine who completed the first vaulted and fireproof
+basilica, begun by his predecessor and rival, Maxentius, on the site of
+the former Temple of Peace (Figs. 58, 59). Its design reproduced on a
+grand scale the plan of the tepidarium-halls of the thermæ, the
+side-recesses of which were converted into a continuous side-aisle by
+piercing arches through the buttress-walls that separated them. Above
+the imposing vaults of these recesses and under the cross-vaults of the
+nave were windows admitting abundant light. A _narthex_, or porch,
+preceded the hall at one end; there were also a side entrance from the
+Via Sacra, and an apse or tribune for the magistrates opposite each of
+these entrances. The dimensions of the main hall (325 × 85 feet), the
+height of its vault (117 feet), and the splendor of its columns and
+incrustations excited universal admiration, and exercised a powerful
+influence on later architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 59.--BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE. RUINS.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 60.--THERMÆ OF CARACALLA.
+  PLAN OF CENTRAL BLOCK.
+  A, _Caldarium, or Hot Bath_; B, _Intermediate Chamber_;
+  C, _Tepidarium, or Warm Bath_; D, _Frigidarium, or Cold Bath_;
+  E, _Peristyles_; a, _Gymnastic Rooms_; b, _Dressing Rooms_;
+  c, _Cooling Rooms_; d, _Small Courts_; e, _Entrances_;
+  v, _Vestibules_.]
+
++THERMÆ.+ The leisure of the Roman people was largely spent in the great
+baths, or _thermæ_, which took the place substantially of the modern
+club. The establishments erected by the emperors for this purpose were
+vast and complex congeries of large and small halls, courts, and
+chambers, combined with a masterly comprehension of artistic propriety
+and effect in the sequence of oblong, square, oval, and circular
+apartments, and in the relation of the greater to the lesser masses.
+They were a combination of the Greek _palæstra_ with the Roman _balnea_,
+and united in one harmonious design great public swimming-baths, private
+baths for individuals and families, places for gymnastic exercises and
+games, courts, peristyles, gardens, halls for literary entertainments,
+lounging-rooms, and all the complex accommodation required for the
+service of the whole establishment. They were built with apparent
+disregard of cost, and adorned with splendid extravagance. The earliest
+were the +Baths of Agrippa+ (27 B.C.) behind the Pantheon; next may be
+mentioned those of +Titus+, built on the substructions of Nero’s Golden
+House. The remains of the +Thermæ of Caracalla+ (211 A.D.) form the most
+extensive mass of ruins in Rome, and clearly display the admirable
+planning of this and similar establishments. A gigantic block of
+buildings containing the three great halls for cold, warm, and hot
+baths, stood in the centre of a vast enclosure surrounded by private
+baths, _exedræ_, and halls for lecture-audiences and other gatherings.
+The enclosure was adorned with statues, flower-gardens, and places for
+out-door games. The +Baths of Diocletian+ (302 A.D.) embodied this
+arrangement on a still more extensive scale; they could accommodate
+3,500 bathers at once, and their ruins cover a broad territory near the
+railway terminus of the modern city. The church of S. Maria degli Angeli
+was formed by Michael Angelo out of the _tepidarium_ of these
+baths--a colossal hall 340 × 87 feet, and 90 feet high. The original
+vaulting and columns are still intact, and the whole interior most
+imposing, in spite of later stucco disfigurements. The circular
+_laconicum_ (sweat-room) serves as the porch to the present church. It
+was in the building of these great halls that Roman architecture reached
+its most original and characteristic expression. Wholly unrelated to any
+foreign model, they represent distinctively Roman ideals, both as to
+plan and construction.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 61.--ROMAN THEATRE. (HERCULANUM.)
+  (From model.)]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 62.--COLOSSEUM. HALF PLAN.]
+
++PLACES OF AMUSEMENT.+ The earliest Roman theatres differed from the
+Greek in having a nearly semicircular plan, and in being built up from
+the level ground, not excavated in a hillside (Fig. 61). The first
+theatre was of wood, built by Mummius 145 B.C., and it was not until
+ninety years later that stone was first substituted for the more
+perishable material, in the theatre of Pompey. The +Theatre of
+Marcellus+ (23-13 B.C.) is in part still extant, and later theatres in
+Pompeii, Orange (France), and in the Asiatic provinces are in excellent
+preservation. The orchestra was not, as in the Greek theatre, reserved
+for the choral dance, but was given up to spectators of rank; the stage
+was adorned with a permanent architectural background of columns and
+arches, and sometimes roofed with wood, and an arcade or colonnade
+surrounded the upper tier of seats. The amphitheatre was a still more
+distinctively Roman edifice. It was elliptical in plan, surrounding an
+elliptical arena, and built up with continuous encircling tiers of
+seats. The earliest stone amphitheatre was erected by Statilius Taurus
+in the time of Augustus. It was practically identical in design with the
+later and much larger Flavian amphitheatre, commonly known as the
++Colosseum+, begun by Vespasian and completed 82 A.D. (Fig. 62). This
+immense structure measured 607 × 506 feet in plan and was 180 feet high;
+it could accommodate eighty-seven thousand spectators. Engaged columns
+of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders decorated three stories of
+the exterior; the fourth was a nearly unbroken wall with slender
+Corinthian pilasters. Solidly constructed of travertine, concrete, and
+tufa, the Colosseum, with its imposing but monotonous exterior, almost
+sublime by its scale and seemingly endless repetition, but lacking in
+refinement or originality of detail and dedicated to bloody and cruel
+sports, was a characteristic product of the Roman character and
+civilization. At Verona, Pola, Capua, and many cities in the foreign
+provinces there are well-preserved remains of similar structures.
+
+Closely related to the amphitheatre were the circus and the stadium. The
++Circus Maximus+ between the Palatine and Aventine hills was the oldest
+of those in Rome. That erected by Caligula and Nero on the site
+afterward partly occupied by St. Peter’s, was more splendid, and is said
+to have been capable of accommodating over three hundred thousand
+spectators after its enlargement in the fourth century. The long, narrow
+race-course was divided into two nearly equal parts by a low parapet,
+the _spina_, on which were the goals (_metæ_) and many small decorative
+structures and columns. One end of the circus, as of the stadium also,
+was semicircular; the other was segmental in the circus, square in the
+stadium; a colonnade or arcade ran along the top of the building, and
+the entrances and exits were adorned with monumental arches.
+
+
++TRIUMPHAL ARCHES AND COLUMNS.+ Rome and the provincial cities abounded
+in monuments commemorative of victory, usually single or triple arches
+with engaged columns and rich sculptural adornments, or single colossal
+columns supporting statues. The arches were characteristic products of
+Roman design, and some of them deserve high praise for the excellence of
+their proportions and the elegance of their details. There were in Rome
+in the second century A.D., thirty-eight of these monuments. The +Arch
+of Titus+ (71-82 A.D.) is the simplest and most perfect of those still
+extant in Rome; the arch of +Septimius Severus+ in the Forum (203 A.D.)
+and that of +Constantine+ (330 A.D.) near the Colosseum, are more
+sumptuous but less pure in detail. The last-named was in part enriched
+with sculptures taken from the earlier arch of Trajan. The statues of
+Dacian captives on the attic (_attic_ = a species of subordinate story
+added above the main cornice) of this arch were a fortunate addition,
+furnishing a _raison-d’être_ for the columns and broken entablatures on
+which they rest. Memorial columns of colossal size were erected by
+several emperors, both in Rome and abroad. Those of +Trajan+ and of
++Marcus Aurelius+ are still standing in Rome in perfect preservation.
+The first was 140 feet high including the pedestal and the statue which
+surmounted it; its capital marked the height of the ridge levelled by
+the emperor for the forum on which the column stands. Its most striking
+peculiarity is the spiral band of reliefs winding around the shaft from
+bottom to top and representing the Dacian campaigns of Trajan. The other
+column is of similar design and dimensions, but greatly inferior to the
+first in execution. Both are really towers, with interior stair-cases
+leading to the top.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 63.--ARCH OF CONSTANTINE.
+  (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)]
+
+
++TOMBS.+ The Romans developed no special and national type of tomb, and
+few of their sepulchral monuments were of large dimensions. The most
+important in Rome were the pyramid of +Caius Cestius+ (late first
+century B.C.), and the circular tombs of +Cecilia Metella+ (60 B.C.),
++Augustus+ (14 A.D.) and +Hadrian+, now the Castle of S. Angelo (138
+A.D.). The latter was composed of a huge cone of marble supported on a
+cylindrical structure 230 feet in diameter standing on a square podium
+300 feet long and wide. The cone probably once terminated in the gilt
+bronze pine-cone now in the Giardino della Pigna of the Vatican. In the
+Mausoleum of Augustus a mound of earth planted with trees crowned a
+similar circular base of marble on a podium 220 feet square, now buried.
+
+The smaller tombs varied greatly in size and form. Some were vaulted
+chambers, with graceful internal painted decorations of figures and vine
+patterns combined with low-relief enrichments in stucco. Others were
+designed in the form of altars or sarcophagi, as at Pompeii; while
+others again resembled ædiculæ, little temples, shrines, or small towers
+in several stories of arches and columns, as at St. Rémy (France).
+
+
++PALACES AND DWELLINGS.+ Into their dwellings the Romans carried all
+their love of ostentation and personal luxury. They anticipated in many
+details the comforts of modern civilization in their furniture, their
+plumbing and heating, and their utensils. Their houses may be divided
+into four classes: the palace, the villa, the _domus_ or ordinary house,
+and the _insula_ or many-storied tenement built in compact blocks. The
+first three alone concern us, and will be taken up in the above order.
+
+The imperial +palaces+ on the Palatine Hill comprised a wide range in
+style and variety of buildings, beginning with the first simple house of
+Augustus (26 B.C.), burnt and rebuilt 3 A.D. Tiberius, Caligula, and
+Nero added to the Augustan group; Domitian rebuilt a second time and
+enlarged the palace of Augustus, and Septimius Severus remodelled the
+whole group, adding to it his own extraordinary seven-storied palace,
+the Septizonium. The ruins of these successive buildings have been
+carefully excavated, and reveal a remarkable combination of
+dwelling-rooms, courts, temples, libraries, basilicas, baths, gardens,
+peristyles, fountains, terraces, and covered passages. These were
+adorned with a profusion of precious marbles, mosaics, columns, and
+statues. Parts of the demolished palace of Nero were incorporated in the
+substructions of the Baths of Titus. The beautiful arabesques and
+plaster reliefs which adorned them were the inspiration of much of the
+fresco and stucco decoration of the Italian Renaissance. At Spalato, in
+Dalmatia, are the extensive ruins of the great +Palace of Diocletian+,
+which was laid out on the plan of a Roman camp, with two intersecting
+avenues (Fig. 64). It comprised a temple, mausoleum, basilica, and other
+structures besides those portions devoted to the purposes of a royal
+residence.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 64.--PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN. SPALATO.]
+
+The +villa+ was in reality a country palace, arranged with special
+reference to the prevailing winds, exposure to the sun and shade, and
+the enjoyment of a wide prospect. Baths, temples, _exedræ_, theatres,
+tennis-courts, sun-rooms, and shaded porticoes were connected with the
+house proper, which was built around two or three interior courts or
+peristyles. Statues, fountains, and colossal vases of marble adorned the
+grounds, which were laid out in terraces and treated with all the
+fantastic arts of the Roman landscape-gardener. The most elaborate and
+extensive villa was that of +Hadrian+, at Tibur (Tivoli); its ruins,
+covering hundreds of acres, form one of the most interesting spots to
+visit in the neighborhood of Rome.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 65.--HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII.
+  s, _Shops_; v, _Vestibule_; f, _Family Rooms_; k, _Kitchen_;
+  l, _Lavarium_; _P, P, P_, _Peristyles_.]
+
+There are few remains in Rome of the +domus+ or private house. Two,
+however, have left remarkably interesting ruins--the +Atrium Vestæ+, or
+House of the Vestal Virgins, east of the Forum, a well-planned and
+extensive house surrounding a cloister or court; and the +House of
+Livia+, so-called, on the Palatine Hill, the walls and decorations of
+which are excellently preserved. The typical Roman house in a provincial
+town is best illustrated by the ruins of Pompeii and Herculanum, which,
+buried by an eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D., have been partially
+excavated since 1721. The Pompeiian house (Fig. 65) consisted of several
+courts or _atria_, some of which were surrounded by colonnades and
+called _peristyles_. The front portion was reserved for shops, or
+presented to the street a wall unbroken save by the entrance; all the
+rooms and chambers opened upon the interior courts, from which alone
+they borrowed their light. In the brilliant climate of southern Italy
+windows were little needed, as sufficient light was admitted by the
+door, closed only by portières for the most part; especially as the
+family life was passed mainly in the shaded courts, to which fountains,
+parterres of shrubbery, statues, and other adornments lent their
+inviting charm. The general plan of these houses seems to have been of
+Greek origin, as well as the system of decoration used on the walls.
+These, when not wainscoted with marble, were covered with fantastic, but
+often artistic, painted decorations, in which an imaginary architecture
+as of metal, a fantastic and arbitrary perspective, illusory pictures,
+and highly finished figures were the chief elements. These were executed
+in brilliant colors with excellent effect. The houses were lightly
+built, with wooden ceilings and roofs instead of vaulting, and usually
+with but one story on account of the danger from earthquakes. That the
+workmanship and decoration were in the capital often superior to what
+was to be found in a provincial town like Pompeii, is evidenced by
+beautiful wall-paintings and reliefs discovered in Rome in 1879 and now
+preserved in the Museo delle Terme. More or less fragmentary remains of
+Roman houses have been found in almost every corner of the Roman empire,
+but nowhere exhibiting as completely as in Pompeii the typical Roman
+arrangement.
+
+
++WORKS OF UTILITY.+ A word should be said about Roman engineering works,
+which in many cases were designed with an artistic sense of proportion
+and form which raises them into the domain of genuine art. Such were
+especially the bridges, in which a remarkable effect of monumental
+grandeur was often produced by the form and proportions of the arches
+and piers, and an appropriate use of rough and dressed masonry, as in
+the Pons Ælius (Ponte S. Angelo), the great bridge at Alcantara (Spain),
+and the Pont du Gard, in southern France. The aqueducts are impressive
+rather by their length, scale, and simplicity, than by any special
+refinements of design, except where their arches are treated with some
+architectural decoration to form gates, as in the Porta Maggiore, at
+Rome.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS:+ (Those which have no important extant remains are
+  given in italics.) TEMPLES: _Jupiter Capitolinus_, 600 B.C.;
+  _Ceres, Liber, and Libera_, 494 B.C. (ruins of later rebuilding in
+  S. Maria in Cosmedin); _first T. of Concord_ (rebuilt in Augustan
+  age), 254 B.C.; _first marble temple_ in _portico of Metellus_, by
+  a Greek, Hermodorus, 143 B.C.; temples of Fortune at Præneste and
+  at Rome, and of “Vesta” at Rome, 83-78 B.C.; of “Vesta” at Tivoli,
+  and of Hercules at Cori, 72 B.C.; _first Pantheon_, 27 B.C. In
+  Augustan Age temples of _Apollo_, Concord rebuilt, Dioscuri,
+  _Julius_, _Jupiter Stator_, _Jupiter Tonans_, Mars Ultor, Minerva
+  (_at Rome_ and Assisi), Maison Carrée at Nîmes, Saturn; at
+  Puteoli, Pola, etc. _T. of Peace_; _T. Jupiter Capitolinus_,
+  rebuilt 70 A.D.; temple at Brescia. Temple of Vespasian, 96 A.D.;
+  also _of Minerva_ in Forum of Nerva; _of Trajan_, 117 A.D.; second
+  Pantheon; T. of Venus and Rome at Rome, and of Jupiter Olympius at
+  Athens, 135-138 A.D.; Faustina, 141 A.D.; many in Syria; temples
+  of Sun at _Rome_, Baalbec, and Palmyra, cir. 273 A.D.; of Romulus,
+  305 A.D. (porch S. Cosmo and Damiano). PLACES OF ASSEMBLY:
+  FORA--Roman, Julian, 46 B.C.; Augustan, 40-42 B.C.; _of Peace_, 75
+  A.D.; Nerva, 97 A.D.; Trajan (by Apollodorus of Damascus, 117 A.D.)
+  BASILICAS: _Sempronian_, _Æmilian_, 1st century B.C.; Julian, 51
+  B.C.; _Septa Julia_, 26 B.C.; the Curia, later rebuilt by
+  Diocletian, 300 A.D. (now Church of S. Adriano); _at Fano_, 20
+  A.D. (?); Forum and Basilica at Pompeii, 60 A.D.; of Trajan; of
+  Constantine, 310-324 A.D. THEATRES (th.) and AMPHITHEATRES (amp.):
+  th. _Pompey_, 55 B.C.; of _Balbus_ and of Marcellus, 13 B.C.; th.
+  and amp. at Pompeii and Herculanum; Colosseum at Rome, 78-82 A.D.;
+  th. at Orange and in Asia Minor; amp. at Albano, Constantine,
+  Nîmes, Petra, Pola, Reggio, Trevi, Tusculum, Verona, etc.; amp.
+  Castrense at Rome, 96 A.D. Circuses and stadia at Rome. THERMÆ: of
+  Agrippa, 27 B.C.; _of Nero_; of Titus, 78 A.D. _Domitian_, 90
+  A.D.; Caracalla, 211 A.D.; Diocletian, 305 A.D.; _Constantine_,
+  320 A.D.; “Minerva Medica,” 3d or 4th century A.D. ARCHES: _of
+  Stertinius_, 196 B.C.; _Scipio_, 190 B.C.; _Augustus_, 30 B.C.;
+  Titus, 71-82 A.D.; _Trajan_, 117 A.D.; Severus, 203 A.D.;
+  Constantine, 320 A.D.; of Drusus, Dolabella, Silversmiths, 204
+  A.D.; Janus Quadrifrons, 320 A.D. (?); all at Rome. Others at
+  Benevento, Ancona, Rimini in Italy; also at Athens, and at Reims
+  and St. Chamas in France. Columns of Trajan, _Antoninus_, Marcus
+  Aurelius at Rome, others at Constantinople, Alexandria, etc.
+  TOMBS: along Via Appia and Via Latina, at Rome; Via Sacra at
+  Pompeii; tower-tombs at St. Rémy in France; rock-cut at Petra; at
+  Rome, of Caius Cestius and Cecilia Metella, 1st century B.C.; of
+  Augustus, 14 A.D.; Hadrian, 138 A.D. PALACES and PRIVATE HOUSES:
+  On Palatine, of Augustus, Tiberius, Nero, Domitian, Septimius
+  Severus, _Elagabalus_; Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli; palaces of
+  Diocletian at Spalato and _of Constantine_ at Constantinople.
+  House of Livia on Palatine (Augustan period); of Vestals, rebuilt
+  by Hadrian, cir. 120 A.D. Houses at Pompeii and Herculanum, cir.
+  60-79 A.D.; Villas of Gordianus (“Tor’ de’ Schiavi,” 240 A.D.),
+  and _of Sallust_ at Rome and _of Pliny_ at Laurentium.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bunsen, _Die Basiliken christlichen Roms_.
+  Butler, _Architecture and other Arts in Northern Central Syria_.
+  Corroyer, _L’architecture romane_. Cummings, _A History of
+  Architecture in Italy_. Essenwein (Handbuch d. Architektur),
+  _Ausgänge der klassischen Baukunst_. Gutensohn u. Knapp,
+  _Denkmäler der christlichen Religion_. Hübsch, _Monuments de
+  l’architecture chrétienne_. Lanciani, _Pagan and Christian Rome_.
+  Mothes, _Die Basilikenform bei den Christen_, etc. Okely,
+  _Development of Christian Architecture in Italy_. Von Quast, _Die
+  altchristlichen Bauwerke zu Ravenna_. De Rossi, _Roma
+  Sotterranea_. De Vogüé, _Syrie Centrale_; _Églises de la Terre
+  Sainte_.
+
+
++INTRODUCTORY.+ The official recognition of Christianity in the year 328
+by Constantine simply legalized an institution which had been for three
+centuries gathering momentum for its final conquest of the antique
+world. The new religion rapidly enlisted in its service for a common
+purpose and under a common impulse races as wide apart in blood and
+culture as those which had built up the art of imperial Rome. It was
+Christianity which reduced to civilization in the West the Germanic
+hordes that had overthrown Rome, bringing their fresh and hitherto
+untamed vigor to the task of recreating architecture out of the decaying
+fragments of classic art. So in the East its life-giving influence awoke
+the slumbering Greek art-instinct to new triumphs in the arts of
+building, less refined and perfect indeed, but not less sublime than
+those of the Periclean age. Long before the Constantinian edict, the
+Christians in the Eastern provinces had enjoyed substantial freedom of
+worship. Meeting often in the private basilicas of wealthy converts, and
+finding these, and still more the great public basilicas, suited to the
+requirements of their worship, they early began to build in imitation of
+these edifices. There are many remains of these early churches in
+northern Africa and central Syria.
+
+
++EARLY CHRISTIAN ART IN ROME.+ This was at first wholly sepulchral,
+developing in the catacombs the symbols of the new faith. Once
+liberated, however, Christianity appropriated bodily for its public
+rites the basilica-type and the general substance of Roman architecture.
+Shafts and capitals, architraves and rich linings of veined marble, even
+the pagan Bacchic symbolism of the vine, it adapted to new uses in its
+own service. Constantine led the way in architecture, endowing Bethlehem
+and Jerusalem with splendid churches, and his new capital on the
+Bosphorus with the first of the three historic basilicas dedicated to
+the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia). One of the greatest of innovators, he
+seems to have had a special predilection for circular buildings, and the
+tombs and baptisteries which he erected in this form, especially that
+for his sister Constantia in Rome (known as Santa Costanza, Fig. 66),
+furnished the prototype for numberless Italian baptisteries in later
+ages.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 66.--STA. COSTANZA, ROME.]
+
+The Christian basilica (see Figs. 67, 68) generally comprised a broad
+and lofty nave, separated by rows of columns from the single or double
+side-aisles. The aisles had usually about half the width and height of
+the nave, and like it were covered with wooden roofs and ceilings. Above
+the columns which flanked the nave rose the lofty clearstory wall,
+pierced with windows above the side-aisle roofs and supporting the
+immense trusses of the roof of the nave. The timbering of the latter was
+sometimes bare, sometimes concealed by a richly panelled ceiling,
+carved, gilded, and painted. At the further end of the nave was the
+sanctuary or apse, with the seats for the clergy on a raised platform,
+the _bema_, in front of which was the altar. Transepts sometimes
+expanded to right and left before the altar, under which was the
+_confessio_ or shrine of the titular saint or martyr.
+
+An _atrium_ or forecourt surrounded by a covered arcade preceded the
+basilica proper, the arcade at the front of the church forming a porch
+or _narthex_, which, however, in some cases existed without the atrium.
+The exterior was extremely plain; the interior, on the contrary, was
+resplendent with incrustations of veined marble and with sumptuous
+decorations in glass mosaic (called _opus Grecanicum_) on a blue or
+golden ground. Especially rich were the half-dome of the apse and the
+wall-space surrounding its arch and called the _triumphal arch_; next in
+decorative importance came the broad band of wall beneath the clearstory
+windows. Upon these surfaces the mosaic-workers wrought with minute
+cubes of colored glass pictures and symbols almost imperishable, in
+which the glow of color and a certain decorative grandeur of effect in
+the composition went far to atone for the uncouth drawing. With growing
+wealth and an increasingly elaborate ritual, the furniture and
+equipments of the church assumed greater architectural importance.
+A large rectangular space was retained for the choir in front of the
+bema, and enclosed by a breast-high parapet of marble, richly inlaid. On
+either side were the pulpits or _ambones_ for the Gospel and Epistle.
+A lofty canopy was built over the altar, the _baldaquin_, supported on
+four marble columns. A few basilicas were built with side-aisles, in two
+stories, as in S. Lorenzo and Sta. Agnese. Adjoining the basilica in the
+earlier examples were the baptistery and the tomb of the saint, circular
+or polygonal buildings usually; but in later times these were replaced
+by the font or baptismal chapel in the church and the _confessio_ under
+the altar.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 67.--PLAN OF THE BASILICA OF ST. PAUL.]
+
+Of the two Constantinian basilicas in Rome, the one dedicated to +St.
+Peter+ was demolished in the fifteenth century; that of +St. John
+Lateran+ has been so disfigured by modern alterations as to be
+unrecognizable. The former of the two adjoined the site of the martyrdom
+of St. Peter in the circus of Caligula and Nero; it was five-aisled, 380
+feet in length by 212 feet in width. The nave was 80 feet wide and 100
+feet high, and the disproportionately high clearstory wall rested on
+horizontal architraves carried by columns. The impressive dimensions and
+simple plan of this structure gave it a majesty worthy of its rank as
+the first church of Christendom. +St. Paul beyond the Walls+ (S. Paolo
+fuori le mura), built in 386 by Theodosius, resembled St. Peter’s
+closely in plan (Figs. 67, 68). Destroyed by fire in 1821, it has been
+rebuilt with almost its pristine splendor, and is, next to the modern
+St. Peter’s and the Pantheon, the most impressive place of worship in
+Rome. +Santa Maria Maggiore+,[15] though smaller in size, is more
+interesting because it so largely retains its original aspect, its
+Renaissance ceiling happily harmonizing with its simple antique lines.
+Ionic columns support architraves to carry the clearstory, as in St.
+Peter’s. In most other examples, St. Paul’s included, arches turned from
+column to column perform this function. The first known case of such use
+of classic columns as arch-bearers was in the palace of Diocletian at
+Spalato; it also appears in Syrian buildings of the third and fourth
+centuries A.D.
+
+    [Footnote 15: Hereafter the abbreviation S. M. will be generally
+    used instead of the name Santa Maria.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 68.--ST. PAUL BEYOND THE WALLS. INTERIOR.]
+
+The basilica remained the model for ecclesiastical architecture in Rome,
+without noticeable change either of plan or detail, until the time of
+the Renaissance. All the earlier examples employed columns and capitals
+taken from ancient ruins, often incongruous and ill-matched in size and
+order. +San Clemente+ (1084) has retained almost intact its early
+aspect, its choir-enclosure, baldaquin, and ambones having been well
+preserved or carefully restored. Other important basilicas are mentioned
+in the list of monuments on pages 118, 119.
+
+
++RAVENNA.+ The fifth and sixth centuries endowed Ravenna with a number
+of notable buildings which, with the exception of the cathedral,
+demolished in the last century, have been preserved to our day. Subdued
+by the Byzantine emperor Justinian in 537, Ravenna became the
+meeting-ground for Early Christian and Byzantine traditions and the
+basilican and circular plans are both represented. The two churches
+dedicated to St. Apollinaris, +S. Apollinare Nuovo+ (520) in the city,
+and +S. Apollinare in Classe+ (538) three miles distant from the city,
+in what was formerly the port, are especially interesting for their fine
+mosaics, and for the impost-blocks interposed above the capitals of
+their columns to receive the springing of the pier-arches. These blocks
+appear to be somewhat crude modifications of the fragmentary architraves
+or entablatures employed in classic Roman architecture to receive the
+springing of vaults sustained by columns, and became common in Byzantine
+structures (Fig. 73). The use of external arcading to give some slight
+adornment to the walls of the second of the above-named churches, and
+the round bell-towers of brick which adjoined both of them, were first
+steps toward the development of the “wall-veil” or arcaded decoration,
+and of the campaniles, which in later centuries became so characteristic
+of north Italian churches (see Chapter XIII.). In Rome the campaniles
+which accompany many of the mediæval basilicas are square and pierced
+with many windows.
+
+The basilican form of church became general in Italy, a large proportion
+of whose churches continued to be built with wooden roofs and with but
+slight deviations from the original type, long after the appearance of
+the Gothic style. The chief departures from early precedent were in the
+exterior, which was embellished with marble incrustations as in
+S. Miniato (Florence); or with successive stories of wall-arcades, as in
+many churches in Pisa and Lucca (see Fig. 90); until finally the
+introduction of clustered piers, pointed arches, and vaulting, gradually
+transformed the basilican into the Italian Romanesque and Gothic styles.
+
+
++SYRIA AND THE EAST.+ In Syria, particularly the central portion, the
+Christian architecture of the 3d to 8th centuries produced a number of
+very interesting monuments. The churches built by Constantine in
+Syria--the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (nominally built by his
+mother), of the Ascension at Jerusalem, the magnificent octagonal church
+on the site of the Temple, and finally the somewhat similar church at
+Antioch--were the most notable Christian monuments in Syria. The first
+three on the list, still extant in part at least, have been so altered
+by later additions and restorations that their original forms are only
+approximately known from early descriptions. They were all of large
+size, and the octagonal church on the Temple platform was of exceptional
+magnificence.[16] The columns and a part of the marble incrustations of
+the early design are still visible in the “Mosque of Omar,” but most of
+the old work is concealed by the decoration of tiles applied by the
+Moslems, and the whole interior aspect altered by the wood-and-plaster
+dome with which they replaced the simpler roof of the original.
+
+    [Footnote 16: Fergusson (_History of Architecture_, vol. ii., pp.
+    408, 432) contends that this was the real Constantinian church of
+    the Holy Sepulchre, and that the one called to-day by that name
+    was erected by the Crusaders in the twelfth century. The more
+    general view is that the latter was originally built by
+    Constantine as the Church of the Sepulchre, though subsequently
+    much altered, and that the octagonal edifice was also his work,
+    but erected under some other name. Whether this church was later
+    incorporated in the “Mosque of Omar,” or merely furnished some of
+    the materials for its construction, is not quite clear.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 69.--CHURCH AT KALB LOUZEH.]
+
+Christian architecture in Syria soon, however, diverged from Roman
+traditions. The abundance of hard stone, the total lack of clay or
+brick, the remoteness from Rome, led to a peculiar independence and
+originality in the forms and details of the ecclesiastical as well as of
+the domestic architecture of central Syria. These innovations upon Roman
+models resulted in the development of distinct types which, but for the
+arrest of progress by the Mohammedan conquest in the seventh century,
+would doubtless have inaugurated a new and independent style of
+architecture. Piers of masonry came to replace the classic column, as at
+Tafkha (third or fourth century), Rouheiha and Kalb Louzeh (fifth
+century? Fig. 69); the ceilings in the smaller churches were often
+formed with stone slabs; the apse was at first confined within the main
+rectangle of the plan, and was sometimes square. The exterior assumed a
+striking and picturesque variety of forms by means of turrets, porches,
+and gables. Singularly enough, vaulting hardly appears at all, though
+the arch is used with fine effect. Conventional and monastic groups of
+buildings appear early in Syria, and that of +St. Simeon Stylites+ at
+Kelat Seman is an impressive and interesting monument. Four three-aisled
+wings form the arms of a cross, meeting in a central octagonal open
+court, in the midst of which stood the column of the saint. The eastern
+arm of the cross forms a complete basilica of itself, and the whole
+cross measures 330 × 300 feet. Chapels, cloisters, and cells adjoin the
+main edifice.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 70.--CATHEDRAL AT BOZRAH.]
+
+Circular and polygonal plans appear in a number of Syrian examples of
+the early sixth century. Their most striking feature is the inscribing
+of the circle or polygon in a square which forms the exterior outline,
+and the use of four niches to fill out the corners. This occurs at Kelat
+Seman in a small double church, perhaps the tomb and chapel of a martyr;
+in the cathedral at +Bozrah+ (Fig. 70), and in the small domical church
+of +St. George+ at +Ezra+. These were probably the prototypes of many
+Byzantine churches like St. Sergius at Constantinople, and San Vitale at
+Ravenna (Fig. 74), though the exact dates of the Syrian churches are not
+known. The one at Ezra is the only one of the three which has a dome,
+the others having been roofed with wood.
+
+The interesting domestic architecture of this period is preserved in
+whole towns and villages in the Hauran, which, deserted at the Arab
+conquest, have never been reoccupied and remain almost intact but for
+the decay of their wooden roofs. They are marked by dignity and
+simplicity of design, and by the same picturesque massing of gables and
+roofs and porches which has already been remarked of the churches. The
+arches are broad, the columns rather heavy, the mouldings few and
+simple, and the scanty carving vigorous and effective, often strongly
+Byzantine in type.
+
+Elsewhere in the Eastern world are many early churches of which even the
+enumeration would exceed the limits of this work. Salonica counts a
+number of basilicas and several domical churches. The church of +St.
+George+, now a mosque, is of early date and thoroughly Roman in plan and
+section, of the same class with the Pantheon and the tomb of Helena, in
+both of which a massive circular wall is lightened by eight niches. At
+Angora (Ancyra), Hierapolis, Pergamus, and other points in Asia Minor;
+in Egypt, Nubia, and Algiers, are many examples of both circular and
+basilican edifices of the early centuries of Christianity. In
+Constantinople there remains but a single representative of the
+basilican type, the church of +St. John Studius+, now the Emir Akhor
+mosque.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: ROME: 4th century: St. Peter’s, Sta. Costanza, 330?;
+  Sta. Pudentiana, 335 (rebuilt 1598); tomb of St. Helena;
+  Baptistery of Constantine; St. Paul’s beyond the Walls, 386; St.
+  John Lateran (wholly remodelled in modern times). 5th century:
+  Baptistery of St. John Lateran; Sta. Sabina, 425; Sta. Maria
+  Maggiore, 432; S. Pietro in Vincoli, 442 (greatly altered in
+  modern times). 6th century: S. Lorenzo, 580 (the older portion in
+  two stories); SS. Cosmo e Damiano. 7th century: Sta. Agnese, 625;
+  S. Giorgio in Velabro, 682. 8th century: Sta. Maria in Cosmedin;
+  S. Crisogono. 9th century: S. Nereo ed Achilleo; Sta. Prassede;
+  Sta. Maria in Dominica. 12th and 13th centuries: S. Clemente,
+  1118; Sta. Maria in Trastevere; S. Lorenzo (nave); Sta. Maria in
+  Ara Coeli. RAVENNA: Baptistery of S. John, 400 (?); S. Francesco;
+  S. Giovanni Evangelista, 425; Sta. Agata, 430; S. Giovanni
+  Battista, 439; tomb of Galla Placidia, 450; S. Apollinare Nuovo,
+  500-520; S. Apollinare in Classe, 538; St. Victor; Sta. Maria in
+  Cosmedin (the Arian Baptistery); tomb of Theodoric (Sta. Maria
+  della Rotonda, a decagonal two-storied mausoleum, with a low dome
+  cut from a single stone 36 feet in diameter), 530-540. ITALY IN
+  GENERAL: basilica at Parenzo, 6th century; cathedral and Sta.
+  Fosca at Torcello, 640-700; at Naples Sta. Restituta, 7th century;
+  others, mostly of 10th-13th centuries, at Murano near Venice, at
+  Florence (S. Miniato), Spoleto, Toscanella, etc.; baptisteries at
+  Asti, Florence, Nocera dei Pagani, and other places. IN SYRIA AND
+  THE EAST: basilicas of the Nativity at Bethlehem, of the Sepulchre
+  and of the Ascension at Jerusalem; also polygonal church on Temple
+  platform; these all of 4th century. Basilicas at Bakouzah, Hass,
+  Kelat Seman, Kalb Louzeh, Rouheiha, Tourmanin, etc.; circular
+  churches, tombs, and baptisteries at Bozrah, Ezra, Hass, Kelat
+  Seman, Rouheiha, etc.; all these 4th-8th centuries. Churches at
+  Constantinople (Holy Wisdom, St. John Studius, etc.), Hierapolis,
+  Pergamus, and Thessalonica (St. Demetrius, “Eski Djuma”); in Egypt
+  and Nubia (Djemla, Announa, Ibreem, Siout, etc.); at Orléansville
+  in Algeria. (For churches, etc., of 8th-10th centuries in the
+  West, see Chapter XIII.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Essenwein, Hübsch, Von Quast. Also,
+  Bayet, _L’Art Byzantin_. Choisy, _L’Art de bâtir chez les
+  Byzantins_. Lethaby and Swainson, _Sancta Sophia_. Ongania, _La
+  Basilica di San Marco_. Pulgher, _Anciennes Églises Byzantines de
+  Constantinople_. Salzenberg, _Altchristliche Baudenkmäle von
+  Constantinopel_. Texier and Pullan, _Byzantine Architecture_.
+
+
++ORIGIN AND CHARACTER.+ The decline and fall of Rome arrested the
+development of the basilican style in the West, as did the Arab conquest
+later in Syria. It was otherwise in the new Eastern capital founded by
+Constantine in the ancient Byzantium, which was rising in power and
+wealth while Rome lay in ruins. Situated at the strategic point of the
+natural highway of commerce between East and West, salubrious and
+enchantingly beautiful in its surroundings, the new capital grew rapidly
+from provincial insignificance to metropolitan importance. Its founder
+had embellished it with an extraordinary wealth of buildings, in which,
+owing to the scarcity of trained architects, quantity and cost doubtless
+outran quality. But at least the tameness of blindly followed precedent
+was avoided, and this departure from traditional tenets contributed
+undoubtedly to the originality of Byzantine architecture. A large part
+of the artisans employed in building were then, as now, from Asia Minor
+and the Ægean Islands, Greek in race if not in name. An Oriental taste
+for brilliant and harmonious color and for minute decoration spread over
+broad surfaces must have been stimulated by trade with the Far East and
+by constant contact with Oriental peoples, costumes, and arts. An
+Asiatic origin may also be assigned to the methods of vaulting employed,
+far more varied than the Roman, not only in form but also in materials
+and processes. From Roman architecture, however, the Byzantines borrowed
+the fundamental notion of their structural art; that, namely, of
+distributing the weights and strains of their vaulted structures upon
+isolated and massive points of support, strengthened by deep buttresses,
+internal or external, as the case might be. Roman, likewise, was the use
+of polished monolithic columns, and the incrustation of the piers and
+walls with panels of variegated marble, as well as the decoration of
+plastered surfaces by fresco and mosaic, and the use of _opus sectile_
+and _opus Alexandrinum_ for the production of sumptuous marble
+pavements. In the first of these processes the color-figures of the
+pattern are formed each of a single piece of marble cut to the shape
+required; in the second the pattern is compounded of minute squares,
+triangles, and curved pieces of uniform size. Under these combined
+influences the artists of Constantinople wrought out new problems in
+construction and decoration, giving to all that they touched a new and
+striking character.
+
+There is no absolute line of demarcation, chronological, geographical,
+or structural, between Early Christian and Byzantine architecture. But
+the former was especially characterized by the basilica with three or
+five aisles, and the use of wooden roofs even in its circular edifices;
+the vault and dome, though not unknown, being exceedingly rare.
+Byzantine architecture, on the other hand, rarely produced the simple
+three-aisled or five-aisled basilica, and nearly all its monuments were
+vaulted. The dome was especially frequent, and Byzantine architecture
+achieved its highest triumphs in the use of the _pendentive_, as the
+triangular spherical surfaces are called, by the aid of which a dome can
+be supported on the summits of four arches spanning the four sides of a
+square, as explained later. There is as little uniformity in the plans
+of Byzantine buildings as in the forms of the vaulting. A few types of
+church-plan, however, predominated locally in one or another centre; but
+the controlling feature of the style was the dome and the constructive
+system with which it was associated. The dome, it is true, had long been
+used by the Romans, but always on a circular plan, as in the Pantheon.
+It is also a fact that pendentives have been found in Syria and Asia
+Minor older than the oldest Byzantine examples. But the special feature
+characterizing the Byzantine dome on pendentives was its almost
+exclusive association with plans having piers and columns or aisles,
+with the dome as the central and dominant feature of the complex design
+(see plans, Figs. 74, 75, 78). Another strictly Byzantine practice was
+the piercing of the lower portion of the dome with windows forming a
+circle or crown, and the final development of this feature into a high
+drum.
+
+
++CONSTRUCTION.+ Still another divergence from Roman methods was in the
+substitution of brick and stone masonry for concrete. Brick was used for
+the mass as well as the facing of walls and piers, and for the vaulting
+in many buildings mainly built of stone. Stone was used either alone or
+in combination with brick, the latter appearing in bands of four or five
+courses at intervals of three or four feet. In later work a regular
+alternation of the two materials, course for course, was not uncommon.
+In piers intended to support unusually heavy loads the stone was very
+carefully cut and fitted, and sometimes tied and clamped with iron.
+
+Vaults were built sometimes of brick, sometimes of cut stone; in a few
+cases even of earthenware jars fitting into each other, and laid up in a
+continuous contracting spiral from the base to the crown of a dome, as
+in San Vitale at Ravenna. Ingenious processes for building vaults
+without centrings were made use of--processes inherited from the
+drain-builders of ancient Assyria, and still in vogue in Armenia,
+Persia, and Asia Minor. The groined vault was common, but always
+approximated the form of a dome, by a longitudinal convexity upward in
+the intersecting vaults. The aisles of Hagia Sophia[17] display a
+remarkable variety of forms in the vaulting.
+
+    [Footnote 17: “St. Sophia,” the common name of this church, is a
+    misnomer. It was not dedicated to a saint at all, but to the
+    Divine Wisdom (Hagia Sophia), which name the Turks have retained
+    in the softened form “Aya Sofia.”]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 71.--DIAGRAM OF PENDENTIVES.]
+
++DOMES.+ The dome, as we have seen, early became the most characteristic
+feature of Byzantine architecture; and especially the dome on
+pendentives. If a hemisphere be cut by five planes, four perpendicular
+to its base and bounding a square inscribed therein, and the fifth plane
+parallel to the base and tangent to the semicircular intersections made
+by the first four, there will remain of the original surface only four
+triangular spaces bounded by arcs of circles. These are called
+_pendentives_ (Fig. 71 a). When these are built up of masonry, each
+course forms a species of arch, by virtue of its convexity. At the crown
+of the four arches on which they rest, these courses meet and form a
+complete circle, perfectly stable and capable of sustaining any
+superstructure that does not by excessive weight disrupt the whole
+fabric by overthrowing the four arches which support it. Upon these
+pendentives, then, a new dome may be started of any desired curvature,
+or even a cylindrical drum to support a still loftier dome, as in the
+later churches (Fig. 71 b). This method of covering a square is simpler
+than the groined vault, having no sharp edges or intersections; it is at
+least as effective architecturally, by reason of its greater height in
+the centre; and is equally applicable to successive bays of an oblong,
+cruciform, and even columnar building. In the great cisterns at
+Constantinople vast areas are covered by rows of small domes supported
+on ranges of columns.
+
+The earlier domes were commonly pierced with windows at the base, this
+apparent weakening of the vault being compensated for by strongly
+buttressing the piers between the windows, as in Hagia Sophia. Here
+forty windows form a crown of light at the spring of the dome, producing
+an effect almost as striking as that of the simple _oculus_ of the
+Pantheon, and celebrated by ancient writers in the most extravagant
+terms. In later and smaller churches a high drum was introduced beneath
+the dome, in order to secure, by means of longer windows, more light
+than could be obtained by merely piercing the diminutive domes.
+
+Buttressing was well understood by the Byzantines, whose plans were
+skilfully devised to provide internal abutments, which were often
+continued above the roofs of the side-aisles to prop the main vaults,
+precisely as was done by the Romans in their thermæ and similar halls.
+But the Byzantines, while adhering less strictly than the Romans to
+traditional forms and processes, and displaying much more ready
+contrivance and special adaptation of means to ends, never worked out
+this pregnant structural principle to its logical conclusion as did the
+Gothic architects of Western Europe a few centuries later.
+
+
++DECORATION+. The exteriors of Byzantine buildings (except in some of
+the small churches of late date) were generally bare and lacking in
+beauty. The interiors, on the contrary, were richly decorated, color
+playing a much larger part than carving in the designs. Painting was
+resorted to only in the smaller buildings, the more durable and splendid
+medium of mosaic being usually preferred. This was, as a rule, confined
+to the vaults and to those portions of the wall-surfaces embraced by the
+vaults above their springing. The colors were brilliant, the background
+being usually of gold, though sometimes of blue or a delicate green.
+Biblical scenes, symbolic and allegorical figures and groups of saints
+adorned the larger areas, particularly the half-dome of the apse, as in
+the basilicas. The smaller vaults, the soffits of arches, borders of
+pictures, and other minor surfaces, received a more conventional
+decoration of crosses, monograms, and set patterns.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 72.--SPANDRIL. HAGIA SOPHIA.]
+
+The walls throughout were sheathed with slabs of rare marble in panels
+so disposed that the veining should produce symmetrical figures. The
+panels were framed in billet-mouldings, derived perhaps from classic
+dentils; the billets or projections on one side the moulding coming
+opposite the spaces on the other. This seems to have been a purely
+Byzantine feature.
+
+
++CARVED DETAILS.+ Internally the different stories were marked by
+horizontal bands and cornices of white or inlaid marble richly carved.
+The arch-soffits, the archivolts or bands around the arches, and the
+spandrils between them were covered with minute and intricate incised
+carving. The motives used, though based on the acanthus and anthemion,
+were given a wholly new aspect. The relief was low and flat, the leaves
+sharp and crowded, and the effect rich and lacelike, rather than
+vigorous. It was, however, well adapted to the covering of large areas
+where general effect was more important than detail. Even the capitals
+were treated in the same spirit. The impost-block was almost universal,
+except where its use was rendered unnecessary by giving to the capital
+itself the massive pyramidal form required to receive properly the
+spring of the arch or vault. In such cases (more frequent in
+Constantinople than elsewhere) the surface of the capital was simply
+covered with incised carving of foliage, basketwork, monograms, etc.;
+rudimentary volutes in a few cases recalling classic traditions (Figs.
+72, 73). The mouldings were weak and poorly executed, and the vigorous
+profiles of classic cornices were only remotely suggested by the
+characterless aggregations of mouldings which took their place.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 73.--CAPITAL WITH IMPOST BLOCK, S. VITALE.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 74.--ST. SERGIUS, CONSTANTINOPLE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 75.--PLAN OF HAGIA SOPHIA.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 76.--SECTION OF HAGIA SOPHIA.]
+
++PLANS.+ The remains of Byzantine architecture are almost exclusively of
+churches and baptisteries, but the plans of these are exceedingly
+varied. The first radical departure from the basilica-type seems to have
+been the adoption of circular or polygonal plans, such as had usually
+served only for tombs and baptisteries. The Baptistery of St. John at
+Ravenna (early fifth century) is classed by many authorities as a
+Byzantine monument. In the early years of the sixth century the adoption
+of this model had become quite general, and with it the development of
+domical design began to advance. The church of +St. Sergius+ at
+Constantinople (Fig. 74), originally joined to a short basilica
+dedicated to St. Bacchus (afterward destroyed by the Turks), as in the
+double church at Kelat Seman, was built about 520; that of +San Vitale+
+at Ravenna was begun a few years later; both are domical churches on an
+octagonal plan, with an exterior aisle. Semicircular niches--four in St.
+Sergius and eight in San Vitale--projecting into the aisle, enlarge
+somewhat the area of the central space and give variety to the internal
+effect. The origin of this characteristic feature may be traced to the
+eight niches of the Pantheon, through such intermediate examples as the
+temple of Minerva Medica at Rome. The true pendentive does not appear in
+these two churches. Timidly employed up to that time in small
+structures, it received a remarkable development in the magnificent
+church of +Hagia Sophia+, built by Anthemius of Tralles and Isodorus of
+Miletus, under Justinian, 532-538 A.D. In the plan of this marvellous
+edifice (Fig. 75) the dome rests upon four mighty arches bounding a
+square, into two of which open the half-domes of semicircular apses.
+These apses are penetrated and extended each by two smaller niches and a
+central arch, and the whole vast nave, measuring over 200 × 100 feet, is
+flanked by enormously wide aisles connecting at the front with a
+majestic narthex. Huge transverse buttresses, as in the Basilica of
+Constantine (with whose structural design this building shows striking
+affinities), divide the aisles each into three sections. The plan
+suggests that of St. Sergius cut in two, with a lofty dome on
+pendentives over a square plan inserted between the halves. Thus was
+secured a noble and unobstructed hall of unrivalled proportions and
+great beauty, covered by a combination of half-domes increasing in span
+and height as they lead up successively to the stupendous central vault,
+which rises 180 feet into the air and fitly crowns the whole. The
+imposing effect of this low-curved but loftily-poised dome, resting as
+it does upon a crown of windows, and so disposed that its summit is
+visible from every point of the nave (as may be easily seen from an
+examination of the section, Fig. 76), is not surpassed in any interior
+ever erected.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 77.--INTERIOR OF HAGIA SOPHIA,
+  CONSTANTINOPLE.]
+
+The two lateral arches under the dome are filled by clearstory walls
+pierced by twelve windows, and resting on arcades in two stories carried
+by magnificent columns taken from ancient ruins. These separate the nave
+from the side-aisles, which are in two stories forming galleries, and
+are vaulted with a remarkable variety of groined vaults. All the masses
+are disposed with studied reference to the resistance required by the
+many and complex thrusts exerted by the dome and other vaults. That the
+earthquakes of one thousand three hundred and fifty years have not
+destroyed the church is the best evidence of the sufficiency of these
+precautions.
+
+Not less remarkable than the noble planning and construction of this
+church was the treatment of scale and decoration in its interior design.
+It was as conspicuously the masterpiece of Byzantine architecture as the
+Parthenon was of the classic Greek. With little external beauty, it is
+internally one of the most perfectly composed and beautifully decorated
+halls of worship ever erected. Instead of the simplicity of the Pantheon
+it displays the complexity of an organism of admirably related parts.
+The division of the interior height into two stories below the spring of
+the four arches, reduces the component parts of the design to moderate
+dimensions, so that the scale of the whole is more easily grasped and
+its vast size emphasized by the contrast. The walls are incrusted with
+precious marbles up to the spring of the vaulting; the capitals,
+spandrils, and soffits are richly and minutely carved with incised
+ornament, and all the vaults covered with splendid mosaics. Dimmed by
+the lapse of centuries and disfigured by the vandalism of the Moslems,
+this noble interior, by the harmony of its coloring and its impressive
+grandeur, is one of the masterpieces of all time (Fig. 77).
+
+
++LATER CHURCHES.+ After the sixth century no monuments were built at all
+rivalling in scale the creations of the former period. The later
+churches were, with few exceptions, relatively small and trivial.
+Neither the plan nor the general aspect of Hagia Sophia seems to have
+been imitated in these later works. The crown of dome-windows was
+replaced by a cylindrical drum under the dome, which was usually of
+insignificant size. The exterior was treated more decoratively than
+before, by means of bands and incrustations of colored marble, or
+alternations of stone and brick; and internally mosaic continued to be
+executed with great skill and of great beauty until the tenth century,
+when the art rapidly declined. These later churches, of which a number
+were spared by the Turks, are, therefore, generally pleasing and elegant
+rather than striking or imposing.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 78.--PLAN OF ST. MARK’S, VENICE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 79.--INTERIOR OF ST. MARK’S.]
+
++FOREIGN MONUMENTS.+ The influence of Byzantine art was wide-spread,
+both in Europe and Asia. The leading city of civilization through the
+Dark Ages, Constantinople influenced Italy through her political and
+commercial relations with Ravenna, Genoa, and Venice. The church of +St.
+Mark+ in the latter city was one result of this influence (Figs. 78,
+79). Begun in 1063 to replace an earlier church destroyed by fire, it
+received through several centuries additions not always Byzantine in
+character. Yet it was mainly the work of Byzantine builders, who copied
+most probably the church of the Apostles at Constantinople, built by
+Justinian. The picturesque but wholly unstructural use of columns in the
+entrance porches, the upper parts of the façade, the wooden cupolas over
+the five domes, and the pointed arches in the narthex, are deviations
+from Byzantine traditions dating in part from the later Middle Ages
+Nothing could well be conceived more irrational, from a structural point
+of view, than the accumulation of columns in the entrance-arches; but
+the total effect is so picturesque and so rich in color, that its
+architectural defects are easily overlooked. The external veneering of
+white and colored marble occurs rarely in the East, but became a
+favorite practice in Venice, where it continued in use for five hundred
+years. The interior of St. Mark’s, in some respects better preserved
+than that of Hagia Sophia, is especially fine in color, though not equal
+in scale and grandeur to the latter church. With its five domes it has
+less unity of effect than Hagia Sophia, but more of the charm of
+picturesqueness, and its less brilliant and simpler lighting enhances
+the impressiveness of its more modest dimensions.
+
+In Russia and Greece the Byzantine style has continued to be the
+official style of the Greek Church. The Russian monuments are for the
+most part of a somewhat fantastic aspect, the Muscovite taste having
+introduced many innovations in the form of bulbous domes and other
+eccentric details. In Greece there are few large churches, and some of
+the most interesting, like the Cathedral at Athens, are almost toy-like
+in their diminutiveness. On +Mt. Athos+ (Hagion Oros) is an ancient
+monastery which still retains its Byzantine character and traditions. In
+Armenia (as at Ani, Etchmiadzin, etc.) are also interesting examples of
+late Armeno-Byzantine architecture, showing applications to exterior
+carved detail of elaborate interlaced ornament looking like a re-echo of
+Celtic MSS. illumination, itself, no doubt, originating in Byzantine
+traditions. But the greatest and most prolific offspring of Byzantine
+architecture appeared after the fall of Constantinople (1453) in the new
+mosque-architecture of the victorious Turks.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ CONSTANTINOPLE: St. Sergius, 520; Hagia Sophia,
+  532-538; Holy Apostles by Justinian (demolished); Holy Peace (St.
+  Irene) originally by Constantine, rebuilt by Justinian, and again
+  in 8th century by Leo the Isaurian; Hagia Theotokos, 12th century
+  (?); Monétes Choras (“Kahiré Djami”), 10th century; Pantokrator;
+  “Fetiyeh Djami.” Cisterns, especially the “Bin Bir Direk” (1,001
+  columns) and “Yere Batan Serai;” palaces, few vestiges except the
+  great hall of the Blachernæ palace. SALONICA: Churches--of Divine
+  Wisdom (“Aya Sofia”) St. Bardias, St. Elias. RAVENNA: San Vitale,
+  527-540. VENICE: St. Mark’s, 977-1071; “Fondaco dei Turchi,” now
+  Civic Museum, 12th century. Other churches at Athens and Mt.
+  Athos; at Misitra, Myra, Ancyra, Ephesus, etc.; in Armenia at Ani,
+  Dighour, Etchmiadzin, Kouthais, Pitzounda, Usunlar, etc.; tombs at
+  Ani, Varzhahan, etc.; in Russia at Kieff (St. Basil, Cathedral),
+  Kostroma, Moscow (Assumption, St. Basil, Vasili Blaghennoi, etc.),
+  Novgorod, Tchernigoff; at Kurtea Darghish in Wallachia, and many
+  other places.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+(ARABIAN, MORESQUE, PERSIAN, INDIAN, AND TURKISH.)
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bourgoin, _Les Arts Arabes_. Coste, _Monuments
+  du Caire_; _Monuments modernes de la Perse_. Cunningham,
+  _Archæological Survey of India_. Fergusson, _Indian and Eastern
+  Architecture_. De Forest, _Indian Architecture and Ornament_.
+  Flandin et Coste, _Voyage en Perse_. Franz-Pasha, _Die Baukunst
+  des Islam_. Gayet, _L’Art Arabe_; _L’Art Persan_. Girault de
+  Prangey, _Essai sur l’architecture des Arabes en Espagne_, etc.
+  Goury and Jones, _The Alhambra_. Jacob, _Jeypore Portfolio of
+  Architectural Details_. Le Bon, _La civilisation des Arabes_; _Les
+  monuments de l’Inde_. Owen Jones, _Grammar of Ornament_.
+  Parvillée, _L’Architecture Ottomane_. Prisse d’Avennes, _L’Art
+  Arabe_. Texier, _Description de l’Arménie, la Perse_, etc.
+
+
++GENERAL SURVEY.+ While the Byzantine Empire was at its zenith, the new
+faith of Islam was conquering Western Asia and the Mediterranean lands
+with a fiery rapidity, which is one of the marvels of history. The new
+architectural styles which grew up in the wake of these conquests,
+though differing widely in conception and detail in the several
+countries, were yet marked by common characteristics which set them
+quite apart from the contemporary Christian styles. The predominance of
+decorative over structural considerations, a predilection for minute
+surface-ornament, the absence of pictures and sculpture, are found alike
+in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Indian buildings, though in varying
+degree. These new styles, however, were almost entirely the handiwork of
+artisans belonging to the conquered races, and many traces of Byzantine,
+and even after the Crusades, of Norman and Gothic design, are
+recognizable in Moslem architecture. But the Orientalism of the
+conquerors and their common faith, tinged with the poetry and
+philosophic mysticism of the Arab, stamped these works of Copts,
+Syrians, and Greeks with an unmistakable character of their own, neither
+Byzantine nor Early Christian.
+
+
++ARABIC ARCHITECTURE.+ In the building of mosques and tombs, especially
+at Cairo, this architecture reached a remarkable degree of decorative
+elegance, and sometimes of dignity. It developed slowly, the Arabs not
+being at the outset a race of builders. The early monuments of Syria and
+Egypt were insignificant, and the sacred _Kaabah_ at Mecca and the
+mosque at Medina hardly deserve to be called architectural monuments at
+all. The most important early works were the mosques of +’Amrou+ at
+Cairo (642, rebuilt and enlarged early in the eighth century), of +El
+Aksah+ on the Temple platform at Jerusalem (691, by Abd-el-Melek), and
+of +El Walid+ at Damascus (705-732, recently seriously injured by fire).
+All these were simple one-storied structures, with flat wooden roofs
+carried on parallel ranges of columns supporting pointed arches, the
+arcades either closing one side of a square court, or surrounding it
+completely. The long perspectives of the aisles and the minute
+decoration of the archivolts and ceilings alone gave them architectural
+character. The beautiful +Dome of the Rock+ (Kubbet-es-Sakhrah,
+miscalled the Mosque of Omar) on the Temple platform at Jerusalem is
+either a remodelled Constantinian edifice, or in large part composed of
+the materials of one (see p. 116).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 80.--MOSQUE OF SULTAN HASSAN, CAIRO: SANCTUARY.
+  a, _Mihrâb_, b, _Mimber_.]
+
+The splendid mosque of +Ibn Touloun+ (876-885) was built on the same
+plan as that of Amrou, but with cantoned piers instead of columns and a
+corresponding increase in variety of perspective and richness of effect.
+With the incoming of the Fatimite dynasty, however, and the foundation
+of the present city of Cairo (971), vaulting began to take the place of
+wooden ceilings, and then appeared the germs of those extraordinary
+applications of geometry to decorative design which were henceforth to
+be the most striking feature of Arabic ornament. Under the Ayûb dynasty,
+which began with Salâh-ed-din (Saladin) in 1172, these elements, of
+which the great +Barkouk+ mosque (1149) is the most imposing early
+example, developed slowly in the domical tombs of the _Karafah_ at
+Cairo, and prepared the way for the increasing richness and splendor of
+a long series of mosques, among which those of +Kalaoun+ (1284-1318),
++Sultan Hassan+ (1356), +El Mu’ayyad+ (1415), and +Kaîd Bey+ (1463),
+were the most conspicuous examples (Fig. 80). They mark, indeed,
+successive advances in complexity of planning, ingenuity of
+construction, and elegance of decoration. Together they constitute an
+epoch in Arabic architecture, which coincides closely with the
+development of Gothic vaulted architecture in Europe, both in the stages
+and the duration of its advances.
+
+The mosques of these three centuries are, like the mediæval monasteries,
+impressive aggregations of buildings of various sorts about a central
+court of ablutions. The tomb of the founder, residences for the _imams_,
+or priests, schools (_madrassah_), and hospitals (_mâristân_) rival in
+importance the prayer-chamber. This last is, however, the real focus of
+interest and splendor; in some cases, as in Sultan Hassan, it is a
+simple barrel-vaulted chamber open to the court; in others an oblong
+arcaded hall with many small domes; or again, a square hall covered with
+a high pointed dome on pendentives of intricately beautiful
+stalactite-work (see below). The ceremonial requirements of the mosque
+were simple. The-court must have its fountain of ablutions in the
+centre. The prayer-hall, or mosque proper, must have its _mihrâb_, or
+niche, to indicate the _kibleh_, the direction of Mecca; and its
+_mimber_, or high, slender pulpit for the reading of the Kôran. These
+were the only absolutely indispensable features of a mosque, but as
+early as the ninth century the _minaret_ was added, from which the call
+to prayer could be sounded over the city by the _mueddin_. Not until the
+Ayubite period, however, did it begin to assume those forms of varied
+and picturesque grace which lend to Cairo so much of its architectural
+charm.
+
+
++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ While Arabic architecture, in Syria and Egypt
+alike, possesses more decorative than constructive originality, the
+beautiful forms of its domes, pendentives, and minarets, the simple
+majesty of the great pointed barrel-vaults of the Hassan mosque and
+similar monuments, and the graceful lines of the universally used
+pointed arch, prove the Coptic builders and their later Arabic
+successors to have been architects of great ability. The Arabic domes,
+as seen both in the mosques and in the remarkable group of tombs
+commonly called “tombs of the Khalîfs,” are peculiar not only in their
+pointed outlines and their rich external decoration of interlaced
+geometric motives, but still more in the external and internal treatment
+of the pendentives, exquisitely decorated with stalactite ornament. This
+ornament, derived, no doubt, from a combination of minute corbels with
+rows of small niches, and presumably of Persian origin, was finally
+developed into a system of extraordinary intricacy, applicable alike to
+the topping of a niche or panel, as in the great doorways of the
+mosques, and to the bracketing out of minaret galleries (Figs. 81, 82).
+Its applications show a bewildering variety of forms and an
+extraordinary aptitude for intricate geometrical design.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 81.--MOSQUE OF KAÎD BEY, CAIRO]
+
+
++DECORATION.+ Geometry, indeed, vied with the love of color in its hold
+on the Arabic taste. Ceiling-beams were carved into highly ornamental
+forms before receiving their rich color-decoration of red, green, blue,
+and gold. The doors and the _mimber_ were framed in geometric patterns
+with slender intersecting bars forming complicated star-panelling. The
+voussoirs of arches were cut into curious interlocking forms; doorways
+and niches were covered with stalactite corbelling, and pavements and
+wall-incrustations, whether of marble or tiling, combined brilliancy and
+harmony of color with the perplexing beauty of interlaced
+star-and-polygon patterns of marvellous intricacy. Stained glass added
+to the interior color-effect, the patterns being perforated in plaster,
+with a bit of colored glass set into each perforation--a device not very
+durable, perhaps, but singularly decorative.
+
+
++OTHER WORKS.+ Few of the mediæval Arabic palaces have remained to our
+time. That they were adorned with a splendid prodigality appears from
+contemporary accounts. This splendor was internal rather than external;
+the palace, like all the larger and richer dwellings in the East,
+surrounded one or more courts, and presented externally an almost
+unbroken wall. The fountain in the chief court, the _diwân_ (a great,
+vaulted reception-chamber opening upon the court and raised slightly
+above it), the _dâr_, or men’s court, rigidly separated from the
+_hareem_ for the women, were and are universal elements in these great
+dwellings. The more common city-houses show as their most striking
+features successively corbelled-out stories and broad wooden eaves, with
+lattice-screens covering single windows, or almost a whole façade,
+composed of turned work (_mashrabiyya_), in designs of great beauty.
+
+The fountains, gates, and minor works of the Arabs display the same
+beauty in decoration and color, the same general forms and details which
+characterize the larger works, but it is impossible here to
+particularize further with regard to them.
+
+
++MORESQUE.+ Elsewhere in Northern Africa the Arabs produced no such
+important works as in Egypt, nor is the architecture of the other Moslem
+states so well preserved or so well known. Constructive design would
+appear to have been there even more completely subordinated to
+decoration; tiling and plaster-relief took the place of more
+architectural elements and materials, while horseshoe and cusped arches
+were substituted for the simpler and more architectural pointed arch
+(Fig. 82). The courts of palaces and public buildings were surrounded by
+ranges of horseshoe arches on slender columns; these last being provided
+with capitals of a form rarely seen in Cairo. Towers were built of much
+more massive design than the Cairo minarets, usually with a square,
+almost solid shaft and a more open lantern at the top, sometimes in
+several diminishing stories.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 82.--MOORISH DETAIL, ALHAMBRA.
+  _Showing stalactite and perforated work, Moorish cusped arch,
+  Hispano-Moresque capitals, and decorative inscriptions._]
+
+
++HISPANO-MORESQUE.+ The most splendid phase of this branch of Arabic
+architecture is found not in Africa but in Spain, which was overrun in
+710-713 by the Moors, who established there the independent Khalifate of
+Cordova. This was later split up into petty kingdoms, of which the most
+important were Granada, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia. This
+dismemberment of the Khalifate led in time to the loss of these cities,
+which were one by one recovered by the Christians during the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries; the capture of Granada, in 1492, finally
+destroying the Moorish rule.
+
+The dominion of the Moors in Spain was marked by a high civilization and
+an extraordinary activity in building. The style they introduced became
+the national style in the regions they occupied, and even after the
+expulsion of the Moors was used in buildings erected by Christians and
+by Jews. The “House of Pilate,” at Seville, is an example of this, and
+the general use of the Moorish style in Jewish synagogues, down to our
+own day, both in Spain and abroad, originated in the erection of
+synagogues for the Jews in Spain by Moorish artisans and in Moorish
+style, both during and after the period of Moslem supremacy.
+
+Besides innumerable mosques, castles, bridges, aqueducts, gates, and
+fountains, the Moors erected several monuments of remarkable size and
+magnificence. Specially worthy of notice among them are the Great Mosque
+at Cordova, the Alcazars of Seville and Malaga, the Giralda at Seville,
+and the Alhambra at Granada.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 83.--INTERIOR OF THE GREAT MOSQUE AT CORDOVA.]
+
+The +Mosque at Cordova+, begun in 786 by ‘Abd-er-Rahman, enlarged in
+876, and again by El Mansour in 976, is a vast arcaded hall 375 feet ×
+420 feet in extent, but only 30 feet high (Fig. 83). The rich wooden
+ceiling rests upon seventeen rows of thirty to thirty-three columns
+each, and two intersecting rows of piers, all carrying horseshoe arches
+in two superposed ranges, a large portion of those about the sanctuary
+being cusped, the others plain, except for the alternation of color in
+the voussoirs. The _mihrâb_ niche is particularly rich in its minutely
+carved incrustations and mosaics, and a dome ingeniously formed by
+intersecting ribs covers the sanctuary before it. This form of dome
+occurs frequently in Spain.
+
+The +Alcazars+ at Seville and Malaga, which have been restored in recent
+years, present to-day a fairly correct counterpart of the castle-palaces
+of the thirteenth century. They display the same general conceptions and
+decorative features as the Alhambra, which they antedate. The +Giralda+
+at Seville is, on the other hand, unique. It is a lofty rectangular
+tower, its exterior panelled and covered with a species of
+quarry-ornament in relief; it terminated originally in two or three
+diminishing stages or lanterns, which were replaced in the sixteenth
+century by the present Renaissance belfry.
+
+The +Alhambra+ is universally considered to be the masterpiece of
+Hispano-Moresque art, partly no doubt on account of its excellent
+preservation. It is most interesting as an example of the splendid
+citadel-palaces built by the Moorish conquerors, as well as for its
+gorgeous color-decoration of minute quarry-ornament stamped or moulded
+in the wet plaster wherever the walls are not wainscoted with tiles. It
+was begun in 1248 by Mohammed-ben-Al-Hamar, enlarged in 1279 by his
+successor, and again in 1306, when its mosque was built. Its plan (Fig.
+84) shows two large courts and a smaller one next the mosque, with three
+great square chambers and many of minor importance. Light arcades
+surround the Court of the Lions with its fountain, and adorn the ends of
+the other chief court; and the stalactite pendentive, rare in Moorish
+work, appears in the “Hall of Ambassadors” and some other parts of the
+edifice. But its chief glory is its ornamentation, less durable, less
+architectural than that of the Cairene buildings, but making up for this
+in delicacy and richness. Minute vine-patterns and Arabic inscriptions
+are interwoven with waving intersecting lines, forming a net-like
+framework, to all of which deep red, blue, black, and gold give an
+indescribable richness of effect.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 84.--PLAN OF THE ALHAMBRA.
+  A, _Hall of Ambassadors_; a, _Mosque_; b, _Court of Mosque_;
+  c, _Sala della Barca_; _d, d_, _Baths_; e, _Hall of the
+  Two Sisters_; _f, f, f_, _Hall of the Tribunal_;
+  g, _Hall of the Abencerrages_.]
+
+The Moors also overran Sicily in the eighth century, but while their
+architecture there profoundly influenced that of the Christians who
+recovered Sicily in 1090, and copied the style of the conquered Moslems,
+there is too little of the original Moorish architecture remaining to
+claim mention here.
+
+
++SASSANIAN.+ The Sassanian empire, which during the four centuries from
+226 to 641 A.D. had withstood Rome and extended its own sway almost to
+India, left on Persian soil a number of interesting monuments which
+powerfully influenced the Mohammedan style of that region. The Sassanian
+buildings appear to have been principally palaces, and were all vaulted.
+With their long barrel-vaulted halls, combined with square domical
+chambers, as in Firouz-Abad and Serbistan, they exhibit reminiscences of
+antique Assyrian tradition. The ancient Persian use of columns was
+almost entirely abandoned, but doors and windows were still treated with
+the banded frames and cavetto-cornices of Persepolis and Susa. The
+Sassanians employed with these exterior details others derived perhaps
+from Syrian and Byzantine sources. A sort of engaged buttress-column and
+blind arches repeated somewhat aimlessly over a whole façade were
+characteristic features; still more so the huge arches, elliptical or
+horse-shoe shaped, which formed the entrances to these palaces, as in
+the Tâk-Kesra at Ctesiphon. Ornamental details of a debased Roman type
+appear, mingled with more gracefully flowing leaf-patterns resembling
+early Christian Syrian carving. The last great monument of this style
+was the palace at Mashita in Moab, begun by the last Chosroes (627), but
+never finished, an imposing and richly ornamented structure about 500 ×
+170 feet, occupying the centre of a great court.
+
+
++PERSIAN-MOSLEM ARCHITECTURE.+ These Sassanian palaces must have
+strongly influenced Persian architecture after the Arab conquest in 641.
+For although the architecture of the first six centuries after that date
+suffered almost absolute extinction at the hands of the Mongols under
+Genghis Khan, the traces of Sassanian influence are still perceptible in
+the monuments that rose in the following centuries. The dome and vault,
+the colossal portal-arches, and the use of brick and tile are evidences
+of this influence, bearing no resemblance to Byzantine or Arabic types.
+The Moslem monuments of Persia, so far as their dates can be
+ascertained, are all subsequent to 1200, unless tradition is correct in
+assigning to the time of Haroun Ar Rashid (786) certain curious tombs
+near Bagdad with singular pyramidal roofs. The ruined mosque at Tabriz
+(1300), and the beautiful domical +Tomb+ at +Sultaniyeh+ (1313) belong
+to the Mogul period. They show all the essential features of the later
+architecture of the Sufis (1499-1694), during whose dynastic period were
+built the still more splendid and more celebrated +Meidan+ or square,
+the great mosque of Mesjid Shah, the Bazaar and the College or Medress
+of Hussein Shah, all at Ispahan, and many other important monuments at
+Ispahan, Bagdad, and Teheran. In these structures four elements
+especially claim attention; the pointed bulbous dome, the round minaret,
+the portal-arch rising above the adjacent portions of the building, and
+the use of enamelled terra-cotta tiles as an external decoration. To
+these may be added the ogee arch (_ogee_ = double-reversed curve), as an
+occasional feature. The vaulting is most ingenious and beautiful, and
+its forms, whether executed in brick or in plaster, are sufficiently
+varied without resort to the perplexing complications of stalactite
+work. In Persian decoration the most striking qualities are the harmony
+of blended color, broken up into minute patterns and more subdued in
+tone than in the Hispano-Moresque, and the preference of flowing lines
+and floral ornament to the geometric puzzles of Arabic design. Persian
+architecture influenced both Turkish and Indo-Moslem art, which owe to
+it a large part of their decorative charm.
+
+
++INDO-MOSLEM.+ The Mohammedan architecture of India is so distinct from
+all the native Indian styles and so related to the art of Persia, if not
+to that of the Arabs, that it properly belongs here rather than in the
+later chapter on Oriental styles. It was in the eleventh century that
+the states of India first began to fall before Mohammedan invaders, but
+not until the end of the fifteenth century that the great Mogul dynasty
+was established in Hindostan as the dominant power. During the
+intervening period local schools of Moslem architecture were developing
+in the Pathan country of Northern India (1193-1554), in Jaunpore and
+Gujerat (1396-1572), in Scinde, where Persian influence predominated; in
+Kalburgah and Bidar (1347-1426). These schools differed considerably in
+spirit and detail; but under the Moguls (1494-1706) there was less
+diversity, and to this dynasty we owe many of the most magnificent
+mosques and tombs of India, among which those of Bijapur retain a marked
+and distinct style of their own.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 85.--TOMB OF MAHMUD, BIJAPUR. SECTION.]
+
+The Mohammedan monuments of India are characterized by a grandeur and
+amplitude of disposition, a symmetry and monumental dignity of design
+which distinguishes them widely from the picturesque but sometimes
+trivial buildings of the Arabs and Moors. Less dependent on color than
+the Moorish or Persian structures, they are usually built of marble, or
+of marble and sandstone, giving them an air of permanence and solidity
+wanting in other Moslem styles except the Turkish. The dome, the round
+minaret, the pointed arch, and the colossal portal-arch, are universal,
+as in Persia, and enamelled tiles are also used, but chiefly for
+interior decoration. Externally the more dignified if less resplendent
+decoration of surface carving is used, in patterns of minute and
+graceful scrolls, leaf forms, and Arabic inscriptions covering large
+surfaces. The Arabic stalactite pendentive star-panelling and
+geometrical interlace are rarely if ever seen. The dome on the square
+plan is almost universal, but neither the Byzantine nor the Arabic
+pendentive is used, striking and original combinations of vaulting
+surfaces, of corner squinches, of corbelling and ribs, being used in its
+place. Many of the Pathan domes and arches at Delhi, Ajmir, Ahmedabad,
+Shepree, etc., are built in horizontal or corbelled courses supported on
+slender columns, and exert no thrust at all, so that they are vaults
+only in form, like the dome of the Tholos of Atreus (Fig. 24). The most
+imposing and original of all Indian domes are those of the +Jumma
+Musjid+ and of the +Tomb of Mahmud+, both at Bijapur, the latter 137
+feet in span (Fig. 85). These two monuments, indeed, with the Mogul Taj
+Mahal at Agra, not only deserve the first rank among Indian monuments,
+but in constructive science combined with noble proportions and
+exquisite beauty are hardly, if at all, surpassed by the greatest
+triumphs of western art. The Indo-Moslem architects, moreover,
+especially those of the Mogul period, excelled in providing artistic
+settings for their monuments. Immense platforms, superb courts, imposing
+flights of steps, noble gateways, minarets to mark the angles of
+enclosures, and landscape gardening of a high order, enhance greatly the
+effect of the great mosques, tombs, and palaces of Agra, Delhi,
+Futtehpore Sikhri, Allahabad, Secundra, etc.
+
+The most notable monuments of the Moguls are the +Mosque of Akbar+
+(1556-1605) at Futtehpore Sikhri, the tomb of that sultan at Secundra,
+and his palace at Allahabad; the +Pearl Mosque+ at Agra and the +Jumma
+Musjid+ at Delhi, one of the largest and noblest of Indian mosques, both
+built by Shah Jehan about 1650; his immense but now ruined palace in the
+same city; and finally the unrivalled mausoleum, the +Taj Mahal+ at
+Agra, built during his lifetime as a festal hall, to serve as his tomb
+after death (Fig. 86). This last is the pearl of Indian architecture,
+though it is said to have been designed by a European architect, French
+or Italian. It is a white marble structure 185 feet square, centred in a
+court 313 feet square, forming a platform 18 feet high. The corners of
+this court are marked by elegant minarets, and the whole is dominated by
+the exquisite white marble dome, 58 feet in diameter, 80 feet high,
+internally rising over four domical corner chapels, and covered
+externally by a lofty marble bulb-dome on a high drum. The rich
+materials, beautiful execution, and exquisite inlaying of this mausoleum
+are worthy of its majestic design. On the whole, in the architecture of
+the Moguls in Bijapur, Agra, and Delhi, Mohammedan architecture reaches
+its highest expression in the totality and balance of its qualities of
+construction, composition, detail, ornament, and settings. The later
+monuments show the decline of the style, and though often rich and
+imposing, are lacking in refinement and originality.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 86.--TAJ MAHAL, AGRA.]
+
+
++TURKISH.+ The Ottoman Turks, who began their conquering career under
+Osman I. in Bithynia in 1299, had for a century been occupying the
+fairest portions of the Byzantine empire when, in 1453, they became
+masters of Constantinople. Hagia Sophia was at once occupied as their
+chief mosque, and such of the other churches as were spared, were
+divided between the victors and the vanquished. The conqueror, Mehmet
+II., at the same time set about the building of a new mosque, entrusting
+the design to a Byzantine, Christodoulos, whom he directed to reproduce,
+with some modifications, the design of the “Great Church”--Hagia Sophia.
+The type thus officially adopted has ever since remained the controlling
+model of Turkish mosque design, so far, at least, as general plan and
+constructive principles are concerned. Thus the conquering Turks,
+educated by a century of study and imitation of Byzantine models in
+Brusa, Nicomedia, Smyrna, Adrianople, and other cities earlier
+subjugated, did what the Byzantines had, during nine centuries, failed
+to do. The noble idea first expressed by Anthemius and Isidorus in the
+Church of Hagia Sophia had remained undeveloped, unimitated by later
+architects. It was the Turk who first seized upon its possibilities, and
+developed therefrom a style of architecture less sumptuous in color and
+decoration than the sister styles of Persia, Cairo, or India, but of
+great nobility and dignity, notwithstanding. The low-curved dome with
+its crown of buttressed windows, the plain spherical pendentives, the
+great apses at each end, covered by half-domes and penetrated by smaller
+niches, the four massive piers with their projecting buttress-masses
+extending across the broad lateral aisles, the narthex and the arcaded
+atrium in front--all these appear in the great Turkish mosques of
+Constantinople. In the Conqueror’s mosque, however, two apses with
+half-domes replace the lateral galleries and clearstory of Hagia Sophia,
+making a perfectly quadripartite plan, destitute of the emphasis and
+significance of a plan drawn on one main axis (Fig. 87). The same
+treatment occurs in the mosque of Ahmed I., the +Ahmediyeh+ (1608; Fig.
+88), and the +Yeni Djami+ (“New Mosque”) at the port (1665). In the
+mosque of +Osman III.+ (1755) the reverse change was effected; the
+mosque has no great apses, four clearstories filling the four arches
+under the dome, as also in several of the later and smaller mosques. The
+greatest and noblest of the Turkish mosques, the +Suleimaniyeh+, built
+in 1553 by Soliman the Magnificent, returned to the Byzantine
+combination of two half-domes with two clearstories (Fig. 89).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 87.--MOSQUE OF MEHMET II., CONSTANTINOPLE.
+  PLAN.
+  (The dimensions figured in metres.)]
+
+In none of these monuments is there the internal magnificence of marble
+and mosaic of the Byzantine churches. These are only in a measure
+replaced by Persian tile-wainscoting and stained-glass windows of the
+Arabic type. The division into stories and the treatment of scale are
+less well managed than in the Hagia Sophia; on the other hand, the
+proportion of height to width is generally admirable. The exterior
+treatment is unique and effective, far superior to the Byzantine
+practice. The massing of domes and half-domes and roofs is more
+artistically arranged; and while there is little of that minute carved
+detail found in Egypt and India, the composition of the lateral arcades,
+the simple but impressive domical peristyles of the courts, and the
+graceful forms of the pointed arches, with alternating voussoirs of
+white and black marble, are artistic in a high degree. The minarets are,
+however, inferior to those of Indian, Persian, and Arabic art, though
+graceful in their proportions.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 88.--EXTERIOR AHMEDIYEH MOSQUE.]
+
+Nearly all the great mosques are accompanied by the domical tombs
+(_turbeh_) of their imperial founders. Some of these are of noble size
+and great beauty of proportion and decoration. The +Tomb of Roxelana+
+(Khourrem), the favorite wife of Soliman the Magnificent (1553), is the
+most beautiful of all, and perhaps the most perfect gem of Turkish
+architecture, with its elegant arcade surrounding the octagonal domical
+mausoleum-chamber. The +monumental fountains+ of Constantinople also
+deserve mention. Of these, the one erected by Ahmet III. (1710), near
+Hagia Sophia, is the most beautiful. They usually consist of a
+rectangular marble reservoir with pagoda-like roof and broad eaves, the
+four faces of the fountain adorned each with a niche and basin, and
+covered with relief carving and gilded inscriptions.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 89.--INTERIOR OF SULEIMANIYEH,
+  CONSTANTINOPLE.]
+
+
++PALACES.+ In this department the Turks have done little of importance.
+The buildings in the Seraglio gardens are low and insignificant. The
++Tchinli Kiosque+, now the Imperial Museum, is however, a simple but
+graceful two-storied edifice, consisting of four vaulted chambers in the
+angles of a fine cruciform hall, with domes treated like those of
+Bijapur on a small scale; the tiling and the veranda in front are
+particularly elegant; the design suggests Persian handiwork. The later
+palaces, designed by Armenians, are picturesque white marble and stucco
+buildings on the water’s edge; they possess richly decorated halls, but
+the details are of a debased European rococo style, quite unworthy of an
+Oriental monarch.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ ARABIAN: “Mosque of Omar,” or Dome of the Rock, 638;
+  El Aksah, by ’Abd-el-Melek, 691, both at Jerusalem; Mosque ’Amrou
+  at Cairo, 642; mosques at Cyrene, 665; great mosque of El Walîd,
+  Damascus, 705-717. Bagdad built, 755. Great mosque at Kairouân,
+  737. At Cairo, Ibn Touloun, 876; Gama-El-Azhar, 971; Barkouk,
+  1149; “Tombs of Khalîfs” (Karafah), 1250-1400; Moristan Kalaoun,
+  1284; Medresseh Sultan Hassan, 1356; El Azhar enlarged; El Mûayed,
+  1415; Kaïd Bey, 1463; Sinan Pacha, 1468; “Tombs of Mamelukes,”
+  16th century. Also palaces, baths, fountains, mosques, and tombs.
+  MORESQUE: Mosque at Saragossa, 713; mosque and arsenal at Tunis,
+  742; great mosque at Cordova, 786, 876, 975; sanctuary, 14th
+  century. Mosques, baths, etc., at Cordova, Tarragona, Segovia,
+  Toledo, 960-980; mosque of Sobeiha at Cordova, 981. Palaces and
+  mosques at Fez; great mosque at Seville, 1172. Extensive building
+  in Morocco close of 12th century. Giralda at Seville, 1160;
+  Alcazars in Malaga and Seville, 1225-1300; Alhambra and Generalife
+  at Granada, 1248, 1279, 1306; also mosques, baths, etc. Yussuf
+  builds palace at Malaga, 1348; palaces at Granada. PERSIAN: Tombs
+  near Bagdad, 786 (?); mosque at Tabriz, 1300; tomb of Khodabendeh
+  at Sultaniyeh, 1313; Meidan Shah (square) and Mesjid Shah (mosque)
+  at Ispahan, 17th century; Medresseh (school) of Sultan Hussein,
+  18th century; palaces of Chehil Soutoun (forty columns) and Aineh
+  Khaneh (Palace of Mirrors). Baths, tombs, bazaars, etc., at
+  Cashan, Koum, Kasmin, etc. Aminabad Caravanserai between Shiraz
+  and Ispahan; bazaar at Ispahan.
+
+  INDIAN: Mosque and “Kutub Minar” (tower) _cir._ 1200; Tomb of
+  Altumsh, 1236; mosque at Ajmir, 1211-1236; tomb at Old Delhi;
+  Adina Mosque, Maldah, 1358. Mosques Jumma Musjid and Lal Durwaza
+  at Jaunpore, first half of 15th century. Mosque and bazaar,
+  Kalburgah, 1435 (?). Mosques at Ahmedabad and Sirkedj, middle 15th
+  century. Mosque Jumma Musjid and Tomb of Mahmûd, Bijapur, _cir._
+  1550. Tomb of Humayûn, Delhi; of Mohammed Ghaus, Gwalior; mosque
+  at Futtehpore Sikhri; palace at Allahabad; tomb of Akbar at
+  Secundra, all by Akbar, 1556-1605. Palace and Jumma Musjid at
+  Delhi; Muti Musjid (Pearl mosque) and Taj Mahal at Agra, by Shah
+  Jehan, 1628-1658.
+
+  TURKISH: Tomb of Osman, Brusa, 1326; Green Mosque (Yeshil Djami)
+  Brusa, _cir._ 1350. Mosque at Isnik (Nicæa), 1376. Mehmediyeh
+  (mosque Mehmet II.) Constantinople, 1453; mosque at Eyoub; Tchinli
+  Kiosque, by Mehmet II., 1450-60; mosque Bayazid, 1500; Selim I.,
+  1520; Suleimaniyeh, by Sinan, 1553; Ahmediyeh by Ahmet I., 1608;
+  Yeni Djami, 1665; Nouri Osman, by Osman III., 1755; mosque
+  Mohammed Ali in Cairo, 1824. Mosque at Adrianople. KHANS,
+  cloistered courts for public business and commercial lodgers,
+  various dates, 16th and 17th centuries (Validé Khan, Vizir Khan),
+  vaulted bazaars, fountains, Seraskierat Tower, all at
+  Constantinople.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+EARLY MEDIÆVAL ARCHITECTURE
+
+IN ITALY AND FRANCE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Cattaneo, _L’Architecture en Italie_. Chapuy,
+  _Le moyen age monumental_. Corroyer, _Architecture romane_.
+  Cummings, _A History of Architecture in Italy_. Enlart, _Manuel
+  d’archéologie française_. Hübsch, _Monuments de l’architecture
+  chrétienne_. Knight, _Churches of Northern Italy_. Lenoir,
+  _Architecture monastique_. Osten, _Bauwerke in der Lombardei_.
+  Quicherat, _Mélanges d’histoire et d’archéologie_. Reber, _History
+  of Mediæval Architecture_. Révoil, _Architecture romane du midi de
+  la France_. Rohault de Fleury, _Monuments de Pise_. Sharpe,
+  _Churches of Charente_. De Verneilh, _L’Architecture byzantine en
+  France_. Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture
+  française_ (especially in Vol. I., Architecture religieuse);
+  _Discourses on Architecture_.
+
+
++EARLY MEDIÆVAL EUROPE.+ The fall of the Western Empire in 476 A.D.
+marked the beginning of a new era in architecture outside of the
+Byzantine Empire. The so-called Dark Ages which followed this event
+constituted the formative period of the new Western civilization, during
+which the Celtic and Germanic races were being Christianized and
+subjected to the authority and to the educative influences of the
+Church. Under these conditions a new architecture was developed, founded
+upon the traditions of the early Christian builders, modified in
+different regions by Roman or Byzantine influences. For Rome recovered
+early her antique prestige, and Roman monuments covering the soil of
+Southern Europe, were a constant object lesson to the builders of that
+time. To this new architecture of the West, which in the tenth and
+eleventh centuries first began to achieve worthy and monumental results,
+the generic name of +Romanesque+ has been commonly given, in spite of
+the great diversity of its manifestations in different countries.
+
+
++CHARACTER OF THE ARCHITECTURE.+ Romanesque architecture was
+pre-eminently ecclesiastical. Civilization and culture emanated from the
+Church, and her requirements and discipline gave form to the builder’s
+art. But the basilican style, which had so well served her purposes in
+the earlier centuries and on classic soil, was ill-suited to the new
+conditions. Corinthian columns, marble incrustations, and splendid
+mosaics were not to be had for the asking in the forests of Gaul or
+Germany, nor could the Lombards and Ostrogoths in Italy or their
+descendants reproduce them. The basilican style was complete in itself,
+possessing no seeds of further growth. The priests and monks of Italy
+and Western Europe sought to rear with unskilled labor churches of stone
+in which the general dispositions of the basilica should reappear in
+simpler, more massive dress, and, as far as possible, in a fireproof
+construction with vaults of stone. This problem underlies all the varied
+phases of Romanesque architecture; its final solution was not, however,
+reached until the Gothic period, to which the Romanesque forms the
+transition and stepping-stone.
+
+
++MEDIÆVAL ITALY.+ Italy in the Dark Ages stood midway between the
+civilization of the Eastern Empire and the semi-barbarism of the West.
+Rome, Ravenna, and Venice early became centres of culture and maintained
+continuous commercial relations with the East. Architecture did not lack
+either the inspiration or the means for advancing on new lines. But its
+advance was by no means the same everywhere. The unifying influence of
+the church was counterbalanced by the provincialism and the local
+diversities of the various Italian states, resulting in a wide variety
+of styles. These, however, may be broadly grouped in four divisions: the
++Lombard+, the +Tuscan-Romanesque+, the +Italo-Byzantine+, and the
+unchanged +Basilican+ or Early Christian, which last, as was shown in
+Chapter X., continued to be practised in Rome throughout the Middle
+Ages.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 90.--INTERIOR OF SAN AMBROGIO, MILAN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 91.--WEST FRONT AND CAMPANILE OF CATHEDRAL,
+  PIACENZA.]
+
++LOMBARD STYLE.+ Owing to the general rebuilding of ancient churches
+under the more settled social conditions of the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries, little remains to us of the architecture of the three
+preceding centuries in Italy, except the Roman basilicas and a few
+baptisteries and circular churches, already mentioned in Chapter X. The
+so-called Lombard monuments belong mainly to the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries. They are found not only in Lombardy, but also in Venetia and
+the Æmilia. Milan, Pavia, Piacenza, Bologna, and Verona were important
+centres of development of this style. The churches were nearly all
+vaulted, but the plans were basilican, with such variations as resulted
+from efforts to meet the exigencies of vaulted construction. The nave
+was narrowed, and instead of rows of columns carrying a thin clearstory
+wall, a few massive piers of masonry, connected by broad pier-arches,
+supported the heavy ribs of the groined vaulting, as in S. Ambrogio,
+Milan (Fig. 90). To resist the thrust of the main vault, the clearstory
+was sometimes suppressed, the side aisle carried up in two stories
+forming galleries, and rows of chapels added at the sides, their
+partitions forming buttresses. The piers were often of clustered
+section, the better to receive the various arches and ribs they
+supported. The vaulting was in square divisions or _vaulting-bays_, each
+embracing two pier-arches which met upon an intermediate pier lighter
+than the others. Thus the whole aspect of the interior was
+revolutionized. The lightness, spaciousness, and decorative elegance of
+the basilicas were here exchanged for a sombre and massive dignity
+severe in its plainness. The Choir was sometimes raised a few feet above
+the nave, to allow of a crypt and _confessio_ beneath, reached by broad
+flights of steps from the nave. Sta. Maria della Pieve at Arezzo
+(9th-11th century), +S. Michele+ at Pavia (late 11th century), the
++Cathedral of Piacenza+ (1122), +S. Ambrogio+ at Milan (12th century),
+and +S. Zeno+ at Verona (1139) are notable monuments of this style.
+
+
++LOMBARD EXTERIORS.+ The few architectural embellishments employed on
+the simple exteriors of the Lombard churches were usually effective and
+well composed. Slender columnettes or long pilasters, blind arcades, and
+open arcaded galleries under the eaves gave light and shade to these
+exteriors. The façades were mere frontispieces with a single broad
+gable, the three aisles of the church being merely suggested by flat or
+round pilasters dividing the front (Fig 91). Gabled porches, with
+columns resting on the backs of lions or monsters, adorned the doorways.
+The carving was often of a fierce and grotesque character. Detached
+bell-towers or _campaniles_ adjoined many of these churches; square and
+simple in mass, but with well-distributed openings and well-proportioned
+belfries (Piacenza S. Zeno at Verona, etc.).[18]
+
+    [Footnote 18: See Appendix B.]
+
+
++THE TUSCAN ROMANESQUE.+ The churches of this style (sometimes called
+the +Pisan+) were less vigorous but more elegant and artistic in design
+than the Lombard. They were basilicas in plan, with timber ceilings and
+high clearstories on columnar arcades. In their decoration, both
+internal and external, they betray the influence of Byzantine
+traditions, especially in the use of white and colored marble in
+alternating bands or in panelled veneering. Still more striking is the
+external decorative application of wall-arcades, sometimes occupying the
+whole height of the wall and carried on flat pilasters, sometimes in
+superposed stages of small arches on slender columns standing free of
+the wall. In general the decorative element prevailed over the
+constructive in the design of these picturesquely beautiful churches,
+some of which are of noble size. The +Duomo+ (cathedral) of +Pisa+,
+built 1063-1118, is the finest monument of the style (Figs. 92, 93). It
+is 312 feet long and 118 wide, with long transepts and an elliptical
+dome of later date over the _crossing_ (the intersection of nave and
+transepts). Its richly arcaded front and banded flanks strikingly
+exemplify the illogical and unconstructive but highly decorative methods
+of the Tuscan Romanesque builders. The circular +Baptistery+ (1153),
+with its lofty domical central hall surrounded by an aisle, an imposing
+development of the type established by Constantine (p. 111), and the
+famous +Leaning Tower+ (1174), both designed with external arcading,
+combine with the Duomo to form the most remarkable group of
+ecclesiastical buildings in Italy, if not in Europe (Fig. 92).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 92.--BAPTISTERY, CATHEDRAL,
+  AND LEANING TOWER, PISA.]
+
+The same style appears in more flamboyant shape in some of the churches
+of Lucca. The cathedral +S. Martino+ (1060; façade, 1204; nave altered
+in fourteenth century) is the finest and largest of these; +S. Michele+
+(façade, 1288) and S. Frediano (twelfth century) have the most
+elaborately decorated façades. The same principles of design appear in
+the cathedral and several other churches in Pistoia and Prato; but these
+belong, for the most part, to the Gothic period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 93.--INTERIOR OF PISA CATHEDRAL.]
+
+
++FLORENCE.+ The church of +S. Miniato+, in the suburbs of Florence, is a
+beautiful example of a modification of the Pisan style. It is in plan a
+basilica with two piers interrupting the colonnade on each side of the
+nave and supporting powerful transverse arches. The interior is
+embellished with bands and patterns in black and white, and the woodwork
+of the open-timber roof is elegantly decorated with fine patterns in
+red, green, blue, and gold--a treatment common in early mediæval
+churches, as at Messina, Orvieto, etc. The exterior is adorned with
+wall-arches of classic design and with panelled veneering in white and
+dark marble, instead of the horizontal bands of the Pisan churches. This
+system of external decoration, a blending of Pisan and Italo-Byzantine
+methods, became the established practice in Florence, lasting through
+the whole Gothic period. The +Baptistery+ of Florence, originally the
+cathedral, an imposing polygonal domical edifice of the tenth century,
+presents externally one of the most admirable examples of this practice.
+Its marble veneering in black and white, with pilasters and arches of
+excellent design, is attributed by Vasari to Arnolfo di Cambio, but is
+by many considered to be much older, although restored by that architect
+in 1294.
+
+Suggestions of the Pisan arcade system are found in widely scattered
+examples in the east and south of Italy, mingled with features of
+Lombard and Byzantine design. In Apulia, as at Bari, Caserta Vecchia
+(1100), Molfetta (1192), and in Sicily, the Byzantine influence is
+conspicuous in the use of domes and in many of the decorative details.
+Particularly is this the case at Palermo and Monreale, where the
+churches erected after the Norman conquest--some of them domical, some
+basilican--show a strange but picturesque and beautiful mixture of
+Romanesque, Byzantine, and Arabic forms. The +Cathedral+ of +Monreale+
+and the churches of the +Eremiti+ and +La Martorana+ at Palermo are the
+most important.
+
+The +Italo-Byzantine+ style has already found mention in the latter part
+of Chapter XI. Venice and Ravenna were its chief centres; while the
+influence, both of the parent style and of its Italian offshoot was, as
+we have just shown, very widespread.
+
+
++WESTERN ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.+ In Western Europe the unrest and
+lawlessness which attended the unsettled relations of society under the
+feudal system long retarded the establishment of that social order
+without which architectural progress is impossible. With the eleventh
+century there began, however, a great activity in building, principally
+among the monasteries, which represented all that there was of culture
+and stability amid the prevailing disorder. Undisturbed by war, the only
+abodes of peaceful labor, learning, and piety, they had become rich and
+powerful, both in men and land. Probably the more or less general
+apprehension of the supposed impending end of the world in the year 1000
+contributed to this result by driving unquiet consciences to seek refuge
+in the monasteries, or to endow them richly.
+
+The monastic builders, with little technical training, but with plenty
+of willing hands, sought out new architectural paths to meet their
+special needs. Remote from classic and Byzantine models, and mainly
+dependent on their own resources, they often failed to realize the
+intended results. But skill came with experience, and with advancing
+civilization and a surer mastery of construction came a finer taste and
+greater elegance of design. Meanwhile military architecture developed a
+new science of building, and covered Europe with imposing castles,
+admirably constructed and often artistic in design as far as military
+exigencies would permit.
+
+
++CHARACTER OF THE STYLE.+ The Romanesque architecture of the eleventh
+and twelfth centuries in Western Europe (sometimes called the
++Round-Arched Gothic+) was thus predominantly though not exclusively
+monastic. This gave it a certain unity of character in spite of national
+and local variations. The problem which the wealthy orders set
+themselves was, like that of the Lombard church-builders in Italy, to
+adapt the basilica plan to the exigencies of vaulted construction.
+Massive walls, round arches stepped or recessed to lighten their
+appearance, heavy mouldings richly carved, clustered piers and
+jamb-shafts, capitals either of the _cushion_ type or imitated from the
+Corinthian, and strong and effective carving--all these are features
+alike of French, German, English, and Spanish Romanesque architecture.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 94.--PLAN OF ST. FRONT.]
+
++THE FRENCH ROMANESQUE.+ Though monasticism produced remarkable results
+in France, architecture there did not wholly depend upon the
+monasteries. Southern Gaul (Provence) was full of classic remains and
+classic traditions while at the same time it maintained close trade
+relations with Venice and the East.[19] The church of +St. Front+ at
+Perigueux, built in 1120, reproduced the plan of St. Mark’s with
+singular fidelity, but without its rich decoration, and with pointed
+instead of round arches (Figs. 94, 95). The domical cathedral of
++Cahors+ (1050-1100), an obvious imitation of S. Irene at
+Constantinople, and the later and more Gothic Cathedral of +Angoulême+
+display a notable advance in architectural skill outside of the
+monasteries. Among the abbeys, +Fontevrault+ (1101-1119) closely
+resembles Angoulême, but surpasses it in the elegance of its choir and
+chapels. In these and a number of other domical churches of the same
+Franco-Byzantine type in Aquitania, the substitution of the Latin cross
+in the plan for the Greek cross used in St. Front, evinces the Gallic
+tendency to work out to their logical end new ideas or new applications
+of old ones. These striking variations on Byzantine themes might have
+developed into an independent local style but for the overwhelming tide
+of Gothic influence which later poured in from the North.
+
+    [Footnote 19: See Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire raisonné_, article
+    ARCHITECTURE, vol. i., pp. 66 _et seq._; also de Verneilh,
+    _L’Architecture byzantine en France_.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 95.--INTERIOR OF ST. FRONT, PERIGUEUX.]
+
+Meanwhile, farther south (at Arles, Avignon, etc.), classic models
+strongly influenced the details, if not the plans, of an interesting
+series of churches remarkable especially for their porches rich with
+figure sculpture and for their elaborately carved details. The classic
+archivolt, the Corinthian capital, the Roman forms of enriched
+mouldings, are evident at a glance in the porches of Notre Dame des Doms
+at Avignon, of the church of St. Gilles, and of St. Trophime at Arles.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 96.--PLAN OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT, CLERMONT.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 97.--SECTION OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT, CLERMONT.]
+
++DEVELOPMENT OF VAULTING.+ It was in Central France, and mainly along
+the Loire, that the systematic development of vaulted church
+architecture began. Naves covered with barrel-vaults appear in a number
+of large churches built during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, with
+apsidal and transeptal chapels and aisles carried around the apse, as in
+St. Etienne, Nevers, +Notre Dame du Port+ at Clermont-Ferrand (Fig. 96),
+and +St. Paul+ at Issoire. The thrust of these ponderous vaults was
+clumsily resisted by half-barrel vaults over the side-aisles,
+transmitting the strain to massive side-walls (Fig. 97), or by high
+side-aisles with transverse barrel or groined vaults over each bay. In
+either case the clearstory was suppressed--a fact which mattered little
+in the sunny southern provinces. In the more cloudy North, in Normandy,
+Picardy, and the Royal Domain, the nave-vault was raised higher to admit
+of clearstory windows, and its section was in some cases made like a
+pointed arch, to diminish its thrust, as at +Autun+. But these
+eleventh-century vaults nearly all fell in, and had to be reconstructed
+on new principles. In this work the Clunisians seem to have led the way,
+as at +Cluny+ (1089) and +Vézelay+ (1100). In the latter church, one of
+the finest and most interesting French edifices of the twelfth century,
+a groined vault replaced the barrel-vault, though the oblong plan of the
+vaulting-bays, due to the nave being wider than the pier-arches, led to
+somewhat awkward twisted surfaces in the vaulting. But even here the
+vaults had insufficient lateral buttressing, and began to crack and
+settle; so that in the great ante-chapel, built thirty years later, the
+side-aisles were made in two stories, the better to resist the thrust,
+and the groined vaults themselves were constructed of pointed section.
+These seem to be the earliest pointed groined vaults in France. It was
+not till the second half of that century, however (1150-1200), that the
+flying buttress was combined with such vaults, so as to permit of high
+clearstories for the better lighting of the nave; and the problem of
+satisfactorily vaulting an oblong space with a groined vault was not
+solved until the following century.
+
+
++ONE-AISLED CHURCHES.+ In the Franco-Byzantine churches already
+described (p. 164) this difficulty of the oblong vaulting-bay did not
+occur, owing to the absence of side-aisles and pier-arches. Following
+this conception of church-planning, a number of interesting parish
+churches and a few cathedrals were built in various parts of France in
+which side-recesses or chapels took the place of side-aisles. The
+partitions separating them served as abutments for the groined or
+barrel-vaults of the nave. The cathedrals of +Autun+ (1150) and
++Langres+ (1160), and in the fourteenth century that of Alby, employed
+this arrangement, common in many earlier Provençal churches which have
+disappeared.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 98.--A SIX-PART RIBBED VAULT, SHOWING
+  TWO COMPARTMENTS WITH THE FILLINGS COMPLETE.
+  _a, a_, _Transverse ribs_ (_doubleaux_); _b, b_, _Wall-ribs_
+  (_formerets_); _c, c_, _Groin-ribs_ (_diagonaux_).
+  (All the ribs are semicircles.)]
+
++SIX-PART VAULTING.+ In the Royal Domain great architectural activity
+does not appear to have begun until the beginning of the Gothic period
+in the middle of the twelfth century. But in Normandy, and especially at
+Caen and Mont St. Michel, there were produced, between 1046 and 1120,
+some remarkable churches, in which a high clearstory was secured in
+conjunction with a vaulted nave, by the use of “six-part” vaulting (Fig.
+98). This was an awkward expedient, by which a square vaulting-bay was
+divided into six parts by the groins and by a middle transverse rib,
+necessitating two narrow skew vaults meeting at the centre. This
+unsatisfactory device was retained for over a century, and was common in
+early Gothic churches both in France and Great Britain. It made it
+possible to resist the thrust by high side-aisles, and yet to open
+windows above these under the cross-vaults. The abbey churches of +St.
+Etienne+ (the Abbaye aux Hommes) and +Ste. Trinité+ (Abbaye aux Dames),
+at Caen, built in the time of William the Conqueror, were among the most
+magnificent churches of their time, both in size and in the excellence
+and ingenuity of their construction. The great abbey church of +Mont St.
+Michel+ (much altered in later times) should also be mentioned here. At
+the same time these and other Norman churches showed a great advance in
+their internal composition. A well-developed triforium or subordinate
+gallery was introduced between the pier-arches and clearstory, and all
+the structural membering of the edifice was better proportioned and more
+logically expressed than in most contemporary work.
+
+
++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ The details of French Romanesque architecture
+varied considerably in the several provinces, according as classic,
+Byzantine, or local influences prevailed. Except in a few of the
+Aquitanian churches, the round arch was universal. The walls were heavy
+and built of rubble between facings of stones of moderate size dressed
+with the axe. Windows and doors were widely splayed to diminish the
+obstruction of the massive walls, and were treated with jamb-shafts and
+recessed arches. These were usually formed with large cylindrical
+mouldings, richly carved with leaf ornaments, zigzags, billets, and
+grotesques. Figure-sculpture was more generally used in the South than
+in the North. The interior piers were sometimes cylindrical, but more
+often clustered, and where square bays of four-part or six-part vaulting
+were employed, the piers were alternately lighter and heavier. Each
+shaft had its independent capital either of the block type or of a form
+resembling somewhat that of the Corinthian order. During the eleventh
+century it became customary to carry up to the main vaulting one or more
+shafts of the compound pier to support the vaulting ribs. Thus the
+division of the nave into _bays_ was accentuated, while at the same time
+the horizontal three-fold division of the height by a well-defined
+triforium between the pier-arches and clearstory began to be likewise
+emphasized.
+
+
++VAULTING.+ The vaulting was also divided into bays by transverse ribs,
+and where it was groined the groins themselves began in the twelfth
+century to be marked by groin-ribs. These were constructed independently
+of the vaulting, and the four or six compartments of each vaulting-bay
+were then built in, the ribs serving, in part at least, to support the
+centrings for this purpose. This far-reaching principle, already applied
+by the Romans in their concrete vaults (see p. 84), appears as a
+re-discovery, or rather an independent invention, of the builders of
+Normandy at the close of the eleventh century. The flying buttress was a
+later invention; in the round-arched buildings of the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries the buttressing was mainly internal, and was
+incomplete and timid in its arrangement.
+
+
++EXTERIORS.+ The exteriors were on this account plain and flat. The
+windows were small, the mouldings simple, and towers were rarely
+combined with the body of the church until after the beginning of the
+twelfth century. Then they appeared as mere belfries of moderate height,
+with pyramidal roofs and effectively arranged openings, the germs of the
+noble Gothic spires of later times. Externally the western porches and
+portals were the most important features of the design, producing an
+imposing effect by their massive arches, clustered piers, richly carved
+mouldings, and deep shadows.
+
+
++CLOISTERS, ETC.+ Mention should be made of the other monastic buildings
+which were grouped around the abbey churches of this period. These
+comprised refectories, chapter-halls, cloistered courts surrounded by
+the conventual cells, and a large number of accessory structures for
+kitchens, infirmaries, stores, etc. The whole formed an elaborate and
+complex aggregation of connected buildings, often of great size and
+beauty, especially the refectories and cloisters. Most of these
+conventual buildings have disappeared, many of them having been
+demolished during the Gothic period to make way for more elegant
+structures in the new style. There remain, however, a number of fine
+cloistered courts in their original form, especially in Southern France.
+Among the most remarkable of these are those of +Moissac+, +Elne+, and
++Montmajour+.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ ITALY. (For basilicas and domical churches of
+  6th-12th centuries see pp. 118, 119.)--Before 11th century: Sta.
+  Maria at Toscanella, altered 1206; S. Donato, Zara; chapel at
+  Friuli; baptistery at Boella. 11th century: S. Giovanni, Viterbo;
+  Sta. Maria della Pieve, Arezzo; S. Antonio, Piacenza, 1014;
+  Eremiti, 1132, and La Martorana, 1143, both at Palermo; Duomo at
+  Bari, 1027 (much altered); Duomo and baptistery, Novara, 1030;
+  Duomo at Parma, begun 1058; Duomo at Pisa, 1063-1118; S. Miniato,
+  Florence, 1063-12th century; S. Michele at Pavia and Duomo at
+  Modena, late 11th century.--12th century: in Calabria and Apulia,
+  cathedrals of Trani, 1100; Caserta, Vecchia, 1100-1153; Molfetta,
+  1162; Benevento; churches S. Giovanni at Brindisi, S. Niccolo at
+  Bari, 1139. In Sicily, Duomo at Monreale, 1174-1189. In Northern
+  Italy, S. Tomaso in Limine, Bergamo, 1100 (?); Sta. Giulia,
+  Brescia; S. Lorenzo, Milan, rebuilt 1119; Duomo at Piacenza, 1122;
+  S. Zeno at Verona, 1139; S. Ambrogio, Milan, 1140, vaulted in 13th
+  century; baptistery at Pisa, 1153-1278; Leaning Tower, Pisa,
+  1174.--14th century: S. Michele, Lucca, 1188; S. Giovanni and
+  S. Frediano, Lucca. In Dalmatia, cathedral at Zara, 1192-1204.
+  Many castles and early town-halls, as at Bari, Brescia, Lucca,
+  etc.
+
+  FRANCE: Previous to 11th century: St. Germiny-des-Prés,
+  806, Chapel of the Trinity, St. Honorat-des-Lérins; Ste. Croix de
+  Montmajour.--11th century: Cérisy-la-Forêt and abbey church of
+  Mont St. Michel, 1020 (the latter altered in 12th and 16th
+  centuries); Vignory; St. Genou; porch of St. Bénoit-sur-Loire,
+  1030; St. Sépulchre at Neuvy, 1045; Ste. Trinité (Abbaye aux
+  Dames) at Caen, 1046, vaulted 1140; St. Etienne (Abbaye aux
+  Hommes) at Caen, same date; St. Front at Perigueux, 1120; Ste.
+  Croix at Quimperlé, 1081; cathedral, Cahors, 1050-1110; abbey
+  churches of Cluny (demolished) and Vézelay, 1089-1100; circular
+  church of Rieux-Mérinville, church of St. Savin in Auvergne, the
+  churches of St. Paul at Issoire and Notre-Dame-du-Port at
+  Clermont, St. Hilaire and Notre-Dame-la-Grande at Poitiers; also
+  St. Sernin (Saturnin) at Toulouse, all at close of 11th and
+  beginning of 12th century.--12th century: Domical churches of
+  Aquitania and vicinity; Solignac and Fontévrault, 1120; St.
+  Etienne (Périgueux), St. Avit-Sénieur; Angoulême, Souillac,
+  Broussac, etc., early 12th century; St. Trophime at Arles, 1110,
+  cloisters later; church of Vaison; abbeys and cloisters at
+  Montmajour, Tarascon, Moissac (with fragments of a 10th-century
+  cloister built into present arcades); St. Paul-du-Mausolée;
+  Puy-en-Vélay, with fine church. Many other abbeys, parish
+  churches, and a few cathedrals in Central and Northern France
+  especially.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+EARLY MEDIÆVAL ARCHITECTURE.--_Continued._
+
+IN GERMANY, GREAT BRITAIN, AND SPAIN.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Hübsch and Reber. Bond, _Gothic
+  Architecture in England_. Also Brandon, _Analysis of Gothic
+  Architecture_. Boisserée, _Nieder Rhein_. Ditchfield, _The
+  Cathedrals of England_. Hasak, _Die romanische und die gotische
+  Baukunst_ (in _Handbuch d. Arch._). Lübke, _Die Mittelalterliche
+  Kunst in Westfalen_. Möller, _Denkmäler der deutschen Baukunst_.
+  Puttrich, _Baukunst des Mittelalters in Sachsen_. Rickman, _An
+  Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of Architecture_. Scott,
+  _English Church Architecture_. Van Rensselaer, _English
+  Cathedrals_.
+
+
++MEDIÆVAL GERMANY.+ Architecture developed less rapidly and
+symmetrically in Germany than in France, notwithstanding the strong
+centralized government of the empire. The early churches were of wood,
+and the substitution of stone for wood proceeded slowly. During the
+Carolingian epoch (800-919), however, a few important buildings were
+erected, embodying Byzantine and classic traditions. Among these the
+most notable was the +Minster+ or palatine chapel of Charlemagne at
++Aix-la-Chapelle+, an obvious imitation of San Vitale at Ravenna. It
+consisted of an octagonal domed hall surrounded by a vaulted aisle in
+two stories, but without the eight niches of the Ravenna plan. It was
+preceded by a porch flanked by turrets. The Byzantine type thus
+introduced was repeated in later churches, as in the Nuns’ Choir at
+Essen (947) and at Ottmarsheim (1050). In the great monastery at Fulda a
+basilica with transepts and with an apsidal choir at either end was
+built in 803. These choirs were raised above the level of the nave, to
+admit of crypts beneath them, as in many Lombard churches; a practice
+which, with the reduplication of the choir and apse just mentioned,
+became very common in German Romanesque architecture.
+
+
++EARLY CHURCHES.+ It was in Saxony that this architecture first entered
+upon a truly national development. The early churches of this province
+and of Hildesheim (where architecture flourished under the favor of the
+bishops, as elsewhere under the royal influence) were of basilican plan
+and destitute of vaulting, except in the crypts. They were built with
+massive piers, sometimes rectangular, sometimes clustered, the two kinds
+often alternating in the same nave. Short columns were, however,
+sometimes used instead of piers, either alone, as at Paulinzelle and
+Limburg-on-the-Hardt (1024-39), or alternating with piers, as at
+Hecklingen, +Gernrode+ (958-1050), and +St. Godehard+ at Hildesheim
+(1133). A triple eastern apse, with apsidal chapels projecting eastward
+from the transepts, were common elements in the plans, and a second
+apse, choir, and crypt at the west end were not infrequent. Externally
+the most striking feature was the association of two, four, or even six
+square or circular towers with the mass of the church, and the elevation
+of square or polygonal turrets or cupolas over the crossing. These
+adjuncts gave a very picturesque aspect to edifices otherwise somewhat
+wanting in artistic interest.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 99.--PLAN OF MINSTER AT WORMS.]
+
++RHENISH CHURCHES.+ It was in the Rhine provinces that vaulting was
+first applied to the naves of German churches, nearly a half century
+after its general adoption in France. Cologne possesses an interesting
+trio of churches in which the Byzantine dome on squinches or on
+pendentives, with three apses or niches opening into the central area,
+was associated with a long three aisled nave (+St. Mary-in-the-Capitol+,
+begun in 9th century; +Great St. Martin’s+, 1150-70; +Apostles’ Church+,
+1160-99: the naves vaulted later). The double chapel at
++Schwarz-Rheindorf+, near Bonn (1151), also has the crossing covered by
+a dome on pendentives.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 100.--ONE BAY OF CATHEDRAL AT SPIRES.]
+
+The vaulting of the nave itself was developed in another series of
+edifices of imposing size, the cathedrals of +Mayence+ (1036), +Spires+
+(Speyer), and +Worms+, and the +Abbey of Laach+, all built in the 11th
+century and vaulted early in the 12th. In the first three the main
+vaulting is in square bays, each covering two bays of the nave, the
+piers of which are alternately lighter and heavier (Figs. 99, 100). At
+Laach the vaulting-bays are oblong, both in nave and aisles. There was
+no triforium gallery, and stability was secured only by excessive
+thickness in the piers and clearstory walls, and by bringing down the
+main vault as near to the side-aisle roofs as possible.
+
+
++RHENISH EXTERIORS.+ These great churches, together with those of +Bonn+
+and +Limburg-on-the-Lahn+ and the cathedral of +Treves+ (Trier, 1047),
+are interesting, not only by their size and dignity of plan and the
+somewhat rude massiveness of their construction, but even more so by the
+picturesqueness of their external design (Fig. 101). Especially
+successful is the massing of the large and small turrets with the lofty
+nave-roof and with the apses at one or both ends. The systematic use of
+arcading to decorate the exterior walls, and the introduction of open
+arcaded dwarf galleries under the cornices of the apses, gables, and
+dome-turrets, gave to these Rhenish churches an external beauty hardly
+equalled in other contemporary edifices. This method of exterior design,
+and the system of vaulting in square bays over double bays of the nave,
+were probably derived from the Lombard churches of Northern Italy, with
+which the Hohenstauffen emperors had many political relations.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 101.--EAST END OF CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES,
+  COLOGNE.]
+
+The Italian influence is also encountered in a number of circular
+churches of early date, as at Fulda (9th-11th century), Drügelte, Bonn
+(baptistery, demolished), and in façades like that at Rosheim, which is
+a copy in little of San Zeno at Verona.
+
+Elsewhere in Germany architecture was in a backward state, especially in
+the southern provinces. Outside of Saxony, Franconia, and the Rhine
+provinces, very few works of importance were erected until the
+thirteenth century.
+
+
++SECULAR ARCHITECTURE.+ Little remains to us of the secular architecture
+of this period in Germany, if we except the great feudal castles,
+especially those of the Rhine, which were, after all, rather works of
+military engineering than of architectural art. The palace of
+Charlemagne at Aix (the chapel of which was mentioned on p. 172) is
+known to have been a vast and splendid group of buildings, partly, at
+least of marble; but hardly a vestige of it remains. Of the extensive
++Palace of Henry III.+ at +Goslar+ there remain well-defined ruins of an
+imposing hall of assembly in two aisles with triple-arched windows. At
+Brunswick the east wing of the +Burg Dankwargerode+ displays, in spite
+of modern alterations, the arrangement of the chapel, great hall, two
+fortified towers, and part of the residence of Henry the Lion. The
++Wartburg+ palace (Ludwig III., _cir._ 1150) is more generally
+known--a rectangular hall in three stories, with windows effectively
+grouped to form arcades; while at Gelnhausen and Münzenberg are ruins of
+somewhat similar buildings. A few of the Romanesque monasteries of
+Germany have left partial remains, as at +Maulbronn+, which was almost
+entirely rebuilt in the Gothic period, and isolated buildings in Cologne
+and elsewhere. There remain also in Cologne a number of Romanesque
+private houses with coupled windows and stepped gables.
+
+
++GREAT BRITAIN.+ Previous to the Norman conquest (1066) there was in the
+British Isles little or no architecture worthy of mention. The few
+extant remains of Saxon and Celtic buildings reveal a singular poverty
+of ideas and want of technical skill. These scanty remains are mostly of
+towers (those in Ireland nearly all round and tapering, with conical
+tops, their use and date being the subjects of much controversy) and
+crypts. The tower of Earl’s Barton is the most important and best
+preserved of those in England. With the Norman conquest, however, began
+an extraordinary activity in the building of churches and abbeys.
+William the Conqueror himself founded a number of these, and his Norman
+ecclesiastics endeavored to surpass on British soil the contemporary
+churches of Normandy. The new churches differed somewhat from their
+French prototypes; they were narrower and lower, but much longer,
+especially as to the choir and transepts. The cathedrals of +Durham+
+(1096-1133) and +Norwich+ (same date) are important examples (Fig. 102).
+They also differed from the French churches in two important particulars
+externally; a huge tower rose usually over the crossing, and the western
+portals were small and insignificant. Lateral entrances near the west
+end were given greater importance and called _Galilees_. At Durham a
+Galilee chapel (not shown in the plan), takes the place of a porch at
+the west end, like the ante-churches of St. Benoît-sur-Loire and
+Vézelay.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 102.--PLAN OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL.]
+
+
++THE NORMAN STYLE.+ The Anglo-Norman builders employed the same general
+features as the Romanesque builders of Normandy, but with more of
+picturesqueness and less of refinement and technical elegance. Heavy
+walls, recessed arches, round mouldings, cubic cushion-caps, clustered
+piers, and in doorways a jamb-shaft for each stepping of the arch were
+common to both styles. But in England the Corinthian form of capital is
+rare, its place being taken by simpler forms.
+
+
++NORMAN INTERIORS.+ The interior design of the larger churches of this
+period shows a close general analogy to contemporaneous French Norman
+churches, as appears by comparing the nave of Waltham or Peterboro’ with
+that of Cérisy-la-Forêt, in Normandy. Although the massiveness of the
+Anglo-Norman piers and walls plainly suggests the intention of vaulting
+the nave, this intention seems never to have been carried out except in
+small churches and crypts. All the existing abbeys and cathedrals of
+this period had wooden ceilings or were, like Durham, Norwich, and
+Gloucester, vaulted at a later date. Completed as they were with wooden
+nave-roofs, the clearstory was, without danger, made quite lofty and
+furnished with windows of considerable size. These were placed near the
+outside of the thick wall, and a passage was left between them and
+a triple arch on the inner face of the wall--a device imitated
+from the abbeys at Caen. The vaulted side-aisles were low, with
+disproportionately wide pier-arches, above which was a high triforium
+gallery under the side-roofs. Thus a nearly equal height was assigned
+to each of the three stories of the bay, disregarding that subordination
+of minor to major parts which gives interest to an architectural
+composition. The piers were quite often round, as at Gloucester,
+Hereford, and Bristol. Sometimes round piers alternated with clustered
+piers, as at Durham and Waltham; and in some cases clustered piers alone
+were employed, as at Peterboro’ and in the transepts of Winchester (Fig.
+103).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 103.--ONE BAY OF TRANSEPT,
+  WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL.]
+
+
++FAÇADES AND DOORWAYS.+ All the details were of the simplest character,
+except in the doorways. These were richly adorned with clustered
+jamb-shafts and elaborately carved mouldings, but there was little
+variety in the details of this carving. The zigzag was the most common
+feature, though birds’ heads with the beaks pointing toward the centre
+of the arch were not uncommon. In the smaller churches (Fig. 104) the
+doorways were better proportioned to the whole façade than in the larger
+ones, in which they appear as relatively insignificant features. Very
+few examples remain of important Norman façades in their original form,
+nearly all of these having been altered after the round arch was
+displaced by the pointed arch in the latter part of the twelfth century.
+Iffley church (Fig. 104) is a good example of the style.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 104.--FRONT OF IFFLEY CHURCH.]
+
+
++SPAIN.+ During the Romanesque period a large part of Spain was under
+Moorish dominion. The capture of Toledo, in 1062, by the Christians,
+began the gradual emancipation of the country from Moslem rule, and in
+the northern provinces a number of important churches were erected under
+the influence of French Romanesque models. The use of domical
+pendentives (as in the +Panteon+ of +S. Isidoro+, at Leon, and in the
+_cimborio_ or dome over the choir at the intersection of nave and
+transepts in old Salamanca cathedral) was probably derived from the
+domical churches of Aquitania and Anjou. Elsewhere the northern
+Romanesque type prevailed under various modifications, with long nave
+and transepts, a short choir, and a complete _chevet_ with apsidal
+chapels. The church of +St. Iago+ at Compostella (1078) is the finest
+example of this class. These churches nearly all had groined vaulting
+over the side-aisles and barrel-vaults over the nave, the constructive
+system being substantially that of the churches of Auvergne and the
+Loire Valley (p. 165). They differed, however, in the treatment of the
+crossing of nave and transepts, over which was usually erected a dome or
+cupola or pendentives or squinches, covered externally by an imposing
+square lantern or tower, as in the +Old Cathedral+ at +Salamanca+,
+already mentioned (1120-78) and the +Collegiate Church+ at +Toro+.
+Occasional exceptions to these types are met with, as in the basilican
+wooden-roofed church of S. Millan at Segovia; in +S. Isidoro+ at Leon,
+with chapels and a later-added square eastern end, and the circular
+church of the Templars at Segovia.
+
+The architectural details of these Spanish churches did not differ
+radically from contemporary French work. As in France and England, the
+doorways were the most ornate parts of the design, the mouldings being
+carved with extreme richness and the jambs frequently adorned with
+statues, as in +S. Vincente+ at Avila. There was no such logical and
+reasoned-out system of external design as in France, and there is
+consequently greater variety in the façades. Perhaps the most remarkable
+thing about the architecture of this period is its apparent exemption
+from the influence of the Moorish monuments which abounded on every
+hand. This may be explained by the hatred which was felt by the
+Christians for the Moslems and all their works.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ GERMANY: Previous to 11th century: Circular churches
+  of Holy Cross at Münster, and of Fulda; palace chapel of
+  Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, 804; St. Stephen, Mayence, 990;
+  primitive nave and crypt of St. Gereon, Cologne, 10th century;
+  Lorsch.--11th century: Churches of Gernrode, Goslar, and Merseburg
+  in Saxony; cathedral of Bremen; first restoration of cathedral of
+  Treves (Trier), 1010, west front, 1047; Limburg-on-Hardt, 1024;
+  St. Willibrod, Echternach, 1031; east end of Mayence Cathedral,
+  1036; Church of Apostles and nave St. Mary-in-Capitol at Cologne,
+  1036; cathedral of Spires (Speyer) begun 1040; Cathedral
+  Hildesheim, 1061; St. Joseph, Bamberg, 1073; Abbey of Laach,
+  1093-1156; round churches of Bonn, Drügelte, Nimeguen; cathedrals
+  of Paderborn and Minden.--12th century: Churches of Klus,
+  Paulinzelle, Hamersleben, 1100-1110; Johannisberg, 1130; St.
+  Godehard. Hildesheim, 1133; Worms, the Minster, 1118-83; Jerichau,
+  1144-60; Schwarz-Rheindorf, 1151; St. Michael, Hildesheim, 1162;
+  Cathedral Brunswick, 1172-94; Lubeck, 1172; also churches of
+  Gaudersheim, Würzburg, St. Matthew at Treves, Limburg-on-Lahn,
+  Sinzig, St. Castor at Coblentz, Diesdorf, Rosheim; round churches
+  of Ottmarsheim and Rippen (Denmark); cathedral of Basle, cathedral
+  and cloister of Zurich (Switzerland).
+
+  ENGLAND: Previous to 11th century: Scanty vestiges of Saxon church
+  architecture, as tower of Earl’s Barton, round towers and small
+  chapels in Ireland.--11th century: Crypt of Canterbury Cathedral,
+  1070; chapel St. John in Tower of London, 1070; Winchester
+  Cathedral, 1076-93 (nave and choir rebuilt later); Gloucester
+  Cathedral nave, 1089-1100 (vaulted later); Rochester Cathedral
+  nave, west front cloisters, and chapter-house, 1090-1130; Carlisle
+  Cathedral nave, transepts, 1093-1130; Durham Cathedral, 1095-1133,
+  vaulted 1233; Galilee and chapter-house, 1133-53; Norwich
+  Cathedral, 1096, largely rebuilt 1118-93; Hereford Cathedral, nave
+  and choir, 1099-1115.--12th century: Ely Cathedral, nave, 1107-33;
+  St. Alban’s Abbey, 1116; Peterboro’ Cathedral, 1117-45; Waltham
+  Abbey, early 12th century; Church of Holy Sepulchre, Cambridge,
+  1130-35; Worcester Cathedral chapter-house, 1140 (?); Oxford
+  Cathedral (Christ Church), 1150-80; Bristol Cathedral
+  chapter-house (square), 1155; Canterbury Cathedral, choir of
+  present structure by William of Sens, 1175; Chichester Cathedral,
+  1180-1204; Romsey Abbey, late 12th century; St. Cross Hospital
+  near Winchester, 1190 (?). Many more or less important parish
+  churches in various parts of England.
+
+  SPAIN. For principal monuments of 9th-12th centuries, see text,
+  latter part of this chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Adamy, _Architektonik des gotischen Stils_.
+  Corroyer, _L’Architecture gothique_. Enlart, _Manuel d’archéologie
+  française_. Hasak, _Einzelheiten des Kirchenbaues_ (in _Hdbuch d.
+  Arch._). Moore, _Development and Character of Gothic
+  Architecture_. Parker, _Introduction to Gothic Architecture._
+  Scott, _Mediæval Architecture_. Viollet-le-Duc, _Discourses on
+  Architecture_; _Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture
+  française_.
+
+
++INTRODUCTORY.+ The architectural styles which were developed in Western
+Europe during the period extending from about 1150 to 1450 or 1500,
+received in an unscientific age the wholly erroneous and inept name of
+Gothic. This name has, however, become so fixed in common usage that it
+is hardly possible to substitute for it any more scientific designation.
+In reality the architecture to which it is applied was nothing more than
+the sequel and outgrowth of the Romanesque, which we have already
+studied. Its fundamental principles were the same; it was concerned with
+the same problems. These it took up where the Romanesque builders left
+them, and worked out their solution under new conditions, until it had
+developed out of the simple and massive models of the early twelfth
+century the splendid cathedrals of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries in England, France, Germany, the Low Countries and Spain.
+
+
++THE CHURCH AND ARCHITECTURE.+ The twelfth century was an era of
+transition in society, as in architecture. The ideas of Church and State
+were becoming more clearly defined in the common mind. In the conflict
+between feudalism and royalty the monarchy was steadily gaining ground.
+The problem of human right was beginning to present itself alongside of
+the problem of human might. The relations between the crown, the feudal
+barons, the pope, bishops, and abbots, differed widely in France,
+Germany, England, and other countries. The struggle among them for
+supremacy presented itself, therefore, in varied aspects; but the
+general outcome was essentially the same. The church began to appear as
+something behind and above abbots, bishops, kings, and barons. The
+supremacy of the papal authority gained increasing recognition, and the
+episcopacy began to overshadow the monastic institutions; the bishops
+appearing generally, but especially in France, as the champions of
+popular rights. The prerogatives of the crown became more firmly
+established, and thus the Church and the State emerged from the social
+confusion as the two institutions divinely appointed for the government
+of men.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 105.--CONSTRUCTIVE SYSTEM OF GOTHIC CHURCH,
+  ILLUSTRATING PRINCIPLES OF ISOLATED SUPPORTS AND BUTTRESSING.]
+
+Under these influences ecclesiastical architecture advanced with rapid
+strides. No longer hampered by monastic restrictions, it called into its
+service the laity, whose guilds of masons and builders carried from one
+diocese to another their constantly increasing stores of constructive
+knowledge. By a wise division of labor, each man wrought only such parts
+as he was specially trained to undertake. The master-builder--bishop,
+abbot, or mason--seems to have planned only the general arrangement and
+scheme of the building, leaving the precise form of each detail to be
+determined as the work advanced, according to the skill and fancy of the
+artisan to whom it was intrusted. Thus was produced that remarkable
+variety in unity of the Gothic cathedrals; thus, also, those singular
+irregularities and makeshifts, those discrepancies and alterations in
+the design, which are found in every great work of mediæval
+architecture. Gothic architecture was constantly changing, attacking new
+problems or devising new solutions of old ones. In this character of
+constant flux and development it contrasts strongly with the classic
+styles, in which the scheme and the principles were easily fixed and
+remained substantially unchanged for centuries.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 106.--PLAN OF SAINTE CHAPELLE, PARIS,
+  SHOWING SUPPRESSION OF SIDE-WALLS.]
+
++STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES.+ The pointed arch, so commonly regarded as the
+most characteristic feature of the Gothic styles, was merely an
+incidental feature of their development. What really distinguished them
+most strikingly was the systematic application of two principles which
+the Roman and Byzantine builders had recognized and applied, but which
+seem to have been afterward forgotten until they were revived by the
+later Romanesque architects. The first of these was the _concentration
+of strains_ upon isolated points of support, made possible by the
+substitution of groined for barrel vaults. This led to a corresponding
+concentration of the masses of masonry at these points; the building was
+constructed as if upon legs (Fig. 105). The wall became a mere
+filling-in between the piers or buttresses, and in time was, indeed,
+practically suppressed, immense windows filled with stained glass taking
+its place. This is well illustrated in the +Sainte Chapelle+ at Paris,
+built 1242-47 (Figs. 106, 122). In this remarkable edifice, a series of
+groined vaults spring from slender shafts built against deep buttresses
+which receive and resist all the thrusts. The wall-spaces between them
+are wholly occupied by superb windows filled with stone tracery and
+stained glass. It would be impossible to combine the materials used more
+scientifically or effectively. The cathedrals of Gerona (Spain) and of
+Alby (France; Fig. 123) illustrate the same principle, though in them
+the buttresses are internal and serve to separate the flanking chapels.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 107.--EARLY GOTHIC FLYING BUTTRESS.]
+
+The second distinctive principle of Gothic architecture was that of
+_balanced thrusts_. In Roman buildings the thrust of the vaulting was
+resisted wholly by the inertia of mass in the abutments. In Gothic
+architecture thrusts were as far as possible resisted by
+counter-thrusts, and the final resultant pressure was transmitted by
+flying half-arches across the intervening portions of the structure to
+external buttresses placed at convenient points. This combination of
+flying half-arches and buttresses is called the _flying-buttress_ (Fig.
+107). It reached its highest development in the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries in the cathedrals of central and northern France.
+
+
++RIBBED VAULTING.+ These two principles formed the structural basis of
+the Gothic styles. Their application led to the introduction of two
+other elements, second only to them in importance, _ribbed vaulting_ and
+the _pointed arch_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 108.--RIBBED VAULT, ENGLISH TYPE,
+  WITH DIVIDED GROIN-RIBS AND RIDGE-RIBS.]
+
+The first of these resulted from the effort to overcome certain
+practical difficulties encountered in the building of large groined
+vaults. As ordinarily constructed, a groined vault like that in Fig. 47,
+must be built as one structure, upon wooden centrings supporting its
+whole extent. The Romanesque architects conceived the idea of
+constructing an independent skeleton of ribs. Two of these were built
+against the wall (_wall-ribs_), two across the nave (transverse ribs);
+and two others were made to coincide with the groins (Figs. 98, 108).
+The _groin-ribs_, intersecting at the centre of the vault, divided each
+bay into four triangular portions, or _compartments_, each of which was
+really an independent vault which could be separately constructed upon
+light centrings supported by the groin-ribs themselves. This principle,
+though identical in essence with the Roman system of brick skeleton-ribs
+for concrete vaults, was, in application and detail, superior to it,
+both from the scientific and artistic point of view. The ribs, richly
+moulded, became, in the hands of the Gothic architects, important
+decorative features. In practice the builder gave to each set of ribs
+independently the curvature he desired. The vaulting-surfaces were then
+easily twisted or warped so as to fit the various ribs, which, being
+already in place, served as guides for their construction.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 109.--PENETRATIONS AND INTERSECTIONS
+  OF VAULTS.
+  _a, a_, _Penetrations by small semi-circular vaults sprung from
+  same level_. b, _Intersection by small semi-circular vault sprung
+  from higher level; groins form wavy lines_. c, _Intersection by
+  narrow pointed vault sprung from same level; groins are plane
+  curves_.]
+
++THE POINTED ARCH+ was adopted to remedy the difficulties encountered in
+the construction of oblong vaults. It is obvious that where a narrow
+semi-cylindrical vault intersects a wide one, it produces either what
+are called _penetrations_, as at a (Fig. 109), or intersections like
+that at b, both of which are awkward in aspect and hard to construct.
+If, however, one or both vaults be given a pointed section, the narrow
+vault may be made as high as the wide one. It is then possible, with but
+little warping of the vaulting surfaces, to make them intersect in
+groins c, which are vertical plane curves instead of wavy loops like a
+and b.
+
+The Gothic architects availed themselves to the full of these two
+devices. They built their groin-ribs of semi-circular or pointed form,
+but the wall-ribs and the transverse ribs were, without exception,
+pointed arches of such curvature as would bring the apex of each nearly
+or quite to the level of the groin intersection. The pointed arch, thus
+introduced as the most convenient form for the vaulting-ribs, was soon
+applied to other parts of the structure. This was a necessity with the
+windows and pier-arches, which would not otherwise fit well the
+wall-spaces under the wall-ribs of the nave and aisle vaulting.
+
+
++TRACERY AND GLASS.+ With the growth in the size of the windows and the
+progressive suppression of the lateral walls of vaulted structures,
+stained glass came more and more generally into use. Its introduction
+not only resulted in a notable heightening and enriching of the colors
+and scheme of the interior decoration, but reacted on the architecture,
+intensifying the very causes which led to its introduction. It
+stimulated the increase in the size of windows, and the suppression of
+the walls, and contributed greatly to the development of _tracery_. This
+latter feature was an absolute necessity for the support of the glass.
+Its evolution can be traced (Figs, 110, 111, 112) from the simple
+coupling of twin windows under a single hood-mould, or discharging arch,
+to the florid net-work of the fifteenth century. In its earlier forms it
+consisted merely of decorative openings, circles, and quatrefoils,
+pierced through slabs of stone (_plate-tracery_), filling the
+window-heads over coupled windows. Later attention was bestowed upon the
+form of the stonework, which was made lighter and richly moulded
+(_bar-tracery_), rather than upon that of the openings (Fig. 111). Then
+the circular and geometric patterns employed were abandoned for more
+flowing and capricious designs (_Flamboyant_ tracery, Fig. 112) or (in
+England) for more rigid and rectangular arrangements (_Perpendicular_,
+Fig. 134). It will be shown later that the periods and styles of Gothic
+architecture are more easily identified by the tracery than by any other
+feature.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 110.--PLATE TRACERY, CHARLTON-ON-OXMORE.]
+
+
++CHURCH PLANS.+ The original basilica-plan underwent radical
+modifications during the 12th-15th centuries. These resulted in part
+from the changes in construction which have been described, and in part
+from altered ecclesiastical conditions and requirements. Gothic church
+architecture was based on cathedral design; and the requirements of the
+cathedral differed in many respects from those of the monastic churches
+of the preceding period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 111--BAR TRACERY, ST. MICHAEL’S, WARFIELD.]
+
+The most important alterations in the plan were in the choir and
+transepts. The choir was greatly lengthened, the transepts often
+shortened. The choir was provided with two and often four side-aisles,
+and one or both of these was commonly carried entirely around the
+apsidal termination of the choir, forming a single or double
+_ambulatory_. This combination of choir, apse, and ambulatory was
+called, in French churches, the _chevet_.
+
+Another advance upon Romanesque models was the multiplication of
+chapels--a natural consequence of the more popular character of the
+cathedral as compared with the abbey. Frequently lateral chapels were
+built at each bay of the side-aisles, filling up the space between the
+deep buttresses, flanking the nave as well as the choir. They were also
+carried around the _chevet_ in most of the French cathedrals (Paris,
+Bourges, Reims, Amiens, Beauvais, and many others); in many of those in
+Germany (Magdeburg, Cologne, Frauenkirche at Treves), Spain (Toledo,
+Leon, Barcelona, Segovia, etc.), and Belgium (Tournay, Antwerp). In
+England the choir had more commonly a square eastward termination.
+Secondary transepts occur frequently, and these peculiarities, together
+with the narrowness and great length of most of the plans, make of the
+English cathedrals a class by themselves.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 112.--ROSE WINDOW, CHURCH OF ST. OUEN, ROUEN.]
+
++PROPORTIONS AND COMPOSITION.+ Along with these modifications of the
+basilican plan should be noticed a great increase in the height and
+slenderness of all parts of the structure. The lofty clearstory, the
+arcaded triforium-passage or gallery beneath it, the high pointed
+pier-arches, the multiplication of slender clustered shafts, and the
+reduction in the area of the piers, gave to the Gothic churches an
+interior aspect wholly different from that of the simpler, lower, and
+more massive Romanesque edifices. The perspective effects of the plans
+thus modified, especially of the complex choir and _chevet_ with their
+lateral and radial chapels, were remarkably enriched and varied.
+
+The exterior was even more radically transformed by these changes, and
+by the addition of towers and spires to the fronts, and sometimes to the
+transepts and to their intersection with the nave. The deep buttresses,
+terminating in pinnacles, the rich traceries of the great lateral
+windows, the triple portals profusely sculptured, rose-windows of great
+size under the front and transept gables, combined to produce effects of
+marvellously varied light and shadow, and of complex and elaborate
+structural beauty, totally unlike the broad simplicity of the Romanesque
+exteriors.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 113.--FLAMBOYANT DETAIL FROM PULPIT
+  IN STRASBURG CATHEDRAL.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 114.--EARLY GOTHIC CARVING.]
+
++DECORATIVE DETAIL.+ The mediæval designers aimed to enrich every
+constructive feature with the most effective play of lights and shades,
+and to embody in the decorative detail the greatest possible amount of
+allegory and symbolism, and sometimes of humor besides. The deep jambs
+and soffits of doors and pier-arches were moulded with a rich succession
+of hollow and convex members, and adorned with carvings of saints,
+apostles, martyrs, and angels. Virtues and vices, allegories of reward
+and punishment, and an extraordinary world of monstrous and grotesque
+beasts, devils, and goblins filled the capitals and door-arches, peeped
+over tower-parapets, or leered and grinned from gargoyles and corbels.
+Another source of decorative detail was the application of tracery like
+that of the windows to wall-panelling, to balustrades, to open-work
+gables, to spires, to choir-screens, and other features, especially in
+the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (cathedrals of York, Rouen,
+Cologne; Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster). And finally in the carving
+of capitals and the ornamentation of mouldings the artists of the
+thirteenth century and their successors abandoned completely the classic
+models and traditions which still survived in the early twelfth century.
+The later monastic builders began to look directly to nature for
+suggestions of decorative form. The lay builders who sculptured the
+capitals and crockets and finials of the early Gothic cathedrals adopted
+and followed to its finality this principle of recourse to nature,
+especially to plant life. At first the budding shoots of early spring
+were freely imitated or skilfully conventionalized, as being by their
+thick and vigorous forms the best adapted for translation into stone
+(Fig. 114). During the thirteenth century the more advanced stages of
+plant growth, and leaves more complex and detailed, furnished the models
+for the carver, who displayed his skill in a closer and more literal
+imitation of their minute veinings and indentations (Fig. 115). This
+artistic adaptation of natural forms to architectural decoration
+degenerated later into a minutely realistic copying of natural foliage,
+in which cleverness of execution took the place of original invention.
+The spirit of display is characteristic of all late Gothic work.
+Slenderness, minuteness of detail, extreme complexity and intricacy of
+design, an unrestrained profusion of decoration covering every surface,
+a lack of largeness and vigor in the conceptions, are conspicuous traits
+of Gothic design in the fifteenth century, alike in France, England,
+Germany, Spain, and the Low Countries. Having worked out to their
+conclusion the structural principles bequeathed to them by the preceding
+centuries, the authors of these later works seemed to have devoted
+themselves to the elaboration of mere decorative detail, and in
+technical finish surpassed all that had gone before (Fig. 113).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 115.--CARVING, DECORATED PERIOD,
+  FROM SOUTHWELL MINSTER.]
+
+
++CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARIZED.+ In the light of the preceding explanations
+Gothic architecture may be defined as that system of structural design
+and decoration which grew up out of the effort to combine, in one
+harmonious and organic conception, the basilican plan with a complete
+and systematic construction of groined vaulting. Its development was
+controlled throughout by considerations of stability and structural
+propriety, but in the application of these considerations the artistic
+spirit was allowed full scope for its exercise. Refinement, good taste,
+and great fertility of imagination characterize the details and
+ornaments of Gothic structures. While the Greeks in harmonizing the
+requirements of utility and beauty in architecture approached the
+problem from the æsthetic side, the Gothic architects did the same from
+the structural side. Their admirably reasoned structures express as
+perfectly the idea of vastness, mystery, and complexity as do the Greek
+temples that of simplicity and monumental repose.
+
+The excellence of Gothic architecture lay not so much in its individual
+details as in its perfect adaptation to the purposes for which it was
+developed--its triumphs were achieved in the building of cathedrals and
+large churches. In the domain of civil and domestic architecture it
+produced nothing comparable with its ecclesiastical edifices, because it
+was the requirements of the cathedral and not of the palace, town-hall,
+or dwelling, that gave it its form and character.
+
+
++PERIODS.+ The history of Gothic architecture is commonly divided into
+three periods, which are most readily distinguished by the character of
+the window-tracery. These periods were not by any means synchronous in
+the different countries; but the order of sequence was everywhere the
+same. They are here given, with a summary of the characteristics of
+each.
+
+EARLY POINTED PERIOD. [_Early French_; _Early English_ or _Lancet_
+Period in England; _Early German_, etc.] Simple groined vaults; general
+simplicity and vigor of design and detail; conventionalized foliage of
+small plants; plate tracery, and narrow windows coupled under pointed
+arch with circular foiled openings in the window-head. (In France, 1160
+to 1275.)
+
+MIDDLE POINTED PERIOD. [_Rayonnant_ in France; _Decorated_ or
+_Geometric_ in England.] Vaults more perfect; in England multiple ribs
+and liernes; greater slenderness and loftiness of proportions;
+decoration much richer, less vigorous; more naturalistic carving of
+mature foliage; walls nearly suppressed, windows of great size, bar
+tracery with slender moulded or columnar mullions and geometric
+combinations (circles and cusps) in window-heads, circular (rose)
+windows. (In France, 1275 to 1375.)
+
+FLORID GOTHIC PERIOD. [_Flamboyant_ in France; _Perpendicular_ in
+England.] Vaults of varied and richly decorated design; fan-vaulting and
+pendants in England, vault-ribs curved into fanciful patterns in Germany
+and Spain; profuse and minute decoration and cleverness of technical
+execution substituted for dignity of design; highly realistic carving
+and sculpture, flowing or flamboyant tracery in France; perpendicular
+bars with horizontal transoms and four-centred arches in England;
+“branch-tracery” in Germany. (In France, 1375 to 1525.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Adamy, Corroyer, Enlart, Hasak,
+  Moore, Reber, Viollet-le-Duc.[20] Also Chapuy, _Le moyen age
+  monumental_. Chateau, _Histoire et caractères de l’architecture
+  française_. Davies, _Architectural Studies in France_. Ferree,
+  _The Chronology of the Cathedral Churches of France_. Johnson,
+  _Early French Architecture_. King, _The Study book of Mediæval
+  Architecture and Art_. Lassus and Viollet-le-Duc, _Notre Dame de
+  Paris_. Nesfield, _Specimens of Mediæval Architecture_. Pettit,
+  _Architectural Studies in France_.
+
+    [Footnote 20: Consult especially articles ARCHITECTURE,
+    CATHÉDRALE, CHAPELLE, CONSTRUCTION, ÉGLISE, MAISON, VOÛTE.]
+
+
++CATHEDRAL-BUILDING IN FRANCE.+ In the development of the principles
+outlined in the foregoing chapter the church-builders of France led the
+way. They surpassed all their contemporaries in readiness of invention,
+in quickness and directness of reasoning, and in artistic refinement.
+These qualities were especially manifested in the extraordinary
+architectural activity which marked the second half of the twelfth
+century and the first half of the thirteenth. This was the great age of
+cathedral-building in France. The adhesion of the bishops to the royal
+cause, and their position in popular estimation as the champions of
+justice and human rights, led to the rapid advance of the episcopacy in
+power and influence. The cathedral, as the throne-church of the bishop,
+became a truly popular institution. New cathedrals were founded on every
+side, especially in the Royal Domain and the adjoining provinces of
+Normandy, Burgundy, and Champagne, and their construction was warmly
+seconded by the people, the communes, and the municipalities. “Nothing
+to-day,” says Viollet-le-Duc,[21] “unless it be the commercial movement
+which has covered Europe with railway lines, can give an idea of the
+zeal with which the urban populations set about building cathedrals; ...
+a necessity at the end of the twelfth century because it was an
+energetic protest against feudalism.” The collapse of the unscientific
+Romanesque vaulting of some of the earlier cathedrals and the
+destruction by fire of others stimulated this movement by the necessity
+for their immediate rebuilding. The entire reconstruction of the
+cathedrals of Bayeux, Bayonne, Cambray, Evreux, Laon, Lisieux, Le Mans,
+Noyon, Poitiers, Senlis, Soissons, and Troyes was begun between 1130 and
+1200.[22] The cathedrals of Bourges, Chartres, Paris, and Tours, and the
+abbey of St. Denis, all of the first importance, were begun during the
+same period, and during the next quarter-century those of Amiens,
+Auxerre, Rouen, Reims, Séez, and many others. After 1250 the movement
+slackened and finally ceased. Few important cathedrals were erected
+during the latter half of the thirteenth century, the chief among them
+being at Beauvais (actively begun 1247), Clermont, Coutances, Limoges,
+Narbonne, and Rodez. During this period, and through the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries, French architecture was concerned rather with the
+completion and remodelling of existing cathedrals than the founding of
+new ones. There were, however, many important parish churches and civil
+or domestic edifices erected within this period.
+
+    [Footnote 21: _Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française_,
+    vol. ii., pp. 280, 281.]
+
+    [Footnote 22: See Ferree, _Chronology of Cathedral Churches of
+    France_.]
+
+
++STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT: VAULTING.+ By the middle of the twelfth century
+the use of barrel-vaulting over the nave had been generally abandoned
+and groined vaulting with its isolated points of support and resistance
+had taken its place. The timid experiments of the Clunisian architects
+at Vézelay in the use of the pointed arch and vault-ribs also led, in
+the second half of the twelfth century, to far-reaching results. The
+builders of the great +Abbey Church+ of +St. Denis+, near Paris, begun
+in 1140 by the Abbot Suger, appear to have been the first to develop
+these tentative devices into a system. In the original choir of this
+noble church all the arches, alike of the vault-ribs (except the
+groin-ribs, which were semi-circles) and of the openings, were pointed
+and the vaults were throughout constructed with cross-ribs, wall-ribs,
+and groin-ribs. Of this early work only the chapels remain. In other
+contemporary monuments, as for instance in the cathedral of Sens, the
+adoption of these devices was only partial and hesitating.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 116--PLAN OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 117.--INTERIOR OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.]
+
++NOTRE DAME AT PARIS.+ The next great step in advance was taken in the
+cathedral of +Notre Dame+[23] at Paris (Figs. 116, 117, 125). This was
+begun, under Maurice de Sully in 1163, on the site of the twin
+cathedrals of Ste. Marie and St. Étienne, and the choir was, as usual,
+the first portion erected. By 1196 the choir, transepts, and one or two
+bays of the nave were substantially finished. The completeness, harmony,
+and vigor of conception of this remarkable church contrast strikingly
+with the makeshifts and hesitancy displayed in many contemporary
+monuments in other provinces. The difficult vaulting over the radiating
+bays of the double ambulatory was here treated with great elegance. By
+doubling the number of supports in the exterior circuit of each aisle
+(Fig. 116) each trapezoidal bay of the vaulting was divided into three
+easily managed triangular compartments. Circular shafts were used
+between the central and side aisles. The side aisles were doubled and
+those next the centre were built in two stories, providing ample
+galleries behind a very open triforium. The nave was unusually lofty and
+covered with six-part vaults of admirable execution. The vault-ribs were
+vigorously moulded and each made to spring from a distinct
+vaulting-shaft, of which three rested upon the cap of each of the
+massive piers below (Fig. 117). The +Cathedral+ of +Bourges+, begun
+1190, closely resembled that of Paris in plan. Both were designed to
+accommodate vast throngs in their exceptionally broad central aisles and
+double side aisles, but Bourges has no side-aisle galleries, though the
+inner aisles are much loftier than the outer ones. Though later in date
+the vaulting of Bourges is inferior to that of Notre Dame, especially in
+the treatment of the trapezoidal bays of the ambulatory.
+
+    [Footnote 23: This cathedral will be hereafter referred to, for
+    the sake of brevity, by the name of _Notre Dame_. Other cathedrals
+    having the same name will be distinguished by the addition of the
+    name of the city, as “Notre Dame at Clermont-Ferrand.”]
+
+The masterly examples set by the vault-builders of St. Denis and Notre
+Dame were not at once generally followed. Noyon, Senlis, and Soissons,
+contemporary with these, are far less completely Gothic in style. At +Le
+Mans+ the groined vaulting which in 1158 was substituted for the
+original barrel-vault of the cathedral is of very primitive design,
+singularly heavy and awkward, although nearly contemporary with that of
+Notre Dame (Fig. 118).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 118.--LE MANS CATHEDRAL. NAVE.]
+
+
++DOMICAL GROINED VAULTING.+ The builders of the South and West,
+influenced by Aquitanian models, adhered to the square plan and domical
+form of vaulting-bay, even after they had begun to employ groin-ribs.
+The latter, as at first used by them in imitation of Northern examples,
+had no organic function in the vault, which was still built like a dome.
+About 1145-1160 the cathedral of +St. Maurice+ at +Angers+ was vaulted
+with square, groin-ribbed vaults, domical in form but not in
+construction. The joints no longer described horizontal circles as in a
+dome, but oblique lines perpendicular to the groins and meeting in
+zigzag lines at the ridge (Fig. 119). This method became common in the
+West and was afterward generally adopted by the English architects. The
++Cathedrals+ of +Poitiers+ (1162) and +Laval+ (La Trinité, 1180-1185)
+are examples of this system, which at Le Mans met with the Northern
+system and produced in the cathedral the awkward compromise described
+above.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 119.--GROINED VAULT WITH ZIG-ZAG RIDGE-JOINTS.
+  _a_ shows a small section of filling with courses parallel to
+  the ridge, for comparison with the other compartments.]
+
++THIRTEENTH-CENTURY VAULTING.+ Early in the thirteenth century the
+church-builders of Northern France abandoned the use of square
+vaulting-bays and six-part vaults. By the adoption of groin-ribs and the
+pointed arch, the building of vaults in oblong bays was greatly
+simplified. Each bay of the nave could now be covered with its own
+vaulting-bay, thus doing away with all necessity for alternately light
+and heavy piers. It is not quite certain when and where this system was
+first adopted for the complete vaulting of a church. It is, however,
+probable that the +Cathedral+ of +Chartres+, begun in 1194 and completed
+before 1240, deserves this distinction, although it is possible that the
+vaults of Soissons and Noyon may slightly antedate it. +Troyes+
+(1170-1267), +Rouen+ (1202-1220), +Reims+ (1212-1242), +Auxerre+
+(1215-1234, nave fourteenth century), +Amiens+ (1220-1288), and nearly
+all the great churches and chapels begun after 1200, employ the fully
+developed oblong vault.
+
+
++BUTTRESSING.+ Meanwhile the increasing height of the clearstories and
+the use of double aisles compelled the bestowal of especial attention
+upon the buttressing. The nave and choir of Chartres, the choirs of
+Notre Dame, Bourges, Rouen, and Reims, the chevet and later the choir of
+St. Denis, afford early examples of the flying-buttress (Fig. 107).
+These were at first simple and of moderate height. Single half-arches
+spanned the side aisles; in Notre Dame they crossed the double aisles in
+a single leap. Later the buttresses were given greater stability by the
+added weight of lofty pinnacles. An intermediate range of buttresses and
+pinnacles was built over the intermediate piers where double aisles
+flanked the nave and choir, thus dividing the single flying arch into
+two arches. At the same time a careful observation of statical defects
+in the earlier examples led to the introduction of subordinate arches
+and of other devices to stiffen and to beautify the whole system. At
++Reims+ and +Amiens+ these features received their highest development,
+though later examples are frequently much more ornate.
+
+
++INTERIOR DESIGN.+ The progressive change outlined in the last chapter,
+by which the wall was practically suppressed, the windows
+correspondingly enlarged, and every part of the structure made loftier
+and more slender, resulted in the evolution of a system of interior
+design well represented by the nave of Amiens. The second story or
+gallery over the side aisle disappeared, but the aisle itself was very
+high. The triforium was no longer a gallery, but a richly arcaded
+passage in the thickness of the wall, corresponding to the roofing-space
+over the aisle, and generally treated like a lower stage of the
+clearstory. Nearly the whole space above it was occupied in each bay by
+the vast clearstory window filled with simple but effective geometric
+tracery over slender mullions. The side aisles were lighted by windows
+which, like those in the clearstory, occupied nearly the whole available
+wall-space under the vaulting. The piers and shafts were all clustered
+and remarkably slender. The whole construction of this vast edifice,
+which covers nearly eighty thousand square feet, is a marvel of
+lightness, of scientific combinations, and of fine execution. Its great
+vault rises to a height of one hundred and forty feet. The nave of St.
+Denis, though less lofty, resembles it closely in style (Fig. 120).
+Earlier cathedrals show less of the harmony of proportion, the perfect
+working out of the relation of all parts of the composition of each bay,
+so conspicuous in the Amiens type, which was followed in most of the
+later churches.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 120.--ONE BAY, ABBEY OF ST. DENIS.]
+
++WINDOWS: TRACERY.+ The clearstory windows of Noyon, Soissons, Sens, and
+the choir of Vézelay (1200) were simple arched openings arranged singly,
+in pairs, or in threes. In the cathedral of Chartres (1194-1220) they
+consist of two arched windows with a circle above them, forming a sort
+of plate tracery under a single arch. In the chapel windows of the choir
+at Reims (1215) the tracery of mullions and circles was moulded inside
+and out, and the intermediate triangular spaces all pierced and glazed.
+Rose windows were early used in front and transept façades. During the
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they were made of vast size and
+great lightness of tracery, as in the transepts of Notre Dame (1257) and
+the west front of Amiens (1288). From the design of these windows is
+derived the name _Rayonnant_, often applied to the French Gothic style
+of the period 1275-1375.
+
+
++THE SAINTE CHAPELLE.+ In this beautiful royal chapel at Paris, built
+1242-47, Gothic design was admirably exemplified in the noble windows 15
+by 50 feet in size, which perhaps furnished the models for those of
+Amiens and St. Denis. Each was divided by slender mullions into four
+lancet-like lights gathered under the rich tracery of the window-head.
+They were filled with stained glass of the most brilliant but harmonious
+hues. They occupy the whole available wall-space, so that the ribbed
+vault internally seems almost to rest on walls of glass, so slender are
+the visible supports and so effaced by the glow of color in the windows.
+Certainly lightness of construction and the suppression of the
+wall-masonry could hardly be carried further than here (Fig. 121). Among
+other chapels of the same type are those in the palace of St.
+Germain-en-Laye (1240), and a later example in the château of Vincennes,
+begun by Charles VI., but not finished till 1525.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 121.--THE STE. CHAPELLE, PARIS.]
+
+
++PLANS.+ The most radical change from the primitive basilican type was,
+as already explained in the last chapter, the continuation of the side
+aisles around the apse to form a _chevet_; and later, the addition of
+chapels between the external buttresses. Radiating chapels, usually
+semi-octagons or semi-decagons in plan, early appeared as additions to
+the _chevet_ (Fig. 122). These may have originated in the apsidal
+chapels of Romanesque churches in Auvergne and the South, as at Issoire,
+Clermont-Ferrand, Le Puy, and Toulouse. They generally superseded the
+transept-chapels of earlier churches, and added greatly to the beauty of
+the interior perspective, especially when the encircling aisles of the
+chevet were doubled. Notre Dame, as at first erected, had a double
+ambulatory, but no chapels. Bourges has only five very small
+semicircular chapels. Chartres (choir 1220) and Le Mans, as
+reconstructed about the same date, have double ambulatories and radial
+chapels. After 1220 the second ambulatory no longer appears. Noyon,
+Soissons, Reims, Amiens, Troyes, and Beauvais, Tours, Bayeux, and
+Coutances, Clermont, Limoges, and Narbonne all have the single
+ambulatory and radiating chevet-chapels. The Lady-chapel in the axis of
+the church was often made longer and more important than the other
+chapels, as at Amiens, Le Mans, Rouen, Bayeux, and Coutances. Chapels
+also flanked the choir in most of the cathedrals named above, and Notre
+Dame and Tours also have side chapels to the nave. The only cathedrals
+with complete double side aisles alike to nave, choir, and chevet, were
+Notre Dame and Bourges. It is somewhat singular that the German
+cathedral of Cologne is the only one in which all these various
+characteristic French features were united in one design (see Fig. 140).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 122.--PLAN OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Local considerations had full sway in France, in spite of the tendency
+toward unity of type. Thus Dol, Laon, and Poitiers have square eastward
+terminations; Châlons has no ambulatory; Bourges no transept. In Notre
+Dame the transept was almost suppressed. At Soissons one transept, at
+Noyon both, had semicircular ends. +Alby+, a late cathedral of brick,
+founded in 1280, but mostly built during the fourteenth century, has
+neither side aisles nor transepts, its wide nave being flanked by
+chapels separated by internal buttresses (Fig. 123).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 123.--PLAN OF CATHEDRAL OF ALBY.]
+
+
++SCALE.+ The French cathedrals were nearly all of imposing dimensions.
+Noyon, one of the smallest, is 333 feet long; Sens measures 354. Laon,
+Bourges, Troyes, Notre Dame, Le Mans, Rouen, and Chartres vary from 396
+to 437 feet in extreme length; Reims measures 483, and Amiens, the
+longest of all, 521 feet. Notre Dame is 124 feet wide across the five
+aisles of the nave; Bourges, somewhat wider. The central aisles of these
+two cathedrals, and of Laon, Amiens, and Beauvais, have a span of not
+far from 40 feet from centre to centre of the piers; while the ridge of
+the vaulting, which in Notre Dame is 108 feet above the pavement, and in
+Bourges 125, reaches in Amiens a height of 140 feet, and of nearly 160
+in Beauvais. This emphasis of the height, from 3 to 3½ times the clear
+width of the nave or choir, is one of the most striking features of the
+French cathedrals. It produces an impressive effect, but tends to dwarf
+the great width of the central aisle.
+
+
++EXTERIOR DESIGN.+ Here, as in the interior, every feature had its
+constructive _raison d’être_, and the total effect was determined by the
+fundamental structural scheme. This was especially true of the lateral
+elevations, in which the pinnacled buttresses, the flying arches, and
+the traceried windows of the side aisle and clearstory, repeated
+uniformly at each bay, were the principal elements of the design. The
+transept façades and main front allowed greater scope for invention and
+fancy, but even here the interior membering gave the key to the
+composition. Strong buttresses marked the division of the aisles and
+resisted the thrust of the terminal pier arches, and rose windows filled
+the greater part of the wall space under the end of the lofty vaulting.
+The whole structure was crowned by a steep-pitched roof of wood, covered
+with lead, copper, or tiles, to protect the vault from damage by snow
+and moisture. This roof occasioned the steep gables which crowned the
+transept and main façades. The main front was frequently adorned, above
+the triple portal, with a gallery of niches or tabernacles filled with
+statues of kings. Different types of composition are represented by
+Chartres, Notre Dame, Amiens, Reims, and Rouen, of which Notre Dame
+(Fig. 124) and Reims are perhaps the finest. Notre Dame is especially
+remarkable for its stately simplicity and the even balancing of
+horizontal and vertical elements.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 124.--WEST FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 125.--WEST FRONT OF ST. MACLOU, ROUEN.]
+
++PORCHES.+ In most French church façades the porches were the most
+striking features, with their deep shadows and sculptured arches. The
+Romanesque porches were usually limited in depth to the thickness of the
+front wall. The Gothic builders secured increased depth by projecting
+the portals out beyond the wall, and crowned them with elaborate gables.
+The vast central door was divided in two by a pier adorned with a niche
+and statue. Over this the tympanum of the arch was carved with
+scriptural reliefs; the jambs and arches were profusely adorned with
+figures of saints, apostles, martyrs, and angels, under elaborate
+canopies. The porches of Laon, Bourges, Amiens, and Reims are especially
+deep and majestic in effect, the last-named (built 1380) being the
+richest of all. Some of the transept façades also had imposing portals.
+Those of +Chartres+ (1210-1245) rank among the finest works of Gothic
+decorative architecture, the south porch in some respects surpassing
+that of the north transept. The portals of the fifteenth and early
+sixteenth centuries were remarkable for the extraordinary richness and
+minuteness of their tracery and sculpture, as at Abbeville, Alençon, the
+cathedral and St. Maclou at Rouen (Fig. 125), Tours, Troyes, Vendôme,
+etc.
+
+
++TOWERS AND SPIRES.+ The emphasizing of vertical elements reached its
+fullest expression in the towers and spires of the churches. What had
+been at first merely a lofty belfry roof was rapidly developed into the
+spire, rising three hundred feet or more into the air. This development
+had already made progress in the Romanesque period, and the south spire
+of Chartres is a notable example of late twelfth-century steeple design.
+The transition from the square tower to the slender octagonal pyramid
+was skilfully effected by means of corner pinnacles and dormers. During
+and after the thirteenth century the development was almost wholly in
+the direction of richness and complexity of detail, not of radical
+constructive modification. The northern spire of Chartres (1515) and the
+spires of Bordeaux, Coutances, Senlis, and the Flamboyant church of St.
+Maclou at Rouen, illustrate this development. In Normandy central spires
+were common, rising over the crossing of nave and transepts. In some
+cases the designers of cathedrals contemplated a group of towers; this
+is evident at Chartres, Coutances, and Reims. This intention was,
+however, never realized; it demanded resources beyond even the
+enthusiasm of the thirteenth century. Only in rare instances were the
+spires of any of the towers completed, and the majority of the French
+towers have square terminations, with low-pitched wooden roofs,
+generally invisible from below. In general, French towers are marked by
+their strong buttresses, solid lower stories, twin windows in each side
+of the belfry proper--these windows being usually of great size--and a
+skilful management of the transition to an octagonal plan for the belfry
+or the spire.
+
+
++CARVING AND SCULPTURE.+ The general superiority of French Gothic work
+was fully maintained in its decorative details. Especially fine is the
+figure sculpture, which in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries
+attained true nobility of expression, combined with great truthfulness
+and delicacy of execution. Some of its finest productions are found in
+the great doorway jambs of the west portals of the cathedrals, and in
+the ranks of throned and adoring angels which adorned their deep arches.
+These reach their highest beauty in the portals of Reims (1380). The
+_tabernacles_ or carved niches in which such statues were set were
+important elements in the decoration of the exteriors of churches.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 126.--FRENCH GOTHIC CAPITALS.
+  _a_, From Sainte Chapelle, Paris, 13th century. _b_, 14th-century
+  capital from transept of Notre Dame, Paris. _c_, 15th-century
+  capital from north spire of Chartres.]
+
+Foliage forms were used for nearly all the minor carved ornaments,
+though grotesque and human figures sometimes took their place. The
+gargoyles through which the roof-water was discharged clear of the
+building, were almost always composed in the form of hideous monsters;
+and symbolic beasts, like the oxen in the towers of Laon, or monsters
+like those which peer from the tower balustrades of Notre Dame, were
+employed with some mystical significance in various parts of the
+building. But the capitals corbels, crockets, and finials were mostly
+composed of floral or foliage forms. Those of the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries were for the most part simple in mass, and crisp and vigorous
+in design, imitating the strong shoots of early spring. The +capitals+
+were tall and slender, concave in profile, with heavy square or
+octagonal abaci. With the close of the thirteenth century this simple
+and forcible style of detail disappeared. The carving became more
+realistic; the leaves, larger and more mature, were treated as if
+applied to the capital or moulding, not as if they grew out of it. The
+execution and detail were finer and more delicate, in harmony with the
+increasing slenderness and lightness of the architecture (Fig. 126 a,
+b). +Tracery forms+ now began to be profusely applied to all manner of
+surfaces, and open-work gables, wholly unnecessary from the structural
+point of view, but highly effective as decorations, adorned the portals
+and crowned the windows.
+
+
++LATE GOTHIC MONUMENTS.+ So far our attention has been mainly occupied
+with the masterpieces erected previous to 1250. Among the cathedrals,
+relatively few in number, whose construction is referable to the second
+half of the century, that of +Beauvais+ stands first in importance.
+Designed on a colossal scale, its foundations were laid in 1225, but it
+was never completed, and the portion built--the choir and
+chapels--belonged really to the second half of the century, having been
+completed in 1270. But the collapse in 1284 of the central tower and
+vaulting of this incomplete cathedral, owing to the excessive loftiness
+and slenderness of its supports, compelled its entire reconstruction,
+the number of the piers being doubled and the span of the pier arches
+correspondingly reduced. As thus rebuilt, the cathedral aisle was 47
+feet wide from centre to centre of opposite piers, and 163 feet high to
+the top of the vault. Transepts were added after 1500. +Limoges+ and
++Narbonne+, begun in 1272 on a large scale (though not equal in size to
+Beauvais), were likewise never completed. Both had choirs of admirable
+plan, with well-designed chevet-chapels. Many other cathedrals begun
+during this period were completed only after long delays, as, for
+instance, Meaux, Rodez (1277), Toulouse (1272), and Alby (1282),
+finished in the sixteenth century, and Clermont (1248), completed under
+Napoleon III. But between 1260 or 1275 and 1350, work was actively
+prosecuted on many still incomplete cathedrals. The choirs of Beauvais
+(rebuilding), Limoges, and Narbonne were finished after 1330; and
+towers, transept-façades, portals, and chapels added to many others of
+earlier date.
+
+The style of this period is sometimes designated as +Rayonnant+, from
+the characteristic wheel tracery of the rose-windows, and the prevalence
+of circular forms in the lateral arched windows, of the late thirteenth
+and early fourteenth centuries. The great rose windows in the transepts
+of Notre Dame, dating from 1257, are typical examples of the style.
+Those of Rouen cathedral belong to the same category, though of later
+date. The façade of Amiens, completed by 1288, is one of the finest
+works of this style, of which an early example is the elaborate parish
+church of +St. Urbain+ at Troyes.
+
+
++THE FLAMBOYANT STYLE.+ The geometric treatment of the tracery and the
+minute and profuse decoration of this period gradually merged into the
+fantastic and unrestrained extravagances of the +Flamboyant+ style,
+which prevailed until the advent of the Renaissance--say 1525. The
+continuous logical development of forms ceased, and in its place caprice
+and display controlled the arts of design. The finest monument of this
+long period is the fifteenth-century nave and central tower of the
+church of +St. Ouen+ at Rouen, a parish church of the first rank, begun
+in 1318, but not finished until 1515. The tracery of the lateral windows
+is still chiefly geometric, but the western rose window (Fig. 112) and
+the magnificent central tower or lantern, exhibit in their tracery the
+florid decoration and wavy, flame-like lines of this style. Slenderness
+of supports and the suppression of horizontal lines are here carried to
+an extreme; and the church, in spite of its great elegance of detail,
+lacks the vital interest and charm of the earlier Gothic churches. The
+cathedral of Alençon and the church of +St. Maclou+ at Rouen, have
+portals with unusually elaborate detail of tracery and carving; while
+the façade of Rouen cathedral (1509) surpasses all other examples in the
+lace-like minuteness of its open-work and its profusion of ornament. The
+churches of +St. Jacques+ at Dieppe, and of +St. Wulfrand+ at Abbeville,
+the façades of Tours and Troyes, are among the masterpieces of the
+style. The upper part of the façade of Reims (1380-1428) belongs to the
+transition from the Rayonnant to the Flamboyant. While some works of
+this period are conspicuous for the richness of their ornamentation,
+others are noticeably bare and poor in design, like St. Merri and St.
+Séverin in Paris.
+
+
++SECULAR AND MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ The building of cathedrals did not
+absorb all the architectural activity of the French during the Gothic
+period, nor did it by any means put an end to monastic building. While
+there are few Gothic cloisters to equal the Romanesque cloisters of
+Puy-en-Vélay, Montmajour, Elne, and Moissac, many of the abbeys either
+rebuilt their churches in the Gothic style after 1150, or extended and
+remodelled their conventual buildings. The cloisters of Fontfroide,
+Chaise-Dieu, and the Mont St. Michel rival those of Romanesque times,
+while many new refectories and chapels were built in the same style with
+the cathedrals. The most complete of these Gothic monastic
+establishments, that of the +Mont St. Michel+ in Normandy, presented a
+remarkable aggregation of buildings clustering around the steep isolated
+rock on which stands the abbey church. This was built in the eleventh
+century, and the choir and chapels remodelled in the sixteenth. The
+great refectory and dormitory, the cloisters, lodgings, and chapels,
+built in several vaulted stories against the cliffs, are admirable
+examples of the vigorous pointed-arch design of the early thirteenth
+century.
+
++Hospitals+ like that of St. Jean at Angers (late twelfth century), or
+those of Chartres, Ourscamps, Tonnerre, and Beaune, illustrate how
+skilfully the French could modify and adapt the details of their
+architecture to the special requirements of civil architecture. Great
+numbers of charitable institutions were built in the middle
+ages--asylums, hospitals, refuges, and the like--but very few of those
+in France are now extant. Town halls were built in the fifteenth century
+in some places where a certain amount of popular independence had been
+secured. The florid fifteenth-century +Palais de Justice+ at +Rouen+
+(1499-1508) is an example of another branch of secular Gothic
+architecture. In all these monuments the adaptation of means to ends is
+admirable. Wooden ceilings and roofs replaced stone, wherever required
+by great width of span or economy of construction. There was little
+sculpture; the wall-spaces were not suppressed in favor of stained glass
+and tracery; while the roofs were usually emphasized and adorned with
+elaborate crestings and finials in lead or terra-cotta.
+
+
++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ These same principles controlled the designing
+of houses, farm buildings, barns, granaries, and the like. The common
+closely-built French city house of the twelfth and thirteenth century is
+illustrated by many extant examples at Cluny, Provins, and other towns.
+A shop opening on the street by a large arch, a narrow stairway, and two
+or three stories of rooms lighted by clustered, pointed-arched windows,
+constituted the common type. The street front was usually gabled and the
+roof steep. In the fourteenth or fifteenth century half-timbered
+construction began to supersede stone for town houses, as it permitted
+of encroaching upon the street by projecting the upper stories. Many of
+the half-timbered houses of the fifteenth century were of elaborate
+design. The heavy oaken uprights were carved with slender colonnettes;
+the horizontal sills, bracketed out over the street, were richly
+moulded; picturesque dormers broke the sky-line, and the masonry filling
+between the beams was frequently faced with enamelled tiles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 127.--HOUSE OF JACQUES CŒUR, BOURGES.
+  (After Viollet-le-Duc.)]
+
+The more considerable houses or palaces of royalty, nobles, and wealthy
+citizens rivalled, and in time surpassed, the monastic buildings in
+richness and splendor. The earlier examples retain the military aspect,
+with moat and donjon, as in the Louvre of Charles V., demolished in the
+sixteenth century. The finest palaces are of late date, and the type is
+well represented by the Ducal Palace at Nancy (1476), the +Hotel de
+Cluny+ (1485) at Paris, the +Hotel Jacques Cœur+ at Bourges (Fig. 127),
+and the east wing of Blois (1498-1515). These palaces are not only
+excellently and liberally planned, with large halls, many staircases,
+and handsome courts; they are also extremely picturesque with their
+square and circular towers, slender turrets, elaborate dormers, and rich
+carved detail.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: (C. = cathedral; A. = abbey; trans. = transept; each
+  edifice is given under the date of its commencement; subsequent
+  alterations in parentheses.) Between 1130 and 1200: Vézelay A.,
+  ante-chapel, 1130; St. Germer-de-Fly C., 1130-1150 (chapel later);
+  St. Denis A., choir, 1140 (choir rebuilt, nave and trans., 1240);
+  Sens C., 1140-68 (W. front, 13th century; chapels, spire, 14th);
+  Senlis C., 1145-83 (trans., spire, 13th century); Noyon C.,
+  1149-1200 (W. front, vaults, 13th century); St. Germain-des-Prés A.,
+  Paris, choir, 1150 (Romanesque nave); Angers C., 1150 (choir,
+  trans., 1274); Langres, 1150-1200; Laon C., 1150-1200; Le Mans C.,
+  nave, 1150-58 (choir, 1217-54); Soissons C., 1160-70 (choir, 1212;
+  nave chapels, 14th century); Poitiers C., 1162-1204; Notre Dame,
+  Paris, choir, 1163-96 (nave, W. front finished, 1235; trans.
+  fronts, and chapels, 1257-75); Chartres C., W. end, 1170; rest,
+  mainly 1194-98 (trans. porches, W. rose, 1210-1260; N. spire,
+  1506); Tours C., 1170 (rebuilt, 1267; trans., portals, 1375; W.
+  portals, chapels, 15th century; towers finished, 1507-47);
+  Laval C., 1180-85 (choir, 16th century); Mantes, church Notre
+  Dame, 1180-1200; Bourges C., 1190-95 (E. end, 1210; W. end, 1275);
+  St. Nicholas at Caen, 1190 (vaults, 15th century); Reims, church
+  St. Rémy, choir, end of 12th century (Romanesque nave); church St.
+  Leu d’Esserent, choir late 12th century (nave, 13th century);
+  Lyons C., choir, end of 12th century (nave, 13th and 14th
+  centuries); Etampes, church Notre Dame, 12th and 13th
+  centuries.--13th century: Evreux C., 1202-75 (trans., central
+  tower, 1417; W. front rebuilt, 16th century); Rouen C., 1202-20
+  (trans. portals, 1280; W. front, 1507); Nevers, 1211, N. portal,
+  1280 (chapels, S. portal, 15th century); Reims C., 1212-42 (W.
+  front, 1380; W. towers, 1420); Bayonne C., 1213 (nave, vaults, W.
+  portal, 14th century); Troyes C., choir, 1214 (central tower,
+  nave, W. portal, and towers, 15th century); Auxerre C., 1215-34
+  (nave, W. end, trans., 14th century); Amiens C., 1220-88; St.
+  Etienne at Chalons-sur-Marne, 1230 (spire, 1520); Séez C., 1230,
+  rebuilt 1260 (remodelled 14th century); Notre Dame de Dijon, 1230;
+  Reims, Lady chapel of Archbishop’s palace, 1230; Chapel Royal at
+  St. Germain-en-Laye, 1240; Ste. Chapelle at Paris, 1242-47 (W.
+  rose, 15th century); Coutances C., 1254-74; Beauvais C., 1247-72
+  (rebuilt 1337-47; trans. portals, 1500-48); Notre Dame de Grace at
+  Clermont, 1248 (finished 1350); Dôl C., 13th century; St.
+  Martin-des-Champs at Paris, nave 13th century (choir Romanesque);
+  Bordeaux C., 1260; Narbonne C., 1272-1320; Limoges, 1273 (finished
+  16th century); St. Urbain, Troyes, 1264; Rodez C., 1277-1385
+  (altered, completed 16th century); church St. Quentin, 1280-1300;
+  St. Benigne at Dijon, 1280-91; Alby C., 1282 (nave, 14th; choir,
+  15th century; S. portal, 1473-1500); Meaux C., mainly rebuilt 1284
+  (W. end much altered 15th, finished 16th century); Cahors C.,
+  rebuilt 1285-93 (W. front, 15th century); Orléans, 1287-1328
+  (burned, rebuilt 1601-1829).--14th century: St. Bertrand de
+  Comminges, 1304-50; St. Nazaire at Carcassonne, choir and trans.
+  on Romanesque nave; Montpellier C., 1364; St. Ouen at Rouen,
+  choir, 1318-39 (trans., 1400-39; nave, 1464-91; W. front, 1515);
+  Royal Chapel at Vincennes, 1385 (?)-1525.--15th and 16th century:
+  St. Nizier at Lyons rebuilt; St. Séverin, St. Merri, St. Germain
+  l’Auxerrois, all at Paris; Notre Dame de l’Epine at
+  Chalons-sur-Marne; choir of St. Etienne at Beauvais; Saintes C.,
+  rebuilt, 1450; St. Maclou at Rouen (finished 16th century); church
+  at Brou; St. Wulfrand at Abbeville; abbey of St. Riquier--these
+  three all early 16th century.--HOUSES, CASTLES, AND PALACES:
+  Bishop’s palace at Paris, 1160 (demolished); castle of Coucy,
+  1220-30; Louvre at Paris (the original château), 1225-1350; Palais
+  de Justice at Paris, originally the royal residence, 1225-1400;
+  Bishop’s palace at Laon, 1245 (addition to Romanesque hall);
+  castle Montargis, 13th century; castle Pierrefonds, Bishop’s
+  palace at Narbonnne, palace of Popes at Avignon--all 14th century;
+  donjon of palace at Poitiers, 1395; Hôtel des Ambassadeurs at
+  Dijon, 1420; house of Jacques Cœur at Bourges, 1443; Palace,
+  Dijon, 1467; Ducal palace at Nancy, 1476; Hôtel Cluny at Paris,
+  1490; castle of Creil, late 15th century, finished in 16th; E.
+  wing palace of Blois, 1498-1515, for Louis XII.; Palace de Justice
+  at Rouen, 1499-1508.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Corroyer, Parker, Reber. Also,
+  Bell’s Series of _Handbooks of English Cathedrals_. Billings, _The
+  Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland_. Bond,
+  _Gothic Architecture in England_. Brandon, _Analysis of Gothic
+  Architecture_. Britton, _Cathedral Antiquities of Great Britain_.
+  Ditchfield, _The Cathedrals of England_. Murray, _Handbooks of the
+  English Cathedrals_. Parker, _Introduction to Gothic
+  Architecture_; _Glossary of Architectural Terms_; _Companion to
+  Glossary_, etc. Rickman, _An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of
+  English Architecture_. Sharpe, _Architectural Parallels_; _The
+  Seven Periods of English Architecture_. Van Rensselaer, _English
+  Cathedrals_. Winkles and Moule, _Cathedral Churches of England and
+  Wales_. Willis, _Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral_;
+  ditto _of Winchester Cathedral_; _Treatise on Vaults_.
+
+
++GENERAL CHARACTER.+ Gothic architecture was developed in England under
+a strongly established royal power, with an episcopate in no sense
+hostile to the abbots or in arms against the barons. Many of the
+cathedrals had monastic chapters, and not infrequently abbots were
+invested with the episcopal rank.
+
+English Gothic architecture was thus by no means predominantly an
+architecture of cathedrals. If architectural activity in England was on
+this account less intense and widespread in the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries than in France, it was not, on the other hand, so soon
+exhausted. Fewer new cathedrals were built, but the progressive
+rebuilding of those already existing seems not to have ceased until the
+middle or end of the fifteenth century. Architecture in England
+developed more slowly, but more uniformly than in France. It contented
+itself with simpler problems; and if it failed to rival Amiens in
+boldness of construction and in lofty majesty, it at least never
+perpetrated a folly like Beauvais. In richness of internal decoration,
+especially in the mouldings and ribbed vaulting, and in the picturesque
+grouping of simple masses externally, the British builders went far
+toward atoning for their structural timidity.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 128.--PLAN OF SALISBURY CATHEDRAL.]
+
+
++EARLY GOTHIC BUILDINGS.+ The pointed arch and ribbed vault were
+importations from France. Early examples appear in the Cistercian abbeys
+of Furness and Kirkstall, and in the Temple Church at London (1185). But
+it was in the +Choir of Canterbury+, as rebuilt by William of Sens,
+after the destruction by fire in 1170 of Anselm’s Norman choir, that
+these French Gothic features were first applied in a thoroughgoing
+manner. In plan this choir resembled that of the cathedral of Sens; and
+its coupled round piers, with capitals carved with foliage, its pointed
+arches, its six-part vaulting, and its _chevet_, were distinctly French.
+The Gothic details thus introduced slowly supplanted the round arch and
+other Norman features. For fifty years the styles were more or less
+mingled in many buildings, though +Lincoln Cathedral+, as rebuilt in
+1185-1200, retained nothing of the earlier round-arched style. But the
+first church to be designed and built from the foundations in the new
+style was the cathedral of +Salisbury+ (1220-1258; Fig. 128).
+Contemporary with Amiens, it is a homogeneous and typical example of the
+Early English style. The predilection for great length observable in the
+Anglo-Norman churches (as at Norwich and Durham) still prevailed, as it
+continued to do throughout the Gothic period; Salisbury is 480 feet
+long. The double transepts, the long choir, the square east end, the
+relatively low vault (84 feet to the ridge), the narrow grouped windows,
+all are thoroughly English. Only the simple four-part vaulting recalls
+French models. +Westminster Abbey+ (1245-1269), on the other hand,
+betrays in a marked manner the French influence in its internal
+loftiness (100 feet), its polygonal _chevet_ and chapels, and its
+strongly accented exterior flying-buttresses (Fig. 137).
+
+
++MIXTURE OF STYLES.+ Very few English cathedrals are as homogeneous as
+the two just mentioned, nearly all having undergone repeated
+remodellings in successive periods. Durham, Norwich, and Oxford are
+wholly Norman but for their Gothic vaults. Ely, Rochester, Gloucester,
+and Hereford have Norman naves and Gothic choirs. Peterborough has an
+early Gothic façade and late Gothic retro-choir added to an otherwise
+completely Norman structure. Winchester is a Norman church remodelled
+with early Perpendicular details. The purely Gothic churches and
+cathedrals, except parish churches--in which England is very rich--are
+not nearly as numerous in England as in France.
+
+
++PERIODS.+ The development of English Gothic architecture followed the
+same general sequence as the French, and like it the successive stages
+were most conspicuously characterized by the forms of the tracery.
+
+The EARLY ENGLISH or LANCET period extended roundly from 1175 or 1180 to
+1280, and was marked by simplicity, dignity, and purity of design.
+
+The DECORATED or GEOMETRIC period covered another century, 1280 to 1380,
+and was characterized by its decorative richness and greater lightness
+of construction.
+
+The PERPENDICULAR period extended from 1380, or thereabout, well into
+the sixteenth century. Its salient features were the use of
+fan-vaulting, four-centred arches, and tracery of predominantly vertical
+and horizontal lines. The tardy introduction of Renaissance forms
+finally put an end to the Gothic style in England, after a long period
+of mixed and transitional architecture.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 129.--RIBBED VAULTING,
+  CHOIR OF EXETER CATHEDRAL.]
+
++VAULTING.+ The richness and variety of English vaulting contrast
+strikingly with the persistent uniformity of the French. A few of the
+early Gothic vaults, as in the aisles of Peterborough, and later the
+naves of Durham, Salisbury, and Gloucester, were simple four-part,
+ribbed vaults substantially like the French. But the English disliked
+and avoided the twisted and dome-like surfaces of the French vaults,
+preferring horizontal ridges, and, in the filling-masonry, straight
+courses meeting at the ridge in zigzag lines, as in southwest France
+(see p. 200). This may be seen in Westminster Abbey. The idea of ribbed
+construction was then seized upon and given a new application. By
+springing a large number of ribs from each point of support, the
+vaulting-surfaces were divided into long, narrow, triangles, the filling
+of which was comparatively easy (Fig. 129). The ridge was itself
+furnished with a straight rib, decorated with carved rosettes or
+_bosses_ at each intersection with a vaulting-rib. The naves and choirs
+of Lincoln, Lichfield, Exeter, and the nave of Westminster illustrate
+this method. The logical corollary of this practice was the introduction
+of minor ribs called _liernes_, connecting the main ribs and forming
+complex reticulated and star-shaped patterns. Vaults of this description
+are among the most beautiful in England. One of the richest is in the
+choir of Gloucester (1337-1377). Less correct constructively is that
+over the choir of Wells, while the choir of Ely, the nave of Tewkesbury
+Abbey (Fig. 130), and all the vaulting of Winchester as rebuilt by
+William of Wykeham (1390), illustrate the same system. Such vaults are
+called _lierne_ or _star_ vaults.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 130.--NET OR LIERNE VAULTING,
+  TEWKESBURY ABBEY.]
+
+
++FAN-VAULTING.+ The next step in the process may be observed in the
+vaults of the choir of Oxford Cathedral (Christ Church), of the
+retro-choir of Peterborough, of the cloisters of Gloucester, and many
+other examples. The diverging ribs being made of uniform curvature, the
+_severeys_ (the inverted pyramidal vaulting-masses springing from each
+support) became a species of concave conoids, meeting at the ridge in
+such a way as to leave a series of flat lozenge-shaped spaces at the
+summit of the vault (Fig. 136). The ribs were multiplied indefinitely,
+and losing thus in individual and structural importance became a mere
+decorative pattern of tracery on the severeys. To conceal the awkward
+flat lozenges at the ridge, elaborate panelling was resorted to; or, in
+some cases, long stone pendents were inserted at those points--a device
+highly decorative but wholly unconstructive. At Cambridge, in +King’s
+College Chapel+, at Windsor, in +St. George’s Chapel+, and in the
++Chapel of Henry VII.+ at Westminster, this sort of vaulting received
+its most elaborate development. The _fan-vault_, as it is called,
+illustrates the logical evolution of a decorative element from a
+structural starting--point, leading to results far removed from the
+original conception. Rich and sumptuous as are these ceilings, they are
+with all their ornament less satisfactory than the ribbed vaults of the
+preceding period.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 131.--VAULT OF CHAPTER-HOUSE, WELLS.]
+
++CHAPTER-HOUSES.+ One of the most beautiful forms of ribbed vaulting was
+developed in the polygonal halls erected for the deliberations of the
+cathedral chapters of Lincoln (1225), Westminster (1250), Salisbury
+(1250), and Wells (1292), in which the vault-ribs radiated from a
+central column to the sides and angles of the polygon (Fig. 131). If
+these vaults were less majestic than domes of the same diameter, they
+were far more decorative and picturesque, while the chapter-houses
+themselves were the most original and striking products of English
+Gothic art. Every feature was designed with strict regard for the
+structural system determined by the admirable vaulting, and the Sainte
+Chapelle was not more logical in its exemplification of Gothic
+principles. To the four above-mentioned examples should be added that of
+York (1280-1330), which differs from them in having no central column:
+by some critics it is esteemed the finest of them all. Its ceiling is a
+Gothic dome, 57 feet in diameter, but unfortunately executed in wood.
+Its geometrical window-tracery and richly canopied stalls are admirable.
+
+
++OCTAGON AT ELY.+ The magnificent +Octagon+ of Ely Cathedral, at the
+intersection of the nave and transepts, belongs in the same category
+with these polygonal chapter-house vaults. It was built by Alan of
+Walsingham in 1337, after the fall of the central tower and the
+destruction of the adjacent bays of the choir. It occupies the full
+width of the three aisles, and covers the ample space thus enclosed with
+a simple but beautiful groined and ribbed vault of wood reaching to a
+central octagonal lantern, which rises much higher and shows externally
+as well as internally. Unfortunately, this vault is of wood, and would
+require important modifications of detail if carried out in stone. But
+it is so noble in general design and total effect, that one wonders the
+type was not universally adopted for the crossing in all cathedrals,
+until one observes that no cathedral of importance was built after
+Walsingham’s time, nor did any other central towers opportunely fall to
+the ground.
+
+
++WINDOWS AND TRACERY.+ In the Early English Period (1200-1280 or 1300)
+the windows were tall and narrow (_lancet_ windows), and generally
+grouped by twos and threes, though sometimes four and even five are seen
+together (as the “Five Sisters” in the N. transept of York). In the nave
+of Salisbury and the retro-choir of Ely the side aisles are lighted by
+coupled windows and the clearstory by triple windows, the central one
+higher than the others--a surviving Norman practice. Plate-tracery was,
+as in France, an intermediate step leading to the development of
+bar-tracery (see Fig. 110). The English followed here the same reasoning
+as the French. At first the openings constituted the design, the
+intervening stonework being of secondary importance. Later the forms of
+the openings were subordinated to the pattern of the stone framework of
+bars, arches, circles, and cusps. Bar-tracery of this description
+prevailed in England through the greater part of the Decorated Period
+(1280-1380), and somewhat resembled the contemporary French geometric
+tracery, though more varied and less rigidly constructive in design. An
+early example of this tracery occurs in the cloisters of Salisbury (Fig.
+132); others in the clearstories of the choirs of Lichfield, Lincoln,
+and Ely, the nave of York, and the chapter-houses mentioned above,
+where, indeed, it seems to have received its earliest development. After
+the middle of the fourteenth century lines of double curvature were
+introduced, producing what is called _flowing_ tracery, somewhat
+resembling the French flamboyant, though earlier in date (Fig. 111).
+Examples of this style are found in Wells, in the side aisles and
+triforium of the choir of Ely, and in the S. transept rose-window of
+Lincoln.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 132.--CLOISTERS, SALISBURY CATHEDRAL
+  (SHOWING UPPER PART OF CHAPTER-HOUSE).]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 133.--PERPENDICULAR TRACERY,
+  WEST WINDOW OF ST. GEORGE’S, WINDSOR.]
+
++THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE.+ Flowing tracery was, however, a transitional
+phase of design, and was soon superseded by _Perpendicular_ tracery, in
+which the mullions were carried through to the top of the arch and
+intersected by horizontal transoms. This formed a very rigid and
+mechanically correct system of stone framing, but lacked the grace and
+charm of the two preceding periods. The earliest examples are seen in
+the work of Edington and of Wykeham in the reconstructed cathedral of
+Winchester (1360-1394), where the tracery was thus made to harmonize
+with the accentuated and multiplied vertical lines of the interior
+design. It was at this late date that the English seem first to have
+fully appropriated the Gothic ideas of emphasized vertical elements and
+wall surfaces reduced to a minimum. The development of fan-vaulting had
+led to the adoption of a new form of arch, the four-centred or _Tudor
+arch_ (Fig. 133), to fit under the depressed apex of the vault. The
+whole design internally and externally was thenceforward controlled by
+the form of the vaulting and of the openings. The windows were made of
+enormous size, especially at the east end of the choir, which was square
+in nearly all English churches, and in the west windows over the
+entrance. These windows had already reached, in the Decorated Period, an
+enormous size, as at York; in the Perpendicular Period the two ends of
+the church were as nearly as possible converted into walls of glass. The
+East Window of Gloucester reaches the prodigious dimensions of 38 by 72
+feet. The most complete examples of the Perpendicular tracery and of the
+style in general are the three chapels already mentioned (p. 223);
+those, namely, of +King’s College+ at Cambridge, of +St. George+ at
+Windsor, and of +Henry VII.+ in Westminster Abbey.
+
+
++CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN.+ The most striking peculiarity of English Gothic
+design was its studious avoidance of temerity or venturesomeness in
+construction. Both the height and width of the nave were kept within
+very moderate bounds, and the supports were never reduced to extreme
+slenderness. While much impressiveness of effect was undoubtedly lost
+thereby, there was some gain in freedom of design, and there was less
+obtrusion of constructive elements in the exterior composition. The
+flying-buttress became a feature of minor importance where the
+clearstory was kept low, as in most English churches. In many cases the
+flying arches were hidden under the aisle roofs. The English cathedrals
+and larger churches are long and low, depending for effect mainly upon
+the projecting masses of their transepts, the imposing square central
+towers which commonly crown the crossing, and the grouping of the main
+structure with chapter-houses, cloisters, and Lady-chapels.
+
+
++FRONTS.+ The sides and east ends were, in most cases, more successful
+than the west fronts. In these the English displayed a singular
+indifference or lack of creative power. They produced nothing to rival
+the majestic façades of Notre Dame, Amiens, or Reims, and their portals
+are almost ridiculously small. The front of +York+ Cathedral is the most
+notable in the list for its size and elaborate decoration. Those of
++Lincoln+ and +Peterborough+ are, however, more interesting in the
+picturesqueness and singularity of their composition. The first-named
+forms a vast arcaded screen, masking the bases of the two western
+towers, and pierced by three huge Norman arches, retained from the
+original façade. The west front of Peterborough is likewise a mask or
+screen, mainly composed of three colossal recessed arches, whose vast
+scale completely dwarfs the little porches which give admittance to the
+church. Salisbury has a curiously illogical and ineffective façade.
+Those of +Lichfield+ and +Wells+ are, on the other hand, imposing and
+beautiful designs, the first with its twin spires and rich arcading
+(Fig. 134), the second with its unusual wealth of figure-sculpture, and
+massive square towers.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 134.--WEST FRONT, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL.]
+
+
++CENTRAL TOWERS.+ These are the most successful features of English
+exterior design. Most of them form lanterns internally over the
+crossing, giving to that point a considerable increase of dignity.
+Externally they are usually massive and lofty square towers, and having
+been for the most part completed during the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries they are marked by great richness and elegance of detail.
+Durham, York, Ely, Canterbury, Lincoln, and Gloucester maybe mentioned
+as notable examples of such square towers; that of Canterbury is the
+finest. Two or three have lofty spires over the lantern. Among these,
+that of Salisbury is chief, rising 424 feet from the ground, admirably
+designed in every detail. It was not completed till the middle of the
+fourteenth century, but most fortunately carries out with great felicity
+the spirit of the earlier style in which it was begun. Lichfield and
+Chichester have somewhat similar central spires, but less happy in
+proportion and detail than the beautiful Salisbury example.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 135.--ONE BAY OF CHOIR, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL.]
+
+
++INTERIOR DESIGN.+ In the Norman churches the pier-arches, triforium,
+and clearstory were practically equal. In the Gothic churches the
+pier-arches generally occupy the lower half of the height, the upper
+half being divided nearly equally between the triforium and clearstory,
+as in Lincoln, Lichfield (nave), Ely (choir). In some cases, however (as
+at Salisbury, Westminster, Winchester, choir of Lichfield), the
+clearstory is magnified at the expense of the triforium (Fig. 135).
+Three peculiarities of design sharply distinguish the English treatment
+of these features from the French. The first is the multiplicity of fine
+mouldings in the pier-arches; the second is the decorative elaboration
+of design in the triforium; the third, the variety in the treatment of
+the clearstory. In general the English interiors are much more ornate
+than the French. Black Purbeck marble is frequently used for the shafts
+clustered around the central core of the pier, giving a striking and
+somewhat singular effect of contrasted color. The rich vaulting, the
+highly decorated triforium, the moulded pier-arches, and at the end of
+the vista the great east window, produce an impression very different
+from the more simple and lofty stateliness of the French cathedrals. The
+great length and lowness of the English interiors combine with this
+decorative richness to give the impression of repose and grace, rather
+than of majesty and power. This tendency reached its highest expression
+in the Perpendicular churches and chapels, in which every surface was
+covered with minute panelling.
+
+
++CARVING.+ In the Early English Period the details were carved with a
+combined delicacy and vigor deserving of the highest praise. In the
+capitals and corbels, crockets and finials, the foliage was crisp and
+fine, curling into convex masses and seeming to spring from the surface
+which it decorated. Mouldings were frequently ornamented with foliage of
+this character in the hollows, and another ornament, the _dog-tooth_ or
+_pyramid_, often served the same purpose, introducing repeated points of
+light into the shadows of the mouldings. These were fine and complex,
+deep hollows alternating with round mouldings (_bowtels_) sometimes made
+pear-shaped in section by a fillet on one side. _Cusping_--the
+decoration of an arch or circle by triangular projections on its inner
+edge--was introduced during this period, and became an important
+decorative resource, especially in tracery design. In the Decorated
+Period the foliage was less crisp; sea-weed and oak-leaves, closely and
+confusedly bunched, were used in the capitals, while crockets were
+larger, double-curved, with leaves swelling into convexities like
+oak-galls. Geometrical and flowing tracery were developed, and the
+mouldings of the tracery-bars, as of other features, lost somewhat in
+vigor and sharpness. The _ball-flower_ or button replaced the
+dog’s-tooth, and the hollows were less frequently adorned with foliage.
+
+In the Perpendicular Period nearly all flat surfaces were panelled in
+designs resembling the tracery of the windows. The capitals were less
+important than those of the preceding periods, and the mouldings weaker
+and less effective. The Tudor rose appears as an ornament in square
+panels and on flat surfaces; and moulded battlements, which first
+appeared in Decorated work, now become a frequent crowning motive in
+place of a cornice. There is less originality and variety in the
+ornament, but a great increase in its amount (Fig. 136).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 136.--FAN-VAULTING, HENRY VII.’S CHAPEL,
+  WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
+
+
++PLANS.+ English church plans underwent, during the Gothic Period, but
+little change from the general types established previous to the
+thirteenth century. The Gothic cathedrals and abbeys, like the Norman,
+were very long and narrow, with choirs often nearly as long as the nave,
+and almost invariably with square eastward terminations. There is no
+example of double side aisles and side chapels, and apsidal chapels are
+very rare. Canterbury and Westminster (Fig. 137) are the chief
+exceptions to this, and both show clearly the French influence. Another
+striking peculiarity of the English plans is the frequent occurrence of
+secondary transepts, adding greatly to the external picturesqueness.
+These occur in rudimentary form in Canterbury, and at Durham the Chapel
+of the Nine Altars, added 1242-1290 to the eastern end, forms in reality
+a secondary transept. This feature is most perfectly developed in the
+cathedral of Salisbury (Fig. 128), and appears also at Lincoln,
+Worcester, Wells, and a few other examples. The English cathedral plans
+are also distinguished by the retention or incorporation of many
+conventual features, such as cloisters, libraries, and halls, and by the
+grouping of chapter-houses and Lady-chapels with the main edifice. Thus
+the English cathedral plans and those of the great abbey churches
+present a marked contrast with those of France and the Continent
+generally. While Amiens, the greatest of French cathedrals, is 521 feet
+long, and internally 140 feet high, Ely measures 565 feet in length, and
+less than 75 feet in height. Notre Dame is 148 feet wide; the English
+naves are usually under 80 feet in total width of the three aisles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 137.--EASTERN HALF OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY. PLAN.
+  a, _Henry VII.’s chapel._]
+
+
++PARISH CHURCHES.+ Many of these were of exceptional beauty of
+composition and detail. They display the greatest variety of plan,
+churches with two equal-gabled naves side by side being not uncommon.
+A considerable proportion of them date from the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries, and are chiefly interesting for their square, single, west
+towers and their carved wooden ceilings (see below). The tower was
+usually built over the central western porch; broad and square, with
+corner buttresses terminating in pinnacles, it was usually finished
+without spires. Crenelated battlements crowned the upper story. When
+spires were added the transition from the square tower to the octagonal
+spire was effected by _broaches_ or portions of a square pyramid
+intersecting the base of the spire, or by corner pinnacles and
+flying-buttresses.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 138.--ROOF OF NAVE, ST. MARY’S,
+  WESTONZOYLAND.]
+
++WOODEN CEILINGS.+ The English treated woodwork with consummate skill.
+They invented and developed a variety of forms of roof-truss in which
+the proper distribution of the strains was combined with a highly
+decorative treatment of the several parts by carving, moulding, and
+arcading. The ceiling surfaces between the trusses were handled
+decoratively, and the oaken open-timber ceilings of many of the English
+churches and civic or academic halls (Christ Church Hall, Oxford;
+Westminster Hall, London) are such noble and beautiful works as quite to
+justify the substitution of wooden for vaulted ceilings (Fig. 138). The
+_hammer-beam_ truss was in its way as highly scientific, and
+æsthetically as satisfactory, as any feature of French Gothic stone
+construction. Without the use of tie-rods to keep the rafters from
+spreading, it brought the strain of the roof upon internal brackets low
+down on the wall, and produced a beautiful effect by the repetition of
+its graceful curves in each truss.
+
+
++CHAPELS AND HALLS.+ Many of these rival the cathedrals in beauty and
+dignity of design. The royal chapels at Windsor and Westminster have
+already been mentioned, as well as King’s College Chapel at Cambridge,
+and Christ Church Hall at Oxford. To these college halls should be added
+the chapel of Merton College at Oxford, and the beautiful chapel of St.
+Stephen at Westminster, most unfortunately demolished when the present
+Parliament House was erected. The Lady-chapels of Gloucester and Ely,
+though connected with the cathedrals, are really independent designs of
+late date, and remarkable for the richness of their decoration, their
+great windows, and elaborate ribbed vaulting. Some of the halls in
+mediæval castles and manor-houses are also worthy of note, especially
+for their timber ceilings.
+
+
++MINOR MONUMENTS.+ The student of Gothic architecture should also give
+attention to the choir-screens, tombs, and chantries which embellish
+many of the abbeys and cathedrals. The rood-screen at York is a notable
+example of the first; the tomb of De Gray in the same cathedral, and
+tombs and chantries in Canterbury, Winchester, Westminster Abbey, Ely,
+St. Alban’s Abbey, and other churches are deservedly admired. In these
+the English love for ornament, for minute carving, and for the contrast
+of white and colored marble, found unrestrained expression. To these
+should be added the market-crosses of Salisbury and Winchester, and
+Queen Eleanor’s Cross at Waltham.
+
+
++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ The mediæval castles of Great Britain belong to
+the domain of military engineering rather than of the history of art,
+though occasionally presenting to view details of considerable
+architectural beauty. The growth of peace and civic order is marked by
+the erection of manor-houses, the residences of wealthy landowners. Some
+of these houses are of imposing size, and show the application to
+domestic requirements, of the late Gothic style which prevailed in the
+period to which most of them belong. The windows are square or
+Tudor-arched, with stone mullions and transoms of the Perpendicular
+style, and the walls terminate in merlons or crenelated parapets,
+recalling the earlier military structures. The palace of the bishop or
+archbishop, adjoining the cathedral, and the residences of the dean,
+canons, and clergy, together with the libraries, schools, and gates of
+the cathedral enclosure, illustrate other phases of secular Gothic work.
+Few of these structures are of striking architectural merit, but they
+possess a picturesque charm which is very attractive.
+
+Not many stone houses of the smaller class remain from the Gothic period
+in England. But there is hardly an old town that does not retain many of
+the half-timbered dwellings of the fifteenth or even fourteenth century,
+some of them in excellent preservation. They are for the most part wider
+and lower than the French houses of the same class, but are built on the
+same principle, and, like them, the woodwork is more or less richly
+carved.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: (A. = abbey church; C. = cathedral; r. = ruined;
+  trans. = transept; each monument is given under the date of the
+  earliest extant Gothic work upon it, with additions of later
+  periods in parentheses.)
+
+  EARLY ENGLISH: Kirkstall A., 1152-82, first pointed arches;
+  Canterbury C., choir, 1175-84 (nave, 1378-1411; central tower,
+  1500); Lincoln C., choir, trans., 1192-1200 (vault, 1250; nave and
+  E. end, 1260-80); Lichfield C., 1200-50 (W. front, 1275;
+  presbytery, 1325); Worcester C., choir, 1203-18, nave partly
+  Norman (W. end, 1375-95); Chichester C., 1204-44 (spire rebuilt
+  17th century); Fountains A., 1205-46; Salisbury C., 1220-58
+  (cloister, chapter-h., 1263-84; spire, 1331); Elgin C., 1224-44;
+  Wells C., 1175-1206 (W. front 1225, choir later, chapter-h.,
+  1292); Rochester C., 1225-39 (nave Norman); York C., S. trans.,
+  1225; N. trans., 1260 (nave, chapter-h., 1291-1345; W. window,
+  1338; central tower, 1389-1407; E. window, 1407); Southwell
+  Minster, 1233-94 (nave Norman); Ripon C., 1233-94 (central tower,
+  1459); Ely C., choir, 1229-54 (nave Norman; octagon and
+  presbytery, 1323-62); Peterborough C., W. front, 1237 (nave
+  Norman; retro-choir, late 14th century); Netley A., 1239 (r.);
+  Durham C., “Nine Altars” and E. end choir, 1235-90 (nave, choir,
+  Norman; W. window, 1341; central tower finished, 1480);
+  Glasgow C., (with remarkable Early English crypt), 1242-77;
+  Gloucester C., nave vaulted, 1239-42 (nave mainly Norman; choir,
+  1337-51; cloisters, 1375-1412; W. end, 1420-37; central tower,
+  1450-57); Westminster A., 1245-69; St. Mary’s A., York, 1272-92
+  (r.).
+
+  DECORATED: Merton College Chapel, Oxford, 1274-1300; Hereford C.,
+  N. trans., chapter-h., cloisters, vaulting, 1275-92 (nave, choir,
+  Norman); Exeter C., choir, trans., 1279-91; nave, 1331-50 (E. end
+  remodelled, 1390); Lichfield C., Lady-chapel, 1310; Ely C.,
+  Lady-chapel, 1321-49; Melrose A., 1327-99 (nave, 1500; r.); St.
+  Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster, 1349-64 (demolished); Edington
+  church, 1352-61; Carlisle C., E. end and upper parts, 1352-95
+  (nave in part and S. trans. Norman; tower finished, 1419);
+  Winchester C., W. end remodelled, 1360-66 (nave and aisles,
+  1394-1410; trans., partly Norman); York C., Lady-chapel, 1362-72;
+  churches of Patrington and Hull, late 14th century.
+
+  PERPENDICULAR: Holy Cross Church, Canterbury, 1380; St. Mary’s,
+  Warwick, 1381-91; Manchester C., 1422; St. Mary’s, Bury St.
+  Edmunds, 1424-33; Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, 1439; King’s College
+  Chapel, Cambridge, 1440; vaults, 1508-15; St. Mary’s Redcliffe,
+  Bristol, 1442; Roslyn Chapel, Edinburgh, 1446-90; Gloucester C.,
+  Lady-chapel, 1457-98; St. Mary’s, Stratford-on-Avon, 1465-91;
+  Norwich C., upper part and E. end of choir, 1472-99 (the rest
+  mainly Norman); St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, 1481-1508; choir
+  vaulted, 1507-20; Bath A., 1500-39; Chapel of Henry VII.,
+  Westminster, 1503-20.
+
+  ACADEMIC AND SECULAR BUILDINGS: Winchester Castle Hall, 1222-35;
+  Merton College Chapel, Oxford, 1274-1300; Library Merton College,
+  1354-78; Norborough Hall, 1356; Windsor Castle, upper ward,
+  1359-73; Winchester College, 1387-93; Wardour Castle, 1392;
+  Westminster Hall, rebuilt, 1397-99; St. Mary’s Hall, Coventry,
+  1401-14; Warkworth Castle, 1440; St. John’s College, All Soul’s
+  College, Oxford, 1437; Eton College, 1441-1522; Divinity Schools,
+  Oxford, 1445-54; Magdalen College, Oxford, 1475-80, tower, 1500;
+  Christ Church Hall, Oxford, 1529.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, AND SPAIN.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Corroyer, Reber. Also, Adler,
+  _Mittelalterliche Backstein-Bauwerke des preussischen Staates_.
+  Essenwein (_Hdbuch. d. Arch._), _Die romanische und die gothische
+  Baukunst; der Wohnbau_. Hasak, _Die romanische und die gothische
+  Baukunst; Kirchenbau_; _Einzelheiten des Kirchenbaues_ (both in
+  _Hdbuch. d. Arch._). Hase and others, _Die mittelalterlichen
+  Baudenkmäler Niedersachsens_. Kallenbach, _Chronologie der
+  deutschen mittelalterlichen Baukunst_. Lübke, _Ecclesiastical Art
+  in Germany during the Middle Ages_. Redtenbacher, _Leitfaden zum
+  Studium der mittelalterlichen Baukunst_. Street, _Gothic
+  Architecture in Spain_. Uhde, _Baudenkmäler in Spanien_.
+  Ungewitter, _Lehrbuch der gothischen Constructionen_. Villa Amil,
+  _Hispania Artistica y Monumental_.
+
+
++EARLY GOTHIC WORKS.+ The Gothic architecture of Germany is less
+interesting to the general student than that of France and England, not
+only because its development was less systematic and more provincial,
+but also because it produced fewer works of high intrinsic merit. The
+introduction into Germany of the pointed style was tardy, and its
+progress slow. Romanesque architecture had created imposing types of
+ecclesiastical architecture, which the conservative Teutons were slow to
+abandon. The result was a half-century of transition and a mingling of
+Romanesque and Gothic forms. St. Castor, at Coblentz, built as late as
+1208, is wholly Romanesque. Even when the pointed arch and vault had
+finally come into general use, the plan and the constructive system
+still remained predominantly Romanesque. The western apse and short
+sanctuary of the earlier plans were retained. There was no triforium,
+the clearstory was insignificant, and the whole aspect low and massive.
+The Germans avoided, at first, as did the English, the constructive
+audacities and difficulties of the French Gothic, but showed less of
+invention and grace than their English neighbors. When, however, through
+the influence of foreign models, especially of the great French
+cathedrals, and through the employment of foreign architects, the Gothic
+styles were at last thoroughly domesticated, a spirit of ostentation
+took the place of the earlier conservatism. Technical cleverness,
+exaggerated ingenuity of detail, and constructive _tours de force_
+characterize most of the German Gothic work of the late fourteenth and
+of the fifteenth century. This is exemplified in the slender mullions of
+Ulm, the lofty and complicated spire of Strasburg, and the curious
+traceries of churches and houses in Nuremberg.
+
+
++PERIODS.+ The periods of German mediæval architecture corresponded in
+sequence, though not in date, with the movement elsewhere. The maturing
+of the true Gothic styles was preceded by more than a half-century of
+transition. Chronologically the periods may be broadly stated as
+follows:
+
+THE TRANSITIONAL, 1170-1225.
+
+THE EARLY POINTED, 1225-1275.
+
+THE MIDDLE OR DECORATED, 1275-1350.
+
+THE FLORID, 1350-1530.
+
+These divisions are, however, far less clearly defined than in France
+and England. The development of forms was less logical and
+consequential, and less uniform in the different provinces, than in
+those western lands.
+
+
++CONSTRUCTION.+ As already remarked, a tenacious hold of Romanesque
+methods is observable in many German Gothic monuments. Broad
+wall-surfaces with small windows and a general massiveness and lowness
+of proportions were long preferred to the more slender and lofty
+forms of true Gothic design. Square vaulting-bays were persistently
+adhered to, covering two aisle-bays. The six-part system was only
+rarely resorted to, as at Schlettstadt, and in St. George at
+Limburg-on-the-Lahn (Fig. 139). The ribbed vault was an imported idea,
+and was never systematically developed. Under the final dominance of
+French models in the second half of the thirteenth century, vaulting in
+oblong bays became more general, powerfully influenced by buildings like
+Freiburg, Cologne, Oppenheim, and Ratisbon cathedrals. In the fourteenth
+century the growing taste for elaboration and rich detail led to the
+introduction of multiplied decorative ribs. These, however, did not come
+into use, as in England, through a logical development of constructive
+methods, but purely as decorative features. The German multiple-ribbed
+vaulting is, therefore, less satisfying than the English, though often
+elegant. Conspicuous examples of its application are found in the
+cathedrals of Freiburg, Ulm, Prague, and Vienna; in St. Barbara at
+Kuttenberg, and many other important churches. But with all the richness
+and complexity of these net-like vaults the Germans developed nothing
+like the fan-vaulting or chapter-house ceilings of England.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 139.--ONE BAY OF CATHEDRAL OF ST. GEORGE,
+  LIMBURG.]
+
+
++SIDE AISLES.+ The most notable structural innovation of the Germans was
+the raising of the side aisles to the same height as the central aisle
+in a number of important churches. They thus created a distinctly new
+type, to which German writers have given the name of _hall-church_. The
+result of this innovation was to transform completely the internal
+perspective of the church, as well as its structural membering. The
+clearstory disappeared; the central aisle no longer dominated the
+interior; the pier-arches and side-walls were greatly increased in
+height, and flying buttresses were no longer required. The whole design
+appeared internally more spacious, but lost greatly in variety and in
+interest. The cathedral of +St. Stephen+ at Vienna is the most imposing
+instance of this treatment, which first appeared in the church of St.
+Elizabeth at Marburg (1235-83; Fig. 140). St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, St.
+Martin’s at Landshut (1404), and the cathedral of Munich are others
+among many examples of this type.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 140.--SECTION OF ST. ELIZABETH, MARBURG.]
+
+
++TOWERS AND SPIRES.+ The same fondness for spires which had been
+displayed in the Rhenish Romanesque churches produced in the Gothic
+period a number of strikingly beautiful church steeples, in which
+openwork tracery was substituted for the solid stone pyramids of earlier
+examples. The most remarkable of these spires are those of Freiburg
+(1300), Strasburg, and Cologne cathedrals, of the church at Esslingen,
+St. Martin’s at Landshut, and the cathedral of Vienna. In these the
+transition from the simple square tower below to the octagonal belfry
+and spire is generally managed with skill. In the remarkable tower of
+the cathedral at Vienna (1433) the transition is too gradual, so that
+the spire seems to start from the ground and lacks the vigor and accent
+of a simpler square lower portion. The over-elaborate spire of
++Strasburg+ (1429, by Junckher of Cologne; lower parts and façade,
+1277-1365, by _Erwin von Steinbach_ and his sons) reaches a height of
+468 feet; the spires of Cologne, completed in 1883 from the original
+fourteenth-century drawings, long lost but recovered by a happy
+accident, are 500 feet high. The spires of +Ratisbon+ and +Ulm+
+cathedrals have also been recently completed in the original style.
+
+
++DETAILS.+ German window tracery was best where it most closely followed
+French patterns, but it tended always towards the faults of mechanical
+stiffness and of technical display in over-slenderness of shafts and
+mullions. The windows, especially in the “hall-churches,” were apt to be
+too narrow for their height. In the fifteenth century ingenuity of
+geometrical combinations took the place of grace of line, and later the
+tracery was often tortured into a stone caricature of rustic-work of
+interlaced and twisted boughs and twigs, represented with all their bark
+and knots (_branch-tracery_). The execution was far superior to the
+design. The carving of foliage in capitals, finials, etc., calls for no
+special mention for its originality or its departure from French types.
+
+
++PLANS.+ In these there was more variety than in any other part of
+Europe except Italy. Some churches, like Naumburg, retained the
+Romanesque system of a second western apse and short choir. The
+Cistercian churches generally had square east ends, while the polygonal
+eastern apse without ambulatory is seen in St. Elizabeth at Marburg, the
+cathedrals of Ratisbon, Ulm and Vienna, and many other churches. The
+introduction of French ideas in the thirteenth century led to the
+adoption in a number of cases of the chevet with a single ambulatory and
+a series of radiating apsidal chapels. +Magdeburg+ cathedral (1208-11)
+was the first erected on this plan, which was later followed at
+Altenburg, Cologne, Freiburg, Lübeck, Prague and Zwettl, in St. Francis
+at Salzburg and some other churches. Side chapels to nave or choir
+appear in the cathedrals of Lübeck, Munich, Oppenheim, Prague and
+Zwettl. +Cologne+ +Cathedral+, by far the largest and most magnificent
+of all, is completely French in plan, uniting in one design the leading
+characteristics of the most notable French churches (Fig. 141). It has
+complete double aisles in both nave and choir, three-aisled transepts,
+radial chevet-chapels and twin western towers. The ambulatory is,
+however, single, and there are no lateral chapels. A typical German
+treatment was the eastward termination of the church by polygonal
+chapels, one in the axis of each aisle, the central one projecting
+beyond its neighbors. Where there were five aisles, as at Xanten, the
+effect was particularly fine. The plan of the curious polygonal church
+of +Our Lady+ (Liebfrauenkirche; 1227-43) built on the site of the
+ancient circular baptistery at Treves, would seem to have been produced
+by doubling such an arrangement on either side of the transverse axis
+(Fig. 142).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 141.--COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. PLAN.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 142.--CHURCH OF OUR LADY, TREVES.]
+
++HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.+ The so-called +Golden Portal+ of +Freiburg+ in
+the Erzgebirge is perhaps the first distinctively Gothic work in
+Germany, dating from 1190. From that time on, Gothic details appeared
+with increasing frequency, especially in the Rhine provinces, as shown
+in many transitional structures. +Gelnhausen+ and Aschaffenburg are
+early 13th-century examples; pointed arches and vaults appear in the
+Apostles’ and St. Martin’s churches at Cologne; and the great church of
++St. Peter and St. Paul+ at Neuweiler in Alsace has an almost purely
+Gothic nave of the same period. The churches of +Bamberg+, +Fritzlar+,
+and +Naumburg+, and in Westphalia those of +Münster+ and +Osnabrück+,
+are important examples of the transition. The French influence,
+especially the Burgundian, appears as early as 1212 in the cathedral of
+Magdeburg, imitating the choir of Soissons, and in the structural design
+of the Liebfrauenkirche at Treves as already mentioned; it reached
+complete ascendancy in Alsace at +Strasburg+ (nave 1240-75), in Baden at
++Freiburg+ (nave 1270) and in Prussia at +Cologne+ (1248-1320).
+Strasburg Cathedral is especially remarkable for its façade, the work of
+Erwin von Steinbach and his sons (1277-1346), designed after French
+models, and its north spire, built in the fifteenth century. Cologne
+Cathedral, begun in 1248 by _Gerhard of Riel_ in imitation of the newly
+completed choir of Amiens, was continued by Master _Arnold_ and his son
+_John_, and the choir was consecrated in 1322. The nave and W. front
+were built during the first half of the 14th century, though the towers
+were not completed till 1883. In spite of its vast size and slow
+construction, it is in style the most uniform of all great Gothic
+cathedrals, as it is the most lofty (excepting the choir of Beauvais)
+and the largest excepting Milan and Seville. Unfortunately its details,
+though pure and correct, are singularly dry and mechanical, while its
+very uniformity deprives it of the picturesque and varied charm which
+results from a mixture of styles recording the labors of successive
+generations. The same criticism may be raised against the late cathedral
+of +Ulm+ (choir, 1377-1449; nave, 1477; Fig. 143). The Cologne influence
+is observable in the widely separated cathedrals of Utrecht in the
+Netherlands, Metz in the W., Minden and +Halberstadt+ (begun 1250;
+mainly built after 1327) in Saxony, and in the S. in the church of +St.
+Catherine+ at Oppenheim. To the E. and S., in the cathedrals of +Prague+
+(Bohemia) by _Matthew of Arras_ (1344-52) and +Ratisbon+ (or Regensburg,
+1275) the French influence predominates, at least in the details and
+construction. The last-named is one of the most dignified and beautiful
+of German Gothic churches--German in plan, French in execution. The
+French influence also manifests itself in the details of many of the
+peculiarly German churches with aisles of equal height (see p. 240).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 143.--PLAN OF ULM CATHEDRAL.]
+
+More peculiarly German are the brick churches of North Germany, where
+stone was almost wholly lacking. In these, flat walls, square towers,
+and decoration by colored tiles and bricks are characteristic, as at
+Brandenburg (St. Godehard and +St. Catherine+, 1346-1400), at
++Prentzlau+, Tängermünde, Königsberg, &c. Lübeck possesses notable
+monuments of brick architecture in the churches of +St. Mary+ and St.
+Catherine, both much alike in plan and in the flat and barren simplicity
+of their exteriors. +St. Martin’s+ at +Landshut+ in the South is also a
+notable brick church.
+
+
++LATE GOTHIC.+ As in France and England, the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries were mainly occupied with the completion of existing churches,
+many of which, up to that time, were still without naves. The works of
+this period show the exaggerated attenuation of detail already alluded
+to, though their richness and elegance sometimes atone for their
+mechanical character. The complicated ribbed vaults of this period are
+among its most striking features (see p. 239). Spire-building was as
+general as was the erection of central square towers in England, during
+the same period. To this time also belong the overloaded traceries and
+minute detail of the +St. Sebald+ and St. Lorenz churches and of several
+secular buildings at Nuremberg, the façade of Chemnitz Cathedral, and
+similar works. The nave and tower of St. Stephen at Vienna (1359-1433),
+the church of Sta. Maria in Gestade in the same city, and the cathedral
+of Kaschau in Hungary, are Austrian masterpieces of late Gothic design.
+
+
++SECULAR BUILDINGS.+ Germany possesses a number of important examples of
+secular Gothic work, chiefly municipal buildings (gates and town halls)
+and castles. The first completely Gothic castle or palace was not built
+until 1280, at +Marienburg+ (Prussia), and was completed a century
+later. It consists of two courts, the earlier of the two forming a
+closed square and containing the chapel and chapter-house of the Order
+of the German knights. The later and larger court is less regular, its
+chief feature being the +Great Hall+ of the Order, in two aisles. All
+the vaulting is of the richest multiple-ribbed type. Other castles are
+at Marienwerder, Heilsberg (1350) in E. Prussia, Karlstein in Bohemia
+(1347), and the +Albrechtsburg+ at Meissen in Saxony (1471-83).
+
+Among town halls, most of which date from the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries may be mentioned those of Ratisbon (Regensburg), Münster and
+Hildesheim, Halberstadt, +Brunswick+, Lübeck, and Bremen--the last two
+of brick. These, and the city gates, such as the +Spahlenthor+ at Basle
+(Switzerland) and others at Lübeck and Wismar, are generally very
+picturesque edifices. Many fine guildhalls were also built during the
+last two centuries of the Gothic style; and dwelling-houses of the same
+period, of quaint and effective design, with stepped or traceried
+gables, lofty roofs, openwork balconies and corner turrets, are to be
+found in many cities. Nuremberg is especially rich in these.
+
+
++THE NETHERLANDS+, as might be expected from their position, underwent
+the influences of both France and Germany. During the thirteenth
+century, largely through the intimate monastic relations between Tournay
+and Noyon, the French influence became paramount in what is now Belgium,
+while Holland remained more strongly German in style. Of the two
+countries Belgium developed by far the most interesting architecture.
+Some of its cathedrals, notably those of Tournay, Antwerp, Brussels,
+Malines (Mechlin), Mons and Louvain, rank high among structures of their
+class, both in scale and in artistic treatment. The Flemish town halls
+and guildhalls merit particular attention for their size and richness,
+exemplifying in a worthy manner the wealth, prosperity, and independence
+of the weavers and merchants of Antwerp, Ypres, Ghent (Gand), Louvain,
+and other cities in the fifteenth century.
+
+
++CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES.+ The earliest purely Gothic edifice in Belgium
+was the choir of +Ste. Gudule+ (1225) at Brussels, followed in 1242 by
+the choir and transepts of +Tournay+, designed with pointed vaults, side
+chapels, and a complete _chevet_. The transept-ends are round, as at
+Noyon. It was surpassed in splendor by the +Cathedral+ of +Antwerp+
+(1352-1422), remarkable for its seven-aisled nave and narrow transepts.
+It covers some 70,000 square feet, but its great size is not as
+effective internally as it should be, owing to the poverty of the
+details and the lack of finely felt proportion in the various parts. The
+late west front (1422-1518) displays the florid taste of the wealthy
+Flemish burgher population of that period, but is so rich and elegant,
+especially its lofty and slender north spire, that its over-decoration
+is pardonable. The cathedral of +St. Rombaut+ at Malines (choir, 1366;
+nave, 1454-64) is a more satisfactory church, though smaller and with
+its western towers incomplete. The cathedral of +Louvain+ belongs to the
+same period (1373-1433). +St. Wandru+ at Mons (1450-1528) and +St.
+Jacques+ at Liège (1522-58) are interesting parish churches of the first
+rank, remarkable especially for the use of color in their internal
+decoration, for their late tracery and ribbed vaulting, and for the
+absence of Renaissance details at that late period.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 144.--TOWN HALL, LOUVAIN.]
+
++TOWN HALLS: GUILDHALLS.+ These were really the most characteristic
+Flemish edifices, and are in most cases the most conspicuous monuments
+of their respective cities. The +Cloth Hall+ of +Ypres+ (1304) is the
+earliest and most imposing among them; similar halls were built not much
+later at +Bruges+, +Louvain+, +Malines+ and +Ghent+. The town halls were
+mostly of later date, the earliest being that of +Bruges+ (1377). The
+town halls of +Brussels+ with its imposing and graceful tower, of
++Louvain+ (1448-63; Fig. 144) and of +Oudenärde+ (early 16th century)
+are conspicuous monuments of this class.
+
+In general, the Gothic architecture of Belgium presents the traits of a
+borrowed style, which did not undergo at the hands of its borrowers any
+radically novel or fundamental development. The structural design is
+usually lacking in vigor and organic significance, but the details are
+often graceful and well designed, especially on the exterior. The
+tendency was often towards over-elaboration, particularly in the later
+works.
+
+The Gothic architecture of +Holland+ and of the +Scandinavian+ countries
+offers so little that is highly artistic or inspiring in character, that
+space cannot well be given in this work, even to an enumeration of its
+chief monuments.
+
+
++SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.+ The beginnings of Gothic architecture in Spain
+followed close on the series of campaigns from 1217 to 1252, which began
+the overthrow of the Moorish dominion. With the resulting spirit of
+exultation and the wealth accruing from booty, came a rapid development
+of architecture, mainly under French influence. Gothic architecture was
+at this date, under St. Louis, producing in France some of its noblest
+works. The great cathedrals of +Toledo+ and +Burgos+, begun between 1220
+and 1230, were the earliest purely Gothic churches in Spain. +San
+Vincente+ at Avila and the +Old Cathedral+ at Salamanca, of somewhat
+earlier date, present a mixture of round- and pointed-arched forms, with
+the Romanesque elements predominant. +Toledo Cathedral+, planned in
+imitation of Notre Dame and Bourges, but exceeding them in width, covers
+75,000 square feet, and thus ranks among the largest of European
+cathedrals. Internally it is well proportioned and well detailed,
+recalling the early French masterworks, but its exterior is less
+commendable.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 145.--FAÇADE OF BURGOS CATHEDRAL.]
+
+In the contemporary cathedral of Burgos the exterior is at least as
+interesting as the interior. The west front, of German design, suggests
+Cologne by its twin openwork spires (Fig. 145); while the crossing is
+embellished with a sumptuous dome and lantern or _cimborio_, added as
+late as 1567. The chapels at the east end, especially that of the
+Condestabile (1487), are ornate to the point of overloading, a fault to
+which late Spanish Gothic work is peculiarly prone. Other
+thirteenth-century cathedrals are those of +Leon+ (1260), +Valencia+
+(1262), and +Barcelona+ (1298), all exhibiting strongly the French
+influence in the plan, vaulting, and vertical proportions. The models of
+Bourges and Paris with their wide naves, lateral chapels and
+semicircular chevets were followed in the cathedral of Barcelona, in a
+number of fourteenth-century churches both there and elsewhere, and in
+the sixteenth-century cathedral of Segovia. In Sta. Maria del Pi at
+Barcelona, in the collegiate church at Manresa, and in the imposing nave
+of the +Cathedral+ of +Gerona+ (1416, added to choir of 1312, the latter
+by a Southern French architect, Henri de Narbonne), the influence of
+Alby in southern France (see p. 206) is discernible. These are
+one-aisled churches with internal buttresses separating the lateral
+chapels. The nave of Gerona is 73 feet wide, or double the average clear
+width of French or English cathedral naves. The resulting effect is not
+commensurate with the actual dimensions, and shows the inappropriateness
+of Gothic details for compositions so Roman in breadth and simplicity.
+
+
++SEVILLE.+ The largest single edifice in Spain, and the largest church
+built during the Middle Ages in Europe, is the +Cathedral of Seville+,
+begun in 1401 on the site of a Moorish mosque. It covers 124,000 square
+feet, measuring 415 × 298 feet, and is a simple rectangle comprising
+five aisles with lateral chapels. The central aisle is 56 ft. wide and
+145 high; the side aisles and chapels diminish gradually in height, and
+with the uniform piers in six rows produce an imposing effect, in spite
+of the lack of transepts or chevet. The somewhat similar +New Cathedral+
+of Salamanca (1510-1560) shows the last struggles of the Gothic style
+against the incoming tide of the Renaissance.
+
+
++LATER MONUMENTS.+ These all partake of the over-decoration which
+characterized the fifteenth century throughout Europe. In Spain this
+decoration was even less constructive in character, and more purely
+fanciful and arbitrary, than in the northern lands; but this very
+rejection of all constructive pretense gives it a peculiar charm and
+goes far to excuse its extravagance (Fig. 146). Decorative vaulting-ribs
+were made to describe geometric patterns of great elegance. Some of the
+late Gothic vaults by the very exuberance of imagination shown in their
+designs, almost disarm criticism. Instead of suppressing the walls as
+far as possible, and emphasizing all the vertical lines, as was done in
+France and England, the later Gothic architects of Spain delighted in
+broad wall-surfaces and multiplied horizontal lines. Upon these surfaces
+they lavished carving without restraint and without any organic relation
+to the structure of the building. The arcades of cloisters and interior
+courts (_patios_) were formed with arches of fantastic curves resting on
+twisted columns; and internal chapels in the cathedrals were covered
+with minute carving of exquisite workmanship, but wholly irrational
+design. Probably the influence of Moorish decorative art accounts in
+part for these extravagances. The eastern chapels in Burgos cathedral,
+the votive church of +San Juan de los Reyes+ at Toledo and many portals
+of churches, convents and hospitals illustrate these tendencies.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 146.--DETAIL, PORTAL S. GREGORIO, VALLADOLID.]
+
+
++PORTUGAL+ is an almost unknown land architecturally. It seems to have
+adopted the Gothic styles very late in its history. Two monuments,
+however, are conspicuous, the convent churches of Batalha (1390-1520)
+and +Belem+, both marked by an extreme overloading of carved ornament.
+The +Mausoleum of King Manoel+ in the rear of the church at Batalha is,
+however, a noble creation, possibly by an English master. It is a
+polygonal domed edifice, some 67 feet in diameter, and well designed,
+though covered with a too profuse and somewhat mechanical decoration of
+panels, pinnacles, and carving.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: GERMANY (C = cathedral; A = abbey; tr. =
+  transepts).--13th century: Transitional churches: Bamberg C.;
+  Naumburg C.; Collegiate Church, Fritzlar; St. George,
+  Limburg-on-Lahn; St. Castor, Coblentz; Heisterbach A.;--all in
+  early years of 13th century. St. Gereon, Cologne, choir 1212-27;
+  Liebfrauenkirche, Treves, 1227-44; St. Elizabeth, Marburg,
+  1235-83; Sts. Peter and Paul, Neuweiler, 1250; Cologne C., choir
+  1248-1322 (nave 14th century; towers finished 1883); Strasburg C.,
+  1250-75 (E. end Romanesque; façade 1277-1365; tower 1429-39);
+  Halberstadt C., nave 1250 (choir 1327; completed 1490);
+  Altenburg C., choir 1255-65 (finished 1379); Wimpfen-im-Thal
+  church 1259-78; St. Lawrence, Nuremberg, 1260 (choir 1439-77); St.
+  Catherine, Oppenheim, 1262-1317 (choir 1439); Xanten, Collegiate
+  Church, 1263; Freiburg C., 1270 (W. tower 1300; choir 1354);
+  Toul C., 1272; Meissen C., choir 1274 (nave 1312-42); Ratisbon C.,
+  1275; St. Mary’s, Lübeck, 1276; Dominican churches at Coblentz,
+  Gebweiler; and in Switzerland at Basle, Berne, and Zurich.--14th
+  century: Wiesenkirche, Söst, 1313; Osnabrück C., 1318 (choir
+  1420); St. Mary’s, Prentzlau, 1325; Augsburg C., 1321-1431;
+  Metz C., 1330 rebuilt (choir 1486); St. Stephen’s C., Vienna, 1340
+  (nave 15th century; tower 1433); Zwette C., 1343; Prague C., 1344;
+  church at Thann, 1351 (tower finished 16th century);
+  Liebfrauenkirche, Nuremberg, 1355-61; St. Sebaldus Church,
+  Nuremberg, 1361-77 (nave Romanesque); Minden C., choir 1361;
+  Ulm C., 1377 (choir 1449; nave vaulted 1471; finished 16th
+  century); Sta. Barbara, Kuttenberg, 1386 (nave 1483); Erfurt C.;
+  St. Elizabeth, Kaschau; Schlettstadt C.--15th century: St.
+  Catherine’s, Brandenburg, 1401; Frauenkirche, Esslingen, 1406
+  (finished 1522); Minster at Berne, 1421; Peter-Paulskirche,
+  Görlitz, 1423-97; St. Mary’s, Stendal, 1447; Frauenkirche, Munich,
+  1468-88; St. Martin’s, Landshut, 1473.
+
+  SECULAR MONUMENTS. Schloss Marienburg, 1341; Moldau-bridge and
+  tower, Prague, 1344; Karlsteinburg, 1348-57; Albrechtsburg,
+  Meissen, 1471-83; Nassau House, Nuremberg, 1350; Council houses
+  (Rathhaüser) at Brunswick, 1393; Cologne, 1407-15; Basle; Breslau;
+  Lübeck; Münster; Prague; Ulm; City Gates of Basle, Cologne,
+  Ingolstadt, Lucerne.
+
+  THE NETHERLANDS. Brussels C. (Ste. Gudule), 1226-80; Tournai C.,
+  choir 1242 (nave finished 1380); Notre Dame, Bruges, 1239-97;
+  Notre Dame, Tongres, 1240; Utrecht C., 1251; St. Martin, Ypres,
+  1254; Notre Dame, Dinant, 1255; church at Dordrecht; church at
+  Aerschot, 1337; Antwerp C., 1352-1411 (W. front 1422-1518); St.
+  Rombaut, Malines, 1355-66 (nave 1456-64); St. Wandru, Mons,
+  1450-1528; St. Lawrence, Rotterdam, 1472; other 15th century
+  churches--St. Bavon, Haarlem; St. Catherine, Utrecht; St.
+  Walpurgis, Sutphen; St. Bavon, Ghent (tower 1461); St. Jaques,
+  Antwerp; St. Pierre, Louvain; St. Jacques, Bruges; churches at
+  Arnheim, Breda, Delft; St. Jacques, Liège, 1522.--SECULAR:
+  Cloth-hall, Ypres, 1200-1304; cloth-hall, Bruges, 1284; town hall,
+  Bruges, 1377; town hall, Brussels, 1401-55; town hall, Louvain,
+  1448-63; town hall, Ghent, 1481; town hall, Oudenarde, 1527;
+  Standehuis, Delft, 1528; cloth-halls at Louvain, Ghent, Malines.
+
+  SPAIN.--13th century: Burgos C., 1221 (façade 1442-56; chapels
+  1487; cimborio 1567); Toledo C., 1227-90 (chapels 14th and 15th
+  centuries); Tarragona C., 1235; Leon C., 1250 (façade 14th
+  century); Valencia C., 1262 (N. transept 1350-1404; façade
+  1381-1418); Avila C., vault and N. portal 1292-1353 (finished 14th
+  century); St. Esteban, Burgos; church at Las Huelgas.--14th
+  century: Barcelona C., choir 1298-1329 (nave and transepts 1448;
+  façade 16th century); Gerona C., 1312-46 (nave added 1416); S. M.
+  del Mar, Barcelona, 1328-83; S. M. del Pino, Barcelona, same date;
+  Collegiate Church, Manresa, 1328; Oviedo C., 1388 (tower very
+  late); Pampluna C., 1397 (mainly 15th century).--15th century:
+  Seville C., 1403 (finished 16th century; cimborio 1517-67); La
+  Seo, Saragossa (finished 1505); S. Pablo, Burgos, 1415-35; El
+  Parral, Segovia, 1459; Astorga C., 1471; San Juan de los Reyes,
+  Toledo, 1476; Carthusian church, Miraflores, 1488; San Juan, and
+  La Merced, Burgos.--16th century: Huesca C., 1515; Salamanca New
+  Cathedral, 1510-60; Segovia C., 1522; S. Juan de la Puerta,
+  Zamorra.
+
+  SECULAR.--Porta Serraños, Valencia, 1349; Casa Consistorial,
+  Barcelona, 1369-78; Casa de la Disputacion, same city; Casa de las
+  Lonjas, Valencia, 1482.
+
+  PORTUGAL. At Batalha, church and mausoleum of King Manoel,
+  finished 1515; at Belem, monastery, late Gothic.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED; As before, Corroyer, Reber. Also, Cummings,
+  _A History of Architecture in Italy_. De Fleury, _La Toscane au
+  moyen âge_. Gruner, _The Terra Cotta Architecture of Northern
+  Italy_. Mothes, _Die Baukunst des Mittelalters in Italien_.
+  Norton, _Historical Studies of Church Building in the Middle
+  Ages_. Osten, _Bauwerke der Lombardei_. Street, _Brick and Marble
+  Architecture of Italy_. Willis, _Remarks on the Architecture of
+  the Middle Ages, especially of Italy_.
+
+
++GENERAL CHARACTER.+ The various Romanesque styles which had grown up in
+Italy before 1200 lacked that unity of principle out of which alone a
+new and homogeneous national style could have been evolved. Each
+province practised its own style and methods of building, long after the
+Romanesque had given place to the Gothic in Western Europe. The Italians
+were better decorators than builders, and cared little for Gothic
+structural principles. Mosaic and carving, sumptuous altars and tombs,
+veneerings and inlays of colored marble, broad flat surfaces to be
+covered with painting and ornament--to secure these they were content to
+build crudely, to tie their insufficiently buttressed vaults with
+unsightly iron tie-rods, and to make their church façades mere
+screen-walls, in form wholly unrelated to the buildings behind them.
+
+When, therefore, under foreign influences pointed arches, tracery,
+clustered shafts, crockets and finials came into use, it was merely as
+an imported fashion. Even when foreign architects (usually Germans) were
+employed, the composition, and in large measure the details, were still
+Italian and provincial. The church of St. Francis at Assisi (1228-53, by
+_Jacobus of Meruan_, a German, superseded later by an Italian,
+Campello), and the cathedral of Milan (begun 1389, perhaps by _Henry of
+Gmund_), are conspicuous illustrations of this. Rome built basilicas all
+through the Middle Ages. Tuscany continued to prefer flat walls veneered
+with marble to the broken surfaces and deep buttresses of France and
+Germany. Venice developed a Gothic style of façade-design wholly her own
+(see p. 267). Nowhere but in Italy could two such utterly diverse
+structures as the Certosa at Pavia and the cathedral at Milan have been
+erected at the same time.
+
+
++CLIMATE AND TRADITION.+ Two further causes militated against the
+domestication of Gothic art in Italy. The first was the brilliant
+atmosphere, which made the vast traceried windows of Gothic design, and
+its suppression of the wall-surfaces, wholly undesirable. Cool, dim
+interiors, thick walls, small windows and the exclusion of sunlight, all
+necessary to Italian comfort, were incompatible with Gothic ideals and
+methods. The second obstacle was the persistence of classic traditions
+of form, both in construction and decoration. The spaciousness and
+breadth of interior planning which characterized Roman design, and its
+amplitude of scale in every feature, seem never to have lost their hold
+on the Italians. The narrow lofty aisles, multiplied supports and minute
+detail of the Gothic style were repugnant to the classic predilections
+of the Italian builders. The Roman acanthus and Corinthian capital were
+constantly imitated in their Gothic buildings, and the round arch
+continued all through the Middle Ages to be used in conjunction with the
+pointed arch (Figs. 149, 150).
+
+
++EARLY BUILDINGS.+ It is hard to determine how and by whom Gothic forms
+were first introduced into Italy, but it was most probably through the
+agency of the monastic orders. Cistercian churches like that at
+Chiaravalle near Milan (1208-21), and most of those erected by the
+mendicant orders of the Franciscans (founded 1210) and Dominicans
+(1216), were built with ribbed vaults and pointed arches. The example
+set by these orders contributed greatly to the general adoption of the
+foreign style. +S. Francesco+ at +Assisi+, already mentioned, was the
+first completely Gothic Franciscan church, although +S. Francesco+ at
++Bologna+, begun a few years later, was finished a little earlier. The
+Dominican church of +SS. Giovanni e Paolo+ and the great Franciscan
+church of +Sta. Maria Gloriosa dei Frari+, both at Venice, were built a
+little later. +Sta. Maria Novella+ at Florence (1278), and +Sta. Maria
+sopra Minerva+ at Rome (1280), both by the brothers _Sisto_ and
+_Ristoro_, and +S. Anastasia+ at Verona (1261) are the masterpieces of
+the Dominican builders. +S. Andrea+ at +Vercelli+ in North Italy, begun
+in 1219 under a foreign architect, is an isolated early example of lay
+Gothic work. Though somewhat English in its plan, and (unlike most
+Italian churches) provided with two western spires in the English
+manner, it is in all other respects thoroughly Italian in aspect. The
+church at Asti, begun in 1229, suggests German models by its high side
+walls and narrow windows.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 147.--DUOMO AT FLORENCE. PLAN.
+  a, _Campanile_.]
+
+
++CATHEDRALS.+ The greatest monuments of Italian Gothic design are the
+cathedrals, in which, even more than was the case in France, the highly
+developed civic pride of the municipalities expressed itself. Chief
+among these half civic, half religious monuments are the cathedrals of
++Sienna+ (begun in 1243), +Arezzo+ (1278), +Orvieto+ (1290), +Florence+
+(the +Duomo+, Sta. Maria del Fiore, begun 1294 by Arnolfo di Cambio),
++Lucca+ (S. Martino, 1350), +Milan+ (1389-1418), and +S. Petronio+ at
+Bologna (1390). They are all of imposing size; Milan is the largest of
+all Gothic cathedrals except Seville. S. Petronio was planned to be 600
+feet long, the present structure with its three broad aisles and
+flanking chapels being merely the nave of the intended edifice. The
+Duomo at Florence (Fig. 147) is 500 feet long and covers 82,000 square
+feet, while the octagon at the crossing is 143 feet in diameter. The
+effect of these colossal dimensions is, however, as in a number of these
+large Italian interiors, singularly belittled by the bareness of the
+walls, by the great size of the constituent parts of the composition,
+and by the lack of architectural subdivisions and multiplied detail to
+serve as a scale by which to gauge the scale of the _ensemble_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 148.--NAVE OF DUOMO AT FLORENCE.]
+
+
++INTERIOR TREATMENT.+ It was doubtless intended to cover these large
+unbroken wall-surfaces and the vast expanse of the vaults over naves of
+extraordinary breadth, with paintings and color decoration. This would
+have remedied their present nakedness and lack of interest, but it was
+only in a very few instances carried out. The double church of
+S. Francesco at Assisi, decorated by Cimabue, Giotto, and other early
+Tuscan painters, the Arena Chapel at Padua, painted by Giotto, the
++Spanish Chapel+ of S. M. Novella, Florence, and the east end of
+S. Croce, Florence, are illustrations of the splendor of effect possible
+by this method of decoration. The bareness of effect in other, unpainted
+interiors was emphasized by the plainness of the vaults destitute of
+minor ribs. The transverse ribs were usually broad arches with flat
+soffits, and the vaulting was often sprung from so low a point as to
+leave no room for a triforium. Mere bull’s-eyes often served for
+clearstory windows, as in S. Anastasia at Verona, S. Petronio at
+Bologna, and the Florentine Duomo. The cathedral of +S. Martino+ at
+Lucca (Fig. 149) is one of the most complete and elegant of Italian
+Gothic interiors, having a genuine triforium with traceried arches. Even
+here, however, there are round arches without mouldings, flat pilasters,
+broad transverse ribs recalling Roman arches, and insignificant
+bull’s-eyes in the clearstory.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 149.--ONE BAY, NAVE OF CATHEDRAL OF
+  SAN MARTINO, LUCCA.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 150.--INTERIOR OF SIENNA CATHEDRAL.]
+
+The failure to produce adequate results of scale in the interiors of the
+larger Italian churches, has been already alluded to. It is strikingly
+exemplified in the Duomo at Florence, the nave of which is 72 feet wide,
+with four pier-arches each over 55 feet in span. The immense vault, in
+square bays, starts from the level of the tops of these arches. The
+interior (Fig. 148) is singularly naked and cold, giving no conception
+of its vast dimensions. The colossal dome is an early work of the
+Renaissance (see p. 276). It is not known how _Fr. Talenti_, who in 1357
+enlarged and vaulted the nave and planned the east end, proposed to
+cover the great octagon. The east end is the most effective part of the
+design both internally and externally, owing to the relatively moderate
+scale of the 15 chapels which surround the apsidal arms of the cross. In
+S. Petronio at Bologna, begun 1390 by _Master Antonio_, the scale is
+better handled. The nave, 300 feet long, is divided into six bays, each
+embracing two side chapels. It is 46 feet wide and 132 feet high,
+proportions which approximate those of the French cathedrals, and
+produce an impression of size somewhat unusual in Italian churches.
++Orvieto+ has internally little that suggests Gothic architecture; like
+many Franciscan and Dominican churches it is really a timber-roofed
+basilica with a few pointed windows. The mixed Gothic and Romanesque
+interior of +Sienna Cathedral+ (Fig. 150), with its round arches and
+six-sided dome, unsymmetrically placed over the crossing, is one of the
+most impressive creations of Italian mediæval art. Alternate courses of
+black and white marble add richness but not repose to the effect of this
+interior: the same is true of Orvieto, and of some other churches. The
+basement baptistery of +S. Giovanni+, under the east end of Sienna
+Cathedral, is much more purely Gothic in detail.
+
+In these, and indeed in most Italian interiors, the main interest
+centres less in the excellence of the composition than in the
+accessories of pavements, pulpits, choir-stalls, and sepulchral
+monuments. In these the decorative fancy and skill of the Italians found
+unrestrained exercise, and produced works of surpassing interest and
+merit.
+
+
++EXTERNAL DESIGN.+ The greatest possible disparity generally exists
+between the sides and west fronts of the Italian churches. With few
+exceptions the flanks present nothing like the variety of sky-line and
+of light and shade customary in northern and western lands. The side
+walls are high and flat, plain, or striped with black and white masonry
+(Sienna, Orvieto), or veneered with marble (Duomo at Florence) or
+decorated with surface-ornament of thin pilasters and arcades (Lucca).
+The clearstory is low; the roof low--pitched and hardly visible from
+below. Color, rather than structural richness, is generally sought for:
+Milan Cathedral is almost the only exception, and goes to the other
+extreme, with its seemingly countless buttresses, pinnacles and statues.
+
+The façades, on the other hand, were treated as independent decorative
+compositions, and were in many cases remarkably beautiful works, though
+having little or no organic relation to the main structure. The most
+celebrated are those of +Sienna+ (cathedral begun 1243; façade 1284 by
+_Giovanni Pisano_; Fig. 151) and +Orvieto+ (begun 1290 by _Lorenzo
+Maitani_; façade 1310). Both of these are sumptuous polychromatic
+compositions in marble, designed on somewhat similar lines, with three
+high gables fronting the three aisles, with deeply recessed portals,
+pinnacled turrets flanking nave and aisles, and a central circular
+window. That of Orvieto is furthermore embellished with mosaic pictures,
+and is the more brilliant in color of the two. The mediæval façades of
+the Florentine Gothic churches were never completed; but the elegance of
+the panelling and of the tracery with twisted shafts in the flanks of
+the cathedral, and the florid beauty of its side doorways (late 14th
+century) would doubtless if realized with equal success on the façades,
+have produced strikingly beautiful results. The modern façade of the
+Duomo, by the late _De Fabris_ (1887) is a correct if not highly
+imaginative version of the style so applied. The front of Milan
+cathedral (soon to be replaced by a new façade), shows a mixture of
+Gothic and Renaissance forms. +Ferrara Cathedral+, although internally
+transformed in the last century, retains its fine 13th-century
+three-gabled and arcaded screen front; one of the most Gothic in spirit
+of all Italian façades. The +Cathedral+ of +Genoa+ presents Gothic
+windows and deeply recessed portals in a façade built in black and white
+bands, like Sienna cathedral and many churches in Pistoia and Pisa.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 151.--FAÇADE OF SIENNA CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Externally the most important feature was frequently a cupola or dome
+over the crossing. That of Sienna has already been mentioned; that of
+Milan is a sumptuous many-pinnacled structure terminating in a spire 300
+feet high. The +Certosa+ at Pavia (Fig. 152) and the earlier Carthusian
+church of Chiaravalle have internal cupolas or domes covered externally
+by many-storied structures ending in a tower dominating the whole
+edifice. These two churches, like many others in Lombardy, the Æmilia
+and Venetia, are built of brick, moulded terra-cotta being effectively
+used for the cornices, string-courses, jambs and ornaments of the
+exterior. The Certosa at Pavia is contemporary with the cathedral of
+Milan, to which it offers a surprising contrast, both in style and
+material. It is wholly built of brick and terra-cotta, and, save for its
+ribbed vaulting, possesses hardly a single Gothic feature or detail. Its
+arches, mouldings, and cloisters suggest both the Romanesque and the
+Renaissance styles by their semi-classic character.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 152.--EXTERIOR OF THE CERTOSA, PAVIA.]
+
+
++PLANS.+ The wide diversity of local styles in Italian architecture
+appears in the plans as strikingly as in the details In general one
+notes a love of spaciousness which expresses itself in a sometimes
+disproportionate breadth, and in the wide spacing of the piers. The
+polygonal chevet with its radial chapels is but rarely seen;
++S. Lorenzo+ at Naples, Sta. Maria dei Servi and S. Francesco at Bologna
+are among the most important examples. More frequently the chapels form
+a range along the east side of the transepts, especially in the
+Franciscan churches, which otherwise retain many basilican features.
+A comparison of the plans of S. Andrea at Vercelli, the Duomo at
+Florence, the cathedrals of Sienna and Milan, S. Petronio at Bologna and
+the Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 153), sufficiently illustrates the variety of
+Italian Gothic plan-types.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 153.--PLAN OF CERTOSA AT PAVIA.]
+
+
++ORNAMENT.+ Applied decoration plays a large part in all Italian Gothic
+designs. Inlaid and mosaic patterns and panelled veneering in colored
+marble are essential features of the exterior decoration of most Italian
+churches. Florence offers a fine example of this treatment in the Duomo,
+and in its accompanying +Campanile+ or bell-tower, designed by _Giotto_
+(1335), and completed by _Gaddi_ and _Talenti_. This beautiful tower is
+an epitome of Italian Gothic art. Its inlays, mosaics, and veneering are
+treated with consummate elegance, and combined with incrusted reliefs of
+great beauty. The tracery of this monument and of the side windows of
+the adjoining cathedral is lighter and more graceful than is common in
+Italy. Its beauty consists, however, less in movement of line than in
+richness and elegance of carved and inlaid ornament. In the +Or San
+Michele+--a combined chapel and granary in Florence dating from
+1330--the tracery is far less light and open. In general, except in
+churches like the Cathedral of Milan, built under German influences, the
+tracery in secular monuments is more successful than in ecclesiastical
+structures. Venice developed the designing of tracery to greater
+perfection in her palaces than any other Italian city (see below).
+
+
++MINOR WORKS.+ Italian Gothic art found freer expression in
+semi-decorative works, like tombs, altars and votive chapels, than in
+more monumental structures. The fourteenth century was particularly rich
+in canopy tombs, mostly in churches, though some were erected in the
+open air, like the celebrated +Tombs of the Scaligers+ in Verona
+(1329-1380). Many of those in churches in and near Rome, and others in
+south Italy, are especially rich in inlay of _opus Alexandrinum_ upon
+their twisted columns and panelled sarcophagi. The family of the
+_Cosmati_ acquired great fame for work of this kind during the
+thirteenth century.
+
+The little marble chapel of +Sta. Maria della Spina+, on the Arno, at
+Pisa, is an instance of the successful decorative use of Gothic forms in
+minor buildings.
+
+
++TOWERS.+ The Italians always preferred the square tower to the spire,
+and in most cases treated it as an independent campanile. Following
+Early Christian and Romanesque traditions, these square towers were
+usually built with plain sides unbroken by buttresses, and terminated in
+a flat roof or a low and inconspicuous cone or pyramid. The Campanile at
+Florence already mentioned is by far the most beautiful of these designs
+(Fig. 154). The campaniles of Sienna, Lucca, and Pistoia are built in
+alternate white and black courses, like the adjoining cathedrals. Verona
+and Mantua have towers with octagonal lanterns. In general, these Gothic
+towers differ from the earlier Romanesque models only in the forms of
+their openings. Though dignified in their simplicity and size, and
+usually well proportioned, they lack the beauty and interest of the
+French, English, and German steeples and towers.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 154.--UPPER PART OF CAMPANILE, FLORENCE.]
+
+
++SECULAR MONUMENTS.+ In their public halls, open _loggias_, and domestic
+architecture the Italians were able to develop the application of Gothic
+forms with greater freedom than in their church-building, because
+unfettered by traditional methods of design. The early and vigorous
+growth of municipal and popular institutions led, as in the Netherlands,
+to the building of two classes of public halls--the town hall proper or
+_Podestà_, and the council hall, variously called _Palazzo Communale_,
+_Pubblico_, or _del Consiglio_. The town halls, as the seat of
+authority, usually have a severe and fortress-like character; the
++Palazzo Vecchio+ at Florence is the most important example (1298, by
+Arnolfo di Cambio; Fig. 155). It is especially remarkable for its tower,
+which, rising 308 feet in the air, overhangs the street nearly 6 feet,
+its front wall resting on the face of the powerfully corbelled cornice
+of the palace. The court and most of the interior were remodelled in the
+sixteenth century. At Sienna is a somewhat similar structure in brick,
+the +Palazzo Pubblico+. At Pistoia the Podestà and the Communal Palace
+stand opposite each other; in both of these the courtyards still retain
+their original aspect. At Perugia, Bologna, and Viterbo are others of
+some importance; while in Lombardy, Bergamo, Como, Cremona, Piacenza and
+other towns possess smaller halls with open arcades below, of a more
+elegant and pleasing aspect. More successful still are the open loggias
+or tribunes erected for the gatherings of public bodies. The +Loggia dei
+Lanzi+ at Florence (1376, by _Benci di Cione_ and _Simone di Talenti_)
+is the largest and most famous of these open vaulted halls, of which
+several exist in Florence and Sienna. Gothic only in their minor
+details, they are Romanesque or semi-classic in their broad round arches
+and strong horizontal lines and cornices (Fig. 156).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 155.--UPPER PART OF PALAZZO VECCHIO,
+  FLORENCE.]
+
+
++PALACES AND HOUSES: VENICE.+ The northern cities, especially Pisa,
+Florence, Sienna, Bologna, and Venice, are rich in mediæval public and
+private palaces and dwellings in brick or marble, in which pointed
+windows and open arcades are used with excellent effect. In Bologna and
+Sienna brick is used, in conjunction with details executed in moulded
+terra-cotta, in a highly artistic and effective way. Viterbo, nearer
+Rome, also possesses many interesting houses with street arcades and
+open stairways or stoops leading to the main entrance.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 156.--LOGGIA DEI LANZI, FLORENCE.]
+
+The security and prosperity of Venice in the Middle Ages, and the ever
+present influence of the sun-loving East, made the massive and
+fortress-like architecture of the inland cities unnecessary. Abundant
+openings, large windows full of tracery of great lightness and elegance,
+projecting balconies and the freest use of marble veneering and
+inlay--a survival of Byzantine traditions of the 12th century (see
+p. 133)--give to the Venetian houses and palaces an air of gayety and
+elegance found nowhere else. While there are few Gothic churches of
+importance in Venice, the number of mediæval houses and palaces is very
+large. Chief among these is the +Doge’s Palace+ (Fig. 157), adjoining
+the church of St. Mark. The two-storied arcades of the west and south
+fronts date from 1354, and originally stood out from the main edifice,
+which was widened in the next century, when the present somewhat heavy
+walls, laid up in red, white and black marble in a species of
+quarry-pattern, were built over the arcades. These arcades are beautiful
+designs, combining massive strength and grace in a manner quite foreign
+to Western Gothic ideas. Lighter and more ornate is the +Ca d’Oro+, on
+the Grand Canal; while the Foscari, Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, and Pisani
+palaces, among many others, are admirable examples of the style. In most
+of these a traceried loggia occupies the central part, flanked by walls
+incrusted with marble and pierced by Gothic windows with carved
+mouldings, borders, and balconies. The Venetian Gothic owes its success
+largely to the absence of structural difficulties to interfere with the
+purely decorative development of Gothic details.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 157.--WEST FRONT VIEW OF DOGE’S PALACE,
+  VENICE.]
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ 13th Century: Cistercian abbeys Fossanova and
+  Casamari, _cir._ 1208; S. Andrea, Vercelli, 1209; S. Francesco,
+  Assisi, 1228-53; Church at Asti, 1229; Sienna C., 1243-59 (cupola
+  1259-64; façade 1284); S. M. Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice, 1250-80
+  (finished 1388); Sta. Chiara, Assisi, 1250; Sta. Trinità,
+  Florence, 1250; S. Antonio, Padua, begun 1256; SS. Giovanni e
+  Paolo, Venice, 1260 (?)-1400; Sta. Anastasia, Verona, 1261;
+  Naples C., 1272-1314 (façade 1299; portal 1407; much altered
+  later); S. Lorenzo, Naples, 1275; Campo Santo, Pisa, 1278-83;
+  Arezzo C., 1278; S. M. Novella, Florence, 1278; S. Eustorgio,
+  Milan, 1278; S. M. sopra Minerva, Rome, 1280; Orvieto C., 1290
+  (façade 1310; roof 1330); Sta. Croce, Florence, 1294 (façade
+  1863); S. M. del Fiore, or C., Florence, 1294-1310 (enlarged 1357;
+  E. end 1366; dome 1420-64; façade 1887); S. Francesco,
+  Bologna.--14th century: Genoa C., early 14th century;
+  S. Francesco, Sienna, 1310; San Domenico, Sienna, about same date;
+  S. Giovanni in Fonte, Sienna, 1317; S. M. della Spina, Pisa, 1323;
+  Campanile, Florence, 1335; Or San Michele, Florence, 1337;
+  Milan C., 1386 (cupola 16th century; façade 16th-19th century; new
+  façade building 1895); S. Petronio, Bologna, 1390; Certosa, Pavia,
+  1396 (choir, transepts, cupola, cloisters, 15th and 16th
+  centuries); Como C., 1396 (choir and transepts 1513); Lucca C.
+  (S. Martino), Romanesque building remodelled late in 14th century;
+  Verona C.; S. Fermo, Maggiore; S. Francesco, Pisa; S. Lorenzo,
+  Vicenza.--15th century: Perugia C.; S. M. delle Grazie, Milan,
+  1470 (cupola and exterior E. part later).
+
+  SECULAR BUILDINGS: Pal. Pubblico, Cremona, 1245; Pal. Podestà
+  (Bargello), Florence, 1255 (enlarged 1333-45); Pal. Pubblico,
+  Sienna, 1289-1305 (many later alterations); Pal. Giureconsulti,
+  Cremona, 1292; Broletto, Monza, 1293; Loggia dei Mercanti,
+  Bologna, 1294; Pal. Vecchio, Florence, 1298; Broletto, Como; Pal.
+  Ducale (Doge’s Palace), Venice, 1310-40 (great windows 1404;
+  extended 1423-38; courtyard 15th and 16th centuries); Loggia dei
+  Lanzi, Florence, 1335; Loggia del Bigallo, 1337; Broletto,
+  Bergamo, 14th century; Loggia dei Nobili, Sienna, 1407; Pal.
+  Pubblico, Udine, 1457; Loggia dei Mercanti, Ancona; Pal. del
+  Governo, Bologna; Pal. Pepoli, Bologna; Palaces Conte Bardi,
+  Davanzati, Capponi, all at Florence; at Sienna, Pal. Tolomei,
+  1205; Pal. Saracini, Pal. Buonsignori; at Venice, Pal.
+  Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, Foscari, Pisani, and many others; others
+  in Padua and Vicenza.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+EARLY RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Anderson, _Architecture of the Renaissance in
+  Italy_. Burckhardt, _The Civilization of the Renaissance_;
+  _Geschichte der Renaissance in Italien_; _Der Cicerone_. Cellesi,
+  _Sei Fabbriche di Firenze_. Cicognara, _Le Fabbriche più cospicue
+  di Venezia_. Durm, _Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Italien_ (in
+  _Hdbuch. d. Arch._). Fergusson, _History of Modern Architecture_.
+  Geymüller, _La Renaissance en Toscane_. Montigny et Famin,
+  _Architecture Toscane_. Moore, _Character of Renaissance
+  Architecture_. Müntz, _La Renaissance en Italie et en France à
+  l’époque de Charles VIII._ Palustre, _L’Architecture de la
+  Renaissance_. Pater, _Studies in the Renaissance_. Symonds, _The
+  Renaissance of the Fine Arts in Italy_. Tosi and Becchio, _Altars,
+  Tabernacles, and Tombs_.
+
+
++THE CLASSIC REVIVAL.+ The abandonment of Gothic architecture in Italy
+and the substitution in its place of forms derived from classic models
+were occasioned by no sudden or merely local revolution. The Renaissance
+was the result of a profound and universal intellectual movement, whose
+roots may be traced far back into the Middle Ages, and which manifested
+itself first in Italy simply because there the conditions were most
+propitious. It spread through Europe just as rapidly as similar
+conditions appearing in other countries prepared the way for it.
+The essence of this far-reaching movement was the protest of the
+individual reason against the trammels of external and arbitrary
+authority--a protest which found its earliest organized expression in
+the Humanists. In its assertion of the intellectual and moral rights
+of the individual, the Renaissance laid the foundations of modern
+civilization. The same spirit, in rejecting the authority and teachings
+of the Church in matters of purely secular knowledge, led to the
+questionings of the precursors of modern science and the discoveries of
+the early navigators. But in nothing did the reaction against mediæval
+scholasticism and asceticism display itself more strikingly than in the
+joyful enthusiasm which marked the pursuit of classic studies. The
+long-neglected treasures of classic literature were reopened, almost
+rediscovered, in the fourteenth century by the immortal trio--Dante,
+Petrarch, and Boccaccio. The joy of living, the hitherto forbidden
+delight in beauty and pleasure for their own sakes, the exultant
+awakening to the sense of personal freedom, which came with the bursting
+of mediæval fetters, found in classic art and literature their most
+sympathetic expression. It was in Italy, where feudalism had never fully
+established itself, and where the municipalities and guilds had
+developed, as nowhere else, the sense of civic and personal freedom,
+that these symptoms first manifested themselves. In Italy, and above all
+in the Tuscan cities, they appeared throughout the fourteenth century in
+the growing enthusiasm for all that recalled the antique culture, and in
+the rapid advance of luxury and refinement in both public and private
+life.
+
+
++THE RENAISSANCE OF THE ARTS.+ Classic Roman architecture had never lost
+its influence on the Italian taste. Gothic art, already declining in the
+West, had never been in Italy more than a borrowed garb, clothing
+architectural conceptions classic rather than Gothic in spirit. The
+antique monuments which abounded on every hand were ever present models
+for the artist, and to the Florentines of the early fifteenth century
+the civilization which had created them represented the highest ideal of
+human culture. They longed to revive in their own time the glories of
+ancient Rome, and appropriated with uncritical and undiscriminating
+enthusiasm the good and the bad, the early and the late forms of Roman
+art, Naïvely unconscious of the disparity between their own
+architectural conceptions and those they fancied they imitated, they
+were, unknown to themselves, creating a new style, in which the details
+of Roman art were fitted in novel combinations to new requirements. In
+proportion as the Church lost its hold on the culture of the age, this
+new architecture entered increasingly into the service of private luxury
+and public display. It created, it is true, striking types of church
+design, and made of the dome one of the most imposing of external
+features; but its most characteristic products were palaces, villas,
+council halls, and monuments to the great and the powerful. The personal
+element in design asserted itself as never before in the growth of
+schools and the development of styles. Thenceforward the history of
+Italian architecture becomes the history of the achievements of
+individual artists.
+
+
++EARLY BEGINNINGS.+ Already in the 13th century the pulpits of Niccolo
+Pisano at Sienna and Pisa had revealed that master’s direct recourse to
+antique monuments for inspiration and suggestion. In the frescoes of
+Giotto and his followers, and in the architectural details of many
+nominally Gothic buildings, classic forms had appeared with increasing
+frequency during the fourteenth century. This was especially true in
+Florence, which was then the artistic capital of Italy. Never, perhaps,
+since the days of Pericles, had there been another community so
+permeated with the love of beauty in art, and so endowed with the
+capacity to realize it. Nowhere else in Europe at that time was there
+such strenuous life, such intense feeling, or such free course for
+individual genius as in Florence. Her artists, with unexampled
+versatility, addressed themselves with equal success to goldsmiths’
+work, sculpture, architecture and engineering--often to painting and
+poetry as well; and they were quick to catch in their art the spirit of
+the classic revival. The new movement achieved its first architectural
+triumph in the dome of the cathedral of Florence (1420-64); and it was
+Florentine--or at least Tuscan--artists who planted in other centres the
+seeds of the new art that were to spring up in the local and provincial
+schools of Sienna, Milan, Pavia, Bologna, and Venice, of Brescia, Lucca,
+Perugia, and Rimini, and many other North Italian cities. The movement
+asserted itself late in Rome and Naples, as an importation from Northern
+Italy, but it bore abundant fruit in these cities in its later stages.
+
+
++PERIODS.+ The classic styles which grew up out of the Renaissance may
+be divided for convenience into four periods.
+
+THE EARLY RENAISSANCE or FORMATIVE PERIOD, 1420-90; characterized by
+the grace and freedom of the decorative detail, suggested by Roman
+prototypes and applied to compositions of great variety and originality.
+
+THE HIGH RENAISSANCE or FORMALLY CLASSIC PERIOD, 1490-1550. During this
+period classic details were copied with increasing fidelity, the orders
+especially appearing in almost all compositions; decoration meanwhile
+losing somewhat in grace and freedom.
+
+THE EARLY BAROQUE (or BAROCO), 1550-1600; a period of classic formality
+characterized by the use of colossal orders, engaged columns and rather
+scanty decoration.
+
+THE DECLINE or LATER BAROQUE, marked by poverty of invention in the
+composition and a predominance of vulgar sham and display in the
+decoration. Broken pediments, huge scrolls, florid stucco-work and a
+general disregard of architectural propriety were universal.
+
+During the eighteenth century there was a reaction from these
+extravagances, which showed itself in a return to the servile copying of
+classic models, sometimes not without a certain dignity of composition
+and restraint in the decoration.
+
+By many writers the name Renaissance is confined to the first period.
+This is correct from the etymological point of view; but it is
+impossible to dissociate the first period historically from those which
+followed it, down to the final exhaustion of the artistic movement to
+which it gave birth, in the heavy extravagances of the Rococo.
+
+Another division is made by the Italians, who give the name of the
+_Quattrocento_ to the period which closed with the end of the fifteenth
+century, _Cinquecento_ to the sixteenth century, and _Seicento_ to the
+seventeenth century or Rococo. It has, however, become common to confine
+the use of the term Cinquecento to the first half of the sixteenth
+century.
+
+
++CONSTRUCTION AND DETAIL.+ The architects of the Renaissance occupied
+themselves more with form than with construction, and rarely set
+themselves constructive problems of great difficulty. Although the new
+architecture began with the colossal dome of the cathedral of Florence,
+and culminated in the stupendous church of St. Peter at Rome, it was
+pre-eminently an architecture of palaces and villas, of façades and of
+decorative display. Constructive difficulties were reduced to their
+lowest terms, and the constructive framework was concealed, not
+emphasized, by the decorative apparel of the design. Among the
+masterpieces of the early Renaissance are many buildings of small
+dimensions, such as gates, chapels, tombs and fountains. In these the
+individual fancy had full sway, and produced surprising results by the
+beauty of enriched mouldings, of carved friezes with infant genii,
+wreaths of fruit, griffins, masks and scrolls; by pilasters covered with
+arabesques as delicate in modelling as if wrought in silver; by inlays
+of marble, panels of glazed terra-cotta, marvellously carved doors, fine
+stucco-work in relief, capitals and cornices of wonderful richness and
+variety. The Roman orders appeared only in free imitations, with
+panelled and carved pilasters for the most part instead of columns, and
+capitals of fanciful design, recalling remotely the Corinthian by their
+volutes and leaves (Fig. 158). Instead of the low-pitched classic
+pediments, there appears frequently an arched cornice enclosing a
+sculptured lunette. Doors and windows were enclosed in richly carved
+frames, sometimes arched and sometimes square. Façades were flat and
+unbroken, depending mainly for effect upon the distribution and
+adornment of the openings, and the design of doorways, courtyards and
+cornices. Internally vaults and flat ceilings of wood and plaster were
+about equally common, the barrel vault and dome occurring far more
+frequently than the groined vault. Many of the ceilings of this period
+are of remarkable richness and beauty.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 158.--EARLY RENAISSANCE CAPITAL, PAL. ZORZI,
+  VENICE.]
+
+
++THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN FLORENCE: THE DUOMO.+ In the year 1417 a
+public competition was held for completing the cathedral of Florence by
+a dome over the immense octagon, 143 feet in diameter. _Filippo
+Brunelleschi_, sculptor and architect (1377-1446), who with Donatello
+had journeyed to Rome to study there the masterworks of ancient art,
+after demonstrating the inadequacy of all the solutions proposed by the
+competitors, was finally permitted to undertake the gigantic task
+according to his own plans. These provided for an octagonal dome in two
+shells, connected by eight major and sixteen minor ribs, and crowned by
+a lantern at the top (Fig. 159). This wholly original conception, by
+which for the first time (outside of Moslem art) the dome was made an
+external feature fitly terminating in the light forms and upward
+movement of a lantern, was carried out between the years 1420 and 1464.
+Though in no wise an imitation of Roman forms, it was classic in its
+spirit, in its vastness and its simplicity of line, and was made
+possible solely by Brunelleschi’s studies of Roman design and
+construction (Fig. 160).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 159.--SECTION OF DOME OF DUOMO, FLORENCE.]
+
+
++OTHER CHURCHES.+ From Brunelleschi’s designs were also erected the
++Pazzi Chapel+ in Sta. Croce, a charming design of a Greek cross covered
+with a dome at the intersection, and preceded by a vestibule with a
+richly decorated vault; and the two great churches of +S. Lorenzo+
+(1425) and +S. Spirito+ (1433-1476, Fig. 161). Both reproduced in a
+measure the plan of the Pisa Cathedral, having a three-aisled nave and
+transepts, with a low dome over the crossing. The side aisles were
+covered with domical vaults and the central aisles with flat wooden or
+plaster ceilings. All the details of columns, arches and mouldings were
+imitated from Roman models, and yet the result was something entirely
+new. Consciously or unconsciously, Brunelleschi was reviving Byzantine
+rather than Roman conceptions in the planning and structural design of
+these domical churches, but the garb in which he clothed them was Roman,
+at least in detail. The +Old Sacristy+ of S. Lorenzo was another domical
+design of great beauty.
+
+From this time on the new style was in general use for church designs.
+_L. B. Alberti_ (1404-73), who had in Rome mastered classic details more
+thoroughly than Brunelleschi, remodelled the church of +S. Francesco+ at
++Rimini+ with Roman pilasters and arches, and with engaged orders in the
+façade, which, however, was never completed. His great work was the
+church of +S. Andrea+ at +Mantua+, a Latin cross in plan, with a dome at
+the intersection (the present high dome dating however, only from the
+18th century) and a façade to which the conception of a Roman triumphal
+arch was skilfully adapted. His façade of incrusted marbles for the
+church of S. M. Novella at Florence was a less successful work, though
+its flaring consoles over the side aisles established an unfortunate
+precedent frequently imitated in later churches.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 160.--EXTERIOR OF DOME OF DUOMO, FLORENCE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 161.--INTERIOR OF S. SPIRITO, FLORENCE.]
+
+A great activity in church-building marked the period between 1475 and
+1490. The plans of the churches erected about this time throughout north
+Italy display an interesting variety of arrangements, in nearly all of
+which the dome is combined with the three-aisled cruciform plan, either
+as a central feature at the crossing or as a domical vault over each
+bay. Bologna and Ferrara possess a number of churches of this kind.
+Occasionally the basilican arrangement was followed, with columnar
+arcades separating the aisles. More often, however, the pier-arches were
+of the Roman type, with engaged columns or pilasters between them. The
+interiors, presumably intended to receive painted decorations, were in
+most cases somewhat bare of ornament, pleasing rather by happy
+proportions and effective vaulting or rich flat ceilings, panelled,
+painted and gilded, than by elaborate architectural detail. A similar
+scantiness of ornament is to be remarked in the exteriors, excepting the
+façades, which were sometimes highly ornate; the doorways, with columns,
+pediments, sculpture and carving, receiving especial attention. High
+external domes did not come into general use until the next period. In
+Milan, Pavia, and some other Lombard cities, the internal cupola over
+the crossing was, however, covered externally by a lofty structure in
+diminishing stages, like that of the Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 152), or
+that erected by Bramante for the church of S. M. delle Grazie at Milan.
+At Prato, in the church of the +Madonna delle Carceri+ (1495-1516), by
+_Giuliano da S. Gallo_, the type of the Pazzi chapel reappears in a
+larger scale; the plan is cruciform, with equal or nearly equal arms
+covered by barrel vaults, at whose intersection rises a dome of moderate
+height on pendentives. This charming edifice, with its unfinished
+exterior of white marble, its simple and dignified lines, and internal
+embellishments in della-Robbia ware, is one of the masterpieces of the
+period.
+
+In the designing of chapels and oratories the architects of the early
+Renaissance attained conspicuous success, these edifices presenting
+fewer structural limitations and being more purely decorative in
+character than the larger churches. Such façades as that of
++S. Bernardino+ at Perugia and of the +Frati di S. Spirito+ at Bologna
+are among the most delightful products of the decorative fancy of the
+15th century.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 162.--COURTYARD OF RICCARDI PALACE, FLORENCE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 163.--FAÇADE OF STROZZI PALACE, FLORENCE.]
+
++FLORENTINE PALACES.+ While the architects of this period failed to
+develop any new and thoroughly satisfactory ecclesiastical type, they
+attained conspicuous success in palace-architecture. The +Riccardi+
+palace in Florence (1430) marks the first step of the Renaissance in
+this direction. It was built for the great Cosimo di Medici by
+_Michelozzi_ (1397-1473), a contemporary of Brunelleschi and Alberti,
+and a man of great talent. Its imposing rectangular façade, with widely
+spaced mullioned windows in two stories over a massive basement, is
+crowned with a classic cornice of unusual and perhaps excessive size. In
+spite of the bold and fortress-like character of the rusticated masonry
+of these façades, and the mediæval look they seem to present to modern
+eyes, they marked a revolution in style and established a type
+frequently imitated in later years. The courtyard, in contrast with this
+stern exterior, appears light and cheerful (Fig. 162). Its wall is
+carried on round arches borne by columns with Corinthianesque capitals,
+and the arcade is enriched with sculptured medallions. +The Pitti
+Palace+, by Brunelleschi (1435), embodies the same ideas on a more
+colossal scale, but lacks the grace of an adequate cornice. A lighter
+and more ornate style appeared in 1460 in the +P. Rucellai+, by Alberti,
+in which for the first time classical pilasters in superposed stages
+were applied to a street façade. To avoid the dilemma of either
+insufficiently crowning the edifice or making the cornice too heavy for
+the upper range of pilasters, Alberti made use of brackets, occupying
+the width of the upper frieze, and converting the whole upper
+entablature into a cornice. But this compromise was not quite
+successful, and it remained for later architects in Venice, Verona, and
+Rome to work out more satisfactory methods of applying the orders to
+many-storied palace façades. In the great +P. Strozzi+ (Fig. 163),
+erected in 1490 by _Benedetto da Majano_ and _Cronaca_, the architects
+reverted to the earlier type of the P. Riccardi, treating it with
+greater refinement and producing one of the noblest palaces of Italy.
+
+
++COURTYARDS; ARCADES.+ These palaces were all built around interior
+courts, whose walls rested on columnar arcades, as in the P. Riccardi
+(Fig. 162). The origin of these arcades may be found in the arcaded
+cloisters of mediæval monastic churches, which often suggest classic
+models, as in those of St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls and St. John Lateran at
+Rome. Brunelleschi not only introduced columnar arcades into a number of
+cloisters and palace courts, but also used them effectively as exterior
+features in the +Loggia S. Paolo+ and the Foundling Hospital (+Ospedale
+degli Innocenti+) at Florence. The chief drawback in these light arcades
+was their inability to withstand the thrust of the vaulting over the
+space behind them, and the consequent recourse to iron tie-rods where
+vaulting was used. The Italians, however, seemed to care little about
+this disfigurement.
+
+
++MINOR WORKS.+ The details of the new style were developed quite as
+rapidly in purely decorative works as in monumental buildings. Altars,
+mural monuments, tabernacles, pulpits and _ciboria_ afforded scope for
+the genius of the most distinguished artists. Among those who were
+specially celebrated in works of this kind should be named _Lucca della
+Robbia_ (1400-82) and his successors, _Mino da Fiesole_ (1431-84) and
+_Benedetto da Majano_ (1442-97). Possessed of a wonderful fertility of
+invention, they and their pupils multiplied their works in extraordinary
+number and variety, not only throughout north Italy, but also in Rome
+and Naples. Among the most famous examples of this branch of design may
+be mentioned a pulpit in Sta. Croce by B. da Majano; a terra-cotta
+fountain in the sacristy of S. M. Novella, by the della Robbias; the
+Marsupini tomb in Sta. Croce, by _Desiderio da Settignano_ (all in
+Florence); the della Rovere tomb in S. M. del Popolo, Rome, by Mino da
+Fiesole, and in the Cathedral at Lucca the Noceto tomb and the
+Tempietto, by _Matteo Civitali_. It was in works of this character that
+the Renaissance oftenest made its first appearance in a new centre, as
+was the case in Sienna, Pisa, Lucca, Naples, etc.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 164.--TOMB OF PIETRO DI NOCETO, LUCCA.]
+
+
++NORTH ITALY.+ Between 1450 and 1490 the Renaissance presented in
+Sienna, in a number of important palaces, a sharp contrast to the
+prevalent Gothic style of that city. The +P. Piccolomini+--a somewhat
+crude imitation of the P. Riccardi in Florence--dates from 1463; the
++P. del Governo+ was built 1469, and the +Spannocchi Palace+ in 1470. In
+1463 _Ant. Federighi_ built there the +Loggia del Papa+. About the same
+time _Bernardo di Lorenzo_ was building for Pope Pius II. (Æneas Sylvius
+Piccolomini) an entirely new city, +Pienza+, with a cathedral,
+archbishop’s palace, town hall and Papal residence (the
++P. Piccolomini+), which are interesting if not strikingly original
+works. Pisa possesses few early Renaissance structures, owing to the
+utter prostration of her fortunes in the 15th century, and the dominance
+of Pisan Gothic traditions. In Lucca, besides a wealth of minor
+monuments (largely the work of Matteo Civitali, 1435-1501) in various
+churches, a number of palaces date from this period, the most important
+being the +P. Pretorio+ and P. Bernardini. To Milan the Renaissance was
+carried by the Florentine masters _Michelozzi_ and _Filarete_, to whom
+are respectively due the +Portinari Chapel+ in S. Eustorgio (1462) and
+the earlier part of the great +Ospedale Maggiore+ (1457). In the latter,
+an edifice of brick with terra-cotta enrichments, the windows were
+Gothic in outline--an unusual mixture of styles, even in Italy. The
+munificence of the Sforzas, the hereditary tyrants of the province,
+embellished the semi-Gothic +Certosa+ of Pavia with a new marble façade,
+begun 1476 or 1491, which in its fanciful and exuberant decoration, and
+the small scale of its parts, belongs properly to the early Renaissance.
+Exquisitely beautiful in detail, it resembles rather a magnified
+altar-piece than a work of architecture, properly speaking. Bologna and
+Ferrara developed somewhat late in the century a strong local school of
+architecture, remarkable especially for the beauty of its courtyards,
+its graceful street arcades, and its artistic treatment of brick and
+terra-cotta (+P. Bevilacqua+, +P. Fava+, at Bologna; +P. Scrofa+,
++P. Roverella+, at Ferrara). About the same time palaces with interior
+arcades and details in the new style were erected in Verona, Vicenza,
+Mantua, and other cities.
+
+
++VENICE.+ In this city of merchant princes and a wealthy _bourgeoisie_,
+the architecture of the Renaissance took on a new aspect of splendor and
+display. It was late in appearing, the Gothic style with its tinge of
+Byzantine decorative traditions having here developed into a style well
+suited to the needs of a rich and relatively tranquil community. These
+traditions the architects of the new style appropriated in a measure, as
+in the marble incrustations of the exquisite little church of +S. M. dei
+Miracoli+ (1480-89), and the façade of the +Scuola di S. Marco+
+(1485-1533), both by _Pietro Lombardo_. Nowhere else, unless on the
+contemporary façade of the Certosa at Pavia, were marble inlays and
+delicate carving, combined with a framework of thin pilasters, finely
+profiled entablatures and arched pediments, so lavishly bestowed upon
+the street fronts of churches and palaces. The family of the _Lombardi_
+(Martino, his sons Moro and Pietro, and grandsons Antonio and Tullio),
+with _Ant. Bregno_ and _Bart. Buon_, were the leaders in the
+architectural Renaissance of this period, and to them Venice owes her
+choicest masterpieces in the new style. Its first appearance is noted in
+the later portions of the church of +S. Zaccaria+ (1456-1515), partly
+Gothic internally, with a façade whose semicircular pediment and small
+decorative arcades show a somewhat timid but interesting application of
+classic details. In this church, and still more so in S. Giobbe
+(1451-93) and the Miracoli above mentioned, the decorative element
+predominates throughout. It is hard to imagine details more graceful in
+design, more effective in the swing of their movement, or more delicate
+in execution than the mouldings, reliefs, wreaths, scrolls, and capitals
+one encounters in these buildings. Yet in structural interest, in scale
+and breadth of planning, these early Renaissance Venetian buildings hold
+a relatively inferior rank.
+
+
++PALACES.+ The great +Court+ of the +Doge’s Palace+, begun 1483 by _Ant.
+Rizzio_, belongs only in part to the first period. It shows, however,
+the lack of constructive principle and of largeness of composition just
+mentioned, but its decorative effect and picturesque variety elicit
+almost universal admiration. Like the neighboring façade of St. Mark’s,
+it violates nearly every principle of correct composition, and yet in a
+measure atones for this capital defect by its charm of detail. Far more
+satisfactory from the purely architectural point of view is the façade
+of the +P. Vendramini+ (Vendramin-Calergi), by Pietro Lombardo (1481).
+The simple, stately lines of its composition, the dignity of its broad
+arched and mullioned windows, separated by engaged columns--the earliest
+example in Venice of this feature, and one of the earliest in Italy--its
+well-proportioned basement and upper stories, crowned by an adequate but
+somewhat heavy entablature, make this one of the finest palaces in Italy
+(Fig. 165) It established a type of large-windowed, vigorously modelled
+façades which later architects developed, but hardly surpassed. In the
+smaller contemporary, P. Dario, another type appears, better suited for
+small buildings, depending for effect mainly upon well-ordered openings
+and incrusted panelling of colored marble.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 165.--VENDRAMINI PALACE, VENICE.]
+
+
++ROME.+ Internal disorders and the long exile of the popes had by the
+end of the fourteenth century reduced Rome to utter insignificance. Not
+until the second half of the fifteenth century did returning prosperity
+and wealth afford the Renaissance its opportunity in the Eternal City.
+Pope Nicholas V. had, indeed, begun the rebuilding of St. Peter’s from
+designs by B. Rossellini, in 1450, but the project lapsed shortly after
+with the death of the pope. The earliest Renaissance building in Rome
+was the +P. di Venezia+, begun in 1455, together with the adjoining
+porch of S. Marco. In this palace and the adjoining unfinished
+Palazzetto we find the influence of the old Roman monuments clearly
+manifested in the court arcades, built like those of the Colosseum, with
+superposed stages of massive piers and engaged columns carrying
+entablatures. The proportions are awkward, the details coarse; but the
+spirit of Roman classicism is here seen in the germ. The exterior of
+this palace is, however, still Gothic in spirit. The architects are
+unknown; _Giuliano da Majano_ (1452-90), _Giacomo di Pietrasanta_, and
+_Meo del Caprino_ (1430-1501) are known to have worked upon it, but it
+is not certain in what capacity.
+
+The new style, reaching, and in time overcoming, the conservatism of the
+Church, overthrew the old basilican traditions. In +S. Agostino+
+(1479-83), by _Pietrasanta_, and +S. M. del Popolo+, by Pintelli (?),
+piers with pilasters or half-columns and massive arches separate the
+aisles, and the crossing is crowned with a dome. To the same period
+belong the Sistine chapel and parts of the Vatican palace, but the
+interest of these lies rather in their later decorations than in their
+somewhat scanty architectural merit.
+
+The architectural renewal of Rome, thus begun, reached its culmination
+in the following period.
+
+
++OTHER MONUMENTS.+ The complete enumeration of even the most important
+Early Renaissance monuments of Italy is impossible within our limits.
+Two or three only can here be singled out as suggesting types. Among
+town halls of this period the first place belongs to the +P. del
+Consiglio+ at Verona, by _Fra Giocondo_ (1435-1515). In this beautiful
+edifice the façade consists of a light and graceful arcade supporting a
+wall pierced with four windows, and covered with elaborate frescoed
+arabesques (recently restored). Its unfortunate division by pilasters
+into four bays, with a pier in the centre, is a blemish avoided in the
+contemporary +P. del Consiglio+ at Padua. The +Ducal Palace+ at Urbino,
+by _Luciano da Laurano_ (1468), is noteworthy for its fine arcaded
+court, and was highly famed in its day. At Brescia +S. M. dei Miracoli+
+is a remarkable example of a cruciform domical church dating from the
+close of this period, and is especially celebrated for the exuberant
+decoration of its porch and its elaborate detail. Few campaniles were
+built in this period; the best of them are at Venice. Naples possesses
+several interesting Early Renaissance monuments, chief among which are
+the +Porta Capuana+ (1484), by _Giul. da Majano_, the triumphal +Arch of
+Alphonso+ of Arragon, by _Pietro di Martino_, and the +P. Gravina+, by
+_Gab. d’Agnolo_. Naples is also very rich in minor works of the early
+Renaissance, in which it ranks with Florence, Venice, and Rome.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY--_Continued_.
+
+THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE AND DECLINE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Burckhardt, Cicognara, Fergusson,
+  Palustre. Also, Gauthier, _Les plus beaux edifices de Gênes_.
+  Geymüller, _Les projets primitifs pour la basilique de St. Pierre
+  de Rome_. Gurlitt, _Geschichte des Barockstiles in Italien_.
+  Letarouilly, _Édifices de Rome Moderne_; _Le Vatican_. Palladio,
+  _The Works of A. Palladio_.
+
+
++CHARACTER OF THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE.+ It was inevitable that the
+study and imitation of Roman architecture should lead to an increasingly
+literal rendering of classic details and a closer copying of antique
+compositions. Toward the close of the fifteenth century the symptoms
+began to multiply of the approaching reign of formal classicism.
+Correctness in the reproduction of old Roman forms came in time to be
+esteemed as one of the chief of architectural virtues, and in the
+following period the orders became the principal resource of the
+architect. During the so-called Cinquecento, that is, from the close of
+the fifteenth century to nearly or quite 1550, architecture still
+retained much of the freedom and refinement of the Quattrocento. There
+was meanwhile a notable advance in dignity and amplitude of design,
+especially in the internal distribution of buildings. Externally the
+orders were freely used as subordinate features in the decoration of
+doors and windows, and in court arcades of the Roman type. The
+lantern-crowned dome upon a high drum was developed into one of the
+noblest of architectural forms. Great attention was bestowed upon all
+subordinate features; doors and windows were treated with frames and
+pediments of extreme elegance and refinement; all the cornices and
+mouldings were proportioned and profiled with the utmost care, and the
+balustrade was elaborated into a feature at once useful and highly
+ornate. Interior decoration was even more splendid than before, if
+somewhat less delicate and subtle; relief enrichments in stucco were
+used with admirable effect, and the greatest artists exercised their
+talents in the painting of vaults and ceilings, as in P. del Té at
+Mantua, by _Giulio Romano_ (1492-1546), and the Sistine Chapel at Rome,
+by Michael Angelo. This period is distinguished by an exceptional number
+of great architects and buildings. It was ushered in by _Bramante
+Lazzari_, of Urbino (1444-1514), and closed during the career of
+_Michael Angelo Buonarotti_ (1475-1564); two names worthy to rank with
+that of Brunelleschi. Inferior only to these in architectural genius
+were _Raphael_ (1483-1520), _Baldassare Peruzzi_ (1481-1536), _Antonio
+da San Gallo the Younger_ (1485-1546), and _G. Barozzi da Vignola_
+(1507-1572), in Rome; _Giacopo Tatti Sansovino_ (1479-1570), in Venice,
+and others almost equally illustrious. This period witnessed the
+erection of an extraordinary series of palaces, villas, and churches,
+the beginning and much of the construction of St. Peter’s at Rome, and a
+complete transformation in the aspect of that city.
+
+
++BRAMANTE’S WORKS.+ While precise time limits cannot be set to
+architectural styles, it is not irrational to date this period from the
+maturing of Bramante’s genius. While his earlier works in Milan belong
+to the Quattrocento (S. M. delle Grazie, the sacristy of San Satiro, the
+extension of the Great Hospital), his later designs show the classic
+tendency very clearly. The charming +Tempietto+ in the court of
+S. Pietro in Montorio at Rome, a circular temple-like chapel (1502), is
+composed of purely classic elements. In the +P. Giraud+ (Fig. 166) and
+the great +Cancelleria+ Palace, pilasters appear in the external
+composition, and all the details of doors and windows betray the results
+of classic study, as well as the refined taste of their designer.[24]
+The beautiful courtyard of the Cancelleria combines the Florentine
+system of arches on columns with the Roman system of superposed arcades
+independent of the court wall. In 1506 Bramante began the rebuilding of
+St. Peter’s for Julius II. (see p. 294) and the construction of a new
+and imposing papal palace adjoining it on the Vatican hill. Of this
+colossal group of edifices, commonly known as the +Vatican+, he executed
+the greater Belvedere court (afterward divided in two by the Library and
+the Braccio Nuovo), the lesser octagonal court of the Belvedere, and the
+court of San Damaso, with its arcades afterward frescoed by Raphael and
+his school. Besides these, the cloister of S. M. della Pace, and many
+other works in and out of Rome, reveal the impress of Bramante’s genius,
+alike in their admirable plans and in the harmony and beauty of their
+details.
+
+    [Footnote 24: See Appendix C.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 166.--FAÇADE OF THE GIRAUD PALACE, ROME.]
+
+
++FLORENTINE PALACES.+ The P. Riccardi long remained the accepted type of
+palace in Florence. As we have seen, it was imitated in the Strozzi
+palace, as late as 1489, with greater perfection of detail, but with no
+radical change of conception. In the +P. Gondi+, however, begun in the
+following year by _Giuliano da San Gallo_ (1445-1516), a more pronounced
+classic spirit appears, especially in the court and the interior design.
+Early in the 16th century classic columns and pediments began to be used
+as decorations for doors and windows; the rustication was confined to
+basements and corner-quoins, and niches, loggias, and porches gave
+variety of light and shade to the façades (+P. Bartolini+, by _Baccio
+d’Agnolo_; +P. Larderel+, 1515, by _Dosio_; +P. Guadagni+, by _Cronaca_;
++P. Pandolfini+, 1518, attributed to Raphael). In the +P. Serristori+,
+by Baccio d’Agnolo (1510), pilasters were applied to the composition of
+the façade, but this example was not often followed in Florence.
+
+
++ROMAN PALACES.+ These followed a different type. They were usually of
+great size, and built around ample courts with arcades of classic model
+in two or three stories. The broad street façade in three stories with
+an attic or mezzanine was crowned with a rich cornice. The orders were
+sparingly used externally, and effect was sought principally in the
+careful proportioning of the stories, in the form and distribution of
+the square-headed and arched openings, and in the design of mouldings,
+string-courses, cornices, and other details. The _piano nobile_, or
+first story above the basement, was given up to suites of sumptuous
+reception-rooms and halls, with magnificent ceilings and frescoes by the
+great painters of the day, while antique statues and reliefs adorned the
+courts, vestibules, and niches of these princely dwellings. The
++Massimi+ palace, by Peruzzi, is an interesting example of this type.
+The Vatican, Cancelleria, and Giraud palaces have already been
+mentioned; other notable palaces are the Palma (1506) and Sacchetti
+(1540), by A. da San Gallo the Younger; the +Farnesina+, by Peruzzi,
+with celebrated fresco decorations designed by Raphael; and the Lante
+(1520) and Altemps (1530), by Peruzzi. But the noblest creation of this
+period was the
+
+
++FARNESE PALACE+, by many esteemed the finest in Italy. It was begun in
+1530 for Alex. Farnese (Paul III.) by A. da San Gallo the Younger, with
+Vignola’s collaboration. The simple but admirable plan is shown in Fig.
+167, and the courtyard, the most imposing in Italy, in Fig. 168. The
+exterior is monotonous, but the noble cornice by Michael Angelo
+measurably redeems this defect. The fine vaulted columnar entrance
+vestibule, the court and the _salons_, make up an _ensemble_ worthy of
+the great architects who designed it. The loggia toward the river was
+added by _G. della Porta_ in 1580.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 167.--PLAN OF FARNESE PALACE.]
+
+
++VILLAS.+ The Italian villa of this pleasure-loving period afforded full
+scope for the most playful fancies of the architect, decorator, and
+landscape gardener. It comprised usually a dwelling, a _casino_ or
+amusement-house, and many minor edifices, summer-houses, arcades, etc.,
+disposed in extensive grounds laid out with terraces, cascades, and
+shaded alleys. The style was graceful, sometimes trivial, but almost
+always pleasing, making free use of stucco enrichments, both internally
+and externally, with abundance of gilding and frescoing. The +Villa
+Madama+ (1516), by Raphael, with stucco-decorations by Giulio Romano,
+though incomplete and now dilapidated, is a noted example of the style.
+More complete, the +Villa of Pope Julius+, by Vignola (1550), belongs by
+its purity of style to this period; its façade well exemplifies the
+simplicity, dignity, and fine proportions of this master’s work. In
+addition to these Roman villas may be mentioned the +V. Medici+ (1540,
+by _Annibale Lippi_; now the French Academy of Rome); the +Casino del
+Papa+ in the Vatican Gardens, by _Pirro Ligorio_ (1560); the +V. Lante+,
+near Viterbo, and the +V. d’Este+, at Tivoli, as displaying among almost
+countless others the Italian skill in combining architecture and
+gardening.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 168.--ANGLE OF COURT OF FARNESE PALACE, ROME.]
+
+
++CHURCHES AND CHAPELS.+ This period witnessed the building of a few
+churches of the first rank, but it was especially prolific in memorial,
+votive, and sepulchral chapels added to churches already existing, like
+the +Chigi Chapel+ of S. M. del Popolo, by Raphael. The earlier churches
+of this period generally followed antecedent types, with the dome as the
+central feature dominating a cruciform plan, and simple, unostentatious
+and sometimes uninteresting exteriors. Among them may be mentioned: at
+Pistoia, S. M. del Letto and +S. M. dell’ Umiltà+, the latter a fine
+domical rotunda by _Ventura Vitoni_ (1509), with an imposing vestibule;
+at Venice, +S. Salvatore+, by _Tullio Lombardo_ (1530), an admirable
+edifice with alternating domical and barrel-vaulted bays; +S. Georgio
+dei Grechi+ (1536), by _Sansovino_, and S. M. Formosa; at Todi, the
++Madonna della Consolazione+ (1510), by _Cola da Caprarola_, a charming
+design with a high dome and four apses; at Montefiascone, the +Madonna
+delle Grazie+, by _Sammichele_ (1523), besides several churches at
+Bologna, Ferrara, Prato, Sienna, and Rome of almost or quite equal
+interest. In these churches one may trace the development of the dome as
+an external feature, while in +S. Biagio+, at Montepulciano, the effort
+was made by _Ant. da San Gallo the Elder_ to combine with it the
+contrasting lines of two campaniles, of which, however, but one was
+completed.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 169.--ORIGINAL PLAN OF ST. PETER’S, ROME.]
+
++ST. PETER’S.+ The culmination of Renaissance church architecture was
+reached in +St. Peter’s+, at Rome. The original project of Nicholas V.
+having lapsed with his death, it was the intention of Julius II. to
+erect on the same site a stupendous mausoleum over the monument he had
+ordered of Michael Angelo. The design of Bramante, who began its
+erection in 1506, comprised a Greek cross with apsidal arms, the four
+angles occupied by domical chapels and loggias within a square outline
+(Fig. 169). The too hasty execution of this noble design led to the
+collapse of two of the arches under the dome, and to long delays after
+Bramante’s death in 1514. Raphael, Giuliano da San Gallo, Peruzzi, and
+A. da San Gallo the Younger successively supervised the works under the
+popes from Leo X. to Paul III., and devised a vast number of plans for
+its completion. Most of these involved fundamental alterations of the
+original scheme, and were motived by the abandonment of the proposed
+monument of Julius II.; a church, and not a mausoleum, being in
+consequence required. In 1546 Michael Angelo was assigned by Paul III.
+to the works, and gave final form to the general design in a simplified
+version of Bramante’s plan with more massive supports, a square east
+front with a portico for the chief entrance, and the unrivalled +Dome+,
+which is its most striking feature. This dome, slightly altered and
+improved in curvature by della Porta after M. Angelo’s death in 1564,
+was completed by _D. Fontana_ in 1604. It is the most majestic creation
+of the Renaissance, and one of the greatest architectural conceptions of
+all history. It measures 140 feet in internal diameter, and with its two
+shells rises from a lofty drum, buttressed by coupled Corinthian
+columns, to a height of 405 feet to the top of the lantern. The church,
+as left by Michael Angelo, was harmonious in its proportions, though the
+single order used internally and externally dwarfed by its colossal
+scale the vast dimensions of the edifice. Unfortunately in 1606 _C.
+Maderna_ was employed by Paul V. to lengthen the nave by two bays,
+destroying the proportions of the whole, and hiding the dome from view
+on a near approach. The present tasteless façade was Maderna’s work. The
+splendid atrium or portico added (1629-67), by _Bernini_, as an
+approach, mitigates but does not cure the ugliness and pettiness of this
+front.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 170.--PLAN OF ST. PETER’S, ROME,
+  AS NOW STANDING.
+  The portion below the line A, B, and the side chapels C, D, were
+  added by Maderna. The remainder represents Michael Angelo’s plan.]
+
+St. Peter’s as thus completed (Fig. 170) is the largest church in
+existence, and in many respects is architecturally worthy of its
+pre-eminence. The central aisle, nearly 600 feet long, with its
+stupendous panelled and gilded vault, 83 feet in span, the vast central
+area and the majestic dome, belong to a conception unsurpassed in
+majestic simplicity and effectiveness. The construction is almost
+excessively massive, but admirably disposed. On the other hand the nave
+is too long, and the details not only lack originality and interest, but
+are also too large and coarse in scale, dwarfing the whole edifice. The
+interior (Fig. 171) is wanting in the sobriety of color that befits so
+stately a design; it suggests rather a pagan temple than a Christian
+basilica. These faults reveal the decline of taste which had already set
+in before Michael Angelo took charge of the work, and which appears even
+in the works of that master.
+
+
++THE PERIOD OF FORMAL CLASSICISM.+ With the middle of the 16th century
+the classic orders began to dominate all architectural design. While
+Vignola, who wrote a treatise upon the orders, employed them with
+unfailing refinement and judgment, his contemporaries showed less
+discernment and taste, making of them an end rather than a means. Too
+often mere classical correctness was substituted for the fundamental
+qualities of original invention and intrinsic beauty of composition. The
+innovation of colossal orders extending through several stories, while
+it gave to exterior designs a certain grandeur of scale, tended to
+coarseness and even vulgarity of detail. Sculpture and ornament began to
+lose their refinement; and while street-architecture gained in
+monumental scale, and public squares received a more stately adornment
+than ever before, the street-façades individually were too often bare
+and uninteresting in their correct formality. In the interiors of
+churches and large halls there appears a struggle between a cold and
+dignified simplicity and a growing tendency toward pretentious sham. But
+these pernicious tendencies did not fully mature till the latter part of
+the century, and the half-century after 1540 or 1550 was prolific of
+notable works in both ecclesiastical and secular architecture. The names
+of Michael Angelo and Vignola, whose careers began in the preceding
+period; of Palladio and della Porta (1541-1604) in Rome; of Sammichele
+and Sansovino in Verona and Venice, and of Galeazzo Alessi in Genoa,
+stand high in the ranks of architectural merit.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 171.--INTERIOR OF ST. PETER’S, ROME.]
+
+
++CHURCHES.+ The type established by St. Peter’s was widely imitated
+throughout Italy. The churches in which a Greek or Latin cross is
+dominated by a high dome rising from a drum and terminating in a
+lantern, and is treated both internally and externally with Roman
+Corinthian pilasters and arches, are almost numberless. Among the best
+churches of this type is the +Gesù+ at Rome, by Vignola (1568), with a
+highly ornate interior of excellent proportions and a less interesting
+exterior, the façade adorned with two stories of orders and great
+flanking volutes over the sides (see p. 277). Two churches at Venice, by
+_Palladio_--+S. Giorgio Maggiore+ (1560; façade by _Scamozzi_, 1575) and
+the +Redentore+--offer a strong contrast to the Gesù, in their cold and
+almost bare but pure and correct design. An imitation of Bramante’s plan
+for St. Peter’s appears in +S. M. di Carignano+, at Genoa, by _Galeazzo
+Alessi_ (1500-72), begun 1552, a fine structure, though inferior in
+scale and detail to its original. Besides these and other important
+churches there were many large domical chapels of great splendor added
+to earlier churches; of these the +Chapel of Sixtus V.+ in S. M.
+Maggiore, at Rome, by _D. Fontana_ (1543-1607), is an excellent example.
+
+
++PALACES: ROME.+ The palaces on the Capitoline Hill, built at different
+dates (1540-1644) from designs by Michael Angelo, illustrate the palace
+architecture of this period, and the imposing effect of a single
+colossal order running through two stories. This treatment, though well
+adapted to produce monumental effects in large squares, was dangerous in
+its bareness and heaviness of scale, and was better suited for buildings
+of vast dimensions than for ordinary street-façades. In other Roman
+palaces of this time the traditions of the preceding period still
+prevailed, as in the +Sapienza+ (University), by della Porta (1575),
+which has a dignified court and a façade of great refinement without
+columns or pilasters. The +Papal palaces+ built by Domenico Fontana on
+the Lateran, Quirinal, and Vatican hills, between 1574 and 1590,
+externally copying the style of the Farnese, show a similar return to
+earlier models, but are less pure and refined in detail than the
+Sapienza. The great pentagonal +Palace of Caprarola+, near Rome, by
+Vignola, is perhaps the most successful and imposing production of the
+Roman classic school.
+
+
++VERONA.+ Outside of Rome, palace-building took on various local and
+provincial phases of style, of which the most important were the closely
+related styles of Verona, Venice, and Vicenza. _Michele Sammichele_
+(1484-1549), who built in Verona the +Bevilacqua+, +Canossa+, +Pompei+,
+and +Verzi+ palaces and the four chief city gates, and in Venice the
++P. Grimani+, his masterpiece (1550), was a designer of great
+originality and power. He introduced into his military architecture, as
+in the gates of Verona, the use of rusticated orders, which he treated
+with skill and taste. The idea was copied by later architects and
+applied, with doubtful propriety, to palace-façades; though Ammanati’s
+garden-façade for the Pitti palace, in Florence (cir. 1560), is an
+impressive and successful design.
+
+
++VENICE.+ Into the development of the maturing classic style _Giacopo
+Tatti Sansovino_ (1477-1570) introduced in his Venetian buildings new
+elements of splendor. Coupled columns between arches themselves
+supported on columns, and a profusion of figure sculpture, gave to his
+palace-façades a hitherto unknown magnificence of effect, as in the
++Library of St. Mark+ (now the Royal Palace, Fig. 172), and the
++Cornaro+ palace (P. Corner de Cà Grande), both dating from about
+1530-40. So strongly did he impress upon Venice these ornate and
+sumptuous variations on classic themes, that later architects adhered,
+in a very debased period, to the main features and spirit of his work.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 172.--LIBRARY OF ST. MARK, VENICE.]
+
+
++VICENZA.+ Of _Palladio’s_ churches in Venice we have already spoken;
+his palaces are mainly to be found in his native city, Vicenza. In these
+structures he displayed great fertility of invention and a profound
+familiarity with the classic orders, but the degenerate taste of the
+Baroque period already begins to show itself in his work. There is far
+less of architectural propriety and grace in these pretentious palaces,
+with their colossal orders and their affectation of grandeur, than in
+the designs of Vignola or Sammichele. Wood and plaster, used to mimic
+stone, indicate the approaching reign of sham in all design
+(+P. Barbarano+, 1570; +Chieregati+, 1560; +Tiene+, +Valmarano+, 1556;
++Villa Capra+). His masterpiece is the two-storied arcade about the
+mediæval +Basilica+, in which the arches are supported on a minor order
+between engaged columns serving as buttresses. This treatment has in
+consequence ever since been known as the _Palladian Motive_.
+
+
++GENOA.+ During the second half of the sixteenth century a remarkable
+series of palaces was erected in Genoa, especially notable for their
+great courts and imposing staircases. These last were given unusual
+prominence owing to differences of level in the courts, arising from the
+slope of their sites on the hillside. Many of these palaces were by
+Galeazzo Alessi (1502-72); others by architects of lesser note; but
+nearly all characterized by their effective planning, fine stairs and
+loggias, and strong and dignified, if sometimes uninteresting, detail
+(+P. Balbi+, +Brignole+, +Cambiasi+, +Doria-Tursi+ [or Municipio],
++Durazzo+ [or Reale], +Pallavicini+, and +University+).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 173.--INTERIOR OF SAN SEVERO, NAPLES.]
+
+
++THE BAROQUE STYLE.+ A reaction from the cold _classicismo_ of the late
+sixteenth century showed itself in the following period, in the lawless
+and vulgar extravagances of the so-called _Baroque_ style. The wealthy
+Jesuit order was a notorious contributor to the debasement of
+architectural taste. Most of the Jesuit churches and many others not
+belonging to the order, but following its pernicious example, are
+monuments of bad taste and pretentious sham. Broken and contorted
+pediments, huge scrolls, heavy mouldings, ill-applied sculpture in
+exaggerated attitudes, and a general disregard for architectural
+propriety characterized this period, especially in its church
+architecture, to whose style the name _Jesuit_ is often applied. Sham
+marble and heavy and excessive gilding were universal (Fig. 173). _C.
+Maderna_ (1556-1629), _Lorenzo Bernini_ (1589-1680), and _F. Borromini_
+(1599-1667) were the worst offenders of the period, though Bernini was
+an artist of undoubted ability, as proved by his colonnades or atrium in
+front of St. Peter’s. There were, however, architects of purer taste
+whose works even in that debased age were worthy of admiration.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 174.--CHURCH OF S. M. DELLA SALUTE, VENICE.]
+
+
++BAROQUE CHURCHES.+ The Baroque style prevailed in church architecture
+for almost two centuries. The majority of the churches present varieties
+of the cruciform plan crowned by a high dome which is usually the best
+part of the design. Everywhere else the vices of the period appear in
+these churches, especially in their façades and internal decoration.
++S. M. della Vittoria+, by Maderna, and +Sta. Agnese+, by Borromini,
+both at Rome, are examples of the style. Naples is particularly full of
+Baroque churches (Fig. 173), a few of which, like the +Gesù Nuovo+
+(1584), are dignified and creditable designs. The domical church of
++S. M. della Salute+, at Venice (1631), by Longhena, is also a majestic
+edifice in excellent style (Fig. 174), and here and there other churches
+offer exceptions to the prevalent baseness of architecture. Particularly
+objectionable was the wholesale disfigurement of existing monuments by
+ruthless remodelling, as in S. John Lateran, at Rome, the cathedrals of
+Ferrara and Ravenna, and many others.
+
+
++PALACES.+ These were generally superior to the churches, and not
+infrequently impressive and dignified structures. The two best examples
+in Rome are the +P. Borghese+, by _Martino Lunghi the Elder_ (1590),
+with a fine court arcade on coupled Doric and Ionic columns, and the
++P. Barberini+, by Maderna and Borromini, with an elliptical staircase
+by Bernini, one of the few palaces in Italy with projecting lateral
+wings. In Venice, Longhena, in the +Rezzonico+ and +Pesaro+ palaces
+(1650-80), showed his freedom from the mannerisms of the age by
+reproducing successfully the ornate but dignified style of Sansovino
+(see p. 301). At Naples D. Fontana, whose works overlap the Baroque
+period, produced in the +Royal Palace+ (1600) and the +Royal Museum+
+(1586-1615) designs of considerable dignity, in some respects superior
+to his papal residences in Rome. In suburban villas, like the +Albani+
+and +Borghese+ villas near Rome, the ostentatious style of the Decline
+found free and congenial expression.
+
+
++LATER MONUMENTS.+ In the few eighteenth-century buildings which are
+worthy of mention there is noticeable a reaction from the extravagances
+of the seventeenth century, shown in the dignified correctness of the
+exteriors and the somewhat frigid splendor of the interiors. The most
+notable work of this period is the +Royal Palace+ at +Caserta+, by _Van
+Vitelli_ (1752), an architect of considerable taste and inventiveness,
+considering his time. This great palace, 800 feet square, encloses four
+fine courts, and is especially remarkable for the simple if monotonous
+dignity of the well proportioned exterior and the effective planning of
+its three octagonal vestibules, its ornate chapel and noble staircase.
+Staircases, indeed, were among the most successful features of late
+Italian architecture, as in the +Scala Regia+ of the Vatican, and in the
+Corsini, Braschi, and Barberini palaces at Rome, the Royal Palace at
+Naples, etc.
+
+In church architecture the +east front+ of +S. John Lateran+ in Rome, by
+_Galilei_ (1734), and the whole +exterior+ of +S. M. Maggiore+, by
+_Ferd. Fuga_ (1743), are noteworthy designs: the former an especially
+powerful conception, combining a colossal order with two smaller orders
+in superposed _loggie_, but marred by the excessive scale of the statues
+which crown it. The +Fountain+ of +Trevi+, conceived in much the same
+spirit (1735, by _Niccola Salvi_), is a striking piece of decorative
+architecture. The Sacristy of St. Peter’s, by _Marchionne_ (1775), also
+deserves mention as a monumental and not uninteresting work. In the
+early years of the present century the +Braccio Nuovo+ of the Vatican,
+by _Stern_, the imposing church of +S. Francesco di Paola+ at Naples, by
+_Bianchi_, designed in partial imitation of the Pantheon, and the great
++S. Carlo Theatre+ at Naples, show the same coldly classical spirit, not
+wholly without merit, but lacking in true originality and freedom of
+conception.
+
+
++CAMPANILES.+ The +campaniles+ of the Renaissance and Decline deserve at
+least passing reference, though they are neither numerous nor often of
+conspicuous interest. That of the +Campidoglio+ (Capitol) at Rome, by
+Martino Lunghi, is a good example of the classical type. Venetia
+possesses a number of graceful and lofty bell-towers, generally of brick
+with marble bell-stages, of which the upper part of the +Campanile+ of
++St. Mark+ and the tower of S. Giorgio Maggiore are the finest examples.
+
+The Decline attained what the early Renaissance aimed at--the revival of
+Roman forms. But it was no longer a Renaissance; it was a decrepit and
+unimaginative art, held in the fetters of a servile imitation, copying
+the letter rather than the spirit of antique design. It was the mistaken
+and abject worship of precedent which started architecture upon its
+downward path and led to the atrocious products of the seventeenth
+century.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+ (mainly in addition to those mentioned in the text).
+  15TH CENTURY--FLORENCE: Foundling Hospital (Innocenti), 1421; Old
+  Sacristy and Cloister S. Lorenzo; P. Quaratesi, 1440; cloisters at
+  Sta. Croce and Certosa, all by Brunelleschi; façade S. M. Novella,
+  by Alberti, 1456; Badia at Fiesole, from designs of Brunelleschi,
+  1462; Court of P. Vecchio, by Michelozzi, 1464 (altered and
+  enriched, 1565); P. Guadagni, by Cronaca, 1490; Hall of 500 in
+  P. Vecchio, by same, 1495.--VENICE: S. Zaccaria, by Martino
+  Lombardo, 1457-1515; S. Michele, by Moro Lombardo, 1466; S. M. del
+  Orto, 1473; S. Giovanni Crisostomo, by Moro Lombardo, atrium of
+  S. Giovanni Evangelista, Procurazie Vecchie, all 1481; Scuola di
+  S. Marco, by Martino Lombardo, 1490; P. Dario;
+  P. Corner-Spinelli.--FERRARA: P. Schifanoja, 1469; P. Scrofa or
+  Costabili, 1485; S. M. in Vado, P. dei Diamanti, P. Bevilacqua,
+  S. Francesco, S. Benedetto, S. Cristoforo, all 1490-1500.--MILAN:
+  Ospedale Grande (or Maggiore), begun 1457 by Filarete, extended by
+  Bramante, cir. 1480-90 (great court by Richini, 17th century);
+  S. M. delle Grazie, E. end, Sacristy of S. Satiro, S. M. presso
+  S. Celso, all by Bramante, 1477-1499.--ROME: S. Pietro in
+  Montorio, 1472; S. M. del Popolo, 1475?; Sistine Chapel of
+  Vatican, 1475; S. Agostino, 1483.--SIENNA: Loggia del Papa and
+  P. Nerucci, 1460; P. del Governo, 1469-1500; P. Spannocchi, 1470;
+  Sta. Catarina, 1490, by di Bastiano and Federighi, church later by
+  Peruzzi; Library in cathedral by L. Marina, 1497; Oratory of
+  S. Bernardino, by Turrapili, 1496.--PIENZA: Cathedral, Bishop’s
+  Palace (Vescovado), P. Pubblico, all cir. 1460, by B. di Lorenzo
+  (or Rosselini?). ELSEWHERE (in chronological order): Arch of
+  Alphonso, Naples, 1443, by P. di Martino; Oratory S. Bernardino,
+  Perugia, by di Duccio, 1461; Church over Casa-Santa, Loreto,
+  1465-1526; P. del Consiglio at Verona, by Fra Giocondo, 1476;
+  Capella Colleoni, Bergamo, 1476; S. M. in Organo, Verona, 1481;
+  Porta Capuana, Naples, by Giul. da Majano, 1484; Madonna della
+  Croce, Crema, by B. Battagli, 1490-1556; Madonna di Campagna and
+  S. Sisto, Piacenza, both 1492-1511; P. Bevilacqua, Bologna, by
+  Nardi, 1492 (?); P. Gravina, Naples; P. Fava, Bologna;
+  P. Pretorio, Lucca; S. M. dei Miracoli Brescia; all at close of
+  15th century.
+
+  16TH CENTURY--ROME: P. Sora, 1501; S. M. della Pace and cloister,
+  1504, both by Bramante (façade of church by P. da Cortona, 17th
+  century); S. M. di Loreto, 1507, by A. da San Gallo the Elder;
+  P. Vidoni, by Raphael; P. Lante, 1520; Vigna Papa Giulio, 1534, by
+  Peruzzi; P. dei Conservatori, 1540, and P. del Senatore, 1563
+  (both on Capitol), by M. Angelo, Vignola, and della Porta; Sistine
+  Chapel in S. M. Maggiore, 1590; S. Andrea della Valle, 1591, by
+  Olivieri (façade, 1670, by Rainaldi).--FLORENCE: Medici Chapel of
+  S. Lorenzo, new sacristy of same, and Laurentian Library, all by
+  M. Angelo, 1529-40; Mercato Nuovo, 1547, by B. Tasso; P. degli
+  Uffizi, 1560-70, by Vasari; P. Giugni, 1560-8.--VENICE:
+  P. Camerlinghi, 1525, by Bergamasco; S. Francesco della Vigna, by
+  Sansovino, 1539, façade by Palladio, 1568; Zecca or Mint, 1536,
+  and Loggetta of Campanile, 1540, by Sansovino[25], Procurazie
+  Nuove, 1584, by Scamozzi.--VERONA: Capella Pellegrini in
+  S. Bernardino, 1514; City Gates, by Sammichele, 1530-40 (Porte
+  Nuova, Stuppa, S. Zeno, S. Giorgio).--VICENZA: P. Porto, 1552;
+  Teatro Olimpico, 1580; both by Palladio.--GENOA: P. Andrea Doria,
+  by Montorsoli, 1529; P. Ducale, by Pennone, 1550; P. Lercari,
+  P. Spinola, P. Sauli, P. Marcello Durazzo, all by Gal. Alessi,
+  cir. 1550; Sta. Annunziata, 1587, by della Porta; Loggia dei
+  Banchi, end of 16th century.--ELSEWHERE (in chronological order).
+  P. Roverella, Ferrara, 1508; P. del Magnifico, Sienna, 1508, by
+  Cozzarelli; P. Communale, Brescia, 1508, by Formentone;
+  P. Albergati, Bologna, 1510; P. Ducale, Mantua, 1520-40;
+  P. Giustiniani, Padua, by Falconetto, 1524; Ospedale del Ceppo,
+  Pistoia, 1525; Madonna delle Grazie, Pistoia, by Vitoni, 1535;
+  P. Buoncampagni-Ludovisi, Bologna, 1545; Cathedral, Padua, 1550,
+  by Righetti and della Valle, after M. Angelo; P. Bernardini, 1560,
+  and P. Ducale, 1578, at Lucca, both by Ammanati.
+
+    [Footnote 25: See Appendix B.]
+
+  17TH CENTURY: Chapel of the Princes in S. Lorenzo, Florence, 1604,
+  by Nigetti; S. Pietro, Bologna, 1605; S. Andrea delle Fratte,
+  Rome, 1612; Villa Borghese, Rome, 1616, by Vasanzio; P. Contarini
+  delle Scrigni, Venice, by Scamozzi; Badia at Florence, rebuilt
+  1625 by Segaloni; S. Ignazio, Rome, 1626-85; Museum of the
+  Capitol, Rome, 1644-50; Church of Gli Scalzi, Venice, 1649;
+  P. Pesaro, Venice, by Longhena, 1650; S. Moisé, Venice, 1668;
+  Brera Palace, Milan; S. M. Zobenigo, Venice, 1680; Dogana di Mare,
+  Venice, 1686, by Benone; Santi Apostoli, Rome.
+
+  18TH AND EARLY 19TH CENTURY: Gesuati, at Venice, 1715-30;
+  S. Geremia, Venice, 1753, by Corbellini; P. Braschi, Rome, by
+  Morelli, 1790; Nuova Fabbrica, Venice, 1810.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Müntz, Palustre. Also
+  Berty, _La Renaissance monumentale en France_. Château, _Histoire
+  et caractères de l’architecture en France_. Daly, _Motifs
+  historiques d’architecture et de sculpture_. De Laborde, _La
+  Renaissance des arts à la cour de France_. Du Cerceau, _Les plus
+  excellents bastiments de France_. Lübke, _Geschichte der
+  Renaissance in Frankreich_. Mathews, _The Renaissance under the
+  Valois Kings_. Palustre, _La Renaissance en France_. Pattison,
+  _The Renaissance of the Fine Arts in France_. Rouyer et Darcel,
+  _L’Art architectural en France_. Sauvageot, _Choix de palais,
+  châteaux, hôtels, et maisons de France_.
+
+
++ORIGIN AND CHARACTER.+ The vitality and richness of the Gothic style in
+France, even in its decline in the fifteenth century, long stood in the
+way of any general introduction of classic forms. When the Renaissance
+appeared, it came as a foreign importation, introduced from Italy by the
+king and the nobility. It underwent a protracted transitional phase,
+during which the national Gothic forms and traditions were picturesquely
+mingled with those of the Renaissance. The campaigns of Charles VIII.
+(1489), Louis XII. (1499), and Francis I. (1515), in vindication of
+their claims to the thrones of Naples and Milan, brought these monarchs
+and their nobles into contact with the splendid material and artistic
+civilization of Italy, then in the full tide of the maturing
+Renaissance. They returned to France, filled with the ambition to rival
+the splendid palaces and gardens of Italy, taking with them Italian
+artists to teach their arts to the French. But while these Italians
+successfully introduced many classic elements and details into French
+architecture, they wholly failed to dominate the French master-masons
+and _tailleurs de pierre_ in matters of planning and general
+composition. The early Renaissance architecture of France is
+consequently wholly unlike the Italian, from which it derived only minor
+details and a certain largeness and breadth of spirit.
+
+
++PERIODS.+ The French Renaissance and its sequent developments may be
+broadly divided into three periods, with subdivisions coinciding more or
+less closely with various reigns, as follows:
+
+I. THE VALOIS PERIOD, or Renaissance proper, 1483-1589, subdivided into:
+
+_a._ THE TRANSITION, comprising the reigns of Charles VIII. and Louis
+XII. (1483-1515), and the early years of that of Francis I.;
+characterized by a picturesque mixture of classic details with Gothic
+conceptions.
+
+_b._ THE STYLE OF FRANCIS I., or Early Renaissance, from about 1520 to
+that king’s death in 1547; distinguished by a remarkable variety and
+grace of composition and beauty of detail.
+
+_c._ THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE, comprising the reigns of Henry II.
+(1547), Francis II. (1559), Charles IX. (1560), and Henry III.
+(1574-89); marked by the gradual adoption of the classic orders and a
+decline in the delicacy and richness of the ornament.
+
+II. THE BOURBON OR CLASSIC PERIOD (1589-1715):
+
+_a._ STYLE OF HENRY IV., covering his reign and partly that of Louis
+XIII. (1610-45), employing the orders and other classic forms with a
+somewhat heavy, florid style of ornament.
+
+_b._ STYLE OF LOUIS XIV., beginning in the preceding reign and extending
+through that of Louis XIV. (1645-1715); the great age of classic
+architecture in France, corresponding to the Palladian in Italy.
+
+III. THE DECLINE OR ROCOCO PERIOD, corresponding with the reign of Louis
+XV. (1715-74); marked by pompous extravagance and capriciousness.
+
+During this period a reaction set in toward a severer classicism,
+leading to the styles of Louis XVI. and of the Empire, to be treated of
+in a later chapter.
+
+
++THE TRANSITION.+ As early as 1475 the new style made its appearance in
+altars, tombs, and rood-screens wrought by French carvers with the
+collaboration of Italian artificers. The tomb erected by Charles of
+Anjou to his father in Le Mans cathedral (1475, by _Francesco Laurana_),
+the chapel of St. Lazare in the cathedral of Marseilles (1483), and the
+tomb of the children of Charles VIII. in Tours cathedral (1506), by
+_Michel Columbe_, the greatest artist of his time in France, are
+examples. The schools of Rouen and Tours were especially prominent in
+works of this kind, marked by exuberant fancy and great delicacy of
+execution. In church architecture Gothic traditions were long dominant,
+in spite of the great numbers of Italian prelates in France. It was in
+_châteaux_, palaces, and dwellings that the new style achieved its most
+notable triumphs.
+
+
++EARLY CHÂTEAUX.+ The castle of Charles VIII., at Amboise on the Loire,
+shows little trace of Italian influence. It was under Louis XII. that
+the transformation of French architecture really began. The +Château de
+Gaillon+ (of which unfortunately only fragments remain in the École des
+Beaux-Arts at Paris), built for the Cardinal George of Amboise, between
+1497 and 1509, by _Pierre Fain_, was the masterwork of the Rouen school.
+It presented a curious mixture of styles, with its irregular plan, its
+moat, drawbridge, and round corner-towers, its high roofs, turrets, and
+dormers, which gave it, in spite of many Renaissance details, a mediæval
+picturesqueness. The +Château de Blois+ (the east and south wings of the
+present group), begun for Louis XII. about 1500, was the first of a
+remarkable series of royal palaces which are the glory of French
+architecture. It shows the new influences in its horizontal lines and
+flat, unbroken façades of brick and stone, rather than in its
+architectural details (Fig. 175). The +Ducal Palace+ at Nancy and the
++Hôtel de Ville+ at Orléans, by _Viart_, show a similar commingling of
+the classic and mediæval styles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 175.--BLOIS, COURT FAÇADE OF WING
+  OF LOUIS XII.]
+
+
++STYLE OF FRANCIS I.+ Early in the reign of this monarch, and partly
+under the lead of Italian artists, like il Rosso, Serlio, and
+Primaticcio, classic elements began to dominate the general composition
+and Gothic details rapidly disappeared. A simple and effective system of
+exterior design was adopted in the castles and palaces of this period.
+Finely moulded belt-courses at the sills and heads of the windows marked
+the different stories, and were crossed by a system of almost equally
+important vertical lines, formed by superposed pilasters flanking the
+windows continuously from basement to roof. The façade was crowned by a
+slight cornice and open balustrade, above which rose a steep and lofty
+roof, diversified by elaborate dormer windows which were adorned with
+gables and pinnacles (Fig. 178). Slender pilasters, treated like long
+panels ornamented with arabesques of great beauty, or with a species of
+baluster shaft like a candelabrum, were preferred to columns, and were
+provided with graceful capitals of the Corinthianesque type. The
+mouldings were minute and richly carved; pediments were replaced by
+steep gables, and mullioned windows with stone crossbars were used in
+preference to the simpler Italian openings. In the earlier monuments
+Gothic details were still used occasionally; and round corner-towers,
+high dormers, and numerous turrets and pinnacles appear even in the
+châteaux of later date.
+
+
++CHURCHES.+ Ecclesiastical architecture received but scant attention
+under Francis I., and, so far as it was practised, still clung
+tenaciously to Gothic principles. Among the few important churches of
+this period may be mentioned +St. Etienne du Mont+, at Paris (1517-38),
+in which classic and Gothic features appear in nearly equal proportions;
+the east end of +St. Pierre+, at Caen, with rich external carving; and
+the great parish church of +St. Eustache+, at Paris (1532, by
+_Lemercier_), in which the plan and construction are purely Gothic,
+while the details throughout belong to the new style, though with little
+appreciation of the spirit and proportions of classic art. New façades
+were also built for a number of already existing churches, among which
++St. Michel+, at Dijon, is conspicuous, with its vast portal arch and
+imposing towers. The Gothic towers of Tours cathedral were completed
+with Renaissance lanterns or belfries, the northern in 1507, the
+southern in 1547.
+
+
++PALACES.+ To the palace at Blois begun by his predecessor, Francis I.
+added a northern and a western wing, completing the court. The north
+wing is one of the masterpieces of the style, presenting toward the
+court a simple and effective composition, with a rich but slightly
+projecting cornice and a high roof with elaborate dormers. This façade
+is divided into two unequal sections by the open +Staircase Tower+ (Fig.
+176), a _chef-d’œuvre_ in boldness of construction as well as in
+delicacy and richness of carving. The outer façade of this wing is a
+less ornate but more vigorous design, crowned by a continuous open
+loggia under the roof. More extensive than Blois was +Fontainebleau+,
+the favorite residence of the king and of many of his successors.
+Following in parts the irregular plan of the convent it replaced, its
+other portions were more symmetrically disposed, while the whole was
+treated externally in a somewhat severe, semi-classic style, singularly
+lacking in ornament. Internally, however, this palace, begun in 1528 by
+_Gilles Le Breton_, was at that time the most splendid in France, the
+gallery of Francis I. being especially noted. The +Château+ of +St.
+Germain+, near Paris (1539, by _Pierre Chambiges_), is of a very
+different character. Built largely of brick, with flat balustraded roof
+and deep buttresses carrying three ranges of arches, it is neither
+Gothic nor classic, neither fortress nor palace in aspect, but a wholly
+unique conception.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 176.--STAIRCASE TOWER, BLOIS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 177.--PLAN OF CHAMBORD.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 178.--VIEW OF CHAMBORD.]
+
+The rural châteaux and hunting-lodges erected by Francis I. display the
+greatest diversity of plan and treatment, attesting the inventiveness of
+the French genius, expressing itself in a new-found language, whose
+formal canons it disdained. Chief among them is the +Château of
+Chambord+ (Figs. 177, 178)--“a Fata Morgana in the midst of a wild,
+woody thicket,” to use Lübke’s language. This extraordinary edifice,
+resembling in plan a feudal castle with curtain-walls, bastions, moat,
+and donjon, is in its architectural treatment a palace with arcades,
+open-stair towers, a noble double spiral staircase terminating in a
+graceful lantern, and a roof of the most bewildering complexity of
+towers, chimneys, and dormers (1526, by _Pierre le Nepveu_). The
+hunting-lodges of La Muette and Chalvau, and the so-called +Château de
+Madrid+--all three demolished during or since the Revolution--deserve
+mention, especially the last. This consisted of two rectangular
+pavilions, connected by a lofty banquet-hall, and adorned externally
+with arcades in Florentine style, and with medallions and reliefs of
+della Robbia ware (1527, by _Gadyer_).
+
+
++THE LOUVRE.+ By far the most important of all the architectural
+enterprises of this reign, in ultimate results, if not in original
+extent, was the beginning of a new palace to replace the old Gothic
+fortified palace of the Louvre. To this task Pierre Lescot was summoned
+in 1542, and the work of erection actually begun in 1546. The new
+palace, in a sumptuous and remarkably dignified classic style, was to
+have covered precisely the area of the demolished fortress. Only the
+southwest half, comprising two sides of the court, was, however,
+undertaken at the outset (Fig. 179). It remained for later monarchs to
+amplify the original scheme, and ultimately to complete, late in the
+present century, the most extensive and beautiful of all the royal
+residences of Europe. (See Figs. 181, 208, 209.)
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 179.--DETAIL OF COURT OF LOUVRE, PARIS.]
+
+Want of space forbids more than a passing reference to the rural castles
+of the nobility, rivalling those of the king. Among them Bury, La
+Rochefoucauld, Bournazel, and especially +Azay-le-Rideau+ (1520) and
++Chenonceaux+ (1515-23), may be mentioned, all displaying that love of
+rural pleasure, that hatred of the city and its confinement, which so
+distinguish the French from the Italian Renaissance.
+
+
++OTHER BUILDINGS.+ The +Hôtel-de-Ville+ (town hall), of Paris, begun
+during this reign, from plans by _Domenico di Cortona_ (?), and
+completed under Henry IV., was the most important edifice of a class
+which in later periods numbered many interesting structures. The town
+hall of +Beaugency+ (1527) is one of the best of minor public buildings
+in France, and in its elegant treatment of a simple two-storied façade
+may be classed with the +Maison François I.+, at Paris. This stood
+formerly at Moret, whence it was transported to Paris and re-erected
+about 1830 in somewhat modified form. The large city houses of this
+period are legion; we can mention only the Hôtel Carnavalet at Paris;
+the Hôtel Bourgtheroude at Rouen; the Hôtel d’Écoville at Caen; the
+archbishop’s palace at Sens, and a number of houses in Orléans. The
++Tomb of Louis XII.+, at St. Denis, deserves especial mention for its
+fine proportions and beautiful arabesques.
+
+
++THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE.+ By the middle of the sixteenth century the
+new style had lost much of its earlier charm. The orders, used with
+increasing frequency, were more and more conformed to antique
+precedents. Façades were flatter and simpler, cornices more pronounced,
+arches more Roman in treatment, and a heavier style of carving took the
+place of the delicate arabesques of the preceding age. The reigns of
+Henry II. (1547-59) and Charles IX. (1560-74) were especially
+distinguished by the labors of three celebrated architects: _Pierre
+Lescot_ (1515-78), who continued the work on the southwest angle of the
+Louvre; _Jean Bullant_ (1515-78), to whom are due the right wing of
+Ecouen and the porch of colossal Corinthian columns in the left wing of
+the same, built under Francis I.; and, finally, _Philibert de l’Orme_
+(1515-70). _Jean Goujon_ (1510-72) also executed during this period most
+of the remarkable architectural sculptures which have made his name one
+of the most illustrious in the annals of French art. Chief among the
+works of de l’Orme was the palace of the +Tuileries+, built under
+Charles IX. for Cathérine de Médicis, not far from the Louvre, with
+which it was ultimately connected by a long gallery. Of the vast plan
+conceived for this palace, and comprising a succession of courts and
+wings, only a part of one side was erected (1564-72). This consisted of
+a domical pavilion, flanked by low wings only a story and a half high,
+to which were added two stories under Henry IV., to the great advantage
+of the design. Another masterpiece was the +Château d’Anet+, built in
+1552 by Henry II. for Diane de Poitiers, of which, unfortunately, only
+fragments survive. This beautiful edifice, while retaining the
+semi-military moat and bastions of feudal tradition, was planned with
+classic symmetry, adorned with superposed orders, court arcades, and
+rectangular corner-pavilions, and provided with a domical cruciform
+chapel, the earliest of its class in France. All the details were
+unusually pure and correct, with just enough of freedom and variety to
+lend a charm wanting in later works of the period. To the reign of Henry
+II. belong also the châteaux of Ancy-le-Franc, Verneuil, Chantilly (the
+“petit château,” by Bullant), the banquet-hall over the bridge at
+Chenonceaux (1556), several notable residences at Toulouse, and the tomb
+of Francis I. at St. Denis. The châteaux of +Pailly+ and +Sully+,
+distinguished by the sobriety and monumental quality of their
+composition, in which the orders are important elements, belong to the
+reign of Charles IX., together with the Tuileries, already mentioned.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 180.--THE LUXEMBURG, PARIS.]
+
++THE CLASSIC PERIOD: HENRY IV.+ Under this energetic but capricious
+monarch (1589-1610) and his Florentine queen, Marie de Médicis,
+architecture entered upon a new period of activity and a new stage of
+development. Without the charm of the early Renaissance or the
+stateliness of the age of Louis XIV., it has a touch of the Baroque,
+attributable partly to the influence of Marie de Médicis and her Italian
+prelates, and partly to the Italian training of many of the French
+architects. The great work of this period was the extension of the
+Tuileries by _J. B. du Cerceau_, and the completion, by _Métézeau_ and
+others, of the long gallery next the Seine, begun under Henry II., with
+the view of connecting the Tuileries with the Louvre. In this part of
+the work colossal orders were used with indifferent effect. Next in
+importance was the addition to Fontainebleau of a great court to the
+eastward, whose relatively quiet and dignified style offers less
+contrast than one might expect to the other wings and courts dating from
+Francis I. More successful architecturally than either of the above was
+the +Luxemburg+ palace, built for the queen by _Salomon De Brosse_, in
+1616 (Fig. 180). Its plan presents the favorite French arrangement of a
+main building separated from the street by a garden or court, the latter
+surrounded on three sides by low wings containing the dependencies.
+Externally, rusticated orders recall the garden front of the Pitti at
+Florence; but the scale is smaller, and the projecting pavilions and
+high roofs give it a grace and picturesqueness wanting in the Florentine
+model. The +Place Royale+, at Paris, and the château of Beaumesnil,
+illustrate a type of brick-and-stone architecture much in vogue at this
+time, stone quoins decorating the windows and corners, and the orders
+being generally omitted.
+
+Under Louis XIII. the Tuileries were extended northward and the Louvre
+as built by Lescot was doubled in size by the architect _Lemercier_, the
+Pavillon de l’Horloge being added to form the centre of the enlarged
+court façade.
+
+
++CHURCHES.+ To this reign belong also the most important churches of the
+period. The church of +St. Paul-St. Louis+, at Paris (1627, by
+_Derrand_), displays the worst faults of the time, in the overloaded and
+meaningless decoration of its uninteresting front. Its internal dome is
+the earliest in Paris. Far superior was the chapel of the +Sorbonne+,
+a well-designed domical church by _Lemercier_, with a sober and
+appropriate exterior treated with superposed orders.
+
+
++PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV.+ This was an age of remarkable literary and
+artistic activity, pompous and pedantic in many of its manifestations,
+but distinguished also by productions of a very high order. Although
+contemporary with the Italian Baroque--Bernini having been the guest of
+Louis XIV.--the architecture of this period was free from the wild
+extravagances of that style. In its often cold and correct dignity it
+resembled rather that of Palladio, making large use of the orders in
+exterior design, and tending rather to monotony than to overloaded
+decoration. In interior design there was more of lightness and caprice.
+Papier-maché and stucco were freely used in a fanciful style of relief
+ornamentation by scrolls, wreaths, shells, etc., and decorative
+panelling was much employed. The whole was saved from triviality only by
+the controlling lines of the architecture which framed it. But it was
+better suited to cabinet-work or to the prettinesses of the boudoir than
+to monumental interiors. The +Galerie d’Apollon+, built during this
+reign over the Petite Galerie in the Louvre, escapes this reproach,
+however, by the sumptuous dignity of its interior treatment.
+
+
++VERSAILLES.+ This immense edifice, built about an already existing
+villa of Louis XIII., was the work of _Levau_ and _J. H. Mansart_
+(1647-1708). Its erection, with the laying out of its marvellous park,
+almost exhausted the resources of the realm, but with results quite
+incommensurate with the outlay. In spite of its vastness, its exterior
+is commonplace; the orders are used with singular monotony, which is not
+redeemed by the deep breaks and projections of the main front. There is
+no controlling or dominant feature; there is no adequate entrance or
+approach; the grand staircases are badly placed and unworthily treated,
+and the different elements of the plan are combined with singular lack
+of the usual French sense of monumental and rational arrangement. The
+chapel is by far the best single feature in the design.
+
+Far more successful was the completion of the Louvre, in 1688, from the
+designs of _Claude Perrault_, the court physician, whose plans were
+fortunately adopted in preference to those of Bernini. For the east
+front he designed a magnificent Corinthian colonnade nearly 600 feet
+long, with coupled columns upon a plain high basement, and with a
+central pediment and terminal pavilions (Fig. 181). The whole forms one
+of the most imposing façades in existence; but it is a mere decoration,
+having no practical relation to the building behind it. Its height
+required the addition of a third story to match it on the north and
+south sides of the court, which as thus completed quadrupled the
+original area proposed by Lescot. Fortunately the style of Lescot’s work
+was retained throughout in the court façades, while externally the
+colonnade was recalled on the south front by a colossal order of
+pilasters. The Louvre as completed by Louis XIV. was a stately and noble
+palace, as remarkable for the surpassing excellence of the sculptures of
+Jean Goujon as for the dignity and beauty of its architecture. Taken in
+connection with the Tuileries, it was unrivalled by any palace in Europe
+except the Vatican.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 181.--COLONNADE OF LOUVRE.]
+
+
++OTHER BUILDINGS.+ To Louis XIV. is also due the vast but uninteresting
++Hôtel des Invalides+ or veteran’s asylum, at Paris, by J. H. Mansart.
+To the chapel of this institution was added, in 1680-1706, the
+celebrated +Dome+ of the Invalides, a masterpiece by the same architect.
+In plan it somewhat resembles Bramante’s scheme for St. Peter’s--a Greek
+cross with domical chapels in the four angles and a dome over the
+centre. The exterior (Fig. 182), with the lofty gilded dome on a high
+drum adorned with engaged columns, is somewhat high for its breadth, but
+is a harmonious and impressive design; and the interior, if somewhat
+cold, is elegant and well proportioned. The chief innovation in the
+design was the wide separation of the interior stone dome from the lofty
+exterior decorative cupola and lantern of wood, this separation being
+designed to meet the conflicting demands of internal and external
+effect. To the same architect is due the formal monotony of the +Place
+Vendôme+, all the houses surrounding it being treated with a uniform
+architecture of colossal pilasters, at once monumental and
+inappropriate. One of the most pleasing designs of the time is the
++Château de Maisons+ (1658), by _F. Mansart_, uncle of J. H. Mansart. In
+this the proportions of the central and terminal pavilions, the mass and
+lines of the steep roof _à la Mansarde_, the simple and effective use of
+the orders, and the refinement of all the details impart a grace of
+aspect rare in contemporary works. The same qualities appear also in the
++Val-de-Grâce+, by F. Mansart and Lemercier, a domical church of
+excellent proportions begun under Louis XIII. The want of space forbids
+mention of other buildings of this period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 182.--DOME OF THE INVALIDES.]
+
+
++THE DECLINE.+ Under Louis XV. the pedantry of the classic period gave
+place to a protracted struggle between license and the severest
+classical correctness. The exterior designs of this time were often even
+more uninteresting and bare than under Louis XIV.; while, on the other
+hand, interior decoration tended to the extreme of extravagance and
+disregard of constructive propriety. Contorted lines and crowded
+scrolls, shells, and palm-leaves adorned the mantelpieces, cornices, and
+ceilings, to the almost complete suppression of straight lines.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 183.--FAÇADE OF ST. SULPICE, PARIS.]
+
+While these tendencies prevailed in many directions, a counter-current
+of severe classicism manifested itself in the designs of a number of
+important public buildings, in which it was sought to copy the grandeur
+of the old Roman colonnades and arcades. The important church of +St.
+Sulpice+ at Paris (Fig. 183) is an excellent example of this. Its
+interior, dating from the preceding century, is well designed, but in no
+wise a remarkable composition, following Italian models. The façade,
+added in 1755 by _Servandoni_, is, on the other hand, one of the most
+striking architectural objects in the city. It is a correct and well
+proportioned classic composition in two stories--an Ionic arcade over a
+Doric colonnade, surmounted by two lateral turrets. Other monuments of
+this classic revival will be noticed in Chapter XXV.
+
+
++PUBLIC SQUARES.+ Much attention was given to the embellishment of open
+spaces in the cities, for which the classic style was admirably suited.
+The most important work of this kind was that on the north side of the
+Place de la Concorde, Paris. This splendid square, perhaps, on the
+whole, the finest in Europe (though many of its best features belong to
+a later date), was at this time adorned with the two monumental
+colonnades by _Gabriel_. These colonnades, which form the decorative
+fronts for blocks of houses, deserve praise for the beauty of their
+proportions, as well as for the excellent treatment of the arcade on
+which they rest, and of the pavilions at the ends.
+
+
++IN GENERAL.+ French Renaissance architecture is marked by good
+proportions and harmonious and appropriate detail. Its most interesting
+phase was unquestionably that of Francis I., so far, at least, as
+concerns exterior design. It steadily progressed, however, in its
+mastery of planning; and in its use of projecting pavilions crowned by
+dominant masses of roof, it succeeded in preserving, even in severely
+classic designs, a picturesqueness and variety otherwise impossible.
+Roofs, dormers, chimneys, and staircases it treated with especial
+success; and in these matters, as well as in monumental dispositions of
+plan, the French have largely retained their pre-eminence to our own
+day.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ (Mainly supplementary to text. Ch. = château; P. =
+  palace; C. = cathedral; Chu. = church; H. = hôtel; T.H. = town
+  hall.)
+
+  TRANSITION: Blois, E. wing, 1499; Ch. Meillant; Ch. Chaumont; T.H.
+  Amboise, 1502-05.
+
+  FRANCIS I.: Ch. Nantouillet, 1517-25; Ch. Blois, W. wing
+  (afterward demolished) and N. wing, 1520-30; H. Lallemant,
+  Bourges, 1520; Ch. Villers-Cotterets, 1520-59; P. of Archbishop,
+  Sens, 1521-35; P. Fontainebleau (Cour Ovale, Cour d’Adieux,
+  Gallery Francis I., 1527-34; Peristyle, Chapel St. Saturnin,
+  1540-47, by _Gilles le Breton_; Cour du Cheval Blanc, 1527-31, by
+  _P. Chambiges_); H. Bernuy, Toulouse, 1528-39; P. Granvelle,
+  Besançon, 1532-40; T.H. Niort, T.H. Loches, 1532-43: H. de Ligeris
+  (Carnavalet), Paris, 1544, by _P. Lescot_; churches of Gisors,
+  nave and façade, 1530; La Dalbade, Toulouse, portal, 1530; St.
+  Symphorien Tours, 1531; Chu. Tillières, 1534-46.
+
+  ADVANCED RENAISSANCE: Fontaine des Innocents, Paris, 1547-50, by
+  _P. Lescot_ and _J. Goujon_; tomb Francis I., at St. Denis, 1555,
+  by _Ph. de l’Orme_; H. Catelan, Toulouse, 1555; tomb Henry II., at
+  St. Denis, 1560; portal S. Michel, Dijon, 1564; Ch. Sully, 1567;
+  T.H. Arras, 1573; P. Fontainebleau (Cour du Cheval Blanc
+  remodelled, 1564-66, by _P. Girard_; Cour de la Fontaine, same
+  date); T.H. Besançon, 1582; Ch. Charleval, 1585, by, _J. B. du
+  Cerceau_.
+
+  STYLE OF HENRY IV.: P. Fontainebleau (Galerie des Cerfs, Chapel of
+  the Trinity, Baptistery, etc.); P. Tuileries (Pav. de Flore, by
+  _du Cerceau_, 1590-1610; long gallery continued); Hôtel Vogüé, at
+  Dijon, 1607; Place Dauphine, Paris, 1608; P. de Justice, Paris,
+  Great Hall, by _S. de Brosse_, 1618; H. Sully, Paris, 1624-39;
+  P. Royal, Paris, by _J. Lemercier_, for Cardinal Richelieu,
+  1627-39; P. Louvre doubled in size, by the same; P. Tuileries (N.
+  wing, and Pav. Marsan, long gallery completed); H. Lambert, Paris;
+  T.H. Reims, 1627; Ch. Blois, W. wing for Gaston d’Orléans, by _F.
+  Mansart_, 1635; façade St. Étienne du Mont, Paris, 1610; of St.
+  Gervais, Paris, 1616-21, by _S. de Brosse_.
+
+  STYLE OF LOUIS XIV.: T.H. Lyons, 1646; P. Louvre, E. colonnade and
+  court completed, 1660-70; Tuileries altered by Le Vau, 1664;
+  observatory at Paris, 1667-72; arch of St. Denis, Paris, 1672, by
+  _Blondel_; Arch of St. Martin, 1674, by _Bullet_; Banque de
+  France, H. de Luyne, H. Soubise, all in Paris; Ch. Chantilly; Ch.
+  de Tanlay; P. St. Cloud; Place des Victoires, 1685; Chu. St.
+  Sulpice, Paris, by _Le Vau_ (façade, 1755); Chu. St. Roch, Paris,
+  1653, by _Lemercier_ and _de Cotte_; Notre Dame des Victoires,
+  Paris, 1656, by _Le Muet_ and _Bruant_.
+
+  THE DECLINE: P. Bourbon, 1722; T.H. Rouen; Halle aux Blés
+  (recently demolished), 1748; École Militaire, 1752-58, by
+  _Gabriel_; P. Louvre, court completed, 1754, by the same;
+  Madeleine begun, 1764; H. des Monnaies (Mint), by _Antoine_; École
+  de Médecine, 1774, by _Gondouin_; P. Royal, Great Court, 1784, by
+  _Louis_; Théâtre Français, 1784 (all the above at Paris); Grand
+  Théâtre, Bordeaux, 1785-1800, by _Louis_; Préfecture at Bordeaux,
+  by the same; Ch. de Compiegne, 1770, by _Gabriel_; P. Versailles,
+  theatre by the same; H. Montmorency, Soubise, de Varennes, and the
+  Petit Luxembourg, all at Paris, by _de Cotte_; public squares at
+  Nancy, Bordeaux, Valenciennes, Rennes, Reims.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Palustre. Also, Belcher
+  and Macartney, _Later Renaissance Architecture in England_.
+  Billings, _Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland_.
+  Blomfield, _A Short History of Renaissance Architecture in
+  England_. Britton, _Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain_.
+  Ewerbeck, _Die Renaissance in Belgien und Holland_. Galland,
+  _Geschichte der Hollandischen Baukunst im Zeitalter der
+  Renaissance_. Gotch and Brown, _Architecture of the Renaissance in
+  England_. Loftie, _Inigo Jones and Wren_. Nash, _Mansions of
+  England_. Papworth, _Renaissance and Italian Styles of
+  Architecture in Great Britain_. Richardson, _Architectural Remains
+  of the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I._ Schayes, _Histoire de
+  l’architecture en Belgique_.
+
+
++THE TRANSITION.+ The architectural activity of the sixteenth century in
+England was chiefly devoted to the erection of vast country mansions for
+the nobility and wealthy _bourgeoisie_. In these seignorial residences a
+degenerate form of the Gothic, known as the Tudor style, was employed
+during the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII., and they still retained
+much of the feudal aspect of the Middle Ages. This style, with its
+broad, square windows and ample halls, was well suited to domestic
+architecture, as well as to collegiate buildings, of which a
+considerable number were erected at this time. Among the more important
+palaces and manor-houses of this period are the earlier parts of Hampton
+Court, Haddon and Hengreave Halls, and the now ruined castles of Raglan
+and Wolterton.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 184.--BURGHLEY HOUSE.]
+
++ELIZABETHAN STYLE.+ Under Elizabeth (1558-1603) the progress of classic
+culture and the employment of Dutch and Italian artists led to a gradual
+introduction of Renaissance forms, which, as in France, were at first
+mingled with others of Gothic origin. Among the foreign artists in
+England were the versatile Holbein, Trevigi and Torregiano from Italy,
+and Theodore Have, Bernard Jansen, and Gerard Chrismas from Holland. The
+pointed arch disappeared, and the orders began to be used as subordinate
+features in the decoration of doors, windows, chimneys, and mantels.
+Open-work balustrades replaced externally the heavy Tudor battlements,
+and a peculiar style of carving in flat relief-patterns, resembling
+_appliqué_ designs cut out with the jigsaw and attached by nails or
+rivets, was applied with little judgment to all possible features.
+Ceilings were commonly finished in plaster, with elaborate interlacing
+patterns in low relief; and this, with the increasing use of interior
+woodwork, gave to the mansions of this time a more homelike but less
+monumental aspect internally. English architects, like Smithson and
+Thorpe, now began to win the patronage at first monopolized by
+foreigners. In +Wollaton Hall+ (1580), by Smithson, the orders were used
+for the main composition with mullioned windows, much after the fashion
+of +Longleat House+, completed a year earlier by his master, John of
+Padua. During the following period, however (1590-1610), there was a
+reaction toward the Tudor practice, and the orders were again relegated
+to subordinate uses. Of their more monumental employment, the +Gate of
+Honor+ of Caius College, Cambridge, is one of the earliest examples.
+Hardwicke and Charlton Halls, and Burghley, Hatfield, and Holland Houses
+(Fig. 184), are noteworthy monuments of the style.
+
+
++JACOBEAN STYLE.+ During the reign of James I. (1603-25), details of
+classic origin came into more general use, but caricatured almost beyond
+recognition. The orders, though much employed, were treated without
+correctness or grace, and the ornament was unmeaning and heavy. It is
+not worth while to dwell further upon this style, which produced no
+important public buildings, and soon gave way to a more rigid
+classicism.
+
+
++CLASSIC PERIOD.+ If the classic style was late in its appearance in
+England, its final sway was complete and long-lasting. It was _Inigo
+Jones_ (1572-1652) who first introduced the correct and monumental style
+of the Italian masters of classic design. For Palladio, indeed, he seems
+to have entertained a sort of veneration, and the villa which he
+designed at Chiswick was a reduced copy of Palladio’s Villa Capra, near
+Vicenza. This and other works of his show a failure to appreciate the
+unsuitability of Italian conceptions to the climate and tastes of Great
+Britain; his efforts to popularize Palladian architecture, without the
+resources which Palladio controlled in the way of decorative sculpture
+and painting, were consequently not always happy in their results. His
+greatest work was the design for a new +Palace at Whitehall+, London. Of
+this colossal scheme, which, if completed, would have ranked as the
+grandest palace of the time, only the +Banqueting Hall+ (now used as a
+museum) was ever built (Fig. 185). It is an effective composition in two
+stories, rusticated throughout and adorned with columns and pilasters,
+and contains a fine vaulted hall in three aisles. The plan of the
+palace, which was to have measured 1,152 × 720 feet, was excellent,
+largely conceived and carefully studied in its details, but it was
+wholly beyond the resources of the kingdom. The garden-front of
++Somerset House+ (1632; demolished) had the same qualities of simplicity
+and dignity, recalling the works of Sammichele. Wilton House, Coleshill,
+the Villa at Chiswick, and St. Paul’s, Covent Garden, are the best known
+of his works, showing him to have been a designer of ability, but hardly
+of the consummate genius which his admirers attribute to him.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 185.--BANQUETING HALL, WHITEHALL.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 186.--PLAN OF ST. PAUL’S, LONDON.]
+
++ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL.+ The greatest of Jones’s successors was _Sir
+Christopher Wren_ (1632-1723), principally known as the architect of
++St. Paul’s Cathedral+, London, built to replace the earlier Gothic
+cathedral destroyed in the great fire of 1666. It was begun in 1675, and
+its designer had the rare good fortune to witness its completion in
+1710. The plan, as finally adopted, retained the general proportions of
+an English Gothic church, measuring 480 feet in length, with transepts
+250 feet long, and a grand rotunda 108 feet in diameter at the crossing
+(Fig. 186). The style was strictly Italian, treated with sobriety and
+dignity, if somewhat lacking in variety and inspiration. Externally two
+stories of the Corinthian order appear, the upper story being merely a
+screen to hide the clearstory and its buttresses. This is an
+architectural deception, not atoned for by any special beauty of detail.
+The dominant feature of the design is the dome over the central area. It
+consists of an inner shell, reaching a height of 216 feet, above which
+rises the exterior dome of wood, surmounted by a stone lantern, the
+summit of which is 360 feet from the pavement (Fig. 187). This exterior
+dome, springing from a high drum surrounded by a magnificent peristyle,
+gives to the otherwise commonplace exterior of the cathedral a signal
+majesty of effect. Next to the dome the most successful part of the
+design is the west front, with its two-storied porch and flanking
+bell-turrets. Internally the excessive relative length, especially that
+of the choir, detracts from the effect of the dome, and the poverty of
+detail gives the whole a somewhat bare aspect. It is intended to relieve
+this ultimately by a systematic use of mosaic decoration, especially in
+the dome. The central area itself, in spite of the awkward treatment of
+the four smaller arches of the eight which support the dome, is a noble
+design, occupying the whole width of the three aisles, like the Octagon
+at Ely, and producing a striking effect of amplitude and grandeur. The
+dome above it is constructively interesting from the employment of a
+cone of brick masonry to support the stone lantern which rises above the
+exterior wooden shell. The lower part of the cone forms the drum of the
+inner dome, its contraction upward being intended to produce a
+perspective illusion of increased height.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 187.--EXTERIOR OF ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL.]
+
+St. Paul’s ranks among the five or six greatest domical buildings of
+Europe, and is the most imposing modern edifice in England.
+
+
++WREN’S OTHER WORKS.+ Wren was conspicuously successful in the designing
+of parish churches in London. +St. Stephen’s+, Walbrook, is the most
+admired of these, with a dome resting on eight columns. Wren may be
+called the inventor of the English Renaissance type of steeple, in which
+a conical or pyramidal spire is harmoniously added to a belfry on a
+square tower with classic details. The steeple of +Bow Church+,
+Cheapside, is the most successful example of the type. In secular
+architecture Wren’s most important works were the plan for rebuilding
+London after the Great Fire; the new courtyard of Hampton Court, a quiet
+and dignified composition in brick and stone; the pavilions and
+colonnade of +Greenwich Hospital+; the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford, and
+the Trinity College Library at Cambridge. Without profound originality,
+these works testify to the sound good taste and intelligence of their
+designer.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 188.--PLAN OF BLENHEIM.]
+
++THE 18TH CENTURY.+ The Anglo-Italian style as used by Jones and Wren
+continued in use through the eighteenth century, during the first half
+of which a number of important country-seats and some churches were
+erected. _Van Brugh_ (1666-1726), _Hawksmoor_ (1666-1736), and _Gibbs_
+(1683-1751) were then the leading architects. Van Brugh was especially
+skilful in his dispositions of plan and mass, and produced in the
+designs of Blenheim and Castle Howard effects of grandeur and variety of
+perspective hardly equalled by any of his contemporaries in France or
+Italy. +Blenheim+, with its monumental plan and the sweeping curves of
+its front (Fig. 188), has an unusually palatial aspect, though the
+striving for picturesqueness is carried too far. Castle Howard is
+simpler, depending largely for effect on a somewhat inappropriate dome.
+To Hawksmoor, his pupil, are due +St. Mary’s, Woolnoth+ (1715), at
+London, in which by a bold rustication of the whole exterior and by
+windows set in large recessed arches he was enabled to dispense wholly
+with the orders; St. George’s, Bloomsbury; the new quadrangle of All
+Souls at Oxford, and some minor works. The two most noted designs of
+James Gibbs are +St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields+, at London (1726), and the
++Radcliffe Library+, at Oxford (1747). In the former the use of a
+Corinthian portico--a practically uncalled-for but decorative
+appendage--and of a steeple mounted on the roof, with no visible lines
+of support from the ground, are open to criticism. But the excellence of
+the proportions, and the dignity and appropriateness of the composition,
+both internally and externally, go far to redeem these defects (Fig.
+189). The Radcliffe Library is a circular domical hall surrounded by a
+lower circuit of alcoves and rooms, the whole treated with
+straightforward simplicity and excellent proportions. Colin Campbell,
+Flitcroft, Kent and Wood, contemporaries of Gibbs, may be dismissed with
+passing mention.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 189.--ST. MARTIN’S-IN-THE-FIELDS, LONDON.]
+
+_Sir William Chambers_ (1726-96) was the greatest of the later
+18th-century architects. His fame rests chiefly on his _Treatise on
+Civil Architecture_, and the extension and remodelling of +Somerset
+House+, in which he retained the general _ordonnance_ of Inigo Jones’s
+design, adapting it to a frontage of some 600 feet. _Robert Adams_, the
+designer of Keddlestone Hall, _Robert Taylor_ (1714-88), the architect
+of the Bank of England, and _George Dance_, who designed the Mansion
+House and Newgate Prison, at London--the latter a vigorous and
+appropriate composition without the orders--close the list of noted
+architects of the eighteenth century. It was a period singularly wanting
+in artistic creativeness and spontaneity; its productions were nearly
+all dull and respectable, or at best dignified, but without charm.
+
+
++BELGIUM.+ As in all other countries where the late Gothic style had
+been highly developed, Belgium was slow to accept the principles of the
+Renaissance in art. Long after the dawn of the sixteenth century the
+Flemish architects continued to employ their highly florid Gothic alike
+for churches and town-halls, with which they chiefly had to do. The
+earliest Renaissance buildings date from 1530-40, among them being the
+Hôtel du Saumon, at Malines, at Bruges the Ancien Greffe, by _Jean
+Wallot_, and at Liège the +Archbishop’s Palace+, by _Borset_. The last
+named, in the singular and capricious form of the arches and
+baluster-like columns of its court, reveals the taste of the age for
+what was _outré_ and odd; a taste partly due, no doubt, to Spanish
+influences, as Belgium was in reality from 1506 to 1712 a Spanish
+province, and there was more or less interchange of artists between the
+two countries. The +Hôtel de Ville+, at Antwerp, by _Cornelius de
+Vriendt_ or _Floris_ (1518-75), erected in 1565, is the most important
+monument of the Renaissance in Belgium. Its façade, 305 feet long and
+102 feet high, in four stories, is an impressive creation in spite of
+its somewhat monotonous fenestration and the inartistic repetition in
+the third story of the composition and proportions of the second. The
+basement story forms an open arcade, and an open colonnade or loggia
+runs along under the roof, thus imparting to the composition a
+considerable play of light and shade, enhanced by the picturesque
+central pavilion which rises to a height of six stories in diminishing
+stages. The style is almost Palladian in its severity, but in general
+the Flemish architects disdained the restrictions of classic canons,
+preferring a more florid and fanciful effect than could be obtained by
+mere combinations of Roman columns, arches, and entablatures. De
+Vriendt’s other works were mostly designs for altars, tabernacles and
+the like; among them the rood screen in Tournay Cathedral. His influence
+may be traced in the Hôtel de Ville at Flushing (1594).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 190.--RENAISSANCE HOUSES, BRUSSELS.]
+
+The ecclesiastical architecture of the Flemish Renaissance is almost as
+destitute of important monuments as is the secular. +Ste. Anne+, at
+Bruges, fairly illustrates the type, which is characterized in general
+by heaviness of detail and a cold and bare aspect internally. The
+Renaissance in Belgium is best exemplified, after all, by minor works
+and ordinary dwellings, many of which have considerable artistic grace,
+though they are quaint rather than monumental (Fig. 190). Stepped
+gables, high dormers, and volutes flanking each diminishing stage of the
+design, give a certain piquancy to the street architecture of the
+period.
+
+
++HOLLAND.+ Except in the domain of realistic painting, the Dutch have
+never manifested pre-eminent artistic endowments, and the Renaissance
+produced in Holland few monuments of consequence. It began there, as in
+many other places, with minor works in the churches, due largely to
+Flemish or Italian artists. About the middle of the 16th century two
+native architects, _Sebastian van Noye_ and _William van Noort_, first
+popularized the use of carved pilasters and of gables or steep pediments
+adorned with carved scallop-shells, in remote imitation of the style of
+Francis I. The principal monuments of the age were town-halls, and,
+after the war of independence in which the yoke of Spain was finally
+broken (1566-79), local administrative buildings--mints, exchanges and
+the like. The +Town Hall+ of +The Hague+ (1565), with its stepped gable
+or great dormer, its consoles, statues, and octagonal turrets, may be
+said to have inaugurated the style generally followed after the war.
+Owing to the lack of stone, brick was almost universally employed, and
+stone imported by sea was only used in edifices of exceptional cost and
+importance. Of these the +Town Hall+ at Amsterdam holds the first place.
+Its façade is of about the same dimensions as the one at Antwerp, but
+compares unfavorably with it in its monotony and want of interest. The
++Leyden Town Hall+, by the Fleming, _Lieven de Key_ (1597), the Bourse
+or Exchange and the Hanse House at Amsterdam, by _Hendrik de Keyser_,
+are also worthy of mention, though many lesser buildings, built of brick
+combined with enamelled terra-cotta and stone, possess quite as much
+artistic merit.
+
+
++DENMARK.+ In Denmark the monuments of the Renaissance may almost be
+said to be confined to the reign of Christian IV. (1588-1648), and do
+not include a single church of any importance. The royal castles of the
++Rosenborg+ at Copenhagen (1610) and the +Fredericksborg+ (1580-1624),
+the latter by a Dutch architect, are interesting and picturesque in
+mass, with their fanciful gables, mullioned windows and numerous
+turrets, but can hardly lay claim to beauty of detail or purity of
+style. The Exchange at Copenhagen, built of brick and stone in the same
+general style (1619-40), is still less interesting both in mass and
+detail.
+
+The only other important Scandinavian monument deserving of special
+mention in so brief a sketch as this is the +Royal Palace+ at
++Stockholm+, Sweden (1698-1753), due to a foreign architect, _Nicodemus
+de Tessin_. It is of imposing dimensions, and although simple in
+external treatment, it merits praise for the excellent disposition of
+its plan, its noble court, imposing entrances, and the general dignity
+and appropriateness of its architecture.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+ (in addition to those mentioned in text). ENGLAND,
+  TUDOR STYLE: Several palaces by Henry VIII., no longer extant;
+  Westwood, later rebuilt; Gosfield Hall; Harlaxton.--ELIZABETHAN:
+  Buckhurst, 1565; Kirby House, 1570, both by Thorpe; Caius College,
+  1570-75, by Theodore Have; “The Schools,” Oxford, by Thomas Holt,
+  1600; Beaupré Castle, 1600.--JACOBEAN: Tombs of Mary of Scotland
+  and of Elizabeth in Westminster Abbey; Audsley Inn; Bolsover
+  Castle, 1613; Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh, 1628.--CLASSIC or
+  ANGLO-ITALIAN: St. John’s College, Oxford; Queen’s House,
+  Greenwich; Coleshill; all by Inigo Jones, 1620-51; Amesbury, by
+  Webb; Combe Abbey; Buckingham and Montague Houses; The Monument,
+  London, 1670, by Wren; Temple Bar, by the same; Winchester Palace,
+  1683; Chelsea College; Towers of Westminster Abbey, 1696; St.
+  Clement Dane’s; St. James’s, Westminster; St. Peter’s, Cornhill,
+  and many others, all by Wren.--18TH CENTURY: Seaton Delaval and
+  Grimsthorpe, by Van Brugh; Wanstead House, by Colin Campbell;
+  Treasury Buildings, by Kent.
+
+  The most important Renaissance buildings of BELGIUM and HOLLAND
+  have been mentioned in the text.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Palustre Also, von
+  Bezold, _Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Deutschland, Holland,
+  Belgien und Dänemark_ (in _Hdbuch. d. Arch._). Caveda (tr.
+  Kugler), _Geschichte der Baukunst in Spanien_. Fritsch, _Denkmäler
+  der deutschen Renaissance_ (plates). Junghändel, _Die Baukunst
+  Spaniens_. Lambert und Stahl, _Motive der deutschen Architektur_.
+  Lübke, _Geschichte der Renaissance in Deutschland_. Prentice,
+  _Renaissance Architecture and Ornament in Spain_. Uhde,
+  _Baudenkmäler in Spanien_. Verdier et Cattois, _Architecture
+  civile et domestique_. Villa Amil, _Hispania Artistica y
+  Monumental_.
+
+
++AUSTRIA+; +BOHEMIA+. The earliest appearance of the Renaissance in the
+architecture of the German states was in the eastern provinces. Before
+the close of the fifteenth century Florentine and Milanese architects
+were employed in Austria, Bohemia, and the Tyrol, where there are a
+number of palaces and chapels in an unmixed Italian style. The portal of
+the castle of Mahrisch-Trübau dates from 1492; while to the early years
+of the 16th century belong a cruciform chapel at Gran, the remodelling
+of the castle at Cracow, and the chapel of the Jagellons in the same
+city--the earliest domical structure of the German Renaissance, though
+of Italian design. The +Schloss Porzia+ (1510), at Spital in Carinthia,
+is a fine quadrangular palace, surrounding a court with arcades on three
+sides, in which the open stairs form a picturesque interruption with
+their rampant arches. But for the massiveness of the details it might be
+a Florentine palace. In addition to this, the famous +Arsenal+ at
+Wiener-Neustadt (1524), the portal of the Imperial Palace (1552), and
+the +Castle Schalaburg+ on the Danube (1530-1601), are attributed to
+Italian architects, to whom must also be ascribed a number of important
+works at Prague. Chief among these the +Belvedere+ (1536, by _Paolo
+della Stella_), a rectangular building surrounded by a graceful open
+arcade, above which it rises with a second story crowned by a curved
+roof; the Waldstein Palace (1621-29), by _Giov. Marini_, with its
+imposing loggia; +Schloss Stern+, built on the plan of a six-pointed
+star (1459-1565) and embellished by Italian artists with stucco
+ornaments and frescoes; and parts of the palace on the Hradschin, by
+_Scamozzi_, attest the supremacy of Italian art in Bohemia. The same is
+true of Styria, Carinthia, and the Tyrol; _e.g._ +Schloss Ambras+ at
+Innsbrück (1570).
+
+
++GERMANY: PERIODS.+ The earliest manifestation of the Renaissance in
+what is now the German Empire, appeared in the works of painters like
+Dürer and Burkmair, and in occasional buildings previous to 1525. The
+real transformation of German architecture, however, hardly began until
+after the Peace of Augsburg, in 1555. From that time on its progress was
+rapid, its achievements being almost wholly in the domain of secular
+architecture--princely and ducal castles, town halls or _Rathhäuser_,
+and houses of wealthy burghers or corporations. It is somewhat singular
+that the German emperors should not have undertaken the construction of
+a new imperial residence on a worthy scale, the palaces of Munich and
+Berlin being aggregations of buildings of various dates about a nucleus
+of mediæval origin, and with no single portion to compare with the
+stately châteaux of the French kings. Church architecture was neglected,
+owing to the Reformation, which turned to its own uses the existing
+churches, while the Roman Catholics were too impoverished to replace the
+edifices they had lost.
+
+The periods of the German Renaissance are less well marked than those of
+the French; but its successive developments follow the same general
+progression, divided into three stages:
+
+I. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1525-1600, in which the orders were
+infrequently used, mainly for porches and for gable decoration. The
+conceptions and spirit of most monuments were still strongly tinged with
+Gothic feeling.
+
+II. THE LATE RENAISSANCE, 1600-1675, characterized by a dry, heavy
+treatment, in which too often neither the fanciful gayety of the
+previous period nor the simple and monumental dignity of classic design
+appears. Broken curves, large scrolls, obelisks, and a style of flat
+relief carving resembling the Elizabethan are common. Occasional
+monuments exhibit a more correct and classic treatment after Italian
+models.
+
+III. THE DECLINE OR BAROQUE PERIOD, 1675-1800, employing the orders in a
+style of composition oscillating between the extremes of bareness and of
+Rococo over-decoration. The ornament partakes of the character of the
+Louis XV. and Italian Jesuit styles, being most successful in interior
+decoration, but externally running to the extreme of unrestrained fancy.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 191.--SCHLOSS HÄMELSCHENBURG.]
+
++CHARACTERISTICS.+ In none of these periods do we meet with the sober,
+monumental treatment of the Florentine or Roman schools. A love of
+picturesque variety in masses and sky-lines, inherited from mediæval
+times, appears in the high roofs, stepped gables and lofty dormers which
+are universal. The roofs often comprise several stories, and are lighted
+by lofty gables at either end, and by dormers carried up from the side
+walls through two or three stories. Gables and dormers alike are built
+in diminishing stages, each step adorned with a console or scroll, and
+the whole treated with pilasters or colonnettes and entablatures
+breaking over each support (Fig. 191). These roofs, dormers, and gables
+contribute the most noticeable element to the general effect of most
+German Renaissance buildings, and are commonly the best-designed
+features in them. The orders are scantily used and usually treated with
+utter disregard of classic canons, being generally far too massive and
+overloaded with ornament. Oriels, bay-windows, and turrets, starting
+from corbels or colonnettes, or rarely from the ground, diversify the
+façade, and spires of curious bulbous patterns give added piquancy to
+the picturesque sky-line. The plans seldom had the monumental symmetry
+and largeness of Italian and French models; courtyards were often
+irregular in shape and diversified with balconies and spiral
+staircase-turrets. The national leaning was always toward the quaint and
+fantastic, as well in the decoration as in the composition. Grotesques,
+caryatids, _gaînes_ (half-figures terminating below in sheath-like
+supports), fanciful rustication, and many other details give a touch of
+the Baroque even to works of early date. The same principles were
+applied with better success to interior decoration, especially in the
+large halls of the castles and town-halls, and many of their ceilings
+were sumptuous and well-considered designs, deeply panelled, painted and
+gilded in wood or plaster.
+
+
++CASTLES.+ The _Schloss_ or _Burg_ of the German prince or duke retained
+throughout the Renaissance many mediæval characteristics in plan and
+aspect. A large proportion of these noble residences were built upon
+foundations of demolished feudal castles, reproducing in a new dress the
+ancient round towers and vaulted guard-rooms and halls, as in the
+Hartenfels at Torgau, the Heldburg (both in Saxony), and the castle of
+Trausnitz, in Bavaria, among many others. The +Castle+ at +Torgau+
+(1540) is one of the most imposing of its class, with massive round and
+square towers showing externally, and court façades full of picturesque
+irregularities. In the great +Castle+ at +Dresden+ the plan is more
+symmetrical, and the Renaissance appears more distinctly in the details
+of the Georgenflügel (1530-50), though at that early date the classic
+orders were almost ignored. The portal of the Heldburg, however, built
+in 1562, is a composition quite in the contemporary French vein, with
+superposed orders and a crowning pediment over a massive basement.
+
+Another important series of castles or palaces are of more regular
+design, in which the feudal traditions tend to disappear. The majority
+belong to the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. They
+are built around large rectangular courts with arcades in two or three
+stories on one or more sides, but rarely surrounding it entirely. In
+these the segmental arch is more common than the semicircular, and
+springs usually from short and stumpy Ionic or Corinthian columns. The
+rooms and halls are arranged _en suite_, without corridors, and a large
+and lofty banquet hall forms the dominant feature of the series. The
+earliest of these regularly planned palaces are of Italian design. Chief
+among them is the +Residenz+ at +Landshut+ (1536-43), with a thoroughly
+Roman plan, by pupils of Giulio Romano, and exterior and court façades
+of great dignity treated with the orders. More German in its details,
+but equally interesting, is the +Fürstenhof+ at +Wismar+, in brick and
+terra-cotta, by _Valentino di Lira_ and _Van Aken_ (1553); while in the
++Piastenschloss+ at Brieg (1547-72), by Italian architects, the
+treatment in parts suggests the richest works of the style of Francis I.
+In other castles the segmental arch and stumpy columns or piers show the
+German taste, as in the +Plassenburg+, by _Kaspar Vischer_ (1554-64),
+the castle at Plagnitz, and the +Old Castle+ at +Stuttgart+, all dating
+from about 1550-55. +Heidelberg Castle+, in spite of its mediæval aspect
+from the river and its irregular plan, ranks as the highest achievement
+of the German Renaissance in palace design. The most interesting parts
+among its various wings built at different dates--the earlier portions
+still Gothic in design--are the +Otto Heinrichsbau+ (1554) and the
++Friedrichsbau+ (1601). The first of these appears somewhat simpler in
+its lines than the second, by reason of having lost its original
+dormer-gables. The orders, freely treated, are superposed in three
+stories, and twin windows, niches, statues, _gaînes_, medallions and
+profuse carving produce an effect of great gayety and richness. The
+Friedrichsbau (Fig. 192), less quiet in its lines, and with high
+scroll-gabled and stepped dormers, is on the other hand more soberly
+decorated and more characteristically German. The Schloss Hämelschenburg
+(Fig. 191) is designed in somewhat the same spirit, but with even
+greater simplicity of detail.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 192.--THE FRIEDRICHSBAU, HEIDELBERG.]
+
++TOWN HALLS.+ These constitute the most interesting class of Renaissance
+buildings in Germany, presenting a considerable variety of types, but
+nearly all built in solid blocks without courts, and adorned with towers
+or spires. A high roof crowns the building, broken by one or more high
+gables or many-storied dormers. The majority of these town halls present
+façades much diversified by projecting wings, as at Lemgo and Paderborn,
+or by oriels and turrets, as at +Altenburg+ (1562-64); and the towers
+which dominate the whole terminate usually in bell-shaped cupolas, or in
+more capricious forms with successive swellings and contractions, as at
+Dantzic (1587). A few, however, are designed with monumental simplicity
+of mass; of these that at +Bremen+ (1612) is perhaps the finest, with
+its beautiful exterior arcade on strong Doric columns. The town hall of
+Nuremberg is one of the few with a court, and presents a façade of
+almost Roman simplicity (1613-19); that at +Augsburg+ (1615) is equally
+classic and more pleasing; while at Schweinfurt, Rothenburg (1572),
+Mülhausen, etc., are others worthy of mention.
+
+
++CHURCHES.+ +St. Michael’s+, at Munich, is almost the only important
+church of the first period in Germany (1582), but it is worthy to rank
+with many of the most notable contemporary Italian churches. A wide nave
+covered by a majestic barrel vault, is flanked by side chapels,
+separated from each other by massive piers and forming a series of
+gallery bays above. There are short transepts and a choir, all in
+excellent proportion and treated with details which, if somewhat heavy,
+are appropriate and reasonably correct. The +Marienkirche+ at
+Wolfenbüttel (1608) is a fair sample of the parish churches of the
+second period. In the exterior of this church pointed arches and
+semi-Gothic tracery are curiously associated with heavy rococo carving.
+The simple rectangular mass, square tower, and portal with massive
+orders and carving are characteristic features. Many of the
+church-towers are well proportioned and graceful structures in spite of
+the fantastic outlines of their spires. One of the best and purest in
+style is that of the University Church at Würzburg (1587-1600).
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 193.--ZWINGER PALACE, DRESDEN.]
+
++HOUSES.+ Many of the German houses of the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries would merit extended notice in a larger work, as among the
+most interesting lesser monuments of the Renaissance. Nuremberg and
+Hildesheim are particularly rich in such houses, built either for
+private citizens or for guilds and corporations. Not a few of the
+half-timbered houses of the time are genuine works of art, though
+interest chiefly centres in the more monumental dwellings of stone. In
+this domestic architecture the picturesque quality of German design
+appears to better advantage than in more monumental edifices, and their
+broadly stepped gables, corbelled oriels, florid portals and want of
+formal symmetry imparting a peculiar and undeniable charm. The
+Kaiserhaus and Wedekindsches Haus at Hildesheim; +Fürstenhaus+ at
+Leipzig; Peller, Hirschvogel, and Funk houses at Nuremberg; the Salt
+House at Frankfurt, and Ritter House at Heidelberg, are a few of the
+most noted among these examples of domestic architecture.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 194.--CHURCH OF ST. MARY (MARIENKIRCHE),
+  DRESDEN.]
+
++LATER MONUMENTS.+ The +Zwinger Palace+ at Dresden (Fig. 193), is the
+most elaborate and wayward example of the German palace architecture of
+the third period. Its details are of the most exaggerated rococo type,
+like confectioner’s work done in stone; and yet the building has an air
+of princely splendor which partly atones for its details. Besides this
+palace, Dresden possesses in the domical +Marienkirche+ (Fig. 194)
+a very meritorious example of late design. The proportions are good, and
+the detail, if not interesting, is at least inoffensive, while the whole
+is a dignified and rational piece of work. At Vienna are a number of
+palaces of the third period, more interesting for their beautiful
+grounds and parks than for intrinsic architectural merit. As in Italy,
+this was the period of stucco, and although in Vienna this cheap and
+perishable material was cleverly handled, and the ornament produced was
+often quaint and effective, the results lack the permanence and dignity
+of true building in stone or brick, and may be dismissed without further
+mention.
+
+In minor works the Germans were far less prolific than the Italians or
+Spaniards. Few of their tombs were of the first importance, though one,
+the +Sebald Shrine+, in Nuremberg, by _Peter Vischer_ (1506-19), is a
+splendid work in bronze, in the transitional style; a richly decorated
+canopy on slender metal colonnettes covering and enclosing the
+sarcophagus of the saint. There are a large number of fountains in the
+squares of German and Swiss cities which display a high order of design,
+and are among the most characteristic minor products of German art.
+
+
++SPAIN.+ The flamboyant Gothic style sufficed for a while to meet the
+requirements of the arrogant and luxurious period which in Spain
+followed the overthrow of the Moors and the discovery of America. But it
+was inevitable that the Renaissance should in time make its influence
+felt in the arts of the Iberian peninsula, largely through the
+employment of Flemish artists. In jewelry and silverwork, arts which
+received a great impulse from the importation of the precious metals
+from the New World, the forms of the Renaissance found special
+acceptance, so that the new style received the name of the _Plateresque_
+(from _platero_, silversmith). This was a not inept name for the
+minutely detailed and sumptuous decoration of the early Renaissance,
+which lasted from 1500 to the accession of Philip II. in 1556. It was
+characterized by surface-decoration spreading over broad areas,
+especially around doors and windows, florid escutcheons and Gothic
+details mingling with delicately chiselled arabesques. Decorative
+pilasters with broken entablatures and carved baluster-shafts were
+employed with little reference to constructive lines, but with great
+refinement of detail, in spite of the exuberant profusion of the
+ornament.
+
+To this style, after the artistic inaction of Philip II.’s reign,
+succeeded the coldly classic style practised by _Berruguete_ and
+_Herrera_, and called the _Griego-Romano_. In spite of the attempt to
+produce works of classical purity, the buildings of this period are for
+the most part singularly devoid of originality and interest. This style
+lasted until the middle of the seventeenth century, and in the case of
+certain works and artists, until its close. It was followed, at least in
+ecclesiastical architecture, by the so-called _Churrigueresque_, a name
+derived from an otherwise insignificant architect, _Churriguera_, who
+like Maderna and Borromini in Italy, discarded all the proprieties of
+architecture, and rejoiced in the wildest extravagances of an untrained
+fancy and debased taste.
+
+
++EARLY MONUMENTS.+ The earliest ecclesiastical works of the Renaissance
+period, like the cathedrals of Salamanca, Toledo, and Segovia, were
+almost purely Gothic in style. Not until 1525 did the new forms begin to
+dominate in cathedral design. The cathedral at +Jaen+, by _Valdelvira_
+(1525), an imposing structure with three aisles and side chapels, was
+treated internally with the Corinthian order throughout. The Cathedral
+of +Granada+ (1529, by _Diego de Siloe_) is especially interesting for
+its great domical sanctuary 70 feet in diameter, and for the largeness
+and dignity of its conception and details. The cathedral of Malaga, the
+church of San Domingo at Salamanca, and the monastery of San Girolamo in
+the same city are either wholly or in part Plateresque, and provided
+with portals of especial richness of decoration. Indeed, the portal of
+S. Domingo practically forms the whole façade.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 195.--DOOR OF THE UNIVERSITY, SALAMANCA.]
+
+In secular architecture the +Hospital+ of +Santa Cruz+ at Toledo, by
+_Enrique de Egaz_ (1504-16), is one of the earliest examples of the
+style. Here, as also in the +University+ at +Salamanca+ (Fig. 195), the
+portal is the most notable feature, suggesting both Italian and French
+models in its details. The great +College+ at +Alcala de Heñares+ is
+another important early monument of the Renaissance (1500-17, by _Pedro
+Gumiel_). In most designs the preference was for long façades of
+moderate height, with a basement showing few openings, and a _bel étage_
+lighted by large windows widely spaced. Ornament was chiefly
+concentrated about the doors and windows, except for the roof
+balustrades, which were often exceedingly elaborate. Occasionally a
+decorative motive is spread over the whole façade, as in the +Casa de
+las Conchas+ at Salamanca, adorned with cockle-shells carved at
+intervals all over the front--a bold and effective device; or the
+Infantada palace with its spangling of carved diamonds. The courtyard or
+_patio_ was an indispensable feature of these buildings, as in all hot
+countries, and was surrounded by arcades frequently of the most fanciful
+design overloaded with minute ornament, as in the +Infantado+ at
+Guadalajara, the +Casa de Zaporta+, formerly at Saragossa (now removed
+to Paris; Fig. 196), and the Lupiana monastery. The patios in the
++Archbishop’s Palace+ at Alcala de Heñares and the +Collegio de los
+Irlandeses+ at Salamanca are of simpler design; that of the +Casa de
+Pilatos+ at Seville is almost purely Moorish. Salamanca abounds in
+buildings of this period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 196.--CASA DE ZAPORTA: COURTYARD.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 197.--PALACE OF CHARLES V., GRANADA.]
+
++THE GRIEGO-ROMANO.+ The more classic treatment of architectural designs
+by the use of the orders was introduced by _Alonzo Berruguete_
+(1480-1560?), who studied in Italy after 1503. The Archbishop’s Palace
+and the Doric +Gate+ of +San Martino+, both at Toledo, were his work, as
+well as the first palace at Madrid. The Palladio of Spain was, however,
+by _Juan de Herrera_ (died 1597), the architect of +Valladolid
+Cathedral+, built under Philip V. This vast edifice follows the general
+lines of the earlier cathedrals of Jaen and Granada, but in a style of
+classical correctness almost severe in aspect, but well suited to the
+grand scale of the church. The masterpiece of this period was the
+monastery of the +Escurial+, begun by _Juan Battista_ of Toledo, in
+1563, but not completed until nearly one hundred and fifty years later.
+Its final architectural aspect was largely due to Herrera. It is a vast
+rectangle of 740 × 580 feet, comprising a complex of courts, halls, and
+cells, dominated by the huge mass of the chapel. This last is an
+imposing domical church covering 70,000 square feet, treated throughout
+with the Doric order, and showing externally a lofty dome and campaniles
+with domical lanterns, which serve to diversify the otherwise monotonous
+mass of the monastery. What the Escurial lacks in grace or splendor is
+at least in a measure redeemed by its majestic scale and varied
+sky-lines. The +Palace of Charles V.+ (Fig. 197), adjoining the Alhambra
+at Granada, though begun as early as 1527 by _Machuca_, was mainly due
+to Berruguete, and is an excellent example of the Spanish Palladian
+style. With its circular court, admirable proportions and well-studied
+details, this often maligned edifice deserves to be ranked among the
+most successful examples of the style. During this period the cathedral
+of Seville received many alterations, and the upper part of the
+adjoining Moorish tower of the +Giralda+, burned in 1395, was rebuilt by
+_Fernando Ruiz_ in the prevalent style, and with considerable elegance
+and appropriateness of design.
+
+Of the +Palace+ at +Madrid+, rebuilt by Philip V. after the burning of
+the earlier palace in 1734, and mainly the work of an Italian, _Ivara_;
+the Aranjuez palace (1739, by _Francisco Herrera_), and the Palace at
++San Ildefonso+, it need only be said that their chief merit lies in
+their size and the absence of those glaring violations of good taste
+which generally characterized the successors of Churriguera. In
+ecclesiastical design these violations of taste were particularly
+abundant and excessive, especially in the façades and in the
+sanctuary--huge aggregations of misplaced and vulgar detail, with hardly
+an unbroken pediment, column, or arch in the whole. Some extreme
+examples of this abominable style are to be found in the
+Spanish-American churches of the 17th and 18th centuries, as at
+Chihuahua (Mexico), Tucson (Arizona), and other places. The least
+offensive features of the churches of this period were the towers,
+usually in pairs at the west end, some of them showing excellent
+proportions and good composition in spite of their execrable details.
+
+Minor architectural works, such as the rood screens in the churches of
+Astorga and Medina de Rio Seco, and many tombs at Granada, Avila,
+Alcala, etc., give evidence of superior skill in decorative design,
+where constructive considerations did not limit the exercise of the
+imagination.
+
+
++PORTUGAL.+ The Renaissance appears to have produced few notable works
+in Portugal. Among the chief of these are the +Tower+, the church, and
+the +Cloister+, at Belem. These display a riotous profusion of minute
+carved ornament, with a free commingling of late Gothic details,
+wearisome in the end in spite of the beauty of its execution (1500-40?).
+The church of +Santa Cruz+ at Coimbra, and that of +Luz+, near Lisbon,
+are among the most noted of the religious monuments of the Renaissance,
+while in secular architecture the royal palace at +Mafra+ is worthy of
+mention.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ (Mainly supplementary to preceding text.) AUSTRIA,
+  BOHEMIA, etc.: At Prague, Schloss Stern, 1459-1565; Schwarzenburg
+  Palace, 1544; Waldstein Palace, 1629; Salvator Chapel, Vienna,
+  1515; Schloss Schalaburg, near Mölk, 1530-1601; Standehaus, Gratz,
+  1625. At Vienna: Imperial palace, various dates; Schwarzenburg and
+  Lichtenstein palaces, 18th century.
+
+  GERMANY, FIRST PERIOD: Schloss Baden, 1510-29 and part 1569-82;
+  Schloss Merseburg, 1514, with late 16th-century portals;
+  Fuggerhaus at Augsburg, 1516; castles of Neuenstein, 1530-64;
+  Celle, 1532-46 (and enlarged, 1665-70); Dessau, 1533; Leignitz,
+  portal, 1533; Plagnitz, 1550; Schloss Gottesau, 1553-88; castle of
+  Güstrow, 1555-65; of Oels, 1559-1616; of Bernburg, 1565; of
+  Heiligenburg, 1569-87; Münzhof at Munich, 1575; Lusthaus
+  (demolished) at Stuttgart, 1575; Wilhelmsburg Castle at
+  Schmalkald, 1584-90; castle of Hämelschenburg, 1588-1612.--SECOND
+  PERIOD: Zunfthaus at Basle, 1578, in advanced style; so also
+  Juleum at Helmstädt, 1593-1612; gymnasium at Brunswick, 1592-1613;
+  Spiesshof at Basle, 1600; castle at Berlin, 1600-1616, demolished
+  in great part; castle Bevern, 1603; Dantzic, Zeughaus, 1605;
+  Wallfahrtskirche at Dettelbach, 1613; castle Aschaffenburg,
+  1605-13; Schloss Weikersheim, 1600-83.--THIRD PERIOD: Zeughaus at
+  Berlin, 1695; palace at Berlin by Schlüter, 1699-1706; Catholic
+  church, Dresden. (For Classic Revival, see next chapter.)--TOWN
+  HALLS: At Heilbronn, 1535; Görlitz, 1537; Posen, 1550; Mülhausen,
+  1552; Cologne, porch with Corinthian columns and Gothic arches,
+  1569; Lübeck (Rathhaushalle), 1570; Schweinfurt, 1570; Gotha,
+  1574; Emden, 1574-76; Lemgo, 1589; Neisse, 1604; Nordhausen, 1610;
+  Paderborn, 1612-16; Gernsbach, 1617.
+
+  SPAIN, 16TH CENTURY: Monastery San Marcos at Leon; palace of the
+  Infanta, Saragossa; Carcel del Corte at Baez; Cath. of Malaga, W.
+  front, 1538, by de Siloë; Tavera Hospital, Toledo, 1541, by de
+  Bustamente; Alcazar at Toledo, 1548; Lonja (Town Hall) at
+  Saragossa, 1551; Casa de la Sal, Casa Monterey, and Collegio de
+  los Irlandeses, all at Salamanca; Town Hall, Casa de los Taveras
+  and upper part of Giralda, all at Seville.--17TH CENTURY:
+  Cathedral del Pilar, Saragossa, 1677; Tower del Seo, 1685.--18TH
+  CENTURY: palace at Madrid, 1735; at Aranjuez, 1739; cathedral of
+  Santiago, 1738; Lonja at Barcelona, 1772.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson. Also Chateau, _Histoire
+  et caractères de l’architecture en France_; and Lübke, _Geschichte
+  der Architektur_. (For the most part, however, recourse must be
+  had to the general histories of architecture, and to monographs on
+  special cities or buildings.)
+
+
++THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.+ By the end of the seventeenth century the
+Renaissance, properly speaking, had run its course in Europe. The
+increasing servility of its imitation of antique models had exhausted
+its elasticity and originality. Taste rapidly declined before the growth
+of the industrial and commercial spirit in the eighteenth century. The
+ferment of democracy and the disquiet of far-reaching political changes
+had begun to preoccupy the minds of men to the detriment of the arts. By
+the middle of the eighteenth century, however, the extravagances of the
+Rococo, Jesuit, and Louis XV. styles had begun to pall upon the popular
+taste. The creative spirit was dead, and nothing seemed more promising
+as a corrective for these extravagances than a return to classic models.
+But the demand was for a literal copying of the arcades and porticos of
+Rome, to serve as frontispieces for buildings in which modern
+requirements should be accommodated to these antique exteriors, instead
+of controlling the design. The result was a manifest gain in the
+splendor of the streets and squares adorned by these highly decorative
+frontispieces, but at the expense of convenience and propriety in the
+buildings themselves. While this academic spirit too often sacrificed
+logic and originality to an arbitrary symmetry and to the supposed
+canons of Roman design, it also, on the other hand, led to a stateliness
+and dignity in the planning, especially in the designing of vestibules,
+stairs, and halls, which render many of the public buildings it produced
+well worthy of study. The architecture of the Roman Revival was pompous
+and artificial, but seldom trivial, and its somewhat affected grandeur
+was a welcome relief from the dull extravagance of the styles it
+replaced.
+
+
++THE GREEK REVIVAL.+ The Roman revival was, however, displaced in
+England and Germany by the Greek Revival, which set in near the close of
+the eighteenth century. This was the result of a newly awakened interest
+in the long-neglected monuments of Attic art which the discoveries of
+Stuart and Revett--sent out in 1732 by the London Society of
+Dilettanti--had once more made known to the world. It led to a veritable
+_furore_ in England for Greek Doric and Ionic columns, which were
+applied indiscriminately to every class of buildings, with utter
+disregard of propriety. The British taste was at this time at its lowest
+ebb, and failed to perceive the poverty of Greek architecture when
+deprived of its proper adornments of carving and sculpture, which were
+singularly lacking in the British examples. Nevertheless the Greek style
+in England had a long run of popular favor, yielding only during the
+reign of the present sovereign to the so-called Victorian Gothic,
+a revival of mediæval forms. In Germany the Greek Revival was
+characterized by a more cultivated taste and a more rational application
+of its forms, which were often freely modified to suit modern needs. In
+France, where the Roman Revival under Louis XV. had produced fairly
+satisfactory results, and where the influence of the Royal School of
+Fine Arts (_École des Beaux-Arts_) tended to perpetuate the principles
+of Roman design, the Greek Revival found no footing. The Greek forms
+were seen to be too severe and intractable for present requirements.
+About 1830, however, a modified style of design, known since as the
+_Néo-Grec_, was introduced by the exertions of a small coterie of
+talented architects; and though its own life was short, it profoundly
+influenced French art in the direction of freedom and refinement for a
+long time afterward. In Italy there was hardly anything in the nature of
+a true revival of either Roman or Greek forms. The few important works
+of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were conceived in
+the spirit of the late Renaissance, and took from the prevalent revival
+of classicism elsewhere merely a greater correctness of detail, not any
+radical change of form or spirit.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 198.--BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON.]
+
++ENGLAND.+ There was, strictly speaking, no Roman revival in Great
+Britain. The modified Palladian style of Wren and Gibbs and their
+successors continued until superseded by the Greek revival. The first
+fruit of the new movement seems to have been the +Bank of England+ at
+London, by _Sir John Soane_ (1788). In this edifice the Greco-Roman
+order of the round temple at Tivoli was closely copied, and applied to a
+long façade, too low for its length and with no sufficient stylobate,
+but fairly effective with its recessed colonnade and unpierced walls.
+The +British Museum+, by _Robert Smirke_ (Fig. 198), was a more
+ambitious essay in a more purely Greek style. Its colossal Ionic
+colonnade was, however, a mere frontispiece, applied to a badly planned
+and commonplace building, from which it cut off needed light. The more
+modest but appropriate columnar façade to the +Fitzwilliam Museum+ at
+Cambridge, by _Bassevi_, was a more successful attempt in the same
+direction, better proportioned and avoiding the incongruity of modern
+windows in several stories. These have always been the stumbling-block
+of the revived Greek style. The difficulties they raise are avoided,
+however, in buildings presenting but two stories, the order being
+applied to the upper story, upon a high stylobate serving as a basement.
+The +High School+ and the Royal Institution at Edinburgh, and the
+University at London, by _Wilkins_, are for this reason, if for no
+other, superior to the British Museum and other many-storied Anglo-Greek
+edifices. In spite of all difficulties, however, the English extended
+the applications of the style with doubtful success not only to all
+manner of public buildings, but also to country residences. Carlton
+House, Bowden Park, and Grange House are instances of this
+misapplication of Greek forms. Neither did it prove more tractable for
+ecclesiastical purposes. +St. Pancras’s+ Church at London, and several
+churches by _Thomson_ (1817-75), in Glasgow, though interesting as
+experiments in such adaptation, are not to be commended for imitation.
+The most successful of all British Greek designs is perhaps +St.
+George’s Hall+ at Liverpool (Fig. 199), whose imposing peristyle and
+porches are sufficiently Greek in spirit and detail to class it among
+the works of the Greek Revival. But its great hall and its interior
+composition are really Roman and not Greek, emphasizing the teaching of
+experience that Greek architecture does not lend itself to the
+exigencies of modern civilization to nearly the same extent as the
+Roman.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 199.--ST. GEORGE’S HALL, LIVERPOOL.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 200.--THE OLD MUSEUM, BERLIN.]
+
++GERMANY.+ During the eighteenth century the classic revival in Germany,
+which at first followed Roman precedents (as in the columns carved with
+spirally ascending reliefs in front of the church of +St. Charles
+Borromeo+, at Vienna), was directed into the channel of Greek imitation
+by the literary works of Winckelmann, Lessing, Goethe, and others, as
+well as by the interest aroused by the discoveries of Stuart and Revett.
+The +Brandenburg Gate+ at Berlin (1784, by Langhans) was an early
+example of this Hellenism in architecture, and one of its most
+successful applications to civic purposes. Without precisely copying any
+Greek structure, it was evidently inspired from the Athenian Propylæa,
+and nothing in its purpose is foreign to the style employed. The
+greatest activity in the style came later, however, and was greatly
+stimulated by the achievements of _Fr. Schinkel_ (1771-1841), one of the
+greatest of modern German architects. While in the domical church of St.
+Nicholas at Potsdam, he employed Roman forms in a modernized Roman
+conception, and followed in one or two other buildings the principles of
+the Renaissance, his predilections were for Greek architecture. His
+masterpiece was the +Museum+ at Berlin, with an imposing portico of 18
+Ionic columns (Fig. 200). This building with its fine rotunda was
+excellently planned, and forms, in conjunction with the +New Museum+ by
+_Stuhler_ (1843-55), a noble palace of art, to whose monumental
+requirements and artistic purpose the Greek colonnades and pediments
+were not inappropriate. Schinkel’s greatest successor was _Leo von
+Klenze_ (1784-1864), whose more textual reproductions of Greek models
+won him great favor and wide employment. The +Walhalla+ near Ratisbon is
+a modernized Parthenon, internally vaulted with glass; elegant
+externally, but too obvious a plagiarism to be greatly admired. The
++Ruhmeshalle+ at Munich, a double +L+ partly enclosing a colossal
+statue of Bavaria, and devoted to the commemoration of Bavaria’s great
+men, is copied from no Greek building, though purely Greek in design and
+correct to the smallest detail. In the +Glyptothek+ (Sculpture Gallery),
+in the same city, the one distinctively Greek feature introduced by
+Klenze, an Ionic portico, is also the one inappropriate note in the
+design. The +Propylæa+ at Munich, by the same (Fig. 201), and the +Court
+Theatre+ at Berlin, by Schinkel, are other important examples of the
+style. The latter is externally one of the most beautiful theatres in
+Europe, though less ornate than many. Schinkel’s genius was here
+remarkably successful in adapting Greek details to the exigent
+difficulties of theatre design, and there is no suggestion of copying
+any known Greek building.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 201.--THE PROPYLÆA, MUNICH.]
+
+In Vienna the one notable monument of the Classic Revival is the
++Reichsrathsgebäude+ or Parliament House, by _Th. Hansen_ (1843), an
+imposing two-storied composition with a lofty central colonnade and
+lower side-wings, harmonious in general proportions and pleasingly
+varied in outline and mass.
+
+In general, the Greek Revival in Germany presents the aspect of a
+sincere striving after beauty, on the part of a limited number of
+artists of great talent, misled by the idea that the forms of a dead
+civilization could be galvanized into new life in the service of modern
+needs. The result was disappointing, in spite of the excellent planning,
+admirable construction and carefully studied detail of these buildings,
+and the movement here as elsewhere was foredoomed to failure.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 202.--PLAN OF PANTHÉON, PARIS.]
+
++FRANCE.+ In France the Classic Revival, as we have seen, had made its
+appearance during the reign of Louis XV. in a number of important
+monuments which expressed the protest of their authors against the
+caprice of the Rococo style then in vogue. The colonnades of the
+Garde-Meuble, the façade of St. Sulpice, and the coldly beautiful
++Panthéon+ (Figs. 202, 203) testified to the conviction in the most
+cultured minds of the time that Roman grandeur was to be attained only
+by copying the forms of Roman architecture with the closest possible
+approach to correctness. In the Panthéon, the greatest ecclesiastical
+monument of its time in France (otherwise known as the church of Ste.
+Genéviève), the spirit of correct classicism dominates the interior as
+well as the exterior. It is a Greek cross, measuring 362 × 267 feet,
+with a dome 265 feet high, and internally 69 feet in diameter. The four
+arms have domical vaulting and narrow aisles separated by Corinthian
+columns. The whole interior is a cold but extremely elegant composition.
+The most notable features of the exterior are its imposing portico of
+colossal Corinthian columns and the fine peristyle which surrounds the
+drum of the dome, giving it great dignity and richness of effect.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 203.--EXTERIOR OF PANTHÉON, PARIS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 204.--ARC DE L’ÉTOILE, PARIS.]
+
+The dome, which is of stone throughout, has three shells, the
+intermediate shell serving to support the heavy stone lantern. The
+architect was _Soufflot_ (1713-81). The +Grand Théâtre+, at Bordeaux
+(1773, by _Victor Louis_), one of the largest and finest theatres in
+Europe, was another product of this movement, its stately colonnade
+forming one of the chief ornaments of the city. Under Louis XVI. there
+was a temporary reaction from this somewhat pompous affectation of
+antique grandeur; but there were few important buildings erected during
+that unhappy reign, and the reaction showed itself mainly in a more
+delicate and graceful style of interior decoration. It was reserved for
+the Empire to set the seal of official approval on the Roman Revival.
+The Arch of Triumph of the Carrousel, behind the Tuileries, by _Percier
+and Fontaine_, the magnificent Arc de l’Étoile, at the summit of the
+Avenue of the Champs Elysées, by _Chalgrin_; the wing begun by Napoleon
+to connect the Tuileries with the Louvre on the land side, and the
+church of the Madeleine, by _Vignon_, erected as a temple to the heroes
+of the Grande Armée, were all designed, in accordance with the expressed
+will of the Emperor himself, in a style as Roman as the requirements of
+each case would permit. All these monuments, begun between 1806 and
+1809, were completed after the Restoration. The +Arch+ of the
++Carrousel+ is a close copy of Roman models; that of the +Étoile+ (Fig.
+204) was a much more original design, of colossal dimensions. Its
+admirable proportions, simple composition and striking sculptures give
+it a place among the noblest creations of its class. The +Madeleine+
+(Fig. 205), externally a Roman Corinthian temple of the largest size,
+presents internally an almost Byzantine conception with the three
+pendentive domes that vault its vast nave, but all the details are
+Roman. However suitable for a pantheon or mausoleum, it seems strangely
+inappropriate as a design for a Christian church. To these monuments
+should be added the +Bourse+ or Exchange, by _Brongniart_, heavy in
+spite of its Corinthian peristyle, and the river front of the +Corps
+Législatif+ or Palais Bourbon, by _Poyet_, the only extant example of a
+dodecastyle portico with a pediment. All of these designs are
+characterized by great elegance of detail and excellence of execution,
+and however inappropriate in style to modern uses, they add immensely to
+the splendor of the French capital. Unquestionably no feature can take
+the place of a Greek or Roman colonnade as an embellishment for broad
+avenues and open squares, or as the termination of an architectural
+vista.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 205.--THE MADELEINE, PARIS.]
+
+The Greek revival took little hold of the Parisian imagination. Its
+forms were too cold, too precise and fixed, too intractable to modern
+requirements to appeal to the French taste. It counts but one notable
+monument, the church of +St. Vincent de Paul+, by _Hittorff_, who sought
+to apply to this design the principles of Greek external polychromy; but
+the frescoes and ornaments failed to withstand the Parisian climate, and
+were finally erased. The Néo-Grec movement already referred to,
+initiated by Duc, Duban, and Labrouste about 1830, aimed only to
+introduce into modern design the spirit and refinement, the purity and
+delicacy of Greek art, not its forms (Fig. 206). Its chief monuments
+were the remodelling, by _Duc_, of the +Palais de Justice+, of which the
+new west façade is the most striking single feature; the beautiful
++Library of the École des Beaux-Arts+, by _Duban_; the library of +Ste.
+Genéviève+, by _Labrouste_, in which a long façade is treated without a
+pilaster or column, simple arches over a massive basement forming the
+dominant motive, while in the interior a system of iron construction
+with glazed domes controls the design; and the commemorative +Colonne
+Juillet+, by Duc, the most elegant and appropriate of all modern
+memorial columns. All these buildings, begun between 1830 and 1850 and
+completed at various dates, are distinguished by a remarkable purity and
+freedom of conception and detail, quite unfettered by the artificial
+trammels of the official academic style then prevalent.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 206.--DOORWAY, ÉCOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS, PARIS.]
+
+
++THE CLASSIC REVIVAL ELSEWHERE.+ The other countries of Europe have
+little to show in the way of imitations of classic monuments or
+reproductions of Roman colonnades. In Italy the church of +S. Francesco
+di Paola+, at Naples, in quasi-imitation of the Pantheon at Rome, with
+wing-colonnades, and the +Superga+, at Turin (1706, by _Ivara_); the
+façade of the San Carlo Theatre, at Naples, and the Braccio Nuovo of the
+Vatican (1817, by _Stern_) are the monuments which come the nearest to
+the spirit and style of the Roman Revival. Yet in each of these there is
+a large element of originality and freedom of treatment which renders
+doubtful their classification as examples of that movement.
+
+A reflection of the Munich school is seen in the modern public buildings
+of Athens, designed in some cases by German architects, and in others by
+native Greeks. The University, the Museum buildings, the Academy of Art
+and Science, and other edifices exemplify fairly successful efforts to
+adapt the severe details of classic Greek art to modern windowed
+structures. They suffer somewhat from the too liberal use of stucco in
+place of marble, and from the conscious affectation of an extinct style.
+But they are for the most part pleasing and monumental designs, adding
+greatly to the beauty of the modern city.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 207.--ST. ISAAC’S CATHEDRAL, ST. PETERSBURG.]
+
+In Russia, during and after the reign of Peter the Great (1689-1725),
+there appeared a curious mixture of styles. A style analogous to the
+Jesuit in Italy and the Churrigueresque in Spain was generally
+prevalent, but it was in many cases modified by Muscovite traditions
+into nondescript forms like those of the +Kremlin+, at Moscow, or the
+less extravagant Citadel Church and Smolnoy Monastery at St. Petersburg.
+Along with this heavy and barbarous style, which prevails generally in
+the numerous palaces of the capital, finished in stucco with atrocious
+details, a more severe and classical spirit is met with. The church of
+the +Greek Rite+ at St. Petersburg combines a Roman domical interior
+with an exterior of the Greek Doric order. The Church of +Our Lady of
+Kazan+ has a semicircular colonnade projecting from its transept,
+copying as nearly as may be the colonnades in front of St. Peter’s. But
+the greatest classic monument in Russia is the +Cathedral of St. Isaac+
+(Fig. 207), at St. Petersburg, a vast rectangular edifice with four
+Roman Corinthian pedimental colonnades projecting from its faces, and a
+dome with a peristyle crowning the whole. Despite many defects of
+detail, and the use of cast iron for the dome, which pretends to be of
+marble, this is one of the most impressive churches of its size in
+Europe. Internally it displays the costliest materials in extraordinary
+profusion, while externally its noble colonnades go far to redeem its
+bare attic and the material of its dome. The +Palace of the Grand Duke
+Michael+, which reproduces, with improvements, Gabriel’s colonnades of
+the Garde Meuble at Paris on its garden front, is a nobly planned and
+commendable design, agreeably contrasting with the debased architecture
+of many of the public buildings of the city. The Admiralty with its
+Doric pilasters, and the +New Museum+, by von Klenze of Munich, in a
+skilfully modified Greek style, with effective loggias, are the only
+other monuments of the classic revival in Russia which can find mention
+in a brief sketch like this. Both are notable and in many respects
+admirable buildings, in part redeeming the vulgarity which is
+unfortunately so prevalent in the architecture of St. Petersburg.
+
+The +MONUMENTS+ of the Classic Revival have been referred to in the
+foregoing text at sufficient length to preclude the necessity of further
+enumeration here.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Chateau, Fergusson. Also Barqui,
+  _L’Architecture moderne en France_.--_Berlin und seine Bauten_
+  (and a series of similar works on the modern buildings of other
+  German cities). Daly, _Architecture privée du XIXe siècle_.
+  Garnier, _Le nouvel Opéra_. Gourlier, _Choix d’édifices publics_.
+  Licht, _Architektur Deutschlands_. Lübke, _Denkmäler der Kunst_.
+  Lützow und Tischler, _Wiener Neubauten_. Narjoux, _Monuments
+  élevés par la ville de Paris, 1850-1880_. Rückwardt, _Façaden und
+  Details modernen Bauten_.--_Sammelmappe hervorragenden
+  Concurrenz-Entwurfen._ Sédille, _L’Architecture moderne_.
+  Selfridge, _Modern French Architecture_. Statham, _Modern
+  Architecture_. Villars, _England, Scotland, and Ireland_ (tr.
+  Henry Frith). Consult also _Transactions of the Royal Institute of
+  British Architects_, and the leading architectural journals of
+  recent years.
+
+
++MODERN CONDITIONS.+ The nineteenth century has been pre-eminently an
+age of industrial progress. Its most striking advances have been along
+mechanical, scientific, and commercial lines. As a result of this
+material progress the general conditions of mankind in civilized
+countries have undoubtedly been greatly bettered. Popular education and
+the printing-press have also raised the intellectual level of society,
+making learning the privilege of even the poorest. Intellectual,
+scientific, and commercial pursuits have thus largely absorbed those
+energies which in other ages found exercise in the creation of artistic
+forms and objects. The critical and sceptical spirit, the spirit of
+utilitarianism and realism, has checked the free and general development
+of the creative imagination, at least in the plastic arts. While in
+poetry and music there have been great and noble achievements, the
+plastic arts, including architecture, have only of late years attained a
+position at all worthy of the intellectual advancement of the times.
+
+Nevertheless the artistic spirit has never been wholly crushed out by
+the untoward pressure of realism and commercialism. Unfortunately it has
+repeatedly been directed in wrong channels. Modern archæology and the
+publication of the forms of historic art by books and photographs have
+too exclusively fastened attention upon the details of extinct styles as
+a source of inspiration in design. The whole range of historic art is
+brought within our survey, and while this has on the one hand tended
+toward the confusion and multiplication of styles in modern work, it has
+on the other led to a slavish adherence to historic precedent or a
+literal copying of historic forms. Modern architecture has thus
+oscillated between the extremes of archæological servitude and of an
+unreasoning eclecticism. In the hands of men of inferior training the
+results have been deplorable travesties of all styles, or meaningless
+aggregations of ill-assorted forms.
+
+An important factor in this demoralization of architectural design has
+been the development of new constructive methods, especially in the use
+of iron and steel. It has been impossible for modern designers, in their
+treatment of style, to keep pace with the rapid changes in the
+structural use of metal in architecture. The roofs of vast span, largely
+composed of glass, which modern methods of trussing have made possible
+for railway stations, armories, and exhibition buildings; the immense
+unencumbered spaces which may be covered by them; the introduction and
+development, especially in the United States, of the post-and-girder
+system of construction for high buildings, in which the external walls
+are a mere screen or filling-in; these have revolutionized architecture
+so rapidly and completely that architects are still struggling and
+groping to find the solution of many of the problems of style, scale,
+and composition which they have brought forward.
+
+Within the last thirty years, however, architecture has, despite these
+new conditions, made notable advances. The artistic emulation of
+repeated international exhibitions, the multiplication of museums and
+schools of art, the general advance in intelligence and enlightenment,
+have all contributed to this artistic progress. There appears to be more
+of the artistic and intellectual quality in the average architecture of
+the present time, on both sides of the Atlantic, than at any previous
+period in this century. The futility of the archæological revival of
+extinct styles is generally recognized. New conditions are gradually
+procuring the solution of the very problems they raise. Historic
+precedent sits more lightly on the architect than formerly, and the
+essential unity of principle underlying all good design is coming to be
+better understood.[26]
+
+    [Footnote 26: See Appendix D.]
+
+
++FRANCE.+ It is in France, Germany (including Austria), and England that
+the architectural progress of this period in Europe has been most
+marked. We have already noticed the results of the classic revivals in
+these three countries. Speaking broadly, it may be said that in France
+the influence of the _École des Beaux-Arts_, while it has tended to give
+greater unity and consistency to the national architecture, and has
+exerted a powerful influence in behalf of refinement of taste and
+correctness of style, has also stood in the way of a free development of
+new ideas. French architecture has throughout adhered to the principles
+of the Renaissance, though the style has during this century been
+modified by various influences. The first of these was the Néo-Grec
+movement, alluded to in the last chapter, which broke the grip of Roman
+tradition in matters of detail and gave greater elasticity to the
+national style. Next should be mentioned the Gothic movement represented
+by Viollet-le-Duc, Lassus, Ballu, and their followers. Beginning about
+1845, it produced comparatively few notable buildings, but gave a great
+impulse to the study of mediæval archæology and the restoration of
+mediæval monuments. The churches of Ste. Clothilde and of St. Jean de
+Belleville, at Paris, and the reconstruction of the Château de
+Pierrefonds, were among its direct results. Indirectly it led to a freer
+and more rational treatment of constructive forms and materials than had
+prevailed with the academic designers. The church of +St. Augustin+, by
+_Baltard_, at Paris, illustrates this in its use of iron and brick for
+the dome and vaulting, and the +College Chaptal+, by _E. Train_, in its
+decorative treatment of brick and tile externally. The general adoption
+of iron for roof-trusses and for the construction of markets and similar
+buildings tended further in the same direction, the +Halles Centrales+
+at Paris, by _Baltard_, being a notable example.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 208.--PLAN OF LOUVRE AND TUILERIES, PARIS.
+  A, A, _the Old Louvre, so called_; B, B, _the New Louvre._]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 209.--PAVILION OF RICHELIEU, LOUVRE.]
+
++THE SECOND EMPIRE.+ The reign of Napoleon III. (1852-70) was a period
+of exceptional activity, especially in Paris. The greatest monument of
+his reign was the completion of the +Louvre+ and +Tuileries+, under
+_Visconti_ and _Lefuel_, including the remodelling of the pavilions de
+Flore and de Marsan. The new portions constitute the most notable
+example of modern French architecture, and the manner in which the two
+palaces were united deserves high praise. In spite of certain defects,
+this work is marked by a combination of dignity, richness, and
+refinement, such as are rarely found in palace architecture (Figs. 208,
+209). The +New Opera+ (1863-75), by _Garnier_ (d.  1898), stands next to
+the Louvre in importance as a national monument. It is by far the most
+sumptuous building for amusement in existence, but in purity of detail
+and in the balance and restraint of its design it is inferior to the
+work of Visconti and Lefuel (Fig. 210). To this reign belong the Palais
+de l’Industrie, by _Viel_, built for the exhibition of 1855, and several
+great railway stations (Gare du Nord, by Hitorff, Gare de l’Est, Gare
+d’Orléans, etc.), in which the modern French version of the Renaissance
+was applied with considerable skill to buildings largely constructed of
+iron and glass. Town halls and theatres were erected in great numbers,
+and in decorative works like fountains and monuments the French were
+particularly successful. The fountains of +St. Michel+, Cuvier, and
+Molière, at Paris, and of +Longchamps+, at Marseilles (Fig. 211),
+illustrate the fertility of resource and elegance of detailed treatment
+of the French in this department. Mention should also here be made of
+the extensive enterprises carried out by Napoleon III., in rectifying
+and embellishing the street-plan of Paris by new avenues and squares on
+a vast scale, adding greatly to the monumental splendor of the city.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 210.--GRAND STAIRCASE OF THE OPERA, PARIS.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 211.--FOUNTAIN OF LONGCHAMPS, MARSEILLES.]
+
++THE REPUBLIC.+ Since the disasters of 1870 a number of important
+structures have been erected, and French architecture has shown a
+remarkable vitality and flexibility under new conditions. Its
+productions have in general been marked by a refined taste and a
+conspicuous absence of eccentricity and excess; but it has for the most
+part trodden in well-worn paths. The most notable recent monuments are,
+in church architecture, the +Sacré-Cœur+, at Montmartre, by _Abadie_,
+a votive church inspired from the Franco-Byzantine style of Aquitania;
+in civil architecture the new +Hôtel de Ville+, at Paris, by _Ballu_ and
+_Déperthes_, recalling the original structure destroyed by the Commune,
+but in reality an original creation of great merit; in scholastic
+architecture the new École de Médecine, and the new +Sorbonne+, by
+_Nénot_, and in other branches of the art the metal-and-glass exhibition
+buildings of 1878, 1889, and 1900. In the last of these the striving for
+originality and the effort to discard traditional forms reached the
+extreme, although accompanied by much very clever detail and a masterly
+use of color-decoration. To these should be added many noteworthy
+theatres, town-halls, court-houses, and _préfectures_ in provincial
+cities, and commemorative columns and monuments almost without number.
+In street architecture there is now much more variety and originality
+than formerly, especially in private houses, and the reaction against
+the orders and against traditional methods of design has of late been
+growing stronger. The chief excellence of modern French architecture
+lies in its rational planning, monumental spirit, and refinement of
+detail (Fig. 212).
+
+
++GERMANY AND AUSTRIA.+ German architecture has been more affected during
+the past fifty years by the archæological spirit than has the French.
+A pronounced mediæval revival partly accompanied, partly followed the
+Greek revival in Germany, and produced a number of churches and a few
+secular buildings in the basilican, Romanesque, and Gothic styles.These
+are less interesting than those in the Greek style, because mediæval
+forms are even more foreign to modern needs than the classic, being
+compatible only with systems of design and construction which are no
+longer practicable. At Munich the Auekirche, by _Ohlmuller_, in an
+attenuated Gothic style; the Byzantine Ludwigskirche, and _Ziebland’s_
+Basilica following Early Christian models; the Basilica by _Hübsch _, at
+Bulach, and the Votive Church at Vienna (1856) by H. Von Ferstel
+(1828-1883) are notable neo-mediæval monuments. The last-named church
+may be classed with Ste. Clothilde at Paris (see p. 371), and St.
+Patrick’s Cathedral at New York, all three being of approximately the
+same size and general style, recalling St. Ouen at Rouen. They are
+correct and elaborate, but more or less cold and artificial.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 212.--MUSÉE GALLIÉRA, PARIS.]
+
+More successful are many of the German theatres and concert halls, in
+which Renaissance and classic forms have been freely used. In several of
+these the attempt has been made to express by the external form the
+curvilinear plan of the auditorium, as in the +Dresden Theatre+, by
+_Semper_ (1841; Fig. 213), the theatre at Carlsruhe, by Hübsch, and the
+double winter-summer +Victoria Theatre+, at Berlin, by _Titz_. But the
+practical and æsthetic difficulties involved in this treatment have
+caused its general abandonment. The +Opera House+ at Vienna, by
+_Siccardsburg_ and _Van der Null_ (1861-69), is rectangular in its
+masses, and but for a certain triviality of detail would rank among the
+most successful buildings of its kind. The new +Burgtheater+ in the same
+city is a more elaborately ornate structure in Renaissance style,
+somewhat florid and overdone.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 213.--THEATRE AT DRESDEN.]
+
+Modern German architecture is at its best in academic and residential
+buildings. The +Bauschule+, at Berlin, by Schinkel, in which brick is
+used in a rational and dignified design without the orders; the
+Polytechnic School, at Zürich, by Semper; university buildings, and
+especially buildings for technical instruction, at Carlsruhe, Stuttgart,
+Strasburg, Vienna, and other cities, show a monumental treatment of the
+exterior and of the general distribution, combined with a careful study
+of practical requirements. In administrative buildings the Germans have
+hardly been as successful; and the new +Parliament House+, at Berlin, by
+_Wallot_, in spite of its splendor and costliness, is heavy and
+unsatisfactory in detail. The larger cities, especially Berlin, contain
+many excellent examples of house architecture, mostly in the Renaissance
+style, sufficiently monumental in design, though usually, like most
+German work, inclined to heaviness of detail. The too free use of stucco
+in imitation of stone is also open to criticism.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 214.--BLOCK OF DWELLINGS (MARIE-THERESIENHOF),
+  VIENNA.]
+
++VIENNA.+ During the last thirty years Vienna has undergone a
+transformation which has made it the rival of Paris as a stately
+capital. The remodelling of the central portion, the creation of a
+series of magnificent boulevards and squares, and the grouping of the
+chief state and municipal buildings about these upon a monumental scheme
+of arrangement, have given the city an unusual aspect of splendor. Among
+the most important monuments in this group are the +Parliament House+,
+by Hansen (see p. 360), and the +Town Hall+, by _Schmidt_. This latter
+is a Neo-Gothic edifice of great size and pretentiousness, but strangely
+thin and meagre in detail, and quite out of harmony with its
+surroundings. The university and museums are massive piles in
+Renaissance style; and it is the Renaissance rather than the classic or
+Gothic revival which prevails throughout the new city. The great blocks
+of residences and apartments (Fig. 214) which line its streets are
+highly ornate in their architecture, but for the most part done in
+stucco, which fails after all to give the aspect of solidity and
+durability which it seeks to counterfeit.
+
+The city of +Buda-Pesth+ has also in recent years undergone a phenomenal
+transformation of a similar nature to that effected in Vienna, but it
+possesses fewer monuments of conspicuous architectural interest. The
++Synagogue+ is the most noted of these, a rich and pleasing edifice of
+brick in a modified Hispano-Moresque style.
+
+
++GREAT BRITAIN.+ During the closing years of the Anglo-Greek
+style a coterie of enthusiastic students of British mediæval
+monuments--archæologists rather than architects--initiated a movement
+for the revival of the national Gothic architecture. The first fruits
+of this movement, led by Pugin, Brandon, Rickman, and others (about
+1830-40), were seen in countless pseudo-Gothic structures in which
+the pointed arches, buttresses, and clustered shafts of mediæval
+architecture were imitated or parodied according to the designer’s
+ability, with frequent misapprehension of their proper use or
+significance. This unintelligent misapplication of Gothic forms was,
+however, confined to the earlier stages of the movement. With increasing
+light and experience came a more correct and consistent use of the
+mediæval styles, dominated by the same spirit of archæological
+correctness which had produced the _classicismo_ of the Late Renaissance
+in Italy. This spirit, stimulated by extensive enterprises in the
+restoration of the great mediæval monuments of the United Kingdom, was
+fatal to any free and original development of the style along new lines.
+But it rescued church architecture from the utter meanness and
+debasement into which it had fallen, and established a standard of taste
+which reacted on all other branches of design.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 215.--HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, WESTMINSTER,
+  LONDON.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 216.--ASSIZE COURTS, MANCHESTER. DETAIL.]
+
++THE VICTORIAN GOTHIC.+ Between 1850 and 1870 the striving after
+archæological correctness gave place to the more rational effort to
+adapt Gothic principles to modern requirements, instead of merely
+copying extinct styles. This effort, prosecuted by a number of
+architects of great intelligence, culture, and earnestness (Sir Gilbert
+Scott, George Edmund Street, William Burges, and others), resulted in a
+number of extremely interesting buildings. Chief among these in size and
+cost stand the +Parliament Houses+ at Westminster, by _Sir Charles
+Barry_ (begun 1839), in the Perpendicular style. This immense structure
+(Fig. 215), imposing in its simple masses and refined in its carefully
+studied detail, is the most successful monument of the Victorian Gothic
+style. It suffers, however, from the want of proper relation of scale
+between its decorative elements and the vast proportions of the edifice,
+which belittle its component elements. It cannot, on the whole, be
+claimed as a successful vindication of the claims of the promoters of
+the style as to the adaptability of Gothic forms to structures planned
+and built after the modern fashion. The +Assize Courts+ at Manchester
+(Fig. 216), the +New Museum+ at Oxford, the gorgeous +Albert Memorial+
+at London, by _Scott_, and the +New Law Courts+ at London, by _Street_,
+are all conspicuous illustrations of the same truth. They are
+conscientious, carefully studied designs in good taste, and yet wholly
+unsuited in style to their purpose. They are like labored and scholarly
+verse in a foreign tongue, correct in form and language, but lacking the
+naturalness and charm of true and unfettered inspiration. A later essay
+of the same sort in a slightly different field is the +Natural History
+Museum+ at South Kensington, by _Waterhouse_ (1879), an imposing
+building in a modified Romanesque style (Fig. 217).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 217.--NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, LONDON.]
+
+
++OTHER WORKS.+ The Victorian Gothic style responded to no deep and
+general movement of the popular taste, and, like the Anglo-Greek style,
+was doomed to failure from the inherent incongruity between modern needs
+and mediæval forms. Within the last twenty years there has been a quite
+general return to Renaissance principles, and the result is seen in a
+large number of town-halls, exchanges, museums, and colleges, in which
+Renaissance forms, with and without the orders, have been treated with
+increasing freedom and skilful adaptation to the materials and special
+requirements of each case. The Albert Memorial Hall (1863, by General
+Scott) may be taken as an early instance of this movement, and the
++Imperial Institute+ (Colonial offices), by Collcutt, and Oxford Town
+Hall, by Aston Webb, as among its latest manifestations. In domestic
+architecture the so-called Queen Anne style has been much in vogue, as
+practised by Norman Shaw, Ernest George, and others. It is really a
+modern style, originating in the imitation of the modified Palladian
+style as used in the brick architecture of Queen Anne’s time, but freely
+and often artistically altered to meet modern tastes and needs.
+
+In its emancipation from the mistaken principles of archæological
+revivals, and in its evidences of improved taste and awakened
+originality, contemporary British architecture shows promise of good
+things to come. It is still inferior to the French in the monumental
+quality, in technical resource and refinement of decorative detail.
+
+
++ELSEWHERE IN EUROPE.+ In other European countries recent architecture
+shows in general increasing freedom and improved good taste, but both
+its opportunities and its performance have been nowhere else as
+conspicuous as in France, Germany, and England. The costly Bourse and
+the vast but overloaded Palais de Justice at Brussels, by _Polaert_, are
+neither of them conspicuous for refined and cultivated taste. A few
+buildings of note in Switzerland, Russia, and Greece might find mention
+in a more extended review of architecture, but cannot here even be
+enumerated. In Italy, especially at Rome, Milan, Naples, and Turin,
+there has been a great activity in building since 1870, but with the
+exception of the +Monument to Victor Emmanuel+ and the National Museum
+at Rome, monumental arcades and passages at Milan and Naples, and _Campi
+Santi_ or monumental cemeteries at Bologna, Genoa, and one or two other
+places, there has been almost nothing of real importance built in Italy
+of late years.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Statham. Also, Chandler,
+  _The Colonial Architecture of Maryland, Pennsylvania, and
+  Virginia_. Cleaveland and Campbell, _American Landmarks_. Corner
+  and Soderholz, _Colonial Architecture in New England_. Crane and
+  Soderholz, _Examples of Colonial Architecture in Charleston and
+  Savannah_. Drake, _Historic Fields and Mansions of Middlesex_.
+  Everett, _Historic Churches of America_. King, _Handbook of
+  Boston_; _Handbook of New York_. Little, _Early New England
+  Interiors_. Schuyler, _American Architecture_. Van Rensselaer, _H.
+  H. Richardson and His Works_. Wallis, _Old Colonial Architecture
+  and Furniture_.
+
+
++GENERAL REMARKS.+ The colonial architecture of modern times presents a
+peculiar phenomenon. The colonizing nation, carrying into its new
+_habitat_ the tastes and practices of a long-established civilization,
+modifies these only with the utmost reluctance, under the absolute
+compulsion of new conditions. When the new home is virgin soil,
+destitute of cultivation, government, or civilized inhabitants, the
+accompaniments and activities of civilization introduced by the
+colonists manifest themselves at first in curious contrast to the
+primitive surroundings. The struggle between organized life and chaos,
+the laborious subjugation of nature to the requirements of our complex
+modern life, for a considerable period absorb the energies of the
+colonists. The amenities of culture, the higher intellectual life, the
+refinements of art can, during this period, receive little attention.
+Meanwhile a new national character is being formed; the people are
+undergoing the moral training upon which their subsequent achievements
+must depend. With the conquest of brute nature, however, and the gradual
+emergence of a more cultivated class, with the growth of commerce and
+wealth and the consequent increase of leisure, the humanities find more
+place in the colonial life. The fine arts appear in scattered centres
+determined by peculiarly favorable conditions. For a long time they
+retain the impress, and seek to reproduce the forms, of the art of the
+mother country. But new conditions impose a new development. Maturing
+commerce with other lands brings in foreign influences, to which the
+still unformed colonial art is peculiarly susceptible. Only with
+political and commercial independence, fully developed internal
+resources, and a high national culture do the arts finally attain, as it
+were, their majority, and enter upon a truly national growth.
+
+These facts are abundantly illustrated by the architectural history of
+the United States. The only one among the British colonies to attain
+political independence, it is the only one among them whose architecture
+has as yet entered upon an independent course of development, and this
+only within the last twenty-five or thirty years. Nor has even this
+development produced as yet a distinctive local style. It has, however,
+originated new constructive methods, new types of buildings, and a
+distinctively American treatment of the composition and the masses; the
+decorative details being still, for the most part, derived from historic
+precedents. The architecture of the other British colonies has retained
+its provincial character, though producing from time to time individual
+works of merit. In South America and Mexico the only buildings of
+importance are Spanish, French, or German in style, according to the
+nationality of the architects employed. The following sketch of American
+architecture refers, therefore, exclusively to its development in the
+United States.
+
+
++FORMATIVE PERIOD.+ Buildings in stone were not undertaken by the early
+English colonists. The more important structures in the Southern and
+Dutch colonies were of brick imported from Europe. Wood was, however,
+the material most commonly employed, especially in New England, and its
+use determined in large measure the form and style of the colonial
+architecture. There was little or no striving for architectural elegance
+until well into the eighteenth century, when Wren’s influence asserted
+itself in a modest way in the Middle and Southern colonies. The very
+simple and unpretentious town-hall at Williamsburg, Va., and St.
+Michael’s, Charleston, are attributed to him; but the most that can be
+said for these, as for the brick churches and manors of Virginia
+previous to 1725, is that they are simple in design and pleasing in
+proportion, without special architectural elegance. The same is true of
+the wooden houses and churches of New England of the period, except that
+they are even simpler in design.
+
+From 1725 to 1775 increased population and wealth along the coast
+brought about a great advance in architecture, especially in churches
+and in the dwellings of the wealthy. During this period was developed
+the _Colonial style_, based on that of the reigns of Anne and the first
+two Georges in England, and in church architecture on the models set by
+Wren and Gibbs. All the details were, however, freely modified by the
+general employment of wood. The scarcity of architects trained in Old
+World traditions contributed to this departure from classic precision of
+form. The style, especially in interior design, reflected the cultured
+taste of the colonial aristocracy in its refined treatment of the
+woodwork. But there was little or no architecture of a truly monumental
+character. Edifices of stone were singularly few, and administrative
+buildings were small and modest, owing to insufficient grants from the
+Crown, as well as to the poverty of the colonies.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 218.--CHRIST CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA.]
+
+The churches of this period include a number of interesting designs,
+especially pleasing in the forms of their steeples. The “+Old South+” at
+Boston (now a museum), Trinity at Newport, and +St. Paul’s+ at New
+York--one of the few built of stone (1764)--are good examples of the
+style. +Christ Church+ at Philadelphia (1727-35, by Dr. Kearsley) is
+another example, historically as well as architecturally interesting
+(Fig. 218); and there are scores of other churches almost equally
+noteworthy, scattered through New England, Maryland, Virginia, and the
+Middle States.
+
+
++DWELLINGS.+ These reflect better than the churches the varying tastes
+of the different colonies. Maryland and Virginia abound in fine brick
+manor-houses, set amid extensive grounds walled in and entered through
+iron gates of artistic design. The interior finish of these houses was
+often elaborate in conception and admirably executed. Westover (1737),
+Carter’s Grove (1737) in Virginia, and the Harwood and Hammond Houses at
+Annapolis, Md. (1770), are examples. The majority of the New England
+houses were of wood, more compact in plan, more varied and picturesque
+in design than those of the South, but wanting somewhat of their
+stateliness. The interior finish of wainscot, cornices, stairs, and
+mantelpieces shows, however, the same general style, in a skilful and
+artistic adaptation of classic forms to the slender proportions of wood
+construction. Externally the orders appear in porches and in colossal
+pilasters, with well designed entablatures, and windows of Italian
+model. The influence of the Adams and Sheraton furniture is doubtless to
+be seen in these quaint and often charming versions of classic motives.
+The Hancock House, Boston (of stone, demolished); the Sherburne House,
+Portsmouth (1730); Craigie House, Cambridge (1757, Fig. 219); and
+Rumford House, North Woburn (Mass.), are typical examples.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 219.--CRAIGIE (LONGFELLOW) HOUSE, CAMBRIDGE.]
+
+In the Middle States architectural activity was chiefly centred in
+Philadelphia and New York, and one or two other towns, where a number of
+manor-houses, still extant, attest the wealth and taste of the time. It
+is noticeable that the veranda or piazza was confined to the Southern
+States, but that the climate seems to have had little influence on the
+forms of roofs. These were gambrelled, hipped, gabled, or flat, alike in
+the North and South, according to individual taste.
+
+
++PUBLIC BUILDINGS.+ Of public and monumental architecture this period
+has little to show. Large cities did not exist; New York, Boston, and
+Philadelphia were hardly more than overgrown villages. The public
+buildings--court-houses and town-halls--were modest and inexpensive
+structures. The Old State House and Faneuil Hall at Boston, the Town
+Hall at Newport (R.I.), and Independence Hall at Philadelphia, the best
+known of those now extant, are not striking architecturally. Monumental
+design was beyond the opportunities and means of the colonies. It was in
+their churches, all of moderate size, and in their dwellings that the
+colonial builders achieved their greatest successes; and these works are
+quaint, charming, and refined, rather than impressive or imposing.
+
+To the latter part of the colonial period belong a number of interesting
+buildings which remain as monuments of Spanish rule in California,
+Florida, and the Southwest. The old Fort S. Marco, now Fort Marion
+(1656-1756), and the Catholic cathedral (1793; after the fire of 1887
+rebuilt in its original form with the original façade uninjured), both
+at St. Augustine, Fla.; the picturesque buildings of the California
+missions (mainly 1769-1800), the majority of them now in ruins;
+scattered Spanish churches in California, Arizona, and New Mexico, and a
+few unimportant secular buildings, display among their modern and
+American settings a picturesque and interesting Spanish aspect and
+character, though from the point of view of architectural detail they
+represent merely a crude phase of the Churrigueresque style.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 220.--NATIONAL CAPITOL, WASHINGTON.]
+
++EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD.+ Between the Revolution and the War of 1812,
+under the new conditions of independence and self-government,
+architecture took on a more monumental character. Buildings for the
+State and National administrations were erected with the rapidly
+increasing resources of the country. Stone was more generally used;
+colonnades, domes, and cupolas or bell-towers, were adopted as
+indispensable features of civic architecture. In church-building the
+Wren-Gibbs type continued to prevail, but with greater correctness of
+classic forms. The gambrel roof tended to disappear from the houses of
+this period, and there was some decline in the refinement and delicacy
+of the details of architecture. The influence of the Louis XVI. style is
+traceable in many cases, as in the New York City Hall (1803-12, by
+_McComb_ and _Mangin_), one of the very best designs of the time, and in
+the delicate stucco-work and interior finish of many houses, The
+original +Capitol+ at Washington--the central portion of the present
+edifice--by _Thornton_, _Hallet_, and _B. H. Latrobe_ (1793-1830; Fig.
+220), the +State House+ at Boston (1795, by _Bulfinch_), and the
+University of Virginia, at Charlotteville, by _Thomas Jefferson_ (1817;
+recently destroyed in part by fire), are the most interesting examples
+of the classic tendencies of this period. Their freedom from the rococo
+vulgarities generally prevalent at the time in Europe is noticeable.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 221.--CUSTOM HOUSE, NEW YORK.]
+
++THE CLASSIC REVIVAL.+ The influence of the classic revivals of Europe
+began to appear before the close of this period, and reached its
+culmination about 1830-40. It left its impress most strongly on our
+Federal architecture, although it invaded domestic architecture,
+producing countless imitations, in brick and wooden houses, of Grecian
+colonnades and porticos. One of its first-fruits was the White House, or
+Executive Mansion, at Washington, by _Hoban_ (1792), recalling the large
+English country houses of the time. The +Treasury+ and +Patent Office+
+buildings at Washington, the Philadelphia Mint, the +Sub-treasury+ and
++Custom House+ at New York (the latter erected originally for a bank;
+Fig. 221), and the +Boston Custom House+ are among the important Federal
+buildings of this period. Several State capitols were also erected under
+the same influence; and the Marine Exchange and +Girard College+ at
+Philadelphia should also be mentioned as conspicuous examples of the
+pseudo-Greek style. The last-named building is a Corinthian dormitory,
+its tiers of small windows contrasting strangely with its white marble
+columns. These classic buildings were solidly and carefully constructed,
+but lacked the grace, cheerfulness, and appropriateness of earlier
+buildings. The Capitol at Washington was during this period greatly
+enlarged by terminal wings with fine Corinthian porticos, of Roman
+rather than Greek design. The +Dome+, by _Walters_, was not added until
+1858-73; it is a successful and harmonious composition, nobly completing
+the building. Unfortunately, it is an afterthought, built of iron
+painted to simulate marble, the substructure being inadequate to support
+a dome of masonry. The Italian or Roman style which it exemplified, in
+time superseded the less tractable Greek style.
+
+
++THE WAR PERIOD.+ The period from 1850 to 1876 was one of intense
+political activity and rapid industrial progress. The former culminated
+in the terrible upheaval of the civil war; the latter in the completion
+of the Pacific Railroad (1869) and a remarkable development of the
+mining resources and manufactures of the country. It was a period of
+feverish commercial activity, but of artistic stagnation, and witnessed
+the erection of but few buildings of architectural importance. A number
+of State capitols, city halls and churches, of considerable size and
+cost but of inferior design, attest the decline of public taste and
+architectural skill during these years. The huge Municipal Building at
+Philadelphia and the still unfinished Capitol at Albany are full of
+errors of planning and detail which twenty-five years of elaboration
+have failed to correct. Next to the dome of the Capitol at Washington,
+completed during this period, of which it is the most signal
+architectural achievement, its most notable monument was the +St.
+Patrick’s Cathedral+ at New York, by _Renwick_; a Gothic church which,
+if somewhat cold and mechanical in detail, is a stately and
+well-considered design. Its west front and spires (completed 1886) are
+particularly successful. Trinity Church (1843, by _Upjohn_) and Grace
+Church (1840, by Renwick), though of earlier date, should be classed
+with this cathedral as worthy examples of modern Gothic design. Indeed,
+the churches designed in this style by a few thoroughly trained
+architects during this period are the most creditable and worthy among
+its lesser productions. In general an undiscriminating eclecticism of
+style prevailed, unregulated by sober taste or technical training. The
+Federal buildings by _Mullett_ were monuments of perverted design in a
+heavy and inartistic rendering of French Renaissance motives. The New
+York Post Office and the State, Army and Navy Department building at
+Washington are examples of this style.
+
+
++THE ARTISTIC AWAKENING.+ Between 1870 and 1880 a remarkable series of
+events exercised a powerful influence on the artistic life of the United
+States. Two terrible conflagrations in Chicago (1871) and Boston (1872)
+gave unexampled opportunities for architectural improvement and greatly
+stimulated the public interest in the art. The feverish and abnormal
+industrial activity which followed the war and the rapid growth of the
+parvenu spirit were checked by the disastrous “panic” of 1873. With the
+completion of the Pacific railways and the settlement of new communities
+in the West, industrial prosperity, when it returned, was established on
+a firmer basis. An extraordinary expansion of travel to Europe began to
+disseminate the seeds of artistic culture throughout the country. The
+successful establishment of schools of architecture in Boston (1866) and
+other cities, and the opening or enlargement of art museums in New York,
+Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Detroit, Milwaukee, and elsewhere,
+stimulated the artistic awakening which now manifested itself. In
+architecture the personal influence of two men, trained in the Paris
+École des Beaux-Arts, was especially felt--of _R. M. Hunt_ (1827-95)
+through his words and deeds quite as much as through his works; and of
+_H. H. Richardson_ (1828-86) predominantly through his works. These two
+men, with others of less fame but of high ideals and thorough culture,
+did much to elevate architecture as an art in the public esteem. To all
+these influences new force was added by the Centennial Exhibition at
+Philadelphia (1876). Here for the first time the American people were
+brought into contact, in their own land, with the products of European
+and Oriental art. It was to them an artistic revelation, whose results
+were prompt and far-reaching. Beginning first in the domain of
+industrial and decorative art, its stimulating influence rapidly
+extended to painting and architecture, and with permanent consequences.
+American students began to throng the centres of Old World art, while
+the setting of higher standards of artistic excellence at home, and the
+development of important art-industries, were other fruits of this
+artistic awakening. The recent Columbian Exhibition at Chicago (1893),
+its latest and most important manifestation, has added a new impulse to
+the movement, especially in architecture.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 222.--TRINITY CHURCH, BOSTON.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 223.--LIBRARY AT WOBURN, MASS.]
+
++STYLE IN RECENT ARCHITECTURE.+ The rapid increase in the number of
+American architects trained in Paris or under the indirect influence of
+the École des Beaux-Arts has been an important factor in recent
+architectural progress. Yet it has by no means imposed the French
+academic formulæ upon American architecture. The conditions, materials,
+and constructive processes here prevailing, and above all the
+eclecticism of the public taste, have prevented this. The French
+influence is perceived rather in a growing appreciation of monumental
+design in the planning, composition, and setting of buildings, than in
+any direct imitation of French models. The Gothic revival which
+prevailed more or less widely from 1840 to 1875, as already noticed, and
+of which the +State Capitol+ at Hartford (Conn.; 1875-78), and the +Fine
+Arts Museum+ at Boston, were among the last important products, was
+generally confined to church architecture, for which Gothic forms are
+still largely employed, as in the Protestant +Cathedral+ of +All Saints+
+now building at Albany (N.Y.), by an English architect. For the most
+part the works of the last twenty years show a more or less judicious
+eclecticism, the choice of style being determined partly by the person
+and training of the designer, partly by the nature of the building. The
+powerfully conceived works of Richardson, in a free version of the
+French Romanesque, for a time exercised a wide influence, especially
+among the younger architects. +Trinity Church+, Boston (Fig. 222), his
+earliest important work; many public libraries and business buildings,
+and finally the impressive +County Buildings+ at Pittsburgh (Pa.), all
+treated in this style, are admirable rather for the strong individuality
+of their designer, displayed in their vigorous composition, than on
+account of the historic style he employed (Fig. 223). Yet it appeared in
+his hands so flexible and effective that it was widely imitated. But if
+easy to use, it is most difficult to use well; its forms are too massive
+for ordinary purposes, and in the hands of inferior designers it was so
+often travestied that it has now lost its wide popularity. While a
+number of able architects have continued to use it effectively in
+ecclesiastical, civic, and even commercial architecture, it is being
+generally superseded by various forms of the Renaissance. Here also a
+wide eclecticism prevails, the works of the same architect often varying
+from the gayest Francis I. designs in domestic architecture, or free
+adaptations of Quattrocento details for theatres and street
+architecture, to the most formal classicism in colossal
+exhibition-buildings, museums, libraries, and the like. Meanwhile there
+are many more or less successful ventures in other historic styles
+applied to public and private edifices. Underlying this apparent
+confusion, almost anarchy in the use of historic styles, the careful
+observer may detect certain tendencies crystallizing into definite form.
+New materials and methods of construction, increased attention to
+detail, a growing sense of monumental requirements, even the development
+of the elevator as a substitute for the grand staircase, are leaving
+their mark on the planning, the proportions, and the artistic
+composition of American buildings, irrespective of the styles used. The
+art is with us in a state of transition, and open to criticism in many
+respects; but it appears to be full of life and promise for the future.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 224.--“TIMES” BUILDING, NEW YORK.]
+
++COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS.+ This class of edifices has in our great cities
+developed wholly new types, which have taken shape under four imperative
+influences. These are the demand for fire-proof construction, the demand
+for well-lighted offices, the introduction of elevators, and the
+concentration of business into limited areas, within which land has
+become inordinately costly. These causes have led to the erection of
+buildings of excessive height (Fig. 224); the more recent among them
+constructed with a framework of iron or steel columns and beams, the
+visible walls being a mere filling-in. To render a building of twenty
+stories attractive to the eye, especially when built on an irregular
+site, is a difficult problem, of which a wholly satisfactory solution
+has yet to be found. There have been, however, some notable achievements
+in this line, in most of which the principle has been clearly recognized
+that a lofty building should have a well-marked basement or pedestal and
+a somewhat ornate crowning portion or capital, the intervening stories
+serving as a die or shaft and being treated with comparative simplicity.
+The difficulties of scale and of handling one hundred and fifty to three
+hundred windows of uniform style have been surmounted with conspicuous
+skill (+American Surety Building+ and Broadway Chambers, New York; Ames
+Building, Boston; Carnegie Building, Pittsburgh; Union Trust, St.
+Louis). In some cases, especially in Chicago and the Middle West, the
+metallic framework is suggested by slender piers between the windows,
+rising uninterrupted from the basement to the top story. In others,
+especially in New York and the East, the walls are treated as in
+ordinary masonry buildings. The Chicago school is marked by a more
+utilitarian and unconventional treatment, with results which are often
+extremely bold and effective, but rarely as pleasing to the eye as those
+attained by the more conservative Eastern school. In the details of
+American office-buildings every variety of style is to be met with; but
+the Romanesque and the Renaissance, freely modified, predominate. The
+tendency towards two or three well-marked types in the external
+composition of these buildings, as above suggested, promises, however,
+the evolution of a style in which the historic origin of the details
+will be a secondary matter. Certain Chicago architects have developed an
+original treatment of architectural forms by exaggerating some of the
+structural lines, by suppressing the mouldings and more familiar
+historic forms, and by the free use of flat surface ornament. The
+Schiller, Auditorium, and Fisher Buildings, all at Chicago, Guaranty
+Building, Buffalo, and Majestic Building, Detroit, are examples of this
+personal style, which illustrates the untrammelled freedom of the art in
+a land without traditions.[27]
+
+    [Footnote 27: See Appendix, D and E.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 225.--COUNTRY HOUSE, MASSACHUSETTS.]
+
++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ It is in this field that the most
+characteristic and original phases of American architecture are to be
+met with, particularly in rural and suburban residences. In these the
+peculiar requirements of our varying climates and of American domestic
+life have been studied and in large measure met with great frankness and
+artistic appreciation. The broad staircase-hall, serving often as a sort
+of family sitting-room, the piazza, and a picturesque massing of steep
+roofs, have been the controlling factors in the evolution of two or
+three general types which appear in infinite variations. The material
+most used is wood, but this has had less influence in the determination
+of form than might have been expected. The artlessness of the planning,
+which is arranged to afford the maximum of convenience rather than to
+conform to any traditional type, has been the element of greatest
+artistic success. It has resulted in exteriors which are the natural
+outgrowth of the interior arrangements, frankly expressed, without
+affectation of style (Fig. 225). The resulting picturesqueness has,
+however, in many cases been treated as an end instead of an incidental
+result, and the affectation of picturesqueness has in such designs
+become as detrimental as any affectation of style. In the internal
+treatment of American houses there has also been a notable artistic
+advance, harmony of color and domestic comfort and luxury being sought
+after rather than monumental effects. A number of large city and country
+houses designed on a palatial scale have, however, given opportunity for
+a more elaborate architecture; notably the Vanderbilt, Villard, and
+Huntington residences at New York, the great country-seat of +Biltmore+,
+near Asheville (N.C.), in the Francis I. style (by R. M. Hunt), and many
+others.
+
+
++OTHER BUILDINGS.+ American architects have generally been less
+successful in public, administrative, and ecclesiastical architecture
+than in commercial and domestic work. The preference for small parish
+churches, treated as audience-rooms rather than as places of worship,
+has interfered with the development of noble types of church-buildings.
+Yet there are signs of improvement; and the new +Cathedral+ of +St. John
+the Divine+ at New York, in a modified Romanesque style, promises to be
+a worthy and monumental building. In semi-public architecture, such as
+hotels, theatres, clubs, and libraries, there are many notable examples
+of successful design. The +Ponce de Leon Hotel+ at St. Augustine,
+a sumptuous and imposing pile in a free version of the Spanish
+Plateresco; the Auditorium Theatre at Chicago, the Madison Square Garden
+and the Casino at New York, may be cited as excellent in general
+conception and well carried out in detail, externally and internally.
+The Century and Metropolitan Clubs at New York, the +Boston Public
+Library+, the Carnegie Library at Pittsburgh, the +Congressional
+Library+ at Washington, and the recently completed Minnesota +State
+Capitol+ at St. Paul, exemplify in varying degrees of excellence the
+increasing capacity of American architects for monumental design. This
+was further shown in the buildings of the +Columbian Exposition+ at
+Chicago in 1893. These, in spite of many faults of detail, constituted
+an aggregate of architectural splendor such as had never before been
+seen or been possible on this side the Atlantic. They further brought
+architecture into closer union with the allied arts and formed an object
+lesson in the value of appropriate landscape gardening as a setting to
+monumental structures.
+
+It should be said, in conclusion, that with the advances of recent years
+in artistic design in the United States there has been at least as great
+improvement in scientific construction. The sham and flimsiness of the
+Civil War period are passing away, and solid and durable building is
+becoming more general throughout the country, but especially in the
+Northeast and in some of the great Western cities, notably in Chicago.
+In this onward movement the Federal buildings--post-offices,
+custom-houses, and other governmental edifices--have not, till lately,
+taken high rank. Although solidly and carefully constructed, those built
+during the period 1875-1895 were generally inferior to the best work
+produced by private enterprise, or by State and municipal governments.
+This was in large part due to enactments devolving upon the supervising
+architect at Washington the planning of all Federal buildings, as well
+as a burden of supervisory and clerical duties incompatible with the
+highest artistic results. Since 1898, however, a more enlightened policy
+has prevailed, and a number of notable designs for Federal buildings
+have been secured by carefully-conducted competitions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+INDIA, CHINA, AND JAPAN.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Cole, _Monographs of Ancient Monuments of
+  India_. Conder, _Notes on Japanese Architecture_ (in Transactions
+  of R.I.B.A., for 1886). Cunningham, _Archæological Survey of
+  India_. Fergusson, _Indian and Eastern Architecture_; _Picturesque
+  Illustrations of Indian Architecture_. Le Bon, _Les Monuments de
+  l’Inde_. Morse, _Japanese Houses_. Stirling, _Asiatic Researches_.
+  Consult also the _Journal_ and the _Transactions_ of the Royal
+  Asiatic Society.
+
+
++INTRODUCTORY NOTE.+ The architecture of the non-Moslem countries and
+races of Asia has been reserved for this closing chapter, in order not
+to interrupt the continuity of the history of European styles, with
+which it has no affinity and scarcely even a point of contact. Among
+them all, India alone has produced monuments of great architectural
+importance. The buildings of China and Japan, although interesting for
+their style, methods, and detail, and so deserving at least of brief
+mention, are for the most part of moderate size and of perishable
+materials. Outside of these three countries there is little to interest
+the general student of architecture.
+
+
++INDIA: PERIODS.+ It is difficult to classify the non-Mohammedan styles
+of India, owing to their frequently overlapping, both geographically and
+artistically; while the lack of precise dates in Indian literature makes
+the chronology of many of the monuments more or less doubtful. The
+divisions given below are a modification of those first established by
+Fergusson, and are primarily based on the three great religions, with
+geographical subdivisions, as follows:
+
+THE BUDDHIST STYLE, from the reign of Asoka, _cir._ 250 B.C., to the 7th
+century A.D. Its monuments occupy mainly a broad band running northeast
+and southwest, between the Indian Desert and the Dekkan. Offshoots of
+the style are found as far north as Gandhara, and as far south as
+Ceylon.
+
+THE JAINA STYLE, akin to the preceding if not derived from it, covering
+the same territory as well as southern India; from 1000 A.D. to the
+present time.
+
+THE BRAHMAN or HINDU STYLES, extending over the whole peninsula. They
+are sub-divided geographically into the NORTHERN BRAHMAN, the CHALUKYAN
+in the Dekkan, and the DRAVIDIAN in the south; this last style being
+coterminous with the populations speaking the Tamil and cognate
+languages. The monuments of these styles are mainly subsequent to the
+10th century, though a few date as far back as the 7th.
+
+The great majority of Indian monuments are religious--temples, shrines,
+and monasteries. Secular buildings do not appear until after the Moslem
+conquests, and most of them are quite modern.
+
+
++GENERAL CHARACTER.+ All these styles possess certain traits in common.
+While stone and brick are both used, sandstone predominating, the
+details are in large measure derived from wooden prototypes. Structural
+lines are not followed in the exterior treatment, purely decorative
+considerations prevailing. Ornament is equally lavished on all parts of
+the building, and is bewildering in its amount and complexity. Realistic
+and grotesque sculpture is freely used, forming multiplied horizontal
+bands of extraordinary richness and minuteness of execution. Spacious
+and lofty interiors are rarely attempted, but wonderful effects are
+produced by seemingly endless repetition of columns in halls, and
+corridors, and by external emphasis of important parts of the plan by
+lofty tower-like piles of masonry.
+
+The source of the various Indian styles, the origin of the forms used,
+the history of their development, are all wrapped in obscurity. All the
+monuments show a fully developed style and great command of technical
+resources from the outset. When, where, and how these were attained is
+as yet an unsolved mystery. In all its phases previous to the Moslem
+conquest Indian architecture appears like an indigenous art, borrowing
+little from foreign styles, and having no affinities with the arts of
+Occidental nations.
+
+
++BUDDHIST STYLE.+ Although Buddhism originated in the sixth century
+B.C., the earliest architectural remains of the style date from its wide
+promulgation in India under Asoka (272-236 B.C.). Buddhist monuments
+comprise three chief classes of structures: the _stupas_ or _topes_,
+which are mounds more or less domical in shape, enclosing relic-shrines
+of Buddha, or built to mark some sacred spot; _chaityas_, or temple
+halls, cut in the rock; and _viharas_, or monasteries. The style of the
+detail varies considerably in these three classes, but is in general
+simpler and more massive than in the other styles of India.
+
+
++TOPES.+ These are found in groups, of which the most important are at
+or near Bhilsa in central India, at Manikyala in the northwest, at
+Amravati in the south, and in Ceylon at Ruanwalli and Tuparamaya. The
+best known among them is the +Sanchi Tope+, near Bhilsa, 120 feet in
+diameter and 56 feet high. It is surrounded by a richly carved stone
+rail or fence, with gateways of elaborate workmanship, having three
+sculptured lintels crossing the carved uprights. The tope at Manikyala
+is larger, and dates from the 7th century. It is exceeded in size by
+many in Ceylon, that at Abayagiri measuring 360 feet in diameter. Few of
+the topes retain the _tee_, or model of a shrine, which, like a lantern,
+once crowned each of them.
+
+Besides the topes there are a few stupas of tower-like form, square in
+plan, of which the most famous is that at +Buddh Gaya+, near the sacred
+Bodhi tree, where Buddha attained divine light in 588 B.C.
+
+
++CHAITYA HALLS.+ The Buddhist speos-temples--so far as known the only
+extant halls of worship of that religion, except one at Sanchi--are
+mostly in the Bombay Presidency, at Ellora, Karli, Ajunta, Nassick, and
+Bhaja. The earliest, that at Karli, dates from 78 B.C., the latest (at
+Ellora), _cir._ 600 A.D. They consist uniformly of a broad nave ending
+in an apse, and covered by a roof like a barrel vault, and two narrow
+side aisles. In the apse is the _dagoba_ or relic-shrine, shaped like a
+miniature tope. The front of the cave was originally adorned with an
+open-work screen or frame of wood, while the face of the rock about the
+opening was carved into the semblance of a sumptuous structural façade.
+Among the finest of these caverns is that at +Karli+, whose massive
+columns and impressive scale recall Egyptian models, though the
+resemblance is superficial and has no historic significance. More
+suggestive is the affinity of many of the columns which stand before
+these caves to Persian prototypes (see Fig. 21). It is not improbable
+that both Persian and classic forms were introduced into India through
+the Bactrian kingdom 250 years B.C. Otherwise we must seek for the
+origin of nearly all Buddhist forms in a pre-existing wooden
+architecture, now wholly perished, though its traditions may survive in
+the wooden screens in the fronts of the caves. While some of these
+caverns are extremely simple, as at Bhaja, others, especially at
++Nassick+ and +Ajunta+, are of great splendor and complexity.
+
+
++VIHARAS.+ Except at Gandhara in the Punjab, the structural monasteries
+of the Buddhists were probably all of wood and have long ago perished.
+The Gandhara monasteries of Jamalgiri and Takht-i-Bahi present in plan
+three or four courts surrounded by cells. The centre of one court is in
+both cases occupied by a platform for an altar or shrine. Among the
+ruins there have been found a number of capitals whose strong
+resemblance to the Corinthian type is now generally attributed to
+Byzantine rather than Bactrian influences. These viharas may therefore
+be assigned to the 6th or 7th century A.D.
+
+The rock-cut viharas are found in the neighborhood of the chaityas
+already described. Architecturally, they are far more elaborate than the
+chaityas. Those at Salsette, Ajunta, and Bagh are particularly
+interesting, with pillared halls or courts, cells, corridors, and
+shrines. The hall of the +Great Vihara+ at +Bagh+ is 96 feet square,
+with 36 columns. Adjoining it is the school-room, and the whole is
+fronted by a sumptuous rock-cut colonnade 200 feet long. These caves
+were mostly hewn between the 5th and 7th centuries, at which time
+sculpture was more prevalent in Buddhist works than previously, and some
+of them are richly adorned with figures.
+
+
++JAINA STYLE.+ The religion and the architecture of the Jainas so
+closely resemble those of the Buddhists, that recent authorities are
+disposed to treat the Jaina style as a mere variation or continuation of
+the Buddhist. Chronologically they are separated by an interval of some
+three centuries, _cir._ 650-950 A.D., which have left us almost no
+monuments of either style. The Jaina is moreover easily distinguished
+from the Buddhist architecture by the great number and elaborateness of
+its structural monuments. The multiplication of statues of Tirthankhar
+in the cells about the temple courts, the exuberance of sculpture, the
+use of domes built in horizontal courses, and the imitation in stone of
+wooden braces or struts are among its distinguishing features.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 226.--PORCH OF TEMPLE ON MOUNT ABU.]
+
++JAINA TEMPLES.+ The earliest examples are on +Mount Abu+ in the Indian
+Desert. Built by Vimalah Sah in 1032, the chief of these consists of a
+court measuring 140 × 90 feet, surrounded by cells and a double
+colonnade. In the centre rises the shrine of the god, containing his
+statue, and terminating in a lofty tower or _sikhra_. An imposing
+columnar porch, cruciform in plan, precedes this cell (Fig. 226). The
+intersection of the arms is covered by a dome supported on eight columns
+with stone brackets or struts. The dome and columns are covered with
+profuse carving and sculptured figures, and the total effect is one of
+remarkable dignity and splendor. The temple of +Sadri+ is much more
+extensive, twenty minor domes and one of larger size forming cruciform
+porches on all four sides of the central _sikhra_. The cells about the
+court are each covered by a small _sikhra_, and these, with the
+twenty-one domes (four of which are built in three stories), all grouped
+about the central tower and adorned with an astonishing variety of
+detail, constitute a monument of the first importance. It was built by
+Khumbo Rana, about 1450. At +Girnar+ are several 12th-century temples
+with enclosed instead of open vestibules. One of these, that of
++Neminatha+, retains intact its court enclosure and cells, which in most
+other cases have perished. The temple at +Somnath+ resembles it, but is
+larger; the dome of its porch, 33 feet in diameter, is the largest Jaina
+dome in India. Other notable temples are at Gwalior, Khajuraho, and
+Parasnatha.
+
+In all the Jaina temples the salient feature is the sikhra or _vimana_.
+This is a tower of approximately square plan, tapering by a graceful
+curve toward a peculiar terminal ornament shaped like a flattened melon.
+Its whole surface is variegated by horizontal bands and vertical breaks,
+covered with sculpture and carving. Next in importance are the domes,
+built wholly in horizontal courses and resting on stone lintels carried
+by bracketed columns. These same traits appear in relatively modern
+examples, as at Delhi.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 227.--TOWER OF VICTORY, CHITTORE.]
+
++TOWERS.+ A similar predilection for minutely broken surfaces marks the
+towers which sometimes adjoin the temples, as at Chittore (tower of +Sri
+Allat+, 13th century), or were erected as trophies of victory, like that
+of +Khumbo Rana+ in the same town (Fig. 227). The combination of
+horizontal and vertical lines, the distribution of the openings, and the
+rich ornamentation of these towers are very interesting, though lacking
+somewhat in structural propriety of design.
+
+
++HINDU STYLES: NORTHERN BRAHMAN.+ The origin of this style is as yet an
+unsolved problem. Its monuments were mainly built between 600 and 1200
+A.D., the oldest being in Orissa, at Bhuwanesevar, Kanaruk, and Puri. In
+northern India the temples are about equally divided between the two
+forms of Brahmanism--the worship of Vishnu or _Vaishnavism_, and that of
+Siva or _Shaivism_--and do not differ materially in style. As in the
+Jaina style, the _vimana_ is their most striking feature, and this is in
+most cases adorned with numerous reduced copies of its own form grouped
+in successive stages against its sides and angles. This curious system
+of design appears in nearly all the great temples, both of Vishnu and
+Siva. The Jaina melon ornament is universal, surmounted generally by an
+urn-shaped finial.
+
+In plan the vimana shrine is preceded by two or three chambers, square
+or polygonal, some with and some without columns. The foremost of these
+is covered by a roof formed like a stepped pyramid set cornerwise. The
+fine porch of the ruined temple at +Bindrabun+ is cruciform in plan and
+forms the chief part of the building, the shrine at the further end
+being relatively small and its tower unfinished or ruined. In some
+modern examples the antechamber is replaced by an open porch with a
+Saracenic dome, as at Benares; in others the old type is completely
+abandoned, as in the temple at +Kantonnuggur+ (1704-22). This is a
+square hall built of terra-cotta, with four three-arched porches and
+nine towers, more Saracenic than Brahman in general aspect.
+
+The +Kandarya Mahadeo+, at Khajuraho, is the most noted example of the
+northern Brahman style, and one of the most splendid structures extant.
+A strong and lofty basement supports an extraordinary mass of roofs,
+covering the six open porches and the antechamber and hypostyle hall,
+which precede the shrine, and rising in successive pyramidal masses
+until the vimana is reached which covers the shrine. This is 116 feet
+high, but seems much loftier, by reason of the small scale of its
+constituent parts and the marvellously minute decoration which covers
+the whole structure. The vigor of its masses and the grand stairways
+which lead up to it give it a dignity unusual for its size, 60 × 109
+feet in plan (_cir._ 1000 A.D.).
+
+At Puri, in Orissa, the +Temple+ of +Jugganat+, with its double
+enclosure and numerous subordinate shrines, the Teli-ka-Mandir at
+Gwalior, and temples at +Udaipur+ near Bhilsa, at +Mukteswara+ in
+Orissa, at Chittore, Benares, and Barolli, are important examples. The
+few tombs erected subsequent to the Moslem conquest, combining Jaina
+bracket columns with Saracenic domes, and picturesquely situated palaces
+at Chittore (1450), Oudeypore (1580), and Gwalior, should also be
+mentioned.
+
+
++CHALUKYAN STYLE.+ Throughout a central zone crossing the peninsula from
+sea to sea about the Dekkan, and extending south to Mysore on the west,
+the Brahmans developed a distinct style during the later centuries of
+the Chalukyan dynasty. Its monuments are mainly comprised between 1050
+and the Mohammedan conquest in 1310. The most notable examples of the
+style are found along the southwest coast, at Hullabid, Baillur, and
+Somnathpur.
+
+
++TEMPLES.+ Chalukyan architecture is exclusively religious and its
+temples are easily recognized. The plans comprise the same elements as
+those of the Jainas, but the Chalukyan shrine is always star-shaped
+externally in plan, and the vimana takes the form of a stepped pyramid
+instead of a curved outline. The Jaina dome is, moreover, wholly
+wanting. All the details are of extraordinary richness and beauty, and
+the breaking up of the surfaces by rectangular projections is skilfully
+managed so as to produce an effect of great apparent size with very
+moderate dimensions. All the known examples stand on raised platforms,
+adding materially to their dignity. Some are double temples, as at
+Hullabid (Fig. 228); others are triple in plan. A noticeable feature of
+the style is the deeply cut stratification of the lower part of the
+temples, each band or stratum bearing a distinct frieze of animals,
+figures or ornament, carved with masterly skill. Pierced stone slabs
+filling the window openings are also not uncommon.
+
+The richest exemplars of the style are the temples at +Baillur+ and
+Somnathpur, and at Hullabîd the +Kait Iswara+ and the incomplete +Double
+Temple+. The Kurti Stambha, or gate at Worangul, and the Great Temple at
++Hamoncondah+ should also be mentioned.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 228.--TEMPLE AT HULLABÎD. DETAIL.]
+
+
++DRAVIDIAN STYLE.+ The Brahman monuments of southern India exhibit a
+style almost as strongly marked as the Chalukyan. This appears less in
+their details than in their general plan and conception. The Dravidian
+temples are not single structures, but aggregations of buildings of
+varied size and form, covering extensive areas enclosed by walls and
+entered through gates made imposing by lofty pylons called _gopuras_. As
+if to emphasize these superficial resemblances to Egyptian models, the
+sanctuary is often low and insignificant. It is preceded by much more
+imposing porches (_mantapas_) and hypostyle halls or _choultries_, the
+latter being sometimes of extraordinary extent, though seldom lofty. The
+choultrie, sometimes called the Hall of 1,000 Columns, is in some cases
+replaced by pillared corridors of great length and splendor, as at
++Ramisseram+ and +Madura.+ The plans are in most cases wholly irregular,
+and the architecture, so far from resembling the Egyptian in its scale
+and massiveness, is marked by the utmost minuteness of ornament and
+tenuity of detail, suggesting wood and stucco rather than stone. The
++Great Hall+ at Chillambaram is but 10 to 12 feet high, and the
+corridors at Ramisseram, 700 feet long, are but 30 feet high. The effect
+of _ensemble_ of the Dravidian temples is disappointing. They lack the
+emphasis of dominant masses and the dignity of symmetrical and logical
+arrangement. The very loftiness of the gopuras makes the buildings of
+the group within seem low by contrast. In nearly every temple, however,
+some one feature attracts merited admiration by its splendor, extent, or
+beauty. Such are the +Choultrie+, built by Tirumalla Nayak at Madura
+(1623-45), measuring 333 × 105 feet; the corridors already mentioned at
+Ramisseram and in the +Great Temple+ at Madura; the gopuras at
++Tarputry+ and Vellore, and the +Mantapa+ of +Parvati+ at Chillambaram
+(1595-1685). Very noticeable are the compound columns of this style,
+consisting of square piers with slender shafts coupled to them and
+supporting brackets, as at Chillambaram, Peroor, and Vellore; the richly
+banded square piers, the grotesques of rampant horses and monsters, and
+the endless labor bestowed upon minute carving and ornament in
+superposed bands.
+
+
++OTHER MONUMENTS.+ Other important temples are at Tiruvalur, Seringham,
+Tinevelly, and Conjeveram, all alike in general scheme of design, with
+enclosures varying from 300 to 1,000 feet in length and width. At
++Tanjore+ is a magnificent temple with two courts, in the larger of
+which stands a _pagoda_ or shrine with a pyramidal vimana, unusual in
+Dravidian temples, and beside it the smaller +Shrine+ of +Soubramanya+
+(Fig. 229), a structure of unusual beauty of detail. In both, the
+vertical lower story with its pilasters and windows is curiously
+suggestive of Renaissance design. The pagoda dates from the 14th, the
+smaller temple from the 15th century.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 229.--SHRINE OF SOUBRAMANYA, TANJORE.]
+
+
++ROCK-CUT RATHS.+ All the above temples were built subsequently to the
+12th century. The rock-cut shrines date in some cases as far back as the
+7th century; they are called _kylas_ and _raths_, and are not caves, but
+isolated edifices, imitating structural designs, but hewn bodily from
+the rock. Those at Mahavellipore are of diminutive size; but at
++Purudkul+ there is an extensive temple with shrine, choultrie, and
+gopura surrounded by a court enclosure measuring 250 × 150 feet (9th
+century). More famous still is the elaborate +Kylas+ at +Ellora+, of
+about the same size as the above, but more complex and complete in its
+details.
+
+
++PALACES.+ At Madura, Tanjore, and Vijayanagar are Dravidian palaces,
+built after the Mohammedan conquest and in a mixed style. The domical
+octagonal throne-room and the +Great Hall+ at Madura (17th century), the
+most famous edifices of the kind, were evidently inspired from Gothic
+models, but how this came about is not known. The Great Hall with its
+pointed arched barrel vault of 67 feet span, its cusped arches, round
+piers, vaulting shafts, and triforium, appears strangely foreign to its
+surroundings.
+
+
++CAMBODIA.+ The subject of Indian architecture cannot be dismissed
+without at least brief mention of the immense temple of +Nakhon Wat+ in
+Cambodia. This stupendous creation covers an area of a full square mile,
+with its concentric courts, its encircling moat or lake, its causeways,
+porches, and shrines, dominated by a central structure 200 feet square
+with nine pagoda-like towers. The corridors around the inner court have
+square piers of almost classic Roman type. The rich carving, the perfect
+masonry, and the admirable composition of the whole leading up to the
+central mass, indicate architectural ability of a high order.
+
+
++CHINESE ARCHITECTURE.+ No purely Mongolian nation appears ever to have
+erected buildings of first-rate importance. It cannot be denied,
+however, that the Chinese are possessed of considerable decorative skill
+and mechanical ingenuity; and these qualities are the most prominent
+elements in their buildings. Great size and splendor, massiveness and
+originality of construction, they do not possess. Built in large measure
+of wood, cleverly framed and decorated with a certain richness of color
+and ornament, with a large element of the grotesque in the decoration,
+the Chinese temples, pagodas, and palaces are interesting rather than
+impressive. There is not a single architectural monument of imposing
+size or of great antiquity, so far as we know. The celebrated +Porcelain
+Tower+ of Nankin is no longer extant, having been destroyed in the
+Tæping rebellion in 1850. It was a nine-storied polygonal pagoda 236
+feet high, revetted with porcelain tiles, and was built in 1412. The
+largest of Chinese temples, that of the +Great Dragon+ at Pekin, is a
+circular structure of moderate size, though its enclosure is nearly a
+mile square. Pagodas with diminishing stories, elaborately carved
+entrance gates and successive terraces are mainly relied upon for
+effect. They show little structural art, but much clever ornament. Like
+the monasteries and the vast _lamaseries_ of Thibet, they belong to the
+Buddhist religion.
+
+Aside from the ingenious framing and bracketing of the carpentry, the
+most striking peculiarity of Chinese buildings is their broad-spreading
+tiled roofs. These invariably slope downward in a curve, and the tiling,
+with its hip-ridges, crestings, and finials in terra-cotta or metal,
+adds materially to the picturesqueness of the general effect. Color and
+gilding are freely used, and in some cases--as in a summer pavilion at
+Pekin--porcelain tiling covers the walls, with brilliant effect. The
+chief wonder is that this resource of the architectural decorator has
+not been further developed in China, where porcelain and earthenware are
+otherwise treated with such remarkable skill.
+
+
++JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE.+ Apparently associated in race with the Chinese
+and Koreans, the Japanese are far more artistic in temperament than
+either of their neighbors. The refinement and originality of their
+decorative art have given it a wide reputation. Unfortunately the
+prevalence of earthquakes has combined with the influence of the
+traditional habits of the people to prevent the maturing of a truly
+monumental architecture. Except for the terraces, gates, and enclosures
+of their palaces and temples, wood is the predominant building material.
+It is used substantially as in China, the framing, dovetailing,
+bracketing, broad eaves and tiled roofs of Japan closely resembling
+those of China. The chief difference is in the greater refinement and
+delicacy of the Japanese details and the more monumental disposition of
+the temple terraces, the beauty of which is greatly enhanced by skillful
+landscape gardening. The gateways recall somewhat those of the Sanchi
+Tope in India (p. 403), but are commonly of wood. Owing to the danger
+from earthquakes, lofty towers and pagodas are rarely seen.
+
+The domestic architecture of Japan, though interesting for its
+arrangements, and for its sensible and artistic use of the most flimsy
+materials, is too trivial in scale, detail, and construction to receive
+more than passing reference. Even the great palace at Tokio,[28]
+covering an immense area, is almost entirely composed of one-storied
+buildings of wood, with little of splendor or architectural dignity.
+
+    [Footnote 28: See Transactions R.I.B.A., 52d year, 1886, article
+    by R. J. Conder, pp. 185-214.]
+
+  +MONUMENTS+ (additional to those in text). BUDDHIST: Topes at
+  Sanchi, Sonari, Satdara, Andher, in Central India; at Sarnath,
+  near Benares; at Jelalabad and Salsette; in Ceylon at
+  Anuradhapura, Tuparamaya, Lankaramaya.--Grotto temples (chaityas),
+  mainly in Bombay and Bengal Presidencies; at Behar, especially the
+  Lomash Rishi, and Cuttack; at Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajunta, and Ellora
+  (Wiswakarma Cave); in Salsette, the Kenheri Cave.--Viharas:
+  Structural at Nalanda and Sarnath, demolished; rock-cut in Bengal,
+  at Cuttack, Udayagiri (the Ganesa); in the west, many at Ajunta,
+  also at Bagh, Bedsa, Bhaja, Nassick (the Nahapana, Vadnya Sri,
+  etc.), Salsette, Ellora (the Dekrivaria, etc.). In Nepâl, stupas
+  of Swayanbunath and Bouddhama.
+
+  JAINA: Temples at Aiwulli, Kanaruc (Black Pagoda), and Purudkul;
+  groups of temples at Palitana, Gimar, Mount Abu, Somnath,
+  Parisnath; the Sas Bahu at Gwalior, 1093; Parswanatha and Ganthai
+  (650) at Khajuraho; temple at Gyraspore, 7th century; modern
+  temples at Ahmedabad (Huttising), Delhi, and Sonaghur; in the
+  south at Moodbidri, Sravana Belgula; towers at Chittore.
+
+  NORTHERN BRAHMAN: Temples, Parasumareswara (500 A.D.), Mukteswara,
+  and Great Temple (600-650), all at Bhuwaneswar, among many others;
+  of Papanatha at Purudkul; grotto temples at Dhumnar, Ellora, and
+  Poonah; temples at Chandravati, Udaipur, and Amritsur (the last
+  modern); tombs of Singram Sing and others at Oudeypore; of Rajah
+  Baktawar at Ulwar, and others at Goverdhun; ghâts or landings at
+  Benares and elsewhere.
+
+  CHALUKYAN: Temples at Buchropully and Hamoncondah, 1163; ruins at
+  Kalyani; grottoes of Hazar Khutri.
+
+  DRAVIDIAN: Rock-cut temples (raths) at Mahavellipore; Tiger Cave
+  at Saluvan Kuppan; temples at Pittadkul (Purudkul), Tiruvalur,
+  Combaconum, Vellore, Peroor, Vijayanagar; pavilions at Tanjore and
+  Vijayanagar.
+
+  There are also many temples in the Kashmir Valley difficult of
+  assignment to any of the above styles and religions.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+A. +PRIMITIVE GREEK ARCHITECTURE.+--The researches of Schliemann
+commented by Schuchardt, of Dörpfeld, Stamakis, Tsoundas, Perrot, and
+others, in Troy, Mycenæ, and Tiryns, and the more recent discoveries of
+Evans at Gnossus, in Crete, have greatly extended our knowledge of the
+prehistoric art of Greece and the Mediterranean basin, and established
+many points of contact on the one hand with ancient Egyptian and
+Phœnician art, and on the other, with the art of historic Greece. They
+have proved the existence of an active and flourishing commerce between
+Egypt and the Mediterranean shores and Aegean islands more than 2000
+B.C., and of a flourishing material civilization in those islands and on
+the mainland of Greece, borrowing much, but not everything, from Egypt.
+While the origin of the Doric order in the structural methods of the
+pre-Homeric architecture of Tiryns and Mycenæ, as set forth by Dörpfeld
+and by Perrot and Chipiez, can hardly be regarded as proved in all
+details, since much of the argument advanced for this derivation rests
+on more or less conjectural restorations of the existing remains, it
+seems to be fairly well established that the Doric order, and historic
+Greek architecture in general, trace their genesis in large measure back
+in direct line to this prehistoric art. The remarkable feature of this
+early architecture is the apparently complete absence of temples.
+Fortifications, houses, palaces, and tombs make up the ruins thus far
+discovered, and seem to indicate clearly the derivation of the
+temple-type of later Greek art from the primitive house, consisting of a
+hall or _megaron_ with four columns about the central hearth (whence no
+doubt, the atrium and peristyle of Roman houses, through their Greek
+intermediary prototypes) and a porch or _aithousa_, with or without
+columns _in antis_, opening directly into the _megaron_, or indirectly
+through an ante-room called the _prodomos_. Here we have the prototypes
+of the Greek temple _in antis_, with its _naos_ having interior columns,
+whether roofed over or hypæthral (see pp. 54, 55). It is probable also
+that the evidently liberal use of timber for many of the structural
+details led in time to many of the forms later developed in stone in the
+entablature of the Doric order. But it is hard to discover, as Dörpfeld
+would have it, in the slender Mycenæan columns with their inverted
+taper, the prototype of the massive Doric column with its upward taper.
+The Mycenæan column was evidently derived from wooden models; the sturdy
+Doric column--the earliest being the most massive--seems plainly derived
+from stone or rubble piers (see p. 50), and thus to have come from a
+different source from the Mycenæan forms.
+
+The _gynecæum_, or women’s apartments, the men’s apartments, and the
+bath were in these ancient palaces grouped in varying relations about
+the _megaron_: their plan, purpose, and arrangement are clearly revealed
+in the ruins of Tiryns, where they are more complete and perfect than
+either at Troy or Mycenæ.
+
+
+B. +CAMPANILES IN ITALY.+--Reference is made on page 264 to the towers
+or campaniles of the Italian Gothic style and period, and six of these
+are specifically mentioned; and on page 305 mention is also made of
+those of the Renaissance in Italy. The number and importance of the
+Italian campaniles and the interest attaching to their origin and
+design, warrant a more extended notice than has been assigned them in
+the pages cited.
+
+The oldest of these bell-towers appear to be those adjoining the two
+churches of San Apollinare in and near Ravenna (see p. 114), and date
+presumably from the sixth century. They are plain circular towers with
+few and small openings, except in the uppermost story, where larger
+arched openings permit the issue of the sound of the bells. This type,
+which might have been developed into a very interesting form of tower,
+does not seem to have been imitated. It was at Rome, and not till the
+ninth or tenth century, that the campanile became a recognized feature
+of church architecture. It was invariably treated as a structure
+distinct from the church, and was built of brick upon a square plan,
+rising with little or no architectural adornment to a height usually of
+a hundred feet or more, and furnished with but a few small openings
+below the belfry stage, where a pair of coupled arched windows separated
+by a simple column opened from each face of the tower. Above these
+windows a pyramidal roof of low pitch terminated the tower. In spite of
+their simplicity of design these Roman bell-towers often possess a
+noticeable grace of proportions, and furnish the prototype of many of
+the more elaborate campaniles erected during the Middle Ages in other
+central and north Italian cities. The towers of Sta. Maria in Cosmedin,
+Sta. Maria in Trastevere, and S. Giorgio in Velabro are examples of this
+type. Most of the Roman examples date from the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries.
+
+In other cities, the campanile was treated with some variety of form and
+decoration, as well as of material. In Lombardy and Venetia the square
+red-brick shaft of the tower is often adorned with long, narrow pilaster
+strips, as at Piacenza (p. 158, Fig. 91) and Venice, and an arcaded
+cornice not infrequently crowns the structure. The openings at the top
+may be three or four in number on each face, and even the plan is
+sometimes octagonal or circular. The brick octagonal campanile of
++S. Gottardo+ at Milan is one of the finest Lombard church towers. At
+Verona the brick tower on the Piazza dell’ Erbe and that of S. Zeno are
+conspicuous; but every important town of northern Italy possesses one or
+more examples of these structures dating from the eleventh, twelfth, or
+thirteenth century.
+
+Undoubtedly the three most noted bell-towers in Italy are those of
+Venice, Pisa, and Florence. The great +Campanile+ of +St. Mark+ at
+Venice, first begun in 874, carried higher in the twelfth and fourteenth
+centuries, and finally completed in the sixteenth century with the
+marble belvedere and wooden spire so familiar in pictures of Venice, was
+formerly the highest of all church campaniles in Italy, measuring
+approximately 325 feet to the summit. But this superb historic monument,
+weakened by causes not yet at this writing fully understood, fell in
+sudden ruin on the 14th of July, 1902, to the great loss not only of
+Venice, but of the world of art, though fortunately without injuring the
+neighboring buildings on the Piazza and Piazzetta of St. Mark. Since
+then the campanile of S. Stefano, in the same city, has been demolished
+to forestall another like disaster. The +Leaning Tower+ of Pisa (see
+p. 160, Fig. 92) dates from 1174, and is unique in its plan and its
+exterior treatment with superposed arcades. Begun apparently as a
+leaning tower, it seems to have increased this lean to a dangerous
+point, by the settling of its foundations during construction, as its
+upper stages were made to deviate slightly towards the vertical from the
+inclination of the lower portion. It has always served rather as a
+watch-tower and belvedere than as a bell-tower. The +Campanile+
+adjoining the Duomo at +Florence+ is described on p. 263 and illustrated
+in Fig. 154, and does not require further notice here. The
+black-and-white banded towers of Sienna, Lucca, and Pistoia, and the
+octagonal lanterns crowning those of Verona and Mantua, also referred to
+in the text on p. 264, need here only be mentioned again as illustrating
+the variety of treatment of these Italian towers.
+
+The Renaissance architects developed new types of campanile, and in such
+variety that they can only be briefly referred to. Some, like a brick
+tower at Perugia, are simple square towers with pilasters; more often
+engaged columns and entablatures mark the several stories, and the upper
+portion is treated either with an octagonal lantern or with diminishing
+stages, and sometimes with a spire. Of the latter class the best example
+is that of S. Biagio, at Montepulciano,--one of the two designed to
+flank the façade of Ant. da S. Gallo’s beautiful church of that name.
+One or two good late examples are to be found at Naples. Of the more
+massive square type there are examples in the towers of S. Michele,
+Venice; of the cathedral at Ferrara, Sta. Chiara at Naples, and Sta.
+Maria dell’ Anima--one of the earliest--at Rome. The most complete and
+perfect of these square belfries of the Renaissance is that of the
++Campidoglio+ at Rome, by Martino Lunghi, dating from the end of the
+sixteenth century, which groups so admirably with the palaces of the
+Capitol.
+
+
+C. +BRAMANTE’S WORKS.+--A more or less animated controversy has arisen
+regarding the authenticity of many of the works attributed to Bramante,
+and the tendency has of late been to deny him any part whatever in
+several of the most important of these works. The first of these to be
+given a changed assignment was the church of the Consolazione at Todi
+(p. 293), now believed to be by Cola di Caprarola; and it is now denied
+by many investigators that either the Cancelleria or the Giraud palace
+(p. 290) is his work, or any one of two or three smaller houses in Rome
+showing a somewhat similar architectural treatment. The evidence adduced
+in support of this denial is rather speculative and critical than
+documentary, but is not without weight. The date 1495 carved on a
+doorway of the Cancelleria palace is thought to forbid its attribution
+to Bramante, who is not known to have come to Rome till 1503; and there
+is a lack of positive evidence of his authorship of the Giraud palace
+and the other houses which seem to be by the same hand as the
+Cancelleria. To the advocates of this view there is not enough
+resemblance in style between this group of buildings and his
+acknowledged work either in Milan or in the Vatican to warrant their
+being attributed to him.
+
+It must, however, be remarked, that this notable group of works, stamped
+with the marks and even the mannerisms of a strong personality, reveal
+in their unknown author gifts amounting to genius, and heretofore deemed
+not unworthy of Bramante. It is almost inconceivable that they should
+have been designed by a mere beginner previously utterly unknown and
+forgotten soon after. It is incumbent upon those who deny the
+attribution to Bramante to find another name, if possible, on which to
+fasten the credit of these works. Accordingly, they have been variously
+attributed to Alberti (who died in 1472) or his followers; to Bernardo
+di Lorenzo, and to other later fifteenth-century artists. The difficulty
+here is to discover any name that fits the conditions even as well as
+Bramante’s; for the supposed author must have been in Rome between 1495
+and 1505, and his other works must be at least as much like these as
+were Bramante’s. No name has thus far been found satisfactory to careful
+critics; and the alternative theory, that there existed in Rome, before
+Bramante’s coming, a group of architects unknown to later fame, working
+in a common style and capable of such a masterpiece as the Cancelleria,
+does not harmonize with the generally accepted facts of Renaissance art
+history. Moreover, the comparison of these works with Bramante’s
+Milanese work on the one hand and his great Court of the Belvedere in
+the Vatican on the other, yields, to some critics, conclusions quite
+opposed to those of the advocates of another authorship than Bramante’s.
+
+The controversy must be considered for the present as still open. There
+are manifest difficulties with either of the two opposed views, and
+these can hardly be eliminated, except by the discovery of documents not
+now known to exist, whose testimony will be recognized as unimpeachable.
+
+
+D. +L’ART NOUVEAU.+--Since 1896, and particularly since the Paris
+Exposition of 1900, a movement has manifested itself in France and
+Belgium, and spread to Germany and Austria and even measurably to
+England, looking towards a more personal and original style of
+decorative and architectural design, in which the traditions and
+historic styles of the past shall be ignored. This movement has received
+from its adherents and the public the name of “L’Art Nouveau,” or,
+according to some, “L’Art Moderne”; but this name must not be held to
+connote either a really new style or a fundamentally new principle in
+art. Indeed, it may be questioned whether any clearly-defined body of
+principles whatever underlies the movement, or would be acknowledged
+equally by all its adherents. It appears to be a reaction against a too
+slavish adherence to traditional forms and methods of design (see pp.
+370, 375), a striving to ignore or forget the past rather than a
+reaching out after any well-understood, positive end; as such, it
+possesses the negative strength of protest rather than the affirmative
+strength of a vital principle. Its lack of cohesion is seen in the
+division of its adherents into groups, some looking to nature for
+inspiration, while others decry this as a mistaken quest; some seeking
+to emphasize structural lines, and others to ignore them altogether.
+All, however, are united in the avoidance of commonplace forms and
+historic styles, and this preoccupation has developed an amazing amount
+of originality and individualism of style, frequently reaching the
+extreme of eccentricity. The results have therefore been, as might be
+expected, extremely varied in merit, ranging from the most refined and
+reserved in style to the most harshly bizarre and extravagant. As a
+rule, they have been most successful in small and semi-decorative
+objects--jewelry, silverware, vases, and small furniture; and one most
+desirable feature of the movement has been the stimulus it has given
+(especially in France and England), to the organization and activity of
+“arts-and-crafts” societies which occupy themselves with the
+encouragement of the decorative and industrial arts and the diffusion of
+an improved taste. In the field of the larger objects of design, in
+which the dominance of traditional form and of structural considerations
+is proportionally more imperious, the struggle to evade these
+restrictions becomes more difficult, and results usually in more obvious
+and disagreeable eccentricities, which the greater size and permanence
+of the object tend further to exaggerate. The least successful
+achievements of the movement have accordingly been in architecture. The
+buildings designed by its most fervent disciples (_e.g._ the Pavillon
+Bleu at the Exposition of 1900, the Castel Béranger, Paris, by _H.
+Guimard_, the houses of the artist colony at Darmstadt, and others) are
+for the most part characterized by extreme stiffness, eccentricity, or
+ugliness. The requirements of construction and of human habitation
+cannot easily be met without sometimes using the forms which past
+experience has developed for the same ends; and the negation of
+precedent is not the surest path to beauty or even reasonableness of
+design. It is interesting to notice that in the intermediate field of
+furniture-design some of the best French productions recall the style of
+Louis XV., modified by Japanese ideas and spirit. This singular but not
+unpleasing combination is less surprising when we reflect that the style
+of Louis XV. was itself a protest against the formalism of the heavy
+classic architecture of preceding reigns, and achieved its highest
+successes in the domain of furniture and interior decoration.
+
+It may be fair to credit the new movement with one positive
+characteristic in its prevalent regard for line, especially for the
+effect of long and swaying lines, whether in the contours or
+ornamentation of an object. This is especially noticeable in the Belgian
+work, and in that of the Viennese “Secessionists,” who have, however,
+carried eccentricity to a further point of extravagance than any others.
+
+Whether “L’Art Nouveau” will ever produce permanent results time alone
+can show. Its present vogue is probably evanescent and it cannot claim
+to have produced a style; but it seems likely to exert on European
+architecture an influence, direct and indirect, not unlike that of the
+Néo-Grec movement of 1830 in France (p. 364), but even more lasting and
+beneficial. It has already begun to break the hold of rigid classical
+tradition in design; and recent buildings, especially in Germany and
+Austria, like the works of the brilliant _Otto Wagner_ in Vienna, show a
+pleasing freedom of personal touch without undue striving after
+eccentric novelty. Doubtless in French and other European architecture
+the same result will in time manifest itself.
+
+The search for novelty and the desire to dispense wholly with historic
+forms of design which are the chief marks of the Art Nouveau, were
+emphatically displayed in many of the remarkable buildings of the Paris
++Exhibition of 1900+, in which a striking fertility and facility of
+design in the decorative details made more conspicuous the failure to
+improve upon the established precedents of architectural style in the
+matters of proportion, scale, general composition, and contour. As usual
+the metallic construction of these buildings was almost without
+exception admirable, and the decorative details, taken by themselves,
+extremely clever and often beautiful, but the combined result was not
+satisfactory.
+
+In the United States the movement has not found a firm foothold because
+there has been no dominant, enslaving tradition to protest against. Not
+a few of the ideas, not a little of the spirit of the movement may be
+recognized in the work of individual architects and decorative artists
+in the United States, executed years before the movement took
+recognizable form in Europe: and American decorative design has
+generally been, at least since 1880 or 1885, sufficiently free,
+individual and personal, to render unnecessary and impossible any
+concerted movement of artistic revolt against slavery to precedent.
+
+
+E. +RECENT AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE.+--Architectural activity in the United
+States continues to share in the general prosperity which has marked the
+years since 1898, and this activity has by no means been confined to
+industrial and commercial architecture. Indeed, while the erection of
+“sky scrapers” or excessively lofty office-buildings has continued to be
+a feature of this activity in the great commercial centres, the most
+notable architectural enterprises of recent years have been in the field
+of educational buildings, both in the East and West. In 1898 a great
+international competition resulted in the selection of the design of Mr.
+_E. Bénard_ of Paris for a magnificent group of buildings for the
++University of California+ on a scale of unexampled grandeur, and the
+erection of this colossal project has been begun. An almost equally
+ambitious project, by a firm of Philadelphia architects, has been
+adopted for the Washington University at St. Louis; and many other
+universities and colleges have either added extensively to their
+existing buildings or planned an entire rebuilding on new designs. Among
+these the national military and naval academies at +West Point+ and
++Annapolis+ take the first rank in the extent and splendor of the
+projected improvements. Museums and libraries have also been erected or
+begun in various cities, and the +New York Public Library+, now
+building, will rank in cost and beauty with those already erected in
+Boston and Washington.
+
+In other departments mention should be made of recent Federal buildings
+(custom-houses, post-offices, and court-houses) erected under the
+provisions of the Tarsney act from designs secured by competition among
+the leading architects of the country; among those the +New York Custom
+House+ is the most important, but other buildings, at Washington,
+Indianapolis, and elsewhere, are also conspicuous, and many of them
+worthy of high praise. The tendency to award the designing of important
+public buildings, such as State capitols, county court houses, city
+halls, libraries, and hospitals, by competition instead of by personal
+and political favor, has resulted in a marked improvement in the quality
+of American public architecture.
+
+
+F. +THE ERECHTHEUM: RECENT INVESTIGATIONS.+--During the past two years,
+extensive repairs and partial restorations of the Erechtheum at Athens,
+undertaken by the Greek Archæological Society, have afforded
+opportunities for a new and thoroughgoing study of the existing portions
+of the building and of the surrounding ruins. In these investigations a
+prominent part has been borne by Mr. Gorham P. Stevens, representing the
+Archæological Institute of America, to whom must be credited, among
+other things, the demonstration of the existence, in the east wall of
+the original structure, of two windows previously unknown. Other
+peculiarities of design and construction were also discovered, which add
+greatly to the interest of the building. These investigations are
+reported in the _American Journal of Archæology_, Second Series;
+_Journal of the Archæological Institute of America_, Vol. X., No. 1, _et
+seq._ The illustrations, Figures 35 and 36, are, by Mr. Stevens’
+courtesy, based upon, though not reproductions of, his original
+drawings.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY
+
+OF TERMS NOT DEFINED IN THE TEXT.
+
+
+ALCAZAR (Span., from Arabic _Al Kasr_), a palace or castle, especially
+of a governing official.
+
+ARCHIVOLT, a band or group of mouldings decorating the wall-face of an
+arch; or a transverse arch projecting slightly from the surface of a
+barrel or groined vault.
+
+ASTYLAR, without columns.
+
+
+BALNEA, a Roman bathing establishment, less extensive than the _thermæ_.
+
+BEL ETAGE, the principal story of a building, containing the reception
+rooms and saloons; usually the second story (first above the ground
+story).
+
+BROKEN ENTABLATURE, an entablature which projects forward over each
+column or pilaster, returning back to the wall and running along with
+diminished projection between the columns, as in the Arch of Constantine
+(Fig. 63).
+
+
+CANTONED PIERS, piers adorned with columns or pilasters at the corners
+or on the outer faces.
+
+CARTOUCHE (Fr.), an ornament shaped like a shield or oval. In Egyptian
+hieroglyphics, the oval encircling the name of a king.
+
+CAVETTO, a concave, quarter-round moulding.
+
+CHEVRON, a V-shaped ornament.
+
+CHRYSELEPHANTINE, of ivory and gold; used of statues in which the nude
+portions are of ivory and the draperies of gold.
+
+CONSOLE, a large scroll-shaped bracket or ornament, having its broadest
+curve at the bottom.
+
+CORINTHIANESQUE, resembling the Corinthian; used of capitals having
+corner-volutes and acanthus leaves, but combined otherwise than in the
+classic Corinthian type.
+
+
+EMPAISTIC, made of, or overlaid with, sheet-metal beaten or hammered
+into decorative patterns.
+
+EXEDRÆ, curved seats of stone; niches or recesses, sometimes of
+considerable size, provided with seats for the public.
+
+
+FENESTRATION, the whole system or arrangement of windows and openings in
+an architectural composition.
+
+FOUR-PART. A four-part vault is a groined vault formed by the
+intersection of two barrel vaults. Its diagonal edges or _groins_ divide
+it into four sections, triangular in plan, each called a _compartment_.
+
+
+GIGANTOMACHIA, a group or composition representing the mythical combat
+between the gods and the giants.
+
+
+HALF-TIMBERED, constructed with a timber framework showing externally,
+and filled in with masonry or brickwork.
+
+
+IMAUM, imâm, a Mohammedan priest.
+
+
+KAABAH, the sacred shrine at Meccah, a nearly cubical structure hung
+with black cloth.
+
+KARAFAH, a region in Cairo containing the so-called tombs of the
+Khalifs.
+
+
+LACONICUM, the sweat-room in a Roman bath; usually of domical design in
+the larger thermæ.
+
+
+MEZZANINE, a low, intermediate story.
+
+MUEDDIN, a Mohammedan mosque-official who calls to prayer.
+
+
+NARTHEX, a porch or vestibule running across the front of a basilica or
+church.
+
+NEO-GOTHIC, NEO-MEDIÆVAL, in a style which seeks to revive and adapt or
+apply to modern uses the forms of the Middle Ages.
+
+
+OCULUS, a circular opening, especially in the crown of a dome.
+
+OGEE ARCH, one composed of two juxtaposed S-shaped or wavy curves,
+meeting in a point at the top.
+
+
+PALÆSTRA, an establishment among the ancient Greeks for physical
+training.
+
+PAVILION (Fr. _pavillon_), ordinarily a light open structure of ornate
+design. As applied to architectural composition, a projecting section of
+a façade, usually rectangular in plan, and having its own distinct mass
+of roof.
+
+
+QUARRY ORNAMENT, any ornament covering a surface with two series of
+reticulated lines enclosing approximately quadrangular spaces or meshes.
+
+QUATREFOIL, with four leaves or _foils_; composed of four arcs of
+circles meeting in cusps pointing inward.
+
+QUOINS, slightly projecting blocks of stone, alternately long and short,
+decorating or strengthening a corner or angle of a façade.
+
+
+REVETMENT, a veneering or sheathing.
+
+RUSTICATION, treatment of the masonry with blocks having roughly broken
+faces, or with deeply grooved or bevelled joints.
+
+
+SOFFIT, the under-side of an architrave, beam, arch, or corona.
+
+SPANDRIL, the triangular wall-space between two contiguous arches.
+
+SQUINCH, a bit of conical vaulting filling in the angles of a square so
+as to provide an octagonal or circular base for a dome or lantern.
+
+STOA, an open colonnade for public resort.
+
+
+TEPIDARIUM, the hot-water hall or chamber of a Roman bath.
+
+TYMPANUM, the flat space comprised between the horizontal and raking
+cornices of a pediment, or between a lintel and the arch over it.
+
+
+VOUSSOIR, any one of the radial stones composing an arch.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF ARCHITECTS.
+
+The _surname_ is in all cases followed by a comma.
+
+  Abadie, 373
+  Adams, Robert 234
+  Agnolo, Baccio d’ 291
+  Agnolo, Gabriele d’ 287
+  Alberti, Leo Battista 277, 280
+  Alessi, Galeazzo 299, 302
+  Ammanati, Bartolomeo 300
+  Anselm, Prior 219
+  Anthemius of Tralles, 127
+  Antonio, Master 259
+  Arnold, Master 243
+  Arnolfo di Cambio, 162, 265
+
+  Baccio D’ Agnolo, 291
+  Ballu, 371, 373
+  Baltard, Victor 371
+  Barry, Sir Charles 380
+  Bassevi, 356
+  Battista, Juan 351
+  Benci di Cione, 266
+  Benedetto da Majano, 280, 281
+  Bernardo di Lorenzo, 282
+  Bernini, Lorenzo 295, 303, 319
+  Berruguete, Alonzo 348, 350
+  Bianchi, 305
+  Bondone, Giotto di 258, 263, 272
+  Boromini, Francesco 303, 304
+  Borset, 334
+  Bramante Lazzari, 289, 290, 294, 295, 321
+  Brandon, Richard 378
+  Bregno, Antonio 284
+  Brongniart, 363
+  Brunelleschi, Filippo 275, 276, 280, 281, 289
+  Bullant, Jean 316, 317
+  Bulfinch, Charles 390
+  Buon, Bartolomeo 284
+  Buonarotti, Michael Angelo 289, 292, 294, 295, 296, 299
+  Burges, William 380
+
+  Callicrates, 63
+  Cambio, Arnolfo di 162, 265
+  Campbell, Colin 333
+  Campello, 255
+  Caprarola, Cola da 293
+  Caprino, Meo del 286
+  Chalgrin, 362
+  Chambers, Sir William 333
+  Chambiges, Pierre 313
+  Chrismas, Gerard 327
+  Christodoulos, 150
+  Churriguera, 348, 352
+  Cimabue, 258
+  Civitale, Matteo 281, 283
+  Columbe, Michel 310
+  Cortona, Domenico di 316
+  Cossutius, 68
+  Cronaca, 280, 291
+
+  Dance, George 334
+  De Brosse, Salomon 318, 319
+  De Fabris, 261
+  De Key, Lieven 336
+  De Keyser, Hendrik 336
+  Della Porta, Giacomo 292, 299, 300
+  Della Robbia, Luca 281
+  De l’Orme, Philibert 316, 317
+  Déperthes, 373
+  Derrand, François 319
+  Desiderio da Settignano, 281
+  De Tessin, Nicodemus 337
+  De Vriendt (or Floris), Cornelius 334, 335
+  Diego de Siloë, 348
+  Domenico di Cortona, 316
+  Donatello, 275
+  Dosio, Giovanni Antonio 291
+  Duban, Félix 364
+  Duc, 364, 365
+  Du Cerceau, Jean Batiste 318
+
+  Edington, 226
+  Emerson, William 382
+  Enrique de Egaz, 349
+  Erwin von Steinbach, 241
+
+  Fain, Pierre 310
+  Federighi, Antonio 282
+  Ferstel, H. von 375
+  Fiesole, Mino da 281
+  Filarete, Antonio 283
+  Flitcroft, 333
+  Floris (De Vriendt), Cornelius 334, 335
+  Fontaine, 362
+  Fontana, Domenico 295, 299, 300, 304
+  Fra Giocondo, 286
+  Fra Ristoro, 256
+  Fra Sisto, 256
+  Fuga, Ferdinando 305
+
+  Gabriel, Jacques Ange 324, 367
+  Gabriele d’Agnolo, 287
+  Gaddi, Taddeo 263
+  Gadyer, Pierre 315
+  Galilei, Alessandro 305
+  Garnier, Charles 372
+  Gerhardt von Riel, 243
+  Giacomo di Pietrasanta, 286
+  Gibbs, James 332, 333, 356, 385
+  Giocondo, Fra 286
+  Giotto di Bondone, 258, 263, 272
+  Giuliano da Majano, 286, 287
+  Giulio Romano, 289, 292
+  Goujon, Jean 316, 321
+  Gumiel, Pedro 349
+
+  Hallet, Stephen (Étienne) 389
+  Hansen, Theophil 360
+  Have, Theodore 327
+  Hawksmoor, 332
+  Hendrik de Keyser, 336
+  Henri de Narbonne, 249
+  Henry of Gmünd, 255
+  Herrera, Francisco 352
+  Herrera, Juan d’ 348, 350, 351
+  Hitorff, J. J. 364, 372
+  Hoban, Thomas 390
+  Holbein, Hans 327
+  Hübsch, Heinrich 375, 376
+  Hunt, Richard M. 393
+
+  Ictinus, 62, 63, 65
+  Isodorus of Miletus, 127
+  Ivara, Ferdinando 352, 365
+
+  Jacobus of Meruan, 255
+  Jansen, Bernard 327
+  Jefferson, Thomas 390
+  John, Master 243
+  John of Padua, 328
+  Jones, Inigo 328, 332, 333
+  Juan Battista, 351
+  Junckher of Cologne, 241
+
+  Kearsley, Dr. 386
+  Kent, 333
+  Klenze, Leo von 359, 360, 367
+
+  Labrouste, Henri 364
+  Lassus, J. B. A. 371
+  Latrobe, Benjamin H. 389
+  Laurana, Francesco 310
+  Laurana, Luciano 287
+  Le Breton, Gilles 313
+  Lefuel, Hector 372
+  Lemercier, Jacques 312, 319, 322
+  Le Nepveu, Pierre 314
+  Lescot, Pierre 316, 321
+  Le Vau (or Levau) 320
+  Lieven de Key, 336
+  Ligorio, Pirro 293
+  Lippi, Annibale 293
+  Lira, Valentino di 343
+  Lombardi, Antonio 284
+  Lombardi, Martino 284
+  Lombardi, Moro 284
+  Lombardi, Pietro 284
+  Lombardi, Tullio 284, 293
+  Longhena, Baldassare 304
+  Lorenzo, Bernardo di 282
+  Louis, Victor 362
+  Luca della Robbia, 281
+  Lunghi, Martino (the elder) 304, 305
+
+  Machuca, 351
+  Maderna, Carlo 295, 303
+  Majano, Benedetto da 280, 281
+  Majano, Giuliano da 286, 287
+  Mansart, François 322
+  Mansart, Jules Hardouin 320, 321, 322
+  Marchionne, 305
+  Marini, Giovanni 339
+  Martino, Pietro di 287
+  Matthew of Arras, 243
+  Meo del Caprino, 286
+  Meruan, Jacobus of 255
+  Métézeau, 318
+  Michelozzi, Michelozzo 279, 283
+  Mino da Fiesole, 281
+  Mnesicles, 65
+  Mullet, A. B. 392
+
+  Narbonne, Henri de 249
+  Nénot, Henri P. 374
+
+  Ohlmüller, 375
+
+  Palladio, Andrea 299, 301, 319, 328, 350
+  Percier, Charles 362
+  Perrault, Claude 320
+  Peruzzi, Baldassare 289, 291, 292, 294
+  Phidias, 62
+  Philibert de l’Orme, 316, 317
+  Pietrasanta, Giacomo di 286
+  Pintelli, Baccio 286
+  Pisano, Giovanni 260
+  Pisano, Niccolo 272
+  Polaert, 382
+  Poyet, 363
+  Pugin, A. Welby 378
+  Pythius, 71
+
+  Raphael Sanzio, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293
+  Renwick, James 391, 392
+  Revett, Nicholas 355, 358
+  Richardson, Henry H. 393, 394
+  Rickman, Thomas 378
+  Riel, Gerhardt von 243
+  Ristoro, Fra 256
+  Rizzio, Antonio 284
+  Romano, Giulio 289, 292
+  Rossellini, Bernardo 286
+  Ruiz, Fernando 352
+
+  Salvi, Niccola 305
+  Sammichele, Michele 293, 299, 300, 329
+  San Gallo, Antonio da (the Elder) 294
+  San Gallo, Antonio da (the Younger) 289, 291, 294
+  San Gallo, Giuliano da 278, 291, 292, 294
+  Sansovino, Giacopo Tatti 289, 293, 299, 300, 304
+  Satyrus, 71
+  Scamozzi, Vincenzo 299, 339
+  Schinkel, Friedrich 358, 360, 376
+  Schmidt, F. 378
+  Scott (General) 382
+  Scott, Sir Gilbert 380
+  Semper, Ottfried 376
+  Sens, William of 219
+  Servandoni, 323
+  Settignano, Desiderio da 281
+  Shaw, Norman 382
+  Siccardsburg, 376
+  Smirke, Robert 356
+  Smithson, Robert 328
+  Soane, Sir John 356
+  Soufflot, J. J. 362
+  Steinbach, Erwin von 241
+  Stella, Paolo della 339
+  Stern, Raphael 305, 365
+  Street, George Edmund 380
+  Stuart, James 355, 358
+  Stuhler, 359
+
+  Talenti, Francesco Di 259, 263
+  Talenti, Simone di 266
+  Taylor, Robert 334
+  Tessin, Nicodemus de 337
+  Thomson, Alexander 357
+  Thornton, 389
+  Thorpe, John 328
+  Titz, 376
+  Torregiano, 327
+  Trevigi, 327
+
+  Upjohn, Richard 392
+
+  Val Del Vira, 348
+  Valentino di Lira, 343
+  Van Aken, 343
+  Van Brugh, Sir John 332
+  Van Noort, William 336
+  Van Noye, Sebastian 336
+  Van Vitelli, 304
+  Vasari, Giorgio 162
+  Viart, Charles 311
+  Viel, 372
+  Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da 289, 292, 296, 299, 300, 301
+  Vignon, Pierre 362
+  Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene Emmanuel 370, 371
+  Vischer, Kaspar 343
+  Vischer, Peter 347
+  Visconti, Louis T. J. 371, 372
+  Vitoni, Ventura 293
+  Vitruvius, 56, 71, 77
+  Von der Null, 376
+
+  Wallot, Paul 377
+  Wallot, Jean 333
+  Walter, Thomas Ustick 391
+  Waterhouse, Alfred 381
+  Webb, Aston 382
+  Wilkins, 357
+  William of Sens, 219
+  William of Wykeham, 222, 226
+  Wood, 333
+  Wren, Sir Christopher 329, 331, 332, 356, 385
+
+  Ziebland, 375
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+The buildings are arranged according to location. Those which appear
+only in the lists of monuments at the ends of chapters are omitted.
+_Numerals in parentheses refer to illustrations._
+
+  ABAYAGIRI.
+    Tope, 403
+  ABBEVILLE. St.
+    Wulfrand, 209, 213
+  ABU-SEIR.
+    Stepped pyramid, 9
+  ABYDOS.
+    Columns, 12.
+    Temple, 19, 21.
+    Tombs, 11 (+5+)
+  ADDEH.
+    Grotto-temple, 22
+  ÆMILIA.
+    Churches in, 157, 262
+  AGRA, 149.
+    Pearl Mosque, 148.
+    Taj Mahal, 148 (+86+)
+  AGRIGENTUM.
+    Temple of Zeus, 56, 61 (+33+)
+  AHMEDABAD, 148
+  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.
+    Minster (palatine Chapel), 172.
+    Palace of Charlemagne, 176
+  AIZANOI.
+    Temple of Zeus, 67.
+    Theatre, 70
+  AJMIR, 148
+  AJUNTA.
+    Brahman Chaityas, 404;
+    viharas, 405
+  ALBANO.
+    Tomb, 89
+  ALBANY.
+    All Saints’ Cathedral, 394.
+    Capitol, 391
+  ALBY Cathedral, 185, 205, 206, 212, 249 (+123+)
+  ALCALA DE HEÑARES, 352.
+    Archepiscopal Palace, 350.
+    College, 349
+  ALCANTARA.
+    Bridge, 108
+  ALENÇON Cathedral, 209, 213
+  ALEXANDRIA TROAS.
+    Palæstra, 71.
+  ALLAHABAD.
+    Akbar’s Palace, 148
+  ALTENBURG Cathedral, 242.
+    Town hall, 344
+  AMADA.
+    Columns, 12
+  AMBOISE Castle, 310
+  AMIENS Cathedral, 189, 197, 201, 203, 205, 206, 219, 232 (+122+);
+    west front of, 207, 208, 212, 227
+  AMRAVATI.
+    Topes, 403
+  AMSTERDAM.
+    Bourse (Exchange) Hanse House, Town hall, 336
+  ANCY LE FRANC.
+    Château, 317
+  ANET.
+    Château, 317
+  ANGERS.
+    Cathedral S. Maurice, 200.
+    Hospital, 214
+  ANGORA (Ancyra), 118
+  ANGOULÊME Cathedral, 164
+  ANI, 134
+  ANNAPOLIS.
+    Harwood and Hammond Houses, 386
+  ANTIOCH, 115
+  ANTIPHELLUS.
+    Theatre, 70.
+    Tombs, 72
+  ANTWERP
+    Cathedral, 190, 246, 247.
+    Town Hall, 334, 336
+  AQUITANIA.
+    Churches of, 164, 167, 168, 179, 373
+  ARANJUEZ.
+    Palace, 352
+  AREZZO Cathedral, 257.
+    Sta. Maria della Pieve, 159
+  ARGOS.
+    Gates, 45
+  ARIZONA.
+    Spanish churches in, 388
+  ARLES.
+    St. Trophime, 165
+  ASCHAFFENBURG.
+    Church, 243
+  ASHEVILLE.
+    Biltmore House, 399
+  ASIA MINOR, 53, 55, 58, 62, 66, 122
+  ASPENDUS.
+    Theatre, 70
+  ASSISI.
+    Church of St. Francis (S. Francesco), 255, 256, 258
+  ASSOS, 55.
+    Public cquare, 69.
+    Temple, 61
+  ASTI.
+    Church, 256
+  ASTORGA.
+    Rood-screen, 352
+  ATHENS.
+    Academy, 365.
+    Acropolis, 65, 69.
+    Agora Gate, 68.
+    Cathedral, 134.
+    Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, 66 (+30+, +38+).
+    Erechtheum, 64 (+35+, +36+).
+    Museum, 365.
+    Odeion of Regilla (of Herodes Atticus), 68, 69, 70.
+    Parthenon, 56, 58, 63, 64, 131, 359 (Frontispiece, +31+ d, +34+).
+    Propylæa, 58, 65, 69, 358 (+37+).
+    Stoa of Attalus, 67.
+    Temple of Nike Apteros, 64, 65.
+    Temple of Olympian Zeus, 68 (+39+).
+    Theatre of Dionysus, 69, 70.
+    Theseum (Temple of Theseus or Heracles), 62.
+    Tower of Winds (Clepsydra of Cyrrhestes), 53, 67.
+    University, 365
+  ATTICA, 50, 55
+  AUGSBURG.
+    Town hall, 344
+  AUSTRIA, 330
+  AUTUN Cathedral, 166, 167
+  AUVERGNE.
+    Churches, 204
+  AUXERRE Cathedral, 197, 201
+  AVIGNON.
+    Notre Dame Des Doms, 165
+  AVILA.
+    S. Vincente, 180, 247;
+    Tombs in, 352
+  AZAY-LE-RIDEAU.
+    Château, 316
+
+  BAALBEC (Heliopolis), 83.
+    Circular Temple, 94.
+    Temple of Sun, 92
+  BAB-EL-MOLOUK, 14
+  BAGDAD.
+    Tombs, etc., 145, 146
+  BAGH.
+    Viharas, Great Vihara, 405
+  BAILLUR.
+    Temples, 409, 410
+  BAMBERG.
+    Church, 243
+  BARCELONA.
+    Cathedral, 189, 249.
+    Sta. Maria del Pi, 249
+  BAROLLI.
+    Hindu Temple, 409
+  BASLE.
+    Spahlenthor, 246
+  BASSÆ (Phigalæa).
+    Temple of Apollo Epicurius, 65
+  BATALHA.
+    Church, mausoleum, 251
+  BAVARIA, 342
+  BAYEUX Cathedral, 197, 205
+  BAYONNE Cathedral, 197
+  BEAUGENCY.
+    Town hall, 316
+  BEAUMESNIL.
+    Château, 319
+  BEAUNE.
+    Hospital, 214
+  BEAUVAIS Cathedral, 189, 197, 211, 219;
+    chapels, 205;
+    size, 206, 211, 212, 243
+  BEIT-EL-WALI.
+    Rock-cut Temple, 22
+  BELEM.
+    Church, 251, 352.
+    Cloister, tower, 352
+  BELGIUM, 334.
+  BENARES.
+    Hindu Temples, 408, 409
+  BENI HASSAN.
+    Columns, 11, 24, 50.
+    Speos Artemidos, 22.
+    Tombs, 11 (+6+, +7+)
+  BERGAMO.
+    Town Hall, 266
+  BERLIN.
+    Bauschule, 376.
+    Brandenburg Gate, 358.
+    Old Museum, 359 (+200+).
+    New Museum, 359.
+    Parliament House, 377.
+    Theatres, 360, 376
+  BETHLEHEM.
+    Church of the Nativity, 115
+  BHAJA.
+    Chaityas, 404
+  BHILSA.
+    Topes, 403
+  BHUWANESWAR.
+    Hindu temples, 408
+  BIDAR, 146
+  BIJAPUR.
+    Tomb of Mahmud, 148, 153 (+85+).
+    Jumma Musjid, 148.
+    Mogul architecture, 149
+  BILTMORE House, 399
+  BINDRABUN.
+    Ruined temple, 408
+  BIRS NIMROUD.
+    Stepped pyramid, 31
+  BLENHEIM House, 332 (+188+)
+  BLOIS.
+    Château of, 216, 310, 313 (+175+, +176+)
+  BOHEMIA, 338
+  BOLOGNA, 157.
+    Brick houses, 266.
+    Campo Santo, 382.
+    Frati di S. Spirito, 279.
+    Local style, 283.
+    Pal. Bevilacqua, Pal. Fava, 283.
+    Palazzo Communale (town Hall), 266.
+    Renaissance churches in, 277, 293.
+    S. Francesco, 256, 263.
+    S. Petronio, 257, 258, 259, 263.
+    Sta. Maria dei Servi, 263
+  BONN.
+    Minster, 174.
+    Baptistery, 175
+  BORDEAUX.
+    Cathedral, spires, 209.
+    Grand Théatre, 362
+  BOSTON.
+    Ames Building, 397.
+    Custom House, 390.
+    Faneuil Hall, 388.
+    Fine Arts Museum, 394.
+    Hancock House, 387.
+    Old State House, 388.
+    Old South Church, 386.
+    Public Library, 399.
+    State House, 390.
+    Trinity Church, 394 (+222+)
+  BOURGES Cathedral, 189, 197, 199, 202, 249;
+    chapels, 205;
+    size, 206;
+    portals, 208.
+    House of Jacques Cœur, 215 (+127+)
+  BOURNAZEL.
+    Château, 315
+  BOWDEN PARK, 357
+  BOZRAH Cathedral, 117 (+70+)
+  BRANDENBURG.
+    St. Catherine, St. Godehard, 244
+  BREMEN.
+    Town hall, 246, 344
+  BRESCIA.
+    Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, 287
+  BRIEG.
+    Piastenschloss, 343
+  BRISTOL Cathedral, piers, 178
+  BRUGES.
+    Ancien Greffe, 334.
+    Cloth hall, 247.
+    Ste. Anne, 334.
+    Town hall, 247
+  BRUNSWICK.
+    Burg Dankwargerode, 176.
+    Town hall, 246
+  BRUSA, 150
+  BRUSSELS.
+    Bourse, 382.
+    Cathedral (ste. Gudule), 246.
+    Pal. de Justice, 382.
+    Renaissance Houses, 335 (+190+).
+    Town Hall, 247
+  BUBASTIS.
+    Temple, 13
+  BUDA-PESTH.
+    Synagogue, 378
+  BUDDH GAYA.
+    Tope or stupa, 404
+  BUFFALO.
+    Guaranty Building, 397
+  BULACH.
+    Basilica, 375
+  BURGUNDY.
+    Cathedrals in, 197
+  BURGHLEY House, 328 (+184+)
+  BURY.
+    Château, 315
+  BURGOS Cathedral, 248, 249, 251 (+145+)
+  BYZANTIUM, 92; See Constantinople
+
+  CAEN.
+    Churches, 167, 178;
+      St. Étienne (Abbaye aux Hommes) and Ste. Trinité
+          (Abbaye aux Dames), 168;
+      St. Pierre, 312.
+    Hôtel D’Écoville, 316
+  CAHORS Cathedral, 164
+  CAIRO.
+    Karafah (Tombs of Khalîfs), 137, 138, 139.
+    Mohammedan monuments (list), 136, 153.
+    Mosque of Amrou, 136;
+      of Ibn Touloun, 136;
+      of Barkouk, 137;
+      of Kalaoun, 137;
+      of Sultan Hassan, 137, 138 (+80+);
+      of El Muayyad, 137;
+      of Kaîd Bey, 137 (+81+)
+  CALIFORNIA.
+    Spanish missions and churches, 388
+  CAMBODIA.
+    Temple of Nakhon Wat, 413
+  CAMBRAY Cathedral, 197
+  CAMBRIDGE.
+    Caius College, Gate of Honor, 328.
+    Fitzwilliam Museum, 356.
+    King’s College Chapel, 223, 227, 234.
+    Trinity College Library, 332
+  CAMBRIDGE (Mass.).
+    Craigie (Longfellow) House, 387 (+219+)
+  CANTERBURY Cathedral, 219;
+    central tower of, 228;
+    chapels, 231;
+    transepts, 232;
+    minor works in, 234
+  CAPRAROLA.
+    Palace of, 300
+  CAPUA.
+    Amphitheatre, 103
+  CARIA, 71; see Halicamassus
+  CARINTHIA, 338, 339
+  CARLTON House, 357
+  CARTER’S GROVE, 386
+  CASERTA.
+    Royal Palace, 304
+  CASTLE HOWARD, 332
+  CÉRISY-LA-FORÊT.
+    Church, 178
+  CEYLON.
+    Topes, 403
+  CHAISE-DIEU.
+    Cloister, 213
+  CHÂLONS (Châlons-sur-Marne) Cathedral, 205
+  CHALVAU.
+    Château, 314
+  CHAMBORD.
+    Château, 314 (+177+, +178+)
+  CHANTILLY. “Petit Château,” 317
+  CHARLESTON.
+    St. Michael’s, 385
+  CHARLOTTEVILLE.
+    University of Virginia, 390
+  CHARLTON Hall, 328
+  CHARLTON-ON-OXMORE. Plate tracery (+110+)
+  CHARTRES
+    Cathedral, 197, 201, 203;
+      chapels of, 205;
+      size of, 206;
+      W. front, 207;
+      transept porches, 208;
+      spires, 209;
+      capital from (+126+ C).
+    hospital, 214
+  CHEMNITZ Cathedral, 245
+  CHENONCEAUX.
+    Château, 316, 317
+  CHIARAVALLE.
+    Certosa, 255
+  CHICAGO.
+    Auditorium Theatre, 399.
+    Columbian Exposition, 393, 399.
+    Masonic Building, 396.
+    Fisher Building, Schiller Building, 397
+  CHICHESTER Cathedral, spire, 229
+  CHIHUAHUA.
+    Church, 352
+  CHILLAMBARAM.
+    Dravidian Temple, Mantapa of Parvati, 411
+  CHISWICK.
+    Villa, 328, 329
+  CHITTORE.
+    Hindu temples, 409.
+    Palace, 409.
+    Towers, 407, 408 (+227+)
+  CLERMONT (Clermont-Ferrand)
+    Cathedral, 197;
+      chapels of, 205, 212.
+    Notre-Dame-du-Port, 165, 204 (+96+, +97+)
+  CLUNY.
+    Abbey Church, 166.
+    Houses at, 214.
+    Hôtel de (at Paris), 216
+  COBLENTZ.
+    Church of St. Castor, 237
+  COIMBRA.
+    Sta. Cruz, 352
+  COLESHILL.
+    House, 329
+  COLOGNE.
+    Apostles’ Church, 174, 243 (+101+).
+    Cathedral, 189, 192, 205, 243, 249;
+      vaulting of, 239;
+      spires, 240, 241;
+      plan, 189, 205, 242 (+141+).
+    Church of St. Mary-in-the-Capitol, 174.
+    Great St. Martin’s, 174, 243.
+    Romanesque Houses, Etc., 176
+  COMO.
+    Town hall (broletto), 266
+  COMPOSTELLA.
+    St. Iago, 180
+  CONJEVERAM.
+    Dravidian temple, 411
+  CONSTANTINE.
+    Amphitheatre, 92
+  CONSTANTINOPLE, 120.
+    Byzantine monuments (list), 134.
+    Church of Hagia Sophia (Santa Sophia, Divine Wisdom),
+      111, 123, 124, 127-131, 132, 133, 150, 151
+      (+72+, +75+, +76+, +77+).
+    Church of the Apostles, 132.
+    Early Christian monuments (list), 119.
+    Fountains, Fountain of Ahmet III., 152, 153.
+    Mosque of Ahmet II. (Ahmediyeh), 151 (+88+);
+      of Mehmet II., 150, 151 (+87+);
+      of Osman III. (Nouri Osman), 151;
+      of Soliman (Suleimaniyeh), 151 (+89+);
+      of Yeni Djami, 151.
+    Palaces, 153.
+    St. Bacchus, 127.
+    St. John Studius (Emir Akhor mosque), 118.
+    St. Sergius, 117, 127 (+74+).
+    Tchinli Kiosque (Imperial Museum), 153;
+      sarcophagi in, 66.
+    Tombs, 152.
+    Turkish mosques, 150
+  COPENHAGEN.
+    Exchange, Fredericksborg, 336
+  CORDOVA, 141;
+    Great Mosque, 142, 143 (+83+)
+  CORINTH.
+    Temple of Zeus, 60
+  COUTANCES Cathedral, 197;
+    chapels of, 205;
+    spires, 209
+  CRACOW Castle, 338.
+    Chapel of Jagellons,  338
+  CREMONA.
+    Town hall, 266
+  CTESIPHON.
+    Tâk-kesra, 145
+
+  DAMASCUS, Mosque of El-walîd, 136
+  DANTZIC.
+    Town hall, 344
+  DASHOUR.
+    Pyramid, 9
+  DEIR-EL-BAHARI.
+    Tomb-temple of Hatasu, 15, 21
+  DEIR-EL-MEDINEH.
+    Temple of Hathor, 19
+  DELHI.
+    Jaina Temples, 407.
+    Jumma Musjid, 148.
+    Mogul Architecture of, 149.
+    Palace of Shah Jehan, 148.
+    Pathan arches, Etc., 148
+  DELOS.
+    Gates, 45;
+    Portico of Philip, 67
+  DENDERAH.
+    Temple of Hathor, 17.
+    Group of Temples, 22, 24.
+    Hathoric columns, 24
+  DETROIT.
+    Majestic Building, 397
+  DIEPPE.
+    Church of St. Jacques, 213
+  DIJON.
+    St. Michel, 312
+  DOL Cathedral, east end, 205
+  DRESDEN.
+    Castle, Georgenflügel, 342.
+    Church of St. Mary (Marienkirche) 346 (+194+).
+    Theatre, 376 (+213+).
+    Zwinger Palace, 346 (+193+)
+  DRÜGELTE.
+    Circular church, 175
+  DURHAM Cathedral, 177, 178, 220, 221 (+102+);
+    central tower of, 228;
+    Chapel of Nine Altars, 232
+
+  EARL’S BARTON.
+    Tower, 176
+  ECOUEN.
+    Château, 316
+  EDFOU.
+    Great Temple, 16, 17, 22 (+9+, +10+, +14+).
+    Peripteral Temple, 22
+  EDINBURGH.
+    High School, Royal Institution, 357
+  EGYPT.
+    Early Christian buildings in, 118
+  ELEPHANTINE.
+    Temple of Amenophis III., 22
+  EL KAB. Temple of Amenophis III.; 18
+  ELEUSIS.
+    Propylæa, 69
+  ELLORA.
+    Chaityas, 404.
+    Dravidian Kylas, 413
+  ELNE.
+    Cloister, 170, 213
+  ELY Cathedral, 220;
+    choir vault, 222;
+    octagon, 224, 330;
+    clearstory, 225;
+    towers, 228;
+    interior, 229;
+    size, 232;
+    Lady Chapel, 234
+  EPHESUS. Temple of Artemis (Artemisium), 66;
+    Ionic Order, 53.
+    Palæstra, 71
+  ERECH, 31
+  ESCURIAL.
+    Monastery, 351
+  ESNEH.
+    Hathoric columns, 25.
+    Temple, 23.
+  ESSEN.
+    Nun’s choir, 172
+  ESSLINGEN.
+    Church spire, 240
+  ETCHMIADZIN.
+    Byzantine monuments, 134
+  EVREUX Cathedral, 197
+  EXETER Cathedral, 221 (+129+)
+  EZRA.
+    Church of St. George, 117
+
+  FERAIG.
+    Rock-cut Temple, 22
+  FERRARA Cathedral, 261, 304.
+    Churches, 277, 293.
+    Palaces Scrofa, Roverella, 283
+  FIROUZABAD.
+    Sassanian Buildings, 144
+  FLORENCE.
+    Baptistery, 162.
+    Bartolini, Guadagni, Larderel, Pandolfini, Serristori palaces, 291.
+    Campanile, 263, 264 (+147+ a).
+    Cathedral (Duomo, Santa Maria del Fiore), 257, 258, 263;
+      façade, 261;
+      marble incrustation, 263;
+      dome, 273-275 (+147+, +148+, +159+, +160+).
+    Church
+      of San Miniato, 115, 161, 162;
+      of Or San Michele, 264.
+    Gondi Palace, 291.
+    Loggia dei Lanzi, 266.
+    Loggia di San Paolo, 281.
+    Minor works, 287.
+    Ospedale degli Innocenti, 281.
+    Palazzo Vecchio, 265.
+    Pitti Palace, 280, 300, 319.
+    Riccardi Palace, 279, 280, 281, 290 (+162+).
+    Rucellai Palace, 280, 282.
+    Santa Croce, 258;
+    Pazzi Chapel of, 276;
+      pulpit in, 281;
+    Marsupini tomb, 281.
+    San Lorenzo, 276.
+    San Spirito, 276 (+161+),
+    Santa Maria Novella, 256, 258;
+      façade, 277;
+      fountain in sacristy of, 281.
+    Strozzi Palace, 280, 290 (+163+)
+  FLUSHING.
+    Town hall (Hôtel de Ville), 335
+  FONTAINEBLEAU.
+    Palace, 313, 318
+  FONTEVRAULT.
+    Abbey, 164
+  FONTFROIDE.
+    Cloister, 213
+  FRANCE.
+    Romanesque monuments (list), 170, 171;
+    Gothic monuments (list), 216, 217;
+    Renaissance monuments (list), 324, 325
+  FRANKFORT.
+    Salt House, 346
+  FREIBURG Cathedral, 239, 242, 243;
+    Spire, 240
+  FREIBERG IM ERZGEBIRGE.
+    Golden portal, 242
+  FRITZLAR.
+    Church, 243
+  FULDA.
+    Monastery, 172, 173, 175
+  FURNESS.
+    Abbey, pointed arches, 219
+  FUTTEHPORE SIKHRI.
+    Mosque of Akbar, 148
+
+  GANDHARA.
+    Monasteries, 404
+  GAILLON.
+    Château, 310
+  GELNHAUSEN.
+    Abbey Church, 243. Castle ruins, 176
+  GENOA.
+    Campo Santo, 382.
+    Cathedral, west front, 261.
+    PALACES:--Balbi, Brignole, Cambiasi, Doria-tursi (municipio),
+      Durazzo (reale), Pallavicini, University, 302.
+    Sta. Maria Di Carignano, 299
+  GERMANY.
+    Mediæval, 172.
+    Romanesque monuments (list), 180.
+    Gothic monuments (list), 252.
+    Renaissance monuments (list), 353
+  GERNRODE.
+    Romanesque church, 173
+  GERONA Cathedral, 185, 249, 250
+  GHENT (Gand).
+    Cloth hall, 247
+  GHERF HOSSEIN.
+    Rock-cut temple, 22
+  GHERTASHI (Kardassy).
+    Temple, 23
+  GHIZEH.
+    Pyramids, 4;
+    Pyramid of Cheops, 7 (+1+, +2+);
+    of Chephren, 8;
+    of Mycerinus, 8.
+    Sphinx, Sphinx temple, 10 (+3+, +4+)
+  GIRNAR.
+    Jaina temples, 407.
+    Temple of Neminatha, 407
+  GLASGOW.
+    Churches in Greek style, 357
+  GLOUCESTER Cathedral, 178, 220, 222;
+    cloisters, 222;
+    east window, 227;
+    central tower, 228;
+    Lady Chapel, 234
+  GOSLAR.
+    Palace of Henry III., 176
+  GOURNAH.
+    Columns, 24.
+    Temple, 21
+  GRAN.
+    Cruciform Chapel, 338
+  GRANADA, 141.
+    Alhambra, 142, 143, 144, 351 (+84+).
+    Cathedral, 348, 350;
+      minor works in, 352.
+    Palace of Charles V., 352 (+197+)
+  GRANGE House, 357
+  GREAT BRITAIN.
+    Gothic monuments (list), 235, 236.
+    Norman monuments (list), 181.
+    Renaissance monuments (list), 337
+  GUADALAJARA.
+    Infantado, 350
+  GUJERAT, 146
+  GWALIOR.
+    Jaina Temples, 407.
+    Palace, 409.
+    Teli-ka-mandir, 409
+
+  HADDON Hall, 326
+  HAGUE, THE.
+    Town hall, 336
+  HÄMELSCHENBURG Castle, 343 (+191+)
+  HALBERSTADT Cathedral, 244.
+    Town hall, 245
+  HALICARNASSUS.
+    Mausoleum, 4, 53, 71, 72 (+41+)
+  HAMONCONDAH.
+    Temple, 410
+  HAMPTON Court, 326, 332
+  HARTFORD.
+    State Capitol, 393
+  HAURAN.
+    Roman works in, 92;
+    domestic buildings, 118
+  HARDWICKE Hall, 328
+  HATFIELD House, 328
+  HECKLINGEN.
+    Romanesque church, 173
+  HEIDELBERG Castle, 343 (+192+).
+    Ritter House, 346
+  HEILSBERG Castle, 245
+  HELDBURG Castle, 342
+  HENGREAVE Hall, 326
+  HERCULANUM, 86.
+    Amphitheatre, 92.
+    Houses, 107.
+    Theatre, (+61+)
+  HEREFORD Cathedral, 220
+  HIERAPOLIS.
+    Early Christian buildings in, 118
+  HILDESHEIM.
+    Kaiserhaus, 346.
+    Renaissance houses, 345.
+    St. Godehard, 173.
+    Town hall, 245.
+    Wedekindsches Haus, 346
+  HOLLAND House, 328
+  HOWARD Castle, 332
+  HULLABÎD.
+    Temples, 409;
+    double temple, 410 (+228+);
+    Kaît Iswara, 410
+
+  IFFLEY.
+    Church, 179 (+104+)
+  INDIA, 146-149.
+    Moslem monuments (list), 154.
+    Non-moslem monuments (list), 415
+  INNSBRÜCK, Schloss Ambras, 339
+  IPSAMBOUL.
+    (Abou Simbel). Grotto temples, 21, 22 (+13+)
+  IRELAND.
+    Celtic Towers, 176
+  ISPAHAN.
+    Meidan (Meidan-Shah), Mesjid-Shah, Bazaar, Medress, 146
+  ISSOIRE.
+    Church of St. Paul, 165, 204
+  ITALY.
+    Early Christian monuments (list), 119;
+    Romanesque monuments (list), 170;
+    Gothic monuments (list), 268-269;
+    Renaissance monuments (list), 306-307
+
+  JAEN Cathedral, 348, 350
+  JAMALGIRI.
+    Monastery, 405
+  JERUSALEM.
+    Church of the Ascension, 115.
+    Early Christian churches, 111.
+    Herod’s temple, 41, 83.
+    Mosque of Omar (Dome of the Rock, Kubbet-es-sakhrah), 116, 136.
+    Octagonal church on temple site, 115, 116.
+    Tombs of the Kings, Etc., 39.
+    Tomb of Absalom, of Hezekiah, Golden Gate, Solomon’s temple, 40.
+    Wall of Lamentations, 41.
+    Zerubbabel’s temple, 41
+  JAUNPORE, 146
+
+  KALABSHÉ.
+    Columns, 12.
+    Temple, 23
+  KALB LOUZEH.
+    Church, 117 (+69+)
+  KALBURGAH, 146
+  KANARUK.
+    Hindu temples, 408
+  KANTONNUGGUR.
+    Hindu temple, 408
+  KARDASSY (Ghertashi).
+    Temple, 23
+  KARLI.
+    Chaityas, 404
+  KARLSTEIN Castle, 245
+  KARNAK, 50.
+    Great Temple (of Amen Ra) and Hypostyle Hall,
+        xxiii., 17, 18, 19, 24, 36 (+11+, +12+).
+    Ancient temple, 13.
+    Temple of Khonsu, 16, 20
+  KASCHAU Cathedral, 245
+  KASR.
+    Mound, 31
+  KEDDLESTONE Hall, 334
+  KELAT SEMAN. Church of St. Simeon
+    Stylites, 117
+  KHAJURAHO.
+    Jaina temples, 407.
+    Kandarya Mahadeo, 408
+  KHORSABAD.
+    Palace of Sargon, 31, 32 (+18+).
+    City Gate, 32, 33, (+19+)
+  KIRKSTALL Abbey, pointed arches, 219
+  KÖNIGSBERG.
+    Church At, 244
+  KOYUNJIK.
+    Palaces of Sennacherib and Assur-bani-pal, 31
+  KUTTENBERG.
+    Church of St. Barbara, 239, 240
+
+  LAACH.
+    Abbey of, 174
+  LABYRINTH (of Moeris or Fayoum in Egypt), 26
+  LA MUETTE.
+    Château, 314
+  LANDSHUT.
+    Residenz, 342.
+    St. Martin’s, 240, 244
+  LANGRES Cathedral, 167
+  LAON Cathedral, 197, 205, 206, 210;
+    porches, 208
+  LA ROCHEFOUCAULD.
+    Château, 315
+  LAVAL Cathedral (La Trinité), 201
+  LE MANS Cathedral, 197, 200, 205, 206 (+118+);
+    tomb in, 310
+  LEON.
+    Cathedral, 189, 249.
+    Panteon of S. Isidore, 179, 180
+  LE PUY (Puy-en-Vélay).
+    Church, 204;
+    cloister of same, 213
+  LEIPZIG.
+    Fürstenhaus, 346
+  LEMGO.
+    Town hall, 344
+  LEYDEN.
+    Town hall, 336
+  LICHFIELD Cathedral, 225, 229 (+135+);
+    west front, 228 (+134+);
+    spire, 229
+  LIÈGE.
+    Archbishop’s Palace, 334.
+    Church of St. Jacques, 247
+  LIMBURG-ON-THE-HARDT.
+    Church, 193
+  LIMBURG-ON-LAHN.
+    Abbey Church, 174.
+    Cathedral of St. George, 239 (+139+)
+  LIMOGES Cathedral, 197, 205, 212
+  LINCOLN Cathedral, 219, 225, 229, 232;
+    west front, 227;
+    central tower, 228;
+    chapter-house, 223
+  LISBON, 352
+  LISIEUX Cathedral, 197
+  LIVERPOOL.
+    St. George’s Hall, 358 (+199+)
+  LOIRE VALLEY.
+    Churches of, 165
+  LOMBARDY.
+    Romanesque Monuments In, 157
+  LONDON.
+    Albert Memorial, 380.
+    Albert Memorial Hall, 382.
+    Bank of England, 334, 356.
+    British Museum, 356 (+198+);
+    Elgin marbles in, 57;
+      mausoleum fragments in, 71.
+    Cathedral (St. Paul’s), 329-331 (+186+, +187+).
+    Chapel Royal (Banqueting Hall, Whitehall), 329 (+185+).
+    CHURCHES:--
+      Bow Church, 332;
+      St. George’s, Bloomsbury, 333;
+      St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, 333 (+189+);
+      St. Mary’s, Woolnoth, 332;
+      St. Pancras’s, 357;
+      St. Paul’s Cathedral, 329-331 (+186+, +187+);
+      St. Paul’s, Covent Garden, 329;
+      St. Stephen’s, Walbrook, 331;
+      St. Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster, 234;
+      Temple Church, pointed arches in, 219;
+      Westminster Abbey, 220 (+137+);
+        Henry VII.’s chapel in same, 192, 223, 227, 229, 234 (+136+).
+    Greenwich Hospital, 332.
+    Mansion House, 334.
+    Natural History Museum, South Kensington, 381 (+216+).
+    New Law Courts, 380.
+    Newgate Prison, 334.
+    Parliament Houses, 234, 380 (+215+).
+    Somerset House, 329, 333.
+    South Kensington Museum, new building, 382.
+    University, 357.
+    Westminster Abbey, see above.
+    Westminster Hall, 233.
+    Whitehall Palace, 329;
+      Banqueting Hall (Chapel Royal) in same, 329 (+185+)
+  LONGLEAT House, 328
+  LOUVAIN
+    Cathedral, 246, 247.
+    Cloth hall, 247.
+    Town hall, 248 (+144+)
+  LÜBECK.
+    City Gates, 246.
+    St. Mary’s, 242, 244.
+    St. Catharine’s, 244.
+    Town hall, 246
+  LUCCA.
+    Campanile, 264.
+    Cathedral (S. Martino), 161, 257, 258, 260 (+149+);
+      tempietto in same, 281;
+      tomb of P. di Noceto in same, 281 (+164+).
+    S. Frediano, S. Michele, 161.
+    Minor works, 282, 283.
+    Palazzo Pretorio, Pal. Bernardini, 283
+  LUPIANA Monastery, 350
+  LUXOR, 50.
+    Temple, 19, 20.
+    Osirid Piers, 24
+  LUZ.
+    Church at, 352
+  LYCIA.
+    Tombs, 37, 39, 52
+
+  MADRID.
+    First Palace, 350.
+   New Palace, 352
+  MADRID, Château de (at Boulogne), 314
+  MADURA.
+    Choultrie of Tirumalla Nayak, 411.
+    Great Temple, corridors, 411.
+    Palace, 413
+  MAFRA.
+    Palace, 353
+  MAGDEBURG Cathedral, 189, 242, 243
+  MAHRISCH TRÜBAU.
+    Castle portal, 338
+  MAISONS.
+    Château, 322
+  MALAGA.
+    Alcazar, 142, 143.
+    Cathedral, 348
+  MALINES (Mechlin).
+    Cathedral of St. Rombaut, 246, 247.
+    Cloth hall, 247.
+    Hôtel du Saumon, 324
+  MANCHESTER.
+    Assize Courts, 380 (+216+)
+  MANIKYALA.
+    Tope, 403
+  MANRESA.
+    Collegiate Church, 249
+  MANTINÆA.
+    Theatre, 69
+  MANTUA.
+    Campanile, 264.
+    Church of S. Andrea, 279.
+    Early Renaissance palaces, 283.
+    Palazzo del Té, 289
+  MARBURG.
+    St. Elizabeth, 240, 242 (+140+)
+  MARIENBURG Castle, Great Hall, 245
+  MARIENWERDER.
+    Castle, 245
+  MARSEILLES.
+    Chapel of St. Lazare, 310.
+    Fountain of Longchamps, 372 (+211+)
+  MASHITA.
+    Palace of Chosroes, 145
+  MASSACHUSETTS. Country house in (+225+)
+  MAULBRONN.
+    Monastery, 176
+  MAYENCE Cathedral, 174
+  MEAUX Cathedral, 212
+  MECCA.
+    Kaabah, 136
+  MEDINA DE RIO SECO.
+    Rood-screen, 352
+  MEDINET ABOU.
+    Osirid piers, 24 (+15+).
+    Pavilion of Rameses III., 26.
+    Peripteral temple, 22.
+    Tomb-temple of Rameses III., 15, 21
+  MEISSEN.
+    Albrechtsburg, 245
+  MEROË.
+    Pyramids, 9
+  METZ Cathedral, 244
+  MEYDOUM.
+    Stepped Pyramid, 9
+  MILAN, 157.
+    Arcade, 382.
+    Cathedral, 243, 255, 257, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264.
+    Domical churches, 278.
+    Ospedale Maggiore, 283.
+    S. Ambrogio, 158, 159 (+90+).
+    S. Eustorgio, Portinari Chapel in, 283.
+    S. Satiro, sacristy of, 289.
+    Sta. Maria delle Grazie, 278, 289
+  MILETUS.
+    Temple of Apollo Didymæus, 53, 66 (+28+, +29+)
+  MINDEN Cathedral, 244
+  MŒRIS.
+    Labyrinth of, 26
+  MOISSAC.
+    Cloister, 170, 213
+  MONREALE.
+    Churches, cathedral, 162
+  MONS.
+    Cathedral, St. Wandru, 246, 247
+  MONTEPULCIANO.
+    Church of S. Biagio, 294
+  MONTMAJOUR.
+    Cloister, 170, 213
+  MONT ST. MICHEL.
+    Abbey, 167, 168, 213, 214;
+      cloister of same, 213
+  MORET.
+    House of Francis I., 316
+  MOSCOW.
+    The Kremlin, 366
+  MOSUL, 33
+  MOUNT ABU.
+    Jaina temples, Temple of Vimalah Sah, 405, 406 (+226+)
+  MOUNT ATHOS.
+    Monastery, 134
+  MUGHEIR.
+    Temple of Sin Or Hurki, 30
+  MUJELIBEH.
+    Mound, 31
+  MUKTESWARA.
+    Hindu temples, 409
+  MÜLHAUSEN.
+    Town Hall, 344
+  MUNICH, 366.
+    Auekirche, 375.
+    Basilica, 375.
+    Cathedral, 240, 242.
+    Glyptothek, 359.
+    Ludwigskirche, 375.
+    Propylæa, 360 (+201+).
+    Ruhmeshalle, 359.
+    St. Michael’s, 344.
+  MÜNSTER.
+    Church at, 243.
+    Town hall, 245
+  MÜNZENBERG.
+    Castle ruins, 176
+  MYCENÆ.
+    Fortifications, 44 (+23+).
+    Lion Gate, 44 (+22+).
+    Tholos of Atreus, 45, 46, 148 (+24+, +25+).
+    Tombs, 4
+  MYLASSA.
+    Tomb, 72
+  MYRA.
+    Theatre, 69.
+    Tombs, 72
+
+  NAKHON WAT, Temple of, 413
+  NAKSH-I-ROUSTAM (persepolis), 36.
+    Tomb of Darius, 37
+  NANCY.
+    Ducal Palace, 216, 311
+  NANKIN.
+    Porcelain Tower, 414
+  NAPLES.
+    Arcade, 382.
+    Arch of Alphonso, 287.
+    Church
+      of Gesù Nuovo, 304;
+      of S. Francesco di Paola, 305, 365;
+      of S. Lorenzo, 263;
+      of S. Severo (+173+).
+    Minor works, 281, 282.
+    Pal. Gravina, Porta Capuana, 287.
+    Royal Museum, 304.
+    Royal Palace, 304, 305.
+    Theatre of S. Carlo, 305, 365
+  NARBONNE Cathedral, 197, 205, 211
+  NASSICK.
+    Chaityas, 404
+  NAUKRATIS, 44
+  NAUMBURG.
+    Church At, 243
+  NETHERLANDS, 146.
+    Gothic monuments (list), 252-253
+  NEUWEILER.
+    Church of St. Peter And St. Paul, 243
+  NEVERS.
+    St. Étienne, 165
+  NEW MEXICO.
+    Spanish churches, 388
+  NEWPORT.
+    Town hall, 388.
+    Trinity Church, 386
+  NEW YORK.
+    American Surety Building, Broadway Chambers, 397.
+    Casino, 399.
+    Cathedral
+      of St. John the Divine, 399;
+      of St. Patrick, 375, 391.
+    Century Club, 399.
+    City Hall, 389.
+    Custom House, 390 (+221+).
+    Grace Church, 392.
+    Huntington house, 399.
+    Madison Square Garden, Metropolitan Club, 399.
+    St. Paul’s, 386.
+    Sub-Treasury, 390.
+    Times Building, (+224+).
+    Trinity Church, 392.
+    Vanderbilt and Villard houses, 399
+  NÎMES.
+    Amphitheatre, 92.
+    Maison Carrée, 93, 94
+  NIMROUD.
+    Palaces of Assur-nazir-pal and Shalmaneser, 31, 32
+  NINEVEH, 31
+  NIPPUR (Niffer).
+    Ruins of, 29, 31
+  NORMANDY.
+    Romanesque churches in, 167, 177;
+    cathedrals in, 197, 213
+  NORTH GERMANY.
+    Brick churches in, 244
+  NORTH WOBURN.
+    Rumford House, 387
+  NORWICH Cathedral, 177, 178, 220
+  NOYON Cathedral, 197, 200, 203, 205, 246
+  NUBIA.
+    Early Christian buildings, 118
+  NUREMBERG, 238.
+    Churches of St. Sebald, St. Lorenz, 245.
+    Funk, Hirschvogel, and Keller houses, 346.
+    Renaissance houses, 345.
+    Town hall, 344.
+    Shrine of St. Sebald, 347
+
+  OLYMPIA.
+    Altis, Echo Hall, 69.
+    Heraion, 50, 62.
+    Temples, 55;
+      sculptures from, 57.
+    Temple of Zeus, 62
+  OPPENHEIM.
+    St. Catharine’s, 239, 242, 244
+  OUDEYPORE.
+    Hindu temples, palace, 409
+  ORANGE.
+    Theatre, 101
+  ORCHOMENOS.
+    Ceiling, 47
+  ORLÉANS.
+    Houses, 316.
+    Town hall (hôtel de ville), 311
+  ORVIETO Cathedral, 257, 259, 261;
+    façade of same, 260
+  OSNABRÜCK.
+    Church at, 243
+  OTTMARSHEIM.
+    Church at, 172
+  OUDENÄRDE.
+    Town hall, 247
+  OURSCAMP.
+    Hospital, 214
+  OXFORD.
+    All Souls’ College, 333.
+    Cathedral (Christ Church), 220, 222.
+    Christ Church Hall, 233, 234.
+    Merton College Chapel, 234.
+    Radcliffe Library, 333.
+    Sheldonian Theatre, 332
+
+  PADERBORN.
+    Town hall, 344
+  PADUA.
+    Arena chapel, 258.
+    Palazzo del Consiglio, 287
+  PÆSTUM.
+    Basilica, 69.
+    Temples, 61
+  PAILLY.
+    Château, 317
+  PALERMO.
+    Churches of Eremitani, La Martorana, 162
+  PALMYRA, 83.
+    Temple of the Sun, 92.
+    Ceiling panels (+50+ a)
+  PARASNATHA.
+    Jaina temples, 407
+  PARIS.
+    Arch of Triumph of the Carrousel, 362, 363;
+      of l’Étoile, 362, 363 (+204+).
+    Bourse (Exchange), 363.
+    Cathedral (Notre Dame), 189, 197-202, 249 (+116+, +117+, +124+);
+      rose windows, 203, 212;
+      chapels, 205;
+      size, 206, 232;
+      west front, 207, 227 (+124+);
+      capital from (+126+ b);
+      early carving (+114+).
+    CHURCHES:--
+      Chapel and Dome of the Invalides, 321 (+182+);
+      Madeleine, 362, 363 (+205+);
+      Panthéon, 361, 362 (+202+, +203+);
+      Sacré-Cœur at Montmartre, 373;
+      Sainte Chapelle, 185, 203, 224 (+106+, +121+);
+        capital from same (+126+ a);
+      Sorbonne, 319;
+      St. Augustin, 371;
+      Ste. Clothilde, 371, 375;
+      St. Étienne-du-Mont, St. Eustache, 312;
+      St. Jean de Belleville, 371;
+      St. Merri, St. Sévérin, 213;
+      St. Paul-St. Louis, 319;
+      St. Sulpice, 323, 361 (+183+);
+      St. Vincent-de-Paul, 364;
+      Val-de-Grâce, 322.
+    Collège Chaptal, 371.
+    Colonnades of the Garde-Meuble, 361, 367.
+    Column of July (Colonne Juillet), 365.
+    Corps Législatif (Palais Bourbon), 363.
+    École des Beaux-Arts, 355, 370, 392, 393;
+      library of same, 364;
+      door (+206+).
+    École de Médecine, new buildings, 374.
+    Exhibition buildings, 374.
+    FOUNTAINS:--of Cuvier, Molière, St. Michel, 372.
+    Halles Centrales, 371.
+    Hôtel-de-Ville (town hall), 316;
+      new building, 373.
+    HÔTELS:--
+      Carnavalet (de Ligeris), 316;
+      de Cluny, 216;
+      des Invalides, 321.
+    House of Francis I. (Maison François I.), 316.
+    Library of the Beaux-Arts, 364;
+      of Ste. Genéviève, 365.
+    Louvre (see palaces). Museum (Musée) Galliéra (+212+).
+    Opera House (Nouvel Opéra), 372 (+210+).
+    PALACES:--
+      Palais Bourbon (Corps Législatif), 363;
+      Palais de l’Industrie, 364;
+      Pal. de Justice, 364;
+      Louvre and Tuileries, 215, 315-319, 321, 362, 371, 372
+          (+179+, +208+, +209+);
+      Luxemburg Palace, 318 (+180+).
+    PLACES (Squares):--
+      de la Concorde, 324;
+      Royale, 319;
+      Vendôme, 322.
+    Railway stations (du Nord, de l’Est, d’Orléans), 372.
+    Sorbonne, new academic buildings, 374.
+  PAULINZELLE.
+    Romanesque church, 173
+  PAVIA, 157.
+    Certosa, 255, 262, 263, 278, 283, 284 (+152+, +153+).
+    Church of S. Michele, 159.
+    Domical churches, 278
+  PEKIN.
+    Summer pavilion, Temple of Great Dragon, 414
+  PERGAMON (Pergamus). Altar of Eumenes II., 67.
+    Christian buildings, 118
+  PERIGUEUX.
+    St. Front, 164 (+94+, +95+)
+  PEROOR.
+    Temple, 411
+  PERSEPOLIS, 145.
+    Columns, 37, 38 (+21+).
+    Hall of Xerxes, 36, 37.
+    Palaces, 35, 69
+  PERSIA.
+    Moslem architecture, 145, 146 (list 154).
+    Sassanian buildings, 144, 145
+  PERUGIA.
+    Oratory of San Bernardino, 279.
+    Town hall (Pal. Communale), 266.
+    Roman Gates, 88
+  PETERBOROUGH Cathedral, 178, 220;
+    retro-choir, 222;
+    west front, 227
+  PHIGALÆA (Bassæ).
+    Gate, 45.
+    Sculptures from, 57.
+    Temple of Apollo Epicurius, 65
+  PHILADELPHIA.
+    Christ Church, 386 (+218+).
+    Girard College, 390, 391.
+    Independence Hall, 388.
+    Marine Exchange, Mint, 390.
+    Municipal Building, 391
+  PHILÆ.
+    Great Temple, 22.
+    Peripteral temple, 22
+  PIACENZA, 157.
+    Campanile, 159 (+91+).
+    Cathedral (+91+).
+    Town hall, 266
+  PIASTENSCHLOSS at Brieg, 343
+  PIENZA.
+    Palazzo Piccolomini, etc., 282
+  PIERREFONDS.
+    Château, 371
+  PISA.
+    Churches in, 115, 261;
+    minor works in, 282;
+    early Renaissance in, 282-283.
+    Baptistery, 160 (+92+).
+    Cathedral (Duomo), 159, 160, 276 (+92+, +93+).
+    Leaning Tower, 160 (+92+).
+    Sta. Maria della Spina, 264
+  PISTOIA.
+    Campanile, 264.
+    Churches, 161, 261.
+    Podestà, Palazzo Communale, 266.
+    Sta. Maria dell’ Umiltà, 293
+  PITTSBURGH.
+    Carnegie Building, 397.
+    Carnegie Library, 399.
+    County Buildings, 394
+  PLAGNITZ.
+    Castle, 343
+  PLASSENBURG.
+    Castle, 343
+  POITIERS Cathedral, 197, 201, 205
+  POLA.
+    Amphitheatre, 92, 102
+  POMPEII.
+    Amphitheatre, 92.
+    Baths, 86.
+    Houses, 72, 107, 108;
+    House of Pansa (+65+).
+    Theatre, 101.
+    Tombs, 105
+  PONT DU GARD.
+    Bridge, 108
+  PORTSMOUTH. Sherburne House, 387
+  PORTUGAL, 352.
+    Gothic monuments (list), 253
+  POTSDAM.
+    St. Nicholas Church, 359
+  PRAGUE.
+    Belvedere, 339.
+    Cathedral, 239, 242, 244.
+    Palace on Hradschin, Schloss Stern, Waldstein palace, 339
+  PRATO.
+    Churches in, 161, 293.
+    Madonna delle Carceri, 278
+  PRENTZLAU.
+    Church, 244
+  PRIENE.
+    Ionic order, 53;
+    Propylæa, 69
+  PROVENCE, 164.
+  PROVINS.
+    Houses at, 214
+  PURI.
+    Temples, 408.
+    Temple of Jugganât, 409
+  PURUDKUL.
+    Rock-cut raths, 413
+
+  RAMESSEUM (Thebes).
+    Tomb-temple of Rameses II., 15, 21, 24 (+8+)
+  RAMISSERAM.
+    Temple, corridors, 411
+  RATISBON (Regensburg) Cathedral, 239, 241, 244.
+    Town hall, 245.
+    Walhalla, 359
+  RAVENNA, 114.
+    Baptistery of St. John, 119.
+    Byzantine monuments (list), 134.
+    Cathedral, 304.
+    Early Christian monuments (list), 119.
+    S. Apollinare Nuovo, S. Apollinare in Classe, 114.
+    S. Vitale, 117, 122, 127, 172 (+73+)
+  REGGIO.
+    Amphitheatre, 92
+  REIMS Cathedral, 189, 197, 201, 202, 203, 205;
+    size, 206;
+    west front, 207, 213, 227;
+    towers, 209;
+    portals, 208, 210
+  RIMINI.
+    S. Francesco, 277
+  ROCHESTER Cathedral, 220
+  RODEZ Cathedral, 197, 212
+  ROME.
+    Ancient monuments, (list) 108, 109.
+    Amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus, 102.
+    ARCHES:--
+      in general, 77, 103;
+      of Constantine, 80, 103 (+63+);
+      of Septimius Severus, 103;
+      of Titus, 92, 103;
+      of Trajan, 97, 103.
+    BASILICAS:--
+      in general, 97, 98;
+      Basilica Æmilia, 98;
+      of Constantine, xxiii, 80, 82, 98, 99 (+50+ b, +58+, +59+);
+      Julian Basilica, 98;
+      Sempronian, 98;
+      Ulpian, 97, 98 (+57+).
+      (For Early Christian Basilicas, see Churches.)
+    BATHS (Thermæ):--
+      in general, 71, 92, 99;
+      of Agrippa, 91, 100;
+      of Caracalla, 87, 92 (+60+);
+      of Diocletian, 92, 100, 101;
+      of Titus, 86, 91, 100, 105.
+    Campanile of Campidoglio (Capitol), 305.
+    Capitol, 91;
+      palaces on, 299.
+    CHURCHES:--
+      in general, 293;
+      Church of Gesù, 299;
+      Sistine Chapel of Vatican, 286, 289;
+      Sta. Agnese
+        (basilica), 112
+        (modern church), 303;
+      S. Agostino, 286;
+      S. Clemente, 114;
+      Sta. Costanza, 111 (+66+);
+      St. John Lateran, 113, 251, 304, 305;
+        cloister of same, 281;
+      S. Lorenzo, 112;
+      S. Lorenzo in Miranda, 93;
+      Sta. Maria degli Angeli, 101;
+      Sta. Maria Maggiore, 113, 305;
+        Chapel of Sixtus V. in same, 299;
+      Sta. Maria del Popolo, 286, 287;
+        Chigi Chapel in same, 293;
+      Sta. Maria della Vittoria, 303;
+      Sta. Maria sopra Minerva, 256;
+      St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls, 113, 281 (+67+, +68+);
+      St. Peter’s, original basilica, 113;
+      existing church of, 274, 286, 289, 290, 294-296, 299, 321
+          (+169+, +170+, +171+);
+        colonnade of same, 295, 303, 367;
+        sacristy of same, 305;
+      S. Pietro in Montorio, Tempietto in court of, 209.
+    CIRCUSES:--
+      Maximus, 103;
+      of Caligula and Nero, 103, 113.
+    Cloaca Maxima, 81, 90.
+    Colosseum (Flavian amphitheatre) 91, 92, 102 (+45+, +62+).
+    COLUMNS:--103;
+      of Marcus Aurelius, 104;
+      of Trajan, 97, 104.
+    Early Christian monuments, 111; (list), 118, 119.
+    FORA:--
+      in general, 97;
+      of Augustus, 91, 97;
+      of Julius, Nerva, Vespasian, 97;
+      Forum Romanum (Magnum), 97, 98;
+      Forum of Trajan, 97, 98 (+57+).
+    Fountain of Trevi, 305.
+    HOUSES:--
+      in general, 105, 106, 108;
+      of Vestals (Atrium Vestæ), 94, 106;
+      of Livia, 107.
+    Lateran, carved ornament from Museum of (+49+);
+      palace of, 300.
+    Mausoleum of Augustus, of Hadrian, 104.
+    Minor Works in Rome, 287.
+    Monument to Victor Emmanuel, 382.
+    National Museum, 382.
+    PALACES (Ancient):--
+      of Cæsars on Palatine Hill, 86, 91, 105;
+      of Nero (Golden House), 91, 92, 100, 105;
+      Septizonium, 105.
+    PALACES (Renaissance):--
+      Altemps, 292;
+      Barberini, 304, 305;
+      Borghese, 304;
+      Braschi, 305;
+      of Capitol, 299;
+      Cancelleria, 290, 291;
+      Corsini, 305;
+      Farnese, 292 (+167+, +168+);
+      Farnesina, 291;
+      Giraud, 290, 291 (+166+);
+      Lante, 292;
+      Massimi, Palma, 291;
+      Quirinal, 300;
+      Sacchetti, 291;
+      Vatican, Belvedere, greater and lesser court,
+          Court of S. Damaso, Loggie, 209, 291;
+      Braccio Nuovo, 305, 365;
+      Casino del Papa in gardens, 293;
+      papal residence, 300;
+      Scala Reggia, 305;
+      palazzo di Venezia, 286.
+    Pantheon of Agrippa, 82, 91, 94-96, 100, 118, 122, 127, 365
+      (+54+, +55+, +56+).
+    Pons Ælius (Ponte S. Angelo), 108.
+    Porta Maggiore, 108.
+    Portico of Octavia, 91.
+    TEMPLES:--
+      Of Castor and Pollux (Dioscuri), 84, 91, 94 (+44+);
+      of Concord, 94;
+      of Faustina, 93;
+      of Fortuna Virilis, 89, 90, 93;
+      of Hercules or Vesta, 90;
+      of Julius, 94;
+      of Jupiter Capitolinus, 68, 89, 91;
+      of Jupiter Stator, so called (see Temple of Castor and Pollux);
+      of Jupiter Tonans, 91;
+      of Mars Ultor, 91;
+      of Minerva Medica, 127;
+      of Peace, 98;
+      of Trajan, 97;
+      of Venus and Rome, 94 (+53+);
+      of Vesta, in Forum, 94;
+      of Vesta, so called, or Hercules, 90.
+    THEATRES:--
+      Of Marcellus, 91, 101 (+42+);
+      of Mummius, of Pompey, 101.
+    TOMBS:--86, 104;
+      of Caius Cestius, of Cecilia Metella, 104;
+      of Helena, 118
+  ROSENBORG Castle, 336
+  ROSHEIM.
+    Church façade, 175
+  ROTHENBURG.
+    Town hall, 344
+  ROUEN, 310.
+    Cathedral, 192, 197, 201, 202, 205;
+      size of, 206;
+      west front, 207;
+      rose windows, 212.
+    Hôtel Bourgtheroude, 316.
+    Palais de Justice, 214.
+    St. Maclou, 209.
+    St. Ouen, 212, 213, 375;
+      rose window from (+112+)
+  ROUHEIHA.
+    Early Christian church, 117
+  ROYAL DOMAIN, 166, 167, 197
+  RUANWALLI.
+    Topes, 403
+  RUSSIA, 367.
+    Byzantine monuments (list), 134
+
+  SADRI.
+    Temple, 406
+  SAKKARAH.
+    Pyramid, 9
+  SALAMANCA.
+    Casa de las Conchas, 349.
+    Cathedral (old), 180, 248;
+      (new), 250, 348.
+    Monastery of S. Girolamo, 348.
+    S. Domingo, 348.
+    University, 349;
+      portal of (+195+)
+  SALISBURY
+    Cathedral, 219, 223, 225, 229, 232 (+128+);
+      west front, 228;
+      spire, 228, 229.
+    Market cross, 234
+  SALONICA. Church of St. George, 118.
+    Other monuments (list), 134
+  SALSETTE.
+    Viharas, 405
+  SALZBURG.
+    Church of St. Francis, 242
+  SAMOS.
+    Gate, 45
+  SANCHI.
+    Brahman temple, 404.
+    Tope, 403
+  SAN ILDEFONSO.
+    Royal Palace, 352
+  SABAGOSSA.
+    Casa de Zaporta, 350 (+196+)
+  SAXONY, 173
+  SCHALABURG.
+    Castle, 339
+  SCHLETTSTADT Cathedral, 239
+  SCHLOSS HÄMELSCHENBURG, 343 (+191+)
+  SCHLOSS PORZIA at Spital, 338
+  SCHLOSS STERN at Prague, 339
+  SCHWARZ-RHEINDORF.
+    Church, 174
+  SCHWEINFÜRTH.
+    Town hall, 344
+  SCINDE, 146
+  SECUNDRA.
+    Tomb of Akbar, 148
+  SEDINGA.
+    Hathoric columns, 24
+  SÉEZ Cathedral, 197
+  SEGOVIA Cathedral, 190, 249, 348.
+    Church of S. Millan, of Templars, 180
+  SELINUS.
+    Temples, 49;
+    northern temple, 60;
+    Temple of Zeus, 61
+  SEMNEH.
+    Pavilion, 26
+  SENLIS Cathedral, 197, 200, 209
+  SENS.
+    Archbishop’s palace, 317.
+    Cathedral, 203, 219
+  SERBISTAN.
+    Sassanian buildings, 144
+  SEVILLE.
+    Alcazar, 142, 143.
+    Casa de Pilato (House of Pilate), 142, 350.
+    Cathedral, 244, 250, 257, 351.
+    Giralda, 142, 143, 352
+  SHEEPREE.
+    Pathan arches, 148
+  SIENNA.
+    Brick houses, 266.
+    Campanile, 264.
+    Cathedral (Duomo), 257, 259, 263 (+150+);
+     west front, 260 (+151+).
+    Loggia del Papa, 282.
+    Minor works, 282.
+    PALACES:--
+      Del Governo, Piccolomini, Spannocchi, 282;
+      Palazzo Pubblico, 266.
+    Renaissance churches, 293.
+    S. Giovanni in Fonte, 260
+  SILSILEH.
+    Grotto temple, 22
+  SOISSONS Cathedral, 197, 200, 203, 205, 243
+  SOMNATH.
+    Jaina temple, 407
+  SOMNATHPUR.
+    Chalukyan temples, 409, 410
+  SOUTHWELL Minster, carving from, (+115+)
+  SPAIN, 347.
+    Gothic monuments (list), 253.
+    Romanesque churches, 179-180
+  SPALATO.
+    Palace of Diocletian, 92, 106, 113 (+64+)
+  SPITAL.
+    Schloss Porzia, 338
+  SPIRES (Speyer) Cathedral, 174 (+100+)
+  ST. ALBAN’S Abbey, tombs, etc., in, 234
+  ST. AUGUSTINE.
+    Fort Marion (S. Marco), 388.
+    Ponce de Leon Hotel, 399.
+    Roman Catholic cathedral, 388.
+  ST. BENOÎT-SUR-LOIRE.
+    Antechurch, 177
+  ST. DENIS.
+    Abbey, 197, 198, 200, 202, 203 (+120+);
+      tomb of Louis XII. in, 316;
+      of Francis I., 317
+  ST. GERMAIN-EN-LAYE.
+    Château, 313;
+      Royal chapel in, 204
+  ST. GILLES.
+    Church, 165
+  ST. LOUIS.
+    Union Trust Bdg., 397
+  ST. PAUL.
+    State Capitol, 400
+  ST. PETERSBURG, 366, 367.
+    Admiralty, 367.
+    Cathedral of St. Isaac, 367 (+207+).
+    CHURCHES:--
+      of the Citadel, of the Greek Rite, 366;
+      of Our Lady of Kazan, 367.
+    New Museum, Palace of Grand Duke Michael, 367.
+    Smolnoy Monastery, 366.
+  ST. RÉMY.
+    Tombs, 105
+  STABIÆ, 92
+  STOCKHOLM.
+    Palace, 337
+  STRASBURG
+    Cathedral, 243;
+      spire of, 238, 240, 241, 243.
+    University Buildings, 376
+  STUTTGART.
+    Old Castle, 343.
+    Technical School, 376
+  STYRIA, 339
+  SULLY.
+    Château, 317
+  SULTANIYEH.
+    Tomb, 145
+  SUNIUM.
+    Propylæa, 69
+  SUSA, 145.
+    Palaces, 35
+  SYRACUSE.
+    Theatre, 70
+  SYRIA, 122;
+    early Christian churches in, 115, 116, 117; (list), 119
+
+  TABRIZ.
+    Ruined Mosque, 145
+  TAFKHAH.
+    Early Christian Church, 117
+  TAKHT-I-BAHI.
+    Monastery, 405
+  TÄNGERMÜNDE.
+    Church, 244
+  TANJORE.
+    Great temple, 412.
+    Palace, 413.
+    Shrine of Soubramanya, 412 (+229+)
+  TARPUTRY.
+    Gopura, 411
+  TEHERAN, 146
+  TEL-EL-AMARNA, 27
+  TEWKESBURY Abbey, 222 (+130+)
+  THEBES.
+    Amenopheum, 15.
+    Ramesseum, 15 (+8+)
+  THORICUS.
+    Gate, 45;
+    Stoa Diple, 69
+  TINNEVELLY.
+    Dravidian temples, 411
+  TIRUVALUR.
+    Dravidian temples, 411
+  TIRYNS, 44
+  TIVOLI.
+    Circular temple, 90, 356 (+52+).
+    VILLAS:--
+      D’Este, 293;
+      of Hadrian, 87, 106
+  TOKIO.
+    Great Palace, 415
+  TOLEDO.
+    Archbishop’s Palace, 360.
+    Cathedral, 189, 248, 348.
+    Gate of S. Martino, 350.
+    Hospital of Sta. Cruz, 349.
+    S. Juan de los Reyes, 251
+  TONNERRE.
+    Hospital, 214
+  TORGAU.
+    Hartenfels Castle, 342
+  TORO.
+    Collegiate church, 180
+  TOULOUSE Cathedral, 212.
+    Church of St. Sernin, 204.
+    Houses, 317
+  TOURNAY Cathedral, 190, 197, 205, 209;
+    rood-screen in, 335
+  TOURS, 310.
+    Cathedral, 197, 205, 209;
+      towers of, 312;
+      tomb of children of Charles VIII. in, 310, 342
+  TRAUSNITZ Castle, 342
+  TREVES (Trier).
+    Cathedral, 174.
+    Frauenkirche (Liebfrauenkirche, Church of Our Lady),
+      189, 242, 243 (+142+)
+  TROYES
+    Cathedral, 197, 201, 205;
+      size, 206;
+      west portals, 209.
+    St. Urbain, 212
+  TUCSON.
+    Church, 352
+  TUPARAMAYA.
+    Topes, 403
+  TURIN.
+    Church of La Superga, 365
+  TURKEY, 149.
+    Monuments (list), 154
+  TUSCULUM.
+    Amphitheatre, 92
+  TYROL, 338, 339
+
+  UDAIPUR (near Bhilsa).
+    Hindu temples, 409
+  ULM Cathedral, 238, 239, 241, 243;
+    spire, 241
+  UR, 30
+  URBINO.
+    Ducal palace, 287
+  UTRECHT Cathedral, 244
+
+  VALENCIA Cathedral, 249
+  VALLADOLID.
+    Cathedral, 350.
+    S. Gregorio, portal (+146+)
+  VELLORE.
+    Gopura, 411
+  VENDÔME Cathedral, portal, 209
+  VENETIA, 157, 262, 305
+  VENICE, 300.
+    Campaniles of St. Mark, of S. Giorgio Maggiore, 305.
+    CHURCHES:--
+      Frari (S. M. Gloriosa dei Frari), 256;
+      Redentore, 299;
+      S. Giobbe, 284;
+      S. Giorgio dei Grechi, 293;
+      S. Giorgio Maggiore, 299, 305;
+      SS. Giovanni e Paolo, 256;
+      Sta. Maria Formosa, 293;
+      S. M. dei Miracoli, 283;
+      S. M. della Salute, 304, (+174+);
+      St. Mark’s, 132, 164 (+78+, +79+);
+        Library of same (Royal Palace), 301 (+172+);
+      S. Salvatore, 293;
+      S. Zaccaria, 284.
+    Doge’s Palace, 267, 284 (+157+).
+    Minor works, 287.
+    PALACES:--267, 283, 284;
+      Cà d’Oro, Cavalli, Contarini-Fasan, 268;
+      Cornaro (Corner de Cà Grande) 301;
+      Dario, 285;
+      Ducale (Doge’s Palace), 267, 284 (+157+);
+      Foscari, 268;
+      Grimani, 300;
+      Pesaro, 304;
+      Pisani, 268;
+      Rezzonico, 304;
+      Vendramini (Vendramin-Calergi), 284, 285 (+165+);
+      Zorzi, capital, 275 (+158+)
+  VERCELLI.
+    S. Andrea, 256, 263
+  VERNEUIL.
+    Château, 317
+  VERONA, 157.
+    Amphitheatre, 92, 102.
+    Campanile, 264.
+    Church
+      of Sta. Anastasia, 256, 258;
+      of S. Zeno, 159, 175.
+    PALACES:--283;
+      Bevilacqua, Canossa, 300;
+      del Consiglio, 286;
+      Pompeii, Verzi, 300.
+      Tombs of Scaligers, 264
+  VERSAILLES Palace, 320
+  VÉZÉLAY.
+    Abbey, 166, 198, 203
+  VICENZA, 300, 301.
+    Basilica, 301.
+    PALACES:--283;
+      Barbarano, Chieregati, Tiene, Valmarano, 301;
+      Villa Capra, 301, 328
+  VIENNA, 347.
+    Arsenal at Wiener Neustadt, 338.
+    Burgtheater, 376.
+    Cathedral (St. Stephen), 239, 240, 241;
+      spire of, 240, 241.
+    Church of St. Charles Borromeo, 358.
+    Imperial Palace, portal, 339.
+    Museums, 378.
+    Opera House, 376.
+    Parliament House, or Reichsrathsgebäude, 360, 378.
+    Residence-block (Maria-Theresienhof), 378 (+214+).
+    Sta. Maria in Gestade, 245.
+    Town hall, University, 378.
+    Votiv Kirche, 375
+  VIJAYANAGAR.
+    Palace, 413
+  VINCENNES.
+    Royal chapel, 204
+  VITERBO.
+    Houses, 267.
+    Town hall (Palazzo Communale), 266.
+    Villa Lante, 293
+  VOLTERRA (Volaterræ).
+    Gate, 88
+
+  WALTHAM.
+    Abbey, 178.
+    Eleanor’s Cross, 234
+  WARFIELD.
+    St. Michael’s, window (+111+)
+  WARKAH (Erech).
+    Palace terraces, 31
+  WARTBURG Castle, 176
+  WASHINGTON.
+    Capitol, 389, 391 (+220+).
+    Congressional Library, 399.
+    Patent Office, 390.
+    State, Army, and Navy Building, 392.
+    White House, 390
+  WELLS Cathedral, 222, 225, 232;
+    west front, 228;
+    chapter house of, 223 (+131+)
+  WESTMINSTER. See LONDON
+  WESTONZOYLAND. Ceiling of St. Mary’s (+138+)
+  WESTOVER House, 386
+  WIENER-NEUSTADT. See VIENNA
+  WILLIAMSBURG.
+    Town hall, 385
+  WILTON House, 329
+  WINCHESTER Cathedral, 178, 220, 222, 226, 229 (+103+);
+    tombs, etc., in, 234
+  WINDSOR.
+    St. George’s Chapel, 223, 227, 234
+  WISMAR.
+    Castle (Fürstenhof), 343.
+    City Gates, 246
+  WOBURN. Public Library (+223+)
+  WOLLATON Hall, 328
+  WOLFENBÜTTEL.
+    Marienkirche, 345
+  WOLTERTON Castle, 326
+  WORANGUL.
+    Kurti Stambha, 410
+  WORCESTER Cathedral, 232
+  WORMS.
+    Minster (cathedral), 174 (+99+)
+  WÜRZBURG.
+    University Church, 345
+
+  XANTEN.
+    Church, 242
+  XANTHUS.
+    Nereid monument, 71
+
+  YORK Cathedral, 192, 225, 226;
+    west front, 227;
+    tower, 228;
+    minor works in, 234
+  YPRES.
+    Cloth hall, 247
+
+  ZURICH.
+    Polytechnic School, 376
+  ZWETTL Cathedral, 242
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+College Histories of Art.
+
+A HISTORY OF PAINTING.
+
+BY
+
+JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.
+
+Professor of the History of Art in Rutgers College, and Author of
+“Principles of Art,” “Art for Art’s Sake,” etc.
+
+With Frontispiece and 110 Illustrations in the text, reproduced in
+half-tone from the most celebrated paintings. Crown 8vo, 307 pages,
+$1.50.
+
+
+“... The initial volume of a promising series ... seems a model of pith,
+lucidity, and practical convenience; and that it is sound and accurate
+the author’s name is a sufficient guarantee. Essential historical and
+biographical facts, together with brief critical estimates and
+characterizations of leading schools and painters, are given in a few
+well-chosen words; and for students who wish to pursue the subject in
+detail, a list of selected authorities at the head of each chapter
+points the way. Serviceable lists are also provided of principal extant
+works, together with the places where they are to be found. The text is
+liberally sprinkled with illustrations in half-tone.”--DIAL, CHICAGO.
+
+“Prof. Van Dyke has performed his task with great thoroughness and good
+success.... He seems to us singularly happy in his characterization of
+various artists, and amazingly just in proportion. We have hardly found
+an instance in which the relative importance accorded a given artist
+seemed to us manifestly wrong, and hardly one in which the special
+characteristics of a style were not adequately presented.”--NATION, N.Y.
+
+“... Gives a good general view of the subject, avoiding as a rule all
+elaborate theories and disputed points, and aiming to distinguish the
+various historical schools from one another by their differences of
+subject and technique ... we do not know of anybody who has, on the
+whole, accomplished the task with as much success as has Mr. Van Dyke.
+The book is modern in spirit and thoroughly up-to-date in point of
+information.”--ART AMATEUR.
+
+“Professor Van Dyke has made a radical departure in one respect, in
+purposely omitting the biographical details with which text-books on art
+are usually encumbered, and substituting short critical estimates of
+artists and of their rank among the painters of their time. This feature
+of the work is highly to be commended, as it affords means for
+comparative study that cannot fail to be beneficial.... Altogether
+Professor Van Dyke’s text-book is worthy of general adoption, and as a
+volume of ready reference for the family library it will have a distinct
+usefulness. It is compact, comprehensive, and admirably
+arranged.”--BEACON, BOSTON.
+
+
+LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO.,
+
+91 & 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+A History of Sculpture.
+
+BY
+
+ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D.
+
+AND
+
+ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., Ph.D.
+
+Professors of Archæology and the History of Art in Princeton University.
+
++With Frontispiece and 113 Illustrations in half-tone in the text,
+Bibliographies, Addresses for Photographs and Casts, etc. Crown 8vo, 313
+pages, $1.50.+
+
+
+HENRY W. KENT, _Curator of the Seater Museum, Watkins, N.Y._
+
+“Like the other works in this series of yours, it is simply invaluable,
+filling a long-felt want. The bibliographies and lists will be keenly
+appreciated by all who work with a class of students.”
+
+CHARLES H. MOORE, _Harvard University_.
+
+“The illustrations are especially good, avoiding the excessively black
+background which produce harsh contrasts and injure the outlines of so
+many half-tone prints.”
+
+J. M. HOPPIN, _Yale University_.
+
+“These names are sufficient guarantee for the excellence of the book and
+its fitness for the object it was designed for. I was especially
+interested in the chapter on _Renaissance Sculpture in Italy_.”
+
+CRITIC, _New York_.
+
+“This history is a model of condensation.... Each period is treated in
+full, with descriptions of its general characteristics and its
+individual developments under various conditions, physical, political,
+religious and the like.... A general history of sculpture has never
+before been written in English--never in any language in convenient
+textbook form. This publication, then, should meet with an enthusiastic
+reception among students and amateurs of art, not so much, however,
+because it is the only book of its kind, as for its intrinsic merit and
+attractive form.”
+
+OUTLOOK, _New York_.
+
+“A concise survey of the history of sculpture is something needed
+everywhere.... A good feature of this book--and one which should be
+imitated--is the list indicating where casts and photographs may best be
+obtained. Of course such a volume is amply indexed.”
+
+NOTRE DAME SCHOLASTIC, _Notre Dame, Ind._
+
+“The work is orderly, the style lucid and easy. The illustrations,
+numbering over a hundred, are sharply cut and well selected. Besides a
+general bibliography, there is placed at the end of each period of style
+a special list to which the student may refer, should he wish to pursue
+more fully any particular school.”
+
+
+LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., Publishers,
+
+91 & 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+ERRORS AND INCONSISTENCIES:
+
+Missing or invisible punctuation has been silently supplied, as have
+missing umlauts and line-end hyphens; errors of this type were assumed
+to be mechanical, introduced either in printing or scanning. Conversely,
+“Bauschule” (Berlin) was consistently misprinted as “Bauschüle”.
+
+Hyphenization of some words was inconsistent: zigzag and zig-zag,
+semicircular and semi-circular, staircase and stair-case. The plural of
+“portico” is regularly “porticos”, rarely “porticoes”. Both occurrences
+of “mantelpiece” are at line-break; the hyphen was omitted based on
+usage in the 8th edition.
+
+Alphabetization in the Index is as printed.
+
+Names:
+
+  The architect Robert Adam is consistently called “Adams”; the error
+    was corrected in the 8th edition. The name form “Michael Angelo”
+    is standard for the time.
+  Columbia College changed its name to Columbia University in 1896,
+    presumably after the book’s original preface (dated January 20,
+    1896) was written.
+  The French palace is variously Luxembourg and Luxemburg.
+
+Spelling of place names was unchanged except when there was an
+unambiguous error. For details, see below.
+
+  Chapter VII:
+    the choragus Lysicrates  [choraegus]
+  Chapter VIII:
+    (long miscalled the temple of Jupiter Stator)  [Jupitor]
+  Chapter IX:
+    Adams, _Ruins of the Palace of Spalato_.  [Spalatro]
+  --, Monuments:
+    [FORA] Trajan (by Apollodorus of Damascus, 117 A.D.)
+      [_closing ) missing_]
+  Chapter XII:
+    the time of Haroun Ar Rashid (786)  [_spelling unchanged_]
+  Chapter XIII, Monuments:
+    [FRANCE, 11th century] Mont St. Michel, 1020 (the latter altered
+    in 12th and 16th centuries)  [_closing ) missing_]
+  Chapter XIV:
+    Northern Italy, with which the Hohenstauffen emperors
+      [_spelling unchanged_]
+  Chapter XVII:
+    Such vaults are called _lierne_ or _star_ vaults.
+      [_Figure caption has “net or lierne”_]
+    [Monuments] All Soul’s College  [_apostrophe in original_]
+  Chapter XX:
+    _Cinquecento_ to the sixteenth century  [cenury]
+  Chapter XXI:
+    but following its pernicious example  [pernicous]
+  --, Monuments:
+    Chapel of S. Lorenzo, new sacristy of same  [sacristry]
+    P. Giugni, 1560-8.
+      [_text has “P. Giugni, -1560.” Correction was taken from
+      8th edition_]
+  Chapter XXIII:
+    St. Paul’s ranks among the five or six greatest  [five of six]
+  Chapter XXVI:
+    Sammelmappe hervorragenden Concurrenz-Entwurfen.
+      [Sammel mappe]
+
+  Appendix B:
+    the brick tower on the Piazza dell’ Erbe  [dell ’Erbe]
+  Appendix D:
+    the chief marks of the Art Nouveau  [Noveau]
+
+  Glossary:
+    QUATREFOIL, with four leaves or _foils_  [QUARTREFOIL]
+
+  Index:
+    BERLIN
+      Old Museum, 359 (+200+).
+      New Museum, 359.
+      [_alphabetized as shown; body text has “Museum” and “New Museum”_]
+    DURHAM Cathedral, 177, 178, 220, 221 (+102+)  [+116+]
+    PARIS. ... Cathedral ... early carving (+114+)  [+122+]
+    TAFKHAH. Early Christian Church  [Christain]
+    WORMS. Minster (cathedral), 174 (+99+)  [+112+]
+
+
+A few words in Chapters VI and VII were printed with “ae” instead of the
+expected “æ”. They have been regularized for this e-text.
+
+  From Olympia, Ægina, and Phigaleia  [Aegina]
+  Selinus, Agrigentum, Pæstum  [Paestum]
+  Castor and Pollux, Demeter, Æsculapius  [Aesculapius]
+
+
+PLACE NAMES:
+
+The form “Herculanum” (for Herculanum) was used consistently. The
+English city is Peterboro’ (with apostrophe) in its first few
+appearances, and then changes to Peterborough for the remainder of
+the book. The Italian city was conventionally spelled “Sienna” (with
+two n’s) in English.
+
+Many names, especially non-European ones, differ significantly from
+their modern form. Some of the following are conjectural.
+
+Near East:
+
+  Ipsamboul: Abu Simbel
+  Bozrah: probably modern Bouseira, Jordan (not “Bosrah”, modern Basra)
+
+Greater India (including modern Pakistan and Bangladesh)
+
+  Tope: the form “stupa” is more common
+  Indian desert: Thar desert
+
+  Baillur: Belur
+  Chillambaram: probably Chidambaram; the author’s sources seem to
+    have had trouble with “l” in South Indian names
+  Conjeveram: Kanchipuram
+  Futtehpore Sikhri: Fatehpur Sikri
+  Hullabid: Halebid
+  Jaunpore: Janpur
+  Jugganat: the name of the deity is Jagannath; the English name-form
+    led to the word “juggernaut”
+  Kantonnuggur: Kantanagar
+  Oudeypore: the author seems not to have realized that this is the same
+    place as Udaipur, cited with that spelling in the same paragraph
+  Scinde: Sind
+  Shepree: could not be identified.
+    The author’s source is probably James Ferguson, who describes it
+    as “near Gualior” (Gwalior)
+  Tanjore: Thanjavur
+  Worangul: Varangal
+
+Cambodia:
+
+  Nakhon Wat: better known as Angkor Wat
+
+
+
+
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+<body>
+
+<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Text-Book of the History of Architecture, by Alfred D. F. Hamlin</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
+at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
+are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
+country where you are located before using this eBook.
+</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Text-Book of the History of Architecture<br>
+  Seventh Edition, revised</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Alfred D. F. Hamlin</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: August 15, 2008 [eBook #26319]<br>
+[Most recently updated: October 28, 2023]</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Louise Hope, Joseph R. Hauser and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team</div>
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE ***</div>
+
+<div class="mynote">
+
+<p><a name="start" id="start">This text</a> uses utf-8 (unicode)
+file encoding. If the apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph
+appear as garbage, you may have an incompatible browser or unavailable
+fonts. First, make sure that your browser’s “character set” or “file
+encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to change the
+default font.</p>
+
+<p><b>Technical Note:</b> The illustrations were scanned at 500dpi and
+resized to 25% (125dpi). They will therefore display slightly
+<i>larger</i> than their original size; the exact value depends on your
+monitor settings. The Frontispiece and Figures 78 and 171 were printed
+as full-page plates and resized to 1/6, so they will be a little smaller
+proportionally. The quality of the photographs reflects the quality of
+the printed book.</p>
+
+<p>Errors are shown with mouse-hover <ins class="correction" title="like this">popups</ins>. Spelling variations are generally unchanged.
+Details about some types of inconsistencies, including names, are given
+at the <a href="#errors">end of this file</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="titlepage">
+
+<h3>COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART</h3>
+
+<h6>EDITED BY</h6>
+
+<h5>JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.</h5>
+
+<hr class="mid">
+
+<h4>HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE</h4>
+
+<h6>A. D. F. HAMLIN</h6>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="titlepage">
+
+<h4><b>COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART</b></h4>
+
+<h6>EDITED BY</h6>
+
+<h5><span class="sans">JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.</span></h5>
+
+<h5 class="smallcaps">Professor of the History of Art<br>
+in Rutgers College</h5>
+
+<hr class="mid">
+
+<h5>HISTORY OF PAINTING</h5>
+
+<p class="hanging">
+By <span class="smallcaps">John C. Van Dyke</span>, the Editor of the
+Series. With Frontispiece and 110 Illustrations, Bibliographies, and
+Index. Crown 8vo, $1.50.</p>
+
+<h5>HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE</h5>
+
+<p class="hanging">
+By <span class="smallcaps">Alfred D. F. Hamlin</span>, A.M. Adjunct
+Professor of Architecture, Columbia College, New York. With Frontispiece
+and 229 Illustrations and Diagrams, Bibliographies, Glossary, Index of
+Architects, and a General Index. Crown 8vo, $2.00.</p>
+
+<h5>HISTORY OF SCULPTURE</h5>
+
+<p class="hanging">
+By <span class="smallcaps">Allan Marquand</span>, Ph.D., L.H.D. and
+<span class="smallcaps">Arthur L. Frothingham</span>, Jr., Ph.D.,
+Professors of Archæology and the History of Art in Princeton University.
+With Frontispiece and 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, $1.50.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="frontis"></a>
+<img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="472" height="281" alt="see caption"><br>
+THE PARTHENON, ATHENS, AS RESTORED BY CH. CHIPIEZ.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+(From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)</span></p>
+
+
+<div class="titlepage">
+
+<h4>A TEXT-BOOK</h4>
+
+<h5>&nbsp;<br>
+OF THE</h5>
+
+<h1 class="smallcaps">History of Architecture</h1>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h5>BY</h5>
+
+<h4>A. D. F. HAMLIN, A.M.</h4>
+
+<h6>PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE<br>
+IN THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE,<br>
+COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY</h6>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h5>SEVENTH EDITION</h5>
+
+<h6>REVISED</h6>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h5><span class="extended">
+LONGMANS, GREEN, AND C</span>O.<br>
+<span class="smallcaps">
+91 and 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK</span><br>
+<span class="smaller">
+LONDON, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA</span><br>
+1909</h5>
+
+</div>
+
+<h6><span class="smallcaps">Copyright, 1895, by</span><br>
+LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.</h6>
+
+<h6><i>All rights reserved.</i></h6>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h6 class="smallcaps">
+First Edition, March, 1896<br>
+Printed and Revised, December, 1896.<br>
+December, 1898 (Revised)<br>
+October, 1900 (Revised)<br>
+October, 1902 (Revised)<br>
+September, 1904, June, 1906 (Revised).<br>
+November, 1907 (Revised)<br>
+January, 1909</h6>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h6>Press of J. J. Little &amp; Ives Co.<br>
+425&ndash;435 East 24th Street, New York</h6>
+
+<hr>
+
+<div class="maintext">
+
+<span class="pagenum">v</span>
+<a name="pagev" id="pagev"> </a>
+
+<h3><a name="preface">
+PREFACE.</a></h3>
+
+<p><span class="firstword">The</span> aim of this work has been to
+sketch the various periods and styles of architecture with the broadest
+possible strokes, and to mention, with such brief characterization as
+seemed permissible or necessary, the most important works of each period
+or style. Extreme condensation in presenting the leading facts of
+architectural history has been necessary, and much that would rightly
+claim place in a larger work has been omitted here. The danger was felt
+to be rather in the direction of too much detail than of too little.
+While the book is intended primarily to meet the special requirements of
+the college student, those of the general reader have not been lost
+sight of. The majority of the technical terms used are defined or
+explained in the context, and the small remainder in a glossary at the
+end of the work. Extended criticism and minute description were out of
+the question, and discussion of controverted points has been in
+consequence as far as possible avoided.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations have been carefully prepared with a view to
+elucidating the text, rather than for pictorial effect. With the
+exception of some fifteen cuts reproduced from Lübke’s <i>Geschichte der
+Architektur</i> (by kind permission of Messrs. Seemann, of Leipzig), the
+illustrations are almost all entirely new. A&nbsp;large number are from
+<span class="pagenum">vi</span>
+<a name="pagevi" id="pagevi"> </a>
+original drawings made by myself, or under my direction, and the
+remainder are, with a few exceptions, half-tone reproductions prepared
+specially for this work from photographs in my possession.
+Acknowledgments are due to Messrs. H.&nbsp;W. Buemming, H.&nbsp;D.
+Bultman, and A.&nbsp;E. Weidinger for valued assistance in preparing
+original drawings; and to Professor W.&nbsp;R. Ware, to Professor
+W.&nbsp;H. Thomson, M.D., and to the Editor of the Series for much
+helpful criticism and suggestion.</p>
+
+<p>It is hoped that the lists of monuments appended to the history of
+each period down to the present century may prove useful for reference,
+both to the student and the general reader, as a supplement to the body
+of the text.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+<span class="smallcaps">A. D. F. Hamlin.</span></p>
+
+<p class="lefthalf"><span class="smaller smallcaps">
+Columbia College, New York,</span><br>
+January 20, 1896.</p>
+
+<p class="note">
+The author desires to express his further acknowledgments to the friends
+who have at various times since the first appearance of this book called
+his attention to errors in the text or illustrations, and to recent
+advances in the art or in its archæology deserving of mention in
+subsequent editions. As far as possible these suggestions have been
+incorporated in the various revisions and reprints which have appeared
+since the first publication.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+A. D. F. H.</p>
+
+<p class="lefthalf"><span class="smaller smallcaps">
+Columbia University,</span><br>
+October 28, 1907.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">xix</span>
+<a name="pagexix" id="pagexix"> </a>
+<h3 class="chapter"><a name="biblio" id="biblio">
+GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.</a></h3>
+
+
+<p class="note">
+(This includes the leading architectural works treating of more than one
+period or style. The reader should consult also the special references
+at the head of each chapter. Valuable material is also contained in the
+leading architectural periodicals and in monographs too numerous to
+mention.)</p>
+
+
+<h4 class="smallcaps">Dictionaries and Encyclopedias.</h4>
+
+<p>Agincourt, <i>History of Art by its Monuments</i>; London.</p>
+
+<p>Architectural Publication Society, <i>Dictionary of Architecture</i>;
+London.</p>
+
+<p>Bosc, <i>Dictionnaire raisonné d’architecture</i>; Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Durm and others, <i>Handbuch der Architektur</i>; Stuttgart. (This is
+an encyclopedic compendium of architectural knowledge in many volumes;
+the series not yet complete. It is referred to as the <i>Hdbuch. d.
+Arch.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>Gwilt, <i>Encyclopedia of Architecture</i>; London.</p>
+
+<p>Longfellow and Frothingham, <i>Cyclopedia of Architecture in Italy
+and the Levant</i>; New York.</p>
+
+<p>Planat, <i>Encyclopédie d’architecture</i>; Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Sturgis, <i>Dictionary of Architecture and Building</i>; New
+York.</p>
+
+
+<h4 class="smallcaps">General Handbooks and Histories.</h4>
+
+<p>Bühlmann, <i>Die Architektur des klassischen Alterthums und der
+Renaissance</i>; Stuttgart. (Also in English, published in New
+York.)</p>
+
+<p>Choisy, <i>Histoire de l’architecture</i>; Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Durand, <i>Recueil et parallèle d’édifices de tous genres</i>;
+Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Fergusson, <i>History of Architecture in All Countries</i>;
+London.</p>
+
+<p>Fletcher and Fletcher, <i>A History of Architecture</i>; London.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">xx</span>
+<a name="pagexx" id="pagexx"> </a>
+
+<p>Gailhabaud, <i>L’Architecture du Vme. au XVIIIme. siècle</i>;
+Paris.&mdash;<i>Monuments anciens et modernes</i>; Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Kugler, <i>Geschichte der Baukunst</i>; Stuttgart.</p>
+
+<p>Longfellow, <i>The Column and the Arch</i>; New York.</p>
+
+<p>Lübke, <i>Geschichte der Architektur</i>; Leipzig.&mdash;<i>History
+of Art</i>, tr. and rev. by R. Sturgis; New York.</p>
+
+<p>Perry, <i>Chronology of Mediæval and Renaissance Architecture</i>;
+London.</p>
+
+<p>Reynaud, <i>Traité d’architecture</i>; Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Rosengarten, <i>Handbook of Architectural Styles</i>; London and New
+York.</p>
+
+<p>Simpson, <i>A History of Architectural Development</i>; London.</p>
+
+<p>Spiers, <i>Architecture East and West</i>; London.</p>
+
+<p>Stratham, <i>Architecture for General Readers</i>; London.</p>
+
+<p>Sturgis, <i>European Architecture</i>; New York.</p>
+
+<p><i>Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects</i>;
+London.</p>
+
+<p>Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Discourses on Architecture</i>; Boston.</p>
+
+
+<h4 class="smallcaps">Theory, the Orders, etc.</h4>
+
+<p>Chambers, <i>A Treatise on Civil Architecture</i>; London.</p>
+
+<p>Daviler, <i>Cours d’architecture de Vignole</i>; Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Esquié, <i>Traité élémentaire d’architecture</i>; Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Guadet, <i>Théorie de l’architecture</i>; Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Robinson, <i>Principles of Architectural Composition</i>; New
+York.</p>
+
+<p>Ruskin, <i>The Seven Lamps of Architecture</i>; London.</p>
+
+<p>Sturgis, <i>How to Judge Architecture</i>; New York.</p>
+
+<p>Tuckerman, <i>Vignola, the Five Orders of Architecture</i>; New
+York.</p>
+
+<p>Van Brunt, <i>Greek Lines and Other Essays</i>; Boston.</p>
+
+<p>Van Pelt, <i>A Discussion of Composition</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Ware, <i>The American Vignola</i>; Scranton.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">xxi</span>
+<a name="pagexxi" id="pagexxi"> </a>
+
+<h2 class="chapter">HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.</h2>
+
+<hr class="mid">
+
+<h3><a name="intro" id="intro">
+INTRODUCTION.</a></h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="firstword">A history</span> of architecture is a
+record of man’s efforts to build beautifully. The erection of structures
+devoid of beauty is mere building, a&nbsp;trade and not an art. Edifices
+in which strength and stability alone are sought, and in designing which
+only utilitarian considerations have been followed, are properly works
+of engineering. Only when the idea of beauty is added to that of use
+does a structure take its place among works of architecture. We may,
+then, define architecture as the art which seeks to harmonize in a
+building the requirements of utility and of beauty. It is the most
+useful of the fine arts and the noblest of the useful arts. It touches
+the life of man at every point. It is concerned not only in sheltering
+his person and ministering to his comfort, but also in providing him
+with places for worship, amusement, and business; with tombs, memorials,
+embellishments for his cities, and other structures for the varied needs
+of a complex civilization. It engages the services of a larger portion
+of the community and involves greater outlays of money than any other
+occupation except agriculture. Everyone at some point comes in contact
+with the work of the architect, and from this universal contact
+architecture derives its significance as an index of the civilization of
+an age, a&nbsp;race, or a people.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">xxii</span>
+<a name="pagexxii" id="pagexxii"> </a>
+<p>It is the function of the historian of architecture to trace the
+origin, growth, and decline of the architectural styles which have
+prevailed in different lands and ages, and to show how they have
+reflected the great movements of civilization. The migrations, the
+conquests, the commercial, social, and religious changes among different
+peoples have all manifested themselves in the changes of their
+architecture, and it is the historian’s function to show this. It is
+also his function to explain the principles of the styles, their
+characteristic forms and decoration, and to describe the great
+masterpieces of each style and period.</p>
+
+<p><b>STYLE</b> is a quality; the “historic styles” are phases of
+development. <i>Style</i> is character expressive of definite
+conceptions, as of grandeur, gaiety, or solemnity. An <i>historic
+style</i> is the particular phase, the characteristic manner of design,
+which prevails at a given time and place. It is not the result of mere
+accident or caprice, but of intellectual, moral, social, religious, and
+even political conditions. Gothic architecture could never have been
+invented by the Greeks, nor could the Egyptian styles have grown up in
+Italy. Each style is based upon some fundamental principle springing
+from its surrounding civilization, which undergoes successive
+developments until it either reaches perfection or its possibilities are
+exhausted, after which a period of decline usually sets in. This is
+followed either by a reaction and the introduction of some radically new
+principle leading to the evolution of a new style, or by the final decay
+and extinction of the civilization and its replacement by some younger
+and more virile element. Thus the history of architecture appears as a
+connected chain of causes and effects succeeding each other without
+break, each style growing out of that which preceded it, or springing
+out of the fecundating contact of a higher with a lower civilization. To
+study architectural styles is therefore to study a branch of the history
+of civilization.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">xxiii</span>
+<a name="pagexxiii"> </a>
+<p>Technically, architectural styles are identified by the means they
+employ to cover enclosed spaces, by the characteristic forms of the
+supports and other members (piers, <!-- invisible comma --> columns,
+arches, mouldings, traceries, etc.), and by their decoration. The
+<b>plan</b> should receive special attention, since it shows the
+arrangement of the points of support, and hence the nature of the
+structural design. A&nbsp;comparison, for example, of the plans of the
+Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (<a href="#fig11">Fig.
+11,&nbsp;<i>h</i></a>) and of the Basilica of Constantine (<a href="#fig58">Fig.&nbsp;58</a>) shows at once a radical
+difference in constructive principle between the two edifices, and hence
+a difference of style.</p>
+
+<p><b>STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES.</b> All architecture is based on one or
+more of three fundamental structural principles; that of the
+<i>lintel</i>, of the <i>arch</i> or <i>vault</i>, and of the
+<i>truss</i>. The principle of the <b>lintel</b> is that of resistance
+to transverse strains, and appears in all construction in which a
+cross-piece or beam rests on two or more vertical supports. The
+<b>arch</b> or <b>vault</b> makes use of several pieces to span an
+opening between two supports. These pieces are in compression and exert
+lateral pressures or <i>thrusts</i> which are transmitted to the
+supports or abutments. The thrust must be resisted either by the
+massiveness of the abutments or by the opposition to it of
+counter-thrusts from other arches or vaults. Roman builders used the
+first, Gothic builders the second of these means of resistance. The
+<b>truss</b> is a framework so composed of several pieces of wood or
+metal that each shall best resist the particular strain, whether of
+tension or compression, to which it is subjected, the whole forming a
+compound beam or arch. It is especially applicable to very wide spans,
+and is the most characteristic feature of modern construction. How the
+adoption of one or another of these principles affected the forms and
+even the decoration of the various styles, will be shown in the
+succeeding chapters.</p>
+
+<p><b>HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT.</b> Geographically and chronologically,
+architecture appears to have originated in the Nile
+<span class="pagenum">xxiv</span>
+<a name="pagexxiv" id="pagexxiv"> </a>
+valley. A&nbsp;second centre of development is found in the valley of
+the Tigris and Euphrates, not uninfluenced by the older Egyptian art.
+Through various channels the Greeks inherited from both Egyptian and
+Assyrian art, the two influences being discernible even through the
+strongly original aspect of Greek architecture. The Romans in turn,
+adopting the external details of Greek architecture, transformed its
+substance by substituting the Etruscan arch for the Greek construction
+of columns and lintels. They developed a complete and original system of
+construction and decoration and spread it over the civilized world,
+which has never wholly outgrown or abandoned&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p>With the fall of Rome and the rise of Constantinople these forms
+underwent in the East another transformation, called the Byzantine, in
+the development of Christian domical church architecture. In the North
+and West, meanwhile, under the growing institutions of the papacy and of
+the monastic orders and the emergence of a feudal civilization out of
+the chaos of the Dark Ages, the constant preoccupation of architecture
+was to evolve from the basilica type of church a vaulted structure, and
+to adorn it throughout with an appropriate dress of constructive and
+symbolic ornament. Gothic architecture was the outcome of this
+preoccupation, and it prevailed throughout northern and western Europe
+until nearly or quite the close of the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>During this fifteenth century the Renaissance style matured in Italy,
+where it speedily triumphed over Gothic fashions and produced a
+marvellous series of civic monuments, palaces, and churches, adorned
+with forms borrowed or imitated from classic Roman art. This influence
+spread through Europe in the sixteenth century, and ran a course of two
+centuries, after which a period of servile classicism was followed by a
+rapid decline in taste. To this succeeded the eclecticism and confusion
+of the nineteenth century, to
+<span class="pagenum">xxv</span>
+<a name="pagexxv" id="pagexxv"> </a>
+which the rapid growth of new requirements and development of new
+resources have largely contributed.</p>
+
+<p>In Eastern lands three great schools of architecture have grown up
+contemporaneously with the above phases of Western art; one under the
+influence of Mohammedan civilization, another in the Brahman and
+Buddhist architecture of India, and the third in China and Japan. The
+first of these is the richest and most important. Primarily inspired
+from Byzantine art, always stronger on the decorative than on the
+constructive side, it has given to the world the mosques and palaces of
+Northern Africa, Moorish Spain, Persia, Turkey, and India. The other two
+schools seem to be wholly unrelated to the first, and have no affinity
+with the architecture of Western lands.</p>
+
+<p>Of Mexican, Central American, and South American architecture so
+little is known, and that little is so remote in history and spirit from
+the styles above enumerated, that it belongs rather to archæology than
+to architectural history, and will not be considered in this work.</p>
+
+
+<p class="note">
+<span class="smallcaps">Note.</span>&mdash;The reader’s attention is
+called to the <a href="#appendix">Appendix</a> to
+this volume, in which are gathered some of the results of recent
+investigations and of the architectural progress of the last few years
+which could not readily be introduced into the text of this edition. The
+General Bibliography and the lists of books recommended have been
+revised and brought up to date.</p>
+
+</div> <!-- end div maintext -->
+
+<hr class="mid">
+
+<hr>
+
+<hr class="mid">
+
+<div class="titlepage">
+
+<h4><a name="ads" id="ads">
+<b>College Histories of Art.</b></a></h4>
+
+<h2><b>A HISTORY OF PAINTING.</b></h2>
+
+<h6>BY</h6>
+
+<h5>JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.</h5>
+
+<p class="center smaller">
+Professor of the History of Art in Rutgers College, and Author of
+“Principles of Art,” “Art for Art’s Sake,” etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>With Frontispiece and 110 Illustrations in the text, reproduced in
+half-tone from the most celebrated paintings. Crown 8vo, 307 pages,
+$1.50.</b></p>
+
+<hr class="mid">
+
+<p>“... The initial volume of a promising series ... seems a model of
+pith, lucidity, and practical convenience; and that it is sound and
+accurate the author’s name is a sufficient guarantee. Essential
+historical and biographical facts, together with brief critical
+estimates and characterizations of leading schools and painters, are
+given in a few well-chosen words; and for students who wish to pursue
+the subject in detail, a&nbsp;list of selected authorities at the head
+of each chapter points the way. Serviceable lists are also provided of
+principal extant works, together with the places where they are to be
+found. The text is liberally sprinkled with illustrations in
+half-tone.”&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Dial, Chicago</span>.</p>
+
+<p>“Prof. Van Dyke has performed his task with great thoroughness and
+good success.... He seems to us singularly happy in his characterization
+of various artists, and amazingly just in proportion. We have hardly
+found an instance in which the relative importance accorded a given
+artist seemed to us manifestly wrong, and hardly one in which the
+special characteristics of a style were not adequately presented.”<!--
+invisible . -->&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Nation, N.Y.</span></p>
+
+<p>“... Gives a good general view of the subject, avoiding as a rule all
+elaborate theories and disputed points, and aiming to distinguish the
+various historical schools from one another by their differences of
+subject and technique ... we do not know of anybody who has, on the
+whole, accomplished the task with as much success as has Mr. Van Dyke.
+The book is modern in spirit and thoroughly up-to-date in point of
+information.”&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Art Amateur</span>.</p>
+
+<p>“Professor Van Dyke has made a radical departure in one respect, in
+purposely omitting the biographical details with which text-books on art
+are usually encumbered, and substituting short critical estimates of
+artists and of their rank among the painters of their time. This feature
+of the work is highly to be commended, as it affords means for
+comparative study that cannot fail to be beneficial.... Altogether
+Professor Van Dyke’s text-book is worthy of general adoption, and as a
+volume of ready reference for the family library it will have a distinct
+usefulness. It is compact, comprehensive, and admirably
+arranged.”&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Beacon, Boston</span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="mid">
+
+<h4><b>LONGMANS, GREEN, &amp; CO.,</b></h4>
+
+<h5><b>91 &amp; 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK.</b></h5>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h2><b>A History of Sculpture.</b></h2>
+
+<h5>BY</h5>
+
+<h5><b>ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D.</b></h5>
+
+<h6>AND</h6>
+
+<h5><b>ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., Ph.D.</b></h5>
+
+<p class="center smaller">
+Professors of Archæology and the History of Art in Princeton
+University.</p>
+
+<p><b>With Frontispiece and 113 Illustrations in half-tone in the text,
+Bibliographies, Addresses for Photographs and Casts, etc.<!-- invisible
+.--> Crown 8vo, 313 pages, $1.50.</b></p>
+
+<hr class="mid">
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Henry W. Kent</span>, <i>Curator of the Seater
+Museum, Watkins, N.Y.</i></p>
+
+<p>“Like the other works in this series of yours, it is simply
+invaluable, filling a long-felt want. The bibliographies and lists will
+be keenly appreciated by all who work with a class of students.”</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Charles H. Moore</span>, <i>Harvard
+University</i>.</p>
+
+<p>“The illustrations are especially good, avoiding the excessively
+black background which produce harsh contrasts and injure the outlines
+of so many half-tone prints.”</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">J. M. Hoppin</span>, <i>Yale
+University</i>.</p>
+
+<p>“These names are sufficient guarantee for the excellence of the book
+and its fitness for the object it was designed for. I&nbsp;was
+especially interested in the chapter on <i>Renaissance Sculpture in
+Italy</i>.”</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Critic</span>, <i>New York</i>.</p>
+
+<p>“This history is a model of condensation.... Each period is treated
+in full, with descriptions of its general characteristics and its
+individual developments under various conditions, physical, political,
+religious and the like.... A&nbsp;general history of sculpture has never
+before been written in English&mdash;never in any language in convenient
+textbook form. This publication, then, should meet with an enthusiastic
+reception among students and amateurs of art, not so much, however,
+because it is the only book of its kind, as for its intrinsic merit and
+attractive form.”</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Outlook</span>, <i>New York</i>.</p>
+
+<p>“A concise survey of the history of sculpture is something needed
+everywhere.... A&nbsp;good feature of this book&mdash;and one which
+should be imitated&mdash;is the list indicating where casts and
+photographs may best be obtained. Of course such a volume is amply
+indexed.”</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Notre Dame Scholastic</span>, <i>Notre Dame,
+Ind.</i></p>
+
+<p>“The work is orderly, the style lucid and easy. The illustrations,
+numbering over a hundred, are sharply cut and well selected. Besides a
+general bibliography, there is placed at the end of each period of style
+a special list to which the student may refer, should he wish to pursue
+more fully any particular school.”</p>
+
+<hr class="mid">
+
+<h4><b>LONGMANS, GREEN, &amp; CO., Publishers,</b></h4>
+
+<h5><b>91 &amp; 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK.</b></h5>
+
+</div> <!-- end div titlepage again -->
+
+<span class="pagenum">vii</span>
+<a name="pagevii" id="pagevii"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter"><a name="contents">
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.</a></h3>
+
+<table class="toc" summary="contents">
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="number smallroman">
+PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+<p><a href="#preface">Preface</a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="space">
+<td class="chapname">
+List of Illustrations (<i>Figures 1&ndash;157</i>)</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#illus">xi</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER I.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Primitive and Prehistoric Architecture</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapI">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER II.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Egyptian Architecture</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapII">6</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER III.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Egyptian Architecture, <i>Continued</i></td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapIII">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER IV.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Chaldæan and Assyrian Architecture</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapIV">28</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER V.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Persian, Lycian, and Jewish Architecture</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapV">35</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER VI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Greek Architecture</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapVI">43</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+<span class="pagenum">viii</span>
+<a name="pageviii" id="pageviii"> </a>
+CHAPTER VII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Greek Architecture, <i>Continued</i></td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapVII">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER VIII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Roman Architecture</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapVIII">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER IX.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Roman Architecture, <i>Continued</i></td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapIX">88</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER X.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Early Christian Architecture</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapX">110</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Byzantine Architecture</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXI">120</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+<p>Sassanian and Mohammedan Architecture&mdash;Arabian, Moresque,
+Persian, Indian, and Turkish</p></td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXII">135</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XIII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+<p>Early Mediæval Architecture in Italy and France</p></td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXIII">155</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XIV.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+<p>Early Mediæval Architecture in Germany, Great Britain, and
+Spain</p></td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXIV">172</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XV.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Gothic Architecture</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXV">182</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XVI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Gothic Architecture in France</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXVI">196</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+<span class="pagenum">ix</span>
+<a name="pageix" id="pageix"> </a>
+CHAPTER XVII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Gothic Architecture in Great Britain</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXVII">218</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XVIII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+<p>Gothic Architecture in Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain</p></td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXVIII">237</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XIX.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Gothic Architecture in Italy</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXIX">254</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XX.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Early Renaissance Architecture in Italy</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXX">270</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XXI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+<p>Renaissance Architecture in Italy&mdash;The Advanced Renaissance and
+Decline</p></td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXI">288</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XXII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Renaissance Architecture in France</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXII">308</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XXIII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+<p>Renaissance Architecture in Great Britain and the
+Netherlands</p></td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXIII">326</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XXIV.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+<p>Renaissance Architecture in Germany, Spain, and Portugal</p></td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXIV">338</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XXV.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+The Classic Revivals in Europe</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXV">354</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+<span class="pagenum">x</span>
+<a name="pagex" id="pagex"> </a>
+CHAPTER XXVI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Recent Architecture in Europe</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXVI">368</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XXVII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Architecture in the United States</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXVII">383</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapnum" colspan="2">
+CHAPTER XXVIII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+<p>Oriental Architecture&mdash;India, China, and Japan</p></td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#chapXXVIII">401</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="space">
+<td class="chapname">
+Appendix</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#appendix">417</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="space">
+<td class="chapname">
+Glossary</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#glossary">429</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Index of Architects</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#index_arch">431</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="chapname">
+Index</td>
+<td class="number"><a href="#index">435</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<span class="pagenum">xi</span>
+<a name="pagexi" id="pagexi"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter"><a name="illus" id="illus">
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</a></h3>
+
+<div class="mynote">
+<p>A few illustrations include links to larger versions. Figure 24 has
+been reformatted for this e-text; it was printed vertically, with the
+Plan below the Section. Figure 138 is shown as printed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="note">
+<span class="firstword">The</span> authorship of the original drawings
+is indicated by the initials affixed: A.&nbsp;= drawings by the author;
+B.&nbsp;= H.&nbsp;W. Buemming; Bn.&nbsp;= H.&nbsp;D. Bultman; Ch.&nbsp;=
+Château, <i>L’Architecture en France</i>; G.&nbsp;= drawings adapted
+from Gwilt’s <i>Encyclopædia of Architecture</i>; L.&nbsp;= Lübke’s
+<i>Geschichte der Architektur</i>; W.&nbsp;= A.&nbsp;E. Weidinger. All
+other illustrations are from photographs.</p>
+
+<table class="toc" summary="illustrations">
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="number smallroman" colspan="2">
+PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">
+<p><a href="#frontis">
+<span class="smallcaps">Frontispiece.</span></a>
+The Parthenon Restored (from model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)</p>
+</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig1">1</a></td>
+<td><p>Section of Great Pyramid (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig2">2</a></td>
+<td><p>Section of King’s Chamber (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">9</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig3">3</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Sphinx Temple (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">9</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig4">4</a></td>
+<td><p>Ruins of Sphinx Temple (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig5">5</a></td>
+<td><p>Tomb at Abydos (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig6">6</a></td>
+<td><p>Tomb at Beni-Hassan (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig7">7</a></td>
+<td><p>Section and Half-plan of same (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig8">8</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of the Ramesseum (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">14</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig9">9</a></td>
+<td><p>Temple of Edfou. Plan (B.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">17</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig10">10</a></td>
+<td><p>Temple of Edfou. Section (B.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">17</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig11">11</a></td>
+<td><p>Temple of Karnak. Plan (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">18</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig12">12</a></td>
+<td><p>Central Portion of Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (from model in
+Metropolitan Museum, New York)</p></td>
+<td class="number">20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig13">13</a></td>
+<td><p>Great Temple of Ipsamboul</p></td>
+<td class="number">21</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig14">14</a></td>
+<td><p>Edfou. Front of Hypostyle Hall</p></td>
+<td class="number">23</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig15">15</a></td>
+<td><p>Osirid Pier (Medinet Abou) (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">24</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig16">16</a></td>
+<td><p>Types of Column (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig17">17</a></td>
+<td><p>Egyptian Floral Ornament-Forms (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">26</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig18">18</a></td>
+<td><p>Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad. Plan (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig19">19</a></td>
+<td><p>Gate, Khorsabad (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig20">20</a></td>
+<td><p>Assyrian Ornament (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">34</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig21">21</a></td>
+<td><p>Column from Persepolis (B.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">37</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig22">22</a></td>
+<td><p>Lion Gate at Mycenæ (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">44</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number">
+<span class="pagenum">xii</span>
+<a name="pagexii" id="pagexii"> </a>
+<a href="#fig23">23</a></td>
+<td><p>Polygonal Masonry, Mycenæ (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig24">24</a></td>
+<td><p>Tholos of Atreus; Plan and Section (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">46</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig25">25</a></td>
+<td><p>Tholos of Atreus, Doorway (after Clarke) (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">46</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig26">26</a></td>
+<td><p>Greek Doric Order (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">48</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig27">27</a></td>
+<td><p>Doric Order of the Parthenon. (From cast in Metropolitan Museum,
+New York)</p></td>
+<td class="number">49</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig28">28</a></td>
+<td><p>Greek Ionic Order, Miletus (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">51</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig29">29</a></td>
+<td><p>Side View of Ionic Capital (B.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">52</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig30">30</a></td>
+<td><p>Greek Corinthian Order (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">53</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig31">31</a></td>
+<td><p>Types of Greek Temple Plans (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">54</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig32">32</a></td>
+<td><p>Carved Anthemion Ornament, Athens</p></td>
+<td class="number">57</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig33">33</a></td>
+<td><p>Temple of Zeus, Agrigentum; Plan (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">61</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig34">34</a></td>
+<td><p>Ruins of the Parthenon</p></td>
+<td class="number">63</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig35">35</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of the Erechtheum (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">64</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig36">36</a></td>
+<td><p>West End of the Erechtheum (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">64</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig37">37</a></td>
+<td><p>Propylæa at Athens. Plan (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig38">38</a></td>
+<td><p>Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. (From model in Metropolitan
+Museum, New York)</p></td>
+<td class="number">67</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig39">39</a></td>
+<td><p>Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens. Plan (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">68</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig40">40</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Greek Theatre (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig41">41</a></td>
+<td><p>Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">72</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig42">42</a></td>
+<td><p>Roman Doric Order from Theatre of Marcellus. (Model in
+Metropolitan Museum, New York)</p></td>
+<td class="number">77</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig43">43</a></td>
+<td><p>Roman Ionic Order (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">78</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig44">44</a></td>
+<td><p>Roman Corinthian Order. (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New
+York)</p></td>
+<td class="number">79</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig45">45</a></td>
+<td><p>Roman Arcade with Engaged Columns (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig46">46</a></td>
+<td><p>Barrel Vault (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">81</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig47">47</a></td>
+<td><p>Groined Vault (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">81</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig48">48</a></td>
+<td><p>Roman Wall Masonry (B.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">83</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig49">49</a></td>
+<td><p>Roman Carved Ornament. (Lateran Museum)</p></td>
+<td class="number">85</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig50">50</a></td>
+<td><p>Roman Ceiling Panels (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">86</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig51">51</a></td>
+<td><p>Temple of Fortuna Virilis. Plan</p></td>
+<td class="number">89</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig52">52</a></td>
+<td><p>Circular Temple, Tivoli (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">90</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig53">53</a></td>
+<td><p>Temple of Venus and Rome. Plan (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">93</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig54">54</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of the Pantheon (B.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">94</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig55">55</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of the Pantheon</p></td>
+<td class="number">95</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig56">56</a></td>
+<td><p>Exterior of the Pantheon. (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New
+York)</p></td>
+<td class="number">96</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig57">57</a></td>
+<td><p>Forum and Basilica of Trajan (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">97</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number">
+<span class="pagenum">xiii</span>
+<a name="pagexiii" id="pagexiii"> </a>
+<a href="#fig58">58</a></td>
+<td><p>Basilica of Constantine. Plan (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">98</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig59">59</a></td>
+<td><p>Ruins of Basilica of Constantine</p></td>
+<td class="number">99</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig60">60</a></td>
+<td><p>Central Block, Thermæ of Caracalla. Plan (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">100</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig61">61</a></td>
+<td><p>Roman Theatre, Herculanum</p></td>
+<td class="number">101</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig62">62</a></td>
+<td><p>Colosseum at Rome. Half Plan (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">102</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig63">63</a></td>
+<td><p>Arch of Constantine. (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New
+York)</p></td>
+<td class="number">104</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig64">64</a></td>
+<td><p>Palace of Diocletian, Spalato. Plan (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">106</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig65">65</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of House of Pansa, Pompeii (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">107</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig66">66</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Santa Costanza, Rome (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">111</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig67">67</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of the Basilica of St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls, Rome
+(A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">113</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig68">68</a></td>
+<td><p>St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls. Interior</p></td>
+<td class="number">114</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig69">69</a></td>
+<td><p>Church at Kalb Louzeh (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">116</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig70">70</a></td>
+<td><p>Cathedral at Bozrah. Plan (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">117</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig71">71</a></td>
+<td><p>Diagram of Pendentives (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">123</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig72">72</a></td>
+<td><p>Spandril, Hagia Sophia</p></td>
+<td class="number">125</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig73">73</a></td>
+<td><p>Capital with Impost Block, S. Vitale</p></td>
+<td class="number">126</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig74">74</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of St. Sergius, Constantinople (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">127</td>
+</tr>
+<!-- 8th edn. add Plan of San Vitale, Ravenna (S.) -->
+
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig75">75</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">128</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig76">76</a></td>
+<td><p>Section of Hagia Sophia (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">128</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig77">77</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of Hagia Sophia (full page)</p></td>
+<td class="number">129</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig78">78</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of St. Mark’s, Venice (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">132</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig79">79</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of St. Mark’s</p></td>
+<td class="number">133</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig80">80</a></td>
+<td><p>Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo. Sanctuary</p></td>
+<td class="number">137</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig81">81</a></td>
+<td><p>Mosque of Kaîd Bey, Cairo</p></td>
+<td class="number">139</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig82">82</a></td>
+<td><p>Moorish Detail, Alhambra</p></td>
+<td class="number">141</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig83">83</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of Great Mosque, Cordova</p></td>
+<td class="number">142</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig84">84</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of the Alhambra (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">144</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig85">85</a></td>
+<td><p>Tomb of Mahmûd, <!-- missing accent--> Bijapur. Section
+(A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">147</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig86">86</a></td>
+<td><p>The Taj Mahal, Agra</p></td>
+<td class="number">149</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig87">87</a></td>
+<td><p>Mosque of Mehmet II., Constantinople. Plan (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">151</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig88">88</a></td>
+<td><p>Exterior of Ahmediyeh Mosque, Constantinople</p></td>
+<td class="number">152</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig89">89</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of Suleimaniyeh Mosque, Constantinople</p></td>
+<td class="number">153</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig90">90</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of San Ambrogio, Milan</p></td>
+<td class="number">157</td>
+</tr>
+
+<!-- 8th edn. add Plan of San Michele, Pavia (A.) -->
+
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig91">91</a></td>
+<td><p>West Front and Campanile, Cathedral of Piacenza</p></td>
+<td class="number">158</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig92">92</a></td>
+<td><p>Baptistery, Cathedral, and Leaning Tower, Pisa</p></td>
+<td class="number">160</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig93">93</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of Pisa Cathedral</p></td>
+<td class="number">161</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig94">94</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of St. Front, Perigueux (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">164</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig95">95</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of St. Front (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">165</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig96">96</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Notre Dame du Port, Clermont (Ch.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">166</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number">
+<span class="pagenum">xiv</span>
+<a name="pagexiv" id="pagexiv"> </a>
+<a href="#fig97">97</a></td>
+<td><p>Section of same (Ch.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">166</td>
+</tr>
+
+<!-- 8th edn. add Plan of St. Sernin, Toulouse (A.) -->
+
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig98">98</a></td>
+<td><p>A Six-part Ribbed Vault (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">167</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig99">99</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Minster at Worms (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">173</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig100">100</a></td>
+<td><p>One Bay, Cathedral of Spires (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">174</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig101">101</a></td>
+<td><p>East End, Church of the Apostles, Cologne</p></td>
+<td class="number">175</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig102">102</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Durham Cathedral (Bn.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">177</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig103">103</a></td>
+<td><p>One Bay, Transept of Winchester Cathedral (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">178</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig104">104</a></td>
+<td><p>Front of Iffley Church (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">179</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig105">105</a></td>
+<td><p>Constructive System of Gothic Church (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">183</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig106">106</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Sainte Chapelle, Paris (Bn.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">184</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig107">107</a></td>
+<td><p>Early Gothic Flying Buttress (Bn.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">185</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig108">108</a></td>
+<td><p>Ribbed Vault, English Type (Bn. after Babcock)</p></td>
+<td class="number">186</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig109">109</a></td>
+<td><p>Penetrations and Intersections of Vaults (Bn.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">187</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig110">110</a></td>
+<td><p>Plate Tracery, Charlton-on-Oxmore</p></td>
+<td class="number">188</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig111">111</a></td>
+<td><p>Bar Tracery, St. Michael’s, Warfield (W.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">189</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig112">112</a></td>
+<td><p>Rose Window from St. Ouen, Rouen (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">190</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig113">113</a></td>
+<td><p>Flamboyant Detail, Strasburg</p></td>
+<td class="number">191</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig114">114</a></td>
+<td><p>Early Gothic Carving (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">192</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig115">115</a></td>
+<td><p>Carving, Decorated Period, from Southwell Minster</p></td>
+<td class="number">193</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig116">116</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Notre Dame, Paris (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">198</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig117">117</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of Notre Dame</p></td>
+<td class="number">199</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig118">118</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of Le Mans Cathedral</p></td>
+<td class="number">200</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig119">119</a></td>
+<td><p>Vaulting with Zigzag Ridge Joints (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">201</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig120">120</a></td>
+<td><p>One Bay, Abbey of St. Denis (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">203</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig121">121</a></td>
+<td><p>The Sainte Chapelle, Paris. Exterior</p></td>
+<td class="number">204</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig122">122</a></td>
+<td><p>Amiens Cathedral; Plan (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">205</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig123">123</a></td>
+<td><p>Alby Cathedral. Plan (A. after Lübke)</p></td>
+<td class="number">206</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig124">124</a></td>
+<td><p>West Front of Notre Dame, Paris</p></td>
+<td class="number">207</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig125">125</a></td>
+<td><p>West Front of St. Maclou, Rouen</p></td>
+<td class="number">208</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig126">126</a></td>
+<td><p>French Gothic Capitals (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">210</td>
+</tr>
+
+<!-- 8th edn. add Openwork Gable, Rouen Cathedral -->
+<!-- 8th edn. add North Porch, Chartres Cathedral -->
+
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig127">127</a></td>
+<td><p>House of Jacques Cœur, Bourges (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">215</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig128">128</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Salisbury Cathedral (Bn.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">219</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig129">129</a></td>
+<td><p>Ribbed Vaulting, Choir of Exeter Cathedral</p></td>
+<td class="number">221</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig130">130</a></td>
+<td><p>Lierne Vaulting, Tewkesbury Abbey</p></td>
+<td class="number">222</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig131">131</a></td>
+<td><p>Vault of Chapter House, Wells</p></td>
+<td class="number">223</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig132">132</a></td>
+<td><p>Cloisters of Salisbury Cathedral</p></td>
+<td class="number">225</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig133">133</a></td>
+<td><p>Perpendicular Tracery, St. George’s, Windsor</p></td>
+<td class="number">226</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig134">134</a></td>
+<td><p>West Front, Lichfield Cathedral</p></td>
+<td class="number">228</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig135">135</a></td>
+<td><p>One Bay of Choir, Lichfield Cathedral (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">229</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig136">136</a></td>
+<td><p>Fan Vaulting, Henry VII.’s Chapel</p></td>
+<td class="number">231</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number">
+<span class="pagenum">xv</span>
+<a name="pagexv" id="pagexv"> </a>
+<a href="#fig137">137</a></td>
+<td><p>Eastern Part, Westminster Abbey. Plan (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">232</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig138">138</a></td>
+<td><p>Roof of Nave, St. Mary’s, Westonzoyland (W.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">233</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig139">139</a></td>
+<td><p>One Bay, Cathedral of St. George, Limburg (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">239</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig140">140</a></td>
+<td><p>Section of St. Elizabeth, Marburg (Bn.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">240</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig141">141</a></td>
+<td><p>Cologne Cathedral, Plan (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">242</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig142">142</a></td>
+<td><p>Church of Our Lady, Treves (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">243</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig143">143</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Ulm Cathedral (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">244</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig144">144</a></td>
+<td><p>Town Hall, Louvain</p></td>
+<td class="number">247</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig145">145</a></td>
+<td><p>Façade of Burgos Cathedral</p></td>
+<td class="number">249</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig146">146</a></td>
+<td><p>Detail from S. Gregorio, Valladolid</p></td>
+<td class="number">251</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig147">147</a></td>
+<td><p>Duomo at Florence, Plan (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">256</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig148">148</a></td>
+<td><p>Duomo at Florence, Nave</p></td>
+<td class="number">257</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig149">149</a></td>
+<td><p>One Bay, Cathedral of S. Martino, Lucca (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">258</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig150">150</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of Sienna Cathedral</p></td>
+<td class="number">259</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig151">151</a></td>
+<td><p>Façade of Sienna Cathedral</p></td>
+<td class="number">261</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig152">152</a></td>
+<td><p>Exterior of the Certosa, Pavia</p></td>
+<td class="number">262</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig153">153</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of the Certosa, Pavia</p></td>
+<td class="number">263</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig154">154</a></td>
+<td><p>Upper Part of Campanile, Florence</p></td>
+<td class="number">265</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig155">155</a></td>
+<td><p>Upper Part of Palazzo Vecchio, Florence</p></td>
+<td class="number">266</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig156">156</a></td>
+<td><p>Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence</p></td>
+<td class="number">267</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig157">157</a></td>
+<td><p>West Front of Doge’s Palace, Venice</p></td>
+<td class="number">268</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig158">158</a></td>
+<td><p>Capital, Palazzo Zorzi, Venice</p></td>
+<td class="number">275</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig159">159</a></td>
+<td><p>Section of Dome, Duomo of Florence (Bn.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">276</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig160">160</a></td>
+<td><p>Exterior of Dome, Duomo of Florence</p></td>
+<td class="number">277</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig161">161</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of S. Spirito, Florence</p></td>
+<td class="number">278</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig162">162</a></td>
+<td><p>Court of Riccardi Palace, Florence</p></td>
+<td class="number">279</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig163">163</a></td>
+<td><p>Façade of Strozzi Palace, Florence</p></td>
+<td class="number">280</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig164">164</a></td>
+<td><p>Tomb of Pietro di Noceto, Lucca</p></td>
+<td class="number">282</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig165">165</a></td>
+<td><p>Vendramini Palace, Venice</p></td>
+<td class="number">285</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig166">166</a></td>
+<td><p>Façade of Giraud Palace, Rome (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">290</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig167">167</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Farnese Palace, Rome (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">292</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig168">168</a></td>
+<td><p>Court of Farnese Palace, Rome</p></td>
+<td class="number">293</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig169">169</a></td>
+<td><p>Bramante’s Plan for St. Peter’s, Rome (L.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">294</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig170">170</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of St. Peter’s, Rome, as now standing (Bn. after
+G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">295</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig171">171</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of St. Peter’s (full page)</p></td>
+<td class="number">297</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig172">172</a></td>
+<td><p>Library of St. Mark, Venice</p></td>
+<td class="number">301</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig173">173</a></td>
+<td><p>Interior of San Severo, Naples</p></td>
+<td class="number">302</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig174">174</a></td>
+<td><p>Church of Santa Maria della Salute, Naples</p></td>
+<td class="number">303</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig175">175</a></td>
+<td><p>Court Façade, East Wing of Blois</p></td>
+<td class="number">311</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig176">176</a></td>
+<td><p>Staircase Tower, Blois</p></td>
+<td class="number">313</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number">
+<span class="pagenum">xvi</span>
+<a name="pagexvi" id="pagexvi"> </a>
+<a href="#fig177">177</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Château of Chambord (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">314</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig178">178</a></td>
+<td><p>Upper Part of Château of Chambord</p></td>
+<td class="number">314</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig179">179</a></td>
+<td><p>Detail of Court of Louvre, southwest portion</p></td>
+<td class="number">315</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig180">180</a></td>
+<td><p>The Luxemburg Palace, Paris</p></td>
+<td class="number">318</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig181">181</a></td>
+<td><p>Colonnade of the Louvre</p></td>
+<td class="number">321</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig182">182</a></td>
+<td><p>Dome of the Invalides, Paris</p></td>
+<td class="number">322</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig183">183</a></td>
+<td><p>Façade of St. Sulpice, Paris</p></td>
+<td class="number">323</td>
+</tr>
+
+<!-- 8th edn. MOVED FROM BELOW Plan of Panthéon, Paris (G.) -->
+<!-- 8th edn. MOVED FROM BELOW Exterior of Panthéon, Paris -->
+
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig184">184</a></td>
+<td><p>Burghley House</p></td>
+<td class="number">327</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig185">185</a></td>
+<td><p>Whitehall Palace. The Banqueting Hall</p></td>
+<td class="number">329</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig186">186</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">330</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig187">187</a></td>
+<td><p>Exterior of St. Paul’s Cathedral</p></td>
+<td class="number">331</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig188">188</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Blenheim (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">332</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig189">189</a></td>
+<td><p>St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, London</p></td>
+<td class="number">333</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig190">190</a></td>
+<td><p>Renaissance Houses, Brussels</p></td>
+<td class="number">335</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig191">191</a></td>
+<td><p>The Castle, Hämelschenburg <!-- missing umlaut --></p></td>
+<td class="number">341</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig192">192</a></td>
+<td><p>The Friedrichsbau, Heidelberg Castle</p></td>
+<td class="number">344</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig193">193</a></td>
+<td><p>Pavilion of Zwinger Palace, Dresden</p></td>
+<td class="number">345</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig194">194</a></td>
+<td><p>Marienkirche, Dresden</p></td>
+<td class="number">346</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig195">195</a></td>
+<td><p>Portal of University, Salamanca</p></td>
+<td class="number">349</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig196">196</a></td>
+<td><p>Court (Patio) of Casa de Zaporta</p></td>
+<td class="number">350</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig197">197</a></td>
+<td><p>Palace of Charles V., Granada</p></td>
+<td class="number">351</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig198">198</a></td>
+<td><p>Façade of British Museum, London</p></td>
+<td class="number">357</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig199">199</a></td>
+<td><p>St. George’s Hall, Liverpool</p></td>
+<td class="number">358</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig200">200</a></td>
+<td><p>The Old Museum, Berlin</p></td>
+<td class="number">359</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig201">201</a></td>
+<td><p>The Propylæa, Munich</p></td>
+<td class="number">360</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig202">202</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of the Panthéon, Paris (G.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">361</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig203">203</a></td>
+<td><p>Exterior of the Panthéon</p></td>
+<td class="number">362</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig204">204</a></td>
+<td><p>Arch of Triumph of l’Étoile, Paris</p></td>
+<td class="number">363</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig205">205</a></td>
+<td><p>The Madeleine, Paris</p></td>
+<td class="number">364</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig206">206</a></td>
+<td><p>Door of École des Beaux-Arts, Paris</p></td>
+<td class="number">365</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig207">207</a></td>
+<td><p>St. Isaac’s Cathedral, St. Petersburg</p></td>
+<td class="number">366</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig208">208</a></td>
+<td><p>Plan of Louvre and Tuileries (A.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">371</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig209">209</a></td>
+<td><p>Pavilion Richelieu, Louvre</p></td>
+<td class="number">372</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig210">210</a></td>
+<td><p>Grand Staircase, Paris Opera House</p></td>
+<td class="number">373</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig211">211</a></td>
+<td><p>Fountain of Longchamps, Marseilles</p></td>
+<td class="number">374</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig212">212</a></td>
+<td><p>Galliéra Museum, Paris</p></td>
+<td class="number">375</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig213">213</a></td>
+<td><p>Royal Theatre, Dresden</p></td>
+<td class="number">376</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig214">214</a></td>
+<td><p>Maria-Theresienhof, Vienna</p></td>
+<td class="number">377</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig215">215</a></td>
+<td><p>Houses of Parliament, London</p></td>
+<td class="number">379</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig216">216</a></td>
+<td><p>Assize Courts, Manchester</p></td>
+<td class="number">380</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number">
+<span class="pagenum">xvii</span>
+<a name="pagexvii" id="pagexvii"> </a>
+<a href="#fig217">217</a></td>
+<td><p>Natural History Museum, South Kensington</p></td>
+<td class="number">381</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig218">218</a></td>
+<td><p>Christ Church, Philadelphia</p></td>
+<td class="number">386</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig219">219</a></td>
+<td><p>Craigie House, Cambridge (Mass.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">387</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig220">220</a></td>
+<td><p>National Capitol, Washington</p></td>
+<td class="number">389</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig221">221</a></td>
+<td><p>Custom House, New York</p></td>
+<td class="number">390</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig222">222</a></td>
+<td><p>Trinity Church, Boston</p></td>
+<td class="number">394</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig223">223</a></td>
+<td><p>Public Library, Woburn (Mass.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">395</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig224">224</a></td>
+<td><p>Times Building, New York</p></td>
+<td class="number">396</td>
+</tr>
+
+<!-- 8th edn. delete following, add Country House at Nyack, N.Y. and
+Country House in Colonial Style -->
+
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig225">225</a></td>
+<td><p>Country House (Mass.)</p></td>
+<td class="number">398</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig226">226</a></td>
+<td><p>Porch of Temple of Vimalah Sah, Mount Abu.</p></td>
+<td class="number">406</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig227">227</a></td>
+<td><p>Tower of Victory, Chittore</p></td>
+<td class="number">407</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig228">228</a></td>
+<td><p>Double Temple at Hullabîd: Detail</p></td>
+<td class="number">410</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="number"><a href="#fig229">229</a></td>
+<td><p>Shrine of Soubramanya, Tanjore</p></td>
+<td class="number">412</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="maintext">
+
+<span class="pagenum">1</span>
+<a name="page1" id="page1"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapI" id="chapI">CHAPTER I.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Desor, <i>Les
+constructions lacustres du lac de Neufchatel</i>. Fergusson, <i>Rude
+Stone Monuments</i>. R.&nbsp;C. Hoare, <i>Ancients Wiltshire</i>. Lyell,
+<i>The Antiquity of Man</i>. Lubbock, <i>Prehistoric Times</i>.
+Nadaillac, <i>Prehistoric America</i>. Rougemont, <i>L’age du
+Bronze</i>. Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>EARLY BEGINNINGS.</b> It is impossible to trace the early stages
+of the process by which true architecture grew out of the first rude
+attempts of man at building. The oldest existing monuments of
+architecture&mdash;those of Chaldæa and Egypt&mdash;belong to an
+advanced civilization. The rude and elementary structures built by
+savage and barbarous peoples, like the Hottentots or the tribes of
+Central Africa, are not in themselves works of architecture, nor is any
+instance known of the evolution of a civilized art from such beginnings.
+So far as the monuments testify, no savage people ever raised itself to
+civilization, and no primitive method of building was ever developed
+into genuine architecture, except by contact with some existing
+civilization of which it appropriated the spirit, the processes, and the
+forms. How the earliest architecture came into existence is as yet an
+unsolved problem.</p>
+
+<p><b>PRIMITIVE ARCHITECTURE</b> is therefore a subject for the
+archæologist rather than the historian of art, and needs here only the
+briefest mention. If we may judge of the condition of the primitive
+races of antiquity by that of the savage and barbarous peoples of our
+own time, they required
+<span class="pagenum">2</span>
+<a name="page2" id="page2"> </a>
+only the simplest kinds of buildings, though the purposes which they
+served were the same as those of later times in civilized communities.
+A&nbsp;hut or house for shelter, a&nbsp;shrine of some sort for worship,
+a&nbsp;stockade for defence, a&nbsp;cairn or mound over the grave of the
+chief or hero, were provided out of the simplest materials, and these
+often of a perishable nature. Poles supplied the framework; wattles,
+skins, or mud the walls; thatching or stamped earth the roof. Only the
+simplest tools were needed for such elementary construction. There was
+ingenuity and patient labor in work of this kind; but there was no
+planning, no fitting together into a complex organism of varied
+materials shaped with art and handled with science. Above all, there was
+no progression toward higher ideals of fitness and beauty. Rudimentary
+art displayed itself mainly in objects of worship, or in carvings on
+canoes and weapons, executed as talismans to ward off misfortune or to
+charm the unseen powers; but even this art was sterile and never grew of
+itself into civilized and progressive art.</p>
+
+<p>Yet there must have been at some point in the remote past an
+exception to this rule. Somewhere and somehow the people of Egypt must
+have developed from crude beginnings the architectural knowledge and
+resource which meet us in the oldest monuments, though every vestige of
+that early age has apparently perished. But although nothing has come
+down to us of the actual work of the builders who wrought in the
+primitive ages of mankind, there exist throughout Europe and Asia almost
+countless monuments of a primitive character belonging to relatively
+recent times, but executed before the advent of historic civilization to
+the regions where they are found. A&nbsp;general resemblance among them
+suggests a common heritage of traditions from the hoariest antiquity,
+and throws light on the probable character of the transition from
+barbaric to civilized architecture.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">3</span>
+<a name="page3" id="page3"> </a>
+<p><b>PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS.</b> These monuments vary widely as well as
+in excellence; some of them belong to Roman or even Christian times;
+others to a much remoter period. They are divided into two principal
+classes, the megalithic structures and lake dwellings. The latter class
+may be dismissed with the briefest mention. It comprises a considerable
+number of very primitive houses or huts built on wooden piles in the
+lakes of Switzerland and several other countries in both hemispheres,
+and forming in some cases villages of no mean size. Such villages, built
+over the water for protection from attack, are mentioned by the writers
+of antiquity and portrayed on Assyrian reliefs. The objects found in
+them reveal an incipient but almost stationary civilization, extending
+back from three thousand to five thousand years or more, and lasting
+through the ages of stone and bronze down into historic times.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>megalithic</b> remains of Europe and Asia are far more
+important. They are very widely distributed, and consist in most cases
+of great blocks of stone arranged in rows, circles, or avenues,
+sometimes with huge lintels resting upon them. Upright stones without
+lintels are called <i>menhirs</i>; standing in pairs with lintels they
+are known as <i>dolmens</i>; the circles are called <i>cromlechs</i>.
+Some of the stones are of gigantic size, some roughly hewn into shape;
+others left as when quarried. Their age and purpose have been much
+discussed without reaching positive results. It is probable that, like
+the lake dwellings, they cover a long range of time, reaching from the
+dawn of recorded history some thousands of years back into the unknown
+past, and that they were erected by races which have disappeared before
+the migrations to which Europe owes her present populations. That most
+of them were in some way connected with the worship of these prehistoric
+peoples is generally admitted; but whether as temples, tombs, or
+memorials
+<span class="pagenum">4</span>
+<a name="page4" id="page4"> </a>
+of historical or mythical events cannot, in all cases, be positively
+asserted. They were not dwellings or palaces, and very few were even
+enclosed buildings. They are imposing by the size and number of their
+immense stones, but show no sign of advanced art, or of conscious
+striving after beauty of design. The small number of “carved stones,”
+bearing singular ornamental patterns, symbolic or mystical rather than
+decorative in intention, really tends to prove this statement rather
+than to controvert it. It is not impossible that the dolmens were
+generally intended to be covered by mounds of earth. This would group
+them with the tumuli referred to below, and point to a sepulchral
+purpose in their erection. Some antiquaries, Fergusson among them,
+contend that many of the European circles and avenues were intended as
+battle-monuments or trophies.</p>
+
+<p>There are also <b>walls</b> of great antiquity in various parts of
+Europe, intended for fortification; the most important of these in
+Greece and Italy will be referred to in later chapters. They belong to a
+more advanced art, some of them even deserving to be classed among works
+of archaic architecture.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>tumuli</b>, or burial mounds, which form so large a part of
+the prehistoric remains of both continents, are interesting to the
+architect only as revealing the prototypes of the pyramids of Egypt and
+the subterranean tombs of Mycenæ and other early Greek centres. The
+piling of huge cairns or commemorative heaps of stone is known from the
+Scriptures and other ancient writings to have been a custom of the
+greatest antiquity. The pyramids and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus are
+the most imposing and elaborate outgrowths of this practice, of which
+the prehistoric tumuli are the simpler manifestations.</p>
+
+<p>These crude and elementary products of undeveloped civilizations have
+no place, however, in any list of genuine architectural works. They
+belong rather to the domain of
+<span class="pagenum">5</span>
+<a name="page5" id="page5"> </a>
+archæology and ethnology, and have received this brief mention only as
+revealing the beginnings of the builder’s art, and the wide gap that
+separates them from that genuine architecture which forms the subject of
+the following chapters.</p>
+
+<p class="monuments">
+<b>MONUMENTS</b>: The most celebrated in England are at Avebury, an
+avenue, large and small circles, barrows, and the great tumuli of
+Bartlow and Silbury “Hills;” at Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain, great
+megalithic circles and many barrows; “Sarsen stones” at Ashdown; tumuli,
+dolmens, chambers, and circles in Derbyshire. In Ireland, many cairns
+and circles. In Scotland, circles and barrows in the Orkney Islands. In
+France, Carnac and Lokmariaker in Brittany are especially rich in
+dolmens, circles, and avenues. In Scandinavia, Germany, and Italy, in
+India and in Africa, are many similar remains.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">6</span>
+<a name="page6" id="page6"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapII" id="chapII">CHAPTER II.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Champollion,
+<i>Monuments de l’Egypte et de la Nubie</i>. Choisy, <i>L’art de bâtir
+chez les Egyptiens</i>. Flinders-Petrie, <i>History of Egypt; Ten Years
+Digging in Egypt, 1881&ndash;91</i>. Jomard, <i>Description de l’Egypte,
+Antiquités</i>. Lepsius, <i>Denkmäler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien</i>.
+Mariette, <i>Monuments of Upper Egypt</i>. Maspero, <i>Egyptian
+Archæology</i>. Perrot and Chipiez, <i>History of Art in Ancient
+Egypt</i>. Prisse d’Avennes, <i>Histoire de l’art égyptien</i>. Reber,
+<i>History of Ancient Art</i>. Rossellini, <i>Monumenti del Egitto</i>.
+Wilkinson, <i>Manners and Customs of Ancient Egyptians</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LAND AND PEOPLE.</b> As long ago as 5000 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, the Egyptians were a people already highly
+civilized, and skilled in the arts of peace and war. The narrow valley
+of the Nile, fertilized by the periodic overflow of the river, was
+flanked by rocky heights, nearly vertical in many places, which afforded
+abundance of excellent building stone, while they both isolated the
+Egyptians and protected them from foreign aggression. At the Delta,
+however, the valley widened out, with the falling away of these heights,
+into broad lowlands, from which there was access to the outer world.</p>
+
+<p>The art history of Egypt may be divided into five periods as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>I. <span class="smallcaps">The Ancient Empire</span> (cir.
+4500?-3000 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), comprising the first
+ten dynasties, with Memphis as the capital.</p>
+
+<p>II. <span class="smallcaps">The First Theban Monarchy</span> or
+<span class="smallcaps">Middle Empire</span> (3000&ndash;2100 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) comprising the eleventh, twelfth, and
+thirteenth dynasties reigning at Thebes.<!-- invisible . --></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">7</span>
+<a name="page7" id="page7"> </a>
+<p>The Hyksos invasion, or incursion of the Shepherd Kings, interrupted
+the current of Egyptian art history for a period of unknown length,
+probably not less than four or five centuries.</p>
+
+<p>III. <span class="smallcaps">The Second Theban Monarchy</span>
+(1700?-1000 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), comprising the
+eighteenth to twentieth dynasties inclusive, was the great period of
+Egyptian history; the age of conquests and of vast edifices.</p>
+
+<p>IV. <span class="smallcaps">The Decadence</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Saitic Period</span> (1000&ndash;324 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), comprising the dynasties twenty-one to thirty
+(Saitic, Bubastid, Ethiopic, etc.), reigning at Sais, Tanis, and
+Bubastis, and the Persian conquest; a&nbsp;period almost barren of
+important monuments.</p>
+
+<p>(Periods III. and IV. constitute together the period of the <span
+class="smallcaps">New Empire</span>, if we omit the Persian
+dominion.)</p>
+
+<p>V. <span class="smallcaps">The Revival</span> (from 324 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> to cir. 330 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) comprises the Ptolemaic or Macedonian and
+Roman dominations.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE ANCIENT EMPIRE: THE PYRAMIDS.</b> The great works of this
+period are almost exclusively sepulchral, and include the most ancient
+buildings of which we have any remains. While there is little of
+strictly architectural art, the overwhelming size and majesty of the
+Pyramids, and the audacity and skill shown in their construction,
+entitle them to the first place in any sketch of this period. They
+number over a hundred, scattered in six groups, from Abu-Roash in the
+north to Meidoum in the south, and are of various shapes and sizes. They
+are all royal tombs and belong to the first twelve dynasties; each
+contains a sepulchral chamber, and each at one time possessed a small
+chapel adjacent to it, but this has, in almost every case, perished.</p>
+
+<p>Three pyramids surpass all the rest by their prodigious size; these
+are at Ghizeh and belong to the fourth dynasty. They are known by the
+names of their builders; the oldest and greatest being that of
+<b>Cheops</b>, or Khufu;<a class="tag" name="tag1" id="tag1" href="#note1">1</a> the second,
+<span class="pagenum">8</span>
+<a name="page8" id="page8"> </a>
+that of <b>Chephren</b>, or Khafra; and the third, that of
+<b>Mycerinus</b>, or Menkhara. Other smaller ones stand at the feet of
+these giants.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig1" id="fig1"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig1.png" width="342" height="217"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 1.&mdash;SECTION OF GREAT PYRAMID.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+<i>a, King’s Chamber; b, Queen’s Chamber; c, Chamber cut in
+Rock.</i></span></p>
+
+<p>The base of the “Great Pyramid” measures 764 feet on a side; its
+height is 482 feet, and its volume must have originally been nearly
+three and one-half million cubic yards (Fig.&nbsp;1). It is constructed
+of limestone upon a plateau of rock levelled to receive it, and was
+finished externally, like its two neighbors, with a coating of polished
+stone, supposed by some to have been disposed in bands of different
+colored granites, but of which it was long ago despoiled. It contained
+three principal chambers and an elaborate system of inclined passages,
+all executed in finely cut granite and limestone. The sarcophagus was in
+the uppermost chamber, above which the superincumbent weight was
+relieved by open spaces and a species of rudimentary arch of <span class="sans">Λ</span>-shape (Fig.&nbsp;2). The other two pyramids differ
+from that of Cheops in the details of their arrangement and in size, not
+in the principle of their construction. Chephren is 454 feet high, with
+a base 717
+<span class="pagenum">9</span>
+<a name="page9" id="page9"> </a>
+feet square. Mycerinus, which still retains its casing of pink granite,
+is but 218 feet in height, with a base 253 feet on a side.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft w180">
+<a name="fig2" id="fig2"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig2.png" width="159" height="228"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 2.&mdash;SECTION OF KING’S CHAMBER.</p>
+
+<p>Among the other pyramids there is considerable variety both of type
+and material. At Sakkarah is one 190 feet high, constructed in six
+unequal steps on a slightly oblong base measuring nearly 400 × 357 feet.
+It was attributed by Mariette to Ouenephes, of the first dynasty, though
+now more generally ascribed to Senefrou of the third. At Abu-Seir and
+Meidoum are other stepped pyramids; at Dashour is one having a broken
+slope, the lower part steeper than the upper. Several at Meroë with
+unusually steep slopes belong to the Ethiopian dynasties of the
+Decadence. A&nbsp;number of pyramids are built of brick.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig3" id="fig3"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig3.png" width="204" height="209"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 3.&mdash;PLAN OF SPHINX TEMPLE.</p>
+
+<p><b>TOMBS.</b> The Ancient Empire has also left us a great number of
+tombs of the type known as <i>Mastabas</i>. These are oblong rectangular
+structures of stone or brick with slightly inclined sides and flat
+ceilings. They uniformly face the east, and are internally divided into
+three parts; the chamber or chapel, the <i>serdab</i>, and the well. In
+the first of these, next the entrance, were placed the offerings made to
+the <i>Ka</i> or “double,” for whom
+<span class="pagenum">10</span>
+<a name="page10" id="page10"> </a>
+also scenes of festivity or worship were carved and painted on its walls
+to minister to his happiness in his incorporeal life. The serdabs, or
+secret inner chambers, of which there were several in each mastaba,
+contained statues of the defunct, by which the existence and identity of
+the Ka were preserved. Finally came the well, leading to the mummy
+chamber, deep underground, which contained the sarcophagus. The
+sarcophagi, both of this and later ages, are good examples of the minor
+architecture of Egypt; many of them are panelled in imitation of wooden
+construction and richly decorated with color, symbols, and
+hieroglyphs.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig4" id="fig4"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig4.png" width="236" height="122"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 4.&mdash;RUINS OF SPHINX TEMPLE.</p>
+
+<p><b>OTHER MONUMENTS.</b> Two other monuments of the Ancient Empire
+also claim attention: the <b>Sphinx</b> and the adjacent so-called
+“<b>Sphinx temple</b>” at Ghizeh. The first of these, a&nbsp;huge
+sculpture carved from the rock, represents Harmachis in the form of a
+human-headed lion. It is ordinarily partly buried in the sand; is 70
+feet long by 66 feet high, and forms one of the most striking monuments
+of Egyptian art. Close to it lie the nearly buried ruins of the temple
+once supposed to be that of the Sphinx, but now proved by Petrie to have
+been erected in connection with the second pyramid. The plan and present
+aspect of this venerable edifice are shown in Figs. 3 and&nbsp;4. The
+hall was roofed with stone lintels carried on sixteen square monolithic
+piers of alabaster. The whole was buried in a rectangular mass of
+masonry and revetted internally with alabaster, but was wholly destitute
+internally as well as externally of decoration or even of mouldings.
+With the exception of scanty remains of a few of the pyramid-temples or
+chapels, and the
+<span class="pagenum">11</span>
+<a name="page11" id="page11"> </a>
+temple discovered by Petrie in Meidoum, it is the only survival from the
+temple architecture of that early age.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig5" id="fig5"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig5.png" width="243" height="176"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 5.&mdash;TOMB AT ABYDOS.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE MIDDLE EMPIRE: TOMBS.</b> The monuments of this period, as of
+the preceding, are almost wholly sepulchral. We now encounter two types
+of tombs. One, structural and pyramidal, is represented by many examples
+at Abydos, the most venerated of all the burial grounds of Egypt
+(Fig.&nbsp;5). All of these are built of brick, and are of moderate size
+and little artistic interest. The second type is that of tombs cut in
+the vertical cliffs of the west bank of the Nile Valley. The entrance to
+these faces eastward as required by tradition; the remoter end of the
+excavation pointing toward the land of the Sun of Night. But such
+tunnels only become works of architecture when, in addition to the
+customary mural paintings, they receive a decorative treatment in the
+design of their structural forms.
+<span class="illustration floatleft">
+<a name="fig6" id="fig6"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig6.png" width="252" height="187"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 6.&mdash;TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.</span>
+Such a treatment appears in several tombs at Beni-Hassan, in which
+columns are reserved in cutting away the rock, both in the
+chapel-chambers and in the vestibules or porches which precede them.
+These columns are polygonal in some cases, clustered
+<span class="pagenum">12</span>
+<a name="page12" id="page12"> </a>
+in others. The former type, with eight, sixteen, or thirty-two sides (in
+these last the <i>arrises</i> or edges are emphasized by a slight
+concavity in each face, like embryonic fluting), have a square abacus,
+suggesting the Greek Doric order, and giving rise to the name
+<i>proto-Doric</i> (Fig.&nbsp;6). Columns of this type are also found at
+Karnak, Kalabshé, Amada, and Abydos. A&nbsp;reminiscence of primitive
+wood construction is seen in the dentils over the plain architrave of
+the entrance, which in other respects recalls the triple entrances to
+certain mastabas of the Old Empire. These dentils are imitations of the
+ends of rafters, and to some archæologists suggest a wooden origin for
+the whole system of columnar design. But these rock-cut shafts and heavy
+architraves in no respect resemble wooden prototypes, but point rather
+to an imitation cut in the rock of a well-developed, pre-existing system
+of stone construction, some of whose details, however, were undoubtedly
+derived from early methods of building in wood. The vault was below the
+chapel and reached by a separate entrance. The serdab was replaced by a
+niche in which was the figure of the defunct carved from the native
+rock. Some of the
+<span class="pagenum">13</span>
+<a name="page13" id="page13"> </a>
+tombs employed in the chapel-chamber columns of quatrefoil section with
+capitals like clustered buds (Fig.&nbsp;7), and this type became in the
+next period one of the most characteristic forms of Egyptian
+architecture.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig7" id="fig7"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig7.png" width="291" height="214"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 7.&mdash;SECTION AND HALF-PLAN OF A TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>TEMPLES.</b> Of the temples of this period only two have left any
+remains of importance. Both belong to the twelfth dynasty (cir. 2200
+<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). Of one of these many badly
+shattered fragments have been found in the ruins of Bubastis; these show
+the clustered type of lotus-bud column mentioned above. The other, of
+which a few columns have been identified among the ruins of the Great
+Temple at Karnak, constituted the oldest part of that vast agglomeration
+of religious edifices, and employed columns of the so-called proto-Doric
+type. From these remains it appears that structural stone columns as
+well as those cut in the rock were used at this early period (2200 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). Indeed, it is probable that the whole
+architectural system of the New Empire was based on models developed in
+the age we are considering; that the use of multiplied columns of
+various types and the building of temples of complex plan adorned with
+colossal statues, obelisks, and painted reliefs, were perfectly
+understood and practised in this period. But the works it produced have
+perished, having been most probably demolished to make way for the more
+sumptuous edifices of later times.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE NEW EMPIRE.</b> This was the grand age of Egyptian
+architecture and history. An extraordinary series of mighty men ruled
+the empire during a long period following the expulsion of the Hyksos
+usurpers. The names of Thothmes, Amenophis, Hatasu, Seti, and Rameses
+made glorious the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties. Foreign conquests
+in Ethiopia, Syria, and Assyria enlarged the territory and increased the
+splendor of the empire. The majority of the most impressive ruins of
+Egypt belong to this period, and it was in these buildings that the
+characteristic
+<span class="pagenum">14</span>
+<a name="page14" id="page14"> </a>
+elements of Egyptian architecture were brought to perfection and carried
+out on the grandest scale.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig8" id="fig8"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig8.png" width="169" height="362"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 8.&mdash;PLAN OF THE RAMESSEUM.</p>
+
+<p class="caption w180">
+<i>a, Sanctuary; b, Hypostyle Hall; c, Second court; d, Entrance court;
+e, Pylons.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>TOMBS OF THE NEW EMPIRE.</b> Some of these are structural, others
+excavated; both types displaying considerable variety in arrangement and
+detail. The rock-cut tombs of Bab-el-Molouk, among which are twenty-five
+royal sepulchres, are striking both by the simplicity of their openings
+and the depth and complexity of their shafts, tunnels, and chambers.
+From the pipe-like length of their tunnels they have since the time of
+Herodotus been known by the name <i>syrinx</i>. Every precaution was
+taken to lead astray and baffle the intending violator of their
+sanctity. They penetrated hundreds of feet into the rock; their
+chambers, often formed with columns and vault-like roofs, were
+resplendent with colored reliefs and ornament destined to solace and
+sustain the shadowy Ka until the soul itself, the Ba, should arrive
+before the tribunal of Osiris, the Sun of Night. Most impressively do
+these brilliant pictures,<a class="tag" name="tag2" id="tag2" href="#note2">2</a> intended to be forever shut away from human eyes,
+attest the sincerity of the Egyptian belief and the conscientiousness of
+the art which it inspired.</p>
+
+<p>While the tomb of the private citizen was complete in itself,
+containing the Ka-statues and often the chapel, as well as the mummy,
+the royal tomb demanded something more elaborate in scale and
+arrangement. In some cases
+<span class="pagenum">15</span>
+<a name="page15" id="page15"> </a>
+external structures of temple-form took the place of the underground
+chapel and serdab. The royal effigy, many times repeated in painting and
+sculpture throughout this temple-like edifice, and flanking its gateways
+with colossal seated figures, made buried Ka-statues unnecessary. Of
+these sepulchral temples three are of the first magnitude. They are that
+of <b>Queen Hatasu</b> (XVIIIth dynasty) at Deir-el-Bahari; that of
+<b>Rameses II.</b> (XIXth dynasty), the <b>Ramesseum</b>, near by to the
+southwest; and that of <b>Rameses III.</b> (XXth dynasty) at Medinet
+Abou still further to the southwest. Like the tombs, these were all on
+the west side of the Nile; so also was the sepulchral temple of
+Amenophis III.<!-- invisible . --> (XVIIIth dynasty), the
+<b>Amenopheum</b>, of which hardly a trace remains except the two seated
+colossi which, rising from the Theban plain, have astonished travellers
+from the times of Pausanias and Strabo down to our own. These mutilated
+figures, one of which has been known ever since classic times as the
+“vocal Memnon,” are 56 feet high, and once flanked the entrance to the
+forecourt of the temple of Amenophis. The plan of the Ramesseum, with
+its sanctuary, hypostyle hall, and forecourts, its pylons and obelisks,
+is shown in Figure&nbsp;8, and may be compared with those of other
+temples given on pp. 17 and 18. That of Medinet Abou resembles it
+closely. The Ramesseum occupies a rectangle of 590 × 182 feet; the
+temple of Medinet Abou measures 500 × 160 feet, not counting the extreme
+width of the entrance pylons. The temple of Hatasu at Deir-el-Bahari is
+partly excavated and partly structural, a&nbsp;model which is also
+followed on a smaller scale in several lesser tombs. Such an edifice is
+called a <i>hemispeos</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="note1" id="note1" href="#tag1">1.</a>
+The Egyptian names known to antiquity are given here first in the more
+familiar classic form, and then in the Egyptian form.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note2" id="note2" href="#tag2">2.</a>
+See Van Dyke’s <i>History of Painting</i>, Figure 1.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">16</span>
+<a name="page16" id="page16"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapIII" id="chapIII">CHAPTER III.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE&mdash;<i>Continued</i>.</h3>
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Same as for
+Chapter&nbsp;II.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>TEMPLES.</b> The surpassing glory of the New Empire was its great
+temples. Some of them were among the most stupendous creations of
+structural art. To temples rather than palaces were the resources and
+energies of the kings devoted, and successive monarchs found no more
+splendid outlet for their piety and ambition than the founding of new
+temples or the extension and adornment of those already existing. By the
+forced labor of thousands of fellaheen (the system is in force to this
+day and is known as the <i>corvée</i>) architectural piles of vast
+extent could be erected within the lifetime of a monarch. As in the
+tombs the internal walls bore pictures for the contemplation of the Ka,
+so in the temples the external walls, for the glory of the king and the
+delectation of the people, were covered with colored reliefs reciting
+the monarch’s glorious deeds. Internally the worship and attributes of
+the gods were represented in a similar manner, in endless iteration.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig9" id="fig9"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig9.png" width="180" height="377"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 9.&mdash;TEMPLE OF EDFOU. PLAN.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE TEMPLE SCHEME.</b> This is admirably shown in the temple of
+Khonsu, at Karnak, built by Rameses III. (XXth dynasty), and in the
+temple of Edfou (Figs. 9 and 10), though this belongs to the Roman
+period. It comprised a sanctuary or <i>sekos</i>, a&nbsp;hypostyle
+(columnar) hall, known as the “hall of assembly,” and a forecourt
+preceded by a double pylon or
+<span class="pagenum">17</span>
+<a name="page17" id="page17"> </a>
+gateway. Each of these parts might be made more or less complex in
+different temples, but the essential features are encountered everywhere
+under all changes of form. The building of a temple began with the
+sanctuary, which contained the sacred chamber and the shrine of the god,
+with subordinate rooms for the priests and for various rites and
+functions. These chambers were low, dark, mysterious, accessible only to
+the priests and king. They were given a certain dignity by being raised
+upon a sort of platform above the general level, and reached by a few
+steps. They were sumptuously decorated internally with ritual pictures
+in relief. The hall was sometimes loftier, but set on a slightly lower
+level; its massive columns supported a roof of stone lintels, and light
+was admitted either through clearstory windows under the roof of a
+central portion higher than the sides, as at Karnak, or over a low
+screen-wall built between the columns of the front row, as at Edfou and
+Denderah. This method was peculiar to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.
+The court was usually surrounded
+<span class="pagenum">18</span>
+<a name="page18" id="page18"> </a>
+by a single or double colonnade; sometimes, however, this colonnade only
+flanked the sides or fronted the hall, or again was wholly wanting. The
+<i>pylons</i> were twin buttress-like masses flanking the entrance gate
+of the court. They were shaped like oblong truncated pyramids, crowned
+by flaring cornices, and were decorated on the outer face with masts
+carrying banners, with obelisks, or with seated colossal figures of the
+royal builder. An avenue of sphinxes formed the approach to the
+entrance, and the whole temple precinct was surrounded by a wall,
+usually of crude brick, pierced by one or more gates with or without
+pylons. The piety of successive monarchs was displayed in the addition
+of new hypostyle halls, courts, pylons, or obelisks, by which the temple
+was successively extended in length, and sometimes also in width, by the
+increased dimensions of the new courts. The great Temple of Karnak most
+strikingly illustrates this growth. Begun by Osourtesen (XIIth dynasty)
+more than 2000 years <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, it was not
+completed in its present form until the time of the Ptolemies, when the
+last of the pylons and external gates were erected.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig10" id="fig10"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig10.png" width="441" height="99"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 10.&mdash;TEMPLE OF EDFOU. SECTION.</p>
+
+<p>The variations in the details of this general type were numerous.
+Thus, at El Kab, the temple of Amenophis III.
+<span class="pagenum">19</span>
+<a name="page19" id="page19"> </a>
+has the sekos and hall but no forecourt. At Deir-el-Medineh the hall of
+the Ptolemaic Hathor-temple is a mere porch in two parts, while the
+enclosure within the circuit wall takes the place of the forecourt. At
+Karnak all the parts were repeated several times, and under Amenophis
+III. (XVIIIth dynasty) a&nbsp;wing was built at a nearly right angle to
+the main structure. At Luxor, to a complete typical temple were added
+three aisles of an unfinished hypostyle hall, and an elaborate
+forecourt, whose axis is inclined to that of the other buildings, owing
+to a bend of the river at that point. At Abydos a complex sanctuary of
+many chambers extends southeast at right angles to the general mass, and
+the first court is without columns. But in all these structures a
+certain unity of effect is produced by the lofty pylons, the flat roofs
+diminishing in height over successive portions from the front to the
+sanctuary, the sloping windowless walls covered with carved and painted
+pictures, and the dim and massive interiors of the columnar halls.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig11" id="fig11"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig11.png" width="445" height="203"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 11.&mdash;TEMPLE OF KARNAK. PLAN.<br>
+<a class="closeup" href="images/fig11_large.png" target="_blank">
+Larger View</a></p>
+
+
+<p><b>TEMPLES OF KARNAK.</b> Of these various temples that of
+<b>Amen-Ra</b> is incomparably the largest and most imposing. Its
+construction extended through the whole duration of the New Empire, of
+whose architecture it is a splendid <i>résumé</i> (Fig. 11). Its extreme
+length is 1,215 feet, and its greatest width 376 feet. The sanctuary and
+its accessories, mainly built by Thothmes&nbsp;I. and Thothmes III.,
+cover an area nearly 456 × 290 feet in extent, and comprise two
+hypostyle halls and countless smaller halls and chambers. It is preceded
+by a narrow columnar vestibule and two pylons enclosing a columnar
+atrium and two obelisks. This is entered from the <b>Great Hypostyle
+Hall</b> (<i>h</i> in Fig. 11; Fig. 12), the noblest single work of
+Egyptian architecture, measuring 340 × 170 feet, and containing 134
+columns in sixteen rows, supporting a massive stone roof. The central
+columns with bell-capitals are 70 feet high and nearly 12 feet in
+diameter; the others are smaller and lower, with lotus-bud capitals,
+supporting
+<span class="pagenum">20</span>
+<a name="page20" id="page20"> </a>
+a&nbsp;roof lower than that over the three central aisles.
+A&nbsp;clearstory of stone-grated windows makes up the difference in
+height between these two roofs. The interior, thus lighted, was splendid
+with painted reliefs, which helped not only to adorn the hall but to
+give scale to its massive parts. The whole stupendous creation was the
+work of three kings&mdash;Rameses&nbsp;I., Seti&nbsp;I., and Rameses II.
+(XIXth dynasty).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig12" id="fig12"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="415" height="202"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 12.&mdash;CENTRAL PORTION OF HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+(From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)</span></p>
+
+<p>In front of it was the great court, flanked by columns, and still
+showing the ruins of a central avenue of colossal pillars begun, but
+never completed, by the Bubastid kings of the XXIId dynasty. One or two
+smaller structures and the curious lateral wing built by Amenophis III.,
+interrupt the otherwise orderly and symmetrical advance of this plan
+from the sanctuary to the huge first pylon (last in point of date)
+erected by the Ptolemies.</p>
+
+<p>The smaller temple of Khonsu, south of that of Amen-Ra, has already
+been alluded to as a typical example of templar design. Next to Karnak
+in importance comes the <b>Temple of Luxor</b> in its immediate
+neighborhood. It has two forecourts adorned with double-aisled
+colonnades and
+<span class="pagenum">21</span>
+<a name="page21" id="page21"> </a>
+connected by what seems to be an unfinished hypostyle hall. The
+<b>Ramesseum</b> and the temples of <b>Medinet Abou</b> and
+<b>Deir-El-Bahari</b> have already been mentioned (<a href="#page15">p.&nbsp;15</a>). At Gournah and Abydos are the next most
+celebrated temples of this period; the first famous for its rich
+clustered lotus-columns, the latter for its beautiful sanctuary
+chambers, dedicated each to a different deity, and covered with delicate
+painted reliefs of the time of Seti&nbsp;I.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig13" id="fig13"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="434" height="333"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 13.&mdash;GREAT TEMPLE OF IPSAMBOUL.</p>
+
+<p><b>GROTTO TEMPLES.</b> Two other styles of temple remain to be
+noticed. The first is the subterranean or grotto temple, of which the
+two most famous, at Ipsamboul (Abou-simbel), were excavated by Rameses
+II. They are truly colossal conceptions, reproducing in the native rock
+the main features of structural temples, the court being represented by
+the larger of two chambers in the Greater Temple (Fig. 13)
+<span class="pagenum">22</span>
+<a name="page22" id="page22"> </a>
+Their façades are adorned with colossal seated figures of the builder;
+the smaller has also two effigies of Nefert-Ari, his consort. Nothing
+more striking and boldly impressive is to be met with in Egypt than
+these singular rock-cut façades. Other rock-cut temples of more modest
+dimensions are at Addeh, Feraig, Beni-Hassan (the “Speos Artemidos”),
+Beit-el-Wali, and Silsileh. At Gherf-Hossein, Asseboua, and Derri are
+temples partly excavated and partly structural.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PERIPTERAL TEMPLES.</b> The last type of temple to be noticed is
+represented by only three or four structures of moderate size; it is the
+<i>peripteral</i>, in which a small chamber is surrounded by columns,
+usually mounted on a terrace with vertical walls. They were mere
+chapels, but are among the most graceful of existing ruins. At Philæ are
+two structures, one by Nectanebo, the other Ptolemaic, resembling
+peripteral temples, but without cella-chambers or roofs. They may have
+been waiting-courts for the adjoining temples. That at Elephantine
+(Amenophis III.) has square piers at the sides, and columns only at the
+ends. Another by Thothmes II., at Medinet Abou, formed only a part (the
+sekos?) of a larger plan. At Edfou is another, belonging to the
+Ptolemaic period.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LATER TEMPLES.</b> After the architectural inaction of the
+Decadence came a marvellous recrudescence of splendor under the
+Ptolemies, whose Hellenic origin and sympathies did not lead them into
+the mistaken effort to impose Greek models upon Egyptian art. The
+temples erected under their dominion, and later under Roman rule, vied
+with the grandest works of the Ramessidæ, and surpassed them in the rich
+elaboration and variety of their architectural details. The temple at
+Edfou (Figs. <a href="#fig9">9</a>, <a href="#fig10">10</a>, 14) is
+the most perfectly preserved, and conforms most closely to the typical
+plan; that of Isis, at Philæ, is the most elaborate and ornate. Denderah
+also possesses a group of admirably
+<span class="pagenum">23</span>
+<a name="page23" id="page23"> </a>
+preserved temples of the same period. At Esneh, and at Kalabshé and
+Kardassy or Ghertashi in Nubia are others.<!-- invisible . --> In all
+these one notes innovations of detail and a striving for effect quite
+different from the simpler majesty of the preceding age (Fig. 14). One
+peculiar feature is the use of screen walls built into the front rows of
+columns of the hypostyle hall. Light was admitted above these walls,
+which measured about half the height of the columns and were interrupted
+at the centre by a curious doorway cut through their whole height and
+without any lintel. Long disused types of capital were revived and
+others greatly elaborated; and the wall-reliefs were arranged in bands
+and panels with a regularity and symmetry rather Greek than
+Egyptian.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig14" id="fig14"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="432" height="248"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 14.&mdash;EDFOU. FRONT OF HYPOSTYLE HALL.</p>
+
+<p><b>ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.</b> With the exception of a few purely
+utilitarian vaulted structures, all Egyptian architecture was based on
+the principle of the lintel. Artistic splendor depended upon the use of
+painted and carved pictures, and the decorative treatment of the very
+simple supports
+<span class="pagenum">24</span>
+<a name="page24" id="page24"> </a>
+employed. Piers and columns sustained the roofs of such chambers as were
+too wide for single lintels, and produced, in halls like those of
+Karnak, of the Ramesseum, or of Denderah, a&nbsp;stupendous effect by
+their height, massiveness, number, and colored decoration. The simplest
+piers were plain square shafts; others, more elaborate, had lotus stalks
+and flowers or heads of Hathor carved upon them. The most striking were
+those against whose front faces were carved colossal figures of Osiris,
+as at Luxor, Medmet Abou, and Karnak (Fig. 15). The columns, which were
+seldom over six diameters in height, were treated with greater variety;
+the shafts, slightly tapering upward, were either round or clustered in
+section, and usually contracted at the base. The capitals with which
+they were crowned were usually of one of the five chief types described
+below. Besides round and clustered shafts, the Middle Empire and a few
+of the earlier monuments of the New Empire employed polygonal or
+slightly fluted shafts (see <a href="#page11">p.&nbsp;11</a>), as at
+Beni Hassan and Karnak; these had a plain square abacus, with sometimes
+a cushion-like echinus beneath it. A&nbsp;round plinth served as a base
+for most of the columns.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig15" id="fig15"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig15.png" width="154" height="258"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 15.&mdash;OSIRID PIER (MEDINET ABOU).</p>
+
+<p><b>CAPITALS.</b> The five chief types of capital were:
+<i>a</i>,&nbsp;the plain lotus bud, as at Karnak (Great Hall);
+<i>b</i>,&nbsp;the clustered lotus bud (Beni-Hassan, Karnak, Luxor,
+Gournah, etc.); <i>c</i>,&nbsp;the <i>campaniform</i> or inverted bell
+(central aisles at Karnak, Luxor, the Ramesseum); <i>d</i>,&nbsp;the
+palm-capital, frequent in the later temples; and <i>e</i>,&nbsp;the
+Hathor-headed, in which heads of Hathor adorn the four faces of a
+cubical mass surmounted by a model of a shrine (Sedinga, Edfou,
+Denderah,
+<span class="pagenum">25</span>
+<a name="page25" id="page25"> </a>
+Esneh). These types were richly embellished and varied by the Ptolemaic
+architects, who gave a clustered or quatrefoil plan to the bell-capital,
+or adorned its surface with palm leaves. A&nbsp;few other forms are met
+with as exceptions. The first four are shown in Fig.&nbsp;16.</p>
+
+<p>Every part of the column was richly decorated in color. Lotus-leaves
+or petals swathed the swelling lower part of the shaft, which was
+elsewhere covered with successive bands of carved pictures and of
+hieroglyphics. The capital was similarly covered with carved and painted
+ornament, usually of lotus-flowers or leaves, or alternate stalks of
+lotus and papyrus.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig16" id="fig16"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig16.png" width="246" height="175"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 16.&mdash;TYPES OF COLUMN.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+<i>a, Campaniform; b, Clustered Lotus-Column;<br>
+c, Simple Lotus-Column; d, Palm-Column.</i></span></p>
+
+<p>The lintels were plain and square in section, and often of prodigious
+size. Where they appeared externally they were crowned with a simple
+cavetto cornice, its curved surface covered with colored flutings
+alternating with <i>cartouches</i> of hieroglyphics. Sometimes,
+especially on the screen walls of the Ptolemaic age, this was surmounted
+by a cresting of adders or uræi in closely serried rank. No other form
+of cornice or cresting is met with. Mouldings as a means of
+architectural effect were singularly lacking in Egyptian architecture.
+The only moulding known is the clustered torus (<i>torus</i> = a convex
+moulding of semicircular profile), which resembles a bundle of reeds
+tied together with cords or ribbons. It forms an astragal under the
+cavetto cornice and runs down the angles of the pylons and walls.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig17" id="fig17"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig17.png" width="136" height="156"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 17.&mdash;EGYPTIAN FLORAL<br>
+ORNAMENT-FORMS.</p>
+
+<p><b>POLYCHROMY AND ORNAMENT.</b> Color was absolutely
+<span class="pagenum">26</span>
+<a name="page26" id="page26"> </a>
+essential to the decorative scheme. In the vast and dim interiors, as
+well as in the blinding glare of the sun, mere sculpture or relief would
+have been wasted. The application of brilliant color to pictorial forms
+cut in low relief, or outlined by deep incision with the edges of the
+figures delicately rounded (<i>intaglio rilievo</i>) was the most
+appropriate treatment possible. The walls and columns were covered with
+pictures treated in this way, and the ceilings and lintels were
+embellished with symbolic forms in the same manner. All the ornaments,
+as distinguished from the paintings, were symbolical, at least in their
+origin. Over the gateway was the solar disk or globe with wide-spread
+wings, the symbol of the sun winging its way to the conquest of night;
+upon the ceiling were sacred vultures, zodiacs, or stars spangled on a
+blue ground. Externally the temples presented only masses of unbroken
+wall; but these, as well as the pylons, were covered with huge pictures
+of a historical character. Only in the tombs do we find painted ornament
+of a purely conventional sort (Fig. 17). Rosettes, diaper patterns,
+spirals, and checkers are to be met with in them; but many of these can
+be traced to symbolic origins.<a class="tag" name="tag3" id="tag3"
+href="#note3">3</a></p>
+
+
+<p><b>DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> The only remains of palaces are the
+pavilion of Rameses III. at Medinet Abou, and another at Semneh. The
+Royal Labyrinth has so completely perished that even its site is
+uncertain. The Egyptians lived so much out of doors that the house was a
+less important edifice than in colder climates. Egyptian dwellings were
+probably in most cases built of wood or crude
+<span class="pagenum">27</span>
+<a name="page27" id="page27"> </a>
+brick, and their disappearance is thus easily explained. Relief pictures
+on the monuments indicate the use of wooden framing for the walls, which
+were probably filled in with crude brick or panels of wood. The
+architecture was extremely simple. Gateways like those of the temples on
+a smaller scale, the cavetto cornice on the walls, and here and there a
+porch with carved columns of wood or stone, were the only details
+pretending to elegance. The ground-plans of many houses in ruined
+cities, as at Tel-el-Amarna and a nameless city of Amenophis IV., are
+discernible in the ruins; but the superstructures are wholly wanting. It
+was in religious and sepulchral architecture that the constructive and
+artistic genius of the Egyptians was most fully manifested.</p>
+
+<div class="monuments">
+
+<p><b>MONUMENTS</b>: The principal necropolis regions of Egypt are
+centred about Ghizeh and ancient Memphis for the Old Empire (pyramids
+and mastabas), Thebes for the Middle Empire (Silsileh, Beni Hassan), and
+Thebes (Vale of the Kings, Vale of the Queens) and Abydos for the New
+Empire.</p>
+
+<p>The Old Empire has also left us the Sphinx, Sphinx temple, and the
+temple at Meidoum.</p>
+
+<p>The most important temples of the New Empire were those of Karnak
+(the great temple, the southern or temple of Khonsu), of Luxor, Medinet
+Abou (great temple of Rameses III., lesser temples of Thothmes II. and
+III. with peripteral sekos; also Pavilion of Rameses III.); of Abydos;
+of Gournah; of Eilithyia (Amenophis III.); of Soleb and Sesebi in Nubia;
+of Elephantine (peripteral); the tomb temple of Deir-el-Bahari, the
+Ramesseum, the Amenopheum; hemispeos at Gherf Hossein; two grotto
+temples at Ipsamboul.</p>
+
+<p>At Meroë are pyramids of the Ethiopic kings of the Decadence.</p>
+
+<p>Temples of the Ptolemaic period<ins class="correction" title="text has ; for :">: </ins>Philæ, Denderah.</p>
+
+<p>Temples of the Roman period: Koum Ombos, Edfou; Kalabshé,<!--
+invisible , --> Kardassy and Dandour in Nubia; Esneh.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="note3" id="note3" href="#tag3">3.</a>
+See Goodyear’s <i>Grammar of the Lotus</i> for an elaborate and
+ingenious presentation of the theory of a common lotus-origin for all
+the conventional forms occurring in Egyptian ornament.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">28</span>
+<a name="page28" id="page28"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapIV" id="chapIV">CHAPTER IV.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+CHALDÆAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Reber.
+Also, Babelon, <i>Manual of Oriental Antiquities</i>. Botta and Flandin,
+<i>Monuments de Ninive</i>. Layard, <i>Discoveries in Nineveh</i>;
+<i>Nineveh and its Remains</i>. Loftus, <i>Travels and Researches in
+Chaldæa and Susiana</i>. Perrot and Chipiez, <i>History of Art in
+Chaldæa and Assyria</i>. Peters, <i>Nippur</i>. Place, <i>Ninive et
+l’Assyrie</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>SITUATION; HISTORIC PERIODS.</b> The Tigro-Euphrates valley was
+the seat of a civilization nearly or quite as old as that of the Nile,
+though inferior in its monumental art. The kingdoms of Chaldæa and
+Assyria which ruled in this valley, sometimes as rivals and sometimes as
+subjects one of the other, differed considerably in character and
+culture. But the scarcity of timber and the lack of good building-stone
+except in the limestone table-lands and more distant mountains of upper
+Mesopotamia, the abundance of clay, and the flatness of the country,
+imposed upon the builders of both nations similar restrictions of
+conception, form, and material. Both peoples, moreover, were probably,
+in part at least, of Semitic race.<a class="tag" name="tag4" id="tag4" href="#note4">4</a> The Chaldæans attained civilization as
+early as 4000 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, and had for
+centuries maintained fixed institutions and practised the arts and
+sciences when the Assyrians began their career as a nation of conquerors
+by reducing Chaldæa to subjection.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">29</span>
+<a name="page29" id="page29"> </a>
+<p>The history of Chaldæo-Assyrian art may be divided into three main
+periods, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. The <span class="smallcaps">Early Chaldæan</span>, 4000 to 1250
+<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>2. The <span class="smallcaps">Assyrian</span>, 1250 to 606 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>3. The <span class="smallcaps">Babylonian</span>, 606 to 538 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>In 538 the empire fell before the Persians.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>GENERAL CHARACTER OF MONUMENTS.</b> Recent excavations at Nippur
+(Niffer), the sacred city of Chaldæa, have uncovered ruins older than
+the Pyramids. Though of slight importance architecturally, they reveal
+the early knowledge of the arch and the possession of an advanced
+culture. The poverty of the building materials of this region afforded
+only the most limited resources for architectural effect. Owing to the
+flatness of the country and the impracticability of building lofty
+structures with sun-dried bricks, elevation above the plain could be
+secured only by erecting buildings of moderate height upon enormous
+mounds or terraces, built of crude brick and faced with hard brick or
+stone. This led to the development of the stepped pyramid as the typical
+form of Chaldæo-Assyrian architecture. Thick walls were necessary both
+for stability and for protection from the burning heat of that climate.
+The lack of stone for columns and the difficulty of procuring heavy
+beams for long spans made broad halls and chambers impossible. The plans
+of Assyrian palaces look like assemblages of long corridors and small
+cells (Fig. 18). Neither the wooden post nor the column played any part
+in this architecture except for window-mullions and subordinate
+members.<a class="tag" name="tag5" id="tag5" href="#note5">5</a><!-- invisible . --> It is probable that the vault was
+used for roofing many of the halls; the arch was certainly employed for
+doors and the barrel-vault for the drainage-tunnels
+<span class="pagenum">30</span>
+<a name="page30" id="page30"> </a>
+under the terraces, made necessary by the heavy rainfall. What these
+structures lacked in durability and height was made up in decorative
+magnificence. The interior walls were wainscoted to a height of eight or
+nine feet with alabaster slabs covered with those low-relief pictures of
+hunting scenes, battles, and gods, which now enrich the museums of
+London, Paris, and other modern cities. Elsewhere painted plaster or
+more durable enamelled tile in brilliant colors embellished the walls,
+and, doubtless, rugs and tapestries added their richness to this
+architectural splendor.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig18" id="fig18"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig18.png" width="357" height="375"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 18.&mdash;PALACE OF SARGON AT KHORSABAD.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHALDÆAN ARCHITECTURE.</b> The ruins at Mugheir (the Biblical Ur),
+dating, perhaps, from 2200 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>,
+belong to the two-storied terrace or platform of a temple to Sin or
+Hurki.
+<span class="pagenum">31</span>
+<a name="page31" id="page31"> </a>
+The wall of sun-dried brick is faced with enamelled tile. The shrine,
+which was probably small, has wholly disappeared from the summit of the
+mound. At Warka (the ancient Erech) are two terrace-walls of palaces,
+one of which is ornamented with convex flutings and with a species of
+mosaic in checker patterns and zigzags, formed by terra-cotta cones or
+spikes driven into the clay, their exposed bases being enamelled in the
+desired colors. The other shows a system of long, narrow panels, in a
+style suggesting the influence of Egyptian models through some as yet
+unknown channel. This panelling became a common feature of the later
+Assyrian art (see Fig. 19). At Birs-Nimroud are the ruins of a stepped
+pyramid surmounted by a small shrine. Its seven stages are said to have
+been originally faced with glazed tile of the seven planetary colors,
+gold, silver, yellow, red, blue, white, and black. The ruins at Nippur,
+which comprise temples, altars, and dwellings dating from 4000 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, have been alluded to. Babylon, the
+later capital of Chaldæa, to which the shapeless mounds of Mujehbeh and
+Kasr seem to have belonged, has left no other recognizable vestige of
+its ancient magnificence.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE.</b> Abundant ruins exist of Nineveh, the
+Assyrian capital, and its adjacent palace-sites. Excavations at
+Koyunjik, Khorsabad, and Nimroud have laid bare a number of these royal
+dwellings. Among them are the palace of Assur-nazir-pal (885 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) and two palaces of Shalmaneser II.<!--
+invisible . --> (850 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span><!-- missing
+second . -->) at Nimroud; the great palace of Sargon at Khorsabad (721
+<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span><!-- invisible first . -->); that
+of Sennacherib at Koyunjik (704 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>);
+of Esarhaddon at Nimroud (650 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>);
+and of Assur-bani-pal at Koyunjik (660 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). All of these palaces are designed on the same
+general principle, best shown by the plan (Fig. 18) of the palace of
+Sargon at Khorsabad, excavated by Botta and Place.</p>
+
+<p>In this palace two large and several smaller courts are surrounded by
+a complex series of long, narrow halls and
+<span class="pagenum">32</span>
+<a name="page32" id="page32"> </a>
+small, square chambers. One court probably belonged to the harem,
+another to the king’s apartments, others to dependents and to the
+service of the palace. The crude brick walls are immensely thick and
+without windows, the only openings being for doors. The absence of
+columns made wide halls impossible, and great size could only be
+attained in the direction of length. A&nbsp;terraced pyramid supported
+an altar or shrine to the southwest of the palace; at the west corner
+was a temple, the substructure of which was crowned by a cavetto cornice
+showing plainly the influence of Egyptian models. The whole palace stood
+upon a stupendous platform faced with cut stone, an unaccustomed
+extravagance in Assyria.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig19" id="fig19"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig19.png" width="315" height="227"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 19.&mdash;GATE, KHORSABAD.</p>
+
+<p><b>ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.</b> There is no evidence that the Assyrians
+ever used columnar supports except in minor or accessory details. There
+are few halls in any of the ruins too wide to be spanned by good Syrian
+cedar beams or palm timbers, and these few cases seem to have had
+vaulted ceilings. So clumsy a feature as the central wall in the great
+hall of Esarhaddon’s palace at Nimroud would never have been resorted to
+for the support of the ceiling, had
+<span class="pagenum">33</span>
+<a name="page33" id="page33"> </a>
+the Assyrians been familiar with the use of columns. That they
+understood the arch and vault is proved by their admirable
+terrace-drains and the fine arched gate in the walls of Khorsabad (Fig.
+19), as well as by bas-reliefs representing dwellings with domes of
+various forms. Moreover, a&nbsp;few vaulted chambers of moderate size,
+and fallen fragments of crude brick vaulting of larger span, have been
+found in several of the Assyrian ruins.</p>
+
+<p>The construction was extremely simple. The heavy clay walls were
+faced with alabaster, burned brick, or enamelled tiles. The roofs were
+probably covered with stamped earth, and sometimes paved on top with
+tiles or slabs of alabaster to form terraces. Light was introduced most
+probably through windows immediately under the roof and divided by small
+columns forming mullions, as suggested by certain relief pictures. No
+other system seems consistent with the windowless walls of the ruins. It
+is possible that many rooms depended wholly on artificial light or on
+the scant rays coming through open doors. To this day, in the hot season
+the population of Mosul takes refuge from the torrid heats of summer in
+windowless basements lighted only by lamps.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ORNAMENT.</b> The only structural decorations seem to have been
+the panelling of exterior walls in a manner resembling the Chaldæan
+terrace-walls, and a form of parapet like a stepped cresting. There were
+no characteristic mouldings, architraves, capitals, or cornices. Nearly
+all the ornament was of the sort called <i>applied</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+added after the completion of the structure itself. Pictures in low
+relief covered the alabaster revetment. They depicted hunting-scenes,
+battles, deities, and other mythological subjects, and are interesting
+to the architect mainly for their occasional representations of
+buildings and details of construction. Above this wainscot were friezes
+of enamelled brick ornamented with symbolic forms used as decorative
+<span class="pagenum">34</span>
+<a name="page34" id="page34"> </a>
+motives; winged bulls, the “sacred tree” and mythological monsters, with
+rosettes, palmettes, lotus-flowers, and <i>guilloches</i> (ornaments of
+interlacing bands winding about regularly spaced buttons or eyes). These
+ornaments were also used on the archivolts around the great arches of
+palace gates. The most singular adornments of these gates were the
+carved “portal guardians” set into the deep jambs&mdash;colossal
+monsters with the bodies of bulls, the wings of eagles, and human heads
+of terrible countenance. Of mighty bulk, they were yet minutely wrought
+in every detail of head-dress, beard, feathers, curly hair, and
+anatomy.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig20" id="fig20"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig20.png" width="183" height="143"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 20.&mdash;ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT.</p>
+
+<p>The purely conventional ornaments mentioned above&mdash;the rosette,
+guilloche, and lotus-flower, and probably also the palmette, were
+derived from Egyptian originals. They were treated, however, in a quite
+new spirit and adapted to the special materials and uses of their
+environment. Thus the form of the palmette, even if derived, as is not
+unlikely, from the Egyptian lotus-motive, was assimilated to the more
+familiar palm-forms of Assyria (Fig. 20).</p>
+
+<p>Assyrian architecture never rivalled the Egyptian in grandeur or
+constructive power, in seriousness, or the higher artistic qualities. It
+did, however, produce imposing results with the poorest resources, and
+in its use of the arch and its development of ornamental forms it
+furnished prototypes for some of the most characteristic features of
+later Asiatic art, which profoundly influenced both Greek and Byzantine
+architecture.</p>
+
+<p class="monuments">
+<b>MONUMENTS</b>: The most important Chaldæan and Assyrian monuments of
+which there are extant remains, have already been enumerated in the
+text. It is therefore unnecessary to duplicate the list here.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="note4" id="note4" href="#tag4">4.</a>
+This is denied by some recent writers, so far as the Chaldæans are
+concerned, and is not intended here to apply to the Accadians and
+Summerians of primitive Chaldæa.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note5" id="note5" href="#tag5">5.</a>
+See Fergusson, <i>Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis</i>, for an
+ingenious but unsubstantiated argument for the use of columns in
+Assyrian palaces.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">35</span>
+<a name="page35" id="page35"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapV" id="chapV">CHAPTER V.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+PERSIAN, LYCIAN AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Babelon;
+Bliss, <i>Excavations at Jerusalem</i>. Reber. Also Dieulafoy, <i>L’Art
+antique de la Perse</i>. Fellows, <i>Account of Discoveries in
+Lycia</i>. Fergusson, <i>The Temple at Jerusalem</i>. Flandin et Coste,
+<i>Perse ancienne</i>. Perrot and Chipiez, <i>History of Art in
+Persia</i>; <i>History of Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Caria, and Lycia</i>;
+<i>History of Art in Sardinia and Judæa</i>. Texier, <i>L’Arménie et la
+Perse</i>; <i>L’Asie Mineure</i>. De Vogüé, <i>Le Temple de
+Jérusalem</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE.</b> With the Persians, who under Cyrus (536
+<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) and Cambyses (525 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) became the masters of the Orient, the Aryan
+race superseded the Semitic, and assimilated in new combinations the
+forms it borrowed from the Assyrian civilization. Under the Achæmenidæ
+(536 to 330 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) palaces were built
+in Persepolis and Susa of a splendor and majesty impossible in
+Mesopotamia, and rivalling the marvels in the Nile Valley. The
+conquering nation of warriors who had overthrown the Egyptians and
+Assyrians was in turn conquered by the arts of its vanquished foes, and
+speedily became the most luxurious of all nations. The Persians were not
+great innovators in art; but inhabiting a land of excellent building
+resources, they were able to combine the Egyptian system of interior
+columns with details borrowed from Assyrian art, and suggestions,
+derived most probably from the general use in Persia and Central Asia,
+of wooden posts or columns as intermediate supports. Out of these
+elements they evolved an architecture which
+<span class="pagenum">36</span>
+<a name="page36" id="page36"> </a>
+has only become fully known to us since the excavations of M. and Mme.
+Dieulafoy at Susa in 1882.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE.</b> The Persians used both crude
+and baked bricks, the latter far more freely than was practicable in
+Assyria, owing to the greater abundance of fuel. Walls when built of the
+weaker material were faced with baked brick enamelled in brilliant
+colors, or both moulded and enamelled, to form colored pictures in
+relief. Stone was employed for walls and columns, and, in conjunction
+with brick, for the jambs and lintels of doors and windows. Architraves
+and ceiling-beams were of wood. The palaces were erected, as in Assyria,
+upon broad platforms, partly cut in the rock and partly structural,
+approached by imposing flights of steps. These palaces were composed of
+detached buildings, propylæa or gates of honor, vast audience-halls open
+on one or two sides, and chambers or dwellings partly enclosing or
+flanking these halls, or grouped in separate buildings. Temples appear
+to have been of small importance, perhaps owing to habits of out-of-door
+worship of fire and sun. There are few structural tombs, but there are a
+number of imposing royal sepulchres cut in the rock at
+Naksh-i-Roustam.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.</b> The Persians, like the Egyptians, used
+the column as an internal feature in hypostyle halls of great size, and
+externally to form porches, and perhaps, also, open kiosks without
+walls. The great <b>Hall of Xerxes</b> at Persepolis covers 100,000
+square feet&mdash;more than double the area of the Hypostyle Hall at
+Karnak. But the Persian column was derived from wooden prototypes and
+used with wooden architraves, permitting a wider spacing than is
+possible with stone. In the present instance thirty-six columns sufficed
+for an area which in the Karnak hall contained one hundred and
+thirty-four. The shafts being slender and finely fluted instead of
+painted or carved, the effect produced was totally different from that
+<span class="pagenum">37</span>
+<a name="page37" id="page37"> </a>
+sought by the Egyptians. The most striking peculiarity of the column was
+the capital, which was forked (Fig. 21).<!-- invisible . --> In one of
+the two principal types the fork, formed by the coupled fore-parts of
+bulls or symbolic monsters, rested directly on the top of the shaft. In
+the other, two singular members were interposed between the fork and the
+shaft; the lower, a&nbsp;sort of double bell or bell-and-palm capital,
+and above it, just beneath the fork, a&nbsp;curious combination of
+vertical scrolls or volutes, resembling certain ornaments seen in
+Assyrian furniture. The transverse architrave rested in the fork; the
+longitudinal architrave was supported on the heads of the monsters.
+A&nbsp;rich moulded base, rather high and in some cases adorned with
+carved leaves or flutings, supported the columns, which in the Hall of
+Xerxes were over 66 feet high and 6 feet in diameter. The architraves
+have perished, but the rock-cut tomb of Darius at Naksh-i-Roustam
+reproduces in its façade a palace-front, showing a banded architrave
+with dentils&mdash;an obvious imitation of the ends of wooden rafters on
+a lintel built up of several beams.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig21" id="fig21"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig21.png" width="158" height="374"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 21.&mdash;COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS.</p>
+
+<p>These features of the architrave, as well as the fine flutings and
+moulded bases of the columns, are found in Ionic architecture, and in
+part, at least, in Lycian tombs. As all these examples date from nearly
+the same period, the origin of these forms and their mutual relations
+have not been fully determined. The Persian capitals, however, are
+<span class="pagenum">38</span>
+<a name="page38" id="page38"> </a>
+unique, and so far as known, without direct prototypes or derivatives.
+Their constituent elements may have been borrowed from various sources.
+One can hardly help seeing the Egyptian palm-capital in the lower member
+of the compound type (Fig. 21).</p>
+
+<p>The doors and windows had banded architraves or trims and cavetto
+cornices very Egyptian in character. The portals were flanked, as in
+Assyria, by winged monsters; but these were built up in several courses
+of stone, not carved from single blocks like their prototypes. Plaster
+or, as at Susa, enamelled bricks, replaced as a wall-finish the Assyrian
+alabaster wainscot. These bricks, splendid in color, and moulded into
+relief pictures covering large surfaces, are the oldest examples of the
+skill of the Persians in a branch of ceramic art in which they have
+always excelled down to our own day.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LYCIAN ARCHITECTURE.</b> The architecture of those Asiatic peoples
+which served as intermediaries between the ancient civilizations of
+Egypt and Assyria on the one hand and of the Greeks on the other, need
+occupy us only a moment in passing. None of them developed a complete
+and independent style or produced monuments of the first rank. Those
+chiefly concerned in the transmission of ideas were the Cypriotes,
+Phœnicians, and Lycians. The part played by other Asiatic nations is too
+slight to be considered here. From Cyprus the Greeks could have learned
+little beyond a few elementary notions regarding sculpture and pottery,
+although it is possible that the volute-form in Ionic architecture was
+originally derived from patterns on Cypriote pottery and from certain
+Cypriote steles, where it appears as a modified lotus motive. The
+Phœnicians were the world’s traders from a very early age down to the
+Persian conquest. They not only distributed through the Mediterranean
+lands the manufactures of Egypt and Assyria, but also counterfeited them
+and adopted their forms in decorating
+<span class="pagenum">39</span>
+<a name="page39" id="page39"> </a>
+their own wares. But they have bequeathed us not a single architectural
+ruin of importance, either of temples or palaces, nor are the few tombs
+still extant of sufficient artistic interest to deserve even brief
+mention in a work of this scope.</p>
+
+<p>In Lycia, however, there arose a system of tomb-design which came
+near creating a new architectural style, and which doubtless influenced
+both Persia and the Ionian colonies. The tombs were mostly cut in the
+rock, though a few are free-standing monolithic monuments, resembling
+sarcophagi or small shrines mounted on a high base or pedestal.</p>
+
+<p>In all of these tombs we recognize a manifest copying in stone of
+framed wooden structures. The walls are panelled, or imitate open
+structures framed of squared timbers. The roofs are often gabled,
+sometimes in the form of a pointed arch; they generally show a banded
+architrave, dentils, and a raking cornice, or else an imitation of
+broadly projecting eaves with small round rafters. There are several
+with porches of Ionic columns; of these, some are of late date and
+evidently copied from Asiatic Greek models. Others, and notably one at
+Telmissus, seem to be examples of a primitive Ionic, and may indeed have
+been early steps in the development of that splendid style which the
+Ionic Greeks, both in Asia Minor and in Attica, carried to such
+perfection.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>JEWISH ARCHITECTURE.</b> The Hebrews borrowed from the art of
+every people with whom they had relations, so that we encounter in the
+few extant remains of their architecture Egyptian, Assyrian, Phœnician,
+Greek, Roman, and Syro-Byzantine features, but nothing like an
+independent national style. Among the most interesting of these remains
+are tombs of various periods, principally occurring in the valleys near
+Jerusalem, and erroneously ascribed by popular tradition to the judges,
+prophets, and kings of
+<span class="pagenum">40</span>
+<a name="page40" id="page40"> </a>
+Israel. Some of them are structural, some cut in the rock; the former
+(tomb of Absalom, of Zechariah) decorated with Doric and Ionic engaged
+orders, were once supposed to be primitive types of these orders and of
+great antiquity. They are now recognized to be debased imitations of
+late Greek work of the third or second century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> They have Egyptian cavetto cornices and
+pyramidal roofs, like many Asiatic tombs. The openings of the rock-cut
+tombs have frames or pediments carved with rich surface ornament showing
+a similar mixture of types&mdash;Roman triglyphs and garlands,
+Syrian-Greek acanthus leaves, conventional foliage of Byzantine
+character, and naturalistic carvings of grapes and local plant-life. The
+carved arches of two of the ancient city gates (one the so-called Golden
+Gate) in Jerusalem display rich acanthus foliage somewhat like that of
+the tombs, but more vigorous and artistic. If of the time of Herod or
+even of Constantine, as claimed by some, they would indicate that Greek
+artists in Syria created the prototypes of Byzantine ornament. They are
+more probably, however, Byzantine restorations of the 6th
+century&nbsp;<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p>The one great achievement of Jewish architecture was the national
+<b>Temple of Jehovah</b>, represented by three successive edifices on
+Mount Moriah, the site of the present so-called “Mosque of Omar.” The
+first, built by Solomon (1012 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>)
+appears from the Biblical description<a class="tag" name="tag6" id="tag6" href="#note6">6</a> to have combined Egyptian conceptions
+(successive courts, lofty entrance-pylons, the Sanctuary and the sekos
+or “Holy of Holies”) with Phœnician and Assyrian details and workmanship
+(cedar woodwork, empaistic decoration or overlaying with <i>repoussé</i>
+metal work, the isolated brazen columns Jachin and Boaz). The whole
+stood on a mighty platform built up with stupendous masonry and vaulted
+chambers from the valley surrounding the rock on three
+<span class="pagenum">41</span>
+<a name="page41" id="page41"> </a>
+sides. This precinct was nearly doubled in size by Herod (18 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) who extended it southward by a terrace-wall
+of still more colossal masonry. Some of the stones are twenty-two feet
+long; one reaches the prodigious length of forty feet. The “Wall of
+Lamentations” is a part of this terrace, upon which stood the Temple on
+a raised platform. As rebuilt by Herod, the Temple reproduced in part
+the antique design, and retained the porch of Solomon along the east
+side; but the whole was superbly reconstructed in white marble with
+abundance of gilding. Defended by the Castle of Antonia on the
+northwest, and embellished with a new and imposing triple colonnade on
+the south, the whole edifice, a&nbsp;conglomerate of Egyptian, Assyrian,
+and Roman conceptions and forms, was one of the most singular and yet
+magnificent creations of ancient art.</p>
+
+<p>The temple of Zerubbabel (515 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), intermediate between those above described,
+was probably less a re-edification of the first, than a new design.
+While based on the scheme of the first temple, it appears to have
+followed more closely the pattern described in the vision of Ezekiel
+(chapters xl.-xlii.). It was far inferior to its predecessor in splendor
+and costliness. No vestiges of it remain.</p>
+
+
+<div class="monuments">
+<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> <span class="smallcaps">Persian</span>: at
+Murghab, the tomb of Cyrus, known as
+Gabré-Madré-Soleiman&mdash;a&nbsp;gabled structure on a seven-stepped
+pyramidal basement (525 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). At
+Persepolis the palace of Darius (521 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>); the Propylæa of Xerxes, his palace and his
+harem (?) or throne-hall (480 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>).
+These splendid structures, several of them of vast size, resplendent
+with color and majestic with their singular and colossal columns, must
+have formed one of the most imposing architectural groups in the world.
+At various points, tower-like tombs, supposed erroneously by Fergusson
+to have been fire altars. At Naksh-i-Roustam, the tomb of Darius, cut in
+the rock. Other tombs near by at Persepolis proper and at Pasargadæ. At
+the latter place remains of the palace of Cyrus. At Susa the palace of
+Xerxes and Artaxerxes (480&ndash;405 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>).</p>
+
+<p>There are no remains of private houses or temples.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Lycian</span>: the principal Lycian
+monuments are found in Myra, Antiphellus,
+<span class="pagenum">42</span>
+<a name="page42" id="page42"> </a>
+and Telmissus. Some of the monolithic tombs have been removed to the
+British and other European museums.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Jewish</span>: the temples have been
+mentioned above. The palace of Solomon. The rock-cut monolithic tomb of
+Siloam. So-called tombs of Absalom and Zechariah, structural; probably
+of Herod’s time or later. Rock-cut Tombs of the Kings; of the Prophets,
+etc. City gates (Herodian or early Christian period).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="note6" id="note6" href="#tag6">6.</a>
+1 Kings vi.-vii.; 2 Chronicles iii.-iv.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">43</span>
+<a name="page43" id="page43"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapVI" id="chapVI">CHAPTER VI.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Reber.
+Also, Anderson and Spiers, <i>Architecture of Greece and Rome</i>.
+Baumeister, <i>Denkmäler <!-- invisible umlaut --> der Klassischen
+Alterthums</i>. Bötticher, <i>Tektonik der Hellenen</i>. Chipiez,
+<i>Histoire critique des ordres grecs</i>. Curtius, Adler and Treu,
+<i>Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia</i>. Durm, <i>Antike Baukunst</i> (in
+<i>Handbuch d. Arch.</i><!-- missing .-->). Frazer, <i>Pausanias’
+Description of Greece</i>. Hitorff, <i>L’architecture polychrome chez
+les Grecs</i>. Michaelis, <i>Der Parthenon</i>. Penrose, <i>An
+Investigation, etc., of Athenian Architecture</i>. Perrot and Chipiez,
+<i>History of Art in Primitive Greece</i>; <i>La Grèce de l’Epopée</i>;
+<i>La Grèce archaïque</i>. Stuart and Revett, <i>Antiquities of
+Athens</i>. Tarbell, <i>History of Greek Art</i>. Texier, <i>L’Asie
+Mineure</i>. Wilkins, <i>Antiquities of Magna Græcia</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.</b> Greek art marks the beginning of
+European civilization. The Hellenic race gathered up influences and
+suggestions from both Asia and Africa and fused them with others, whose
+sources are unknown, into an art intensely national and original, which
+was to influence the arts of many races and nations long centuries after
+the decay of the Hellenic states. The Greek mind, compared with the
+Egyptian or Assyrian, was more highly intellectual, more logical, more
+symmetrical, and above all more inquiring and analytic. Living nowhere
+remote from the sea, the Greeks became sailors, merchants, and
+colonizers. The Ionian kinsmen of the European Greeks, speaking a
+dialect of the same language, populated the coasts of Asia Minor and
+many of the islands, so that through them the
+<span class="pagenum">44</span>
+<a name="page44" id="page44"> </a>
+Greeks were open to the influences of the Assyrian, Phœnician, Persian,
+and Lycian civilizations. In Cyprus they encountered Egyptian
+influences, and finally, under Psammetichus, they established in Egypt
+itself the Greek city of Naukratis. They were thus by geographical
+situation, by character, and by circumstances, peculiarly fitted to
+receive, develop, and transmit the mingled influences of the East and
+the South.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig22" id="fig22"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig22.png" width="232" height="233"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 22.&mdash;LION GATE AT MYCENÆ.</p>
+
+<p><b>PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS.</b><a class="tag" name="tag7" id="tag7" href="#note7">7</a> Authentic Greek history begins with the
+first Olympiad, 776 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> The earliest
+monuments of that historic architecture which developed into the
+masterpieces of the Periclean and Alexandrian ages, date from the middle
+of the following century. But there are a number of older buildings,
+belonging presumably to the so-called Heroic Age, which, though
+seemingly unconnected with the later historic development of Greek
+architecture, are still worthy of note. They are the work of a people
+somewhat advanced in civilization, probably the Pelasgi, who preceded
+the Dorians on Greek soil, and consist mainly of fortifications, walls,
+gates, and tombs, the most important of which are at <b>Mycenæ</b> and
+<b>Tiryns</b>. At the latter place is a well-defined acropolis, with
+massive walls in which are passages covered by stones successively
+overhanging or corbelled until they meet. The masonry is of huge stones
+piled without cement. At Mycenæ the city wall is pierced by the
+remarkable <b>Lion Gate</b> (Fig. 22), consisting of two jambs and a
+huge lintel,
+<span class="pagenum">45</span>
+<a name="page45" id="page45"> </a>
+over which the weight is relieved by a triangular opening. This is
+filled with a sculptured group, now much defaced, representing two
+rampant lions flanking a singular column which tapers downward. This
+symbolic group has relations with Hittite and Phrygian sculptures, and
+with the symbolism of the worship of Rhea Cybele. The masonry of the
+wall is carefully dressed but not regularly coursed. Other primitive
+walls and gates showing openings and embryonic arches of various forms,
+are found widely scattered, at Samos and Delos, at Phigaleia, Thoricus,
+Argos and many other points.
+<span class="illustration floatleft">
+<a name="fig23" id="fig23"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig23.png" width="192" height="93"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 23.&mdash;POLYGONAL MASONRY.</span>
+The very earliest are hardly more than random piles of rough stone.
+Those which may fairly claim notice for their artistic masonry are of a
+later date and of two kinds: the coursed, and the polygonal or
+Cyclopean, so called from the tradition that they were built by the
+Cyclopes. These Cyclopean walls were composed of large, irregular
+polygonal blocks carefully fitted together and dressed to a fairly
+smooth face (Fig. 23). Both kinds were used contemporaneously, though in
+the course of time the regular coursed masonry finally superseded the
+polygonal.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig24" id="fig24"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig24.png" width="441" height="174"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 24.&mdash;THOLOS OF ATREUS. PLAN AND SECTION.</p>
+
+<p><b>THOLOS OF ATREUS.</b> All these structures present, however, only
+the rudiments of architectural art. The so-called <b>Tholos</b> (or
+Treasury) of <b>Atreus</b>, at Mycenæ, on the other hand, shows the
+germs of truly artistic design (Fig. 24). It is in reality a tomb, and
+is one of a large class of prehistoric tombs found in almost every part
+of the globe, consisting of a circular stone-walled and stone-roofed
+chamber buried under a tumulus of earth. This one is a beehive-shaped
+construction of horizontal courses of masonry, with a stone-walled
+passage, the <i>dromos</i>, leading to the entrance door.
+<span class="pagenum">46</span>
+<a name="page46" id="page46"> </a>
+Though internally of domical form, its construction with horizontal beds
+in the masonry proves that the idea of the true dome with the beds of
+each course pitched at an angle always normal to the curve of the vault,
+was not yet grasped. A&nbsp;small sepulchral chamber opens from the
+great one, by a door with the customary relieving triangle
+over&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w120">
+<a name="fig25" id="fig25"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig25.png" width="128" height="180"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 25.&mdash;THOLOS OF ATREUS. DOORWAY.</p>
+
+<p>Traces of a metal lining have been found on the inner surface of the
+dome and on the jambs of the entrance door. This entrance is the most
+artistic and elaborate part of the edifice (Fig. 25). The main opening
+is enclosed in a three-banded frame, and was once flanked by columns
+which, as shown by fragments still existing and by marks on either side
+the door, tapered downward as in the sculptured column over the Lion
+Gate. Shafts, bases, and capitals were covered with zig-zag bands or
+chevrons of fine spirals. This well-studied decoration, the banded
+jambs, and the curiously inverted columns (of which several other
+examples exist in or near Mycenæ), all point to a fairly developed art,
+derived partly from Egyptian and partly from Asiatic sources. That
+Egyptian influences had affected this early art is further
+<span class="pagenum">47</span>
+<a name="page47" id="page47"> </a>
+proved by a fragment of carved and painted ornament on a ceiling in
+Orchomenos, imitating with remarkable closeness certain ceiling
+decorations in Egyptian tombs.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>HISTORIC MONUMENTS; THE ORDERS.</b> It was the Dorians and Ionians
+who developed the architecture of classic Greece. This fact is
+perpetuated in the traditional names, Doric and Ionic, given to the two
+systems of columnar design which formed the most striking feature of
+that architecture. While in Egypt the column was used almost exclusively
+as an internal support and decoration, in Greece it was chiefly employed
+to produce an imposing exterior effect. It was the most important
+element in the temple architecture of the Greeks, and an almost
+indispensable adornment of their gateways, public squares, and temple
+enclosures. To the column the two races named above gave each a special
+and radically distinct development, and it was not until the Periclean
+age that the two forms came to be used in conjunction, even by the mixed
+Doric-Ionic people of Attica. Each of the two types had its own special
+shaft, capital, entablature, mouldings, and ornaments, although
+considerable variation was allowed in the proportions and minor details.
+The general type, however, remained substantially unchanged from first
+to last. The earliest examples known to us of either order show it
+complete in all its parts, its later development being restricted to the
+refining and perfecting of its proportions and details. The probable
+origin of these orders will be separately considered later&nbsp;on.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft">
+<a name="fig26" id="fig26"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig26.png" width="173" height="266"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 26.&mdash;GREEK DORIC ORDER.</p>
+
+<p class="caption w180">
+<i>A, Crepidoma, or stylobate; b, Column; c, Architrave; d, Tænia; e,
+Frieze; f, Horizontal cornice; g, Raking cornice; h, Tympanum of
+pediment; k, Metope</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE DORIC.</b> The column of the Doric order (Figs. 26, 27)
+consists of a tapering shaft rising directly from the stylobate or
+platform and surmounted by a capital of great simplicity and beauty. The
+shaft is fluted with sixteen to twenty shallow channellings of segmental
+or elliptical section, meeting in sharp edges or <i>arrises</i>. The
+capital is made up of a circular cushion or <i>echinus</i> adorned with
+fine
+<span class="pagenum">48</span>
+<a name="page48" id="page48"> </a>
+grooves called <i>annulæ</i>, and a plain square <i>abacus</i> or cap
+Upon this rests a plain architrave or <i>epistyle</i>, with a narrow
+fillet, the <i>tænia</i>, running along its upper edge. The frieze above
+it is divided into square panels, called the <i>metopes</i>, separated
+by vertical <i>triglyphs</i> having each two vertical grooves and
+chamfered edges. There is a triglyph over each column and one over each
+intercolumniation, or two in rare instances where the columns are widely
+spaced. The cornice consists of a broadly projecting <i>corona</i>
+resting on a <i>bed-mould</i> of one or two simple mouldings. Its under
+surface, called the <i>soffit</i>, is adorned with <i>mutules</i>,
+square, flat projections having each eighteen <i>guttæ</i> depending
+from its under side. Two or three small mouldings run along the upper
+edge of the corona, which has in addition, over each slope of the gable,
+a&nbsp;gutter-moulding or <i>cymatium</i>. The cornices along the
+horizontal edges of the roof have instead of the cymatium a row of
+<i>antefixæ</i>, ornaments of terra-cotta or marble placed opposite the
+foot of each tile-ridge of the roofing. The enclosed triangular field of
+the gable, called the <i>tympanum</i>, was in the larger monuments
+adorned with sculptured groups resting on the shelf formed by the
+horizontal cornice below. Carved ornaments called <i>acroteria</i>
+commonly embellished the three angles of the gable or pediment.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>POLYCHROMY.</b> It has been fully proved, after a century of
+debate, that all this elaborate system of parts, severe
+<span class="pagenum">49</span>
+<a name="page49" id="page49"> </a>
+and dignified in their simplicity of form, received a rich decoration of
+color. While the precise shades and tones employed cannot be predicated
+with certainty, it is well established that the triglyphs were painted
+blue and the metopes red, and that all the mouldings were decorated with
+leaf-ornaments, “eggs-and-darts,” and frets, in red, green, blue, and
+gold. The walls and columns were also colored, probably with pale tints
+of yellow or buff, to reduce the glare of the fresh marble or the
+whiteness of the fine stucco with which the surfaces of masonry of
+coarser stone were primed. In the clear Greek atmosphere and outlined
+against the brilliant sky, the Greek temple must have presented an
+aspect of rich, sparkling gayety.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig27" id="fig27"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig27.jpg" width="243" height="227"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 27.&mdash;DORIC ORDER OF THE PARTHENON.</p>
+
+<p><b>ORIGIN OF THE ORDER.</b> It is generally believed that the details
+of the Doric frieze and cornice were reminiscences of a primitive wood
+construction. The triglyph suggests the chamfered ends of cross-beams
+made up of three planks each; the mutules, the sheathing of the eaves;
+and the guttæ, the heads of the spikes or trenails by which the
+sheathing was secured. It is known that in early astylar temples the
+metopes were left open like the spaces between the ends of
+ceiling-rafters. In the earlier peripteral temples, as at Selinus, the
+triglyph-frieze is retained around the cella-wall under the ceiling of
+the colonnade, where it has no functional significance, as a survival
+from times antedating the adoption of the colonnade, when
+<span class="pagenum">50</span>
+<a name="page50" id="page50"> </a>
+the tradition of a wooden roof-construction showing externally had not
+yet been forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>A similar wooden origin for the Doric column has been advocated by
+some, who point to the assertion of Pausanias that in the Doric Heraion
+at Olympia the original wooden columns had with one exception been
+replaced by stone columns as fast as they decayed. (See <a href="#page62">p.&nbsp;62</a>.) This, however, only proves that wooden
+columns were sometimes used in early buildings, not that the Doric
+column was derived from them. Others would derive it from the Egyptian
+columns of Beni Hassan (<a href="#page12">p.&nbsp;12</a>), which it
+certainly resembles. But they do not explain how the Greeks could have
+been familiar with the Beni Hassan column long before the opening of
+Egypt to them under Psammetichus; nor why, granting them some knowledge
+of Egyptian architecture, they should have passed over the splendors of
+Karnak and Luxor to copy these inconspicuous tombs perched high up on
+the cliffs of the Nile. It would seem that the Greeks invented this form
+independently, developing it in buildings which have perished; unless,
+indeed, they brought the idea with them from their primitive Aryan home
+in Asia.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE IONIC ORDER</b> was characterized by greater slenderness of
+proportion and elegance of detail than the Doric, and depended more on
+carving than on color for the decoration of its members (Fig. 28). It
+was adopted in the fifth century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>
+by the people of Attica, and used both for civic and religious
+buildings, sometimes alone and sometimes in conjunction with the Doric.
+The column was from eight to ten diameters in height, against four and
+one-third to seven for the Doric. It stood on a base which was usually
+composed of two tori (see <a href="#page25">p.&nbsp;25</a> for
+definition) separated by a <i>scotia</i> (a&nbsp;concave moulding of
+semicircular or semi-elliptical profile), and was sometimes provided
+also with a square flat base-block, the <i>plinth</i>. There was much
+variety in the proportions and details of these mouldings, which were
+often
+<span class="pagenum">51</span>
+<a name="page51" id="page51"> </a>
+enriched by flutings or carved guilloches. The tall shaft bore
+twenty-four deep narrow flutings separated by narrow fillets. The
+capital was the most peculiar feature of the order. It consisted of a
+bead or <i>astragal</i> and echinus, over which was a horizontal band
+ending on either side in a scroll or volute, the sides of which
+presented the aspect shown in Fig. 29. A&nbsp;thin moulded abacus was
+interposed between this member and the architrave.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig28" id="fig28"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig28.png" width="144" height="192"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 28.&mdash;GREEK IONIC ORDER. (MILETUS.)</p>
+
+<p>The Ionic capital was marked by two awkward features which all its
+richness could not conceal. One was the protrusion of the echinus beyond
+the face of the band above it, the other was the disparity between the
+side and front views of the capital, especially noticeable at the
+corners of a colonnade. To obviate this, various contrivances were
+tried, none wholly successful. Ordinarily the two adjacent exterior
+sides of the corner capital were treated alike, the scrolls at their
+meeting being bent out at an angle of 45°, while the two inner faces
+simply intersected, cutting each other in halves.</p>
+
+<p>The entablature comprised an architrave of two or three flat bands
+crowned by fine mouldings; an uninterrupted frieze, frequently
+sculptured in relief; and a simple cornice of great beauty. In addition
+to the ordinary bed-mouldings there was in most examples a row of narrow
+blocks or <i>dentils</i> under the corona, which was itself crowned by a
+high cymatium of extremely graceful profile, carved with the rich
+“honeysuckle” (<i>anthemion</i>) ornament. All the mouldings were carved
+with the “egg-and-dart,” heart-leaf and anthemion ornaments, so designed
+as to recall by their outline
+<span class="pagenum">52</span>
+<a name="page52" id="page52"> </a>
+the profile of the moulding itself. The details of this order were
+treated with much more freedom and variety than those of the Doric. The
+pediments of Ionic buildings were rarely or never adorned with groups of
+sculpture. The volutes and echinus of the capital, the fluting of the
+shaft, the use of a moulded circular base, and in the cornice the high
+corona and cymatium, these were constant elements in every Ionic order,
+but all other details varied widely in the different examples.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig29" id="fig29"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig29.png" width="172" height="156"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 29.&mdash;SIDE VIEW OF IONIC CAPITAL.</p>
+
+<p><b>ORIGIN OF THE IONIC ORDER.</b> The origin of the Ionic order has
+given rise to almost as much controversy as that of the Doric. Its
+different elements were apparently derived from various sources. The
+Lycian tombs may have contributed the denticular cornice and perhaps
+also the general form of the column and capital. In the Persian
+architecture of the sixth century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, the high moulded base, the narrow flutings of
+the shaft, the carved bead-moulding and the use of scrolls in the
+capital are characteristic features, which may have been borrowed by the
+Ionians during the same century, unless, indeed, they were themselves
+the work of Ionic or Lycian workmen in Persian employ. The banded
+architrave and the use of the volute in the decoration of stele-caps
+(from <span class="greek" title="stêlê">στηλη</span> = a memorial
+stone or column standing isolated and upright), furniture, and minor
+structures are common features in Assyrian, Lycian, and other Asiatic
+architecture of early date. The volute or scroll itself as an
+independent decorative
+<span class="pagenum">53</span>
+<a name="page53" id="page53"> </a>
+motive may have originated in successive variations of Egyptian
+lotus-patterns.<a class="tag" name="tag8" id="tag8" href="#note8">8</a> But the combination of these diverse elements and their
+development into the final form of the order was the work of the Ionian
+Greeks, and it was in the Ionian provinces of Asia Minor that the most
+splendid examples of its use are to be found (Halicarnassus, Miletus,
+Priene, Ephesus), while the most graceful and perfect are those of
+Doric-Ionic Attica.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft w180">
+<a name="fig30" id="fig30"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig30.png" width="147" height="347"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 30.&mdash;GREEK CORINTHIAN ORDER.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+(From the monument of Lysicrates.)</span></p>
+
+<p><b>THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.</b> This was a late outgrowth of the Ionic
+rather than a new order, and up to the time of the Roman conquest was
+only used for monuments of small size (see <a href="#fig38">Fig.&nbsp;38</a>). Its entablature in pure Greek examples was
+identical with the Ionic; the shaft and base were only slightly changed
+in proportion and detail. The capital, however, was a new departure,
+based probably on metallic embellishments of altars, pedestals, etc., of
+Ionic style. It consisted in the best examples of a high bell-shaped
+core surrounded by one or two rows of acanthus leaves, above which were
+pairs of branching scrolls meeting at the corners in spiral volutes.
+These served to support the angles of a moulded abacus with concave
+sides (Fig. 30). One example, from the Tower of the Winds (the clepsydra
+of Andronicus Cyrrhestes) at Athens, has only smooth pointed palm-leaves
+and no scrolls above a single row of acanthus leaves. Indeed, the
+variety and disparity among the different
+<span class="pagenum">54</span>
+<a name="page54" id="page54"> </a>
+examples prove that we have here only the first steps toward the
+evolution of an independent order, which it was reserved for the Romans
+to fully develop.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>GREEK TEMPLES; THE TYPE.</b> With the orders as their chief
+decorative element the Greeks built up a splendid architecture of
+religious and secular monuments. Their noblest works were temples, which
+they designed with the utmost simplicity of general scheme, but carried
+out with a mastery of proportion and detail which has never been
+surpassed. Of moderate size in most cases, they were intended primarily
+to enshrine the simulacrum of the deity, and not, like Christian
+churches, to accommodate great throngs of worshippers. Nor were they, on
+the other hand, sanctuaries designed, like those of Egypt, to exclude
+all but a privileged few from secret rites performed only by the priests
+and king. The statue of the deity was enshrined in a chamber, the
+<i>naos</i> (see plan, Fig. 31), often of considerable size, and
+accessible to the public through a columnar porch the <i>pronaos</i>.
+A&nbsp;smaller chamber, the <i>opisthodomus</i>, was sometimes added in
+the rear of the main sanctuary, to serve as a treasury or depository for
+votive offerings. Together these formed a windowless structure called
+the <i>cella</i>, beyond which was the rear porch, the <i>posticum</i>
+or <i>epinaos</i>. This whole structure was in the larger temples
+surrounded by a colonnade, the <i>peristyle</i>, which formed the most
+splendid feature of Greek architecture. The external aisle on either
+side of the cella was called the <i>pteroma</i>. A&nbsp;single gabled
+roof covered the entire building.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig31" id="fig31"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig31.png" width="164" height="172"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 31.&mdash;TYPES OF GREEK TEMPLE PLANS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption w180">
+<i>a, In Antis; b, Prostyle; c, Amphiprostyle; d, Peripteral (The
+Parthenon); N, Naos; O, Opisthodomus; S, Statue.</i></p>
+
+<p class="closeup w180">
+<a href="images/fig31d_large.png" target="_blank">
+Larger View of plan <b>d</b></a></p>
+
+<p>The Greek colonnade was thus an exterior feature, surrounding
+<span class="pagenum">55</span>
+<a name="page55" id="page55"> </a>
+the solid cella-wall instead of being enclosed by it as in Egypt. The
+temple was a public, not a royal monument; and its builders aimed, not
+as in Egypt at size and overwhelming sombre majesty, but rather at sunny
+beauty and the highest perfection of proportion, execution, and detail
+(<a href="#fig34">Fig.&nbsp;34</a>).</p>
+
+<p>There were of course many variations of the general type just
+described. Each of these has received a special name, which is given
+below with explanations and is illustrated in Fig.&nbsp;31.</p>
+
+<p><i>In antis</i>; with a porch having two or more columns enclosed
+between the projecting side-walls of the cella.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prostylar</i> (or prostyle); with a columnar porch in front and no
+peristyle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amphiprostylar</i> (or -style); with columnar porches at both ends
+but no peristyle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peripteral</i>; surrounded by columns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pseudoperipteral</i>; with false or engaged columns built into the
+walls of the cella, leaving no pteroma.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dipteral</i>; with double lateral ranges of columns (see <a href="#fig39">Fig.&nbsp;39</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Pseudodipteral</i>; with a single row of columns on each side,
+whose distance from the wall is equal to two intercolumniations of the
+front.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tetrastyle</i>, <i>hexastyle</i>, <i>octastyle</i>,
+<i>decastyle</i>, etc.; with four, six, eight, or ten columns in the end
+rows.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CONSTRUCTION.</b> All the temples known to us are of stone, though
+it is evident from allusions in the ancient writers that wood was
+sometimes used in early times. (See <a href="#page62">p.&nbsp;62</a>.)
+The finest temples, especially those of Attica, Olympia, and Asia Minor,
+were of marble. In Magna Græcia, at Assos, and in other places where
+marble was wanting, limestone, sandstone, or lava was employed and
+finished with a thin, fine stucco. The roof was almost invariably of
+wood and gabled, forming at the ends pediments decorated in most cases
+with sculpture. The disappearance of these inflammable
+<span class="pagenum">56</span>
+<a name="page56" id="page56"> </a>
+and perishable roofs has given rise to endless speculations as to the
+lighting of the cellas, which in all known ruins, except one at
+Agrigentum, are destitute of windows. It has been conjectured that light
+was admitted through openings in the roof, and even that the central
+part of the cella was wholly open to the sky. Such an arrangement is
+termed <i>hypæthral</i>, from an expression used in a description by
+Vitruvius;<a class="tag" name="tag9" id="tag9" href="#note9">9</a> but this description corresponds to no known structure,
+and the weight of opinion now inclines against the use of the hypæthral
+opening, except possibly in one or two of the largest temples, in which
+a part of the cella in front of the statue may have been thus left open.
+But even this partial <i>hypæthros</i> is not substantiated by direct
+evidence. It hardly seems probable that the magnificent chryselephantine
+statues of such temples were ever thus left exposed to the extremes of
+the climate, which are often severe even in Greece. In the model of the
+Parthenon designed by Ch. Chipiez for the Metropolitan Museum in New
+York, a&nbsp;small clerestory opening through the roof admits a moderate
+amount of light to the cella; but this ingenious device rests on no
+positive evidence (see <a href="#frontis">Frontispiece</a>).
+It seems on the whole most probable that the cella was lighted entirely
+by artificial illumination; but the controversy in its present state is
+and must be wholly speculative.</p>
+
+<p>The wooden roof was covered with tiles of terra-cotta or marble. It
+was probably ceiled and panelled on the under side, and richly decorated
+with color and gold. The pteroma had under the exterior roof a ceiling
+of stone or marble, deeply panelled between transverse architraves.</p>
+
+<p>The naos and opisthodomus being in the larger temples too wide to be
+spanned by single beams, were furnished with interior columns to afford
+intermediate support. To avoid the extremes of too great massiveness and
+excessive slenderness in these columns, they were built in two stages,
+<span class="pagenum">57</span>
+<a name="page57" id="page57"> </a>
+and advantage was taken of this arrangement, in some cases, at least, to
+introduce lateral galleries into the naos.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig32" id="fig32"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig32.jpg" width="246" height="372"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 32.&mdash;CARVED ANTHEMION ORNAMENT. ATHENS.</p>
+
+<p><b>SCULPTURE AND CARVING.</b> All the architectural membering was
+treated with the greatest refinement of design and execution, and the
+aid of sculpture, both in relief and in the round, was invoked to give
+splendor and significance to the monument. The statue of the deity was
+the focus of internal interest, while externally, groups of statues
+representing the Olympian deities or the mythical exploits of gods,
+demigods, and heroes, adorned the gables. Relief carvings in the friezes
+and metopes commemorated the favorite national myths. In these
+sculptures we have the finest known adaptations of pure
+sculpture&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, sculpture treated as such and complete in
+itself&mdash;to an architectural framework. The noblest examples of this
+decorative sculpture are those of the Parthenon, consisting of figures
+in the full round from the pediments, groups in high relief from the
+metopes, and the beautiful frieze of the Panathenaic procession from the
+cella-wall under the pteroma ceiling. The greater part of these splendid
+works are now in the British Museum, whither they were removed by Lord
+Elgin in 1801. From Olympia, <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Aegina’">Ægina</ins>, and
+<span class="pagenum">58</span>
+<a name="page58" id="page58"> </a>
+Phigaleia, other master-works of the same kind have been transferred to
+the museums of Europe. In the Doric style there was little carving other
+than the sculpture, the ornament being mainly polychromatic. Greek Ionic
+and Corinthian monuments, however, as well as minor works such as
+steles, altars, etc., were richly adorned with carved mouldings and
+friezes, festoons, acroteria, and other embellishments executed with the
+chisel. The anthemion ornament, a&nbsp;form related to the Egyptian
+lotus and Assyrian palmette, most frequently figures in these. It was
+made into designs of wonderful vigor and beauty (Fig. 32).</p>
+
+
+<p><b>DETAIL AND EXECUTION.</b> In the handling and cutting of stone the
+Greeks displayed a surpassing skill and delicacy. While ordinarily they
+were content to use stones of moderate size, they never hesitated at any
+dimension necessary for proper effect or solid construction. The lower
+drums of the Parthenon peristyle are 6&nbsp;feet 6½ inches in diameter,
+and 2&nbsp;feet 10 inches high, cut from single blocks of Pentelic
+marble. The architraves of the Propylæa at Athens are each made up of
+two lintels placed side by side, the longest 17 feet 7&nbsp;inches long,
+3&nbsp;feet 10 inches high, and 2&nbsp;feet 4&nbsp;inches thick. In the
+colossal temples of Asia Minor, where the taste for the vast and
+grandiose was more pronounced, blocks of much greater size were used.
+These enormous stones were cut and fitted with the most scrupulous
+exactness. The walls of all important structures were built in regular
+courses throughout, every stone carefully bedded with extremely close
+joints. The masonry was usually laid up without cement and clamped with
+metal; there is no filling in with rubble and concrete between mere
+facings of cut stone, as in most modern work. When the only available
+stone was of coarse texture it was finished with a coating of fine
+stucco, in which sharp edges and minute detail could be worked.</p>
+
+<p>The details were, in the best period, executed with the
+<span class="pagenum">59</span>
+<a name="page59" id="page59"> </a>
+most extraordinary refinement and care. The profiles of capitals and
+mouldings, the carved ornament, the arrises of the flutings, were cut
+with marvellous precision and delicacy. It has been rightly said that
+the Greeks “built like Titans and finished like jewellers.” But this
+perfect finish was never petty nor wasted on unworthy or vulgar design.
+The just relation of scale between the building and all its parts was
+admirably maintained; the ornament was distributed with rare judgment,
+and the vigor of its design saved it from all appearance of
+triviality.</p>
+
+<p>The sensitive taste of the Greeks led them into other refinements
+than those of mere mechanical perfection. In the Parthenon especially,
+but also in lesser degree in other temples, the seemingly straight lines
+of the building were all slightly curved, and the vertical faces
+inclined. This was done to correct the monotony and stiffness of
+absolutely straight lines and right angles, and certain optical
+illusions which their acute observation had detected. The long
+horizontal lines of the stylobate and cornice were made convex upward;
+a&nbsp;similar convexity in the horizontal corona of the pediment
+counteracted the seeming concavity otherwise resulting from its meeting
+with the multiplied inclined lines of the raking cornice. The columns
+were almost imperceptibly inclined toward the cella, and the corner
+intercolumniations made a trifle narrower than the rest; while the
+vertical lines of the arrises of the flutings were made convex outward
+with a curve of the utmost beauty and delicacy. By these and other like
+refinements there was imparted to the monument an elasticity and vigor
+of aspect, an elusive and surprising beauty impossible to describe and
+not to be explained by the mere composition and general proportions, yet
+manifest to every cultivated eye.<a class="tag" name="tag10" id="tag10" href="#note10">10</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="note7" id="note7" href="#tag7">7.</a>
+For enlargement on this topic see <a href="#appA">Appendix&nbsp;A</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note8" id="note8" href="#tag8">8.</a>
+As contended by W. H. Goodyear in his <i>Grammar of the Lotus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note9" id="note9" href="#tag9">9.</a>
+Lib.<!-- missing . --> III., Cap. I.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note10" id="note10" href="#tag10">10.</a>
+These refinements, first noticed by Allason in 1814, and later confirmed
+by Cockerell and Haller as to the columns, were published to the world
+in 1838 by Hoffer, verified by Penrose in 1846, and further developed by
+the investigations of Ziller and later observers.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">60</span>
+<a name="page60" id="page60"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapVII" id="chapVII">CHAPTER VII.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE&mdash;<i>Continued</i>.</h3>
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Same as for Chapter
+VI. Also, Bacon and Clarke, <i>Investigations at Assos</i>. Espouy,
+<i>Fragments d’architecture antique</i>. Harrison and Verrall,
+<i>Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens</i>. Hitorff et Zanth,
+<i>Recueil des Monuments de Ségeste et Sélinonte</i>. Magne, <i>Le
+Parthénon</i>. Koldewey and Puchstein, <i>Die griechischen Tempel in
+Unteritalien und Sicilien</i>. Waldstein, <i>The Argive Heræum</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT.</b> The history of Greek architecture,
+subsequent to the Heroic or Primitive Age, may be divided into periods
+as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Archaic</span>; from 650 to 500 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Transitional</span>; from 500 to 460
+<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, or to the revival of prosperity
+after the Persian wars.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Periclean</span>; from 460 to 400 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Florid</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Alexandrian</span>; from 400 to 300 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Decadent</span>; 300 to 100 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Roman</span>; 100 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> to 200 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p>These dates are, of course, somewhat arbitrary; it is impossible to
+set exact bounds to style-periods, which must inevitably overlap at
+certain points, but the dates, as given above, will assist in
+distinguishing the successive phases of the history.</p>
+
+<p><b>ARCHAIC PERIOD.</b> The archaic period is characterized by the
+exclusive use of the Doric order, which appears in the earliest
+monuments complete in all its parts, but heavy in its proportions and
+coarse in its execution. The oldest known temples of this period are the
+<b>Apollo Temple</b> at Corinth (650 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>?), and the <b>Northern Temple</b> on the
+acropolis at <b>Selinus</b> in Sicily (cir. 610&ndash;590 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). They are both of a coarse limestone covered
+with stucco. The columns are low and massive (4⅓ to 4⅔ diameters in
+height), widely spaced, and
+<span class="pagenum">61</span>
+<a name="page61" id="page61"> </a>
+carry a very high entablature. The triglyphs still appear around the
+cella wall under the pteroma ceiling, an illogical detail destined to
+disappear in later buildings. Other temples at Selinus date from the
+middle or latter part of the sixth century; they have higher columns and
+finer profiles than those just mentioned. The great <b>Temple of
+Zeus</b> at <b>Selinus</b> was the earliest of five colossal Greek
+temples of very nearly identical dimensions; it measured 360 feet by 167
+feet in plan, but was never completed. During the second half of the
+sixth century important Doric temples were built at Pæstum in South
+Italy, and Agrigentum in Sicily; the somewhat primitive temple at Assos
+in Asia Minor, with uncouth carvings of centaurs and monsters on its
+architrave, belongs to this same period. The <b>Temple of Zeus</b> at
+<b>Agrigentum</b> (Fig. 33) is another singular and exceptional design,
+and was the second of the five colossal temples mentioned above. The
+pteroma was entirely enclosed by walls with engaged columns showing
+externally, and was of extraordinary width. The walls of the narrow
+cella were interrupted by heavy piers supporting atlantes, or applied
+statues under the ceiling. There seem to have been windows between these
+figures, but it is not clear whence they borrowed their light, unless it
+was admitted by the omission of the metopes between the external
+triglyphs.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig33" id="fig33"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig33.png" width="205" height="120"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 33.&mdash;TEMPLE OF ZEUS. AGRIGENTUM.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE TRANSITION.</b> During the transitional period there was a
+marked improvement in the proportions, detail, and workmanship of the
+temples. The cella was made broader, the columns more slender, the
+entablature lighter. The triglyphs disappeared from the cella wall, and
+sculpture of a higher order enhanced the architectural effect. The
+profiles
+<span class="pagenum">62</span>
+<a name="page62" id="page62"> </a>
+of the mouldings and especially of the capitals became more subtle and
+refined in their curves, while the development of the Ionic order in
+important monuments in Asia Minor was preparing the way for the
+splendors of the Periclean age. Three temples especially deserve notice:
+the <b>Athena Temple</b> on the island of <b>Ægina</b>, the <b>Temple of
+Zeus</b> at <b>Olympia</b>, and the so-called
+<b>Theseum</b>&mdash;perhaps a temple of Heracles&mdash;in Athens. They
+belong to the period 470&ndash;450 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; they are all hexastyle and peripteral, and
+without triglyphs on the cella wall. Of the three the second in the list
+is interesting as the scene of those rites which preceded and
+accompanied the Panhellenic Olympian games, and as the central feature
+of the Altis, the most complete temple-group and enclosure among all
+Greek remains. It was built of a coarse conglomerate, finished with fine
+stucco, and embellished with sculpture by the greatest masters of the
+time. The adjacent <b>Heraion</b> (temple of Hera) was a highly
+venerated and ancient shrine, originally built with wooden columns
+which, according to Pausanias, were replaced one by one, as they
+decayed, by stone columns. The truth of this statement is attested by
+the discovery of a singular variety of capitals among its ruins,
+corresponding to the various periods at which they were added. The
+Theseum is the most perfectly preserved of all Greek temples, and in the
+refinement of its forms is only surpassed by those of the Periclean
+age.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig34" id="fig34"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig34.jpg" width="425" height="322"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 34.&mdash;RUINS OF THE PARTHENON.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE PERICLEAN AGE.</b> The Persian wars may be taken as the
+dividing line between the Transition period and the Periclean age. The
+<i>élan</i> of national enthusiasm that followed the expulsion of the
+invader, and the glory and wealth which accrued to Athens as the
+champion of all Hellas, resulted in a splendid reconstruction of the
+Attic monuments as well as a revival of building activity in Asia Minor.
+By the wise administration of Pericles and by the genius of Ictinus,
+Phidias, and other artists of surpassing
+<span class="pagenum">63</span>
+<a name="page63" id="page63"> </a>
+skill, the Acropolis at Athens was crowned with a group of buildings and
+statues absolutely unrivalled. Chief among them was the
+<b>Parthenon</b>, the shrine of Athena Parthenos, which the critics of
+all schools have agreed in considering the most faultless in design and
+execution of all buildings erected by man (Figs. <a href="#fig31">31</a>, 34, and <a href="#frontis">Frontispiece</a>). It was an octastyle peripteral
+temple, with seventeen columns on the side, and measured 220 by 100 feet
+on the top of the stylobate. It was the work of Ictinus and Callicrates,
+built to enshrine the noble statue of the goddess by Phidias,
+a&nbsp;standing chryselephantine figure forty feet high. It was the
+masterpiece of Greek architecture not only by reason of its refinements
+of detail, but also on account of the beauty of its sculptural
+adornments. The frieze about the cella wall under the pteroma ceiling,
+representing in low relief
+<span class="pagenum">64</span>
+<a name="page64" id="page64"> </a>
+with masterly skill the Panathenaic procession; the sculptured groups in
+the metopes, and the superb assemblages of Olympic and symbolic figures
+of colossal size in the pediments, added their majesty to the perfection
+of the architecture.
+<span class="illustration">
+<a name="fig35" id="fig35"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig35.png" width="173" height="150"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 35.&mdash;PLAN OF ERECHTHEUM.</span>
+<span class="illustration">
+<a name="fig36" id="fig36"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig36.png" width="280" height="183"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 36.&mdash;WEST END OF ERECHTHEUM,<br>
+RESTORED.</span>
+Here also the horizontal curvatures and other refinements are found in
+their highest development. Northward from it, upon the Acropolis, stood
+the <b>Erechtheum</b>, an excellent example of the Attic-Ionic style
+(Figs. 35, 36). Its singular irregularities of plan and level, and the
+variety of its detail, exhibit in a striking way the Greek indifference
+to mere formal symmetry when confronted by practical considerations. The
+motive in this case was the desire to include in one design several
+existing and venerated shrines to Attic deities and heroes&mdash;Athena
+Polias, Poseidon, Pandrosus, Erechtheus, Boutes, etc. Begun by unknown
+architects in 479 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, and not
+completed until 408 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, it remains
+in its ruin still one of the most interesting and attractive of ancient
+buildings. Its two colonnades of differing design, its beautiful north
+doorway, and the unique and noble caryatid porch or balcony on the south
+side are unsurpassed in delicate beauty combined with vigor of design.<a
+class="tag" name="tag11" id="tag11" href="#note11">11</a>
+A&nbsp;smaller monument of the Ionic order, the amphiprostyle temple to
+<b>Nike Apteros</b>&mdash;the
+<span class="pagenum">65</span>
+<a name="page65" id="page65"> </a>
+Wingless Victory&mdash;stands on a projecting spur of the Acropolis to
+the southwest. It measures only 27 feet by 18 feet in plan; the cella is
+nearly square; the columns are sturdier than those of the Erechtheum,
+and the execution of the monument is admirable. It was the first
+completed of the extant buildings of the group of the Acropolis and
+dates from 466&nbsp;<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig37" id="fig37"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig37.png" width="237" height="213"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 37.&mdash;PROPYLÆA AT ATHENS. PLAN.</p>
+
+<p>In the <b>Propylæa</b> (Fig. 37), the monumental gateway to the
+Acropolis, the Doric and Ionic orders appear to have been combined for
+the first time (437 to 432 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). It
+was the master work of Mnesicles. The front and rear façades were Doric
+hexastyles; adjoining the front porch were two projecting lateral wings
+employing a smaller Doric order. The central passageway led between two
+rows of Ionic columns to the rear porch, entered by five doorways and
+crowned, like the front, with a pediment. The whole was executed with
+the same splendor and perfection as the other buildings of the
+Acropolis, and was a worthy gateway to the group of noble monuments
+which crowned that citadel of the Attic capital. The two orders were
+also combined in the temple of <b>Apollo Epicurius</b> at
+<b>Phigalæa</b> (Bassæ). This temple was erected in 430 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> by Ictinus, who used the Ionic order internally
+to decorate a row of projecting piers instead of free-standing columns
+in the naos, in which there was also a single Corinthian column of
+rather archaic design, which may have been used as a support for a
+statue or votive offering.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">66</span>
+<a name="page66" id="page66"> </a>
+<p><b>ALEXANDRIAN AGE.</b> A period of reaction followed the splendid
+architectural activity of the Periclean age. A&nbsp;succession of
+disastrous wars&mdash;the Sicilian, Peloponnesian, and
+Corinthian&mdash;drained the energies and destroyed the peace of
+European Greece for seventy-five years, robbing Athens of her supremacy
+and inflicting wounds from which she never recovered. In the latter part
+of the fourth century, however, the triumph of the Macedonian empire
+over all the Mediterranean lands inaugurated a new era of architectural
+magnificence, especially in Asia Minor. The keynote of the art of this
+time was splendor, as that of the preceding age was artistic perfection.
+The Corinthian order came into use, as though the Ionic were not rich
+enough for the sumptuous taste of the time, and capitals and bases of
+novel and elaborate design embellished the Ionic temples of Asia Minor.
+In the temple of <b>Apollo Didymæus</b> at Miletus, the plinths of the
+bases were made octagonal and panelled with rich scroll-carvings; and
+the piers which buttressed the interior faces of the cella-walls were
+given capitals of singular but elegant form, midway between the Ionic
+and Corinthian types. This temple belongs to the list of colossal
+edifices already referred to; its dimensions were 366 by 163 feet,
+making it the largest of them all. The famous <b>Artemisium</b> (temple
+of Artemis or Diana) measured 342 by 163 feet. Several of the columns of
+the latter were enriched with sculptured figures encircling the lower
+drums of the colossal shafts.
+<span class="illustration">
+<a name="fig38" id="fig38"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig38.jpg" width="179" height="286"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 38.&mdash;CHORAGIC<br>
+MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+(Restored model, N.Y.)</span></span>
+The most lavish expenditure was bestowed upon small structures, shrines,
+and sarcophagi. The graceful monument still visible in Athens, erected
+by the <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘choraegus’">choragus</ins> Lysicrates in token of his victory in the
+choral competitions, belongs to this period (330 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span><!-- invisible second . -->). It is circular,
+with a slightly domical imbricated roof, and is decorated with elegant
+engaged Corinthian columns (Fig. 38). In the Imperial Museum at
+Constantinople are several sarcophagi of this period found at Sidon, but
+<span class="pagenum">67</span>
+<a name="page67" id="page67"> </a>
+executed by Greek artists, and of exceptional beauty. They are in the
+form of temples or shrines; the finest of them, supposed by some to have
+been made for Alexander’s favorite general Perdiccas, and by others for
+the Persian satrap who figures prominently on its sculptured reliefs, is
+the most sumptuous work of the kind in existence. The exquisite
+polychromy of its beautiful reliefs and the perfection of its rich
+details of cornice, pediment, tiling, and crestings, make it an
+exceedingly interesting and instructive example of the minor
+architecture of the period.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE DECADENCE.</b> After the decline of Alexandrian magnificence
+Greek art never recovered its ancient glory, but the flame was not
+suddenly extinguished. While in Greece proper the works of the second
+and third centuries <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, are for the
+most part weak and lifeless, like the <b>Stoa of Attalus</b> (175 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) and the <b>Tower of the Winds</b> (the
+Clepsydra of Andronicus Cyrrhestes, 100 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) at Athens or the Portico of Philip in Delos,
+there were still a few worthy works built in Asia Minor. The splendid
+<b>Altar</b> erected at <b>Pergamon</b> by Eumenes II. (circ. 180 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) in the Ionic order, combined sculpture
+of extraordinary vigor with imposing architecture in masterly fashion.
+At <b>Aizanoi</b> an Ionic <b>Temple to Zeus</b>, by some attributed to
+the Roman period, but showing rather the character of good late Greek
+work, deserves mention for its elegant details, and especially for its
+frieze-decoration of acanthus leaves and scrolls resembling those of a
+Corinthian capital.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">68</span>
+<a name="page68" id="page68"> </a>
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig39" id="fig39"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig39.png" width="220" height="112"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 39.&mdash;TEMPLE OF OLYMPIAN ZEUS. ATHENS.<br>
+<a class="closeup" href="images/fig39_large.png" target="_blank">
+Larger View</a></p>
+
+<p><b>ROMAN PERIOD.</b> During this period, <i>i.e.</i>, throughout the
+second and first centuries <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, the
+Roman dominion was spreading over Greek territory, and the structures
+erected subsequent to the conquest partake of the Roman character and
+mingle Roman conceptions with Greek details and <i>vice versâ</i>. The
+temple of the <b>Olympian Zeus</b> at Athens (Fig. 39), a&nbsp;mighty
+dipteral Corinthian edifice measuring 354 by 171 feet, standing on a
+vast terrace or temenos surrounded by a buttressed wall, was begun by
+Antiochus Epiphanes (170 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) on the
+site of an earlier unfinished Doric temple of the time of Pisistratus,
+and carried out under the direction of the Roman architect, Cossutius.
+It was not, however, finally completed until the time of Hadrian, 130
+<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> Meanwhile Sulla had despoiled it
+of several columns<a class="tag" name="tag12" id="tag12" href="#note12">12</a> which he carried to Rome (86 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), to use in the rebuilding of the temple of
+Jupiter on the Capitol, where they undoubtedly served as models in the
+development of the Roman Corinthian order. The columns were 57 feet
+high, with capitals of the most perfect Corinthian type; fifteen are now
+standing, and one lies prostrate near by. To the Roman period also
+belong the <b>Agora Gate</b> (circ. 35 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), the <b>Arch of Hadrian</b> (117 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>), the <b>Odeon of Regilla</b> or of Herodes
+Atticus (143 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>), at Athens, and
+many temples and tombs, theatres, arches, etc., in the Greek
+provinces.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">69</span>
+<a name="page69" id="page69"> </a>
+<p><b>SECULAR MONUMENTS; PROPYLÆA.</b> The stately gateway by which the
+Acropolis was entered has already been described. It was the noblest and
+most perfect of a class of buildings whose prototype is found in the
+monumental columnar porches of the palace-group at Persepolis. The
+Greeks never used the arch in these structures, nor did they attach to
+them the same importance as did most of the other nations of antiquity.
+The Altis of Olympia, the national shrine of Hellenism, appears to have
+had no central gateway of imposing size, but a number of insignificant
+entrances disposed at random. The <b>Propylæa</b> of <b>Sunium</b>,
+<b>Priene</b> and <b>Eleusis</b> are the most conspicuous, after those
+of the Athenian Acropolis. Of these the Ionic gateway at Priene is the
+finest, although the later of the two at Eleusis is interesting for its
+anta-capitals. (<i>Anta</i> = a flat pilaster decorating the end of a
+wing-wall and treated with a base and capital usually differing from
+those of the adjacent columns.) These are of Corinthian type, adorned
+with winged horses, scrolls, and anthemions of an exuberant richness of
+design, characteristic of this late period.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>COLONNADES, STOÆ.</b> These were built to connect public monuments
+(as the Dionysiac theatre and Odeon at Athens); or along the sides of
+great public squares, as at Assos and Olympia (the so-called <b>Echo
+Hall</b>); or as independent open public halls, as the <b>Stoa Diple</b>
+at Thoricus. They afforded shelter from sun and rain, places for
+promenading, meetings with friends, public gatherings, and similar
+purposes. They were rarely of great size, and most of them are of rather
+late date, though the archaic structure at Pæstum, known as the
+<b>Basilica</b>, was probably in reality an open hall of this kind.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig40" id="fig40"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig40.png" width="222" height="178"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 40.&mdash;PLAN OF GREEK THEATRE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption w210">
+<i>o, Orchestra; l, Logeion; p, Paraskenai; s,&nbsp;s, Stoa.</i></p>
+
+<p class="closeup w210">
+<a href="images/fig40_large.png" target="_blank">
+Larger View</a></p>
+
+<p><b>THEATRES, ODEONS.</b> These were invariably cut out of the rocky
+hillsides, though in a few cases (Mantinæa, Myra, Antiphellus)
+a&nbsp;part of the seats were sustained by a built-up substructure and
+walls to eke out the deficiency of the hill-slope
+<span class="pagenum">70</span>
+<a name="page70" id="page70"> </a>
+under them. The front of the excavation was enclosed by a stage and a
+set scene or background, built up so as to leave somewhat over a
+semicircle for the <i>orchestra</i> or space enclosed by the lower tier
+of seats (Fig. 40). An altar to Dionysus (Bacchus) was the essential
+feature in the foreground of the orchestra, where the Dionysiac choral
+dance was performed. The seats formed successive steps of stone or
+marble sweeping around the sloping excavation, with carved marble
+thrones for the priests, archons, and other dignitaries. The only
+architectural decoration of the theatre was that of the set scene or
+<i>skene</i>, which with its wing-walls (<i>paraskenai</i>) enclosing
+the stage (<i>logeion</i>) was a permanent structure of stone or marble
+adorned with doors, cornices, pilasters, etc. This has perished in
+nearly every case; but at Aspendus, in Asia Minor, there is one still
+fairly well preserved, with a rich architectural decoration on its inner
+face. The extreme diameter of the theatres varied greatly; thus at
+Aizanoi it is 187 feet, and at Syracuse 495 feet. The theatre of
+Dionysus at Athens (finished 325 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>)
+could accommodate thirty thousand spectators.</p>
+
+<p>The odeon differed from the theatre principally in being smaller and
+entirely covered in by a wooden roof. The <b>Odeon of Regilla</b>, built
+by Herodes Atticus in Athens (143 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>), is a well-preserved specimen of this class,
+but all traces of its cedar ceiling and of its intermediate supports
+have disappeared.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>BUILDINGS FOR ATHLETIC CONTESTS.</b> These comprised stadia and
+hippodromes for races, and gymnasia and
+<span class="pagenum">71</span>
+<a name="page71" id="page71"> </a>
+palæstræ for individual exercise, bathing, and amusement. The
+<i>stadia</i> and <i>hippodromes</i> were oblong enclosures surrounded
+by tiers of seats and without conspicuous architectural features. The
+<i>palæstra</i> or <i>gymnasium</i>&mdash;for the terms are not clearly
+distinguished&mdash;was a combination of courts, chambers, tanks
+(<i>piscinæ</i>) for bathers and <i>exedræ</i> or semicircular recesses
+provided with tiers of seats for spectators and auditors, destined not
+merely for the exercises of athletes preparing for the stadium, but also
+for the instruction and diversion of the public by recitations,
+lectures, and discussions. It was the prototype of the Roman thermæ, but
+less imposing, more simple in plan and adornment. Every Greek city had
+one or more of them, but they have almost wholly disappeared, and the
+brief description by Vitruvius and scanty remains at Alexandria Troas
+and Ephesus furnish almost the only information we possess regarding
+their form and arrangement.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>TOMBS.</b> These are not numerous, and the most important are
+found in Asia Minor. The greatest of these is the famed <b>Mausoleum</b>
+at Halicarnassus in Caria, the monument erected to the king Mausolus by
+his widow Artemisia (354 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; Fig.
+41). It was designed by Satyrus and Pythius in the Ionic style, and
+comprised a podium or base 50 feet high and measuring 80 feet by 100
+feet, in which was the sepulchre. Upon this base stood a cella
+surrounded by thirty-six Ionic columns; and crowned by a pyramidal roof,
+on the peak of which was a colossal marble quadriga at a height of 130
+feet. It was superbly decorated by Scopas and other great sculptors with
+statues, marble lions, and a magnificent frieze. The British Museum
+possesses fragments of this most imposing monument. At Xanthus the
+<b>Nereid Monument</b>, so called from its sculptured figures of
+Nereides, was a somewhat similar design on a smaller scale, with sixteen
+Ionic columns. At Mylassa was another tomb with an open Corinthian
+colonnade supporting a roof formed
+<span class="pagenum">72</span>
+<a name="page72" id="page72"> </a>
+in a stepped pyramid. Some of the later rock-cut tombs of Lycia at Myra
+and Antiphellus may also be counted as Hellenic works.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig41" id="fig41"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig41.png" width="328" height="318"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 41.&mdash;MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+(As restored by the author.)</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> This never attained great importance in
+Greece, and our knowledge of the typical Greek house is principally
+derived from literary sources. Very few remains of Greek houses have
+been found sufficiently well preserved to permit of restoring even the
+plan. It is probable that they resembled in general arrangement the
+houses of Pompeii (see <a href="#page107">p.&nbsp;107</a>); but that
+they were generally insignificant in size and decoration. The exterior
+walls were pierced only by the entrance doors, all light being derived
+from one or more interior courts. In the Macedonian epoch there must
+have been greater display and luxury in domestic architecture, but no
+remains have
+<span class="pagenum">73</span>
+<a name="page73" id="page73"> </a>
+come down to us of sufficient importance or completeness to warrant
+further discussion.</p>
+
+
+<div class="monuments">
+
+<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> In addition to those already mentioned in the text
+the following should be enumerated:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Prehistoric Period.</span> In the Islands
+about Santorin, remains of houses antedating 1500 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; at Tiryns the Acropolis, walls, and
+miscellaneous ruins; the like also at Mycenæ, besides various tombs;
+walls and gates at Samos, Thoricus, Menidi, Athens, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Archaic Period.</span> Doric Temples at
+Metapontium (by Durm assigned to 610 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), Selinus, Agrigentum, <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Paestum’">Pæstum</ins>; at Athens the
+first Parthenon; in Asia Minor the primitive Ionic Artemisium at Ephesus
+and the Heraion at Samos, the latter the oldest of colossal Greek
+temples.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Transitional Period.</span> At Agrigentum,
+temples of Concord, Castor and Pollux, Demeter, <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Aesculapius’">Æsculapius</ins>, all
+circ. 480 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; temples at Selinus and
+Segesta.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Periclean Period.</span> In Athens the
+Ionic temple on the Illissus, destroyed during the present century; on
+Cape Sunium the temple of Athena, 430 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, partly standing; at Nemea, the temple of Zeus;
+at Tegea, the temple of Athena Elea (400? <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>); at Rhamnus, the temples of Themis and of
+Nemesis; at Argos, two temples, stoa, and other buildings; all these
+were Doric.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Alexandrian Period.</span> The temple of
+Dionysus at Teos; temple of Artemis Leucophryne at Magnesia, both about
+330 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> and of the Ionic order.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Decadence and Roman Period.</span> At
+Athens the Stoa of Eumenes, circ. 170 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; the monument of Philopappus on the Museum
+hill, 110 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; the Gymnasium of
+Hadrian, 114 to 137 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; the last two
+of the Corinthian order.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Theatres.</span> Besides those already
+mentioned there are important remains of theatres at Epidaurus, Argos,
+Segesta, Iassus (400? <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), Delos,
+Sicyon, and Thoricus; at Aizanoi, Myra, Telmissus, and Patara, besides
+many others of less importance scattered through the Hellenic world. At
+Taormina are extensive ruins of a large Greek theatre rebuilt in the
+Roman period.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="note11" id="note11" href="#tag11">11.</a>
+See <a href="#appF">Appendix</a>, p. 427.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note12" id="note12" href="#tag12">12.</a>
+L. Bevier, in <i>Papers of the American Classical School at Athens</i>
+(vol. i., pp. 195, 196), contends that these were columns left from the
+old Doric temple. This is untenable, for Sulla would certainly not have
+taken the trouble to carry away archaic Doric columns, with such
+splendid Corinthian columns before him.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum">74</span>
+<a name="page74" id="page74"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapVIII" id="chapVIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended:</span> As before, Anderson
+and Spiers, Baumeister, Reber. Choisy, <i>L’Art de bâtir chez les
+Romains</i>. Desgodetz, <i>Rome in her Ancient Grandeur</i>. Durm,
+<i>Die Baukunst der Etrusker</i>; <i>Die Baukunst der Romer</i>.
+Lanciani, <i>Ancient Rome in the Light of Modern Discovery</i>; <i>New
+Tales of Old Rome</i>; <i>Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome</i>. De
+Martha, <i>Archéologie étrusque et romaine</i>. Middleton, <i>Ancient
+Rome in 1888</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LAND AND PEOPLE.</b> The geographical position of Italy conferred
+upon her special and obvious advantages for taking up and carrying
+northward and westward the arts of civilization. A&nbsp;scarcity of good
+harbors was the only drawback amid the blessings of a glorious climate,
+fertile soil, varied scenery, and rich material resources. From a remote
+antiquity Dorian colonists had occupied the southern portion and the
+island of Sicily, enriching them with splendid monuments of Doric art;
+and Phœnician commerce had brought thither the products of Oriental art
+and industry. The foundation of Rome in 753 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> established the nucleus about which the sundry
+populations of Italy were to crystallize into the Roman nation, under
+the dominating influence of the Latin element. Later on, the absorption
+of the conquered Etruscans added to this composite people a race of
+builders and engineers, as yet rude and uncouth in their art, but
+destined to become a powerful factor in developing the new architecture
+that was to spring from the contact of the practical Romans with the
+noble art of the Greek centres.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">75</span>
+<a name="page75" id="page75"> </a>
+<p><b>GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.</b> While the Greeks bequeathed to
+posterity the most perfect models of form in literary and plastic art,
+it was reserved for the Romans to work out the applications of these to
+every-day material life. The Romans were above all things a practical
+people. Their consummate skill as organizers is manifest in the
+marvellous administrative institutions of their government, under which
+they united the most distant and diverse nationalities. Seemingly
+deficient in culture, they were yet able to recast the forms of Greek
+architecture in new moulds, and to evolve therefrom a mighty
+architecture adapted to wholly novel conditions. They brought
+engineering into the service of architecture, which they fitted to the
+varied requirements of government, public amusement, private luxury, and
+the common comfort. They covered the antique world with arches and
+amphitheatres, with villas, baths, basilicas, and temples, all bearing
+the unmistakable impress of Rome, though wrought by artists and artisans
+of divers races. Only an extraordinary genius for organization could
+have accomplished such results.</p>
+
+<p>The architects of Rome marvellously extended the range of their art,
+and gave it a flexibility by which it accommodated itself to the widest
+variety of materials and conditions. They made the arch and vault the
+basis of their system of design, employing them on a scale previously
+undreamed of, and in combinations of surpassing richness and majesty.
+They systematized their methods of construction so that soldiers and
+barbarians could execute the rough mass of their buildings, and
+formulated the designing of the decorative details so that artisans of
+moderate skill could execute them with good effect. They carried the
+principle of repetition of motives to its utmost limit, and sought to
+counteract any resulting monotony by the scale and splendor of the
+design. Above all they developed planning into a fine art, displaying
+their genius in a wonderful
+<span class="pagenum">76</span>
+<a name="page76" id="page76"> </a>
+variety of combinations and in an unfailing sense of the demands of
+constructive propriety, practical convenience, and artistic effect.
+Where Egyptian or Greek architecture shows one type of plan, the Roman
+shows a score.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>GREEK INFLUENCE.</b> Previous to the closing years of the Republic
+the Romans had no art but the Etruscan. The few buildings of importance
+they possessed were of Etruscan design and workmanship, excepting a
+small number built by Greek hands. It was not until the Empire that
+Roman architecture took on a truly national form. True Roman
+architecture is essentially imperial. The change from the primitive
+Etruscan style to the splendors of the imperial age was due to the
+conquest of the Greek states. Not only did the Greek campaigns enrich
+Rome with an unprecedented wealth of artistic spoils; they also brought
+into Italy hosts of Greek artists, and filled the minds of the
+campaigners with the ambition to realize in their own dominions the
+marble colonnades, the temples, theatres, and propylæa of the Greek
+cities they had pillaged. The Greek orders were adopted, altered, and
+applied to arcaded designs as well as to peristyles and other open
+colonnades. The marriage of the column and arch gave birth to a system
+of forms as characteristic of Roman architecture as the Doric or Ionic
+colonnade is of the Greek.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig42" id="fig42"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig42.jpg" width="154" height="370"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 42.&mdash;ROMAN DORIC ORDER. (THEATRE OF MARCELLUS).</p>
+
+<p><b>THE ROMAN ORDERS.</b> To meet the demands of Roman taste the
+Etruscan column was retained with its simple entablature; the Doric and
+Ionic were adopted in a modified form; the Corinthian was developed into
+a complete and independent order, and the Composite was added to the
+list. A&nbsp;regular system of proportions for all these five orders was
+gradually evolved, and the mouldings were profiled with arcs of circles
+instead of the subtler Greek curves. In the building of many-storied
+structures the
+<span class="pagenum">77</span>
+<a name="page77" id="page77"> </a>
+orders were superposed, the more slender over the sturdier, in an
+orderly and graded succession. The immense extent and number of the
+Roman buildings, the coarse materials often used, the relative scarcity
+of highly trained artisans, and above all, the necessity of making a
+given amount of artistic design serve for the largest possible amount of
+architecture, combined to direct the designing of detail into uniform
+channels. Thus in time was established a sort of canon of proportions,
+which was reduced to rules by Vitruvius, and revived in much more
+detailed and precise form by Vignola in the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft">
+<a name="fig43" id="fig43"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig43.png" width="165" height="330"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 43.&mdash;ROMAN IONIC ORDER.</p>
+
+<p>In each of the orders, including the Doric, the column was given a
+base one half of a diameter in height (the unit of measurement being the
+diameter of the lower part of the shaft, the <i>crassitudo</i> of
+Vitruvius). The shaft was made to contract about one-sixth in diameter
+toward the capital, under which it was terminated by an <i>astragal</i>
+or collar of small mouldings; at the base it ended in a slight flare and
+fillet called the <i>cincture</i>. The entablature was in all cases
+given not far from one quarter the height of the whole column. The
+<b>Tuscan</b> order was a rudimentary or Etruscan Doric with a column
+seven diameters high and a simple entablature without triglyphs,
+mutules, or dentils. But few examples of its use are known. The
+<b>Doric</b> (Fig. 42) retained the triglyphs and metopes, the mutules
+and guttæ of the Greek; but the column was made eight diameters high,
+<span class="pagenum">78</span>
+<a name="page78" id="page78"> </a>
+the shaft was smooth or had deep flutings separated by narrow fillets,
+and was usually provided with a simple moulded base on a square plinth.
+Mutules were used only over the triglyphs, and were even replaced in
+some cases by dentils; the corona was made lighter than the Greek, and a
+cymatium replaced the antefixæ on the lateral cornices. The Ionic
+underwent fewer changes, and these principally in the smaller mouldings
+and details of the capital. The column was nine diameters high (Fig.
+43). The <b>Corinthian</b> was made into an independent order by the
+designing of a special base of small <i>tori</i> and <i>scotiæ</i>, and
+by sumptuously carved <i>modillions</i> or brackets enriching the
+cornice and supporting the corona above a denticulated bed-mould (Fig.
+44). Though the first designers of the modillion were probably Greeks,
+it must, nevertheless, be taken as really a Roman device, worthily
+completing the essentially Roman Corinthian order. The <b>Composite</b>
+was formed by combining into one capital portions of the Ionic and
+Corinthian, and giving to it a simplified form of the Corinthian
+cornice. The Corinthian order remained, however, the favorite order of
+Roman architecture.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig44" id="fig44"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig44.jpg" width="247" height="405"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 44.&mdash;CORINTHIAN ORDER (TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX).</p>
+
+<p><b>USE OF THE ORDERS.</b> The Romans introduced many innovations in
+the general use and treatment of the orders. Monolithic shafts were
+preferred to those built up of superposed drums. The fluting was omitted
+on these, and when hard and semi-precious stone like porphyry or
+verd-antique was the material, it was highly polished to bring out its
+color. These polished monoliths were often
+<span class="pagenum">79</span>
+<a name="page79" id="page79"> </a>
+of great size, and they were used in almost incredible numbers.</p>
+
+<p>Another radical departure from Greek usage was the mounting of
+columns on pedestals to secure greater height without increasing the
+size of the column and its entablature. The Greek <i>anta</i> was
+developed into the Roman pilaster or flattened wall-column, and every
+free column, or range of columns perpendicular to the façade, had its
+corresponding pilaster to support the wall-end of the architrave. But
+the most radical innovation was the general use of engaged columns as
+wall-decorations or buttresses. The engaged column projected from the
+wall by more than half its diameter, and was built up with the wall as a
+part of its substance (Fig. 45). The entablature was in many cases
+advanced only over the columns, between which it was set back almost to
+the plane of the wall. This practice is open to the obvious criticism
+that it makes the column appear superfluous by depriving it of its
+function of supporting the continuous entablature. The objection has
+less weight when the projecting entablature over the column serves as a
+pedestal for a statue or
+<span class="pagenum">80</span>
+<a name="page80" id="page80"> </a>
+similar object, which restores to the column its function as a support
+(see the Arch of Constantine, <a href="#fig63">Fig. 63</a>).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig45" id="fig45"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig45.png" width="205" height="335"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 45.&mdash;ROMAN ARCADE WITH ENGAGED COLUMNS<br>
+<span class="caption">
+(From the Colosseum.)</span></p>
+
+<p><b>ARCADES.</b> The orders, though probably at first used only as
+free supports in porticos and colonnades, were early applied as
+decorations to arcaded structures. This practice became general with the
+multiplication of many-storied arcades like those of the amphitheatres,
+the engaged columns being set between the arches as buttresses,
+supporting entablatures which marked the divisions into stories (Fig.
+45). This combination has been assailed as a false and illogical device,
+but the criticism proceeds from a too narrow conception of architectural
+propriety. It is defensible upon both artistic and logical grounds; for
+it not only furnishes a most desirable play of light and shade and a
+pleasing contrast of rectangular and curved lines, but by emphasizing
+the constructive divisions and elements of the building and the vertical
+support of the piers, it also contributes to the expressiveness and
+vigor of the design.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>VAULTING.</b> The Romans substituted vaulting in brick, concrete,
+or masonry for wooden ceilings wherever possible, both in public and
+private edifices. The Etruscans were
+<span class="pagenum">81</span>
+<a name="page81" id="page81"> </a>
+the first vault-builders, and the Cloaca Maxima, the great sewer of
+Republican Rome (about 500 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) still
+remains as a monument of their engineering skill. Probably not only
+Etruscan engineers (whose traditions were perhaps derived from Asiatic
+sources in the remote past), but Asiatic builders also from conquered
+eastern provinces, were engaged together in the development of the
+wonderful system of vaulted construction to which Roman architecture so
+largely owed its grandeur. Three types of vault were commonly used: the
+barrel-vault, the groined or four-part vault, and the dome.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig46" id="fig46"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig46.png" width="154" height="141"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 46.&mdash;BARREL VAULT.</p>
+
+<p>The barrel vault (Fig. 46) was generally semi-cylindrical in section,
+and was used to cover corridors and oblong halls, like the
+temple-cellas, or was bent around a curve, as in amphitheatre
+passages.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft">
+<a name="fig47" id="fig47"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig47.png" width="152" height="157"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 47.&mdash;GROINED VAULT.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+<i>g, g, Groins.</i></span></p>
+
+<p>The groined vault is formed by the intersection of two barrel-vaults
+(Fig. 47). When several compartments of groined vaulting are placed
+together over an oblong plan, a&nbsp;double advantage is secured.
+Lateral windows can be carried up to the full height of the vaulting
+instead of being stopped below its springing; and the weight and thrust
+of the vaulting are concentrated upon a number of isolated points
+instead of being exerted along the whole extent of the side walls, as
+with the barrel-vault. The Romans saw that it was sufficient to dispose
+the masonry at these points in masses at right angles to the length of
+the hall, to best resist the lateral
+<span class="pagenum">82</span>
+<a name="page82" id="page82"> </a>
+thrust of the vault. This appears clearly in the plan of the Basilica of
+Constantine (<a href="#fig58">Fig.&nbsp;58</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The dome was in almost all Roman examples supported on a circular
+wall built up from the ground, as in the Pantheon (<a href="#fig54">Fig.&nbsp;54</a>). The pendentive dome, sustained by four or
+eight arches over a square or octagonal plan, is not found in true Roman
+buildings.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans made of the vault something more than a mere constructive
+device. It became in their hands an element of interior effect at least
+equally important with the arch and column. No style of architecture has
+ever evolved nobler forms of ceiling than the groined vault and the
+dome. Moreover, the use of vaulting made possible effects of
+unencumbered spaciousness and amplitude which could never be compassed
+by any combination of piers and columns. It also assured to the Roman
+monuments a duration and a freedom from danger of destruction by fire
+impossible with any wooden-roofed architecture, however noble its form
+or careful its execution.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CONSTRUCTION.</b> The constructive methods of the Romans varied
+with the conditions and resources of different provinces, but were
+everywhere dominated by the same practical spirit. Their vaulted
+architecture demanded for the support of its enormous weights and for
+resistance to its disruptive thrusts, piers and buttresses of great
+mass. To construct these wholly of cut stone appeared preposterous and
+wasteful to the Roman. Italy abounds in clay, lime, and a volcanic
+product, <i>pozzolana</i> (from Puteoli or Pozzuoli, where it has always
+been obtained in large quantities), which makes an admirable hydraulic
+cement. With these materials it was possible to employ unskilled labor
+for the great bulk of this massive masonry, and to erect with the
+greatest rapidity and in the most economical manner those stupendous
+piles which, even in their ruin, excite the admiration of every
+beholder.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">83</span>
+<a name="page83" id="page83"> </a>
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig48" id="fig48"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig48.png" width="133" height="117"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 48.&mdash;ROMAN WALL MASONRY.</p>
+
+<p class="caption w150">
+<i>a, Brickwork; b, Tufa ashlar; r, Opus reticulatum; i, Opus
+incertum.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>STONE, CONCRETE, AND BRICK MASONRY.</b> For buildings of an
+externally decorative character such as temples, arches of triumph, and
+amphitheatres, as well as in all places where brick and concrete were
+not easily obtained, stone was employed. The walls were built by laying
+up the inner and outer faces in <i>ashlar</i> or cut stone, and filling
+in the intermediate space with rubble (random masonry of uncut stone)
+laid up in cement, or with concrete of broken stone and cement dumped
+into the space in successive layers. The cement converted the whole into
+a conglomerate closely united with the face-masonry. In Syria and Egypt
+the local preference for stones of enormous size was gratified, and even
+surpassed, as in Herod’s terrace-walls for the temple at Jerusalem (<a
+href="#page41">p.&nbsp;41</a>), and in the splendid structures of
+Palmyra and Baalbec. In Italy, however, stones of moderate size were
+preferred, and when blocks of unusual dimensions occur, they are in many
+cases marked with false joints, dividing them into apparently smaller
+blocks, lest they should dwarf the building by their large scale. The
+general use in the Augustan period of marble for a decorative lining or
+wainscot in interiors led in time to the objectionable practice of
+coating buildings of concrete with an apparel of sham marble masonry, by
+carving false joints upon an external veneer of thin slabs of that
+material. Ordinary concrete walls were frequently faced with small
+blocks of tufa, called, according to the manner of its application,
+<i>opus reticulatum</i>, <i>opus incertum</i>, <i>opus spicatum</i>,
+etc. (Fig. 48). In most cases, however, the facing was of carefully
+executed brickwork, covered sometimes by a coating of stucco. The bricks
+were large, measuring from one to two feet square where used for quoins
+or arches, but triangular
+<span class="pagenum">84</span>
+<a name="page84" id="page84"> </a>
+where they served only as facings. Bricks were also used in the
+construction of skeleton ribs for concrete vaults of large span.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>VAULTING.</b> Here, as in the wall-masonry, economy and common
+sense devised methods extremely simple for accomplishing vast designs.
+While the smaller vaults were, so to speak, cast in concrete upon moulds
+made of rough boards, the enormous weight of the larger vaults precluded
+their being supported, while drying or “setting,” upon timber centrings
+built up from the ground. Accordingly, a&nbsp;skeleton of light ribs was
+first built on wooden centrings, and these ribs, when firmly “set,”
+became themselves supports for intermediate centrings on which to cast
+the concrete fillings between the ribs. The whole vault, once hardened,
+formed really a monolithic curved lintel, exerting no thrust whatever,
+so that the extraordinary precautions against lateral disruption
+practised by the Romans were, in fact, in many cases quite
+superfluous.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>DECORATION.</b> The temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum (long
+miscalled the temple of <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Jupitor’">Jupiter</ins> Stator), is a typical example of Roman
+architectural decoration, in which richness was preferred to the subtler
+refinements of design (see <a href="#fig44">Fig.&nbsp;44</a>). The
+splendid figure-sculpture which adorned the Greek monuments would have
+been inappropriate on the theatres and thermæ of Rome or the provinces,
+even had there been the taste or the skill to produce it. Conventional
+carved ornament was substituted in its place, and developed into a
+splendid system of highly decorative forms. Two principal elements
+appear in this decoration&mdash;the acanthus-leaf, as the basis of a
+whole series of wonderfully varied motives; and symbolism, represented
+principally by what are technically termed
+<i>grotesques</i>&mdash;incongruous combinations of natural forms, as
+when an infant’s body terminates in a bunch of foliage (Fig. 49). Only
+to a limited extent do we find true sculpture employed as
+<span class="pagenum">85</span>
+<a name="page85" id="page85"> </a>
+decoration, and that mainly for triumphal arches or memorial
+columns.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig49" id="fig49"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig49.jpg" width="422" height="230"
+alt="see caption"><br>
+FIG. 49&mdash;ROMAN CARVED ORNAMENT.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+(Lateran Museum.)</span></p>
+
+<p>The architectural mouldings were nearly always carved, the Greek
+water-leaf and egg-and-dart forming the basis of most of the
+enrichments; but these were greatly elaborated and treated with more
+minute detail than the Greek prototypes. Friezes and bands were commonly
+ornamented with the foliated scroll or <i>rinceau</i> (a&nbsp;convenient
+French term for which we have no equivalent). This motive was as
+characteristic of Roman art as the anthemion was of the Greek. It
+consists of a continuous stem throwing out alternately on either side
+branches which curl into spirals and are richly adorned with rosettes,
+acanthus-leaves, scrolls, tendrils, and blossoms. In the best examples
+the detail was modelled with great care and minuteness, and the motive
+itself was treated with extraordinary variety and fertility of
+invention. A&nbsp;derived and enriched form of the anthemion was
+sometimes used for bands and friezes; and grotesques, dolphins,
+griffins, infant genii, wreaths,
+<span class="pagenum">86</span>
+<a name="page86" id="page86"> </a>
+festoons, ribbons, eagles, and masks are also common features in Roman
+relief carving.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig50" id="fig50"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig50.png" width="187" height="260"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 50.&mdash;ROMAN CEILING PANELS.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+(<i>a</i>, From Palmyra; <i>b</i>, Basilica of Constantine.)</span></p>
+
+<p>The Romans made great use of panelling and of moulded plaster in
+their interior decoration, especially for ceilings. The panelling of
+domes and vaults was usually roughly shaped in their first construction
+and finished afterward in stucco with rich moulding and rosettes. The
+panels were not always square or rectangular, as in Greek ceilings, but
+of various geometric forms in pleasing combinations (Fig. 50). In works
+of a small scale the panels and decorations were wrought in relief in a
+heavy coating of plaster applied to the finished structure, and these
+stucco reliefs are among the most refined and charming products of Roman
+art. (Baths of Titus; Baths at Pompeii; Palace of the Cæsars and tombs
+at Rome.)</p>
+
+<p>
+<b>COLOR DECORATION.</b> Plaster was also used as a ground for painting,
+executed in distemper or by the encaustic process, wax liquefied by a hot iron
+being the medium for applying the color in the latter case. Pompeii and
+Herculaneum furnish countless examples of brilliant wall-painting in which
+strong primary colors form the ground, and a semi-naturalistic, semi-fantastic
+representation of figures, architecture and landscape is mingled with festoons,
+vines, and purely conventional ornament. Mosaic was also employed to decorate
+floors and wall-spaces, and sometimes for ceilings.<a class="tag" name="tag13"
+href="#note13">13</a> The later imperial baths and palaces were especially
+<span class="pagenum">87</span>
+<a name="page87" id="page87"> </a>
+rich in mosaic of the kind called opus Grecanicum, executed with
+numberless minute cubes of stone or glass, as in the Baths of Caracalla
+and the Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli.</p>
+
+<p>To the walls of monumental interiors, such as temples, basilicas, and
+thermæ, splendor of color was given by veneering them with thin slabs of
+rare and richly colored marble. No limit seems to have been placed upon
+the costliness or amount of these precious materials. Byzantine
+architecture borrowed from this practice its system of interior color
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="note13" id="note13" href="#tag13">13.</a>
+See Van Dyke’s <i>History of Paintings</i>, p.&nbsp;33.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">88</span>
+<a name="page88" id="page88"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapIX" id="chapIX">CHAPTER IX.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+ROMAN ARCHITECTURE&mdash;<i>Continued</i>.</h3>
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Same as for Chapter
+VIII. Also, Guhl and Kohner, <i>Life of the Ancient Greeks and
+Romans</i>. Adams, <i>Ruins of the Palace of <ins class="correction"
+title="text reads ‘Spalatro’">Spalato</ins></i>. Burn, <i>Rome and the
+Campagna</i>. Cameron, <i>Roman Baths</i>. Mau, tr. by Kelcey,
+<i>Pompeii, its Life and Art</i>. Mazois, <i>Ruines de Pompeii</i>. Von
+Presuhn, <i>Die neueste Ausgrabungen zu Pompeii</i>. Wood, <i>Ruins of
+Palmyra and Baalbec</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE ETRUSCAN STYLE.</b> Although the first Greek architects were
+employed in Rome as early as 493 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>,
+the architecture of the Republic was practically Etruscan until nearly
+100 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> Its monuments, consisting
+mainly of city walls, tombs, and temples, are all marked by a general
+uncouthness of detail, denoting a lack of artistic refinement, but they
+display considerable constructive skill. In the Etruscan walls we meet
+with both polygonal and regularly coursed masonry; in both kinds the
+true arch appears as the almost universal form for gates and openings.
+A&nbsp;famous example is the Augustan Gate at Perugia, a&nbsp;late work
+rebuilt about 40 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, but thoroughly
+Etruscan in style. At Volaterræ (Volterra) is another arched gate, and
+in Perugia fragments of still another appear built into the modern
+walls.</p>
+
+<p>The Etruscans built both structural and excavated tombs; they
+consisted in general of a single chamber with a slightly arched or
+gabled roof, supported in the larger tombs on heavy square piers. The
+interiors were covered with pictures; externally there was little
+ornament except about the gable and doorway. The latter
+<span class="pagenum">89</span>
+<a name="page89" id="page89"> </a>
+had a stepped or moulded frame with curious <i>crossettes</i> or ears
+projecting laterally at the top. The gable recalled the wooden roofs of
+Etruscan temples, but was coarse in detail, especially in its mouldings.
+Sepulchral monuments of other types are also met with, such as
+<i>cippi</i> or memorial pillars, sometimes in groups of five on a
+single pedestal (tomb at Albano).</p>
+
+<p>Among the temples of Etruscan style that of <b>Jupiter
+Capitolinus</b> on the Capitol at Rome, destroyed by fire in 80 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, was the chief. Three narrow chambers
+side by side formed a cella nearly square in plan, preceded by a
+hexastyle porch of huge Doric, or rather Tuscan, columns arranged in
+three aisles, widely spaced and carrying ponderous wooden architraves.
+The roof was of wood; the cymatium and ornaments, as well as the statues
+in the pediment, were of terra-cotta, painted and gilded. The details in
+general showed acquaintance with Greek models, which appeared in debased
+and awkward imitations of triglyphs, cornices, antefixæ, etc.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig51" id="fig51"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig51.png" width="154" height="283"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 51.&mdash;TEMPLE FORTUNA VIRILIS. PLAN.</p>
+
+<p><b>GREEK STYLE.</b> The victories of Marcellus at Syracuse, 212 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, Fabius Maximus at Tarentum (209 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), Flaminius (196 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), Mummius (146 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), Sulla (86 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), and others in the various Greek provinces,
+steadily increased the vogue of Greek architecture and the number of
+Greek artists in Rome. The temples of the last two centuries <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, and some of earlier date, though still
+Etruscan in plan, were in many cases strongly Greek in the character of
+their details. A&nbsp;few have remained to our time in tolerable
+preservation. The temple of <b>Fortuna
+<span class="pagenum">90</span>
+<a name="page90" id="page90"> </a>
+Virilis</b> (really of Fors Fortuna), of the second century (?) <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, is a tetrastyle prostyle
+pseudoperipteral temple with a high <i>podium</i> or base,
+a&nbsp;typical Etruscan cella, and a deep porch, now walled up, but
+thoroughly Greek in the elegant details of its Ionic order (Fig. 51).
+Two circular temples, both called erroneously <b>Temples of Vesta</b>,
+one at Rome near the Cloaca Maxima, the other at Tivoli, belong among
+the monuments of Greek style. The first was probably dedicated to
+Hercules, the second probably to the Sibyls; the latter being much the
+better preserved of the two. Both were surrounded by peristyles of
+eighteen Corinthian columns, and probably covered by domical roofs with
+gilded bronze tiles. The Corinthian order appears here complete with its
+modillion cornice, but the crispness of the detail and the fineness of
+the execution are Greek and not Roman. These temples date from about 72
+<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, though the one at Rome was
+probably rebuilt in the first century <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (Fig. 52).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft w210">
+<a name="fig52" id="fig52"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig52.png" width="208" height="398"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 52.&mdash;CIRCULAR TEMPLE. TIVOLI.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>IMPERIAL ARCHITECTURE; AUGUSTAN AGE.</b> Even in the temples of
+Greek style Roman conceptions of plan and composition are dominant. The
+Greek architect was not free to reproduce textually Greek designs or
+details, however strongly he might impress with the Greek character
+whatever he touched. The demands of imperial splendor
+<span class="pagenum">91</span>
+<a name="page91" id="page91"> </a>
+and the building of great edifices of varied form and complex structure,
+like the thermæ and amphitheatres, called for new adaptations and
+combinations of planning and engineering. The reign of Augustus (27
+<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>-14 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) inaugurated the imperial epoch, but many works
+erected before and after his reign properly belong to the Augustan age
+by right of style. In general, we find in the works of this period the
+happiest combination of Greek refinement with Roman splendor. It was in
+this period that Rome first assumed the aspect of an opulent and
+splendid metropolis, though the way had been prepared for this by the
+regularization and adornment of the Roman Forum and the erection of many
+temples, basilicas, fora, arches, and theatres during the generation
+preceding the accession of Augustus. His reign saw the inception or
+completion of the portico of Octavia, the Augustan forum, the Septa
+Julia, the first Pantheon, the adjoining Thermæ of Agrippa, the theatre
+of Marcellus, the first of the imperial palaces on the Palatine, and a
+long list of temples, including those of the Dioscuri (Castor and
+Pollux), of Mars Ultor, of Jupiter Tonans on the Capitol, and others in
+the provinces; besides colonnades, statues, arches, and other
+embellishments almost without number.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LATER IMPERIAL WORKS.</b> With the successors of Augustus splendor
+increased to almost fabulous limits, as, for instance, in the vast
+extent and the prodigality of ivory and gold in the famous Golden House
+of Nero. After the great fire in Rome, presumably kindled by the agents
+of this emperor, a&nbsp;more regular and monumental system of
+street-planning and building was introduced, and the first municipal
+building-law was decreed by him. To the reign of Vespasian (68&ndash;79
+<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) we owe the rebuilding in Roman
+style and with the Corinthian order of the temple of Jupiter
+Capitolinus, the Baths of Titus, and the beginning of the Flavian
+amphitheatre or Colosseum. The two last-named
+<span class="pagenum">92</span>
+<a name="page92" id="page92"> </a>
+edifices both stood on the site of Nero’s Golden House, of which the
+greater part was demolished to make way for them. During the last years
+of the first century the arch of Titus was erected, the Colosseum
+finished, amphitheatres built at Verona, Pola, Reggio, Tusculum, Nîmes
+(France), Constantine (Algiers), Pompeii and Herculanum (these last two
+cities and Stabiæ rebuilt after the earthquake of 63 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>), and arches, bridges, and temples erected all
+over the Roman world.</p>
+
+<p>The first part of the second century was distinguished by the
+splendid architectural achievements of the reign of Hadrian
+(117&ndash;138 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) in Rome and the
+provinces, especially Athens. Nearly all his works were marked by great
+dignity of conception as well as beauty of detail. During the latter
+part of the century a very interesting series of buildings were erected
+in the Hauran (Syria), in which Greek and Arab workmen under Roman
+direction produced examples of vigorous stone architecture of a mingled
+Roman and Syrian character.</p>
+
+<p>The most-remarkable thermæ of Rome belong to the third
+century&mdash;those of Caracalla (211&ndash;217 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) and of Diocletian (284&ndash;305 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>)&mdash;their ruins to-day ranking among the
+most imposing remains of antiquity. In Syria the temples of the Sun at
+Baalbec and Palmyra (273 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, under
+Aurelian), and the great palace of Diocletian at Spalato, in Dalmatia
+(300 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>), are still the wonder of
+the few travellers who reach those distant spots.</p>
+
+<p>While during the third and fourth centuries there was a marked
+decline in purity and refinement of detail, many of the later works of
+the period display a remarkable freedom and originality in conception.
+But these works are really not Roman, they are foreign, that is,
+provincial products; and the transfer of the capital to Byzantium
+revealed the increasing degree in which Rome was coming to look to the
+East for her strength and her art.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">93</span>
+<a name="page93" id="page93"> </a>
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig53" id="fig53"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig53.png" width="262" height="439"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 53.&mdash;TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME. PLAN.</p>
+
+<p><b>TEMPLES.</b> The Romans built both rectangular and circular
+temples, and there was much variety in their treatment. In the
+rectangular temples a high <i>podium</i>, or basement, was substituted
+for the Greek stepped stylobate, and the prostyle plan was more common
+than the peripteral. The cella was relatively short and wide, the front
+porch inordinately deep, and frequently divided by longitudinal rows of
+columns into three aisles. In most cases the exterior of the cella in
+prostyle temples was decorated by engaged columns. A&nbsp;barrel vault
+gave the interior an aspect of spaciousness impossible with the Greek
+system of a wooden ceiling supported on double ranges of columns. In the
+place of these, free or engaged columns along the side-walls received
+the ribs of the vaulting. Between these ribs the ceiling was richly
+panelled, or coffered and sumptuously gilded. The temples of <b>Fortuna
+Virilis</b> and of <b>Faustina</b> at Rome (the latter built 141 <span
+class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, and its ruins incorporated into the
+modern church of S.&nbsp;Lorenzo in Miranda), and the beautiful and
+admirably preserved <b>Maison
+<span class="pagenum">94</span>
+<a name="page94" id="page94"> </a>
+Carrée</b>, at Nîmes (France) (4&nbsp;<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) are examples of this type. The temple of
+<b>Concord</b>, of which only the podium remains, and the small temple
+of Julius (both of these in the Forum) illustrate another form of
+prostyle temple in which the porch was on a long side of the cella. Some
+of the larger temples were peripteral. The temple of the <b>Dioscuri</b>
+(Castor and Pollux) in the Forum, was one of the most magnificent of
+these, certainly the richest in detail (<a href="#fig44">Fig.&nbsp;44</a>). Very remarkable was the double temple of
+<b>Venus and Rome</b>, east of the Forum, designed by the Emperor
+Hadrian about 130 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (Fig. 53). It
+was a vast pseudodipteral edifice containing two cellas in one
+structure, their statue-niches or apses meeting back to back in the
+centre. The temple stood in the midst of an imposing columnar peribolus
+entered by magnificent gateways. Other important temples have already
+been mentioned on <a href="#page91">p.&nbsp;91</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the two circular temples already described, the temple of
+Vesta, adjoining the House of the Vestals, at the east end of the Forum
+should be mentioned. At Baalbec is a circular temple whose entablature
+curves inward between the widely-spaced columns until it touches the
+cella in the middle of each intercolumniation. It illustrates the
+caprices of design which sometimes resulted from the disregard of
+tradition and the striving after originality (273 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>).</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig54" id="fig54"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig54.png" width="162" height="243"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 54.&mdash;PLAN OF THE PANTHEON.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE PANTHEON.</b> The noblest of all circular temples of Rome and
+of the world was the <b>Pantheon</b>. It was built by Hadrian,
+117&ndash;138 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, on the site of the
+earlier rectangular temple of the same name erected by Agrippa. It
+measures 142 feet in diameter
+<span class="pagenum">95</span>
+<a name="page95" id="page95"> </a>
+internally; the wall is 20 feet thick and supports a hemispherical dome
+rising to a height of 140 feet (Figs. 54, 55). Light is admitted solely
+through a round opening 28 feet in diameter at the top of the dome, the
+simplest and most impressive method of illumination conceivable.
+The rain and snow that enter produce no appreciable effect upon the
+temperature of the vast hall. There is a single entrance, with noble
+bronze doors, admitting directly to the interior, around which seven
+niches, alternately rectangular and semicircular in plan and fronted by
+Corinthian columns, lighten, without weakening, the mass of the
+encircling wall. This wall was originally incrusted with rich marbles,
+and the great dome, adorned with deep coffering in rectangular panels,
+was decorated with rosettes and mouldings in gilt stucco. The dome
+appears to have been composed of numerous arches and ribs, filled in and
+finally coated with concrete. A&nbsp;recent examination of a denuded
+portion of its inner surface has convinced the writer that the interior
+panelling was executed after, and not during, its construction, by
+hewing the panels out of the mass of brick and concrete, without regard
+to the form and position of the origin skeleton of ribs.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft">
+<a name="fig55" id="fig55"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig55.jpg" width="263" height="311"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 55.&mdash;INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON.</p>
+
+<p>The exterior (Fig. 56) was less successful than the interior.
+<span class="pagenum">96</span>
+<a name="page96" id="page96"> </a>
+The gabled porch of twelve superb granite columns 50 feet high,
+three-aisled in plan after the Etruscan mode, and covered originally by
+a ceiling of bronze, was a rebuilding with the materials and on the plan
+of the original pronaos of the Pantheon of Agrippa. The circular wall
+behind it is faced with fine brickwork, and displays, like the dome,
+many curious arrangements of discharging arches, reminiscences of
+traditional constructive precautions here wholly useless and fictitious
+because only skin-deep. A&nbsp;revetment of marble below and plaster
+above once concealed this brick facing. The portico, in spite of its too
+steep gable (once filled with a “gigantomachia” in gilt bronze) and its
+somewhat awkward association with a round building, is nevertheless a
+noble work, its capitals in Pentelic marble ranking among the finest
+known examples of the Roman Corinthian. Taken as a whole, the Pantheon
+is one of the great masterpieces of the world’s architecture.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig56" id="fig56"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig56.jpg" width="428" height="273"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 56.&mdash;EXTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+(From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.<!-- invisible .
+-->)</span></p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">97</span>
+<a name="page97" id="page97"> </a>
+
+<p><b>FORA AND BASILICAS.</b> The fora were the places for general
+public assemblage. The chief of those in Rome, the <b>Forum Magnum</b>,
+or <b>Forum Romanum</b>, was at first merely an irregular vacant space,
+about and in which, as the focus of the civic life, temples, halls,
+colonnades, and statues gradually accumulated. These chance aggregations
+the systematic Roman mind reduced in time to orderly and monumental
+form; successive emperors extended them and added new fora at enormous
+cost and with great splendor of architecture. Those of Julius, Augustus,
+Vespasian, and Nerva (or Domitian), adjoining the Roman Forum, were
+magnificent enclosures surrounded by high walls and single or double
+colonnades. Each contained a temple or basilica, besides gateways,
+memorial columns or arches, and countless statues. The <b>Forum of
+Trajan</b> surpassed all the rest; it covered an area of thirty-five
+thousand square yards, and included, besides the main area, entered
+through a triumphal arch, the Basilica Ulpia, the temple of Trajan, and
+his colossal Doric column of Victory. Both in size and beauty it ranked
+as the chief architectural glory of the city (Fig. 57). The six fora
+together contained thirteen temples, three basilicas, eight triumphal
+arches, a&nbsp;mile of porticos, and a number of other public
+edifices.<a class="tag" name="tag14" id="tag14" href="#note14">14</a> Besides
+<span class="pagenum">98</span>
+<a name="page98" id="page98"> </a>
+these, a&nbsp;net-work of colonnades covered large tracts of the city,
+affording sheltered communication in every direction, and here and there
+expanding into squares or gardens surrounded by peristyles.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig57" id="fig57"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig57.png" width="253" height="344"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 57.&mdash;FORUM AND BASILICA OF TRAJAN.<br>
+<a class="closeup" href="images/fig57_large.png" target="_blank">
+Larger View</a></p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig58" id="fig58"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig58.png" width="148" height="131"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 58.&mdash;BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE. PLAN.</p>
+
+<p>The public business of Rome, both judicial and commercial, was
+largely transacted in the <i>basilicas</i>, large buildings consisting
+usually of a wide and lofty central nave flanked by lower side-aisles,
+and terminating at one or both ends in an apse or semicircular recess
+called the <i>tribune</i>, in which were the seats for the magistrates.
+The side-aisles were separated from the nave by columns supporting a
+clearstory wall, pierced by windows above the roofs of the side-aisles.
+In some cases the latter were two stories high, with galleries; in
+others the central space was open to the sky, as at Pompeii, suggesting
+the derivation of the basilica from the open square surrounded by
+colonnades, or from the forum itself, with which we find it usually
+associated. The most important basilicas in Rome were the
+<b>Sempronian</b>, the <b>Æmilian</b> (about 54 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), the <b>Julian</b> in the Forum Magnum (51
+<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), and the <b>Ulpian</b> in the
+Forum of Trajan (113 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>). The last
+two were probably open basilicas, only the side-aisles being roofed. The
+Ulpian (Fig. 57) was the most magnificent of all, and in conjunction
+with the Forum of Trajan formed one of the most imposing of those
+monumental aggregations of columnar architecture which contributed so
+largely to the splendor of the Roman capital.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig59" id="fig59"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig59.jpg" width="430" height="315"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 59.&mdash;BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE.<!-- invisible . --> RUINS.</p>
+
+<p>These monuments frequently suffered from the burning of their wooden
+roofs. It was Constantine who completed the first vaulted and fireproof
+basilica, begun by his predecessor and rival, Maxentius, on the site of
+the former Temple of Peace (Figs. 58, 59). Its design reproduced on a
+<span class="pagenum">99</span>
+<a name="page99" id="page99"> </a>
+grand scale the plan of the tepidarium-halls of the thermæ, the
+side-recesses of which were converted into a continuous side-aisle by
+piercing arches through the buttress-walls that separated them. Above
+the imposing vaults of these recesses and under the cross-vaults of the
+nave were windows admitting abundant light. A&nbsp;<i>narthex</i>, or
+porch, preceded the hall at one end; there were also a side entrance
+from the Via Sacra, and an apse or tribune for the magistrates opposite
+each of these entrances. The dimensions of the main hall (325 × 85
+feet), the height of its vault (117 feet), and the splendor of its
+columns and incrustations excited universal admiration, and exercised a
+powerful influence on later architecture.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig60" id="fig60"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig60.png" width="240" height="174"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 60.&mdash;THERMÆ OF CARACALLA. PLAN OF CENTRAL BLOCK.</p>
+
+<p class="caption w240">
+<i>A, Caldarium, or Hot Bath; B, Intermediate Chamber; C, Tepidarium, or
+Warm Bath; D, Frigidarium, or Cold Bath; E, Peristyles; a, Gymnastic
+Rooms; b, Dressing Rooms; c, Cooling Rooms; d, Small Courts; e,
+Entrances; v, Vestibules.</i></p>
+
+<p class="closeup w240">
+<a href="images/fig60_large.png" target="_blank">
+Larger View</a></p>
+
+<p><b>THERMÆ.</b> The leisure of the Roman people was largely spent in
+the great baths, or <i>thermæ</i>, which took the place substantially of
+the modern club. The establishments
+<span class="pagenum">100</span>
+<a name="page100" id="page100"> </a>
+erected by the emperors for this purpose were vast and complex congeries
+of large and small halls, courts, and chambers, combined with a masterly
+comprehension of artistic propriety and effect in the sequence of
+oblong, square, oval, and circular apartments, and in the relation of
+the greater to the lesser masses. They were a combination of the Greek
+<i>palæstra</i> with the Roman <i>balnea</i>, and united in one
+harmonious design great public swimming-baths, private baths for
+individuals and families, places for gymnastic exercises and games,
+courts, peristyles, gardens, halls for literary entertainments,
+lounging-rooms, and all the complex accommodation required for the
+service of the whole establishment. They were built with apparent
+disregard of cost, and adorned with splendid extravagance. The earliest
+were the <b>Baths of Agrippa</b> (27 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) behind the Pantheon; next may be mentioned
+those of <b>Titus</b>, built on the substructions of Nero’s Golden
+House. The remains of the <b>Thermæ of Caracalla</b> (211 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) form the most extensive mass of ruins in Rome,
+and clearly display the admirable planning of this and similar
+establishments. A&nbsp;gigantic block of buildings containing the three
+great halls for cold, warm, and hot baths, stood in the centre of a vast
+enclosure surrounded by private baths, <i>exedræ</i>, and halls for
+lecture-audiences and other gatherings. The enclosure was adorned with
+statues, flower-gardens, and places for out-door games. The <b>Baths of
+Diocletian</b> (302 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) embodied
+this arrangement
+<span class="pagenum">101</span>
+<a name="page101" id="page101"> </a>
+on a still more extensive scale; they could accommodate 3,500 bathers at
+once, and their ruins cover a broad territory near the railway terminus
+of the modern city. The church of S.&nbsp;Maria degli Angeli was formed
+by Michael Angelo out of the <i>tepidarium</i> of these
+baths&mdash;a&nbsp;colossal hall 340 × 87 feet, and 90 feet high. The
+original vaulting and columns are still intact, and the whole interior
+most imposing, in spite of later stucco disfigurements. The circular
+<i>laconicum</i> (sweat-room) serves as the porch to the present church.
+It was in the building of these great halls that Roman architecture
+reached its most original and characteristic expression. Wholly
+unrelated to any foreign model, they represent distinctively Roman
+ideals, both as to plan and construction.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig61" id="fig61"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig61.jpg" width="250" height="178"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 61.&mdash;ROMAN THEATRE.<!-- invisible . --> (HERCULANUM.)<br>
+<span class="caption">
+(From model.)</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>PLACES OF AMUSEMENT.</b> The earliest Roman theatres differed from
+the Greek in having a nearly semicircular plan, and in being built up
+from the level ground, not excavated in a hillside (Fig. 61). The first
+theatre was of wood, built by Mummius 145 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, and it was not until ninety years later that
+stone was first substituted for the more perishable material, in the
+theatre of Pompey. The <b>Theatre of Marcellus</b> (23&ndash;13 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span>) is in part still extant, and later
+theatres in Pompeii, Orange (France), and in the Asiatic provinces are
+in excellent preservation. The orchestra was not, as in the Greek
+theatre, reserved for the choral dance, but was given up to spectators
+of rank; the stage was adorned with a permanent architectural background
+of columns and
+<span class="pagenum">102</span>
+<a name="page102" id="page102"> </a>
+arches, and sometimes roofed with wood, and an arcade or colonnade
+surrounded the upper tier of seats. The amphitheatre was a still more
+distinctively Roman edifice. It was elliptical in plan, surrounding an
+elliptical arena, and built up with continuous encircling tiers of
+seats. The earliest stone amphitheatre was erected by Statilius Taurus
+in the time of Augustus. It was practically identical in design with the
+later and much larger Flavian amphitheatre, commonly known as the
+<b>Colosseum</b>, begun by Vespasian and completed 82 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (Fig. 62). This immense structure measured 607
+× 506 feet in plan and was 180 feet high; it could accommodate
+eighty-seven thousand spectators. Engaged columns of the Tuscan, Ionic,
+and Corinthian orders decorated three stories of the exterior; the
+fourth was a nearly unbroken wall with slender Corinthian pilasters.
+Solidly constructed of travertine, concrete, and tufa, the Colosseum,
+with its imposing but monotonous exterior, almost sublime by its scale
+and seemingly endless repetition, but lacking in refinement or
+originality of detail and dedicated to bloody and cruel sports, was a
+characteristic product of the Roman character and civilization. At
+Verona, Pola,
+<span class="pagenum">103</span>
+<a name="page103" id="page103"> </a>
+Capua, and many cities in the foreign provinces there are well-preserved
+remains of similar structures.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig62" id="fig62"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig62.png" width="429" height="227"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 62.&mdash;COLOSSEUM. HALF PLAN.</p>
+
+<p>Closely related to the amphitheatre were the circus and the stadium.
+The <b>Circus Maximus</b> between the Palatine and Aventine hills was
+the oldest of those in Rome. That erected by Caligula and Nero on the
+site afterward partly occupied by St. Peter’s, was more splendid, and is
+said to have been capable of accommodating over three hundred thousand
+spectators after its enlargement in the fourth century. The long, narrow
+race-course was divided into two nearly equal parts by a low parapet,
+the <i>spina</i>, on which were the goals (<i>metæ</i>) and many small
+decorative structures and columns. One end of the circus, as of the
+stadium also, was semicircular; the other was segmental in the circus,
+square in the stadium; a&nbsp;colonnade or arcade ran along the top of
+the building, and the entrances and exits were adorned with monumental
+arches.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig63" id="fig63"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig63.jpg" width="249" height="208"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 63.&mdash;ARCH OF CONSTANTINE.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+(From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)</span></p>
+
+<p><b>TRIUMPHAL ARCHES AND COLUMNS.</b> Rome and the provincial cities
+abounded in monuments commemorative of victory, usually single or triple
+arches with engaged columns and rich sculptural adornments, or single
+colossal columns supporting statues. The arches were characteristic
+products of Roman design, and some of them deserve high praise for the
+excellence of their proportions and the elegance of their details. There
+were in Rome in the second century <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, thirty-eight of these monuments. The <b>Arch
+of Titus</b> (71&ndash;82 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) is the
+simplest and most perfect of those still extant in Rome; the arch of
+<b>Septimius Severus</b> in the Forum (203 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) and that of <b>Constantine</b> (330 <span
+class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) near the Colosseum, are more sumptuous
+but less pure in detail. The last-named was in part enriched with
+sculptures taken from the earlier arch of Trajan. The statues of Dacian
+captives on the attic (<i>attic</i> = a species of subordinate story
+added above the main cornice) of this arch were a fortunate addition,
+furnishing a <i>raison-d’être</i>
+<span class="pagenum">104</span>
+<a name="page104" id="page104"> </a>
+for the columns and broken entablatures on which they rest. Memorial
+columns of colossal size were erected by several emperors, both in Rome
+and abroad. Those of <b>Trajan</b> and of <b>Marcus Aurelius</b> are
+still standing in Rome in perfect preservation. The first was 140 feet
+high including the pedestal and the statue which surmounted it; its
+capital marked the height of the ridge levelled by the emperor for the
+forum on which the column stands. Its most striking peculiarity is the
+spiral band of reliefs winding around the shaft from bottom to top and
+representing the Dacian campaigns of Trajan. The other column is of
+similar design and dimensions, but greatly inferior to the first in
+execution. Both are really towers, with interior stair-cases leading to
+the top.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>TOMBS.</b> The Romans developed no special and national type of
+tomb, and few of their sepulchral monuments were of large dimensions.
+The most important in Rome were the pyramid of <b>Caius Cestius</b>
+(late first century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), and the
+circular tombs of <b>Cecilia Metella</b> (60 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), <b>Augustus</b> (14 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>) and <b>Hadrian</b>, now the Castle of
+S.&nbsp;Angelo (138 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>). The latter
+was composed of a huge cone of marble supported on a cylindrical
+structure 230 feet in diameter standing on a square podium 300 feet long
+and wide. The cone probably once terminated in the gilt bronze pine-cone
+now in the Giardino della Pigna of the Vatican. In the Mausoleum of
+Augustus a mound of earth planted with trees
+<span class="pagenum">105</span>
+<a name="page105" id="page105"> </a>
+crowned a similar circular base of marble on a podium 220 feet square,
+now buried.</p>
+
+<p>The smaller tombs varied greatly in size and form. Some were vaulted
+chambers, with graceful internal painted decorations of figures and vine
+patterns combined with low-relief enrichments in stucco. Others were
+designed in the form of altars or sarcophagi, as at Pompeii; while
+others again resembled ædiculæ, little temples, shrines, or small towers
+in several stories of arches and columns, as at St. Rémy (France).</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PALACES AND DWELLINGS.</b> Into their dwellings the Romans carried
+all their love of ostentation and personal luxury. They anticipated in
+many details the comforts of modern civilization in their furniture,
+their plumbing and heating, and their utensils. Their houses may be
+divided into four classes: the palace, the villa, the <i>domus</i> or
+ordinary house, and the <i>insula</i> or many-storied tenement built in
+compact blocks. The first three alone concern us, and will be taken up
+in the above order.</p>
+
+<p>The imperial <b>palaces</b> on the Palatine Hill comprised a wide
+range in style and variety of buildings, beginning with the first simple
+house of Augustus (26 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>), burnt and
+rebuilt 3&nbsp;<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> Tiberius,
+Caligula, and Nero added to the Augustan group; Domitian rebuilt a
+second time and enlarged the palace of Augustus, and Septimius Severus
+remodelled the whole group, adding to it his own extraordinary
+seven-storied palace, the Septizonium. The ruins of these successive
+buildings have been carefully excavated, and reveal a remarkable
+combination of dwelling-rooms, courts, temples, libraries, basilicas,
+baths, gardens, peristyles, fountains, terraces, and covered passages.
+These were adorned with a profusion of precious marbles, mosaics,
+columns, and statues. Parts of the demolished palace of Nero were
+incorporated in the substructions of the Baths of Titus. The beautiful
+arabesques and plaster reliefs
+<span class="pagenum">106</span>
+<a name="page106" id="page106"> </a>
+which adorned them were the inspiration of much of the fresco and stucco
+decoration of the Italian Renaissance. At Spalato, in Dalmatia, are the
+extensive ruins of the great <b>Palace of Diocletian</b>, which was laid
+out on the plan of a Roman camp, with two intersecting avenues (Fig.
+64). It comprised a temple, mausoleum, basilica, and other structures
+besides those portions devoted to the purposes of a royal residence.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig64" id="fig64"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig64.png" width="248" height="300"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 64.&mdash;PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN. SPALATO.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>villa</b> was in reality a country palace, arranged with
+special reference to the prevailing winds, exposure to the sun and
+shade, and the enjoyment of a wide prospect. Baths, temples,
+<i>exedræ</i>, theatres, tennis-courts, sun-rooms, and shaded porticoes
+were connected with the house proper, which was built around two or
+three interior courts or peristyles. Statues, fountains, and colossal
+vases of marble adorned the grounds, which were laid out in terraces and
+treated with all the fantastic arts of the Roman landscape-gardener. The
+most elaborate and extensive villa was that of <b>Hadrian</b>, at Tibur
+(Tivoli); its ruins, covering hundreds of acres, form one of the most
+interesting spots to visit in the neighborhood of Rome.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig65" id="fig65"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig65.png" width="211" height="403"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 65.&mdash;HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII.</p>
+
+<p class="caption w240">
+<i>s, Shops; v, Vestibule; f, Family Rooms; k, Kitchen; l, Lavarium;
+P,&nbsp;P,&nbsp;P, Peristyles.</i></p>
+
+<p>There are few remains in Rome of the <b>domus</b> or private house.
+Two, however, have left remarkably interesting ruins&mdash;the <b>Atrium
+Vestæ</b>, or House of the Vestal Virgins,
+<span class="pagenum">107</span>
+<a name="page107" id="page107"> </a>
+east of the Forum, a&nbsp;well-planned and extensive house surrounding a
+cloister or court; and the <b>House of Livia</b>, so-called, on the
+Palatine Hill, the walls and decorations of which are excellently
+preserved. The typical Roman house in a provincial town is best
+illustrated by the ruins of Pompeii and Herculanum, which, buried by an
+eruption of Vesuvius in 79 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, have
+been partially excavated since 1721. The Pompeiian house (Fig. 65)
+consisted of several courts or <i>atria</i>, some of which were
+surrounded by colonnades and called <i>peristyles</i>. The front portion
+was reserved for shops, or presented to the street a wall unbroken save
+by the entrance; all the rooms and chambers opened upon the interior
+courts, from which alone they borrowed their light. In the brilliant
+climate of southern Italy windows were little needed, as sufficient
+light was admitted by the door, closed only by portières for the most
+part; especially as the family life was passed mainly in the shaded
+courts, to which fountains, parterres of shrubbery, statues, and other
+adornments lent their inviting charm. The general plan of these houses
+seems to have been of Greek origin, as well as the system of decoration
+used on the walls. These, when not wainscoted with
+<span class="pagenum">108</span>
+<a name="page108" id="page108"> </a>
+marble, were covered with fantastic, but often artistic, painted
+decorations, in which an imaginary architecture as of metal,
+a&nbsp;fantastic and arbitrary perspective, illusory pictures, and
+highly finished figures were the chief elements. These were executed in
+brilliant colors with excellent effect. The houses were lightly built,
+with wooden ceilings and roofs instead of vaulting, and usually with but
+one story on account of the danger from earthquakes. That the
+workmanship and decoration were in the capital often superior to what
+was to be found in a provincial town like Pompeii, is evidenced by
+beautiful wall-paintings and reliefs discovered in Rome in 1879 and now
+preserved in the Museo delle Terme. More or less fragmentary remains of
+Roman houses have been found in almost every corner of the Roman empire,
+but nowhere exhibiting as completely as in Pompeii the typical Roman
+arrangement.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>WORKS OF UTILITY.</b> A word should be said about Roman
+engineering works, which in many cases were designed with an artistic
+sense of proportion and form which raises them into the domain of
+genuine art. Such were especially the bridges, in which a remarkable
+effect of monumental grandeur was often produced by the form and
+proportions of the arches and piers, and an appropriate use of rough and
+dressed masonry, as in the Pons Ælius (Ponte S.&nbsp;Angelo), the great
+bridge at Alcantara (Spain), and the Pont du Gard, in southern France.
+The aqueducts are impressive rather by their length, scale, and
+simplicity, than by any special refinements of design, except where
+their arches are treated with some architectural decoration to form
+gates, as in the Porta Maggiore, at Rome.</p>
+
+
+<p class="monuments">
+<b>MONUMENTS:</b> (Those which have no important extant remains are
+given in italics.) <span class="smallcaps">Temples</span>: <i>Jupiter
+Capitolinus</i>, 600 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>Ceres,
+Liber, and Libera</i>, 494 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> (ruins
+of later rebuilding in S.&nbsp;Maria in Cosmedin); <i>first T. of
+Concord</i> (rebuilt in Augustan age), 254 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>first marble temple</i> in <i>portico of
+Metellus</i>, by a Greek, Hermodorus, 143 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; temples of Fortune at
+<span class="pagenum">109</span>
+<a name="page109" id="page109"> </a>
+Præneste and at Rome, and of “Vesta” at Rome, 83&ndash;78 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; of “Vesta” at Tivoli, and of Hercules at Cori,
+72 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>first Pantheon</i>, 27
+<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span> In Augustan Age temples of
+<i>Apollo</i>, Concord rebuilt, Dioscuri, <i>Julius</i>, <i>Jupiter
+Stator</i>, <i>Jupiter Tonans</i>, Mars Ultor, Minerva (<i>at Rome</i>
+and Assisi), Maison Carrée at Nîmes, Saturn; at Puteoli, Pola, etc.
+<i>T.&nbsp;of Peace</i>; <i>T.&nbsp;Jupiter Capitolinus</i>, rebuilt 70
+<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; temple at Brescia. Temple of
+Vespasian, 96 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; also <i>of
+Minerva</i> in Forum of Nerva; <i>of Trajan</i>, 117 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; second Pantheon; T.&nbsp;of Venus and Rome at
+Rome, and of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, 135&ndash;138 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Faustina, 141 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; many in Syria; temples of Sun at <i>Rome</i>,
+Baalbec, and Palmyra, cir. 273 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>;
+of Romulus, 305 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (porch
+S.&nbsp;Cosmo and Damiano). <span class="smallcaps">Places of
+Assembly</span>: <span class="smallcaps">Fora</span>&mdash;Roman,
+Julian, 46 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; Augustan, 40&ndash;42
+<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>of Peace</i>, 75 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Nerva, 97 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Trajan (by Apollodorus of Damascus, 117 <ins
+class="correction" title=") missing"><span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>)</ins> <span class="smallcaps">Basilicas</span>: <i>Sempronian</i>, <i>Æmilian</i>, 1st
+century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; Julian, 51 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>Septa Julia</i>, 26 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; the Curia, later rebuilt by Diocletian, 300
+<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (now Church of S.&nbsp;Adriano);
+<i>at Fano</i>, 20 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (?); Forum and
+Basilica at Pompeii, 60 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; of
+Trajan; of Constantine, 310&ndash;324 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> <span class="smallcaps">Theatres</span> (th.)
+and <span class="smallcaps">Amphitheatres</span> (amp.): th.
+<i>Pompey</i>, 55 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; of
+<i>Balbus</i> and of Marcellus, 13 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; th. and amp. at Pompeii and Herculanum;
+Colosseum at Rome, 78&ndash;82 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>;
+th. at Orange and in Asia Minor; amp. at Albano, Constantine, Nîmes,
+Petra, Pola, Reggio, Trevi, Tusculum, Verona, etc.; amp. Castrense at
+Rome, 96 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> Circuses and stadia at
+Rome. <span class="smallcaps">Thermæ</span>: of Agrippa, 27 <span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>of Nero</i>; of Titus, 78 <span
+class="smallroman">A.D.</span> <i>Domitian</i>, 90 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Caracalla, 211 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Diocletian, 305 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; <i>Constantine</i>, 320 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; “Minerva Medica,” 3d or 4th century <span
+class="smallroman">A.D.</span> <span class="smallcaps">Arches</span>: <i>of Stertinius</i>, 196 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>Scipio</i>, 190 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; <i>Augustus</i>, 30 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; Titus, 71&ndash;82 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; <i>Trajan</i>, 117 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Severus, 203 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Constantine, 320 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; of Drusus, Dolabella, Silversmiths, 204 <span
+class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Janus Quadrifrons, 320 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> (?); all at Rome. Others at Benevento, Ancona,
+Rimini in Italy; also at Athens, and at Reims and St. Chamas in France.
+Columns of Trajan, <i>Antoninus</i>, Marcus Aurelius at Rome, others at
+Constantinople, Alexandria, etc. <span class="smallcaps">Tombs</span>:
+along Via Appia and Via Latina, at Rome; Via Sacra at Pompeii;
+tower-tombs at St. Rémy in France; rock-cut at Petra; at Rome, of Caius
+Cestius and Cecilia Metella, 1st century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>; of Augustus, 14 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Hadrian, 138 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> <span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span> and
+<span class="smallcaps">Private Houses</span>: On Palatine, of
+Augustus, Tiberius, Nero, Domitian, Septimius Severus,
+<i>Elagabalus</i>; Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli; palaces of Diocletian at
+Spalato and <i>of Constantine</i> at Constantinople. House of Livia on
+Palatine (Augustan period); of Vestals, rebuilt by Hadrian, cir. 120
+<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> Houses at Pompeii and Herculanum,
+cir. 60&ndash;79 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>; Villas of
+Gordianus (“Tor’ de’ Schiavi,” 240 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>), and <i>of Sallust</i> at Rome and <i>of
+Pliny</i> at Laurentium.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="note14" id="note14" href="#tag14">14.</a>
+Lanciani: <i>Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries</i>,
+p.&nbsp;89.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">110</span>
+<a name="page110" id="page110"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapX" id="chapX">CHAPTER X.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Bunsen, <i>Die
+Basiliken christlichen Roms</i>. Butler, <i>Architecture and other Arts
+in Northern Central Syria</i>. Corroyer, <i>L’architecture romane</i>.
+Cummings, <i>A&nbsp;History of Architecture in Italy</i>. Essenwein
+(Handbuch d. Architektur), <i>Ausgänge der klassischen Baukunst</i>.
+Gutensohn u. Knapp, <i>Denkmäler <!-- missing umlaut --> der
+christlichen Religion</i>. Hübsch, <i>Monuments de l’architecture
+chrétienne</i>. Lanciani, <i>Pagan and Christian Rome</i>. Mothes,
+<i>Die Basilikenform bei den Christen</i>, etc. Okely, <i>Development of
+Christian Architecture in Italy</i>. Von Quast, <i>Die altchristlichen
+Bauwerke zu Ravenna</i>. De Rossi, <i>Roma Sotterranea</i>. De Vogüé,
+<i>Syrie Centrale</i>; <i>Églises de la Terre Sainte</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>INTRODUCTORY.</b> The official recognition of Christianity in the
+year 328 by Constantine simply legalized an institution which had been
+for three centuries gathering momentum for its final conquest of the
+antique world. The new religion rapidly enlisted in its service for a
+common purpose and under a common impulse races as wide apart in blood
+and culture as those which had built up the art of imperial Rome. It was
+Christianity which reduced to civilization in the West the Germanic
+hordes that had overthrown Rome, bringing their fresh and hitherto
+untamed vigor to the task of recreating architecture out of the decaying
+fragments of classic art. So in the East its life-giving influence awoke
+the slumbering Greek art-instinct to new triumphs in the arts of
+building, less refined and perfect indeed, but not less sublime than
+those of the Periclean age. Long before the Constantinian edict, the
+Christians in the Eastern provinces had enjoyed substantial freedom of
+worship. Meeting often in the private basilicas of wealthy converts, and
+<span class="pagenum">111</span>
+<a name="page111" id="page111"> </a>
+finding these, and still more the great public basilicas, suited to the
+requirements of their worship, they early began to build in imitation of
+these edifices. There are many remains of these early churches in
+northern Africa and central Syria.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>EARLY CHRISTIAN ART IN ROME.</b> This was at first wholly
+sepulchral, developing in the catacombs the symbols of the new faith.
+Once liberated, however, Christianity appropriated bodily for its public
+rites the basilica-type and the general substance of Roman architecture.
+Shafts and capitals, architraves and rich linings of veined marble, even
+the pagan Bacchic symbolism of the vine, it adapted to new uses in its
+own service. Constantine led the way in architecture, endowing Bethlehem
+and Jerusalem with splendid churches, and his new capital on the
+Bosphorus with the first of the three historic basilicas dedicated to
+the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia). One of the greatest of innovators, he
+seems to have had a special predilection for circular buildings, and the
+tombs and baptisteries which he erected in this form, especially that
+for his sister Constantia in Rome (known as Santa Costanza, Fig. 66),
+furnished the prototype for numberless Italian baptisteries in later
+ages.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig66" id="fig66"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig66.png" width="142" height="176"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 66.&mdash;STA. COSTANZA, ROME.</p>
+
+<p>The Christian basilica (see Figs. 67, 68) generally comprised a broad
+and lofty nave, separated by rows of columns from the single or double
+side-aisles. The aisles had usually about half the width and height of
+the nave, and like it were covered with wooden roofs and ceilings. Above
+the columns which flanked the nave rose the lofty clearstory wall,
+pierced with windows above the side-aisle roofs and supporting the
+immense trusses of the roof of the nave. The timbering of
+<span class="pagenum">112</span>
+<a name="page112" id="page112"> </a>
+the latter was sometimes bare, sometimes concealed by a richly panelled
+ceiling, carved, gilded, and painted. At the further end of the nave was
+the sanctuary or apse, with the seats for the clergy on a raised
+platform, the <i>bema</i>, in front of which was the altar. Transepts
+sometimes expanded to right and left before the altar, under which was
+the <i>confessio</i> or shrine of the titular saint or martyr.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>atrium</i> or forecourt surrounded by a covered arcade preceded
+the basilica proper, the arcade at the front of the church forming a
+porch or <i>narthex</i>, which, however, in some cases existed without
+the atrium. The exterior was extremely plain; the interior, on the
+contrary, was resplendent with incrustations of veined marble and with
+sumptuous decorations in glass mosaic (called <i>opus Grecanicum</i>) on
+a blue or golden ground. Especially rich were the half-dome of the apse
+and the wall-space surrounding its arch and called the <i>triumphal
+arch</i>; next in decorative importance came the broad band of wall
+beneath the clearstory windows. Upon these surfaces the mosaic-workers
+wrought with minute cubes of colored glass pictures and symbols almost
+imperishable, in which the glow of color and a certain decorative
+grandeur of effect in the composition went far to atone for the uncouth
+drawing. With growing wealth and an increasingly elaborate ritual, the
+furniture and equipments of the church assumed greater architectural
+importance. A&nbsp;large rectangular space was retained for the choir in
+front of the bema, and enclosed by a breast-high parapet of marble,
+richly inlaid. On either side were the pulpits or <i>ambones</i> for the
+Gospel and Epistle. A&nbsp;lofty canopy was built over the altar, the
+<i>baldaquin</i>, supported on four marble columns. A&nbsp;few basilicas
+were built with side-aisles, in two stories, as in S.&nbsp;Lorenzo and
+Sta. Agnese. Adjoining the basilica in the earlier examples were the
+baptistery and the tomb of the saint, circular or polygonal buildings
+usually; but in later times these were replaced
+<span class="pagenum">113</span>
+<a name="page113" id="page113"> </a>
+by the font or baptismal chapel in the church and the <i>confessio</i>
+under the altar.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig67" id="fig67"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig67.png" width="234" height="116"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 67.&mdash;PLAN OF THE BASILICA OF ST.&nbsp;PAUL.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two Constantinian basilicas in Rome, the one dedicated to
+<b>St. Peter</b> was demolished in the fifteenth century; that of <b>St.
+John Lateran</b> has been so disfigured by modern alterations as to be
+unrecognizable. The former of the two adjoined the site of the martyrdom
+of St. Peter in the circus of Caligula and Nero; it was five-aisled, 380
+feet in length by 212 feet in width. The nave was 80 feet wide and 100
+feet high, and the disproportionately high clearstory wall rested on
+horizontal architraves carried by columns. The impressive dimensions and
+simple plan of this structure gave it a majesty worthy of its rank as
+the first church of Christendom. <b>St. Paul beyond the Walls</b>
+(S.&nbsp;Paolo fuori le mura), built in 386 by Theodosius, resembled St.
+Peter’s closely in plan (Figs. 67, 68). Destroyed by fire in 1821, it
+has been rebuilt with almost its pristine splendor, and is, next to the
+modern St. Peter’s and the Pantheon, the most impressive place of
+worship in Rome. <b>Santa Maria Maggiore</b>,<a class="tag" name="tag15" id="tag15" href="#note15">15</a> though smaller in size, is
+more interesting because it so largely retains its original aspect, its
+Renaissance ceiling happily harmonizing with its simple antique lines.
+Ionic columns support architraves to carry the clearstory, as in St.
+Peter’s. In most other examples, St. Paul’s included, arches turned from
+column to column perform this function. The first known case of such use
+of classic columns as arch-bearers was in the palace of Diocletian at
+Spalato; it also appears in Syrian buildings of the third and fourth
+centuries&nbsp;<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig68" id="fig68"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig68.jpg" width="216" height="339"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 68.&mdash;ST. PAUL BEYOND THE WALLS. INTERIOR.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">114</span>
+<a name="page114" id="page114"> </a>
+<p>The basilica remained the model for ecclesiastical architecture in
+Rome, without noticeable change either of plan or detail, until the time
+of the Renaissance. All the earlier examples employed columns and
+capitals taken from ancient ruins, often incongruous and ill-matched in
+size and order. <b>San Clemente</b> (1084) has retained almost intact
+its early aspect, its choir-enclosure, baldaquin, and ambones having
+been well preserved or carefully restored. Other important basilicas are
+mentioned in the list of monuments on pages 118, 119.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>RAVENNA.</b> The fifth and sixth centuries endowed Ravenna with a
+number of notable buildings which, with the exception of the cathedral,
+demolished in the last century, have been preserved to our day. Subdued
+by the Byzantine emperor Justinian in 537, Ravenna became the
+meeting-ground for Early Christian and Byzantine traditions and the
+basilican and circular plans are both represented. The two churches
+dedicated to St. Apollinaris, <b>S.&nbsp;Apollinare Nuovo</b> (520) in
+the city, and <b>S.&nbsp;Apollinare in Classe</b> (538) three miles
+distant from the city, in what was formerly the port, are especially
+interesting for their fine mosaics, and for the impost-blocks interposed
+above the capitals of their columns to receive the springing of the
+pier-arches. These blocks appear to be somewhat crude modifications
+<span class="pagenum">115</span>
+<a name="page115" id="page115"> </a>
+of the fragmentary architraves or entablatures employed in classic Roman
+architecture to receive the springing of vaults sustained by columns,
+and became common in Byzantine structures (<a href="#fig73">Fig.&nbsp;73</a>). The use of external arcading to give some
+slight adornment to the walls of the second of the above-named churches,
+and the round bell-towers of brick which adjoined both of them, were
+first steps toward the development of the “wall-veil” or arcaded
+decoration, and of the campaniles, which in later centuries became so
+characteristic of north Italian churches (see Chapter XIII.). In Rome
+the campaniles which accompany many of the mediæval basilicas are square
+and pierced with many windows.</p>
+
+<p>The basilican form of church became general in Italy, a&nbsp;large
+proportion of whose churches continued to be built with wooden roofs and
+with but slight deviations from the original type, long after the
+appearance of the Gothic style. The chief departures from early
+precedent were in the exterior, which was embellished with marble
+incrustations as in S.&nbsp;Miniato (Florence); or with successive
+stories of wall-arcades, as in many churches in Pisa and Lucca (see <a
+href="#fig90">Fig.&nbsp;90</a>); until finally the introduction of
+clustered piers, pointed arches, and vaulting, gradually transformed the
+basilican into the Italian Romanesque and Gothic styles.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>SYRIA AND THE EAST.</b> In Syria, particularly the central
+portion, the Christian architecture of the 3d to 8th centuries produced
+a number of very interesting monuments. The churches built by
+Constantine in Syria&mdash;the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem
+(nominally built by his mother), of the Ascension at Jerusalem, the
+magnificent octagonal church on the site of the Temple, and finally the
+somewhat similar church at Antioch&mdash;were the most notable Christian
+monuments in Syria. The first three on the list, still extant in part at
+least, have been so altered by later
+<span class="pagenum">116</span>
+<a name="page116" id="page116"> </a>
+additions and restorations that their original forms are only
+approximately known from early descriptions. They were all of large
+size, and the octagonal church on the Temple platform was of exceptional
+magnificence.<a class="tag" name="tag16" id="tag16" href="#note16">16</a> The columns and a part of the marble incrustations of
+the early design are still visible in the “Mosque of Omar,” but most of
+the old work is concealed by the decoration of tiles applied by the
+Moslems, and the whole interior aspect altered by the wood-and-plaster
+dome with which they replaced the simpler roof of the original.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft w240">
+<a name="fig69" id="fig69"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig69.png" width="211" height="215"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 69.&mdash;CHURCH AT KALB LOUZEH.</p>
+
+<p>Christian architecture in Syria soon, however, diverged from Roman
+traditions. The abundance of hard stone, the total lack of clay or
+brick, the remoteness from Rome, led to a peculiar independence and
+originality in the forms and details of the ecclesiastical as well as of
+the domestic architecture of central Syria. These innovations upon Roman
+models resulted in the development of distinct types which, but for the
+arrest of progress by the Mohammedan conquest in the seventh century,
+would doubtless have inaugurated a new and independent style of
+architecture. Piers of masonry came
+<span class="pagenum">117</span>
+<a name="page117" id="page117"> </a>
+to replace the classic column, as at Tafkha (third or fourth century),
+Rouheiha and Kalb Louzeh (fifth century? Fig. 69); the ceilings in the
+smaller churches were often formed with stone slabs; the apse was at
+first confined within the main rectangle of the plan, and was sometimes
+square. The exterior assumed a striking and picturesque variety of forms
+by means of turrets, porches, and gables. Singularly enough, vaulting
+hardly appears at all, though the arch is used with fine effect.
+Conventional and monastic groups of buildings appear early in Syria, and
+that of <b>St. Simeon Stylites</b> at Kelat Seman is an impressive and
+interesting monument. Four three-aisled wings form the arms of a cross,
+meeting in a central octagonal open court, in the midst of which stood
+the column of the saint. The eastern arm of the cross forms a complete
+basilica of itself, and the whole cross measures 330 × 300 feet.
+Chapels, cloisters, and cells adjoin the main edifice.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig70" id="fig70"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig70.png" width="179" height="229"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 70.&mdash;CATHEDRAL AT BOZRAH.</p>
+
+<p>Circular and polygonal plans appear in a number of Syrian examples of
+the early sixth century. Their most striking feature is the inscribing
+of the circle or polygon in a square which forms the exterior outline,
+and the use of four niches to fill out the corners. This occurs at Kelat
+Seman in a small double church, perhaps the tomb and chapel of a martyr;
+in the cathedral at <b>Bozrah</b> (Fig. 70), and in the small domical
+church of <b>St. George</b> at <b>Ezra</b>. These were probably the
+prototypes of many Byzantine churches like St. Sergius at
+Constantinople, and San Vitale at Ravenna (<a href="#fig74">Fig.&nbsp;74</a>), though the exact dates of the Syrian
+<span class="pagenum">118</span>
+<a name="page118" id="page118"> </a>
+churches are not known. The one at Ezra is the only one of the three
+which has a dome, the others having been roofed with wood.</p>
+
+<p>The interesting domestic architecture of this period is preserved in
+whole towns and villages in the Hauran, which, deserted at the Arab
+conquest, have never been reoccupied and remain almost intact but for
+the decay of their wooden roofs. They are marked by dignity and
+simplicity of design, and by the same picturesque massing of gables and
+roofs and porches which has already been remarked of the churches. The
+arches are broad, the columns rather heavy, the mouldings few and
+simple, and the scanty carving vigorous and effective, often strongly
+Byzantine in type.</p>
+
+<p>Elsewhere in the Eastern world are many early churches of which even
+the enumeration would exceed the limits of this work. Salonica counts a
+number of basilicas and several domical churches. The church of <b>St.
+George</b>, now a mosque, is of early date and thoroughly Roman in plan
+and section, of the same class with the Pantheon and the tomb of Helena,
+in both of which a massive circular wall is lightened by eight niches.
+At Angora (Ancyra), Hierapolis, Pergamus, and other points in Asia
+Minor; in Egypt, Nubia, and Algiers, are many examples of both circular
+and basilican edifices of the early centuries of Christianity. In
+Constantinople there remains but a single representative of the
+basilican type, the church of <b>St. John Studius</b>, now the Emir
+Akhor mosque.</p>
+
+<p class="monuments">
+<b>MONUMENTS</b>: <span class="smallcaps">Rome</span>: 4th century:
+St. Peter’s, Sta. Costanza, 330?; Sta. Pudentiana, 335 (rebuilt 1598);
+tomb of St. Helena; Baptistery of Constantine; St. Paul’s beyond the
+Walls, 386; St. John Lateran (wholly remodelled in modern times). 5th
+century: Baptistery of St. John Lateran; Sta. Sabina, 425; Sta. Maria
+Maggiore, 432; S.&nbsp;Pietro in Vincoli, 442 (greatly altered in modern
+times). 6th century: S.&nbsp;Lorenzo, 580 (the older portion in two
+stories); SS. Cosmo e Damiano. 7th century: Sta. Agnese, 625;
+S.&nbsp;Giorgio in Velabro, 682. 8th century: Sta. Maria in
+<span class="pagenum">119</span>
+<a name="page119" id="page119"> </a>
+Cosmedin; S.&nbsp;Crisogono. 9th century: S.&nbsp;Nereo ed Achilleo;
+Sta. Prassede; Sta. Maria in Dominica. 12th and 13th centuries:
+S.&nbsp;Clemente, 1118; Sta. Maria in Trastevere; S.&nbsp;Lorenzo
+(nave); Sta. Maria in Ara Coeli. <span class="smallcaps">Ravenna</span>: Baptistery of S.&nbsp;John, 400 (?);
+S.&nbsp;Francesco; S.&nbsp;Giovanni Evangelista, 425; Sta. Agata, 430;
+S.&nbsp;Giovanni Battista, 439; tomb of Galla Placidia, 450;
+S.&nbsp;Apollinare Nuovo, 500&ndash;520; S.&nbsp;Apollinare in Classe,
+538; St. Victor; Sta. Maria in Cosmedin (the Arian Baptistery); tomb of
+Theodoric (Sta. Maria della Rotonda, a&nbsp;decagonal two-storied
+mausoleum, with a low dome cut from a single stone 36 feet in diameter),
+530&ndash;540. <span class="smallcaps">Italy in General</span>:
+basilica at Parenzo, 6th century; cathedral and Sta. Fosca at Torcello,
+640&ndash;700; at Naples Sta. Restituta, 7th century; others, mostly of
+10th-13th centuries, at Murano near Venice, at Florence
+(S.&nbsp;Miniato), Spoleto, Toscanella, etc.; baptisteries at Asti,
+Florence, Nocera dei Pagani, and other places. <span class="smallcaps">In Syria and The East</span>: basilicas of the Nativity at
+Bethlehem, of the Sepulchre and of the Ascension at Jerusalem; also
+polygonal church on Temple platform; these all of 4th century. Basilicas
+at Bakouzah, Hass, Kelat Seman, Kalb Louzeh, Rouheiha, Tourmanin, etc.;
+circular churches, tombs, and baptisteries at Bozrah, Ezra, Hass, Kelat
+Seman, Rouheiha, etc.; all these 4th-8th centuries. Churches at
+Constantinople (Holy Wisdom, St. John Studius, etc.), Hierapolis,
+Pergamus, and Thessalonica (St. Demetrius, “Eski Djuma”); in Egypt and
+Nubia (Djemla, Announa, Ibreem, Siout, etc.); at Orléansville in
+Algeria. (For churches, etc., of 8th-10th centuries in the West, see
+Chapter XIII.)</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="note15" id="note15" href="#tag15">15.</a>
+Hereafter the abbreviation S. M. will be generally used instead of the
+name Santa Maria.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note16" id="note16" href="#tag16">16.</a>
+Fergusson (<i>History of Architecture</i>, vol. ii., pp. 408, 432)
+contends that this was the real Constantinian church of the Holy
+Sepulchre, and that the one called to-day by that name was erected by
+the Crusaders in the twelfth century. The more general view is that the
+latter was originally built by Constantine as the Church of the
+Sepulchre, though subsequently much altered, and that the octagonal
+edifice was also his work, but erected under some other name. Whether
+this church was later incorporated in the “Mosque of Omar,” or merely
+furnished some of the materials for its construction, is not quite
+clear.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">120</span>
+<a name="page120" id="page120"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXI" id="chapXI">CHAPTER XI.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before,
+Essenwein, Hübsch, Von Quast. Also, Bayet, <i>L’Art Byzantin</i>.
+Choisy, <i>L’Art de bâtir chez les Byzantins</i>. Lethaby and Swainson,
+<i>Sancta Sophia</i>. Ongania, <i>La Basilica di San Marco</i>. Pulgher,
+<i>Anciennes Églises Byzantines de Constantinople</i>. Salzenberg,
+<i>Altchristliche Baudenkmäle <!--missing umlaut --> von
+Constantinopel</i>. Texier and Pullan, <i>Byzantine
+Architecture</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ORIGIN AND CHARACTER.</b> The decline and fall of Rome arrested
+the development of the basilican style in the West, as did the Arab
+conquest later in Syria. It was otherwise in the new Eastern capital
+founded by Constantine in the ancient Byzantium, which was rising in
+power and wealth while Rome lay in ruins. Situated at the strategic
+point of the natural highway of commerce between East and West,
+salubrious and enchantingly beautiful in its surroundings, the new
+capital grew rapidly from provincial insignificance to metropolitan
+importance. Its founder had embellished it with an extraordinary wealth
+of buildings, in which, owing to the scarcity of trained architects,
+quantity and cost doubtless outran quality. But at least the tameness of
+blindly followed precedent was avoided, and this departure from
+traditional tenets contributed undoubtedly to the originality of
+Byzantine architecture. A&nbsp;large part of the artisans employed in
+building were then, as now, from Asia Minor and the Ægean Islands, Greek
+in race if not in name. An Oriental taste for brilliant and harmonious
+color and for minute decoration spread over broad
+<span class="pagenum">121</span>
+<a name="page121" id="page121"> </a>
+surfaces must have been stimulated by trade with the Far East and by
+constant contact with Oriental peoples, costumes, and arts. An Asiatic
+origin may also be assigned to the methods of vaulting employed, far
+more varied than the Roman, not only in form but also in materials and
+processes. From Roman architecture, however, the Byzantines borrowed the
+fundamental notion of their structural art; that, namely, of
+distributing the weights and strains of their vaulted structures upon
+isolated and massive points of support, strengthened by deep buttresses,
+internal or external, as the case might be. Roman, likewise, was the use
+of polished monolithic columns, and the incrustation of the piers and
+walls with panels of variegated marble, as well as the decoration of
+plastered surfaces by fresco and mosaic, and the use of <i>opus
+sectile</i> and <i>opus Alexandrinum</i> for the production of sumptuous
+marble pavements. In the first of these processes the color-figures of
+the pattern are formed each of a single piece of marble cut to the shape
+required; in the second the pattern is compounded of minute squares,
+triangles, and curved pieces of uniform size. Under these combined
+influences the artists of Constantinople wrought out new problems in
+construction and decoration, giving to all that they touched a new and
+striking character.</p>
+
+<p>There is no absolute line of demarcation, chronological,
+geographical, or structural, between Early Christian and Byzantine
+architecture. But the former was especially characterized by the
+basilica with three or five aisles, and the use of wooden roofs even in
+its circular edifices; the vault and dome, though not unknown, being
+exceedingly rare. Byzantine architecture, on the other hand, rarely
+produced the simple three-aisled or five-aisled basilica, and nearly all
+its monuments were vaulted. The dome was especially frequent, and
+Byzantine architecture achieved its highest triumphs in the use of the
+<i>pendentive</i>, as the triangular spherical surfaces are called, by
+the aid of which a
+<span class="pagenum">122</span>
+<a name="page122" id="page122"> </a>
+dome can be supported on the summits of four arches spanning the four
+sides of a square, as explained later. There is as little uniformity in
+the plans of Byzantine buildings as in the forms of the vaulting.
+A&nbsp;few types of church-plan, however, predominated locally in one or
+another centre; but the controlling feature of the style was the dome
+and the constructive system with which it was associated. The dome, it
+is true, had long been used by the Romans, but always on a circular
+plan, as in the Pantheon. It is also a fact that pendentives have been
+found in Syria and Asia Minor older than the oldest Byzantine examples.
+But the special feature characterizing the Byzantine dome on pendentives
+was its almost exclusive association with plans having piers and columns
+or aisles, with the dome as the central and dominant feature of the
+complex design (see plans, Figs. <a href="#fig74">74</a>, <a href="#fig75">75</a>, <a href="#fig78">78</a>). Another strictly Byzantine
+practice was the piercing of the lower portion of the dome with windows
+forming a circle or crown, and the final development of this feature
+into a high drum.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CONSTRUCTION.</b> Still another divergence from Roman methods was
+in the substitution of brick and stone masonry for concrete. Brick was
+used for the mass as well as the facing of walls and piers, and for the
+vaulting in many buildings mainly built of stone. Stone was used either
+alone or in combination with brick, the latter appearing in bands of
+four or five courses at intervals of three or four feet. In later work a
+regular alternation of the two materials, course for course, was not
+uncommon. In piers intended to support unusually heavy loads the stone
+was very carefully cut and fitted, and sometimes tied and clamped with
+iron.</p>
+
+<p>Vaults were built sometimes of brick, sometimes of cut stone; in a
+few cases even of earthenware jars fitting into each other, and laid up
+in a continuous contracting spiral from the base to the crown of a dome,
+as in San Vitale at
+<span class="pagenum">123</span>
+<a name="page123" id="page123"> </a>
+Ravenna. Ingenious processes for building vaults without centrings were
+made use of&mdash;processes inherited from the drain-builders of ancient
+Assyria, and still in vogue in Armenia, Persia, and Asia Minor. The
+groined vault was common, but always approximated the form of a dome, by
+a longitudinal convexity upward in the intersecting vaults. The aisles
+of Hagia Sophia<a class="tag" name="tag17" id="tag17" href="#note17">17</a> display a remarkable variety of forms in the
+vaulting.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig71" id="fig71"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig71.png" width="220" height="246"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 71.&mdash;DIAGRAM OF PENDENTIVES.</p>
+
+<p><b>DOMES.</b> The dome, as we have seen, early became the most
+characteristic feature of Byzantine architecture; and especially the
+dome on pendentives. If a hemisphere be cut by five planes, four
+perpendicular to its base and bounding a square inscribed therein, and
+the fifth plane parallel to the base and tangent to the semicircular
+intersections made by the first four, there will remain of the original
+surface only four triangular spaces bounded by arcs of circles. These
+are called <i>pendentives</i> (Fig. 71&nbsp;<i>a</i>). When these are
+built up of masonry, each course forms a species of arch, by virtue of
+its convexity. At the crown of the four arches on which they rest, these
+courses meet and form a complete circle, perfectly stable and capable of
+sustaining any superstructure that does not by excessive weight disrupt
+the whole fabric by overthrowing
+<span class="pagenum">124</span>
+<a name="page124" id="page124"> </a>
+the four arches which support it. Upon these pendentives, then,
+a&nbsp;new dome may be started of any desired curvature, or even a
+cylindrical drum to support a still loftier dome, as in the later
+churches (Fig. 71&nbsp;<i>b</i>). This method of covering a square is
+simpler than the groined vault, having no sharp edges or intersections;
+it is at least as effective architecturally, by reason of its greater
+height in the centre; and is equally applicable to successive bays of an
+oblong, cruciform, and even columnar building. In the great cisterns at
+Constantinople vast areas are covered by rows of small domes supported
+on ranges of columns.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier domes were commonly pierced with windows at the base,
+this apparent weakening of the vault being compensated for by strongly
+buttressing the piers between the windows, as in Hagia Sophia. Here
+forty windows form a crown of light at the spring of the dome, producing
+an effect almost as striking as that of the simple <i>oculus</i> of the
+Pantheon, and celebrated by ancient writers in the most extravagant
+terms. In later and smaller churches a high drum was introduced beneath
+the dome, in order to secure, by means of longer windows, more light
+than could be obtained by merely piercing the diminutive domes.</p>
+
+<p>Buttressing was well understood by the Byzantines, whose plans were
+skilfully devised to provide internal abutments, which were often
+continued above the roofs of the side-aisles to prop the main vaults,
+precisely as was done by the Romans in their thermæ and similar halls.
+But the Byzantines, while adhering less strictly than the Romans to
+traditional forms and processes, and displaying much more ready
+contrivance and special adaptation of means to ends, never worked out
+this pregnant structural principle to its logical conclusion as did the
+Gothic architects of Western Europe a few centuries later.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>DECORATION</b>. The exteriors of Byzantine buildings (except in
+some of the small churches of late date) were
+<span class="pagenum">125</span>
+<a name="page125" id="page125"> </a>
+generally bare and lacking in beauty. The interiors, on the contrary,
+were richly decorated, color playing a much larger part than carving in
+the designs. Painting was resorted to only in the smaller buildings, the
+more durable and splendid medium of mosaic being usually preferred. This
+was, as a rule, confined to the vaults and to those portions of the
+wall-surfaces embraced by the vaults above their springing. The colors
+were brilliant, the background being usually of gold, though sometimes
+of blue or a delicate green. Biblical scenes, symbolic and allegorical
+figures and groups of saints adorned the larger areas, particularly the
+half-dome of the apse, as in the basilicas. The smaller vaults, the
+soffits of arches, borders of pictures, and other minor surfaces,
+received a more conventional decoration of crosses, monograms, and set
+patterns.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig72" id="fig72"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig72.jpg" width="249" height="287"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 72.&mdash;SPANDRIL. HAGIA SOPHIA.</p>
+
+<p>The walls throughout were sheathed with slabs of rare marble in
+panels so disposed that the veining should produce symmetrical figures.
+The panels were framed in billet-mouldings, derived perhaps from classic
+dentils; the billets or projections on one side the moulding coming
+opposite the spaces on the other. This seems to have been a purely
+Byzantine feature.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CARVED DETAILS.</b> Internally the different stories were marked
+by horizontal bands and cornices of white or inlaid marble richly
+carved. The arch-soffits, the archivolts or
+<span class="pagenum">126</span>
+<a name="page126" id="page126"> </a>
+bands around the arches, and the spandrils between them were covered
+with minute and intricate incised carving. The motives used, though
+based on the acanthus and anthemion, were given a wholly new aspect. The
+relief was low and flat, the leaves sharp and crowded, and the effect
+rich and lacelike, rather than vigorous. It was, however, well adapted
+to the covering of large areas where general effect was more important
+than detail. Even the capitals were treated in the same spirit. The
+impost-block was almost universal, except where its use was rendered
+unnecessary by giving to the capital itself the massive pyramidal form
+required to receive properly the spring of the arch or vault. In such
+cases (more frequent in Constantinople than elsewhere) the surface of
+the capital was simply covered with incised carving of foliage,
+basketwork, monograms, etc.; rudimentary volutes in a few cases
+recalling classic traditions (Figs. 72, 73). The mouldings were weak and
+poorly executed, and the vigorous profiles of classic cornices were only
+remotely suggested by the characterless aggregations of mouldings which
+took their place.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig73" id="fig73"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig73.jpg" width="248" height="312"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 73.&mdash;CAPITAL WITH IMPOST BLOCK, S.&nbsp;VITALE.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig74" id="fig74"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig74.png" width="159" height="204"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 74.&mdash;ST. SERGIUS, CONSTANTINOPLE.</p>
+
+<p><b>PLANS.</b> The remains of Byzantine architecture are almost
+exclusively of churches and baptisteries, but the plans of these are
+exceedingly varied. The first radical departure
+<span class="pagenum">127</span>
+<a name="page127" id="page127"> </a>
+from the basilica-type seems to have been the adoption of circular or
+polygonal plans, such as had usually served only for tombs and
+baptisteries. The Baptistery of St. John at Ravenna (early fifth
+century) is classed by many authorities as a Byzantine monument. In the
+early years of the sixth century the adoption of this model had become
+quite general, and with it the development of domical design began to
+advance. The church of <b>St. Sergius</b> at Constantinople (Fig. 74),
+originally joined to a short basilica dedicated to St. Bacchus
+(afterward destroyed by the Turks), as in the double church at Kelat
+Seman, was built about 520; that of <b>San Vitale</b> at Ravenna was
+begun a few years later; both are domical churches on an octagonal plan,
+with an exterior aisle. Semicircular niches&mdash;four in St. Sergius
+and eight in San Vitale&mdash;projecting into the aisle, enlarge
+somewhat the area of the central space and give variety to the internal
+effect. The origin of this characteristic feature may be traced to the
+eight niches of the Pantheon, through such intermediate examples as the
+temple of Minerva Medica at Rome. The true pendentive does not appear in
+these two churches.
+<span class="illustration floatleft">
+<a name="fig75" id="fig75"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig75.png" width="174" height="254"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 75.&mdash;PLAN OF HAGIA SOPHIA.</span>
+Timidly employed up to that time in small structures, it received a
+remarkable development in the magnificent church of <b>Hagia Sophia</b>,
+built by Anthemius of Tralles and Isodorus of Miletus, under Justinian,
+532&ndash;538 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> In the plan of this
+marvellous edifice (Fig. 75) the dome rests upon four mighty arches
+bounding a square, into two of which open the half-domes of semicircular
+apses. These apses are penetrated and extended each by two smaller
+niches and a central arch, and the whole vast nave, measuring over 200 ×
+100 feet, is flanked by
+<span class="pagenum">128</span>
+<a name="page128" id="page128"> </a>
+enormously wide aisles connecting at the front with a majestic narthex.
+Huge transverse buttresses, as in the Basilica of Constantine (with
+whose structural design this building shows striking affinities), divide
+the aisles each into three sections. The plan suggests that of St.
+Sergius cut in two, with a lofty dome on pendentives over a square plan
+inserted between the halves. Thus was secured a noble and unobstructed
+hall of unrivalled proportions and great beauty, covered by a
+combination of half-domes increasing in span and height as they lead up
+successively to the stupendous central vault, which rises 180 feet into
+the air and fitly crowns the whole. The imposing effect of this
+low-curved but loftily-poised dome, resting as it does upon a crown of
+windows, and so disposed that its summit is visible from every point of
+the nave (as may be easily seen from an examination of the section, Fig.
+76), is not surpassed in any interior ever erected.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig76" id="fig76"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig76.png" width="377" height="205"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 76.&mdash;SECTION OF HAGIA SOPHIA.</p>
+
+<a name="page131" id="page131"> </a>
+<p>The two lateral arches under the dome are filled by clearstory walls
+pierced by twelve windows, and resting on arcades in two stories carried
+by magnificent columns taken from ancient ruins. These separate the nave
+from the side-aisles, which are in two stories forming galleries, and
+are vaulted with a remarkable variety of groined vaults. All the masses
+are disposed with studied reference to the resistance required by the
+many and complex thrusts exerted by the dome and other vaults. That the
+earthquakes of one thousand three hundred and fifty years have not
+destroyed the church is the best evidence of the sufficiency of these
+precautions.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">[129]</span>
+<a name="page129" id="page129"> </a>
+<a name="page130" id="page130"> </a>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig77" id="fig77"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig77.jpg" width="485" height="309"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 77.&mdash;INTERIOR OF HAGIA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">131</span>
+<p>Not less remarkable than the noble planning and construction of this
+church was the treatment of scale and decoration in its interior design.
+It was as conspicuously the masterpiece of Byzantine architecture as the
+Parthenon was of the classic Greek. With little external beauty, it is
+internally one of the most perfectly composed and beautifully decorated
+halls of worship ever erected. Instead of the simplicity of the Pantheon
+it displays the complexity of an organism of admirably related parts.
+The division of the interior height into two stories below the spring of
+the four arches, reduces the component parts of the design to moderate
+dimensions, so that the scale of the whole is more easily grasped and
+its vast size emphasized by the contrast. The walls are incrusted with
+precious marbles up to the spring of the vaulting; the capitals,
+spandrils, and soffits are richly and minutely carved with incised
+ornament, and all the vaults covered with splendid mosaics. Dimmed by
+the lapse of centuries and disfigured by the vandalism of the Moslems,
+this noble interior, by the harmony of its coloring and its impressive
+grandeur, is one of the masterpieces of all time (Fig. 77).</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LATER CHURCHES.</b> After the sixth century no monuments were
+built at all rivalling in scale the creations of the
+<span class="pagenum">132</span>
+<a name="page132" id="page132"> </a>
+former period. The later churches were, with few exceptions, relatively
+small and trivial. Neither the plan nor the general aspect of Hagia
+Sophia seems to have been imitated in these later works. The crown of
+dome-windows was replaced by a cylindrical drum under the dome, which
+was usually of insignificant size. The exterior was treated more
+decoratively than before, by means of bands and incrustations of colored
+marble, or alternations of stone and brick; and internally mosaic
+continued to be executed with great skill and of great beauty until the
+tenth century, when the art rapidly declined. These later churches, of
+which a number were spared by the Turks, are, therefore, generally
+pleasing and elegant rather than striking or imposing.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig78" id="fig78"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig78.png" width="169" height="224"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 78.&mdash;PLAN OF ST. MARK’S, VENICE.</p>
+
+<p><b>FOREIGN MONUMENTS.</b> The influence of Byzantine art was
+wide-spread, both in Europe and Asia. The leading city of civilization
+through the Dark Ages, Constantinople influenced Italy through her
+political and commercial relations with Ravenna, Genoa, and Venice. The
+church of <b>St. Mark</b> in the latter city was one result of this
+influence (Figs. 78, 79). Begun in 1063 to replace an earlier church
+destroyed by fire, it received through several centuries additions not
+always Byzantine in character. Yet it was mainly the work of Byzantine
+builders, who copied most probably the church of the Apostles at
+Constantinople, built by Justinian. The picturesque but wholly
+unstructural use of columns in the entrance porches, the upper parts of
+the façade, the wooden cupolas over the five domes, and the pointed
+arches in the narthex, are deviations from Byzantine traditions dating
+in part from the later Middle Ages
+<span class="pagenum">133</span>
+<a name="page133" id="page133"> </a>
+Nothing could well be conceived more irrational, from a structural point
+of view, than the accumulation of columns in the entrance-arches; but
+the total effect is so picturesque and so rich in color, that its
+architectural defects are easily overlooked. The external veneering of
+white and colored marble occurs rarely in the East, but became a
+favorite practice in Venice, where it continued in use for five hundred
+years. The interior of St. Mark’s, in some respects better preserved
+than that of Hagia Sophia, is especially fine in color, though not equal
+in scale and grandeur to the latter church. With its five domes it has
+less unity of effect than Hagia Sophia, but more of the charm of
+picturesqueness, and its less brilliant and simpler lighting enhances
+the impressiveness of its more modest dimensions.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig79" id="fig79"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig79.jpg" width="441" height="364"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 79.&mdash;INTERIOR OF ST. MARK’S.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">134</span>
+<a name="page134" id="page134"> </a>
+<p>In Russia and Greece the Byzantine style has continued to be the
+official style of the Greek Church. The Russian monuments are for the
+most part of a somewhat fantastic aspect, the Muscovite taste having
+introduced many innovations in the form of bulbous domes and other
+eccentric details. In Greece there are few large churches, and some of
+the most interesting, like the Cathedral at Athens, are almost toy-like
+in their diminutiveness. On <b>Mt. Athos</b> (Hagion Oros) is an ancient
+monastery which still retains its Byzantine character and traditions. In
+Armenia (as at Ani, Etchmiadzin, etc.) are also interesting examples of
+late Armeno-Byzantine architecture, showing applications to exterior
+carved detail of elaborate interlaced ornament looking like a re-echo of
+Celtic MSS. illumination, itself, no doubt, originating in Byzantine
+traditions. But the greatest and most prolific offspring of Byzantine
+architecture appeared after the fall of Constantinople (1453) in the new
+mosque-architecture of the victorious Turks.</p>
+
+<p class="monuments">
+<b>MONUMENTS.</b> <span class="smallcaps">Constantinople</span>: St.
+Sergius, 520; Hagia Sophia, 532&ndash;538; Holy Apostles by Justinian
+(demolished); Holy Peace (St. Irene) originally by Constantine, rebuilt
+by Justinian, and again in 8th century by Leo the Isaurian; Hagia
+Theotokos, 12th century (?); Monétes Choras (“Kahiré Djami”), 10th
+century; Pantokrator; “Fetiyeh Djami.” Cisterns, especially the “Bin Bir
+Direk” (1,001 columns) and “Yere Batan Serai;” palaces, few vestiges
+except the great hall of the Blachernæ palace. <span class="smallcaps">Salonica</span>: Churches&mdash;of Divine Wisdom (“Aya
+Sofia”) St. Bardias, St. Elias. <span class="smallcaps">Ravenna</span>: San Vitale, 527&ndash;540. <span class="smallcaps">Venice</span>: St. Mark’s, 977&ndash;1071; “Fondaco dei
+Turchi,” now Civic Museum, 12th century. Other churches at Athens and
+Mt. Athos; at Misitra, Myra, Ancyra, Ephesus, etc.; in Armenia at Ani,
+Dighour, Etchmiadzin, Kouthais, Pitzounda, Usunlar, etc.; tombs at Ani,
+Varzhahan, etc.; in Russia at Kieff (St. Basil, Cathedral), Kostroma,
+Moscow (Assumption, St. Basil, Vasili Blaghennoi, etc.), Novgorod,
+Tchernigoff; at Kurtea Darghish in Wallachia, and many other places.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="note17" id="note17" href="#tag17">17.</a>
+“St. Sophia,” the common name of this church, is a misnomer. It was not
+dedicated to a saint at all, but to the Divine Wisdom (Hagia Sophia),
+which name the Turks have retained in the softened form “Aya Sofia.”</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">135</span>
+<a name="page135" id="page135"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXII" id="chapXII">CHAPTER XII.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+<h3 class="subsub">
+(ARABIAN, MORESQUE, PERSIAN, INDIAN, AND TURKISH.)</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Bourgoin, <i>Les
+Arts Arabes</i>. Coste, <i>Monuments du Caire</i>; <i>Monuments modernes
+de la Perse</i>. Cunningham, <i>Archæological Survey of India</i>.
+Fergusson, <i>Indian and Eastern Architecture</i>. De Forest, <i>Indian
+Architecture and Ornament</i>. Flandin et Coste, <i>Voyage en Perse</i>.
+Franz-Pasha, <i>Die Baukunst des Islam</i>. Gayet, <i>L’Art Arabe</i>;
+<i>L’Art Persan</i>. Girault de Prangey, <i>Essai sur l’architecture des
+Arabes en Espagne</i>, etc. Goury and Jones, <i>The Alhambra</i>. Jacob,
+<i>Jeypore Portfolio of Architectural Details</i>. Le Bon, <i>La
+civilisation des Arabes</i>; <i>Les monuments de l’Inde</i>. Owen Jones,
+<i>Grammar of Ornament</i>. Parvillée, <i>L’Architecture Ottomane</i>.
+Prisse d’Avennes, <i>L’Art Arabe</i>. Texier, <i>Description de
+l’Arménie, la Perse</i>, etc.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>GENERAL SURVEY.</b> While the Byzantine Empire was at its zenith,
+the new faith of Islam was conquering Western Asia and the Mediterranean
+lands with a fiery rapidity, which is one of the marvels of history. The
+new architectural styles which grew up in the wake of these conquests,
+though differing widely in conception and detail in the several
+countries, were yet marked by common characteristics which set them
+quite apart from the contemporary Christian styles. The predominance of
+decorative over structural considerations, a&nbsp;predilection for
+minute surface-ornament, the absence of pictures and sculpture, are
+found alike in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Indian buildings, though in
+varying degree. These new styles, however, were almost entirely the
+handiwork of artisans belonging to the
+<span class="pagenum">136</span>
+<a name="page136" id="page136"> </a>
+conquered races, and many traces of Byzantine, and even after the
+Crusades, of Norman and Gothic design, are recognizable in Moslem
+architecture. But the Orientalism of the conquerors and their common
+faith, tinged with the poetry and philosophic mysticism of the Arab,
+stamped these works of Copts, Syrians, and Greeks with an unmistakable
+character of their own, neither Byzantine nor Early Christian.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ARABIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> In the building of mosques and tombs,
+especially at Cairo, this architecture reached a remarkable degree of
+decorative elegance, and sometimes of dignity. It developed slowly, the
+Arabs not being at the outset a race of builders. The early monuments of
+Syria and Egypt were insignificant, and the sacred <i>Kaabah</i> at
+Mecca and the mosque at Medina hardly deserve to be called architectural
+monuments at all. The most important early works were the mosques of
+<b>’Amrou</b> at Cairo (642, rebuilt and enlarged early in the eighth
+century), of <b>El Aksah</b> on the Temple platform at Jerusalem (691,
+by Abd-el-Melek), and of <b>El Walid</b> at Damascus (705&ndash;732,
+recently seriously injured by fire). All these were simple one-storied
+structures, with flat wooden roofs carried on parallel ranges of columns
+supporting pointed arches, the arcades either closing one side of a
+square court, or surrounding it completely. The long perspectives of the
+aisles and the minute decoration of the archivolts and ceilings alone
+gave them architectural character. The beautiful <b>Dome of the Rock</b>
+(Kubbet-es-Sakhrah, miscalled the Mosque of Omar) on the Temple platform
+at Jerusalem is either a remodelled Constantinian edifice, or in large
+part composed of the materials of one (see <a href="#page116">p.&nbsp;116</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The splendid mosque of <b>Ibn Touloun</b> (876&ndash;885) was built
+on the same plan as that of Amrou, but with cantoned piers instead of
+columns and a corresponding increase in variety of perspective and
+richness of effect. With the incoming
+<span class="pagenum">137</span>
+<a name="page137" id="page137"> </a>
+of the Fatimite dynasty, however, and the foundation of the present city
+of Cairo (971), vaulting began to take the place of wooden ceilings, and
+then appeared the germs of those extraordinary applications of geometry
+to decorative design which were henceforth to be the most striking
+feature of Arabic ornament. Under the Ayûb dynasty, which began with
+Salâh-ed-din (Saladin) in 1172, these elements, of which the great
+<b>Barkouk</b> mosque (1149) is the most imposing early example,
+developed slowly in the domical tombs of the <i>Karafah</i> at Cairo,
+and prepared the way for the increasing richness and splendor of a long
+series of mosques, among which those of <b>Kalaoun</b>
+(1284&ndash;1318), <b>Sultan Hassan</b> (1356), <b>El Mu’ayyad</b>
+(1415), and <b>Kaîd Bey</b> (1463), were the most conspicuous examples
+(Fig. 80). They mark, indeed, successive advances in complexity of
+planning, ingenuity of construction, and elegance of decoration.
+Together they constitute an epoch in Arabic architecture, which
+coincides closely with the development of Gothic
+<span class="pagenum">138</span>
+<a name="page138" id="page138"> </a>
+vaulted architecture in Europe, both in the stages and the duration of
+its advances.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig80" id="fig80"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig80.jpg" width="265" height="440"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 80.&mdash;MOSQUE OF SULTAN HASSAN, CAIRO: SANCTUARY.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+<i>a, Mihrâb, b, Mimber.</i></span></p>
+
+<p>The mosques of these three centuries are, like the mediæval
+monasteries, impressive aggregations of buildings of various sorts about
+a central court of ablutions. The tomb of the founder, residences for
+the <i>imams</i>, or priests, schools (<i>madrassah</i>), and hospitals
+(<i>mâristân</i>) rival in importance the prayer-chamber. This last is,
+however, the real focus of interest and splendor; in some cases, as in
+Sultan Hassan, it is a simple barrel-vaulted chamber open to the court;
+in others an oblong arcaded hall with many small domes; or again,
+a&nbsp;square hall covered with a high pointed dome on pendentives of
+intricately beautiful stalactite-work (see below). The ceremonial
+requirements of the mosque were simple. The-court must have its fountain
+of ablutions in the centre. The prayer-hall, or mosque proper, must have
+its <i>mihrâb</i>, or niche, to indicate the <i>kibleh</i>, the
+direction of Mecca; and its <i>mimber</i>, or high, slender pulpit for
+the reading of the Kôran. These were the only absolutely indispensable
+features of a mosque, but as early as the ninth century the
+<i>minaret</i> was added, from which the call to prayer could be sounded
+over the city by the <i>mueddin</i>. Not until the Ayubite period,
+however, did it begin to assume those forms of varied and picturesque
+grace which lend to Cairo so much of its architectural charm.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.</b> While Arabic architecture, in Syria and
+Egypt alike, possesses more decorative than constructive originality,
+the beautiful forms of its domes, pendentives, and minarets, the simple
+majesty of the great pointed barrel-vaults of the Hassan mosque and
+similar monuments, and the graceful lines of the universally used
+pointed arch, prove the Coptic builders and their later Arabic
+successors to have been architects of great ability. The Arabic domes,
+as seen both in the mosques and in the remarkable group of tombs
+commonly called “tombs of the
+<span class="pagenum">139</span>
+<a name="page139" id="page139"> </a>
+Khalîfs,” are peculiar not only in their pointed outlines and their rich
+external decoration of interlaced geometric motives, but still more in
+the external and internal treatment of the pendentives, exquisitely
+decorated with stalactite ornament. This ornament, derived, no doubt,
+from a combination of minute corbels with rows of small niches, and
+presumably of Persian origin, was finally developed into a system of
+extraordinary intricacy, applicable alike to the topping of a niche or
+panel, as in the great doorways of the mosques, and to the bracketing
+out of minaret galleries (Figs. 81, <a href="#fig82">82</a>). Its
+applications show a bewildering variety of forms and an extraordinary
+aptitude for intricate geometrical design.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig81" id="fig81"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig81.jpg" width="257" height="342"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 81.&mdash;MOSQUE OF KAÎD BEY, CAIRO.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>DECORATION.</b> Geometry, indeed, vied with the love of color in
+its hold on the Arabic taste. Ceiling-beams were carved into highly
+ornamental forms before receiving their rich color-decoration of red,
+green, blue, and gold. The doors and the <i>mimber</i> were framed in
+geometric patterns with slender intersecting bars forming complicated
+star-panelling. The voussoirs of arches were cut into curious
+interlocking forms; doorways and niches were covered with stalactite
+corbelling, and pavements and wall-incrustations,
+<span class="pagenum">140</span>
+<a name="page140" id="page140"> </a>
+whether of marble or tiling, combined brilliancy and harmony of color
+with the perplexing beauty of interlaced star-and-polygon patterns of
+marvellous intricacy. Stained glass added to the interior color-effect,
+the patterns being perforated in plaster, with a bit of colored glass
+set into each perforation&mdash;a&nbsp;device not very durable, perhaps,
+but singularly decorative.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>OTHER WORKS.</b> Few of the mediæval Arabic palaces have remained
+to our time. That they were adorned with a splendid prodigality appears
+from contemporary accounts. This splendor was internal rather than
+external; the palace, like all the larger and richer dwellings in the
+East, surrounded one or more courts, and presented externally an almost
+unbroken wall. The fountain in the chief court, the <i>diwân</i>
+(a&nbsp;great, vaulted reception-chamber opening upon the court and
+raised slightly above it), the <i>dâr</i>, or men’s court, rigidly
+separated from the <i>hareem</i> for the women, were and are universal
+elements in these great dwellings. The more common city-houses show as
+their most striking features successively corbelled-out stories and
+broad wooden eaves, with lattice-screens covering single windows, or
+almost a whole façade, composed of turned work (<i>mashrabiyya</i>), in
+designs of great beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The fountains, gates, and minor works of the Arabs display the same
+beauty in decoration and color, the same general forms and details which
+characterize the larger works, but it is impossible here to
+particularize further with regard to them.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig82" id="fig82"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig82.jpg" width="249" height="487"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 82.&mdash;MOORISH DETAIL, ALHAMBRA.</p>
+
+<p class="caption w240">
+<i>Showing stalactite and perforated work, Moorish cusped arch,
+Hispano-Moresque capitals, and decorative inscriptions.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>MORESQUE.</b> Elsewhere in Northern Africa the Arabs produced no
+such important works as in Egypt, nor is the architecture of the other
+Moslem states so well preserved or so well known. Constructive design
+would appear to have been there even more completely subordinated to
+decoration; tiling and plaster-relief took the place of more
+architectural elements and materials, while horseshoe and cusped
+<span class="pagenum">141</span>
+<a name="page141" id="page141"> </a>
+arches were substituted for the simpler and more architectural pointed
+arch (Fig. 82). The courts of palaces and public buildings were
+surrounded by ranges of horseshoe arches on slender columns; these last
+being provided with capitals of a form rarely seen in Cairo. Towers were
+built of much more massive design than the Cairo minarets, usually with
+a square, almost solid shaft and a more open lantern at the top,
+sometimes in several diminishing stories.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>HISPANO-MORESQUE.</b> The most splendid phase of this branch of
+Arabic architecture is found not in Africa but in Spain, which was
+overrun in 710&ndash;713 by the Moors, who established there the
+independent Khalifate of Cordova. This was later split up into petty
+kingdoms, of which the most important were Granada, Seville, Toledo, and
+Valencia. This dismemberment of the Khalifate led in time to the loss of
+these cities, which were one by one recovered by the Christians during
+the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries;
+<span class="pagenum">142</span>
+<a name="page142" id="page142"> </a>
+the capture of Granada, in 1492, finally destroying the Moorish
+rule.</p>
+
+<p>The dominion of the Moors in Spain was marked by a high civilization
+and an extraordinary activity in building. The style they introduced
+became the national style in the regions they occupied, and even after
+the expulsion of the Moors was used in buildings erected by Christians
+and by Jews. The “House of Pilate,” at Seville, is an example of this,
+and the general use of the Moorish style in Jewish synagogues, down to
+our own day, both in Spain and abroad, originated in the erection of
+synagogues for the Jews in Spain by Moorish artisans and in Moorish
+style, both during and after the period of Moslem supremacy.</p>
+
+<p>Besides innumerable mosques, castles, bridges, aqueducts, gates, and
+fountains, the Moors erected several monuments of remarkable size and
+magnificence. Specially worthy of notice among them are the Great Mosque
+at Cordova, the Alcazars of Seville and Malaga, the Giralda at Seville,
+and the Alhambra at Granada.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig83" id="fig83"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig83.jpg" width="245" height="363"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 83.&mdash;INTERIOR OF THE GREAT MOSQUE AT CORDOVA.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Mosque at Cordova</b>, begun in 786 by ‘Abd-er-Rahman,
+enlarged in 876, and again by El Mansour in 976, is a vast arcaded hall
+375 feet × 420 feet in extent, but only 30
+<span class="pagenum">143</span>
+<a name="page143" id="page143"> </a>
+feet high (Fig. 83). The rich wooden ceiling rests upon seventeen rows
+of thirty to thirty-three columns each, and two intersecting rows of
+piers, all carrying horseshoe arches in two superposed ranges,
+a&nbsp;large portion of those about the sanctuary being cusped, the
+others plain, except for the alternation of color in the voussoirs. The
+<i>mihrâb</i> niche is particularly rich in its minutely carved
+incrustations and mosaics, and a dome ingeniously formed by intersecting
+ribs covers the sanctuary before it. This form of dome occurs frequently
+in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Alcazars</b> at Seville and Malaga, which have been restored
+in recent years, present to-day a fairly correct counterpart of the
+castle-palaces of the thirteenth century. They display the same general
+conceptions and decorative features as the Alhambra, which they
+antedate. The <b>Giralda</b> at Seville is, on the other hand, unique.
+It is a lofty rectangular tower, its exterior panelled and covered with
+a species of quarry-ornament in relief; it terminated originally in two
+or three diminishing stages or lanterns, which were replaced in the
+sixteenth century by the present Renaissance belfry.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Alhambra</b> is universally considered to be the masterpiece
+of Hispano-Moresque art, partly no doubt on account of its excellent
+preservation. It is most interesting as an example of the splendid
+citadel-palaces built by the Moorish conquerors, as well as for its
+gorgeous color-decoration of minute quarry-ornament stamped or moulded
+in the wet plaster wherever the walls are not wainscoted with tiles. It
+was begun in 1248 by Mohammed-ben-Al-Hamar, enlarged in 1279 by his
+successor, and again in 1306, when its mosque was built. Its plan (Fig.
+84) shows two large courts and a smaller one next the mosque, with three
+great square chambers and many of minor importance. Light arcades
+surround the Court of the Lions with its fountain, and adorn the ends of
+the other chief court; and the stalactite
+<span class="pagenum">144</span>
+<a name="page144" id="page144"> </a>
+pendentive, rare in Moorish work, appears in the “Hall of Ambassadors”
+and some other parts of the edifice. But its chief glory is its
+ornamentation, less durable, less architectural than that of the Cairene
+buildings, but making up for this in delicacy and richness. Minute
+vine-patterns and Arabic inscriptions are interwoven with waving
+intersecting lines, forming a net-like framework, to all of which deep
+red, blue, black, and gold give an indescribable richness of effect.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig84" id="fig84"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig84.png" width="273" height="222"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 84.&mdash;PLAN OF THE ALHAMBRA.</p>
+
+<p class="caption w270">
+<i>A, Hall of Ambassadors; a, Mosque; b, Court of Mosque; c, Sala della
+Barca; d,&nbsp;d, Baths; e, Hall of the Two Sisters; f,&nbsp;f,&nbsp;f,
+Hall of the Tribunal; g, Hall of the Abencerrages.</i></p>
+
+<p class="closeup w270">
+<a href="images/fig84_large.png" target="_blank">
+Larger View</a></p>
+
+<p>The Moors also overran Sicily in the eighth century, but while their
+architecture there profoundly influenced that of the Christians who
+recovered Sicily in 1090, and copied the style of the conquered Moslems,
+there is too little of the original Moorish architecture remaining to
+claim mention here.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>SASSANIAN.</b> The Sassanian empire, which during the four
+centuries from 226 to 641 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> had
+withstood Rome and extended its own sway almost to India, left on
+Persian soil a number of interesting monuments which powerfully
+influenced the Mohammedan style of that region. The Sassanian buildings
+appear to have been principally palaces, and were all vaulted. With
+their long barrel-vaulted halls, combined with square domical chambers,
+as in Firouz-Abad and Serbistan, they exhibit reminiscences of antique
+Assyrian tradition.
+<span class="pagenum">145</span>
+<a name="page145" id="page145"> </a>
+The ancient Persian use of columns was almost entirely abandoned, but
+doors and windows were still treated with the banded frames and
+cavetto-cornices of Persepolis and Susa. The Sassanians employed with
+these exterior details others derived perhaps from Syrian and Byzantine
+sources. A&nbsp;sort of engaged buttress-column and blind arches
+repeated somewhat aimlessly over a whole façade were characteristic
+features; still more so the huge arches, elliptical or horse-shoe
+shaped, which formed the entrances to these palaces, as in the Tâk-Kesra
+at Ctesiphon. Ornamental details of a debased Roman type appear, mingled
+with more gracefully flowing leaf-patterns resembling early Christian
+Syrian carving. The last great monument of this style was the palace at
+Mashita in Moab, begun by the last Chosroes (627), but never finished,
+an imposing and richly ornamented structure about 500 × 170 feet,
+occupying the centre of a great court.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PERSIAN-MOSLEM ARCHITECTURE.</b> These Sassanian palaces must have
+strongly influenced Persian architecture after the Arab conquest in 641.
+For although the architecture of the first six centuries after that date
+suffered almost absolute extinction at the hands of the Mongols under
+Genghis Khan, the traces of Sassanian influence are still perceptible in
+the monuments that rose in the following centuries. The dome and vault,
+the colossal portal-arches, and the use of brick and tile are evidences
+of this influence, bearing no resemblance to Byzantine or Arabic types.
+The Moslem monuments of Persia, so far as their dates can be
+ascertained, are all subsequent to 1200, unless tradition is correct in
+assigning to the time of Haroun <ins class="correction" title="spelling unchanged">Ar</ins> Rashid (786) certain curious tombs near
+Bagdad with singular pyramidal roofs. The ruined mosque at Tabriz
+(1300), and the beautiful domical <b>Tomb</b> at <b>Sultaniyeh</b>
+(1313) belong to the Mogul period. They show all the essential features
+of the later architecture of the Sufis
+<span class="pagenum">146</span>
+<a name="page146" id="page146"> </a>
+(1499&ndash;1694), during whose dynastic period were built the still
+more splendid and more celebrated <b>Meidan</b> or square, the great
+mosque of Mesjid Shah, the Bazaar and the College or Medress of Hussein
+Shah, all at Ispahan, and many other important monuments at Ispahan,
+Bagdad, and Teheran. In these structures four elements especially claim
+attention; the pointed bulbous dome, the round minaret, the portal-arch
+rising above the adjacent portions of the building, and the use of
+enamelled terra-cotta tiles as an external decoration. To these may be
+added the ogee arch (<i>ogee</i> = double-reversed curve), as an
+occasional feature. The vaulting is most ingenious and beautiful, and
+its forms, whether executed in brick or in plaster, are sufficiently
+varied without resort to the perplexing complications of stalactite
+work. In Persian decoration the most striking qualities are the harmony
+of blended color, broken up into minute patterns and more subdued in
+tone than in the Hispano-Moresque, and the preference of flowing lines
+and floral ornament to the geometric puzzles of Arabic design. Persian
+architecture influenced both Turkish and Indo-Moslem art, which owe to
+it a large part of their decorative charm.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>INDO-MOSLEM.</b> The Mohammedan architecture of India is so
+distinct from all the native Indian styles and so related to the art of
+Persia, if not to that of the Arabs, that it properly belongs here
+rather than in the later chapter on Oriental styles. It was in the
+eleventh century that the states of India first began to fall before
+Mohammedan invaders, but not until the end of the fifteenth century that
+the great Mogul dynasty was established in Hindostan as the dominant
+power. During the intervening period local schools of Moslem
+architecture were developing in the Pathan country of Northern India
+(1193&ndash;1554), in Jaunpore and Gujerat (1396&ndash;1572), in Scinde,
+where Persian influence predominated; in Kalburgah and Bidar
+(1347&ndash;1426). These
+<span class="pagenum">147</span>
+<a name="page147" id="page147"> </a>
+schools differed considerably in spirit and detail; but under the Moguls
+(1494&ndash;1706) there was less diversity, and to this dynasty we owe
+many of the most magnificent mosques and tombs of India, among which
+those of Bijapur retain a marked and distinct style of their own.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig85" id="fig85"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig85.png" width="240" height="239"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 85.&mdash;TOMB OF MAHMUD, BIJAPUR. SECTION.</p>
+
+<p>The Mohammedan monuments of India are characterized by a grandeur and
+amplitude of disposition, a&nbsp;symmetry and monumental dignity of
+design which distinguishes them widely from the picturesque but
+sometimes trivial buildings of the Arabs and Moors. Less dependent on
+color than the Moorish or Persian structures, they are usually built of
+marble, or of marble and sandstone, giving them an air of permanence and
+solidity wanting in other Moslem styles except the Turkish. The dome,
+the round minaret, the pointed arch, and the colossal portal-arch, are
+universal, as in Persia, and enamelled tiles are also used, but chiefly
+for interior decoration. Externally the more dignified if less
+resplendent decoration of surface carving is used, in patterns of minute
+and graceful scrolls, leaf forms, and Arabic inscriptions covering large
+surfaces. The Arabic stalactite pendentive star-panelling and
+geometrical interlace are rarely if ever seen. The dome on the square
+plan is almost universal, but neither the Byzantine nor the Arabic
+pendentive is used, striking and original combinations of vaulting
+surfaces, of corner squinches, of corbelling and ribs, being used in its
+place. Many of the Pathan
+<span class="pagenum">148</span>
+<a name="page148" id="page148"> </a>
+domes and arches at Delhi, Ajmir, Ahmedabad, Shepree, etc., are built in
+horizontal or corbelled courses supported on slender columns, and exert
+no thrust at all, so that they are vaults only in form, like the dome of
+the Tholos of Atreus (<a href="#fig24">Fig.&nbsp;24</a>). The most
+imposing and original of all Indian domes are those of the <b>Jumma
+Musjid</b> and of the <b>Tomb of Mahmud</b>, both at Bijapur, the latter
+137 feet in span (Fig. 85). These two monuments, indeed, with the Mogul
+Taj Mahal at Agra, not only deserve the first rank among Indian
+monuments, but in constructive science combined with noble proportions
+and exquisite beauty are hardly, if at all, surpassed by the greatest
+triumphs of western art. The Indo-Moslem architects, moreover,
+especially those of the Mogul period, excelled in providing artistic
+settings for their monuments. Immense platforms, superb courts, imposing
+flights of steps, noble gateways, minarets to mark the angles of
+enclosures, and landscape gardening of a high order, enhance greatly the
+effect of the great mosques, tombs, and palaces of Agra, Delhi,
+Futtehpore Sikhri, Allahabad, Secundra, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The most notable monuments of the Moguls are the <b>Mosque of
+Akbar</b> (1556&ndash;1605) at Futtehpore Sikhri, the tomb of that
+sultan at Secundra, and his palace at Allahabad; the <b>Pearl Mosque</b>
+at Agra and the <b>Jumma Musjid</b> at Delhi, one of the largest and
+noblest of Indian mosques, both built by Shah Jehan about 1650; his
+immense but now ruined palace in the same city; and finally the
+unrivalled mausoleum, the <b>Taj Mahal</b> at Agra, built during his
+lifetime as a festal hall, to serve as his tomb after death (Fig. 86).
+This last is the pearl of Indian architecture, though it is said to have
+been designed by a European architect, French or Italian. It is a white
+marble structure 185 feet square, centred in a court 313 feet square,
+forming a platform 18 feet high. The corners of this court are marked by
+elegant minarets, and the whole is dominated by
+<span class="pagenum">149</span>
+<a name="page149" id="page149"> </a>
+the exquisite white marble dome, 58 feet in diameter, 80 feet high,
+internally rising over four domical corner chapels, and covered
+externally by a lofty marble bulb-dome on a high drum. The rich
+materials, beautiful execution, and exquisite inlaying of this mausoleum
+are worthy of its majestic design. On the whole, in the architecture of
+the Moguls in Bijapur, Agra, and Delhi, Mohammedan architecture reaches
+its highest expression in the totality and balance of its qualities of
+construction, composition, detail, ornament, and settings. The later
+monuments show the decline of the style, and though often rich and
+imposing, are lacking in refinement and originality.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig86" id="fig86"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig86.jpg" width="435" height="350"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 86.&mdash;TAJ MAHAL, AGRA.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>TURKISH.</b> The Ottoman Turks, who began their conquering career
+under Osman&nbsp;I. in Bithynia in 1299, had for a
+<span class="pagenum">150</span>
+<a name="page150" id="page150"> </a>
+century been occupying the fairest portions of the Byzantine empire
+when, in 1453, they became masters of Constantinople. Hagia Sophia was
+at once occupied as their chief mosque, and such of the other churches
+as were spared, were divided between the victors and the vanquished. The
+conqueror, Mehmet II., at the same time set about the building of a new
+mosque, entrusting the design to a Byzantine, Christodoulos, whom he
+directed to reproduce, with some modifications, the design of the “Great
+Church”&mdash;Hagia Sophia. The type thus officially adopted has ever
+since remained the controlling model of Turkish mosque design, so far,
+at least, as general plan and constructive principles are concerned.
+Thus the conquering Turks, educated by a century of study and imitation
+of Byzantine models in Brusa, Nicomedia, Smyrna, Adrianople, and other
+cities earlier subjugated, did what the Byzantines had, during nine
+centuries, failed to do. The noble idea first expressed by Anthemius and
+Isidorus in the Church of Hagia Sophia had remained undeveloped,
+unimitated by later architects. It was the Turk who first seized upon
+its possibilities, and developed therefrom a style of architecture less
+sumptuous in color and decoration than the sister styles of Persia,
+Cairo, or India, but of great nobility and dignity, notwithstanding. The
+low-curved dome with its crown of buttressed windows, the plain
+spherical pendentives, the great apses at each end, covered by
+half-domes and penetrated by smaller niches, the four massive piers with
+their projecting buttress-masses extending across the broad lateral
+aisles, the narthex and the arcaded atrium in front&mdash;all these
+appear in the great Turkish mosques of Constantinople. In the
+Conqueror’s mosque, however, two apses with half-domes replace the
+lateral galleries and clearstory of Hagia Sophia, making a perfectly
+quadripartite plan, destitute of the emphasis and significance of a plan
+drawn on one main axis (Fig. 87).
+<span class="pagenum">151</span>
+<a name="page151" id="page151"> </a>
+The same treatment occurs in the mosque of Ahmed&nbsp;I., the
+<b>Ahmediyeh</b> (1608; Fig. 88), and the <b>Yeni Djami</b> (“New
+Mosque”) at the port (1665). In the mosque of <b>Osman III.</b> (1755)
+the reverse change was effected; the mosque has no great apses, four
+clearstories filling the four arches under the dome, as also in several
+of the later and smaller mosques. The greatest and noblest of the
+Turkish mosques, the <b>Suleimaniyeh</b>, built in 1553 by Soliman the
+Magnificent, returned to the Byzantine combination of two half-domes
+with two clearstories (Fig. 89).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig87" id="fig87"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig87.png" width="274" height="197"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 87.&mdash;MOSQUE OF MEHMET II.<!-- invisible . -->, CONSTANTINOPLE.
+PLAN.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+(The dimensions figured in metres.<!-- invisible . -->)</span></p>
+
+<p>In none of these monuments is there the internal magnificence of
+marble and mosaic of the Byzantine churches. These are only in a measure
+replaced by Persian tile-wainscoting and stained-glass windows of the
+Arabic type. The division into stories and the treatment of scale are
+less well managed than in the Hagia Sophia; on the other hand, the
+proportion of height to width is generally admirable. The exterior
+treatment is unique and effective, far superior to the Byzantine
+practice. The massing of domes and half-domes and roofs is more
+artistically arranged; and while there is little of that minute carved
+detail found in Egypt and India, the composition of the lateral arcades,
+the simple but impressive domical peristyles of the courts, and the
+graceful forms of the pointed arches, with alternating voussoirs of
+white and black marble, are artistic in a high degree. The minarets are,
+however,
+<span class="pagenum">152</span>
+<a name="page152" id="page152"> </a>
+inferior to those of Indian, Persian, and Arabic art, though graceful in
+their proportions.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig88" id="fig88"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig88.jpg" width="433" height="385"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 88.&mdash;EXTERIOR AHMEDIYEH MOSQUE.<!-- invisible . --></p>
+
+<p>Nearly all the great mosques are accompanied by the domical tombs
+(<i>turbeh</i>) of their imperial founders. Some of these are of noble
+size and great beauty of proportion and decoration. The <b>Tomb of
+Roxelana</b> (Khourrem), the favorite wife of Soliman the Magnificent
+(1553), is the most beautiful of all, and perhaps the most perfect gem
+of Turkish architecture, with its elegant arcade surrounding the
+octagonal domical mausoleum-chamber. The <b>monumental fountains</b> of
+Constantinople also deserve mention. Of these, the one erected by Ahmet
+III. (1710), near Hagia
+<span class="pagenum">153</span>
+<a name="page153" id="page153"> </a>
+Sophia, is the most beautiful. They usually consist of a rectangular
+marble reservoir with pagoda-like roof and broad eaves, the four faces
+of the fountain adorned each with a niche and basin, and covered with
+relief carving and gilded inscriptions.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig89" id="fig89"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig89.jpg" width="267" height="361"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 89.&mdash;INTERIOR OF SULEIMANIYEH,<br>
+CONSTANTINOPLE.<!-- invisible . --></p>
+
+
+<p><b>PALACES.</b> In this department the Turks have done little of
+importance. The buildings in the Seraglio gardens are low and
+insignificant. The <b>Tchinli Kiosque</b>, now the Imperial Museum, is
+however, a&nbsp;simple but graceful two-storied edifice, consisting of
+four vaulted chambers in the angles of a fine cruciform hall, with domes
+treated like those of Bijapur on a small scale; the tiling and the
+veranda in front are particularly elegant; the design suggests Persian
+handiwork. The later palaces, designed by Armenians, are picturesque
+white marble and stucco buildings on the water’s edge; they possess
+richly decorated halls, but the details are of a debased European rococo
+style, quite unworthy of an Oriental monarch.</p>
+
+<div class="monuments">
+
+<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> <span class="smallcaps">Arabian</span>: “Mosque
+of Omar,” or Dome of the Rock, 638; El Aksah, by ’Abd-el-Melek, 691,
+both at Jerusalem; Mosque ’Amrou at Cairo, 642; mosques at Cyrene, 665;
+great mosque of El Walîd,
+<span class="pagenum">154</span>
+<a name="page154" id="page154"> </a>
+Damascus, 705&ndash;717. Bagdad built, 755. Great mosque at Kairouân,
+737. At Cairo, Ibn Touloun, 876; Gama-El-Azhar, 971; Barkouk, 1149;
+“Tombs of Khalîfs” (Karafah), 1250&ndash;1400; Moristan Kalaoun, 1284;
+Medresseh Sultan Hassan, 1356; El Azhar enlarged; El Mûayed, 1415; Kaïd
+Bey, 1463; Sinan Pacha, 1468; “Tombs of Mamelukes,” 16th century. Also
+palaces, baths, fountains, mosques, and tombs. <span class="smallcaps">Moresque</span>: Mosque at Saragossa, 713; mosque and
+arsenal at Tunis, 742; great mosque at Cordova, 786, 876, 975;
+sanctuary, 14th century. Mosques, baths, etc., at Cordova, Tarragona,
+Segovia, Toledo, 960&ndash;980; mosque of Sobeiha at Cordova, 981.
+Palaces and mosques at Fez; great mosque at Seville, 1172. Extensive
+building in Morocco close of 12th century. Giralda at Seville, 1160;
+Alcazars in Malaga and Seville, 1225&ndash;1300; Alhambra and Generalife
+at Granada, 1248, 1279, 1306; also mosques, baths, etc. Yussuf builds
+palace at Malaga, 1348; palaces at Granada. <span class="smallcaps">Persian</span>: Tombs near Bagdad, 786 (?); mosque at
+Tabriz, 1300; tomb of Khodabendeh at Sultaniyeh, 1313; Meidan Shah
+(square) and Mesjid Shah (mosque) at Ispahan, 17th century; Medresseh
+(school) of Sultan Hussein, 18th century; palaces of Chehil Soutoun
+(forty columns) and Aineh Khaneh (Palace of Mirrors). Baths, tombs,
+bazaars, etc., at Cashan, Koum, Kasmin, etc. Aminabad Caravanserai
+between Shiraz and Ispahan; bazaar at Ispahan.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Indian</span>: Mosque and “Kutub Minar”
+(tower) <i>cir.</i> 1200; Tomb of Altumsh, 1236; mosque at Ajmir,
+1211&ndash;1236; tomb at Old Delhi; Adina Mosque, Maldah, 1358. Mosques
+Jumma Musjid and Lal Durwaza at Jaunpore, first half of 15th century.
+Mosque and bazaar, Kalburgah, 1435 (?). <!-- invisible . --> Mosques at
+Ahmedabad and Sirkedj, middle 15th century. Mosque Jumma Musjid and Tomb
+of Mahmûd, Bijapur, <i>cir.</i> 1550. Tomb of Humayûn, Delhi; of
+Mohammed Ghaus, Gwalior; mosque at Futtehpore Sikhri; palace at
+Allahabad; tomb of Akbar at Secundra, all by Akbar, 1556&ndash;1605.
+Palace and Jumma Musjid at Delhi; Muti Musjid (Pearl mosque) and Taj
+Mahal at Agra, by Shah Jehan, 1628&ndash;1658.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Turkish</span>: Tomb of Osman, Brusa, 1326;
+Green Mosque (Yeshil Djami) Brusa, <i>cir.</i> 1350. Mosque at Isnik
+(Nicæa), 1376. Mehmediyeh (mosque Mehmet II.) Constantinople, 1453;
+mosque at Eyoub; Tchinli Kiosque, by Mehmet II., 1450&ndash;60; mosque
+Bayazid, 1500; Selim&nbsp;I., 1520; Suleimaniyeh, by Sinan, 1553;
+Ahmediyeh by Ahmet&nbsp;I., 1608; Yeni Djami, 1665; Nouri Osman, by
+Osman III.<!-- invisible . -->, 1755; mosque Mohammed Ali in Cairo,
+1824. Mosque at Adrianople. <span class="smallcaps">Khans</span>,
+cloistered courts for public business and commercial lodgers, various
+dates, 16th and 17th centuries (Validé Khan, Vizir Khan), vaulted
+bazaars, fountains, Seraskierat Tower, all at Constantinople.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">155</span>
+<a name="page155" id="page155"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXIII" id="chapXIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+EARLY MEDIÆVAL ARCHITECTURE</h3>
+
+<h3 class="subsub">
+IN ITALY AND FRANCE.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Cattaneo,
+<i>L’Architecture en Italie</i>. Chapuy, <i>Le moyen age monumental</i>.
+Corroyer, <i>Architecture romane</i>. Cummings, <i>A&nbsp;History of
+Architecture in Italy</i>. Enlart, <i>Manuel d’archéologie
+française</i>. Hübsch, <i>Monuments de l’architecture chrétienne</i>.
+Knight, <i>Churches of Northern Italy</i>. Lenoir, <i>Architecture
+monastique</i>. Osten, <i>Bauwerke in der Lombardei</i>. Quicherat,
+<i>Mélanges d’histoire et d’archéologie</i>. Reber, <i>History of
+Mediæval Architecture</i>. Révoil, <i>Architecture romane du midi de la
+France</i>. Rohault de Fleury, <i>Monuments de Pise</i>. Sharpe,
+<i>Churches of Charente</i>. De Verneilh, <i>L’Architecture byzantine en
+France</i>. Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture
+française</i> (especially in Vol. I., Architecture religieuse);
+<i>Discourses on Architecture</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>EARLY MEDIÆVAL EUROPE.</b> The fall of the Western Empire in 476
+<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> marked the beginning of a new era
+in architecture outside of the Byzantine Empire. The so-called Dark Ages
+which followed this event constituted the formative period of the new
+Western civilization, during which the Celtic and Germanic races were
+being Christianized and subjected to the authority and to the educative
+influences of the Church. Under these conditions a new architecture was
+developed, founded upon the traditions of the early Christian builders,
+modified in different regions by Roman or Byzantine influences. For Rome
+recovered early her antique prestige, and Roman monuments covering the
+soil of Southern Europe, were a constant
+<span class="pagenum">156</span>
+<a name="page156" id="page156"> </a>
+object lesson to the builders of that time. To this new architecture of
+the West, which in the tenth and eleventh centuries first began to
+achieve worthy and monumental results, the generic name of
+<b>Romanesque</b> has been commonly given, in spite of the great
+diversity of its manifestations in different countries.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHARACTER OF THE ARCHITECTURE.</b> Romanesque architecture was
+pre-eminently ecclesiastical. Civilization and culture emanated from the
+Church, and her requirements and discipline gave form to the builder’s
+art. But the basilican style, which had so well served her purposes in
+the earlier centuries and on classic soil, was ill-suited to the new
+conditions. Corinthian columns, marble incrustations, and splendid
+mosaics were not to be had for the asking in the forests of Gaul or
+Germany, nor could the Lombards and Ostrogoths in Italy or their
+descendants reproduce them. The basilican style was complete in itself,
+possessing no seeds of further growth. The priests and monks of Italy
+and Western Europe sought to rear with unskilled labor churches of stone
+in which the general dispositions of the basilica should reappear in
+simpler, more massive dress, and, as far as possible, in a fireproof
+construction with vaults of stone. This problem underlies all the varied
+phases of Romanesque architecture; its final solution was not, however,
+reached until the Gothic period, to which the Romanesque forms the
+transition and stepping-stone.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig90" id="fig90"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig90.jpg" width="432" height="263"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 90.&mdash;INTERIOR OF SAN AMBROGIO, MILAN.</p>
+
+<p><b>MEDIÆVAL ITALY.</b> Italy in the Dark Ages stood midway between
+the civilization of the Eastern Empire and the semi-barbarism of the
+West. Rome, Ravenna, and Venice early became centres of culture and
+maintained continuous commercial relations with the East. Architecture
+did not lack either the inspiration or the means for advancing on new
+lines. But its advance was by no means the same everywhere. The unifying
+influence of the church was
+<span class="pagenum">157</span>
+<a name="page157" id="page157"> </a>
+counterbalanced by the provincialism and the local diversities of the
+various Italian states, resulting in a wide variety of styles. These,
+however, may be broadly grouped in four divisions: the <b>Lombard</b>,
+the <b>Tuscan-Romanesque</b>, the <b>Italo-Byzantine</b>, and the
+unchanged <b>Basilican</b> or Early Christian, which last, as was shown
+in Chapter&nbsp;X., continued to be practised in Rome throughout the
+Middle Ages.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft null">
+<a name="fig91" id="fig91"> </a>
+<img class="null" src="images/fig91a.jpg"
+width="100" height="246" alt="see caption and text"></p>
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft">
+<img src="images/fig91b.jpg" width="269" height="332"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 91.&mdash;WEST FRONT AND CAMPANILE<br>
+OF CATHEDRAL, PIACENZA.</p>
+
+<p><b>LOMBARD STYLE.</b> Owing to the general rebuilding of ancient
+churches under the more settled social conditions of the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries, little remains to us of the architecture of the three
+preceding centuries in Italy, except the Roman basilicas and a few
+baptisteries and circular churches, already mentioned in Chapter&nbsp;X.
+The so-called Lombard monuments belong mainly to the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries. They are found not only in Lombardy, but also in
+Venetia and the Æmilia. Milan, Pavia, Piacenza, Bologna, and Verona were
+important centres of development of this style. The churches were nearly
+all vaulted, but the plans were basilican, with such variations
+<span class="pagenum">158</span>
+<a name="page158" id="page158"> </a>
+as resulted from efforts to meet the exigencies of vaulted construction.
+The nave was narrowed, and instead of rows of columns carrying a thin
+clearstory wall, a&nbsp;few massive piers of masonry, connected by broad
+pier-arches, supported the heavy ribs of the groined vaulting, as in
+S.&nbsp;Ambrogio, Milan (Fig. 90). To resist the thrust of the main
+vault, the clearstory was sometimes suppressed, the side aisle carried
+up in two stories forming galleries, and rows of chapels added at the
+sides, their partitions forming buttresses. The piers were often of
+clustered section, the better to receive the various arches and ribs
+they supported. The vaulting was in square divisions or
+<i>vaulting-bays</i>, each embracing two pier-arches which met upon an
+intermediate pier lighter than the others. Thus the whole aspect of the
+interior was revolutionized. The lightness, spaciousness, and decorative
+elegance of the basilicas were here exchanged for a sombre and massive
+dignity severe in its plainness. The Choir was sometimes raised a few
+feet above the nave, to allow of a crypt and <i>confessio</i> beneath,
+reached by broad flights of steps from the nave. Sta.<!-- invisible .
+-->
+<span class="pagenum">159</span>
+<a name="page159" id="page159"> </a>
+Maria della Pieve at Arezzo (9th-11th century), <b>S.&nbsp;Michele</b>
+at Pavia (late 11th century), the <b>Cathedral of Piacenza</b> (1122),
+<b>S.&nbsp;Ambrogio</b> at Milan (12th century), and <b>S.&nbsp;Zeno</b>
+at Verona (1139) are notable monuments of this style.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LOMBARD EXTERIORS.</b> The few architectural embellishments
+employed on the simple exteriors of the Lombard churches were usually
+effective and well composed. Slender columnettes or long pilasters,
+blind arcades, and open arcaded galleries under the eaves gave light and
+shade to these exteriors. The façades were mere frontispieces with a
+single broad gable, the three aisles of the church being merely
+suggested by flat or round pilasters dividing the front (Fig 91). Gabled
+porches, with columns resting on the backs of lions or monsters, adorned
+the doorways. The carving was often of a fierce and grotesque character.
+Detached bell-towers or <i>campaniles</i> adjoined many of these
+churches; square and simple in mass, but with well-distributed openings
+and well-proportioned belfries (Piacenza S.&nbsp;Zeno at Verona,
+etc.).<a class="tag" name="tag18" id="tag18" href="#note18">18</a></p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE TUSCAN ROMANESQUE.</b> The churches of this style (sometimes
+called the <b>Pisan</b>) were less vigorous but more elegant and
+artistic in design than the Lombard. They were basilicas in plan, with
+timber ceilings and high clearstories on columnar arcades. In their
+decoration, both internal and external, they betray the influence of
+Byzantine traditions, especially in the use of white and colored marble
+in alternating bands or in panelled veneering. Still more striking is
+the external decorative application of wall-arcades, sometimes occupying
+the whole height of the wall and carried on flat pilasters, sometimes in
+superposed stages of small arches on slender columns standing free of
+the wall. In general the decorative element prevailed over the
+constructive in the design of these picturesquely beautiful churches,
+some of which are of noble size. The <b>Duomo</b> (cathedral) of
+<b>Pisa</b>, built 1063&ndash;1118, is the finest monument
+<span class="pagenum">160</span>
+<a name="page160" id="page160"> </a>
+of the style (Figs. 92, 93). It is 312 feet long and 118 wide, with long
+transepts and an elliptical dome of later date over the <i>crossing</i>
+(the intersection of nave and transepts). Its richly arcaded front and
+banded flanks strikingly exemplify the illogical and unconstructive but
+highly decorative methods of the Tuscan Romanesque builders. The
+circular <b>Baptistery</b> (1153), with its lofty domical central hall
+surrounded by an aisle, an imposing development of the type established
+by Constantine (<a href="#page111">p.&nbsp;111</a>), and the famous
+<b>Leaning Tower</b> (1174), both designed with external arcading,
+combine with the Duomo to form the most remarkable group of
+ecclesiastical buildings in Italy, if not in Europe (Fig.&nbsp;92).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig92" id="fig92"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig92.jpg" width="430" height="359"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 92.&mdash;BAPTISTERY, CATHEDRAL, AND LEANING TOWER, PISA.</p>
+
+<p>The same style appears in more flamboyant shape in
+<span class="pagenum">161</span>
+<a name="page161" id="page161"> </a>
+some of the churches of Lucca. The cathedral <b>S.&nbsp;Martino</b>
+(1060; façade, 1204; nave altered in fourteenth century) is the finest
+and largest of these; <b>S.&nbsp;Michele</b> (façade, 1288) and
+S.&nbsp;Frediano (twelfth century) have the most elaborately decorated
+façades. The same principles of design appear in the cathedral and
+several other churches in Pistoia and Prato; but these belong, for the
+most part, to the Gothic period.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig93" id="fig93"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig93.jpg" width="430" height="290"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 93.&mdash;INTERIOR OF PISA CATHEDRAL.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>FLORENCE.</b> The church of <b>S. Miniato</b>, in the suburbs of
+Florence, is a beautiful example of a modification of the Pisan style.
+It is in plan a basilica with two piers interrupting the colonnade on
+each side of the nave and supporting powerful transverse arches. The
+interior is embellished with bands and patterns in black and white, and
+the woodwork of the open-timber roof is elegantly decorated with fine
+patterns in red, green, blue, and gold&mdash;a&nbsp;treatment common in
+early mediæval churches, as at Messina, Orvieto, etc. The exterior is
+adorned with wall-arches of
+<span class="pagenum">162</span>
+<a name="page162" id="page162"> </a>
+classic design and with panelled veneering in white and dark marble,
+instead of the horizontal bands of the Pisan churches. This system of
+external decoration, a&nbsp;blending of Pisan and Italo-Byzantine
+methods, became the established practice in Florence, lasting through
+the whole Gothic period. The <b>Baptistery</b> of Florence, originally
+the cathedral, an imposing polygonal domical edifice of the tenth
+century, presents externally one of the most admirable examples of this
+practice. Its marble veneering in black and white, with pilasters and
+arches of excellent design, is attributed by Vasari to Arnolfo di
+Cambio, but is by many considered to be much older, although restored by
+that architect in 1294.</p>
+
+<p>Suggestions of the Pisan arcade system are found in widely scattered
+examples in the east and south of Italy, mingled with features of
+Lombard and Byzantine design. In Apulia, as at Bari, Caserta Vecchia
+(1100), Molfetta (1192), and in Sicily, the Byzantine influence is
+conspicuous in the use of domes and in many of the decorative details.
+Particularly is this the case at Palermo and Monreale, where the
+churches erected after the Norman conquest&mdash;some of them domical,
+some basilican&mdash;show a strange but picturesque and beautiful
+mixture of Romanesque, Byzantine, and Arabic forms. The <b>Cathedral</b>
+of <b>Monreale</b> and the churches of the <b>Eremiti</b> and <b>La
+Martorana</b> at Palermo are the most important.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Italo-Byzantine</b> style has already found mention in the
+latter part of Chapter XI. Venice and Ravenna were its chief centres;
+while the influence, both of the parent style and of its Italian
+offshoot was, as we have just shown, very widespread.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>WESTERN ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.</b> In Western Europe the unrest
+and lawlessness which attended the unsettled relations of society under
+the feudal system long retarded the establishment of that social order
+without
+<span class="pagenum">163</span>
+<a name="page163" id="page163"> </a>
+which architectural progress is impossible. With the eleventh century
+there began, however, a&nbsp;great activity in building, principally
+among the monasteries, which represented all that there was of culture
+and stability amid the prevailing disorder. Undisturbed by war, the only
+abodes of peaceful labor, learning, and piety, they had become rich and
+powerful, both in men and land. Probably the more or less general
+apprehension of the supposed impending end of the world in the year 1000
+contributed to this result by driving unquiet consciences to seek refuge
+in the monasteries, or to endow them richly.</p>
+
+<p>The monastic builders, with little technical training, but with
+plenty of willing hands, sought out new architectural paths to meet
+their special needs. Remote from classic and Byzantine models, and
+mainly dependent on their own resources, they often failed to realize
+the intended results. But skill came with experience, and with advancing
+civilization and a surer mastery of construction came a finer taste and
+greater elegance of design. Meanwhile military architecture developed a
+new science of building, and covered Europe with imposing castles,
+admirably constructed and often artistic in design as far as military
+exigencies would permit.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHARACTER OF THE STYLE.</b> The Romanesque architecture of the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries in Western Europe (sometimes called the
+<b>Round-Arched Gothic</b>) was thus predominantly though not
+exclusively monastic. This gave it a certain unity of character in spite
+of national and local variations. The problem which the wealthy orders
+set themselves was, like that of the Lombard church-builders in Italy,
+to adapt the basilica plan to the exigencies of vaulted construction.
+Massive walls, round arches stepped or recessed to lighten their
+appearance, heavy mouldings richly carved, clustered piers and
+jamb-shafts, capitals either of the <i>cushion</i> type or imitated from
+the Corinthian,
+<span class="pagenum">164</span>
+<a name="page164" id="page164"> </a>
+and strong and effective carving&mdash;all these are features alike of
+French, German, English, and Spanish Romanesque architecture.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig94" id="fig94"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig94.png" width="185" height="288"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 94.&mdash;PLAN OF ST. FRONT.<!-- invisible . --></p>
+
+<p><b>THE FRENCH ROMANESQUE.</b> Though monasticism produced remarkable
+results in France, architecture there did not wholly depend upon the
+monasteries. Southern Gaul (Provence) was full of classic remains and
+classic traditions while at the same time it maintained close trade
+relations with Venice and the East.<a class="tag" name="tag19" id="tag19" href="#note19">19</a> The church of <b>St. Front</b> at
+Perigueux, built in 1120, reproduced the plan of St. Mark’s with
+singular fidelity, but without its rich decoration, and with pointed
+instead of round arches (Figs. 94, 95). The domical cathedral of
+<b>Cahors</b> (1050&ndash;1100), an obvious imitation of S.&nbsp;Irene
+at Constantinople, and the later and more Gothic Cathedral of
+<b>Angoulême</b> display a notable advance in architectural skill
+outside of the monasteries. Among the abbeys, <b>Fontevrault</b>
+(1101&ndash;1119) closely resembles Angoulême, but surpasses it in the
+elegance of its choir and chapels. In these and a number of other
+domical churches of the same Franco-Byzantine type in Aquitania, the
+substitution of the Latin cross in the plan for the Greek cross used in
+St. Front, evinces the Gallic tendency to work out to their logical end
+new ideas or new applications of old ones. These striking variations on
+Byzantine themes might have developed into an independent local style
+but for the overwhelming
+<span class="pagenum">165</span>
+<a name="page165" id="page165"> </a>
+tide of Gothic influence which later poured in from the North.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig95" id="fig95"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig95.png" width="246" height="326"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 95.&mdash;INTERIOR OF ST. FRONT, PERIGUEUX.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, farther south (at Arles, Avignon, etc.), classic models
+strongly influenced the details, if not the plans, of an interesting
+series of churches remarkable especially for their porches rich with
+figure sculpture and for their elaborately carved details. The classic
+archivolt, the Corinthian capital, the Roman forms of enriched
+mouldings, are evident at a glance in the porches of Notre Dame des Doms
+at Avignon, of the church of St. Gilles, and of St. Trophime at
+Arles.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w120">
+<a name="fig96" id="fig96"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig96.png" width="111" height="200"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 96.&mdash;PLAN OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT, CLERMONT.</p>
+
+<p><b>DEVELOPMENT OF VAULTING.</b> It was in Central France, and mainly
+along the Loire, that the systematic development of vaulted church
+architecture began. Naves covered with barrel-vaults appear in a number
+of large churches built during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, with
+apsidal and transeptal chapels and aisles carried around the apse, as in
+St. Etienne, Nevers, <b>Notre Dame du Port</b> at Clermont-Ferrand (Fig.
+96), and <b>St. Paul</b> at Issoire. The thrust of these ponderous
+vaults was clumsily resisted by half-barrel vaults over the side-aisles,
+transmitting the strain to massive side-walls (Fig. 97), or by high
+side-aisles with transverse barrel or groined vaults over each bay. In
+either case the clearstory was suppressed&mdash;a&nbsp;fact which
+mattered
+<span class="pagenum">166</span>
+<a name="page166" id="page166"> </a>
+little in the sunny southern provinces. In the more cloudy North, in
+Normandy, Picardy, and the Royal Domain, the nave-vault was raised
+higher to admit of clearstory windows, and its section was in some cases
+made like a pointed arch, to diminish its thrust, as at <b>Autun</b>.
+But these eleventh-century vaults nearly all fell in, and had to be
+reconstructed on new principles. In this work the Clunisians seem to
+have led the way, as at <b>Cluny</b> (1089) and <b>Vézelay</b> (1100).
+In the latter church, one of the finest and most interesting French
+edifices of the twelfth century, a&nbsp;groined vault replaced the
+barrel-vault, though the oblong plan of the vaulting-bays, due to the
+nave being wider than the pier-arches, led to somewhat awkward twisted
+surfaces in the vaulting. But even here the vaults had insufficient
+lateral buttressing, and began to crack and settle; so that in the great
+ante-chapel, built thirty years later, the side-aisles were made in two
+stories, the better to resist the thrust, and the groined vaults
+themselves were constructed of pointed section. These seem to be the
+earliest pointed groined vaults in France. It was not till the second
+half of that century, however (1150&ndash;1200), that the flying
+buttress was combined with such vaults, so as to permit of high
+clearstories for the better lighting of the nave; and
+<span class="pagenum">167</span>
+<a name="page167" id="page167"> </a>
+the problem of satisfactorily vaulting an oblong space with a groined
+vault was not solved until the following century.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig97" id="fig97"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig97.png" width="232" height="230"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 97.&mdash;SECTION OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT, CLERMONT.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ONE-AISLED CHURCHES.</b> In the Franco-Byzantine churches already
+described (<a href="#page164">p.&nbsp;164</a>) this difficulty of the
+oblong vaulting-bay did not occur, owing to the absence of side-aisles
+and pier-arches. Following this conception of church-planning,
+a&nbsp;number of interesting parish churches and a few cathedrals were
+built in various parts of France in which side-recesses or chapels took
+the place of side-aisles. The partitions separating them served as
+abutments for the groined or barrel-vaults of the nave. The cathedrals
+of <b>Autun</b> (1150) and <b>Langres</b> (1160), and in the fourteenth
+century that of Alby, employed this arrangement, common in many earlier
+Provençal churches which have disappeared.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig98" id="fig98"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig98.png" width="245" height="216"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 98.&mdash;A SIX-PART RIBBED VAULT, SHOWING TWO COMPARTMENTS WITH
+THE FILLINGS COMPLETE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption w240">
+<i>a, a, Transverse ribs (doubleaux); b,&nbsp;b, Wall-ribs (formerets);
+c,&nbsp;c, Groin-ribs (diagonaux).</i><br>
+(All the ribs are semicircles.)</p>
+
+<p><b>SIX-PART VAULTING.</b> In the Royal Domain great architectural
+activity does not appear to have begun until the beginning of the Gothic
+period in the middle of the twelfth century. But in Normandy, and
+especially at Caen and Mont St. Michel, there were produced, between
+1046 and 1120, some remarkable churches, in which a high clearstory was
+secured in conjunction with a vaulted nave, by the use of “six-part”
+vaulting (Fig. 98). This was an awkward expedient, by which a square
+vaulting-bay was divided into six parts by the groins and by a middle
+transverse rib, necessitating two narrow skew vaults meeting at
+<span class="pagenum">168</span>
+<a name="page168" id="page168"> </a>
+the centre. This unsatisfactory device was retained for over a century,
+and was common in early Gothic churches both in France and Great
+Britain. It made it possible to resist the thrust by high side-aisles,
+and yet to open windows above these under the cross-vaults. The abbey
+churches of <b>St. Etienne</b> (the Abbaye aux Hommes) and <b>Ste.
+Trinité</b> (Abbaye aux Dames), at Caen, built in the time of William
+the Conqueror, were among the most magnificent churches of their time,
+both in size and in the excellence and ingenuity of their construction.
+The great abbey church of <b>Mont St. Michel</b> (much altered in later
+times) should also be mentioned here. At the same time these and other
+Norman churches showed a great advance in their internal composition.
+A&nbsp;well-developed triforium or subordinate gallery was introduced
+between the pier-arches and clearstory, and all the structural membering
+of the edifice was better proportioned and more logically expressed than
+in most contemporary work.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.</b> The details of French Romanesque
+architecture varied considerably in the several provinces, according as
+classic, Byzantine, or local influences prevailed. Except in a few of
+the Aquitanian churches, the round arch was universal. The walls were
+heavy and built of rubble between facings of stones of moderate size
+dressed with the axe. Windows and doors were widely splayed to diminish
+the obstruction of the massive walls, and were treated with jamb-shafts
+and recessed arches. These were usually formed with large cylindrical
+mouldings, richly carved with leaf ornaments, zigzags, billets, and
+grotesques. Figure-sculpture was more generally used in the South than
+in the North. The interior piers were sometimes cylindrical, but more
+often clustered, and where square bays of four-part or six-part vaulting
+were employed, the piers were alternately lighter and heavier. Each
+shaft had its independent capital either of the block type or of a form
+<span class="pagenum">169</span>
+<a name="page169" id="page169"> </a>
+resembling somewhat that of the Corinthian order. During the eleventh
+century it became customary to carry up to the main vaulting one or more
+shafts of the compound pier to support the vaulting ribs. Thus the
+division of the nave into <i>bays</i> was accentuated, while at the same
+time the horizontal three-fold division of the height by a well-defined
+triforium between the pier-arches and clearstory began to be likewise
+emphasized.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>VAULTING.</b> The vaulting was also divided into bays by
+transverse ribs, and where it was groined the groins themselves began in
+the twelfth century to be marked by groin-ribs. These were constructed
+independently of the vaulting, and the four or six compartments of each
+vaulting-bay were then built in, the ribs serving, in part at least, to
+support the centrings for this purpose. This far-reaching principle,
+already applied by the Romans in their concrete vaults (see <a href="#page84">p.&nbsp;84</a>), appears as a re-discovery, or rather an
+independent invention, of the builders of Normandy at the close of the
+eleventh century. The flying buttress was a later invention; in the
+round-arched buildings of the eleventh and twelfth centuries the
+buttressing was mainly internal, and was incomplete and timid in its
+arrangement.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>EXTERIORS.</b> The exteriors were on this account plain and flat.
+The windows were small, the mouldings simple, and towers were rarely
+combined with the body of the church until after the beginning of the
+twelfth century. Then they appeared as mere belfries of moderate height,
+with pyramidal roofs and effectively arranged openings, the germs of the
+noble Gothic spires of later times. Externally the western porches and
+portals were the most important features of the design, producing an
+imposing effect by their massive arches, clustered piers, richly carved
+mouldings, and deep shadows.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CLOISTERS, ETC.</b> Mention should be made of the other monastic
+buildings which were grouped around the abbey
+<span class="pagenum">170</span>
+<a name="page170" id="page170"> </a>
+churches of this period. These comprised refectories, chapter-halls,
+cloistered courts surrounded by the conventual cells, and a large number
+of accessory structures for kitchens, infirmaries, stores, etc. The
+whole formed an elaborate and complex aggregation of connected
+buildings, often of great size and beauty, especially the refectories
+and cloisters. Most of these conventual buildings have disappeared, many
+of them having been demolished during the Gothic period to make way for
+more elegant structures in the new style. There remain, however,
+a&nbsp;number of fine cloistered courts in their original form,
+especially in Southern France. Among the most remarkable of these are
+those of <b>Moissac</b>, <b>Elne</b>, and <b>Montmajour</b>.</p>
+
+
+<div class="monuments">
+<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> <span class="smallcaps">Italy.</span> (For
+basilicas and domical churches of 6th-12th centuries see pp. 118,
+119.)&mdash;Before 11th century: Sta. Maria at Toscanella, altered 1206;
+S.&nbsp;Donato, Zara; chapel at Friuli; baptistery at Boella. 11th
+century: S.&nbsp;Giovanni, Viterbo; Sta. Maria della Pieve, Arezzo;
+S.&nbsp;Antonio, Piacenza, 1014; Eremiti, 1132, and La Martorana, 1143,
+both at Palermo; Duomo at Bari, 1027 (much altered); Duomo and
+baptistery, Novara, 1030; Duomo at Parma, begun 1058; Duomo at Pisa,
+1063&ndash;1118; S.&nbsp;Miniato, Florence, 1063&ndash;12th century;
+S.&nbsp;Michele at Pavia and Duomo at Modena, late 11th
+century.&mdash;12th century: in Calabria and Apulia, cathedrals of
+Trani, 1100; Caserta, Vecchia, 1100&ndash;1153; Molfetta, 1162;
+Benevento; churches S.&nbsp;Giovanni at Brindisi, S.&nbsp;Niccolo at
+Bari, 1139. In Sicily, Duomo at Monreale, 1174&ndash;1189. In Northern
+Italy, S.&nbsp;Tomaso in Limine, Bergamo, 1100 (?); Sta. Giulia,
+Brescia; S.&nbsp;Lorenzo, Milan, rebuilt 1119; Duomo at Piacenza, 1122;
+S.&nbsp;Zeno at Verona, 1139; S.&nbsp;Ambrogio, Milan, 1140, vaulted in
+13th century; baptistery at Pisa, 1153&ndash;1278; Leaning Tower, Pisa,
+1174.&mdash;14th century: S.&nbsp;Michele, Lucca, 1188; S.&nbsp;Giovanni
+and S.&nbsp;Frediano, Lucca. In Dalmatia, cathedral at Zara,
+1192&ndash;1204. Many castles and early town-halls, as at Bari, Brescia,
+Lucca, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">France</span>: Previous to 11th century:
+St. Germiny-des-Prés, 806, Chapel of the Trinity, St.
+Honorat-des-Lérins; Ste. Croix de Montmajour.&mdash;11th century:
+Cérisy-la-Forêt and abbey church of Mont St. Michel, 1020 (the latter
+altered in 12th and 16th centuries<ins class="correction" title=") missing">);</ins> Vignory; St. Genou; porch of St. Bénoit-sur-Loire,
+1030; St. Sépulchre at Neuvy, 1045; Ste. Trinité
+<span class="pagenum">171</span>
+<a name="page171" id="page171"> </a>
+(Abbaye aux Dames) at Caen, 1046, vaulted 1140; St. Etienne (Abbaye aux
+Hommes) at Caen, same date; St. Front at Perigueux, 1120; Ste. Croix at
+Quimperlé, 1081; cathedral, Cahors, 1050&ndash;1110; abbey churches of
+Cluny (demolished) and Vézelay, 1089&ndash;1100; circular church of
+Rieux-Mérinville, church of St. Savin in Auvergne, the churches of St.
+Paul at Issoire and Notre-Dame-du-Port at Clermont, St. Hilaire and
+Notre-Dame-la-Grande at Poitiers; also St. Sernin (Saturnin) at
+Toulouse, all at close of 11th and beginning of 12th century.&mdash;12th
+century: Domical churches of Aquitania and vicinity; Solignac and
+Fontévrault, 1120; St. Etienne (Périgueux), St. Avit-Sénieur; Angoulême,
+Souillac, Broussac, etc., early 12th century; St. Trophime at Arles,
+1110, cloisters later; church of Vaison; abbeys and cloisters at
+Montmajour, Tarascon, Moissac (with fragments of a 10th-century cloister
+built into present arcades); St. Paul-du-Mausolée; Puy-en-Vélay, with
+fine church. Many other abbeys, parish churches, and a few cathedrals in
+Central and Northern France especially.<!-- invisible . --></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="note18" id="note18" href="#tag18">18.</a>
+See <a href="#appB">Appendix B</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note19" id="note19" href="#tag19">19.</a>
+See Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Dictionnaire raisonné</i>, article <span class="smallcaps">Architecture</span>, vol. i., pp. 66 <i>et seq.</i>; also de
+Verneilh, <i>L’Architecture byzantine en France</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum">172</span>
+<a name="page172" id="page172"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXIV" id="chapXIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+EARLY MEDIÆVAL ARCHITECTURE.&mdash;<i>Continued.</i></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subsub">
+IN GERMANY, GREAT BRITAIN, AND SPAIN.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Hübsch
+and Reber. Bond, <i>Gothic Architecture in England</i>. Also Brandon,
+<i>Analysis of Gothic Architecture</i>. Boisserée, <i>Nieder Rhein</i>.
+Ditchfield, <i>The Cathedrals of England</i>. Hasak, <i>Die romanische
+und die gotische Baukunst</i> (in <i>Handbuch d. Arch.</i>). Lübke,
+<i>Die Mittelalterliche Kunst in Westfalen</i>. Möller, <i>Denkmäler der
+deutschen Baukunst</i>. Puttrich, <i>Baukunst des Mittelalters in
+Sachsen</i>. Rickman, <i>An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of
+Architecture</i>. Scott, <i>English Church Architecture</i>. Van
+Rensselaer, <i>English Cathedrals</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>MEDIÆVAL GERMANY.</b> Architecture developed less rapidly and
+symmetrically in Germany than in France, notwithstanding the strong
+centralized government of the empire. The early churches were of wood,
+and the substitution of stone for wood proceeded slowly. During the
+Carolingian epoch (800&ndash;919), however, a&nbsp;few important
+buildings were erected, embodying Byzantine and classic traditions.
+Among these the most notable was the <b>Minster</b> or palatine chapel
+of Charlemagne at <b>Aix-la-Chapelle</b>, an obvious imitation of San
+Vitale at Ravenna. It consisted of an octagonal domed hall surrounded by
+a vaulted aisle in two stories, but without the eight niches of the
+Ravenna plan. It was preceded by a porch flanked by turrets. The
+Byzantine type thus introduced was repeated in later churches, as in the
+Nuns’ Choir at Essen (947) and at Ottmarsheim (1050). In the great
+monastery at Fulda a basilica with
+<span class="pagenum">173</span>
+<a name="page173" id="page173"> </a>
+transepts and with an apsidal choir at either end was built in 803.
+These choirs were raised above the level of the nave, to admit of crypts
+beneath them, as in many Lombard churches; a&nbsp;practice which, with
+the reduplication of the choir and apse just mentioned, became very
+common in German Romanesque architecture.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>EARLY CHURCHES.</b> It was in Saxony that this architecture first
+entered upon a truly national development. The early churches of this
+province and of Hildesheim (where architecture flourished under the
+favor of the bishops, as elsewhere under the royal influence) were of
+basilican plan and destitute of vaulting, except in the crypts. They
+were built with massive piers, sometimes rectangular, sometimes
+clustered, the two kinds often alternating in the same nave. Short
+columns were, however, sometimes used instead of piers, either alone, as
+at Paulinzelle and Limburg-on-the-Hardt (1024&ndash;39), or alternating
+with piers, as at Hecklingen, <b>Gernrode</b> (958&ndash;1050), and
+<b>St. Godehard</b> at Hildesheim (1133). A&nbsp;triple eastern apse,
+with apsidal chapels projecting eastward from the transepts, were common
+elements in the plans, and a second apse, choir, and crypt at the west
+end were not infrequent. Externally the most striking feature was the
+association of two, four, or even six square or circular towers with the
+mass of the church, and the elevation of square or polygonal turrets or
+cupolas over the crossing. These adjuncts gave a very picturesque aspect
+to edifices otherwise somewhat wanting in artistic interest.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w90">
+<a name="fig99" id="fig99"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig99.png" width="83" height="240"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 99.&mdash;PLAN OF MINSTER AT WORMS.</p>
+
+<p><b>RHENISH CHURCHES.</b> It was in the Rhine provinces that vaulting
+was first applied to the naves of German churches, nearly a half century
+after its general adoption in France. Cologne possesses an
+<span class="pagenum">174</span>
+<a name="page174" id="page174"> </a>
+interesting trio of churches in which the Byzantine dome on squinches or
+on pendentives, with three apses or niches opening into the central
+area, was associated with a long three aisled nave (<b>St.
+Mary-in-the-Capitol</b>, begun in 9th century; <b>Great St.
+Martin’s</b>, 1150&ndash;70; <b>Apostles’ Church</b>, 1160&ndash;99: the
+naves vaulted later). The double chapel at <b>Schwarz-Rheindorf</b>,
+near Bonn (1151), also has the crossing covered by a dome on
+pendentives.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft w180">
+<a name="fig100" id="fig100"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig100.png" width="182" height="376"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 100.&mdash;ONE BAY OF CATHEDRAL AT SPIRES.</p>
+
+<p>The vaulting of the nave itself was developed in another series of
+edifices of imposing size, the cathedrals of <b>Mayence</b> (1036),
+<b>Spires</b> (Speyer), and <b>Worms</b>, and the <b>Abbey of Laach</b>,
+all built in the 11th century and vaulted early in the 12th. In the
+first three the main vaulting is in square bays, each covering two bays
+of the nave, the piers of which are alternately lighter and heavier
+(Figs. 99, 100). At Laach the vaulting-bays are oblong, both in nave and
+aisles. There was no triforium gallery, and stability was secured only
+by excessive thickness in the piers and clearstory walls, and by
+bringing down the main vault as near to the side-aisle roofs as
+possible.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>RHENISH EXTERIORS.</b> These great churches, together with those
+of <b>Bonn</b> and <b>Limburg-on-the-Lahn</b> and the cathedral of
+<b>Treves</b> (Trier, 1047), are interesting, not only by their size and
+dignity of plan and the somewhat rude massiveness of their construction,
+but even more so by the picturesqueness
+<span class="pagenum">175</span>
+<a name="page175" id="page175"> </a>
+of their external design (Fig. 101). Especially successful is the
+massing of the large and small turrets with the lofty nave-roof and with
+the apses at one or both ends. The systematic use of arcading to
+decorate the exterior walls, and the introduction of open arcaded dwarf
+galleries under the cornices of the apses, gables, and dome-turrets,
+gave to these Rhenish churches an external beauty hardly equalled in
+other contemporary edifices. This method of exterior design, and the
+system of vaulting in square bays over double bays of the nave, were
+probably derived from the Lombard churches of Northern Italy, with which
+the <ins class="correction" title="spelling unchanged">Hohenstauffen</ins> emperors had many political
+relations.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig101" id="fig101"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig101.jpg" width="242" height="350"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 101.&mdash;EAST END OF CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES, COLOGNE.</p>
+
+<p>The Italian influence is also encountered in a number of circular
+churches of early date, as at Fulda (9th-11th century), Drügelte, Bonn
+(baptistery, demolished), and in façades like that at Rosheim, which is
+a copy in little of San Zeno at Verona.</p>
+
+<p>Elsewhere in Germany architecture was in a backward state, especially
+in the southern provinces. Outside of Saxony, Franconia, and the Rhine
+provinces, very few works of importance were erected until the
+thirteenth century.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">176</span>
+<a name="page176" id="page176"> </a>
+<p><b>SECULAR ARCHITECTURE.</b> Little remains to us of the secular
+architecture of this period in Germany, if we except the great feudal
+castles, especially those of the Rhine, which were, after all, rather
+works of military engineering than of architectural art. The palace of
+Charlemagne at Aix (the chapel of which was mentioned on <a href="#page172">p.&nbsp;172</a>) is known to have been a vast and splendid
+group of buildings, partly, at least of marble; but hardly a vestige of
+it remains. Of the extensive <b>Palace of Henry III.</b> at
+<b>Goslar</b> there remain well-defined ruins of an imposing hall of
+assembly in two aisles with triple-arched windows. At Brunswick the east
+wing of the <b>Burg Dankwargerode</b> displays, in spite of modern
+alterations, the arrangement of the chapel, great hall, two fortified
+towers, and part of the residence of Henry the Lion. The <b>Wartburg</b>
+palace (Ludwig III., <i>cir.</i> 1150) is more generally
+known&mdash;a&nbsp;rectangular hall in three stories, with windows
+effectively grouped to form arcades; while at Gelnhausen and Münzenberg
+are ruins of somewhat similar buildings. A&nbsp;few of the Romanesque
+monasteries of Germany have left partial remains, as at
+<b>Maulbronn</b>, which was almost entirely rebuilt in the Gothic
+period, and isolated buildings in Cologne and elsewhere. There remain
+also in Cologne a number of Romanesque private houses with coupled
+windows and stepped gables.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig102" id="fig102"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig102.png" width="184" height="388"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 102.&mdash;PLAN OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL.</p>
+
+<p><b>GREAT BRITAIN.</b> Previous to the Norman conquest (1066) there
+was in the British Isles little or no architecture worthy of mention.
+The few extant remains of Saxon and Celtic buildings reveal a singular
+poverty of ideas and want of technical skill. These scanty remains are
+mostly of towers (those in Ireland nearly all round and tapering, with
+conical tops, their use and date being the subjects of much controversy)
+and crypts. The tower of Earl’s Barton is the most important and best
+preserved of those in England. With the Norman conquest, however, began
+an extraordinary activity in the building of churches and abbeys.
+<span class="pagenum">177</span>
+<a name="page177" id="page177"> </a>
+William the Conqueror himself founded a number of these, and his Norman
+ecclesiastics endeavored to surpass on British soil the contemporary
+churches of Normandy. The new churches differed somewhat from their
+French prototypes; they were narrower and lower, but much longer,
+especially as to the choir and transepts. The cathedrals of
+<b>Durham</b> (1096&ndash;1133) and <b>Norwich</b> (same date) are
+important examples (Fig. 102). They also differed from the French
+churches in two important particulars externally; a&nbsp;huge tower rose
+usually over the crossing, and the western portals were small and
+insignificant. Lateral entrances near the west end were given greater
+importance and called <i>Galilees</i>. At Durham a Galilee chapel (not
+shown in the plan), takes the place of a porch at the west end, like the
+ante-churches of St. Benoît-sur-Loire and Vézelay.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE NORMAN STYLE.</b> The Anglo-Norman builders employed the same
+general features as the Romanesque builders of Normandy, but with more
+of picturesqueness and less of refinement and technical elegance. Heavy
+walls, recessed arches, round mouldings, cubic cushion-caps, clustered
+piers, and in doorways a jamb-shaft for each stepping of the arch were
+common to both styles. But in England the Corinthian form of capital is
+rare, its place being taken by simpler forms.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft w120">
+<a name="fig103" id="fig103"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig103.png" width="118" height="378"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 103.&mdash;ONE BAY OF TRANSEPT, WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL.</p>
+
+<p><b>NORMAN INTERIORS.</b> The interior design of the larger churches
+of this period shows a close general analogy to
+<span class="pagenum">178</span>
+<a name="page178" id="page178"> </a>
+contemporaneous French Norman churches, as appears by comparing the nave
+of Waltham or Peterboro’ with that of Cérisy-la-Forêt, in Normandy.
+Although the massiveness of the Anglo-Norman piers and walls plainly
+suggests the intention of vaulting the nave, this intention seems never
+to have been carried out except in small churches and crypts. All the
+existing abbeys and cathedrals of this period had wooden ceilings or
+were, like Durham, Norwich, and Gloucester, vaulted at a later date.
+Completed as they were with wooden nave-roofs, the clearstory was,
+without danger, made quite lofty and furnished with windows of
+considerable size. These were placed near the outside of the thick wall,
+and a passage was left between them and a triple arch on the inner face
+of the wall&mdash;a&nbsp;device imitated from the abbeys at Caen. The
+vaulted side-aisles were low, with disproportionately wide pier-arches,
+above which was a high triforium gallery under the side-roofs. Thus a
+nearly equal height was assigned to each of the three stories of the
+bay, disregarding that subordination of minor to major parts which gives
+interest to an architectural composition. The piers were quite often
+round, as at Gloucester, Hereford, and Bristol. Sometimes round piers
+alternated with clustered piers, as at Durham and Waltham; and in some
+cases clustered piers alone were employed, as at Peterboro’ and in the
+transepts of Winchester (Fig. 103).</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig104" id="fig104"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig104.png" width="212" height="306"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 104.&mdash;FRONT OF IFFLEY CHURCH.</p>
+
+<p><b>FAÇADES AND DOORWAYS.</b> All the details were of the simplest
+character, except in the doorways. These were richly adorned with
+clustered jamb-shafts and elaborately carved
+<span class="pagenum">179</span>
+<a name="page179" id="page179"> </a>
+mouldings, but there was little variety in the details of this carving.
+The zigzag was the most common feature, though birds’ heads with the
+beaks pointing toward the centre of the arch were not uncommon. In the
+smaller churches (Fig. 104) the doorways were better proportioned to the
+whole façade than in the larger ones, in which they appear as relatively
+insignificant features. Very few examples remain of important Norman
+façades in their original form, nearly all of these having been altered
+after the round arch was displaced by the pointed arch in the latter
+part of the twelfth century. Iffley church (Fig. 104) is a good example
+of the style.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>SPAIN.</b> During the Romanesque period a large part of Spain was
+under Moorish dominion. The capture of Toledo, in 1062, by the
+Christians, began the gradual emancipation of the country from Moslem
+rule, and in the northern provinces a number of important churches were
+erected under the influence of French Romanesque models. The use of
+domical pendentives (as in the <b>Panteon</b> of <b>S.&nbsp;Isidoro</b>,
+at Leon, and in the <i>cimborio</i> or dome over the choir at the
+intersection of nave and transepts in old Salamanca cathedral) was
+probably derived from the domical churches of Aquitania and Anjou.
+Elsewhere the northern Romanesque type prevailed under various
+modifications, with long nave and transepts, a&nbsp;short choir, and a
+<span class="pagenum">180</span>
+<a name="page180" id="page180"> </a>
+complete <i>chevet</i> with apsidal chapels. The church of <b>St.
+Iago</b> at Compostella (1078) is the finest example of this class.
+These churches nearly all had groined vaulting over the side-aisles and
+barrel-vaults over the nave, the constructive system being substantially
+that of the churches of Auvergne and the Loire Valley (<a href="#page165">p.&nbsp;165</a>). They differed, however, in the treatment of
+the crossing of nave and transepts, over which was usually erected a
+dome or cupola or pendentives or squinches, covered externally by an
+imposing square lantern or tower, as in the <b>Old Cathedral</b> at
+<b>Salamanca</b>, already mentioned (1120&ndash;78) and the
+<b>Collegiate Church</b> at <b>Toro</b>. Occasional exceptions to these
+types are met with, as in the basilican wooden-roofed church of
+S.&nbsp;Millan at Segovia; in <b>S.&nbsp;Isidoro</b> at Leon, with
+chapels and a later-added square eastern end, and the circular church of
+the Templars at Segovia.</p>
+
+<p>The architectural details of these Spanish churches did not differ
+radically from contemporary French work. As in France and England, the
+doorways were the most ornate parts of the design, the mouldings being
+carved with extreme richness and the jambs frequently adorned with
+statues, as in <b>S.&nbsp;Vincente</b> at Avila. There was no such
+logical and reasoned-out system of external design as in France, and
+there is consequently greater variety in the façades. Perhaps the most
+remarkable thing about the architecture of this period is its apparent
+exemption from the influence of the Moorish monuments which abounded on
+every hand. This may be explained by the hatred which was felt by the
+Christians for the Moslems and all their works.</p>
+
+<div class="monuments">
+
+<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> <span class="smallcaps">Germany</span>: Previous
+to 11th century: Circular churches of Holy Cross at Münster, and of
+Fulda; palace chapel of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, 804; St.
+Stephen, Mayence, 990; primitive nave and crypt of St. Gereon, Cologne,
+10th century; Lorsch.&mdash;11th century: Churches of Gernrode, Goslar,
+and Merseburg in Saxony; cathedral
+<span class="pagenum">181</span>
+<a name="page181" id="page181"> </a>
+of Bremen; first restoration of cathedral of Treves (Trier), 1010, west
+front, 1047; Limburg-on-Hardt, 1024; St. Willibrod, Echternach, 1031;
+east end of Mayence Cathedral, 1036; Church of Apostles and nave St.
+Mary-in-Capitol at Cologne, 1036; cathedral of Spires (Speyer) begun
+1040; Cathedral Hildesheim, 1061; St. Joseph, Bamberg, 1073; Abbey of
+Laach, 1093&ndash;1156; round churches of Bonn, Drügelte, Nimeguen;
+cathedrals of Paderborn and Minden.&mdash;12th century: Churches of
+Klus, Paulinzelle, Hamersleben, 1100&ndash;1110; Johannisberg, 1130; St.
+Godehard. Hildesheim, 1133; Worms, the Minster, 1118&ndash;83; Jerichau,
+1144&ndash;60; Schwarz-Rheindorf, 1151; St. Michael, Hildesheim, 1162;
+Cathedral Brunswick, 1172&ndash;94; Lubeck, 1172; also churches of
+Gaudersheim, Würzburg, St. Matthew at Treves, Limburg-on-Lahn, Sinzig,
+St. Castor at Coblentz, Diesdorf, Rosheim; round churches of Ottmarsheim
+and Rippen (Denmark); cathedral of Basle, cathedral and cloister of
+Zurich (Switzerland).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">England</span>: Previous to 11th century:
+Scanty vestiges of Saxon church architecture, as tower of Earl’s Barton,
+round towers and small chapels in Ireland.&mdash;11th century: Crypt of
+Canterbury Cathedral, 1070; chapel St. John in Tower of London, 1070;
+Winchester Cathedral, 1076&ndash;93 (nave and choir rebuilt later);
+Gloucester Cathedral nave, 1089&ndash;1100 (vaulted later); Rochester
+Cathedral nave, west front cloisters, and chapter-house,
+1090&ndash;1130; Carlisle Cathedral nave, transepts, 1093&ndash;1130;
+Durham Cathedral, 1095&ndash;1133, vaulted 1233; Galilee and
+chapter-house, 1133&ndash;53; Norwich Cathedral, 1096, largely rebuilt
+1118&ndash;93; Hereford Cathedral, nave and choir,
+1099&ndash;1115.&mdash;12th century: Ely Cathedral, nave, 1107&ndash;33;
+St. Alban’s Abbey, 1116; Peterboro’ Cathedral, 1117&ndash;45; Waltham
+Abbey, early 12th century; Church of Holy Sepulchre, Cambridge,
+1130&ndash;35; Worcester Cathedral chapter-house, 1140 (?); Oxford
+Cathedral (Christ Church), 1150&ndash;80; Bristol Cathedral
+chapter-house (square), 1155; Canterbury Cathedral, choir of present
+structure by William of Sens, 1175; Chichester Cathedral,
+1180&ndash;1204; Romsey Abbey, late 12th century; St. Cross Hospital
+near Winchester, 1190 (?). Many more or less important parish churches
+in various parts of England.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Spain.</span> For principal monuments of
+9th-12th centuries, see text, latter part of this chapter.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">182</span>
+<a name="page182" id="page182"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXV" id="chapXV">CHAPTER XV.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Adamy,
+<i>Architektonik des gotischen Stils</i>. Corroyer, <i>L’Architecture
+gothique</i>. Enlart, <i>Manuel d’archéologie française</i>. Hasak,
+<i>Einzelheiten des Kirchenbaues</i> (in <i>Hdbuch d. Arch.</i>). Moore,
+<i>Development and Character of Gothic Architecture</i>. Parker,
+<i>Introduction to Gothic Architecture.</i> Scott, <i>Mediæval
+Architecture</i>. Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Discourses on Architecture</i>;
+<i>Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>INTRODUCTORY.</b> The architectural styles which were developed in
+Western Europe during the period extending from about 1150 to 1450 or
+1500, received in an unscientific age the wholly erroneous and inept
+name of Gothic. This name has, however, become so fixed in common usage
+that it is hardly possible to substitute for it any more scientific
+designation. In reality the architecture to which it is applied was
+nothing more than the sequel and outgrowth of the Romanesque, which we
+have already studied. Its fundamental principles were the same; it was
+concerned with the same problems. These it took up where the Romanesque
+builders left them, and worked out their solution under new conditions,
+until it had developed out of the simple and massive models of the early
+twelfth century the splendid cathedrals of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries in England, France, Germany, the Low Countries and Spain.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE CHURCH AND ARCHITECTURE.</b> The twelfth century was an era of
+transition in society, as in architecture. The ideas of Church and State
+were becoming more clearly defined in the common mind. In the conflict
+between feudalism
+<span class="pagenum">183</span>
+<a name="page183" id="page183"> </a>
+and royalty the monarchy was steadily gaining ground. The problem of
+human right was beginning to present itself alongside of the problem of
+human might. The relations between the crown, the feudal barons, the
+pope, bishops, and abbots, differed widely in France, Germany, England,
+and other countries. The struggle among them for supremacy presented
+itself, therefore, in varied aspects; but the general outcome was
+essentially the same. The church began to appear as something behind and
+above abbots, bishops, kings, and barons. The supremacy of the papal
+authority gained increasing recognition, and the episcopacy began to
+overshadow the monastic institutions; the bishops appearing generally,
+but especially in France, as the champions of popular rights. The
+prerogatives of the crown became more firmly established, and thus the
+Church and the State emerged from the social confusion as the two
+institutions divinely appointed for the government of men.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig105" id="fig105"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig105.png" width="278" height="284"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 105.&mdash;CONSTRUCTIVE SYSTEM OF GOTHIC CHURCH,<br>
+ILLUSTRATING PRINCIPLES OF ISOLATED SUPPORTS AND BUTTRESSING.</p>
+
+<p>Under these influences ecclesiastical architecture advanced with
+rapid strides. No longer hampered by monastic restrictions, it called
+into its service the laity, whose guilds of masons and builders carried
+from one diocese to another their constantly increasing stores of
+constructive
+<span class="pagenum">184</span>
+<a name="page184" id="page184"> </a>
+knowledge. By a wise division of labor, each man wrought only such parts
+as he was specially trained to undertake. The
+master-builder&mdash;bishop, abbot, or mason&mdash;seems to have planned
+only the general arrangement and scheme of the building, leaving the
+precise form of each detail to be determined as the work advanced,
+according to the skill and fancy of the artisan to whom it was
+intrusted. Thus was produced that remarkable variety in unity of the
+Gothic cathedrals; thus, also, those singular irregularities and
+makeshifts, those discrepancies and alterations in the design, which are
+found in every great work of mediæval architecture. Gothic architecture
+was constantly changing, attacking new problems or devising new
+solutions of old ones. In this character of constant flux and
+development it contrasts strongly with the classic styles, in which the
+scheme and the principles were easily fixed and remained substantially
+unchanged for centuries.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig106" id="fig106"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig106.png" width="140" height="344"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 106.&mdash;PLAN OF SAINTE CHAPELLE, PARIS, SHOWING SUPPRESSION OF
+SIDE-WALLS.</p>
+
+<p><b>STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES.</b> The pointed arch, so commonly regarded
+as the most characteristic feature of the Gothic styles, was merely an
+incidental feature of their development. What really distinguished them
+most strikingly was the systematic application of two principles which
+the Roman and Byzantine builders had recognized and applied, but which
+seem to have been afterward forgotten until they were revived by the
+later Romanesque architects. The first of these was the <i>concentration
+of strains</i> upon isolated points of support, made possible by the
+substitution
+<span class="pagenum">185</span>
+<a name="page185" id="page185"> </a>
+of groined for barrel vaults. This led to a corresponding concentration
+of the masses of masonry at these points; the building was constructed
+as if upon legs (Fig. 105). The wall became a mere filling-in between
+the piers or buttresses, and in time was, indeed, practically
+suppressed, immense windows filled with stained glass taking its place.
+This is well illustrated in the <b>Sainte Chapelle</b> at Paris, built
+1242&ndash;47 (Figs. 106, <a href="#fig122">122</a>). In this
+remarkable edifice, a&nbsp;series of groined vaults spring from slender
+shafts built against deep buttresses which receive and resist all the
+thrusts. The wall-spaces between them are wholly occupied by superb
+windows filled with stone tracery and stained glass. It would be
+impossible to combine the materials used more scientifically or
+effectively. The cathedrals of Gerona (Spain) and of Alby (France; <a
+href="#fig123">Fig.&nbsp;123</a>) illustrate the same principle,
+though in them the buttresses are internal and serve to separate the
+flanking chapels.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft w210">
+<a name="fig107" id="fig107"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig107.png" width="202" height="322"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 107.&mdash;EARLY GOTHIC FLYING BUTTRESS.</p>
+
+<p>The second distinctive principle of Gothic architecture was that of
+<i>balanced thrusts</i>. In Roman buildings the thrust of the vaulting
+was resisted wholly by the inertia of mass in the abutments. In Gothic
+architecture thrusts were as far as possible resisted by
+counter-thrusts, and the final resultant pressure was transmitted by
+flying half-arches across the intervening portions of the structure to
+external buttresses placed at convenient points. This combination
+<span class="pagenum">186</span>
+<a name="page186" id="page186"> </a>
+of flying half-arches and buttresses is called the
+<i>flying-buttress</i> (Fig. 107). It reached its highest development in
+the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in the cathedrals of central and
+northern France.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>RIBBED VAULTING.</b> These two principles formed the structural
+basis of the Gothic styles. Their application led to the introduction of
+two other elements, second only to them in importance, <i>ribbed
+vaulting</i> and the <i>pointed arch</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig108" id="fig108"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig108.png" width="146" height="158"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 108.&mdash;RIBBED VAULT, ENGLISH TYPE, WITH DIVIDED GROIN-RIBS AND
+RIDGE-RIBS.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these resulted from the effort to overcome certain
+practical difficulties encountered in the building of large groined
+vaults. As ordinarily constructed, a&nbsp;groined vault like that in <a
+href="#fig47">Fig.&nbsp;47</a>, must be built as one structure, upon
+wooden centrings supporting its whole extent. The Romanesque architects
+conceived the idea of constructing an independent skeleton of ribs. Two
+of these were built against the wall (<i>wall-ribs</i>), two across the
+nave (transverse ribs); and two others were made to coincide with the
+groins (Figs. <a href="#fig98">98</a>, 108). The <i>groin-ribs</i>,
+intersecting at the centre of the vault, divided each bay into four
+triangular portions, or <i>compartments</i>, each of which was really an
+independent vault which could be separately constructed upon light
+centrings supported by the groin-ribs themselves. This principle, though
+identical in essence with the Roman system of brick skeleton-ribs for
+concrete vaults, was, in application and detail, superior to it, both
+from the scientific and artistic point of view. The ribs, richly
+moulded, became, in the hands of the Gothic architects, important
+decorative features. In practice the builder gave to each set of ribs
+independently the curvature he desired. The vaulting-surfaces were then
+easily twisted or warped so as to fit the
+<span class="pagenum">187</span>
+<a name="page187" id="page187"> </a>
+various ribs, which, being already in place, served as guides for their
+construction.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig109" id="fig109"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig109.png" width="203" height="225"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 109.&mdash;PENETRATIONS AND INTERSECTIONS OF VAULTS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption w210">
+<i>a, a, Penetrations by small semi-circular vaults sprung from same
+level. b, Intersection by small semi-circular vault sprung from higher
+level; groins form wavy lines. c, Intersection by narrow pointed vault
+sprung from same level; groins are plane curves.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>THE POINTED ARCH</b> was adopted to remedy the difficulties
+encountered in the construction of oblong vaults. It is obvious that
+where a narrow semi-cylindrical vault intersects a wide one, it produces
+either what are called <i>penetrations</i>, as at <i>a</i> (Fig. 109),
+or intersections like that at&nbsp;<i>b</i>, both of which are awkward
+in aspect and hard to construct. If, however, one or both vaults be
+given a pointed section, the narrow vault may be made as high as the
+wide one. It is then possible, with but little warping of the vaulting
+surfaces, to make them intersect in groins&nbsp;<i>c</i>, which are
+vertical plane curves instead of wavy loops like <i>a</i>
+and&nbsp;<i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic architects availed themselves to the full of these two
+devices. They built their groin-ribs of semi-circular or pointed form,
+but the wall-ribs and the transverse ribs were, without exception,
+pointed arches of such curvature as would bring the apex of each nearly
+or quite to the level of the groin intersection. The pointed arch, thus
+introduced as the most convenient form for the vaulting-ribs, was soon
+applied to other parts of the structure.<!-- invisible . --> This was a
+necessity with the windows and pier-arches, which would not otherwise
+fit well the wall-spaces under the wall-ribs of the nave and aisle
+vaulting.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig110" id="fig110"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig110.png" width="193" height="233"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 110.&mdash;PLATE TRACERY, CHARLTON-ON-OXMORE.</p>
+
+<p><b>TRACERY AND GLASS.</b> With the growth in the size of the windows
+and the progressive suppression of the lateral walls
+<span class="pagenum">188</span>
+<a name="page188" id="page188"> </a>
+of vaulted structures, stained glass came more and more generally into
+use. Its introduction not only resulted in a notable heightening and
+enriching of the colors and scheme of the interior decoration, but
+reacted on the architecture, intensifying the very causes which led to
+its introduction. It stimulated the increase in the size of windows, and
+the suppression of the walls, and contributed greatly to the development
+of <i>tracery</i>. This latter feature was an absolute necessity for the
+support of the glass. Its evolution can be traced (Figs, 110, 111, 112)
+from the simple coupling of twin windows under a single hood-mould, or
+discharging arch, to the florid net-work of the fifteenth century. In
+its earlier forms it consisted merely of decorative openings, circles,
+and quatrefoils, pierced through slabs of stone (<i>plate-tracery</i>),
+filling the window-heads over coupled windows. Later attention was
+bestowed upon the form of the stonework, which was made lighter and
+richly moulded (<i>bar-tracery</i>), rather than upon that of the
+openings (Fig. 111). Then the circular and geometric patterns employed
+were abandoned for more flowing and capricious designs
+(<i>Flamboyant</i> tracery, Fig. 112) or (in England) for more rigid and
+rectangular arrangements (<i>Perpendicular</i>, <a href="#fig134">Fig.&nbsp;134</a>). It will be shown later that the periods
+and styles of Gothic architecture are more easily identified by the
+tracery than by any other feature.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHURCH PLANS.</b> The original basilica-plan underwent radical
+modifications during the 12th-15th centuries. These resulted in part
+from the changes in construction
+<span class="pagenum">189</span>
+<a name="page189" id="page189"> </a>
+which have been described, and in part from altered ecclesiastical
+conditions and requirements. Gothic church architecture was based on
+cathedral design; and the requirements of the cathedral differed in many
+respects from those of the monastic churches of the preceding
+period.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig111" id="fig111"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig111.jpg" width="243" height="320"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 111.&mdash;BAR TRACERY, ST. MICHAEL’S, WARFIELD.</p>
+
+<p>The most important alterations in the plan were in the choir and
+transepts. The choir was greatly lengthened, the transepts often
+shortened. The choir was provided with two and often four side-aisles,
+and one or both of these was commonly carried entirely around the
+apsidal termination of the choir, forming a single or double
+<i>ambulatory</i>. This combination of choir, apse, and ambulatory was
+called, in French churches, the <i>chevet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Another advance upon Romanesque models was the multiplication of
+chapels&mdash;a&nbsp;natural consequence of the more popular character
+of the cathedral as compared with the abbey. Frequently lateral chapels
+were built at each bay of the side-aisles, filling up the space between
+the deep buttresses, flanking the nave as well as the choir. They were
+also carried around the <i>chevet</i> in most of the French cathedrals
+(Paris, Bourges, Reims, Amiens, Beauvais, and many others); in many of
+those in Germany (Magdeburg, Cologne, Frauenkirche at Treves), Spain
+(Toledo, Leon, Barcelona,
+<span class="pagenum">190</span>
+<a name="page190" id="page190"> </a>
+Segovia, etc.), and Belgium (Tournay, Antwerp). In England the choir had
+more commonly a square eastward termination. Secondary transepts occur
+frequently, and these peculiarities, together with the narrowness and
+great length of most of the plans, make of the English cathedrals a
+class by themselves.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig112" id="fig112"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig112.png" width="254" height="256"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 112.&mdash;ROSE WINDOW, CHURCH OF ST. OUEN, ROUEN.</p>
+
+<p><b>PROPORTIONS AND COMPOSITION.</b> Along with these modifications of
+the basilican plan should be noticed a great increase in the height and
+slenderness of all parts of the structure. The lofty clearstory, the
+arcaded triforium-passage or gallery beneath it, the high pointed
+pier-arches, the multiplication of slender clustered shafts, and the
+reduction in the area of the piers, gave to the Gothic churches an
+interior aspect wholly different from that of the simpler, lower, and
+more massive Romanesque edifices. The perspective effects of the plans
+thus modified, especially of the complex choir and <i>chevet</i> with
+their lateral and radial chapels, were remarkably enriched and
+varied.</p>
+
+<p>The exterior was even more radically transformed by these changes,
+and by the addition of towers and spires to the fronts, and sometimes to
+the transepts and to their intersection with the nave. The deep
+buttresses, terminating in pinnacles, the rich traceries of the great
+lateral windows, the triple portals profusely sculptured, rose-windows
+of great size under the front and transept gables, combined to produce
+<span class="pagenum">191</span>
+<a name="page191" id="page191"> </a>
+effects of marvellously varied light and shadow, and of complex and
+elaborate structural beauty, totally unlike the broad simplicity of the
+Romanesque exteriors.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig113" id="fig113"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig113.jpg" width="231" height="459"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 113.&mdash;FLAMBOYANT DETAIL FROM PULPIT IN STRASBURG
+CATHEDRAL.</p>
+
+<p><b>DECORATIVE DETAIL.</b> The mediæval designers aimed to enrich
+every constructive feature with the most effective play of lights and
+shades, and to embody in the decorative detail the greatest possible
+amount of allegory and symbolism, and sometimes of humor besides. The
+deep jambs and soffits of doors and pier-arches were moulded with a rich
+succession of hollow and convex members, and adorned with carvings of
+saints, apostles, martyrs, and angels. Virtues and vices, allegories of
+reward and punishment, and an extraordinary world of monstrous and
+grotesque beasts, devils, and goblins filled the capitals and
+door-arches, peeped over tower-parapets, or leered and grinned from
+gargoyles and corbels. Another source of decorative detail was the
+application of tracery like that of the windows to wall-panelling, to
+balustrades, to open-work gables, to spires, to choir-screens, and other
+features, especially in
+<span class="pagenum">192</span>
+<a name="page192" id="page192"> </a>
+the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (cathedrals of York, Rouen,
+Cologne; Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster). And finally in the carving
+of capitals and the ornamentation of mouldings the artists of the
+thirteenth century and their successors abandoned completely the classic
+models and traditions which still survived in the early twelfth
+century.<!-- invisible . --> The later monastic builders began to look
+directly to nature for suggestions of decorative form. The lay builders
+who sculptured the capitals and crockets and finials of the early Gothic
+cathedrals adopted and followed to its finality this principle of
+recourse to nature, especially to plant life. At first the budding
+shoots of early spring were freely imitated or skilfully
+conventionalized, as being by their thick and vigorous forms the best
+adapted for translation into stone (Fig. 114). During the thirteenth
+century the more advanced stages of plant growth, and leaves more
+complex and detailed, furnished the models for the carver, who displayed
+his skill in a closer and more literal imitation of their minute
+veinings and indentations (Fig. 115).
+<span class="illustration floatleft">
+<a name="fig114" id="fig114"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig114.png" width="256" height="160"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 114.&mdash;EARLY GOTHIC CARVING.</span>
+This artistic adaptation of natural forms to architectural decoration
+degenerated later into a minutely realistic copying of natural foliage,
+in which cleverness of execution took the place of original invention.
+The spirit of display is characteristic of all late Gothic work.
+Slenderness, minuteness of detail, extreme complexity and intricacy of
+design, an unrestrained profusion of decoration covering every surface,
+a&nbsp;lack of largeness and vigor in the conceptions, are conspicuous
+traits of Gothic design in the fifteenth century,
+<span class="pagenum">193</span>
+<a name="page193" id="page193"> </a>
+alike in France, England, Germany, Spain, and the Low Countries. Having
+worked out to their conclusion the structural principles bequeathed to
+them by the preceding centuries, the authors of these later works seemed
+to have devoted themselves to the elaboration of mere decorative detail,
+and in technical finish surpassed all that had gone before (Fig.
+113).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig115" id="fig115"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig115.jpg" width="262" height="264"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 115.&mdash;CARVING, DECORATED PERIOD, FROM SOUTHWELL MINSTER.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARIZED.</b> In the light of the preceding
+explanations Gothic architecture may be defined as that system of
+structural design and decoration which grew up out of the effort to
+combine, in one harmonious and organic conception, the basilican plan
+with a complete and systematic construction of groined vaulting. Its
+development was controlled throughout by considerations of stability and
+structural propriety, but in the application of these considerations the
+artistic spirit was allowed full scope for its exercise. Refinement,
+good taste, and great fertility of imagination characterize the details
+and ornaments of Gothic structures. While the Greeks in harmonizing the
+requirements of utility and beauty in architecture approached the
+problem from the æsthetic side, the Gothic architects did the same from
+the structural side. Their admirably reasoned structures express as
+perfectly the idea of vastness, mystery, and complexity as do the Greek
+temples that of simplicity and monumental repose.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">194</span>
+<a name="page194" id="page194"> </a>
+<p>The excellence of Gothic architecture lay not so much in its
+individual details as in its perfect adaptation to the purposes for
+which it was developed&mdash;its triumphs were achieved in the building
+of cathedrals and large churches. In the domain of civil and domestic
+architecture it produced nothing comparable with its ecclesiastical
+edifices, because it was the requirements of the cathedral and not of
+the palace, town-hall, or dwelling, that gave it its form and
+character.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PERIODS.</b> The history of Gothic architecture is commonly
+divided into three periods, which are most readily distinguished by the
+character of the window-tracery. These periods were not by any means
+synchronous in the different countries; but the order of sequence was
+everywhere the same. They are here given, with a summary of the
+characteristics of each.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Early Pointed Period.</span> [<i>Early
+French</i>; <i>Early English</i> or <i>Lancet</i> Period in England;
+<i>Early German</i>, etc.] Simple groined vaults; general simplicity and
+vigor of design and detail; conventionalized foliage of small plants;
+plate tracery, and narrow windows coupled under pointed arch with
+circular foiled openings in the window-head. (In France, 1160 to
+1275.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Middle Pointed Period.</span>
+[<i>Rayonnant</i> in France; <i>Decorated</i> or <i>Geometric</i> in
+England.] Vaults more perfect; in England multiple ribs and liernes;
+greater slenderness and loftiness of proportions; decoration much
+richer, less vigorous; more naturalistic carving of mature foliage;
+walls nearly suppressed, windows of great size, bar tracery with slender
+moulded or columnar mullions and geometric combinations (circles and
+cusps) in window-heads, circular (rose) windows. (In France, 1275 to
+1375.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Florid Gothic Period.</span>
+[<i>Flamboyant</i> in France; <i>Perpendicular</i> in England.] Vaults
+of varied and richly decorated design; fan-vaulting and pendants in
+England, vault-ribs
+<span class="pagenum">195</span>
+<a name="page195" id="page195"> </a>
+curved into fanciful patterns in Germany and Spain; profuse and minute
+decoration and cleverness of technical execution substituted for dignity
+of design; highly realistic carving and sculpture, flowing or flamboyant
+tracery in France; perpendicular bars with horizontal transoms and
+four-centred arches in England; “branch-tracery” in Germany. (In France,
+1375 to 1525.)</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">196</span>
+<a name="page196" id="page196"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXVI" id="chapXVI">CHAPTER XVI.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Adamy,
+Corroyer, Enlart, Hasak, Moore, Reber, Viollet-le-Duc.<a class="tag"
+name="tag20" id="tag20" href="#note20">20</a> Also Chapuy, <i>Le
+moyen age monumental</i>. Chateau, <i>Histoire et caractères de
+l’architecture française</i>. Davies, <i>Architectural Studies in
+France</i>. Ferree, <i>The Chronology of the Cathedral Churches of
+France</i>. Johnson, <i>Early French Architecture</i>. King, <i>The
+Study book of Mediæval Architecture and Art</i>. Lassus and
+Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Notre Dame de Paris</i>. Nesfield, <i>Specimens of
+Mediæval Architecture</i>. Pettit, <i>Architectural Studies in
+France</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CATHEDRAL-BUILDING IN FRANCE.</b> In the development of the
+principles outlined in the foregoing chapter the church-builders of
+France led the way. They surpassed all their contemporaries in readiness
+of invention, in quickness and directness of reasoning, and in artistic
+refinement. These qualities were especially manifested in the
+extraordinary architectural activity which marked the second half of the
+twelfth century and the first half of the thirteenth. This was the great
+age of cathedral-building in France. The adhesion of the bishops to the
+royal cause, and their position in popular estimation as the champions
+of justice and human rights, led to the rapid advance of the episcopacy
+in power and influence. The cathedral, as the throne-church of the
+bishop, became a truly popular institution. New cathedrals were founded
+on every side, especially in the
+<span class="pagenum">197</span>
+<a name="page197" id="page197"> </a>
+Royal Domain and the adjoining provinces of Normandy, Burgundy, and
+Champagne, and their construction was warmly seconded by the people, the
+communes, and the municipalities. “Nothing to-day,” says
+Viollet-le-Duc,<a class="tag" name="tag21" id="tag21" href="#note21">21</a> “unless it be the commercial movement which has covered
+Europe with railway lines, can give an idea of the zeal with which the
+urban populations set about building cathedrals; .&nbsp;.&nbsp;.
+a&nbsp;necessity at the end of the twelfth century because it was an
+energetic protest against feudalism.” The collapse of the unscientific
+Romanesque vaulting of some of the earlier cathedrals and the
+destruction by fire of others stimulated this movement by the necessity
+for their immediate rebuilding. The entire reconstruction of the
+cathedrals of Bayeux, Bayonne, Cambray, Evreux, Laon, Lisieux, Le Mans,
+Noyon, Poitiers, Senlis, Soissons, and Troyes was begun between 1130 and
+1200.<a class="tag" name="tag22" id="tag22" href="#note22">22</a> The cathedrals of Bourges, Chartres, Paris, and Tours,
+and the abbey of St. Denis, all of the first importance, were begun
+during the same period, and during the next quarter-century those of
+Amiens, Auxerre, Rouen, Reims, Séez, and many others. After 1250 the
+movement slackened and finally ceased. Few important cathedrals were
+erected during the latter half of the thirteenth century, the chief
+among them being at Beauvais (actively begun 1247), Clermont, Coutances,
+Limoges, Narbonne, and Rodez. During this period, and through the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, French architecture was concerned
+rather with the completion and remodelling of existing cathedrals than
+the founding of new ones. There were, however, many important parish
+churches and civil or domestic edifices erected within this period.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT: VAULTING.</b> By the middle of the twelfth
+century the use of barrel-vaulting over the nave had been generally
+abandoned and groined vaulting with
+<span class="pagenum">198</span>
+<a name="page198" id="page198"> </a>
+its isolated points of support and resistance had taken its place. The
+timid experiments of the Clunisian architects at Vézelay in the use of
+the pointed arch and vault-ribs also led, in the second half of the
+twelfth century, to far-reaching results. The builders of the great
+<b>Abbey Church</b> of <b>St. Denis</b>, near Paris, begun in 1140 by
+the Abbot Suger, appear to have been the first to develop these
+tentative devices into a system. In the original choir of this noble
+church all the arches, alike of the vault-ribs (except the groin-ribs,
+which were semi-circles) and of the openings, were pointed and the
+vaults were throughout constructed with cross-ribs, wall-ribs, and
+groin-ribs. Of this early work only the chapels remain. In other
+contemporary monuments, as for instance in the cathedral of Sens, the
+adoption of these devices was only partial and hesitating.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w120">
+<a name="fig116" id="fig116"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig116.png" width="127" height="341"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 116.&mdash;PLAN OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.</p>
+
+<p><b>NOTRE DAME AT PARIS.</b> The next great step in advance was taken
+in the cathedral of <b>Notre Dame</b><a class="tag" name="tag23" id="tag23" href="#note23">23</a> at Paris (Figs. 116, 117, <a href="#fig125">125</a>). This was begun, under Maurice de Sully in 1163, on
+the site of the twin cathedrals of Ste. Marie and St. Étienne, and the
+choir was, as usual, the first portion erected. By 1196 the choir,
+transepts, and one or two bays of the nave were substantially finished.
+The completeness, harmony, and vigor of conception of this remarkable
+church contrast strikingly with the makeshifts and hesitancy displayed
+in many contemporary monuments
+<span class="pagenum">199</span>
+<a name="page199" id="page199"> </a>
+in other provinces. The difficult vaulting over the radiating bays of
+the double ambulatory was here treated with great elegance. By doubling
+the number of supports in the exterior circuit of each aisle (Fig. 116)
+each trapezoidal bay of the vaulting was divided into three easily
+managed triangular compartments. Circular shafts were used between the
+central and side aisles. The side aisles were doubled and those next the
+centre were built in two stories, providing ample galleries behind a
+very open triforium. The nave was unusually lofty and covered with
+six-part vaults of admirable execution. The vault-ribs were vigorously
+moulded and each made to spring from a distinct vaulting-shaft, of which
+three rested upon the cap of each of the massive piers below (Fig. 117).
+The <b>Cathedral</b> of <b>Bourges</b>, begun 1190, closely resembled
+that of Paris in plan. Both were designed to accommodate vast throngs in
+their exceptionally broad central aisles and double side aisles, but
+Bourges has no side-aisle galleries, though the inner aisles are much
+loftier than the outer ones. Though
+<span class="pagenum">200</span>
+<a name="page200" id="page200"> </a>
+later in date the vaulting of Bourges is inferior to that of Notre Dame,
+especially in the treatment of the trapezoidal bays of the
+ambulatory.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig117" id="fig117"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig117.jpg" width="367" height="262"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 117.&mdash;INTERIOR OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.</p>
+
+<p>The masterly examples set by the vault-builders of St. Denis and
+Notre Dame were not at once generally followed. Noyon, Senlis, and
+Soissons, contemporary with these, are far less completely Gothic in
+style. At <b>Le Mans</b> the groined vaulting which in 1158 was
+substituted for the original barrel-vault of the cathedral is of very
+primitive design, singularly heavy and awkward, although nearly
+contemporary with that of Notre Dame (Fig. 118).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig118" id="fig118"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig118.jpg" width="248" height="292"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 118.&mdash;LE MANS CATHEDRAL. NAVE.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>DOMICAL GROINED VAULTING.</b> The builders of the South and West,
+influenced by Aquitanian models, adhered to the square plan and domical
+form of vaulting-bay, even after they had begun to employ groin-ribs.
+The latter, as at first used by them in imitation of Northern examples,
+had no organic function in the vault, which was still built like a dome.
+About 1145&ndash;1160 the cathedral of <b>St. Maurice</b> at
+<b>Angers</b> was vaulted with square, groin-ribbed vaults, domical in
+form but not in construction. The joints no longer described horizontal
+circles as in a dome, but oblique lines perpendicular to the groins and
+meeting in zigzag lines at the ridge (Fig. 119). This method became
+common in the West and was afterward generally adopted
+<span class="pagenum">201</span>
+<a name="page201" id="page201"> </a>
+by the English architects. The <b>Cathedrals</b> of <b>Poitiers</b>
+(1162) and <b>Laval</b> (La Trinité, 1180&ndash;1185) are examples of
+this system, which at Le Mans met with the Northern system and produced
+in the cathedral the awkward compromise described above.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig119" id="fig119"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig119.png" width="243" height="199"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 119.&mdash;GROINED VAULT WITH ZIG-ZAG RIDGE-JOINTS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption w240">
+<i>a</i> shows a small section of filling with courses parallel to the
+ridge, for comparison with the other compartments.<!-- invisible .
+--></p>
+
+<p><b>THIRTEENTH-CENTURY VAULTING.</b> Early in the thirteenth century
+the church-builders of Northern France abandoned the use of square
+vaulting-bays and six-part vaults. By the adoption of groin-ribs and the
+pointed arch, the building of vaults in oblong bays was greatly
+simplified. Each bay of the nave could now be covered with its own
+vaulting-bay, thus doing away with all necessity for alternately light
+and heavy piers. It is not quite certain when and where this system was
+first adopted for the complete vaulting of a church. It is, however,
+probable that the <b>Cathedral</b> of <b>Chartres</b>, begun in 1194 and
+completed before 1240, deserves this distinction, although it is
+possible that the vaults of Soissons and Noyon may slightly antedate it.
+<b>Troyes</b> (1170&ndash;1267), <b>Rouen</b> (1202&ndash;1220),
+<b>Reims</b> (1212&ndash;1242), <b>Auxerre</b> (1215&ndash;1234, nave
+fourteenth century), <b>Amiens</b> (1220&ndash;1288), and nearly all the
+great churches and chapels begun after 1200, employ the fully developed
+oblong vault.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>BUTTRESSING.</b> Meanwhile the increasing height of the
+clearstories and the use of double aisles compelled the bestowal of
+especial attention upon the buttressing. The nave and choir of Chartres,
+the choirs of Notre Dame,
+<span class="pagenum">202</span>
+<a name="page202" id="page202"> </a>
+Bourges, Rouen, and Reims, the chevet and later the choir of St. Denis,
+afford early examples of the flying-buttress (<a href="#fig107">Fig.&nbsp;107</a>). These were at first simple and of moderate
+height. Single half-arches spanned the side aisles; in Notre Dame they
+crossed the double aisles in a single leap. Later the buttresses were
+given greater stability by the added weight of lofty pinnacles. An
+intermediate range of buttresses and pinnacles was built over the
+intermediate piers where double aisles flanked the nave and choir, thus
+dividing the single flying arch into two arches. At the same time a
+careful observation of statical defects in the earlier examples led to
+the introduction of subordinate arches and of other devices to stiffen
+and to beautify the whole system. At <b>Reims</b> and <b>Amiens</b>
+these features received their highest development, though later examples
+are frequently much more ornate.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w120">
+<a name="fig120" id="fig120"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig120.png" width="129" height="363"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 120.&mdash;ONE BAY, ABBEY OF ST. DENIS.</p>
+
+<p><b>INTERIOR DESIGN.</b> The progressive change outlined in the last
+chapter, by which the wall was practically suppressed, the windows
+correspondingly enlarged, and every part of the structure made loftier
+and more slender, resulted in the evolution of a system of interior
+design well represented by the nave of Amiens. The second story or
+gallery over the side aisle disappeared, but the aisle itself was very
+high. The triforium was no longer a gallery, but a richly arcaded
+passage in the thickness of the wall, corresponding to the roofing-space
+over the aisle, and generally treated like a lower stage of the
+clearstory. Nearly the whole space above it was occupied in each bay by
+the vast clearstory window filled with simple but effective geometric
+tracery over slender mullions. The side aisles were lighted by windows
+which, like those in the clearstory, occupied nearly the whole available
+wall-space under the vaulting. The piers and shafts were all clustered
+and remarkably slender. The whole construction of this vast edifice,
+which covers nearly eighty thousand square feet, is a marvel of
+<span class="pagenum">203</span>
+<a name="page203" id="page203"> </a>
+lightness, of scientific combinations, and of fine execution. Its great
+vault rises to a height of one hundred and forty feet. The nave of St.
+Denis, though less lofty, resembles it closely in style (Fig. 120).
+Earlier cathedrals show less of the harmony of proportion, the perfect
+working out of the relation of all parts of the composition of each bay,
+so conspicuous in the Amiens type, which was followed in most of the
+later churches.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>WINDOWS: TRACERY.</b> The clearstory windows of Noyon, Soissons,
+Sens, and the choir of Vézelay (1200) were simple arched openings
+arranged singly, in pairs, or in threes. In the cathedral of Chartres
+(1194&ndash;1220) they consist of two arched windows with a circle above
+them, forming a sort of plate tracery under a single arch. In the chapel
+windows of the choir at Reims (1215) the tracery of mullions and circles
+was moulded inside and out, and the intermediate triangular spaces all
+pierced and glazed. Rose windows were early used in front and transept
+façades. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they were made
+of vast size and great lightness of tracery, as in the transepts of
+Notre Dame (1257) and the west front of Amiens (1288). From the design
+of these windows is derived the name <i>Rayonnant</i>, often applied to
+the French Gothic style of the period 1275&ndash;1375.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig121" id="fig121"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig121.jpg" width="232" height="385"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 121.&mdash;THE STE. CHAPELLE, PARIS.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE SAINTE CHAPELLE.</b> In this beautiful royal chapel at Paris,
+built 1242&ndash;47, Gothic design was admirably exemplified in the
+noble windows 15 by 50 feet in size, which perhaps furnished the models
+for those of Amiens and&nbsp;St.
+<span class="pagenum">204</span>
+<a name="page204" id="page204"> </a>
+Denis. Each was divided by slender mullions into four lancet-like lights
+gathered under the rich tracery of the window-head. They were filled
+with stained glass of the most brilliant but harmonious hues. They
+occupy the whole available wall-space, so that the ribbed vault
+internally seems almost to rest on walls of glass, so slender are the
+visible supports and so effaced by the glow of color in the windows.
+Certainly lightness of construction and the suppression of the
+wall-masonry could hardly be carried further than here (Fig. 121). Among
+other chapels of the same type are those in the palace of St.
+Germain-en-Laye (1240), and a later example in the château of Vincennes,
+begun by Charles VI., but not finished till 1525.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig122" id="fig122"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig122.png" width="145" height="329"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 122.&mdash;PLAN OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL.</p>
+
+<p><b>PLANS.</b> The most radical change from the primitive basilican
+type was, as already explained in the last chapter, the continuation of
+the side aisles around the apse to form a <i>chevet</i>; and later, the
+addition of chapels between the external buttresses. Radiating chapels,
+usually semi-octagons or semi-decagons in plan, early appeared as
+additions to the <i>chevet</i> (Fig. 122). These may have originated in
+the apsidal chapels of Romanesque churches in Auvergne and the South, as
+at Issoire, Clermont-Ferrand, Le Puy, and Toulouse.<!-- invisible . -->
+<span class="pagenum">205</span>
+<a name="page205" id="page205"> </a>
+They generally superseded the transept-chapels of earlier churches, and
+added greatly to the beauty of the interior perspective, especially when
+the encircling aisles of the chevet were doubled. Notre Dame, as at
+first erected, had a double ambulatory, but no chapels. Bourges has only
+five very small semicircular chapels. Chartres (choir 1220) and Le Mans,
+as reconstructed about the same date, have double ambulatories and
+radial chapels. After 1220 the second ambulatory no longer appears.
+Noyon, Soissons, Reims, Amiens, Troyes, and Beauvais, Tours, Bayeux, and
+Coutances, Clermont, Limoges, and Narbonne all have the single
+ambulatory and radiating chevet-chapels. The Lady-chapel in the axis of
+the church was often made longer and more important than the other
+chapels, as at Amiens, Le Mans, Rouen, Bayeux, and Coutances. Chapels
+also flanked the choir in most of the cathedrals named above, and Notre
+Dame and Tours also have side chapels to the nave. The only cathedrals
+with complete double side aisles alike to nave, choir, and chevet, were
+Notre Dame and Bourges. It is somewhat singular that the German
+cathedral of Cologne is the only one in which all these various
+characteristic French features were united in one design (see <a href="#fig140">Fig.&nbsp;140</a>).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float null">
+<a name="fig123" id="fig123"> </a>
+<img class="null" src="images/fig123a.png"
+width="179" height="85" alt="see caption and text"></p>
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<img src="images/fig123b.png" width="129" height="188"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 123.&mdash;PLAN OF<br>
+CATHEDRAL OF ALBY.<!-- invisible . --></p>
+
+<p>Local considerations had full sway in France, in spite of the
+tendency toward unity of type. Thus Dol, Laon, and Poitiers have square
+eastward terminations; Châlons has no ambulatory; Bourges no transept.
+In Notre Dame the transept was almost suppressed. At Soissons one
+transept, at Noyon both, had semicircular ends. <b>Alby</b>, a&nbsp;late
+cathedral of brick,
+<span class="pagenum">206</span>
+<a name="page206" id="page206"> </a>
+founded in 1280, but mostly built during the fourteenth century, has
+neither side aisles nor transepts, its wide nave being flanked by
+chapels separated by internal buttresses (Fig. 123).</p>
+
+
+<p><b>SCALE.</b> The French cathedrals were nearly all of imposing
+dimensions. Noyon, one of the smallest, is 333 feet long; Sens measures
+354. Laon, Bourges, Troyes, Notre Dame, Le Mans, Rouen, and Chartres
+vary from 396 to 437 feet in extreme length; Reims measures 483, and
+Amiens, the longest of all, 521 feet. Notre Dame is 124 feet wide across
+the five aisles of the nave; Bourges, somewhat wider. The central aisles
+of these two cathedrals, and of Laon, Amiens, and Beauvais, have a span
+of not far from 40 feet from centre to centre of the piers; while the
+ridge of the vaulting, which in Notre Dame is 108 feet above the
+pavement, and in Bourges 125, reaches in Amiens a height of 140 feet,
+and of nearly 160 in Beauvais. This emphasis of the height, from 3 to 3½
+times the clear width of the nave or choir, is one of the most striking
+features of the French cathedrals. It produces an impressive effect, but
+tends to dwarf the great width of the central aisle.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig124" id="fig124"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig124.jpg" width="257" height="390"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 124.<!-- invisible both . -->&mdash;WEST FRONT OF NOTRE DAME,
+PARIS.</p>
+
+<p><b>EXTERIOR DESIGN.</b> Here, as in the interior, every feature had
+its constructive <i>raison d’être</i>, and the total effect was
+determined by the fundamental structural scheme. This was especially
+true of the lateral elevations, in which the pinnacled buttresses, the
+flying arches, and the traceried windows of the side aisle and
+clearstory, repeated uniformly at each bay, were the principal elements
+of the design.
+<span class="pagenum">207</span>
+<a name="page207" id="page207"> </a>
+The transept façades and main front allowed greater scope for invention
+and fancy, but even here the interior membering gave the key to the
+composition. Strong buttresses marked the division of the aisles and
+resisted the thrust of the terminal pier arches, and rose windows filled
+the greater part of the wall space under the end of the lofty vaulting.
+The whole structure was crowned by a steep-pitched roof of wood, covered
+with lead, copper, or tiles, to protect the vault from damage by snow
+and moisture. This roof occasioned the steep gables which crowned the
+transept and main façades. The main front was frequently adorned, above
+the triple portal, with a gallery of niches or tabernacles filled with
+statues of kings. Different types of composition are represented by
+Chartres, Notre Dame, Amiens, Reims, and Rouen, of which Notre Dame
+(Fig. 124) and Reims are perhaps the finest. Notre Dame is especially
+remarkable for its stately simplicity and the even balancing of
+horizontal and vertical elements.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig125" id="fig125"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig125.jpg" width="431" height="324"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 125.&mdash;WEST FRONT OF ST. MACLOU, ROUEN.<!-- invisible both .
+--></p>
+
+<p><b>PORCHES.</b> In most French church façades the porches were the
+most striking features, with their deep shadows and sculptured
+arches.<!-- invisible . --> The Romanesque porches were
+<span class="pagenum">208</span>
+<a name="page208" id="page208"> </a>
+usually limited in depth to the thickness of the front wall. The Gothic
+builders secured increased depth by projecting the portals out beyond
+the wall, and crowned them with elaborate gables. The vast central door
+was divided in two by a pier adorned with a niche and statue. Over this
+the tympanum of the arch was carved with scriptural reliefs; the jambs
+and arches were profusely adorned with figures of saints, apostles,
+martyrs, and angels, under elaborate canopies. The porches of Laon,
+Bourges, Amiens, and Reims are especially deep and majestic in effect,
+the last-named (built 1380) being the richest of all. Some of the
+transept façades also had imposing portals. Those of <b>Chartres</b>
+(1210&ndash;1245) rank among the finest works of Gothic decorative
+architecture, the south porch in some respects surpassing that of the
+north transept. The portals
+<span class="pagenum">209</span>
+<a name="page209" id="page209"> </a>
+of the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries were remarkable for the
+extraordinary richness and minuteness of their tracery and sculpture, as
+at Abbeville, Alençon, the cathedral and St. Maclou at Rouen (Fig. 125),
+Tours, Troyes, Vendôme, etc.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>TOWERS AND SPIRES.</b> The emphasizing of vertical elements
+reached its fullest expression in the towers and spires of the churches.
+What had been at first merely a lofty belfry roof was rapidly developed
+into the spire, rising three hundred feet or more into the air. This
+development had already made progress in the Romanesque period, and the
+south spire of Chartres is a notable example of late twelfth-century
+steeple design. The transition from the square tower to the slender
+octagonal pyramid was skilfully effected by means of corner pinnacles
+and dormers. During and after the thirteenth century the development was
+almost wholly in the direction of richness and complexity of detail, not
+of radical constructive modification. The northern spire of Chartres
+(1515) and the spires of Bordeaux, Coutances, Senlis, and the Flamboyant
+church of St. Maclou at Rouen, illustrate this development. In Normandy
+central spires were common, rising over the crossing of nave and
+transepts. In some cases the designers of cathedrals contemplated a
+group of towers; this is evident at Chartres, Coutances, and Reims. This
+intention was, however, never realized; it demanded resources beyond
+even the enthusiasm of the thirteenth century. Only in rare instances
+were the spires of any of the towers completed, and the majority of the
+French towers have square terminations, with low-pitched wooden roofs,
+generally invisible from below. In general, French towers are marked by
+their strong buttresses, solid lower stories, twin windows in each side
+of the belfry proper&mdash;these windows being usually of great
+size&mdash;and a skilful management of the transition to an octagonal
+plan for the belfry or the spire.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">210</span>
+<a name="page210" id="page210"> </a>
+<p><b>CARVING AND SCULPTURE.</b> The general superiority of French
+Gothic work was fully maintained in its decorative details. Especially
+fine is the figure sculpture, which in the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries attained true nobility of expression, combined with great
+truthfulness and delicacy of execution. Some of its finest productions
+are found in the great doorway jambs of the west portals of the
+cathedrals, and in the ranks of throned and adoring angels which adorned
+their deep arches. These reach their highest beauty in the portals of
+Reims (1380). The <i>tabernacles</i> or carved niches in which such
+statues were set were important elements in the decoration of the
+exteriors of churches.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig126" id="fig126"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig126.png" width="434" height="205"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 126.&mdash;FRENCH GOTHIC CAPITALS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">
+<i>a</i>, From Sainte Chapelle, Paris, 13th century. <i>b</i>,
+14th-century capital from transept of Notre Dame, Paris. <i>c</i>,
+15th-century capital from north spire of Chartres.</p>
+
+<p>Foliage forms were used for nearly all the minor carved ornaments,
+though grotesque and human figures sometimes took their place. The
+gargoyles through which the roof-water was discharged clear of the
+building, were almost always composed in the form of hideous monsters;
+and symbolic beasts, like the oxen in the towers of Laon, or monsters
+like those which peer from the tower balustrades
+<span class="pagenum">211</span>
+<a name="page211" id="page211"> </a>
+of Notre Dame, were employed with some mystical significance in various
+parts of the building. But the capitals corbels, crockets, and finials
+were mostly composed of floral or foliage forms. Those of the twelfth
+and thirteenth centuries were for the most part simple in mass, and
+crisp and vigorous in design, imitating the strong shoots of early
+spring. The <b>capitals</b> were tall and slender, concave in profile,
+with heavy square or octagonal abaci. With the close of the thirteenth
+century this simple and forcible style of detail disappeared. The
+carving became more realistic; the leaves, larger and more mature, were
+treated as if applied to the capital or moulding, not as if they grew
+out of it. The execution and detail were finer and more delicate, in
+harmony with the increasing slenderness and lightness of the
+architecture (Fig. 126 <i>a</i>,&nbsp;<i>b</i>). <b>Tracery forms</b>
+now began to be profusely applied to all manner of surfaces, and
+open-work gables, wholly unnecessary from the structural point of view,
+but highly effective as decorations, adorned the portals and crowned the
+windows.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LATE GOTHIC MONUMENTS.</b> So far our attention has been mainly
+occupied with the masterpieces erected previous to 1250. Among the
+cathedrals, relatively few in number, whose construction is referable to
+the second half of the century, that of <b>Beauvais</b> stands first in
+importance. Designed on a colossal scale, its foundations were laid in
+1225, but it was never completed, and the portion built&mdash;the choir
+and chapels&mdash;belonged really to the second half of the century,
+having been completed in 1270. But the collapse in 1284 of the central
+tower and vaulting of this incomplete cathedral, owing to the excessive
+loftiness and slenderness of its supports, compelled its entire
+reconstruction, the number of the piers being doubled and the span of
+the pier arches correspondingly reduced. As thus rebuilt, the cathedral
+aisle was 47 feet wide from centre to centre of opposite piers, and 163
+feet high to the top of the vault.
+<span class="pagenum">212</span>
+<a name="page212" id="page212"> </a>
+Transepts were added after 1500. <b>Limoges</b> and <b>Narbonne</b>,
+begun in 1272 on a large scale (though not equal in size to Beauvais),
+were likewise never completed. Both had choirs of admirable plan, with
+well-designed chevet-chapels. Many other cathedrals begun during this
+period were completed only after long delays, as, for instance, Meaux,
+Rodez (1277), Toulouse (1272), and Alby (1282), finished in the
+sixteenth century, and Clermont (1248), completed under Napoleon III.
+But between 1260 or 1275 and 1350, work was actively prosecuted on many
+still incomplete cathedrals. The choirs of Beauvais (rebuilding),
+Limoges, and Narbonne were finished after 1330; and towers,
+transept-façades, portals, and chapels added to many others of earlier
+date.</p>
+
+<p>The style of this period is sometimes designated as <b>Rayonnant</b>,
+from the characteristic wheel tracery of the rose-windows, and the
+prevalence of circular forms in the lateral arched windows, of the late
+thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. The great rose windows in the
+transepts of Notre Dame, dating from 1257, are typical examples of the
+style. Those of Rouen cathedral belong to the same category, though of
+later date. The façade of Amiens, completed by 1288, is one of the
+finest works of this style, of which an early example is the elaborate
+parish church of <b>St. Urbain</b> at Troyes.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE FLAMBOYANT STYLE.</b> The geometric treatment of the tracery
+and the minute and profuse decoration of this period gradually merged
+into the fantastic and unrestrained extravagances of the
+<b>Flamboyant</b> style, which prevailed until the advent of the
+Renaissance&mdash;say 1525. The continuous logical development of forms
+ceased, and in its place caprice and display controlled the arts of
+design. The finest monument of this long period is the fifteenth-century
+nave and central tower of the church of <b>St. Ouen</b> at Rouen,
+a&nbsp;parish church of the first rank, begun in 1318, but not finished
+<span class="pagenum">213</span>
+<a name="page213" id="page213"> </a>
+until 1515. The tracery of the lateral windows is still chiefly
+geometric, but the western rose window (<a href="#fig112">Fig.&nbsp;112</a>) and the magnificent central tower or
+lantern, exhibit in their tracery the florid decoration and wavy,
+flame-like lines of this style. Slenderness of supports and the
+suppression of horizontal lines are here carried to an extreme; and the
+church, in spite of its great elegance of detail, lacks the vital
+interest and charm of the earlier Gothic churches. The cathedral of
+Alençon and the church of <b>St. Maclou</b> at Rouen, have portals with
+unusually elaborate detail of tracery and carving; while the façade of
+Rouen cathedral (1509) surpasses all other examples in the lace-like
+minuteness of its open-work and its profusion of ornament. The churches
+of <b>St. Jacques</b> at Dieppe, and of <b>St. Wulfrand</b> at
+Abbeville, the façades of Tours and Troyes, are among the masterpieces
+of the style. The upper part of the façade of Reims (1380&ndash;1428)
+belongs to the transition from the Rayonnant to the Flamboyant. While
+some works of this period are conspicuous for the richness of their
+ornamentation, others are noticeably bare and poor in design, like St.
+Merri and St. Séverin in Paris.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>SECULAR AND MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> The building of cathedrals
+did not absorb all the architectural activity of the French during the
+Gothic period, nor did it by any means put an end to monastic building.
+While there are few Gothic cloisters to equal the Romanesque cloisters
+of Puy-en-Vélay, Montmajour, Elne, and Moissac, many of the abbeys
+either rebuilt their churches in the Gothic style after 1150, or
+extended and remodelled their conventual buildings. The cloisters of
+Fontfroide, Chaise-Dieu, and the Mont St. Michel rival those of
+Romanesque times, while many new refectories and chapels were built in
+the same style with the cathedrals. The most complete of these Gothic
+monastic establishments, that of the <b>Mont St. Michel</b> in Normandy,
+presented a remarkable aggregation
+<span class="pagenum">214</span>
+<a name="page214" id="page214"> </a>
+of buildings clustering around the steep isolated rock on which stands
+the abbey church. This was built in the eleventh century, and the choir
+and chapels remodelled in the sixteenth. The great refectory and
+dormitory, the cloisters, lodgings, and chapels, built in several
+vaulted stories against the cliffs, are admirable examples of the
+vigorous pointed-arch design of the early thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hospitals</b> like that of St. Jean at Angers (late twelfth
+century), or those of Chartres, Ourscamps, Tonnerre, and Beaune,
+illustrate how skilfully the French could modify and adapt the details
+of their architecture to the special requirements of civil architecture.
+Great numbers of charitable institutions were built in the middle
+ages&mdash;asylums, hospitals, refuges, and the like&mdash;but very few
+of those in France are now extant. Town halls were built in the
+fifteenth century in some places where a certain amount of popular
+independence had been secured. The florid fifteenth-century <b>Palais de
+Justice</b> at <b>Rouen</b> (1499&ndash;1508) is an example of another
+branch of secular Gothic architecture. In all these monuments the
+adaptation of means to ends is admirable. Wooden ceilings and roofs
+replaced stone, wherever required by great width of span or economy of
+construction. There was little sculpture; the wall-spaces were not
+suppressed in favor of stained glass and tracery; while the roofs were
+usually emphasized and adorned with elaborate crestings and finials in
+lead or terra-cotta.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> These same principles controlled the
+designing of houses, farm buildings, barns, granaries, and the like. The
+common closely-built French city house of the twelfth and thirteenth
+century is illustrated by many extant examples at Cluny, Provins, and
+other towns. A&nbsp;shop opening on the street by a large arch,
+a&nbsp;narrow stairway, and two or three stories of rooms lighted by
+clustered, pointed-arched windows, constituted the common
+<span class="pagenum">215</span>
+<a name="page215" id="page215"> </a>
+type. The street front was usually gabled and the roof steep. In the
+fourteenth or fifteenth century half-timbered construction began to
+supersede stone for town houses, as it permitted of encroaching upon the
+street by projecting the upper stories. Many of the half-timbered houses
+of the fifteenth century were of elaborate design. The heavy oaken
+uprights were carved with slender colonnettes; the horizontal sills,
+bracketed out over the street, were richly moulded; picturesque dormers
+broke the sky-line, and the masonry filling between the beams was
+frequently faced with enamelled tiles.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig127" id="fig127"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig127.png" width="358" height="308"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 127.&mdash;HOUSE OF JACQUES CŒUR, BOURGES.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+(After Viollet-le-Duc.)</span></p>
+
+<p>The more considerable houses or palaces of royalty, nobles, and
+wealthy citizens rivalled, and in time surpassed, the monastic buildings
+in richness and splendor. The earlier examples retain the military
+aspect, with moat and donjon, as in the Louvre of Charles&nbsp;V.,
+demolished in
+<span class="pagenum">216</span>
+<a name="page216" id="page216"> </a>
+the sixteenth century. The finest palaces are of late date, and the type
+is well represented by the Ducal Palace at Nancy (1476), the <b>Hotel de
+Cluny</b> (1485) at Paris, the <b>Hotel Jacques Cœur</b> at Bourges
+(Fig. 127), and the east wing of Blois (1498&ndash;1515). These palaces
+are not only excellently and liberally planned, with large halls, many
+staircases, and handsome courts; they are also extremely picturesque
+with their square and circular towers, slender turrets, elaborate
+dormers, and rich carved detail.</p>
+
+
+<p class="monuments">
+<b>MONUMENTS</b>: (C. = cathedral; A. = abbey; trans. = transept; each
+edifice is given under the date of its commencement; subsequent
+alterations in parentheses.) Between 1130 and 1200: Vézelay&nbsp;A.,
+ante-chapel, 1130; St. Germer-de-Fly&nbsp;C., 1130&ndash;1150 (chapel
+later); St. Denis&nbsp;A., choir, 1140 (choir rebuilt, nave and trans.,
+1240); Sens&nbsp;C., 1140&ndash;68 (W.&nbsp;front, 13th century;
+chapels, spire, 14th); Senlis&nbsp;C., 1145&ndash;83 (trans., spire,
+13th century); Noyon&nbsp;C., 1149&ndash;1200 (W.&nbsp;front, vaults,
+13th century); St. Germain-des-Prés&nbsp;A., Paris, choir, 1150
+(Romanesque nave); Angers&nbsp;C., 1150 (choir, trans., 1274); Langres,
+1150&ndash;1200; Laon&nbsp;C., 1150&ndash;1200; Le Mans&nbsp;C., nave,
+1150&ndash;58 (choir, 1217&ndash;54); Soissons&nbsp;C., 1160&ndash;70
+(choir, 1212; nave chapels, 14th century); Poitiers&nbsp;C.,
+1162&ndash;1204; Notre Dame, Paris, choir, 1163&ndash;96 (nave,
+W.&nbsp;front finished, 1235; trans. fronts, and chapels,
+1257&ndash;75); Chartres&nbsp;C., W.&nbsp;end, 1170; rest, mainly
+1194&ndash;98 (trans. porches, W.&nbsp;rose, 1210&ndash;1260;
+N.&nbsp;spire, 1506); Tours&nbsp;C., 1170 (rebuilt, 1267; trans.,
+portals, 1375; W.&nbsp;portals, chapels, 15th century; towers finished,
+1507&ndash;47); Laval&nbsp;C., 1180&ndash;85 (choir, 16th century);
+Mantes, church Notre Dame, 1180&ndash;1200; Bourges&nbsp;C.,
+1190&ndash;95 (E.&nbsp;end, 1210; W.&nbsp;end, 1275); St. Nicholas at
+Caen, 1190 (vaults, 15th century); Reims, church St. Rémy, choir, end of
+12th century (Romanesque nave); church St. Leu d’Esserent, choir late
+12th century (nave, 13th century); Lyons&nbsp;C., choir, end of 12th
+century (nave, 13th and 14th centuries); Etampes, church Notre Dame,
+12th and 13th centuries.&mdash;13th century: Evreux&nbsp;C.,
+1202&ndash;75 (trans., central tower, 1417; W.&nbsp;front rebuilt, 16th
+century); Rouen&nbsp;C., 1202&ndash;20 (trans. portals, 1280;
+W.&nbsp;front, 1507); Nevers, 1211, N.&nbsp;portal, 1280 (chapels,
+S.&nbsp;portal, 15th century); Reims&nbsp;C., 1212&ndash;42
+(W.&nbsp;front, 1380; W.&nbsp;towers, 1420); Bayonne&nbsp;C., 1213
+(nave, vaults, W.&nbsp;portal, 14th century); Troyes&nbsp;C., choir,
+1214 (central tower, nave, W.&nbsp;portal, and towers, 15th century);
+Auxerre&nbsp;C., 1215&ndash;34 (nave, W.&nbsp;end, trans., 14th
+century); Amiens&nbsp;C., 1220&ndash;88; St. Etienne at
+Chalons-sur-Marne, 1230 (spire, 1520); Séez&nbsp;C.,
+<span class="pagenum">217</span>
+<a name="page217" id="page217"> </a>
+1230, rebuilt 1260 (remodelled 14th century); Notre Dame de Dijon, 1230;
+Reims, Lady chapel of Archbishop’s palace, 1230; Chapel Royal at St.
+Germain-en-Laye, 1240; Ste. Chapelle at Paris, 1242&ndash;47
+(W.&nbsp;rose, 15th century); Coutances&nbsp;C., 1254&ndash;74;
+Beauvais&nbsp;C., 1247&ndash;72 (rebuilt 1337&ndash;47; trans. portals,
+1500&ndash;48); Notre Dame de Grace at Clermont, 1248 (finished 1350);
+Dôl&nbsp;C., 13th century; St. Martin-des-Champs at Paris, nave 13th
+century (choir Romanesque); Bordeaux&nbsp;C., 1260; Narbonne&nbsp;C.,
+1272&ndash;1320; Limoges, 1273 (finished 16th century); St. Urbain,
+Troyes, 1264; Rodez&nbsp;C., 1277&ndash;1385 (altered, completed 16th
+century); church St. Quentin, 1280&ndash;1300; St. Benigne at Dijon,
+1280&ndash;91; Alby&nbsp;C., 1282 (nave, 14th; choir, 15th century;
+S.&nbsp;portal, 1473&ndash;1500); Meaux&nbsp;C., mainly rebuilt 1284
+(W.&nbsp;end much altered 15th, finished 16th century); Cahors&nbsp;C.,
+rebuilt 1285&ndash;93 (W.&nbsp;front, 15th century); Orléans,
+1287&ndash;1328 (burned, rebuilt 1601&ndash;1829).&mdash;14th century:
+St. Bertrand de Comminges, 1304&ndash;50; St. Nazaire at Carcassonne,
+choir and trans. on Romanesque nave; Montpellier&nbsp;C., 1364; St. Ouen
+at Rouen, choir, 1318&ndash;39 (trans., 1400&ndash;39; nave,
+1464&ndash;91; W.&nbsp;front, 1515); Royal Chapel at Vincennes, 1385
+(?)-1525.&mdash;15th and 16th century: St. Nizier at Lyons rebuilt; St.
+Séverin, St. Merri, St. Germain l’Auxerrois, all at Paris; Notre Dame de
+l’Epine at Chalons-sur-Marne; choir of St. Etienne at Beauvais;
+Saintes&nbsp;C., rebuilt, 1450; St. Maclou at Rouen (finished 16th
+century); church at Brou; St. Wulfrand at Abbeville; abbey of St.
+Riquier&mdash;these three all early 16th century.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Houses, Castles, and Palaces</span>: Bishop’s palace at
+Paris, 1160 (demolished); castle of Coucy, 1220&ndash;30; Louvre at
+Paris (the original château), 1225&ndash;1350; Palais de Justice at
+Paris, originally the royal residence, 1225&ndash;1400; Bishop’s palace
+at Laon, 1245 (addition to Romanesque hall); castle Montargis, 13th
+century; castle Pierrefonds, Bishop’s palace at Narbonnne, palace of
+Popes at Avignon&mdash;all 14th century; donjon of palace at Poitiers,
+1395; Hôtel des Ambassadeurs at Dijon, 1420; house of Jacques Cœur at
+Bourges, 1443; Palace, Dijon, 1467; Ducal palace at Nancy, 1476; Hôtel
+Cluny at Paris, 1490; castle of Creil, late 15th century, finished in
+16th; E.&nbsp;wing palace of Blois, 1498&ndash;1515, for Louis XII.;
+Palace de Justice at Rouen, 1499&ndash;1508.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="note20" id="note20" href="#tag20">20.</a>
+Consult especially articles <span class="smallcaps">Architecture</span>, <span class="smallcaps">Cathédrale</span>, <span class="smallcaps">Chapelle</span>, <span class="smallcaps">Construction</span>, <span class="smallcaps">Église</span>, <span class="smallcaps">Maison</span>,
+<span class="smallcaps">Voûte</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note21" id="note21" href="#tag21">21.</a>
+<i>Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française</i>, vol. ii., pp.
+280, 281.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note22" id="note22" href="#tag22">22.</a>
+See Ferree, <i>Chronology of Cathedral Churches of France</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note23" id="note23" href="#tag23">23.</a>
+This cathedral will be hereafter referred to, for the sake of brevity,
+by the name of <i>Notre Dame</i>. Other cathedrals having the same name
+will be distinguished by the addition of the name of the city, as “Notre
+Dame at Clermont-Ferrand.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">218</span>
+<a name="page218" id="page218"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXVII" id="chapXVII">CHAPTER XVII.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Corroyer,
+Parker, Reber. Also, Bell’s Series of <i>Handbooks of English
+Cathedrals</i>. Billings, <i>The Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities
+of Scotland</i>. Bond, <i>Gothic Architecture in England</i>. Brandon,
+<i>Analysis of Gothic Architecture</i>. Britton, <i>Cathedral
+Antiquities of Great Britain</i>. Ditchfield, <i>The Cathedrals of
+England</i>. Murray, <i>Handbooks of the English Cathedrals</i>. Parker,
+<i>Introduction to Gothic Architecture</i>; <i>Glossary of Architectural
+Terms</i>; <i>Companion to Glossary</i>, etc. Rickman, <i>An Attempt to
+Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture</i>. Sharpe,
+<i>Architectural Parallels</i>; <i>The Seven Periods of English
+Architecture</i>. Van Rensselaer, <i>English Cathedrals</i>. Winkles and
+Moule, <i>Cathedral Churches of England and Wales</i>. Willis,
+<i>Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral</i>; ditto <i>of
+Winchester Cathedral</i>; <i>Treatise on Vaults</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>GENERAL CHARACTER.</b> Gothic architecture was developed in
+England under a strongly established royal power, with an episcopate in
+no sense hostile to the abbots or in arms against the barons. Many of
+the cathedrals had monastic chapters, and not infrequently abbots were
+invested with the episcopal rank.</p>
+
+<p>English Gothic architecture was thus by no means predominantly an
+architecture of cathedrals. If architectural activity in England was on
+this account less intense and widespread in the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries than in France, it was not, on the other hand, so soon
+exhausted. Fewer new cathedrals were built, but the progressive
+rebuilding of those already existing seems not to have ceased until the
+middle or end of the fifteenth century. Architecture
+<span class="pagenum">219</span>
+<a name="page219" id="page219"> </a>
+in England developed more slowly, but more uniformly than in France. It
+contented itself with simpler problems; and if it failed to rival Amiens
+in boldness of construction and in lofty majesty, it at least never
+perpetrated a folly like Beauvais. In richness of internal decoration,
+especially in the mouldings and ribbed vaulting, and in the picturesque
+grouping of simple masses externally, the British builders went far
+toward atoning for their structural timidity.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig128" id="fig128"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig128.png" width="143" height="295"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 128.&mdash;PLAN OF SALISBURY CATHEDRAL.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>EARLY GOTHIC BUILDINGS.</b> The pointed arch and ribbed vault were
+importations from France. Early examples appear in the Cistercian abbeys
+of Furness and Kirkstall, and in the Temple Church at London (1185). But
+it was in the <b>Choir of Canterbury</b>, as rebuilt by William of Sens,
+after the destruction by fire in 1170 of Anselm’s Norman choir, that
+these French Gothic features were first applied in a thoroughgoing
+manner. In plan this choir resembled that of the cathedral of Sens; and
+its coupled round piers, with capitals carved with foliage, its pointed
+arches, its six-part vaulting, and its <i>chevet</i>, were distinctly
+French. The Gothic details thus introduced slowly supplanted the round
+arch and other Norman features. For fifty years the styles were more or
+less mingled in many buildings, though <b>Lincoln Cathedral</b>, as
+rebuilt in 1185&ndash;1200, retained nothing of the earlier round-arched
+style. But the first church to be designed and built from the
+foundations in the new style was the cathedral of <b>Salisbury</b>
+(1220&ndash;1258; Fig. 128). Contemporary with Amiens, it is a
+homogeneous and typical example of the
+<span class="pagenum">220</span>
+<a name="page220" id="page220"> </a>
+Early English style. The predilection for great length observable in the
+Anglo-Norman churches (as at Norwich and Durham) still prevailed, as it
+continued to do throughout the Gothic period; Salisbury is 480 feet
+long. The double transepts, the long choir, the square east end, the
+relatively low vault (84 feet to the ridge), the narrow grouped windows,
+all are thoroughly English. Only the simple four-part vaulting recalls
+French models. <b>Westminster Abbey</b> (1245&ndash;1269), on the other
+hand, betrays in a marked manner the French influence in its internal
+loftiness (100 feet), its polygonal <i>chevet</i> and chapels, and its
+strongly accented exterior flying-buttresses (<a href="#fig137">Fig.&nbsp;137</a>).</p>
+
+
+<p><b>MIXTURE OF STYLES.</b> Very few English cathedrals are as
+homogeneous as the two just mentioned, nearly all having undergone
+repeated remodellings in successive periods. Durham, Norwich, and Oxford
+are wholly Norman but for their Gothic vaults. Ely, Rochester,
+Gloucester, and Hereford have Norman naves and Gothic choirs.
+Peterborough has an early Gothic façade and late Gothic retro-choir
+added to an otherwise completely Norman structure. Winchester is a
+Norman church remodelled with early Perpendicular details. The purely
+Gothic churches and cathedrals, except parish churches&mdash;in which
+England is very rich&mdash;are not nearly as numerous in England as in
+France.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PERIODS.</b> The development of English Gothic architecture
+followed the same general sequence as the French, and like it the
+successive stages were most conspicuously characterized by the forms of
+the tracery.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Early English</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Lancet</span> period extended roundly from 1175 or 1180 to
+1280, and was marked by simplicity, dignity, and purity of design.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Decorated</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Geometric</span> period covered another century, 1280 to
+1380, and was characterized by its decorative richness and greater
+lightness of construction.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Perpendicular</span> period extended
+from 1380, or
+<span class="pagenum">221</span>
+<a name="page221" id="page221"> </a>
+thereabout, well into the sixteenth century. Its salient features were
+the use of fan-vaulting, four-centred arches, and tracery of
+predominantly vertical and horizontal lines. The tardy introduction of
+Renaissance forms finally put an end to the Gothic style in England,
+after a long period of mixed and transitional architecture.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig129" id="fig129"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig129.jpg" width="210" height="305"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 129.&mdash;RIBBED VAULTING, CHOIR OF EXETER CATHEDRAL.</p>
+
+<p><b>VAULTING.</b> The richness and variety of English vaulting
+contrast strikingly with the persistent uniformity of the French.
+A&nbsp;few of the early Gothic vaults, as in the aisles of Peterborough,
+and later the naves of Durham, Salisbury, and Gloucester, were simple
+four-part, ribbed vaults substantially like the French. But the English
+disliked and avoided the twisted and dome-like surfaces of the French
+vaults, preferring horizontal ridges, and, in the filling-masonry,
+straight courses meeting at the ridge in zigzag lines, as in southwest
+France (see <a href="#page200">p.&nbsp;200</a>). This may be seen in
+Westminster Abbey. The idea of ribbed construction was then seized upon
+and given a new application. By springing a large number of ribs from
+each point of support, the vaulting-surfaces were divided into long,
+narrow, triangles, the filling of which was comparatively easy (Fig.
+129). The ridge was itself furnished with a straight rib, decorated with
+carved rosettes or <i>bosses</i> at each intersection with a
+vaulting-rib. The naves and choirs of Lincoln, Lichfield, Exeter, and
+the nave of Westminster
+<span class="pagenum">222</span>
+<a name="page222" id="page222"> </a>
+illustrate this method. The logical corollary of this practice was the
+introduction of minor ribs called <i>liernes</i>, connecting the main
+ribs and forming complex reticulated and star-shaped patterns. Vaults of
+this description are among the most beautiful in England. One of the
+richest is in the choir of Gloucester (1337&ndash;1377). Less correct
+constructively is that over the choir of Wells, while the choir of Ely,
+the nave of Tewkesbury Abbey (Fig. 130), and all the vaulting of
+Winchester as rebuilt by William of Wykeham (1390), illustrate the same
+system. Such vaults are called <i>lierne</i> or <i>star</i> vaults.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig130" id="fig130"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig130.jpg" width="435" height="265"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 130.&mdash;NET OR LIERNE VAULTING, TEWKESBURY ABBEY.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>FAN-VAULTING.</b> The next step in the process may be observed in
+the vaults of the choir of Oxford Cathedral (Christ Church), of the
+retro-choir of Peterborough, of the cloisters of Gloucester, and many
+other examples. The diverging ribs being made of uniform curvature, the
+<i>severeys</i> (the inverted pyramidal vaulting-masses springing from
+each support) became a species of concave conoids, meeting at the
+<span class="pagenum">223</span>
+<a name="page223" id="page223"> </a>
+ridge in such a way as to leave a series of flat lozenge-shaped spaces
+at the summit of the vault (<a href="#fig136">Fig.&nbsp;136</a>). The
+ribs were multiplied indefinitely, and losing thus in individual and
+structural importance became a mere decorative pattern of tracery on the
+severeys. To conceal the awkward flat lozenges at the ridge, elaborate
+panelling was resorted to; or, in some cases, long stone pendents were
+inserted at those points&mdash;a&nbsp;device highly decorative but
+wholly unconstructive. At Cambridge, in <b>King’s College Chapel</b>, at
+Windsor, in <b>St. George’s Chapel</b>, and in the <b>Chapel of Henry
+VII.</b> at Westminster, this sort of vaulting received its most
+elaborate development. The <i>fan-vault</i>, as it is called,
+illustrates the logical evolution of a decorative element from a
+structural starting&mdash;point, leading to results far removed from the
+original conception. Rich and sumptuous as are these ceilings, they are
+with all their ornament less satisfactory than the ribbed vaults of the
+preceding period.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w270">
+<a name="fig131" id="fig131"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig131.jpg" width="263" height="271"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 131.&mdash;VAULT OF CHAPTER-HOUSE, WELLS.</p>
+
+<p><b>CHAPTER-HOUSES.</b> One of the most beautiful forms of ribbed
+vaulting was developed in the polygonal halls erected for the
+deliberations of the cathedral chapters of Lincoln (1225), Westminster
+(1250), Salisbury (1250), and Wells (1292), in which the vault-ribs
+radiated from a central column to the sides and angles of the polygon
+(Fig. 131). If
+<span class="pagenum">224</span>
+<a name="page224" id="page224"> </a>
+these vaults were less majestic than domes of the same diameter, they
+were far more decorative and picturesque, while the chapter-houses
+themselves were the most original and striking products of English
+Gothic art. Every feature was designed with strict regard for the
+structural system determined by the admirable vaulting, and the Sainte
+Chapelle was not more logical in its exemplification of Gothic
+principles. To the four above-mentioned examples should be added that of
+York (1280&ndash;1330), which differs from them in having no central
+column: by some critics it is esteemed the finest of them all. Its
+ceiling is a Gothic dome, 57 feet in diameter, but unfortunately
+executed in wood. Its geometrical window-tracery and richly canopied
+stalls are admirable.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>OCTAGON AT ELY.</b> The magnificent <b>Octagon</b> of Ely
+Cathedral, at the intersection of the nave and transepts, belongs in the
+same category with these polygonal chapter-house vaults. It was built by
+Alan of Walsingham in 1337, after the fall of the central tower and the
+destruction of the adjacent bays of the choir. It occupies the full
+width of the three aisles, and covers the ample space thus enclosed with
+a simple but beautiful groined and ribbed vault of wood reaching to a
+central octagonal lantern, which rises much higher and shows externally
+as well as internally. Unfortunately, this vault is of wood, and would
+require important modifications of detail if carried out in stone. But
+it is so noble in general design and total effect, that one wonders the
+type was not universally adopted for the crossing in all cathedrals,
+until one observes that no cathedral of importance was built after
+Walsingham’s time, nor did any other central towers opportunely fall to
+the ground.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig132" id="fig132"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig132.jpg" width="154" height="195"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 132.&mdash;CLOISTERS, SALISBURY CATHEDRAL (SHOWING UPPER PART OF
+CHAPTER-HOUSE).</p>
+
+<p><b>WINDOWS AND TRACERY.</b> In the Early English Period
+(1200&ndash;1280 or 1300) the windows were tall and narrow
+(<i>lancet</i> windows), and generally grouped by twos and threes,
+though sometimes four and even five are seen together (as
+<span class="pagenum">225</span>
+<a name="page225" id="page225"> </a>
+the “Five Sisters” in the N.&nbsp;transept of York). In the nave of
+Salisbury and the retro-choir of Ely the side aisles are lighted by
+coupled windows and the clearstory by triple windows, the central one
+higher than the others&mdash;a&nbsp;surviving Norman practice.
+Plate-tracery was, as in France, an intermediate step leading to the
+development of bar-tracery (see <a href="#fig110">Fig.&nbsp;110</a>).
+The English followed here the same reasoning as the French. At first the
+openings constituted the design, the intervening stonework being of
+secondary importance. Later the forms of the openings were subordinated
+to the pattern of the stone framework of bars, arches, circles, and
+cusps. Bar-tracery of this description prevailed in England through the
+greater part of the Decorated Period (1280&ndash;1380), and somewhat
+resembled the contemporary French geometric tracery, though more varied
+and less rigidly constructive in design. An early example of this
+tracery occurs in the cloisters of Salisbury (Fig. 132); others in the
+clearstories of the choirs of Lichfield, Lincoln, and Ely, the nave of
+York, and the chapter-houses mentioned above, where, indeed, it seems to
+have received its earliest development. After the middle of the
+fourteenth century lines of double curvature were introduced, producing
+what is called <i>flowing</i> tracery, somewhat resembling the French
+flamboyant, though earlier in date (<a href="#fig111">Fig.&nbsp;111</a>). Examples of this style are found in Wells,
+in the side aisles and triforium of the choir of Ely, and in the
+S.&nbsp;transept rose-window of Lincoln.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig133" id="fig133"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig133.jpg" width="245" height="351"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 133.&mdash;PERPENDICULAR TRACERY, WEST WINDOW OF ST. GEORGE’S,
+WINDSOR.<!-- invisible . --></p>
+
+<p><b>THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE.</b> Flowing tracery was, however,
+a&nbsp;transitional phase of design, and was soon superseded by
+<i>Perpendicular</i> tracery, in which the mullions were
+<span class="pagenum">226</span>
+<a name="page226" id="page226"> </a>
+carried through to the top of the arch and intersected by horizontal
+transoms. This formed a very rigid and mechanically correct system of
+stone framing, but lacked the grace and charm of the two preceding
+periods. The earliest examples are seen in the work of Edington and of
+Wykeham in the reconstructed cathedral of Winchester (1360&ndash;1394),
+where the tracery was thus made to harmonize with the accentuated and
+multiplied vertical lines of the interior design. It was at this late
+date that the English seem first to have fully appropriated the Gothic
+ideas of emphasized vertical elements and wall surfaces reduced to a
+minimum. The development of fan-vaulting had led to the adoption of a
+new form of arch, the four-centred or <i>Tudor arch</i> (Fig. 133), to
+fit under the depressed apex of the vault. The whole design internally
+and externally was thenceforward controlled by the form of the vaulting
+and of the openings. The windows were made of enormous size, especially
+at the east end of the choir, which was square in nearly all English
+churches, and in the west windows over the entrance. These windows had
+already reached, in the Decorated Period, an enormous size, as at York;
+in the Perpendicular Period the two ends of the
+<span class="pagenum">227</span>
+<a name="page227" id="page227"> </a>
+church were as nearly as possible converted into walls of glass. The
+East Window of Gloucester reaches the prodigious dimensions of 38 by 72
+feet. The most complete examples of the Perpendicular tracery and of the
+style in general are the three chapels already mentioned (<a href="#page223">p.&nbsp;223</a>); those, namely, of <b>King’s College</b> at
+Cambridge, of <b>St. George</b> at Windsor, and of <b>Henry VII.</b> in
+Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN.</b> The most striking peculiarity of English
+Gothic design was its studious avoidance of temerity or venturesomeness
+in construction. Both the height and width of the nave were kept within
+very moderate bounds, and the supports were never reduced to extreme
+slenderness. While much impressiveness of effect was undoubtedly lost
+thereby, there was some gain in freedom of design, and there was less
+obtrusion of constructive elements in the exterior composition. The
+flying-buttress became a feature of minor importance where the
+clearstory was kept low, as in most English churches. In many cases the
+flying arches were hidden under the aisle roofs. The English cathedrals
+and larger churches are long and low, depending for effect mainly upon
+the projecting masses of their transepts, the imposing square central
+towers which commonly crown the crossing, and the grouping of the main
+structure with chapter-houses, cloisters, and Lady-chapels.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig134" id="fig134"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig134.jpg" width="249" height="324"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 134.&mdash;WEST FRONT, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL.</p>
+
+<p><b>FRONTS.</b> The sides and east ends were, in most cases, more
+successful than the west fronts. In these the English displayed a
+singular indifference or lack of creative power. They produced nothing
+to rival the majestic façades of Notre Dame, Amiens, or Reims, and their
+portals are almost ridiculously small. The front of <b>York</b>
+Cathedral is the most notable in the list for its size and elaborate
+decoration. Those of <b>Lincoln</b> and <b>Peterborough</b> are,
+however, more interesting in the picturesqueness and singularity of
+their composition. The first-named forms a vast arcaded
+<span class="pagenum">228</span>
+<a name="page228" id="page228"> </a>
+screen, masking the bases of the two western towers, and pierced by
+three huge Norman arches, retained from the original façade. The west
+front of Peterborough is likewise a mask or screen, mainly composed of
+three colossal recessed arches, whose vast scale completely dwarfs the
+little porches which give admittance to the church. Salisbury has a
+curiously illogical and ineffective façade. Those of <b>Lichfield</b>
+and <b>Wells</b> are, on the other hand, imposing and beautiful designs,
+the first with its twin spires and rich arcading (Fig. 134), the second
+with its unusual wealth of figure-sculpture, and massive square
+towers.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CENTRAL TOWERS.</b> These are the most successful features of
+English exterior design. Most of them form lanterns internally over the
+crossing, giving to that point a considerable increase of dignity.
+Externally they are usually massive and lofty square towers, and having
+been for the most part completed during the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries they are marked by great richness and elegance of detail.
+Durham, York, Ely, Canterbury, Lincoln, and Gloucester maybe mentioned
+as notable examples of such square towers; that of Canterbury is the
+finest. Two or three have lofty spires over the lantern. Among these,
+that of Salisbury is chief, rising 424 feet from the ground, admirably
+designed in every
+<span class="pagenum">229</span>
+<a name="page229" id="page229"> </a>
+detail. It was not completed till the middle of the fourteenth century,
+but most fortunately carries out with great felicity the spirit of the
+earlier style in which it was begun. Lichfield and Chichester have
+somewhat similar central spires, but less happy in proportion and detail
+than the beautiful Salisbury example.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig135" id="fig135"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig135.png" width="175" height="369"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 135.&mdash;ONE BAY OF CHOIR, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>INTERIOR DESIGN.</b> In the Norman churches the pier-arches,
+triforium, and clearstory were practically equal. In the Gothic churches
+the pier-arches generally occupy the lower half of the height, the upper
+half being divided nearly equally between the triforium and clearstory,
+as in Lincoln, Lichfield (nave), Ely (choir). In some cases, however (as
+at Salisbury, Westminster, Winchester, choir of Lichfield), the
+clearstory is magnified at the expense of the triforium (Fig. 135).
+Three peculiarities of design sharply distinguish the English treatment
+of these features from the French. The first is the multiplicity of fine
+mouldings in the pier-arches; the second is the decorative elaboration
+of design in the triforium; the third, the variety in the treatment of
+the clearstory.<!-- invisible . --> In general the English interiors are
+much more ornate than the French. Black Purbeck marble is frequently
+used for the shafts clustered around the central core of the pier,
+giving a striking and somewhat singular effect of contrasted color. The
+rich vaulting, the highly decorated triforium, the moulded pier-arches,
+and at the
+<span class="pagenum">230</span>
+<a name="page230" id="page230"> </a>
+end of the vista the great east window, produce an impression very
+different from the more simple and lofty stateliness of the French
+cathedrals. The great length and lowness of the English interiors
+combine with this decorative richness to give the impression of repose
+and grace, rather than of majesty and power. This tendency reached its
+highest expression in the Perpendicular churches and chapels, in which
+every surface was covered with minute panelling.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CARVING.</b> In the Early English Period the details were carved
+with a combined delicacy and vigor deserving of the highest praise. In
+the capitals and corbels, crockets and finials, the foliage was crisp
+and fine, curling into convex masses and seeming to spring from the
+surface which it decorated. Mouldings were frequently ornamented with
+foliage of this character in the hollows, and another ornament, the
+<i>dog-tooth</i> or <i>pyramid</i>, often served the same purpose,
+introducing repeated points of light into the shadows of the mouldings.
+These were fine and complex, deep hollows alternating with round
+mouldings (<i>bowtels</i>) sometimes made pear-shaped in section by a
+fillet on one side. <i>Cusping</i>&mdash;the decoration of an arch or
+circle by triangular projections on its inner edge&mdash;was introduced
+during this period, and became an important decorative resource,
+especially in tracery design. In the Decorated Period the foliage was
+less crisp; sea-weed and oak-leaves, closely and confusedly bunched,
+were used in the capitals, while crockets were larger, double-curved,
+with leaves swelling into convexities like oak-galls. Geometrical and
+flowing tracery were developed, and the mouldings of the tracery-bars,
+as of other features, lost somewhat in vigor and sharpness. The
+<i>ball-flower</i> or button replaced the dog’s-tooth, and the hollows
+were less frequently adorned with foliage.</p>
+
+<p>In the Perpendicular Period nearly all flat surfaces were panelled in
+designs resembling the tracery of the windows.
+<span class="pagenum">231</span>
+<a name="page231" id="page231"> </a>
+The capitals were less important than those of the preceding periods,
+and the mouldings weaker and less effective. The Tudor rose appears as
+an ornament in square panels and on flat surfaces; and moulded
+battlements, which first appeared in Decorated work, now become a
+frequent crowning motive in place of a cornice. There is less
+originality and variety in the ornament, but a great increase in its
+amount (Fig. 136).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig136" id="fig136"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig136.jpg" width="402" height="258"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 136.&mdash;FAN-VAULTING, HENRY VII.’S CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER
+ABBEY.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PLANS.</b> English church plans underwent, during the Gothic
+Period, but little change from the general types established previous to
+the thirteenth century. The Gothic cathedrals and abbeys, like the
+Norman, were very long and narrow, with choirs often nearly as long as
+the nave, and almost invariably with square eastward terminations. There
+is no example of double side aisles and side chapels, and apsidal
+chapels are very rare. Canterbury and Westminster (Fig. 137) are the
+chief exceptions to this, and both show clearly the French influence.
+Another striking peculiarity of the English plans is the frequent
+occurrence of secondary
+<span class="pagenum">232</span>
+<a name="page232" id="page232"> </a>
+transepts, adding greatly to the external picturesqueness. These occur
+in rudimentary form in Canterbury, and at Durham the Chapel of the Nine
+Altars, added 1242&ndash;1290 to the eastern end, forms in reality a
+secondary transept. This feature is most perfectly developed in the
+cathedral of Salisbury (<a href="#fig128">Fig.&nbsp;128</a>), and
+appears also at Lincoln, Worcester, Wells, and a few other examples. The
+English cathedral plans are also distinguished by the retention or
+incorporation of many conventual features, such as cloisters, libraries,
+and halls, and by the grouping of chapter-houses and Lady-chapels with
+the main edifice. Thus the English cathedral plans and those of the
+great abbey churches present a marked contrast with those of France and
+the Continent generally. While Amiens, the greatest of French
+cathedrals, is 521 feet long, and internally 140 feet high, Ely measures
+565 feet in length, and less than 75 feet in height. Notre Dame is 148
+feet wide; the English naves are usually under 80 feet in total width of
+the three aisles.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig137" id="fig137"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig137.png" width="248" height="388"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 137.&mdash;EASTERN HALF OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY. PLAN.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+<i>a, Henry VII.’s chapel.</i></span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>PARISH CHURCHES.</b> Many of these were of exceptional beauty of
+composition and detail. They display the greatest variety of plan,
+churches with two equal-gabled naves
+<span class="pagenum">233</span>
+<a name="page233" id="page233"> </a>
+side by side being not uncommon. A&nbsp;considerable proportion of them
+date from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and are chiefly
+interesting for their square, single, west towers and their carved
+wooden ceilings (see below). The tower was usually built over the
+central western porch; broad and square, with corner buttresses
+terminating in pinnacles, it was usually finished without spires.
+Crenelated battlements crowned the upper story. When spires were added
+the transition from the square tower to the octagonal spire was effected
+by <i>broaches</i> or portions of a square pyramid intersecting the base
+of the spire, or by corner pinnacles and flying-buttresses.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w270">
+<a name="fig138" id="fig138"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig138.png" width="258" height="262"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 138.&mdash;ROOF OF NAVE, ST.&nbsp;MARY’S, WESTONZOYLAND.</p>
+
+<p><b>WOODEN CEILINGS.</b> The English treated woodwork with consummate
+skill. They invented and developed a variety of forms of roof-truss in
+which the proper distribution of the strains was combined with a highly
+decorative treatment of the several parts by carving, moulding, and
+arcading. The ceiling surfaces between the trusses were handled
+decoratively, and the oaken open-timber ceilings of many of the English
+churches and civic or academic halls (Christ Church Hall, Oxford;
+Westminster Hall, London) are such noble and beautiful works as quite to
+justify the substitution of wooden for vaulted ceilings (Fig. 138). The
+<i>hammer-beam</i> truss was in its way as highly scientific, and
+æsthetically as satisfactory, as any feature of French Gothic
+<span class="pagenum">234</span>
+<a name="page234" id="page234"> </a>
+stone construction. Without the use of tie-rods to keep the rafters from
+spreading, it brought the strain of the roof upon internal brackets low
+down on the wall, and produced a beautiful effect by the repetition of
+its graceful curves in each truss.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHAPELS AND HALLS.</b> Many of these rival the cathedrals in
+beauty and dignity of design. The royal chapels at Windsor and
+Westminster have already been mentioned, as well as King’s College
+Chapel at Cambridge, and Christ Church Hall at Oxford. To these college
+halls should be added the chapel of Merton College at Oxford, and the
+beautiful chapel of St. Stephen at Westminster, most unfortunately
+demolished when the present Parliament House was erected. The
+Lady-chapels of Gloucester and Ely, though connected with the
+cathedrals, are really independent designs of late date, and remarkable
+for the richness of their decoration, their great windows, and elaborate
+ribbed vaulting. Some of the halls in mediæval castles and manor-houses
+are also worthy of note, especially for their timber ceilings.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>MINOR MONUMENTS.</b> The student of Gothic architecture should
+also give attention to the choir-screens, tombs, and chantries which
+embellish many of the abbeys and cathedrals. The rood-screen at York is
+a notable example of the first; the tomb of De Gray in the same
+cathedral, and tombs and chantries in Canterbury, Winchester,
+Westminster Abbey, Ely, St. Alban’s Abbey, and other churches are
+deservedly admired. In these the English love for ornament, for minute
+carving, and for the contrast of white and colored marble, found
+unrestrained expression. To these should be added the market-crosses of
+Salisbury and Winchester, and Queen Eleanor’s Cross at Waltham.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> The mediæval castles of Great Britain
+belong to the domain of military engineering rather than of the history
+of art, though occasionally presenting
+<span class="pagenum">235</span>
+<a name="page235" id="page235"> </a>
+to view details of considerable architectural beauty. The growth of
+peace and civic order is marked by the erection of manor-houses, the
+residences of wealthy landowners. Some of these houses are of imposing
+size, and show the application to domestic requirements, of the late
+Gothic style which prevailed in the period to which most of them belong.
+The windows are square or Tudor-arched, with stone mullions and transoms
+of the Perpendicular style, and the walls terminate in merlons or
+crenelated parapets, recalling the earlier military structures. The
+palace of the bishop or archbishop, adjoining the cathedral, and the
+residences of the dean, canons, and clergy, together with the libraries,
+schools, and gates of the cathedral enclosure, illustrate other phases
+of secular Gothic work. Few of these structures are of striking
+architectural merit, but they possess a picturesque charm which is very
+attractive.</p>
+
+<p>Not many stone houses of the smaller class remain from the Gothic
+period in England. But there is hardly an old town that does not retain
+many of the half-timbered dwellings of the fifteenth or even fourteenth
+century, some of them in excellent preservation. They are for the most
+part wider and lower than the French houses of the same class, but are
+built on the same principle, and, like them, the woodwork is more or
+less richly carved.</p>
+
+
+<div class="monuments">
+
+<p><b>MONUMENTS</b>: (A. = abbey church; C. = cathedral; r.&nbsp;=
+ruined; trans. = transept; each monument is given under the date of the
+earliest extant Gothic work upon it, with additions of later periods in
+parentheses.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Early English</span>: Kirkstall A.,
+1152&ndash;82, first pointed arches; Canterbury&nbsp;C., choir,
+1175&ndash;84 (nave, 1378&ndash;1411; central tower, 1500);
+Lincoln&nbsp;C., choir, trans., 1192&ndash;1200 (vault, 1250; nave and
+E.&nbsp;end, 1260&ndash;80); Lichfield&nbsp;C., 1200&ndash;50
+(W.&nbsp;front, 1275; presbytery, 1325); Worcester&nbsp;C., choir,
+1203&ndash;18, nave partly Norman (W.&nbsp;end, 1375&ndash;95);
+Chichester&nbsp;C., 1204&ndash;44 (spire rebuilt 17th century);
+Fountains&nbsp;A., 1205&ndash;46; Salisbury&nbsp;C., 1220&ndash;58
+(cloister, chapter-h., 1263&ndash;84; spire, 1331); Elgin&nbsp;C.,
+1224&ndash;44; Wells&nbsp;C., 1175&ndash;1206 (W.&nbsp;front 1225, choir
+later, chapter-h., 1292); Rochester&nbsp;C., 1225&ndash;39
+<span class="pagenum">236</span>
+<a name="page236" id="page236"> </a>
+(nave Norman); York&nbsp;C., S.<!-- invisible . --> trans., 1225;
+N.&nbsp;trans., 1260 (nave, chapter-h., 1291&ndash;1345; W.&nbsp;window,
+1338; central tower, 1389&ndash;1407; E.&nbsp;window, 1407); Southwell
+Minster, 1233&ndash;94 (nave Norman); Ripon&nbsp;C., 1233&ndash;94
+(central tower, 1459); Ely&nbsp;C., choir, 1229&ndash;54 (nave Norman;
+octagon and presbytery, 1323&ndash;62); Peterborough&nbsp;C.,
+W.&nbsp;front, 1237 (nave Norman; retro-choir, late 14th century);
+Netley&nbsp;A., 1239 (r.); Durham&nbsp;C., “Nine Altars” and E.&nbsp;end
+choir, 1235&ndash;90 (nave, choir, Norman; W.&nbsp;window, 1341; central
+tower finished, 1480); Glasgow&nbsp;C., (with remarkable Early English
+crypt), 1242&ndash;77; Gloucester&nbsp;C., nave vaulted, 1239&ndash;42
+(nave mainly Norman; choir, 1337&ndash;51; cloisters, 1375&ndash;1412;
+W.&nbsp;end, 1420&ndash;37; central tower, 1450&ndash;57);
+Westminster&nbsp;A., 1245&ndash;69; St. Mary’s A., York, 1272&ndash;92
+(r.).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Decorated</span>: Merton College Chapel,
+Oxford, 1274&ndash;1300; Hereford&nbsp;C., N.&nbsp;trans., chapter-h.,
+cloisters, vaulting, 1275&ndash;92 (nave, choir, Norman);
+Exeter&nbsp;C., choir, trans., 1279&ndash;91; nave, 1331&ndash;50
+(E.&nbsp;end remodelled, 1390); Lichfield&nbsp;C., Lady-chapel, 1310;
+Ely&nbsp;C., Lady-chapel, 1321&ndash;49; Melrose&nbsp;A., 1327&ndash;99
+(nave, 1500; r.); St. Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster, 1349&ndash;64
+(demolished); Edington church, 1352&ndash;61; Carlisle&nbsp;C.,
+E.&nbsp;end and upper parts, 1352&ndash;95 (nave in part and
+S.&nbsp;trans. Norman; tower finished, 1419); Winchester&nbsp;C.,
+W.&nbsp;end remodelled, 1360&ndash;66 (nave and aisles, 1394&ndash;1410;
+trans., partly Norman); York&nbsp;C., Lady-chapel, 1362&ndash;72;
+churches of Patrington and Hull, late 14th century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Perpendicular</span>: Holy Cross Church,
+Canterbury, 1380; St. Mary’s, Warwick, 1381&ndash;91;
+Manchester&nbsp;C., 1422; St. Mary’s, Bury St. Edmunds, 1424&ndash;33;
+Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, 1439; King’s College Chapel, Cambridge, 1440;
+vaults, 1508&ndash;15; St. Mary’s Redcliffe, Bristol, 1442; Roslyn
+Chapel, Edinburgh, 1446&ndash;90; Gloucester&nbsp;C., Lady-chapel,
+1457&ndash;98; St. Mary’s, Stratford-on-Avon, 1465&ndash;91;
+Norwich&nbsp;C., upper part and E.&nbsp;end of choir, 1472&ndash;99 (the
+rest mainly Norman); St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, 1481&ndash;1508;
+choir vaulted, 1507&ndash;20; Bath&nbsp;A., 1500&ndash;39; Chapel of
+Henry VII., Westminster, 1503&ndash;20.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Academic and Secular Buildings</span>:
+Winchester Castle Hall, 1222&ndash;35; Merton College Chapel, Oxford,
+1274&ndash;1300; Library Merton College, 1354&ndash;78; Norborough Hall,
+1356; Windsor Castle, upper ward, 1359&ndash;73; Winchester College,
+1387&ndash;93; Wardour Castle, 1392; Westminster Hall, rebuilt,
+1397&ndash;99; St. Mary’s Hall, Coventry, 1401&ndash;14; Warkworth
+Castle, 1440; St. John’s College, All <ins class="correction" title="apostrophe in original">Soul’s</ins> College, Oxford, 1437; Eton
+College, 1441&ndash;1522; Divinity Schools, Oxford, 1445&ndash;54;
+Magdalen College, Oxford, 1475&ndash;80, tower, 1500; Christ Church
+Hall, Oxford, 1529.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">237</span>
+<a name="page237" id="page237"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXVIII" id="chapXVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, AND SPAIN.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Corroyer,
+Reber. Also, Adler, <i>Mittelalterliche Backstein-Bauwerke des
+preussischen Staates</i>. Essenwein (<i>Hdbuch. d. Arch.</i>), <i>Die
+romanische und die gothische Baukunst; der Wohnbau</i>. Hasak, <i>Die
+romanische und die gothische Baukunst; Kirchenbau</i>; <i>Einzelheiten
+des Kirchenbaues</i> (both in <i>Hdbuch. d. Arch.</i>). Hase and others,
+<i>Die mittelalterlichen Baudenkmäler Niedersachsens</i>. Kallenbach,
+<i>Chronologie der deutschen mittelalterlichen Baukunst</i>. Lübke,
+<i>Ecclesiastical Art in Germany during the Middle Ages</i>.
+Redtenbacher, <i>Leitfaden zum Studium der mittelalterlichen
+Baukunst</i>. Street, <i>Gothic Architecture in Spain</i>. Uhde,
+<i>Baudenkmäler in Spanien</i>. Ungewitter, <i>Lehrbuch der gothischen
+Constructionen</i>. Villa Amil, <i>Hispania Artistica y
+Monumental</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>EARLY GOTHIC WORKS.</b> The Gothic architecture of Germany is less
+interesting to the general student than that of France and England, not
+only because its development was less systematic and more provincial,
+but also because it produced fewer works of high intrinsic merit. The
+introduction into Germany of the pointed style was tardy, and its
+progress slow. Romanesque architecture had created imposing types of
+ecclesiastical architecture, which the conservative Teutons were slow to
+abandon. The result was a half-century of transition and a mingling of
+Romanesque and Gothic forms. St. Castor, at Coblentz, built as late as
+1208, is wholly Romanesque. Even when the pointed arch and vault had
+finally come into general use, the plan and the constructive system
+still remained predominantly Romanesque. The western apse and short
+sanctuary of the earlier plans were retained. There was no triforium,
+the
+<span class="pagenum">238</span>
+<a name="page238" id="page238"> </a>
+clearstory was insignificant, and the whole aspect low and massive. The
+Germans avoided, at first, as did the English, the constructive
+audacities and difficulties of the French Gothic, but showed less of
+invention and grace than their English neighbors. When, however, through
+the influence of foreign models, especially of the great French
+cathedrals, and through the employment of foreign architects, the Gothic
+styles were at last thoroughly domesticated, a&nbsp;spirit of
+ostentation took the place of the earlier conservatism. Technical
+cleverness, exaggerated ingenuity of detail, and constructive <i>tours
+de force</i> characterize most of the German Gothic work of the late
+fourteenth and of the fifteenth century. This is exemplified in the
+slender mullions of Ulm, the lofty and complicated spire of Strasburg,
+and the curious traceries of churches and houses in Nuremberg.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PERIODS.</b> The periods of German mediæval architecture
+corresponded in sequence, though not in date, with the movement
+elsewhere. The maturing of the true Gothic styles was preceded by more
+than a half-century of transition. Chronologically the periods may be
+broadly stated as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">The Transitional</span>,
+1170&ndash;1225.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">The Early Pointed</span>,
+1225&ndash;1275.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">The Middle or Decorated</span>,
+1275&ndash;1350.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">The Florid</span>, 1350&ndash;1530.</p>
+
+<p>These divisions are, however, far less clearly defined than in France
+and England. The development of forms was less logical and
+consequential, and less uniform in the different provinces, than in
+those western lands.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig139" id="fig139"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig139.png" width="195" height="354"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 139.&mdash;ONE BAY OF CATHEDRAL OF ST. GEORGE, LIMBURG.</p>
+
+<p><b>CONSTRUCTION.</b> As already remarked, a&nbsp;tenacious hold of
+Romanesque methods is observable in many German Gothic monuments. Broad
+wall-surfaces with small windows and a general massiveness and lowness
+of proportions were long preferred to the more slender and lofty forms
+of true
+<span class="pagenum">239</span>
+<a name="page239" id="page239"> </a>
+Gothic design. Square vaulting-bays were persistently adhered to,
+covering two aisle-bays. The six-part system was only rarely resorted
+to, as at Schlettstadt, and in St. George at Limburg-on-the-Lahn (Fig.
+139). The ribbed vault was an imported idea, and was never
+systematically developed. Under the final dominance of French models in
+the second half of the thirteenth century, vaulting in oblong bays
+became more general, powerfully influenced by buildings like Freiburg,
+Cologne, Oppenheim, and Ratisbon cathedrals. In the fourteenth century
+the growing taste for elaboration and rich detail led to the
+introduction of multiplied decorative ribs. These, however, did not come
+into use, as in England, through a logical development of constructive
+methods, but purely as decorative features. The German multiple-ribbed
+vaulting is, therefore, less satisfying than the English, though often
+elegant. Conspicuous examples of its application are found in the
+cathedrals of Freiburg, Ulm, Prague, and Vienna; in St. Barbara at
+Kuttenberg, and many other important churches. But with all the richness
+and complexity of these net-like vaults the Germans developed nothing
+like the fan-vaulting or chapter-house ceilings of England.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>SIDE AISLES.</b> The most notable structural innovation of the
+Germans was the raising of the side aisles to the same height as the
+central aisle in a number of important
+<span class="pagenum">240</span>
+<a name="page240" id="page240"> </a>
+churches. They thus created a distinctly new type, to which German
+writers have given the name of <i>hall-church</i>. The result of this
+innovation was to transform completely the internal perspective of the
+church, as well as its structural membering. The clearstory disappeared;
+the central aisle no longer dominated the interior; the pier-arches and
+side-walls were greatly increased in height, and flying buttresses were
+no longer required. The whole design appeared internally more spacious,
+but lost greatly in variety and in interest. The cathedral of <b>St.
+Stephen</b> at Vienna is the most imposing instance of this treatment,
+which first appeared in the church of St. Elizabeth at Marburg
+(1235&ndash;83; Fig. 140). St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, St. Martin’s at
+Landshut (1404), and the cathedral of Munich are others among many
+examples of this type.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft w240">
+<a name="fig140" id="fig140"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig140.png" width="224" height="252"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 140.&mdash;SECTION OF ST. ELIZABETH, MARBURG.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>TOWERS AND SPIRES.</b> The same fondness for spires which had been
+displayed in the Rhenish Romanesque churches produced in the Gothic
+period a number of strikingly beautiful church steeples, in which
+openwork tracery was substituted for the solid stone pyramids of earlier
+examples. The most remarkable of these spires are those of Freiburg
+(1300), Strasburg, and Cologne cathedrals, of the church at Esslingen,
+St. Martin’s at Landshut, and the cathedral of Vienna. In these the
+transition from the simple square tower below to the octagonal belfry
+and spire is generally managed with skill. In the remarkable tower of
+the cathedral
+<span class="pagenum">241</span>
+<a name="page241" id="page241"> </a>
+at Vienna (1433) the transition is too gradual, so that the spire seems
+to start from the ground and lacks the vigor and accent of a simpler
+square lower portion. The over-elaborate spire of <b>Strasburg</b>
+(1429, by Junckher of Cologne; lower parts and façade, 1277&ndash;1365,
+by <i>Erwin von Steinbach</i> and his sons) reaches a height of 468
+feet; the spires of Cologne, completed in 1883 from the original
+fourteenth-century drawings, long lost but recovered by a happy
+accident, are 500 feet high. The spires of <b>Ratisbon</b> and
+<b>Ulm</b> cathedrals have also been recently completed in the original
+style.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>DETAILS.</b> German window tracery was best where it most closely
+followed French patterns, but it tended always towards the faults of
+mechanical stiffness and of technical display in over-slenderness of
+shafts and mullions. The windows, especially in the “hall-churches,”
+were apt to be too narrow for their height. In the fifteenth century
+ingenuity of geometrical combinations took the place of grace of line,
+and later the tracery was often tortured into a stone caricature of
+rustic-work of interlaced and twisted boughs and twigs, represented with
+all their bark and knots (<i>branch-tracery</i>). The execution was far
+superior to the design. The carving of foliage in capitals, finials,
+etc., calls for no special mention for its originality or its departure
+from French types.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig141" id="fig141"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig141.png" width="176" height="308"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 141.&mdash;COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. PLAN.</p>
+
+<p><b>PLANS.</b> In these there was more variety than in any other part
+of Europe except Italy. Some churches, like Naumburg, retained the
+Romanesque system of a second western apse and short choir. The
+Cistercian churches generally had square east ends, while the polygonal
+eastern apse without ambulatory is seen in St. Elizabeth at Marburg, the
+cathedrals of Ratisbon, Ulm and Vienna, and many other churches. The
+introduction of French ideas in the thirteenth century led to the
+adoption in a number of cases of the chevet with a single ambulatory and
+a series of
+<span class="pagenum">242</span>
+<a name="page242" id="page242"> </a>
+radiating apsidal chapels. <b>Magdeburg</b> cathedral (1208&ndash;11)
+was the first erected on this plan, which was later followed at
+Altenburg, Cologne, Freiburg, Lübeck, Prague and Zwettl, in St. Francis
+at Salzburg and some other churches. Side chapels to nave or choir
+appear in the cathedrals of Lübeck, Munich, Oppenheim, Prague and
+Zwettl. <b>Cologne</b> <b>Cathedral</b>, by far the largest and most
+magnificent of all, is completely French in plan, uniting in one design
+the leading characteristics of the most notable French churches (Fig.
+141). It has complete double aisles in both nave and choir, three-aisled
+transepts, radial chevet-chapels and twin western towers. The ambulatory
+is, however, single, and there are no lateral chapels. A&nbsp;typical
+German treatment was the eastward termination of the church by polygonal
+chapels, one in the axis of each aisle, the central one projecting
+beyond its neighbors. Where there were five aisles, as at Xanten, the
+effect was particularly fine. The plan of the curious polygonal church
+of <b>Our Lady</b> (Liebfrauenkirche; 1227&ndash;43) built on the site
+of the ancient circular baptistery at Treves, would seem to have been
+produced by doubling such an arrangement on either side of the
+transverse axis (Fig. 142).</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft w180">
+<a name="fig142" id="fig142"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig142.png" width="193" height="244"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 142.&mdash;CHURCH OF OUR LADY, TREVES.</p>
+
+<p><b>HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.</b> The so-called <b>Golden Portal</b> of
+<b>Freiburg</b> in the Erzgebirge is perhaps the first distinctively
+Gothic work in Germany, dating from 1190. From that time on, Gothic
+details appeared with increasing frequency, especially in the Rhine
+provinces, as shown in many
+<span class="pagenum">243</span>
+<a name="page243" id="page243"> </a>
+transitional structures. <b>Gelnhausen</b> and Aschaffenburg are early
+13th-century examples; pointed arches and vaults appear in the Apostles’
+and St. Martin’s churches at Cologne; and the great church of <b>St.
+Peter and St. Paul</b> at Neuweiler in Alsace has an almost purely
+Gothic nave of the same period. The churches of <b>Bamberg</b>,
+<b>Fritzlar</b>, and <b>Naumburg</b>, and in Westphalia those of
+<b>Münster</b> and <b>Osnabrück</b>, are important examples of the
+transition. The French influence, especially the Burgundian, appears as
+early as 1212 in the cathedral of Magdeburg, imitating the choir of
+Soissons, and in the structural design of the Liebfrauenkirche at Treves
+as already mentioned; it reached complete ascendancy in Alsace at
+<b>Strasburg</b> (nave 1240&ndash;75), in Baden at <b>Freiburg</b> (nave
+1270) and in Prussia at <b>Cologne</b> (1248&ndash;1320). Strasburg
+Cathedral is especially remarkable for its façade, the work of Erwin von
+Steinbach and his sons (1277&ndash;1346), designed after French models,
+and its north spire, built in the fifteenth century. Cologne Cathedral,
+begun in 1248 by <i>Gerhard of Riel</i> in imitation of the newly
+completed choir of Amiens, was continued by Master <i>Arnold</i> and his
+son <i>John</i>, and the choir was consecrated in 1322. The nave and
+W.&nbsp;front were built during the first half of the 14th century,
+though the towers were not completed till 1883.
+<span class="illustration">
+<a name="fig143" id="fig143"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig143.png" width="120" height="293"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 143.<!-- invisible . -->&mdash;PLAN OF<br>
+ULM CATHEDRAL.</span>
+In spite of its vast size and slow construction, it is in style the most
+uniform of all great Gothic cathedrals, as it is the most lofty
+(excepting the choir of Beauvais) and the largest excepting Milan and
+<span class="pagenum">244</span>
+<a name="page244" id="page244"> </a>
+Seville. Unfortunately its details, though pure and correct, are
+singularly dry and mechanical, while its very uniformity deprives it of
+the picturesque and varied charm which results from a mixture of styles
+recording the labors of successive generations. The same criticism may
+be raised against the late cathedral of <b>Ulm</b> (choir,
+1377&ndash;1449; nave, 1477; Fig. 143). The Cologne influence is
+observable in the widely separated cathedrals of Utrecht in the
+Netherlands, Metz in the W., Minden and <b>Halberstadt</b> (begun 1250;
+mainly built after 1327) in Saxony, and in the S. in the church of
+<b>St. Catherine</b> at Oppenheim. To the E. and&nbsp;S., in the
+cathedrals of <b>Prague</b> (Bohemia) by <i>Matthew of Arras</i>
+(1344&ndash;52) and <b>Ratisbon</b> (or Regensburg, 1275) the French
+influence predominates, at least in the details and construction. The
+last-named is one of the most dignified and beautiful of German Gothic
+churches&mdash;German in plan, French in execution. The French influence
+also manifests itself in the details of many of the peculiarly German
+churches with aisles of equal height (see <a href="#page240">p.&nbsp;240</a>).</p>
+
+<p>More peculiarly German are the brick churches of North Germany, where
+stone was almost wholly lacking. In these, flat walls, square towers,
+and decoration by colored tiles and bricks are characteristic, as at
+Brandenburg (St. Godehard and <b>St. Catherine</b>, 1346&ndash;1400), at
+<b>Prentzlau</b>, Tängermünde, Königsberg, &amp;c. Lübeck possesses
+notable monuments of brick architecture in the churches of <b>St.
+Mary</b> and St. Catherine, both much alike in plan and in the flat and
+barren simplicity of their exteriors. <b>St. Martin’s</b> at
+<b>Landshut</b> in the South is also a notable brick church.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">245</span>
+<a name="page245" id="page245"> </a>
+<p><b>LATE GOTHIC.</b> As in France and England, the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries were mainly occupied with the completion of existing
+churches, many of which, up to that time, were still without naves. The
+works of this period show the exaggerated attenuation of detail already
+alluded to, though their richness and elegance sometimes atone for their
+mechanical character. The complicated ribbed vaults of this period are
+among its most striking features (see <a href="#page239">p.&nbsp;239</a>). Spire-building was as general as was the
+erection of central square towers in England, during the same period. To
+this time also belong the overloaded traceries and minute detail of the
+<b>St. Sebald</b> and St. Lorenz churches and of several secular
+buildings at Nuremberg, the façade of Chemnitz Cathedral, and similar
+works. The nave and tower of St. Stephen at Vienna (1359&ndash;1433),
+the church of Sta. Maria in Gestade in the same city, and the cathedral
+of Kaschau in Hungary, are Austrian masterpieces of late Gothic
+design.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>SECULAR BUILDINGS.</b> Germany possesses a number of important
+examples of secular Gothic work, chiefly municipal buildings (gates and
+town halls) and castles. The first completely Gothic castle or palace
+was not built until 1280, at <b>Marienburg</b> (Prussia), and was
+completed a century later. It consists of two courts, the earlier of the
+two forming a closed square and containing the chapel and chapter-house
+of the Order of the German knights. The later and larger court is less
+regular, its chief feature being the <b>Great Hall</b> of the Order, in
+two aisles. All the vaulting is of the richest multiple-ribbed type.
+Other castles are at Marienwerder, Heilsberg (1350) in E.&nbsp;Prussia,
+Karlstein in Bohemia (1347), and the <b>Albrechtsburg</b> at Meissen in
+Saxony (1471&ndash;83).</p>
+
+<p>Among town halls, most of which date from the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries may be mentioned those of Ratisbon (Regensburg),
+Münster and Hildesheim, Halberstadt,
+<span class="pagenum">246</span>
+<a name="page246" id="page246"> </a>
+<b>Brunswick</b>, Lübeck, and Bremen&mdash;the last two of brick. These,
+and the city gates, such as the <b>Spahlenthor</b> at Basle
+(Switzerland) and others at Lübeck and Wismar, are generally very
+picturesque edifices. Many fine guildhalls were also built during the
+last two centuries of the Gothic style; and dwelling-houses of the same
+period, of quaint and effective design, with stepped or traceried
+gables, lofty roofs, openwork balconies and corner turrets, are to be
+found in many cities. Nuremberg is especially rich in these.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE NETHERLANDS</b>, as might be expected from their position,
+underwent the influences of both France and Germany. During the
+thirteenth century, largely through the intimate monastic relations
+between Tournay and Noyon, the French influence became paramount in what
+is now Belgium, while Holland remained more strongly German in style. Of
+the two countries Belgium developed by far the most interesting
+architecture. Some of its cathedrals, notably those of Tournay, Antwerp,
+Brussels, Malines (Mechlin), Mons and Louvain, rank high among
+structures of their class, both in scale and in artistic treatment. The
+Flemish town halls and guildhalls merit particular attention for their
+size and richness, exemplifying in a worthy manner the wealth,
+prosperity, and independence of the weavers and merchants of Antwerp,
+Ypres, Ghent (Gand), Louvain, and other cities in the fifteenth
+century.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES.</b> The earliest purely Gothic edifice in
+Belgium was the choir of <b>Ste. Gudule</b> (1225) at Brussels, followed
+in 1242 by the choir and transepts of <b>Tournay</b>, designed with
+pointed vaults, side chapels, and a complete <i>chevet</i>. The
+transept-ends are round, as at Noyon. It was surpassed in splendor by
+the <b>Cathedral</b> of <b>Antwerp</b> (1352&ndash;1422), remarkable for
+its seven-aisled nave and narrow transepts. It covers some 70,000 square
+feet, but its great size is not as effective internally as it should be,
+owing to the poverty of the details and the lack
+<span class="pagenum">247</span>
+<a name="page247" id="page247"> </a>
+of finely felt proportion in the various parts. The late west front
+(1422&ndash;1518) displays the florid taste of the wealthy Flemish
+burgher population of that period, but is so rich and elegant,
+especially its lofty and slender north spire, that its over-decoration
+is pardonable. The cathedral of <b>St. Rombaut</b> at Malines (choir,
+1366; nave, 1454&ndash;64) is a more satisfactory church, though smaller
+and with its western towers incomplete. The cathedral of <b>Louvain</b>
+belongs to the same period (1373&ndash;1433). <b>St. Wandru</b> at Mons
+(1450&ndash;1528) and <b>St. Jacques</b> at Liège (1522&ndash;58) are
+interesting parish churches of the first rank, remarkable especially for
+the use of color in their internal decoration, for their late tracery
+and ribbed vaulting, and for the absence of Renaissance details at that
+late period.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>TOWN HALLS: GUILDHALLS.</b> These were really the most
+characteristic Flemish edifices, and are in most cases the most
+conspicuous monuments of their respective cities. The <b>Cloth Hall</b>
+of <b>Ypres</b> (1304) is the earliest and most imposing among them;
+similar halls were built not much later at <b>Bruges</b>,
+<b>Louvain</b>, <b>Malines</b> and <b>Ghent</b>. The town halls were
+mostly of later date, the earliest being that of <b>Bruges</b> (1377).
+The town halls of <b>Brussels</b> with its imposing
+<span class="pagenum">248</span>
+<a name="page248" id="page248"> </a>
+and graceful tower, of <b>Louvain</b> (1448&ndash;63; Fig. 144) and of
+<b>Oudenärde</b> (early 16th century) are conspicuous monuments of this
+class.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig144" id="fig144"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig144.jpg" width="262" height="352"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 144.&mdash;TOWN HALL, LOUVAIN.</p>
+
+<p>In general, the Gothic architecture of Belgium presents the traits of
+a borrowed style, which did not undergo at the hands of its borrowers
+any radically novel or fundamental development. The structural design is
+usually lacking in vigor and organic significance, but the details are
+often graceful and well designed, especially on the exterior. The
+tendency was often towards over-elaboration, particularly in the later
+works.</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic architecture of <b>Holland</b> and of the
+<b>Scandinavian</b> countries offers so little that is highly artistic
+or inspiring in character, that space cannot well be given in this work,
+even to an enumeration of its chief monuments.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.</b> The beginnings of Gothic architecture in
+Spain followed close on the series of campaigns from 1217 to 1252, which
+began the overthrow of the Moorish dominion. With the resulting spirit
+of exultation and the wealth accruing from booty, came a rapid
+development of architecture, mainly under French influence. Gothic
+architecture was at this date, under St. Louis, producing in France some
+of its noblest works. The great cathedrals of <b>Toledo</b> and
+<b>Burgos</b>, begun between 1220 and 1230, were the earliest purely
+Gothic churches in Spain. <b>San Vincente</b> at Avila and the <b>Old
+Cathedral</b> at Salamanca, of somewhat earlier date, present a mixture
+of round- and pointed-arched forms, with the Romanesque elements
+predominant. <b>Toledo Cathedral</b>, planned in imitation of Notre Dame
+and Bourges, but exceeding them in width, covers 75,000 square feet, and
+thus ranks among the largest of European cathedrals. Internally it is
+well proportioned and well detailed, recalling the early French
+masterworks, but its exterior is less commendable.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">249</span>
+<a name="page249" id="page249"> </a>
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig145" id="fig145"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig145.jpg" width="261" height="334"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 145.<!-- invisible both . -->&mdash;FAÇADE OF BURGOS CATHEDRAL.</p>
+
+<p>In the contemporary cathedral of Burgos the exterior is at least as
+interesting as the interior. The west front, of German design, suggests
+Cologne by its twin openwork spires (Fig. 145); while the crossing is
+embellished with a sumptuous dome and lantern or <i>cimborio</i>, added
+as late as 1567. The chapels at the east end, especially that of the
+Condestabile (1487), are ornate to the point of overloading,
+a&nbsp;fault to which late Spanish Gothic work is peculiarly prone.
+Other thirteenth-century cathedrals are those of <b>Leon</b> (1260),
+<b>Valencia</b> (1262), and <b>Barcelona</b> (1298), all exhibiting
+strongly the French influence in the plan, vaulting, and vertical
+proportions. The models of Bourges and Paris with their wide naves,
+lateral chapels and semicircular chevets were followed in the cathedral
+of Barcelona, in a number of fourteenth-century churches both there and
+elsewhere, and in the sixteenth-century cathedral of Segovia. In Sta.
+Maria del Pi at Barcelona, in the collegiate church at Manresa, and in
+the imposing nave of the <b>Cathedral</b> of <b>Gerona</b> (1416, added
+to choir of 1312, the latter by a Southern French architect, Henri de
+Narbonne), the influence of Alby in southern France (see <a href="#page206">p.&nbsp;206</a>) is discernible. These are one-aisled
+churches with internal
+<span class="pagenum">250</span>
+<a name="page250" id="page250"> </a>
+buttresses separating the lateral chapels. The nave of Gerona is 73 feet
+wide, or double the average clear width of French or English cathedral
+naves. The resulting effect is not commensurate with the actual
+dimensions, and shows the inappropriateness of Gothic details for
+compositions so Roman in breadth and simplicity.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>SEVILLE.</b> The largest single edifice in Spain, and the largest
+church built during the Middle Ages in Europe, is the <b>Cathedral of
+Seville</b>, begun in 1401 on the site of a Moorish mosque. It covers
+124,000 square feet, measuring 415 × 298 feet, and is a simple rectangle
+comprising five aisles with lateral chapels. The central aisle is 56 ft.
+wide and 145 high; the side aisles and chapels diminish gradually in
+height, and with the uniform piers in six rows produce an imposing
+effect, in spite of the lack of transepts or chevet. The somewhat
+similar <b>New Cathedral</b> of Salamanca (1510&ndash;1560) shows the
+last struggles of the Gothic style against the incoming tide of the
+Renaissance.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LATER MONUMENTS.</b> These all partake of the over-decoration
+which characterized the fifteenth century throughout Europe. In Spain
+this decoration was even less constructive in character, and more purely
+fanciful and arbitrary, than in the northern lands; but this very
+rejection of all constructive pretense gives it a peculiar charm and
+goes far to excuse its extravagance (Fig. 146). Decorative vaulting-ribs
+were made to describe geometric patterns of great elegance. Some of the
+late Gothic vaults by the very exuberance of imagination shown in their
+designs, almost disarm criticism. Instead of suppressing the walls as
+far as possible, and emphasizing all the vertical lines, as was done in
+France and England, the later Gothic architects of Spain delighted in
+broad wall-surfaces and multiplied horizontal lines. Upon these surfaces
+they lavished carving without restraint and without any organic relation
+to the structure of the building. The arcades of
+<span class="pagenum">251</span>
+<a name="page251" id="page251"> </a>
+cloisters and interior courts (<i>patios</i>) were formed with arches of
+fantastic curves resting on twisted columns; and internal chapels in the
+cathedrals were covered with minute carving of exquisite workmanship,
+but wholly irrational design. Probably the influence of Moorish
+decorative art accounts in part for these extravagances. The eastern
+chapels in Burgos cathedral, the votive church of <b>San Juan de los
+Reyes</b> at Toledo and many portals of churches, convents and hospitals
+illustrate these tendencies.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig146" id="fig146"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig146.jpg" width="259" height="486"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 146.&mdash;DETAIL, PORTAL S.&nbsp;GREGORIO, VALLADOLID.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PORTUGAL</b> is an almost unknown land architecturally. It seems
+to have adopted the Gothic styles very late in its history. Two
+monuments, however, are conspicuous, the convent churches of Batalha
+(1390&ndash;1520) and <b>Belem</b>, both marked by an extreme
+overloading of carved ornament. The <b>Mausoleum of King Manoel</b> in
+the rear of the church at Batalha is, however, a&nbsp;noble creation,
+possibly by an English master. It is a polygonal domed edifice, some 67
+feet in diameter, and well
+<span class="pagenum">252</span>
+<a name="page252" id="page252"> </a>
+designed, though covered with a too profuse and somewhat mechanical
+decoration of panels, pinnacles, and carving.</p>
+
+
+<div class="monuments">
+<p><b>MONUMENTS</b>: <span class="smallcaps">Germany</span> (C&nbsp;=
+cathedral; A&nbsp;= abbey; tr. = transepts).&mdash;13th century:
+Transitional churches: Bamberg&nbsp;C.; Naumburg&nbsp;C.; Collegiate
+Church, Fritzlar; St. George, Limburg-on-Lahn; St. Castor, Coblentz;
+Heisterbach&nbsp;A.;&mdash;all in early years of 13th century. St.
+Gereon, Cologne, choir 1212&ndash;27; Liebfrauenkirche, Treves,
+1227&ndash;44; St. Elizabeth, Marburg, 1235&ndash;83; Sts. Peter and
+Paul, Neuweiler, 1250; Cologne&nbsp;C., choir 1248&ndash;1322 (nave 14th
+century; towers finished 1883); Strasburg&nbsp;C., 1250&ndash;75
+(E.&nbsp;end Romanesque; façade 1277&ndash;1365; tower 1429&ndash;39);
+Halberstadt&nbsp;C., nave 1250 (choir 1327; completed 1490);
+Altenburg&nbsp;C., choir 1255&ndash;65 (finished 1379); Wimpfen-im-Thal
+church 1259&ndash;78; St. Lawrence, Nuremberg, 1260 (choir
+1439&ndash;77); St. Catherine, Oppenheim, 1262&ndash;1317 (choir 1439);
+Xanten, Collegiate Church, 1263; Freiburg&nbsp;C., 1270 (W.&nbsp;tower
+1300; choir 1354); Toul&nbsp;C., 1272; Meissen&nbsp;C., choir 1274 (nave
+1312&ndash;42); Ratisbon&nbsp;C., 1275; St. Mary’s, Lübeck, 1276;
+Dominican churches at Coblentz, Gebweiler; and in Switzerland at Basle,
+Berne, and Zurich.<!-- invisible . -->&mdash;14th century: Wiesenkirche,
+Söst, 1313; Osnabrück&nbsp;C., 1318 (choir 1420); St. Mary’s, Prentzlau,
+1325; Augsburg&nbsp;C., 1321&ndash;1431; Metz&nbsp;C., 1330 rebuilt
+(choir 1486); St. Stephen’s C., Vienna, 1340 (nave 15th century; tower
+1433); Zwette&nbsp;C., 1343; Prague&nbsp;C., 1344; church at Thann, 1351
+(tower finished 16th century); Liebfrauenkirche, Nuremberg,
+1355&ndash;61; St. Sebaldus Church, Nuremberg, 1361&ndash;77 (nave
+Romanesque); Minden&nbsp;C., choir 1361; Ulm&nbsp;C., 1377 (choir 1449;
+nave vaulted 1471; finished 16th century); Sta. Barbara, Kuttenberg,
+1386 (nave 1483); Erfurt&nbsp;C.; St. Elizabeth, Kaschau;
+Schlettstadt&nbsp;C.&mdash;15th century: St. Catherine’s, Brandenburg,
+1401; Frauenkirche, Esslingen, 1406 (finished 1522); Minster at Berne,
+1421; Peter-Paulskirche, Görlitz, 1423&ndash;97; St. Mary’s, Stendal,
+1447; Frauenkirche, Munich, 1468&ndash;88; St. Martin’s, Landshut,
+1473.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Secular Monuments.</span> Schloss
+Marienburg, 1341; Moldau-bridge and tower, Prague, 1344; Karlsteinburg,
+1348&ndash;57; Albrechtsburg, Meissen, 1471&ndash;83; Nassau House,
+Nuremberg, 1350; Council houses (Rathhaüser) at Brunswick, 1393;
+Cologne, 1407&ndash;15; Basle; Breslau; Lübeck; Münster; Prague; Ulm;
+City Gates of Basle, Cologne, Ingolstadt, Lucerne.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">The Netherlands.</span><!-- invisible . -->
+Brussels&nbsp;C. (Ste. Gudule), 1226&ndash;80; Tournai&nbsp;C., choir
+1242 (nave finished 1380); Notre Dame, Bruges, 1239&ndash;97; Notre
+Dame, Tongres, 1240; Utrecht&nbsp;C., 1251; St. Martin, Ypres, 1254;
+Notre Dame,<!-- invisible , --> Dinant, 1255; church at Dordrecht;
+church at Aerschot,
+<span class="pagenum">253</span>
+<a name="page253" id="page253"> </a>
+1337; Antwerp&nbsp;C., 1352&ndash;1411 (W. front 1422&ndash;1518); St.
+Rombaut, Malines, 1355&ndash;66 (nave 1456&ndash;64); St. Wandru, Mons,
+1450&ndash;1528; St. Lawrence, Rotterdam, 1472; other 15th century
+churches&mdash;St. Bavon, Haarlem; St. Catherine, Utrecht; St.
+Walpurgis, Sutphen; St. Bavon, Ghent (tower 1461); St. Jaques, Antwerp;
+St. Pierre, Louvain; St. Jacques, Bruges; churches at Arnheim, Breda,
+Delft; St. Jacques, Liège, 1522.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Secular</span>: Cloth-hall, Ypres, 1200&ndash;1304;
+cloth-hall, Bruges, 1284; town hall, Bruges, 1377; town hall, Brussels,
+1401&ndash;55; town hall, Louvain, 1448&ndash;63; town hall, Ghent,
+1481; town hall, Oudenarde, 1527; Standehuis, Delft, 1528; cloth-halls
+at Louvain, Ghent, Malines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Spain.</span>&mdash;13th century: Burgos
+C., 1221 (façade 1442&ndash;56; chapels 1487; cimborio 1567);
+Toledo&nbsp;C., 1227&ndash;90 (chapels 14th and 15th centuries);
+Tarragona&nbsp;C., 1235; Leon&nbsp;C., 1250 (façade 14th century);
+Valencia&nbsp;C., 1262 (N.&nbsp;transept 1350&ndash;1404; façade
+1381&ndash;1418); Avila&nbsp;C., vault and N.&nbsp;portal
+1292&ndash;1353 (finished 14th century); St. Esteban, Burgos; church at
+Las Huelgas.&mdash;14th century: Barcelona&nbsp;C., choir
+1298&ndash;1329 (nave and transepts 1448; façade 16th century);
+Gerona&nbsp;C., 1312&ndash;46 (nave added 1416); S.&nbsp;M. del Mar,
+Barcelona, 1328&ndash;83; S.&nbsp;M. del Pino, Barcelona, same date;
+Collegiate Church, Manresa, 1328; Oviedo&nbsp;C., 1388 (tower very
+late); Pampluna&nbsp;C., 1397 (mainly 15th century).&mdash;15th century:
+Seville&nbsp;C., 1403 (finished 16th century; cimborio 1517&ndash;67);
+La Seo, Saragossa (finished 1505); S.&nbsp;Pablo, Burgos, 1415&ndash;35;
+El Parral, Segovia, 1459; Astorga&nbsp;C., 1471; San Juan de los Reyes,
+Toledo, 1476; Carthusian church, Miraflores, 1488; San Juan, and La
+Merced, Burgos.&mdash;16th century: Huesca&nbsp;C., 1515; Salamanca New
+Cathedral, 1510&ndash;60; Segovia&nbsp;C., 1522; S.&nbsp;Juan de la
+Puerta, Zamorra.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Secular.</span>&mdash;Porta Serraños,
+Valencia, 1349; Casa Consistorial, Barcelona, 1369&ndash;78; Casa de la
+Disputacion, same city; Casa de las Lonjas, Valencia, 1482.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Portugal.</span> At Batalha, church and
+mausoleum of King Manoel, finished 1515; at Belem, monastery, late
+Gothic.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">254</span>
+<a name="page254" id="page254"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXIX" id="chapXIX">CHAPTER XIX.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>; As before, Corroyer,
+Reber.<!-- invisible . --> Also, Cummings, <i>A&nbsp;History of
+Architecture in Italy</i>. De Fleury, <i>La Toscane au moyen âge</i>.
+Gruner, <i>The Terra Cotta Architecture of Northern Italy</i>. Mothes,
+<i>Die Baukunst des Mittelalters in Italien</i>. Norton, <i>Historical
+Studies of Church Building in the Middle Ages</i>. Osten, <i>Bauwerke
+der Lombardei</i>. Street, <i>Brick and Marble Architecture of
+Italy</i>. Willis, <i>Remarks on the Architecture of the Middle Ages,
+especially of Italy</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>GENERAL CHARACTER.</b> The various Romanesque styles which had
+grown up in Italy before 1200 lacked that unity of principle out of
+which alone a new and homogeneous national style could have been
+evolved. Each province practised its own style and methods of building,
+long after the Romanesque had given place to the Gothic in Western
+Europe. The Italians were better decorators than builders, and cared
+little for Gothic structural principles. Mosaic and carving, sumptuous
+altars and tombs, veneerings and inlays of colored marble, broad flat
+surfaces to be covered with painting and ornament&mdash;to secure these
+they were content to build crudely, to tie their insufficiently
+buttressed vaults with unsightly iron tie-rods, and to make their church
+façades mere screen-walls, in form wholly unrelated to the buildings
+behind them.</p>
+
+<p>When, therefore, under foreign influences pointed arches, tracery,
+clustered shafts, crockets and finials came into use, it was merely as
+an imported fashion. Even when foreign architects (usually Germans) were
+employed, the
+<span class="pagenum">255</span>
+<a name="page255" id="page255"> </a>
+composition, and in large measure the details, were still Italian and
+provincial. The church of St. Francis at Assisi (1228&ndash;53, by
+<i>Jacobus of Meruan</i>, a&nbsp;German, superseded later by an Italian,
+Campello), and the cathedral of Milan (begun 1389, perhaps by <i>Henry
+of Gmund</i>), are conspicuous illustrations of this. Rome built
+basilicas all through the Middle Ages. Tuscany continued to prefer flat
+walls veneered with marble to the broken surfaces and deep buttresses of
+France and Germany. Venice developed a Gothic style of façade-design
+wholly her own (see <a href="#page267">p.&nbsp;267</a>). Nowhere but
+in Italy could two such utterly diverse structures as the Certosa at
+Pavia and the cathedral at Milan have been erected at the same time.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CLIMATE AND TRADITION.</b> Two further causes militated against
+the domestication of Gothic art in Italy. The first was the brilliant
+atmosphere, which made the vast traceried windows of Gothic design, and
+its suppression of the wall-surfaces, wholly undesirable. Cool, dim
+interiors, thick walls, small windows and the exclusion of sunlight, all
+necessary to Italian comfort, were incompatible with Gothic ideals and
+methods. The second obstacle was the persistence of classic traditions
+of form, both in construction and decoration. The spaciousness and
+breadth of interior planning which characterized Roman design, and its
+amplitude of scale in every feature, seem never to have lost their hold
+on the Italians. The narrow lofty aisles, multiplied supports and minute
+detail of the Gothic style were repugnant to the classic predilections
+of the Italian builders. The Roman acanthus and Corinthian capital were
+constantly imitated in their Gothic buildings, and the round arch
+continued all through the Middle Ages to be used in conjunction with the
+pointed arch (Figs. <a href="#fig149">149</a>, <a href="#fig150">150</a>).</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig147" id="fig147"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig147.png" width="183" height="308"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 147.&mdash;DUOMO AT FLORENCE. PLAN.<!-- invisible last three .
+--><br>
+<span class="caption">
+<i>a, Campanile.</i></span></p>
+
+<p><b>EARLY BUILDINGS.</b> It is hard to determine how and by whom
+Gothic forms were first introduced into Italy, but it was most probably
+through the agency of the monastic
+<span class="pagenum">256</span>
+<a name="page256" id="page256"> </a>
+orders. Cistercian churches like that at Chiaravalle near Milan
+(1208&ndash;21), and most of those erected by the mendicant orders of
+the Franciscans (founded 1210) and Dominicans (1216), were built with
+ribbed vaults and pointed arches.<!-- invisible . --> The example set by
+these orders contributed greatly to the general adoption of the foreign
+style. <b>S.&nbsp;Francesco</b> at <b>Assisi</b>, already mentioned, was
+the first completely Gothic Franciscan church, although
+<b>S.&nbsp;Francesco</b> at <b>Bologna</b>, begun a few years later, was
+finished a little earlier. The Dominican church of <b>SS. Giovanni e
+Paolo</b> and the great Franciscan church of <b>Sta. Maria Gloriosa dei
+Frari</b>, both at Venice, were built a little later. <b>Sta. Maria
+Novella</b> at Florence (1278), and <b>Sta. Maria sopra Minerva</b> at
+Rome (1280), both by the brothers <i>Sisto</i> and <i>Ristoro</i>, and
+<b>S.&nbsp;Anastasia</b> at Verona (1261) are the masterpieces of the
+Dominican builders.<!-- invisible . --> <b>S.&nbsp;Andrea</b> at
+<b>Vercelli</b> in North Italy, begun in 1219 under a foreign architect,
+is an isolated early example of lay Gothic work. Though somewhat English
+in its plan, and (unlike most Italian churches) provided with two
+western spires in the English manner, it is in all other respects
+thoroughly Italian in aspect. The church at Asti, begun in 1229,
+suggests German models by its high side walls and narrow windows.<!--
+invisible . --></p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig148" id="fig148"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig148.jpg" width="269" height="368"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 148.&mdash;NAVE OF DUOMO AT FLORENCE.<!-- invisible all . --></p>
+
+<p><b>CATHEDRALS.</b> The greatest monuments of Italian Gothic design
+are the cathedrals, in which, even more than was the case in France, the
+highly developed civic pride of the
+<span class="pagenum">257</span>
+<a name="page257" id="page257"> </a>
+municipalities expressed itself. Chief among these half civic, half
+religious monuments are the cathedrals of <b>Sienna</b> (begun in 1243),
+<b>Arezzo</b> (1278), <b>Orvieto</b> (1290), <b>Florence</b> (the
+<b>Duomo</b>, Sta. Maria del Fiore, begun 1294 by Arnolfo di Cambio),
+<b>Lucca</b> (S.&nbsp;Martino, 1350), <b>Milan</b> (1389&ndash;1418),
+and <b>S.&nbsp;Petronio</b> at Bologna (1390).<!-- invisible . --> They
+are all of imposing size; Milan is the largest of all Gothic cathedrals
+except Seville.<!-- invisible . --> S.&nbsp;Petronio was planned to be
+600 feet long, the present structure with its three broad aisles and
+flanking chapels being merely the nave of the intended edifice. The
+Duomo at Florence (Fig. 147) is 500 feet long and covers 82,000 square
+feet, while the octagon at the crossing is 143 feet in diameter. The
+effect of these colossal dimensions is, however, as in a number of these
+large Italian interiors, singularly belittled by the bareness of the
+walls, by the great size of the constituent parts of the composition,
+and by the lack of architectural subdivisions and multiplied detail to
+serve as a scale by which to gauge the scale of the <i>ensemble</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig149" id="fig149"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig149.png" width="182" height="353"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 149.&mdash;ONE BAY, NAVE OF CATHEDRAL OF SAN MARTINO, LUCCA.</p>
+
+<p><b>INTERIOR TREATMENT.</b> It was doubtless intended to cover these
+large unbroken wall-surfaces and the vast expanse of the vaults over
+naves of extraordinary breadth,
+<span class="pagenum">258</span>
+<a name="page258" id="page258"> </a>
+with paintings and color decoration. This would have remedied their
+present nakedness and lack of interest, but it was only in a very few
+instances carried out. The double church of S.&nbsp;Francesco at Assisi,
+decorated by Cimabue, Giotto, and other early Tuscan painters, the Arena
+Chapel at Padua, painted by Giotto, the <b>Spanish Chapel</b> of
+S.&nbsp;M. Novella, Florence, and the east end of S.&nbsp;Croce,
+Florence, are illustrations of the splendor of effect possible by this
+method of decoration. The bareness of effect in other, unpainted
+interiors was emphasized by the plainness of the vaults destitute of
+minor ribs. The transverse ribs were usually broad arches with flat
+soffits, and the vaulting was often sprung from so low a point as to
+leave no room for a triforium. Mere bull’s-eyes often served for
+clearstory windows, as in S.&nbsp;Anastasia at Verona, S.&nbsp;Petronio
+at Bologna, and the Florentine Duomo. The cathedral of
+<b>S.&nbsp;Martino</b> at Lucca (Fig. 149) is one of the most complete
+and elegant of Italian Gothic interiors, having a genuine triforium with
+traceried arches. Even here, however, there are round arches without
+mouldings, flat pilasters, broad transverse ribs recalling Roman arches,
+and insignificant bull’s-eyes in the clearstory.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig150" id="fig150"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig150.jpg" width="264" height="269"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 150.&mdash;INTERIOR OF SIENNA CATHEDRAL.</p>
+
+<p>The failure to produce adequate results of scale in the interiors of
+the larger Italian churches, has been already alluded to. It is
+strikingly exemplified in the Duomo at Florence, the nave of which is 72
+feet wide, with four pier-arches
+<span class="pagenum">259</span>
+<a name="page259" id="page259"> </a>
+each over 55 feet in span. The immense vault, in square bays, starts
+from the level of the tops of these arches. The interior (Fig. 148) is
+singularly naked and cold, giving no conception of its vast dimensions.
+The colossal dome is an early work of the Renaissance (see <a href="#page276">p.&nbsp;276</a>). It is not known how <i>Fr.
+Talenti</i>, who in 1357 enlarged and vaulted the nave and planned the
+east end, proposed to cover the great octagon. The east end is the most
+effective part of the design both internally and externally, owing to
+the relatively moderate scale of the 15 chapels which surround the
+apsidal arms of the cross. In S.&nbsp;Petronio at Bologna, begun 1390 by
+<i>Master Antonio</i>, the scale is better handled. The nave, 300 feet
+long, is divided into six bays, each embracing two side chapels. It is
+46 feet wide and 132 feet high, proportions which approximate those of
+the French cathedrals, and produce an impression of size somewhat
+unusual in Italian churches. <b>Orvieto</b> has internally little that
+suggests Gothic architecture; like many Franciscan and Dominican
+churches it is really a timber-roofed basilica with a few pointed
+windows. The mixed Gothic and Romanesque interior of <b>Sienna
+Cathedral</b> (Fig. 150), with its round arches and six-sided dome,
+unsymmetrically placed over the crossing, is one of the most impressive
+creations of Italian mediæval art. Alternate courses of black and white
+marble add richness but not
+<span class="pagenum">260</span>
+<a name="page260" id="page260"> </a>
+repose to the effect of this interior: the same is true of Orvieto, and
+of some other churches. The basement baptistery of
+<b>S.&nbsp;Giovanni</b>, under the east end of Sienna Cathedral, is much
+more purely Gothic in detail.</p>
+
+<p>In these, and indeed in most Italian interiors, the main interest
+centres less in the excellence of the composition than in the
+accessories of pavements, pulpits, choir-stalls, and sepulchral
+monuments. In these the decorative fancy and skill of the Italians found
+unrestrained exercise, and produced works of surpassing interest and
+merit.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>EXTERNAL DESIGN.</b> The greatest possible disparity generally
+exists between the sides and west fronts of the Italian churches. With
+few exceptions the flanks present nothing like the variety of sky-line
+and of light and shade customary in northern and western lands. The side
+walls are high and flat, plain, or striped with black and white masonry
+(Sienna, Orvieto), or veneered with marble (Duomo at Florence) or
+decorated with surface-ornament of thin pilasters and arcades (Lucca).
+The clearstory is low; the roof low&mdash;pitched and hardly visible
+from below. Color, rather than structural richness, is generally sought
+for: Milan Cathedral is almost the only exception, and goes to the other
+extreme, with its seemingly countless buttresses, pinnacles and
+statues.</p>
+
+<p>The façades, on the other hand, were treated as independent
+decorative compositions, and were in many cases remarkably beautiful
+works, though having little or no organic relation to the main
+structure. The most celebrated are those of <b>Sienna</b> (cathedral
+begun 1243; façade 1284 by <i>Giovanni Pisano</i>; Fig. 151) and
+<b>Orvieto</b> (begun 1290 by <i>Lorenzo Maitani</i>; façade 1310). Both
+of these are sumptuous polychromatic compositions in marble, designed on
+somewhat similar lines, with three high gables fronting the three
+aisles, with deeply recessed portals, pinnacled turrets flanking nave
+and aisles, and a central circular window. That
+<span class="pagenum">261</span>
+<a name="page261" id="page261"> </a>
+of Orvieto is furthermore embellished with mosaic pictures, and is the
+more brilliant in color of the two. The mediæval façades of the
+Florentine Gothic churches were never completed; but the elegance of the
+panelling and of the tracery with twisted shafts in the flanks of the
+cathedral, and the florid beauty of its side doorways (late 14th
+century) would doubtless if realized with equal success on the façades,
+have produced strikingly beautiful results. The modern façade of the
+Duomo, by the late <i>De Fabris</i> (1887) is a correct if not highly
+imaginative version of the style so applied. The front of Milan
+cathedral (soon to be replaced by a new façade), shows a mixture of
+Gothic and Renaissance forms. <b>Ferrara Cathedral</b>, although
+internally transformed in the last century, retains its fine
+13th-century three-gabled and arcaded screen front; one of the most
+Gothic in spirit of all Italian façades. The <b>Cathedral</b> of
+<b>Genoa</b> presents Gothic windows and deeply recessed portals in a
+façade built in black and white bands, like Sienna cathedral and many
+churches in Pistoia and Pisa.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig151" id="fig151"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig151.jpg" width="262" height="320"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 151.&mdash;FAÇADE OF SIENNA CATHEDRAL.</p>
+
+<p>Externally the most important feature was frequently a cupola or dome
+over the crossing. That of Sienna has already been mentioned; that of
+Milan is a sumptuous many-pinnacled structure terminating in a spire 300
+feet high.
+<span class="pagenum">262</span>
+<a name="page262" id="page262"> </a>
+The <b>Certosa</b> at Pavia (Fig. 152) and the earlier Carthusian church
+of Chiaravalle have internal cupolas or domes covered externally by
+many-storied structures ending in a tower dominating the whole edifice.
+These two churches, like many others in Lombardy, the Æmilia and
+Venetia, are built of brick, moulded terra-cotta being effectively used
+for the cornices, string-courses, jambs and ornaments of the exterior.
+The Certosa at Pavia is contemporary with the cathedral of Milan, to
+which it offers a surprising contrast, both in style and material. It is
+wholly built of brick and terra-cotta, and, save for its ribbed
+vaulting, possesses hardly a single Gothic feature or detail. Its
+arches, mouldings, and cloisters suggest both the Romanesque and the
+Renaissance styles by their semi-classic character.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig152" id="fig152"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig152.jpg" width="372" height="307"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 152.&mdash;EXTERIOR OF THE CERTOSA, PAVIA.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig153" id="fig153"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig153.png" width="195" height="261"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 153.&mdash;PLAN OF CERTOSA AT PAVIA.</p>
+
+<p><b>PLANS.</b> The wide diversity of local styles in Italian
+architecture appears in the plans as strikingly as in the details
+<span class="pagenum">263</span>
+<a name="page263" id="page263"> </a>
+In general one notes a love of spaciousness which expresses itself in a
+sometimes disproportionate breadth, and in the wide spacing of the
+piers. The polygonal chevet with its radial chapels is but rarely seen;
+<b>S.&nbsp;Lorenzo</b> at Naples, Sta. Maria dei Servi and
+S.&nbsp;Francesco at Bologna are among the most important examples. More
+frequently the chapels form a range along the east side of the
+transepts, especially in the Franciscan churches, which otherwise retain
+many basilican features. A&nbsp;comparison of the plans of
+S.&nbsp;Andrea at Vercelli, the Duomo at Florence, the cathedrals of
+Sienna and Milan, S.&nbsp;Petronio at Bologna and the Certosa at Pavia
+(Fig. 153), sufficiently illustrates the variety of Italian Gothic
+plan-types.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ORNAMENT.</b> Applied decoration plays a large part in all Italian
+Gothic designs. Inlaid and mosaic patterns and panelled veneering in
+colored marble are essential features of the exterior decoration of most
+Italian churches. Florence offers a fine example of this treatment in
+the Duomo, and in its accompanying <b>Campanile</b> or bell-tower,
+designed by <i>Giotto</i> (1335), and completed by <i>Gaddi</i> and
+<i>Talenti</i>. This beautiful tower is an epitome of Italian Gothic
+art. Its inlays, mosaics, and veneering are treated with consummate
+elegance, and combined with incrusted reliefs of great beauty. The
+tracery of this monument and of the side windows of the adjoining
+cathedral is lighter and more graceful than is common in Italy. Its
+beauty consists, however, less in movement of line than in richness and
+elegance of carved and inlaid ornament. In
+<span class="pagenum">264</span>
+<a name="page264" id="page264"> </a>
+the <b>Or San Michele</b>&mdash;a&nbsp;combined chapel and granary in
+Florence dating from 1330&mdash;the tracery is far less light and open.
+In general, except in churches like the Cathedral of Milan, built under
+German influences, the tracery in secular monuments is more successful
+than in ecclesiastical structures. Venice developed the designing of
+tracery to greater perfection in her palaces than any other Italian city
+(see below).</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig154" id="fig154"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig154.jpg" width="208" height="520"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 154.&mdash;UPPER PART OF CAMPANILE, FLORENCE.</p>
+
+<p><b>MINOR WORKS.</b> Italian Gothic art found freer expression in
+semi-decorative works, like tombs, altars and votive chapels, than in
+more monumental structures. The fourteenth century was particularly rich
+in canopy tombs, mostly in churches, though some were erected in the
+open air, like the celebrated <b>Tombs of the Scaligers</b> in Verona
+(1329&ndash;1380). Many of those in churches in and near Rome, and
+others in south Italy, are especially rich in inlay of <i>opus
+Alexandrinum</i> upon their twisted columns and panelled sarcophagi. The
+family of the <i>Cosmati</i> acquired great fame for work of this kind
+during the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The little marble chapel of <b>Sta. Maria della Spina</b>, on the
+Arno, at Pisa, is an instance of the successful decorative use of Gothic
+forms in minor buildings.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>TOWERS.</b> The Italians always preferred the square tower to the
+spire, and in most cases treated it as an independent campanile.
+Following Early Christian and Romanesque traditions, these square towers
+were usually built with plain sides unbroken by buttresses, and
+terminated in a flat roof or a low and inconspicuous cone or pyramid.
+The Campanile at Florence already mentioned is by far the most beautiful
+of these designs (Fig. 154). The campaniles of Sienna, Lucca, and
+Pistoia are built in alternate white and black courses, like the
+adjoining cathedrals. Verona and Mantua have towers with octagonal
+lanterns. In general, these Gothic towers differ from the earlier
+Romanesque models only in the forms of their openings. Though dignified
+in
+<span class="pagenum">265</span>
+<a name="page265" id="page265"> </a>
+their simplicity and size, and usually well proportioned, they lack the
+beauty and interest of the French, English, and German steeples and
+towers.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float null">
+<a name="fig155" id="fig155"> </a>
+<img class="null" src="images/fig155a.jpg"
+width="159" height="242" alt="see caption and text"></p>
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<img src="images/fig155b.jpg" width="263" height="153"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 155.<!-- invisible . -->&mdash;UPPER PART OF<br>
+PALAZZO VECCHIO, FLORENCE.</p>
+
+<p><b>SECULAR MONUMENTS.</b> In their public halls, open <i>loggias</i>,
+and domestic architecture the Italians were able to develop the
+application of Gothic forms with greater freedom than in their
+church-building, because unfettered by traditional methods of design.
+The early and vigorous growth of municipal and popular institutions led,
+as in the Netherlands, to the building of two classes of public
+halls&mdash;the town hall proper or <i>Podestà</i>, and the council
+hall, variously called <i>Palazzo Communale</i>, <i>Pubblico</i>, or
+<i>del Consiglio</i>. The town halls, as the seat of authority, usually
+have a severe and fortress-like character; the <b>Palazzo Vecchio</b> at
+Florence is the most important example (1298, by Arnolfo di Cambio; Fig.
+155). It is especially remarkable for its tower, which, rising 308 feet
+in the air, overhangs the street nearly 6&nbsp;feet, its front wall
+resting on the face of the powerfully corbelled cornice of the palace.
+The court and most of the interior were remodelled in the sixteenth
+century. At Sienna is a somewhat
+<span class="pagenum">266</span>
+<a name="page266" id="page266"> </a>
+similar structure in brick, the <b>Palazzo Pubblico</b>. At Pistoia the
+Podestà and the Communal Palace stand opposite each other; in both of
+these the courtyards still retain their original aspect. At Perugia,
+Bologna, and Viterbo are others of some importance; while in Lombardy,
+Bergamo, Como, Cremona, Piacenza and other towns possess smaller halls
+with open arcades below, of a more elegant and pleasing aspect. More
+successful still are the open loggias or tribunes erected for the
+gatherings of public bodies. The <b>Loggia dei Lanzi</b> at Florence
+(1376, by <i>Benci di Cione</i> and <i>Simone di Talenti</i>) is the
+largest and most famous of these open vaulted halls, of which several
+exist in Florence and Sienna. Gothic only in their minor details, they
+are Romanesque or semi-classic in their broad round arches and strong
+horizontal lines and cornices (Fig. 156).</p>
+
+<p><b>PALACES AND HOUSES: VENICE.</b> The northern cities, especially
+Pisa, Florence, Sienna, Bologna, and Venice, are rich in mediæval public
+and private palaces and dwellings in brick or marble, in which pointed
+windows and open arcades are used with excellent effect. In Bologna and
+Sienna brick is used, in conjunction with details executed in moulded
+terra-cotta, in a highly artistic and effective way. Viterbo, nearer
+Rome, also possesses many interesting
+<span class="pagenum">267</span>
+<a name="page267" id="page267"> </a>
+houses with street arcades and open stairways or stoops leading to the
+main entrance.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig156" id="fig156"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig156.jpg" width="403" height="276"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 156.&mdash;LOGGIA DEI LANZI, FLORENCE.</p>
+
+<p>The security and prosperity of Venice in the Middle Ages, and the
+ever present influence of the sun-loving East, made the massive and
+fortress-like architecture of the inland cities unnecessary. Abundant
+openings, large windows full of tracery of great lightness and elegance,
+projecting balconies and the freest use of marble veneering and
+inlay&mdash;a&nbsp;survival of Byzantine traditions of the 12th century
+(see <a href="#page133">p.&nbsp;133</a>)&mdash;give to the Venetian
+houses and palaces an air of gayety and elegance found nowhere else.
+While there are few Gothic churches of importance in Venice, the number
+of mediæval houses and palaces is very large. Chief among these is the
+<b>Doge’s Palace</b> (Fig. 157), adjoining the church of St. Mark. The
+two-storied arcades of the west and south fronts date from 1354, and
+originally stood out from the main edifice, which was
+<span class="pagenum">268</span>
+<a name="page268" id="page268"> </a>
+widened in the next century, when the present somewhat heavy walls, laid
+up in red, white and black marble in a species of quarry-pattern, were
+built over the arcades. These arcades are beautiful designs, combining
+massive strength and grace in a manner quite foreign to Western Gothic
+ideas. Lighter and more ornate is the <b>Ca d’Oro</b>, on the Grand
+Canal; while the Foscari, Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, and Pisani palaces,
+among many others, are admirable examples of the style. In most of these
+a traceried loggia occupies the central part, flanked by walls incrusted
+with marble and pierced by Gothic windows with carved mouldings,
+borders, and balconies. The Venetian Gothic owes its success largely to
+the absence of structural difficulties to interfere with the purely
+decorative development of Gothic details.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig157" id="fig157"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig157.jpg" width="262" height="319"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 157.&mdash;WEST FRONT VIEW OF DOGE’S PALACE, VENICE.</p>
+
+
+<div class="monuments">
+
+<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> 13th Century: Cistercian abbeys Fossanova and
+Casamari, <i>cir.</i> 1208; S.&nbsp;Andrea, Vercelli, 1209;
+S.&nbsp;Francesco, Assisi, 1228&ndash;53; Church at Asti, 1229;
+Sienna&nbsp;C., 1243&ndash;59 (cupola 1259&ndash;64; façade 1284);
+S.&nbsp;M. Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice, 1250&ndash;80 (finished 1388);
+Sta. Chiara, Assisi, 1250; Sta. Trinità, Florence, 1250;
+S.&nbsp;Antonio, Padua, begun 1256; SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice, 1260
+(?)-1400; Sta. Anastasia, Verona, 1261; Naples&nbsp;C., 1272&ndash;1314
+(façade 1299; portal 1407; much altered later); S.&nbsp;Lorenzo, Naples,
+1275; Campo Santo, Pisa, 1278&ndash;83;
+<span class="pagenum">269</span>
+<a name="page269" id="page269"> </a>
+Arezzo&nbsp;C., 1278; S.&nbsp;M. Novella, Florence, 1278;
+S.&nbsp;Eustorgio, Milan, 1278; S.&nbsp;M. sopra Minerva, Rome, 1280;
+Orvieto&nbsp;C., 1290 (façade 1310; roof 1330); Sta. Croce, Florence,
+1294 (façade 1863); S.&nbsp;M. del Fiore, or C., Florence,
+1294&ndash;1310 (enlarged 1357; E.&nbsp;end 1366; dome 1420&ndash;64;
+façade 1887); S.&nbsp;Francesco, Bologna.&mdash;14th century:
+Genoa&nbsp;C., early 14th century; S.&nbsp;Francesco, Sienna, 1310; San
+Domenico, Sienna, about same date; S.&nbsp;Giovanni in Fonte, Sienna,
+1317; S.&nbsp;M. della Spina, Pisa, 1323; Campanile, Florence, 1335; Or
+San Michele, Florence, 1337; Milan&nbsp;C., 1386 (cupola 16th century;
+façade 16th-19th century; new façade building 1895); S.&nbsp;Petronio,
+Bologna, 1390; Certosa, Pavia, 1396 (choir, transepts, cupola,
+cloisters, 15th and 16th centuries); Como&nbsp;C., 1396 (choir and
+transepts 1513); Lucca&nbsp;C. (S.&nbsp;Martino), Romanesque building
+remodelled late in 14th century; Verona&nbsp;C.; S.&nbsp;Fermo,
+Maggiore; S.&nbsp;Francesco, Pisa; S.&nbsp;Lorenzo, Vicenza.&mdash;15th
+century: Perugia&nbsp;C.; S.&nbsp;M. delle Grazie, Milan, 1470 (cupola
+and exterior E.&nbsp;part later).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Secular Buildings:</span> Pal. Pubblico,
+Cremona, 1245; Pal. Podestà (Bargello), Florence, 1255 (enlarged
+1333&ndash;45); Pal. Pubblico, Sienna, 1289&ndash;1305 (many later
+alterations); Pal. Giureconsulti, Cremona, 1292; Broletto, Monza, 1293;
+Loggia dei Mercanti, Bologna, 1294; Pal. Vecchio, Florence, 1298;
+Broletto, Como; Pal. Ducale (Doge’s Palace), Venice, 1310&ndash;40
+(great windows 1404; extended 1423&ndash;38; courtyard 15th and 16th
+centuries); Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence, 1335; Loggia del Bigallo, 1337;
+Broletto, Bergamo, 14th century; Loggia dei Nobili, Sienna, 1407; Pal.
+Pubblico, Udine, 1457; Loggia dei Mercanti, Ancona; Pal. del Governo,
+Bologna; Pal. Pepoli, Bologna; Palaces Conte Bardi, Davanzati, Capponi,
+all at Florence; at Sienna, Pal. Tolomei, 1205; Pal. Saracini, Pal.
+Buonsignori; at Venice, Pal. Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, Foscari, Pisani,
+and many others; others in Padua and Vicenza.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div> <!-- end div maintext -->
+
+<div class="maintext">
+
+<span class="pagenum">270</span>
+<a name="page270" id="page270"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXX" id="chapXX">CHAPTER XX.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+EARLY RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Anderson,
+<i>Architecture of the Renaissance in Italy</i>. Burckhardt, <i>The
+Civilization of the Renaissance</i>; <i>Geschichte der Renaissance in
+Italien</i>; <i>Der Cicerone</i>. Cellesi, <i>Sei Fabbriche di
+Firenze</i>. Cicognara, <i>Le Fabbriche più cospicue di Venezia</i>.
+Durm, <i>Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Italien</i> (in <i>Hdbuch. d.
+Arch.</i>). Fergusson, <i>History of Modern Architecture</i>. Geymüller,
+<i>La Renaissance en Toscane</i>. Montigny et Famin, <i>Architecture
+Toscane</i>. Moore, <i>Character of Renaissance Architecture</i>. Müntz,
+<i>La Renaissance en Italie et en France à l’époque de Charles VIII.</i>
+Palustre, <i>L’Architecture de la Renaissance</i>. Pater, <i>Studies in
+the Renaissance</i>. Symonds, <i>The Renaissance of the Fine Arts in
+Italy</i>. Tosi and Becchio, <i>Altars, Tabernacles, and Tombs</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE CLASSIC REVIVAL.</b> The abandonment of Gothic architecture in
+Italy and the substitution in its place of forms derived from classic
+models were occasioned by no sudden or merely local revolution. The
+Renaissance was the result of a profound and universal intellectual
+movement, whose roots may be traced far back into the Middle Ages, and
+which manifested itself first in Italy simply because there the
+conditions were most propitious. It spread through Europe just as
+rapidly as similar conditions appearing in other countries prepared the
+way for it. The essence of this far-reaching movement was the protest of
+the individual reason against the trammels of external and arbitrary
+authority&mdash;a&nbsp;protest which found its earliest organized
+expression in the Humanists. In its assertion of the intellectual and
+moral rights of the individual, the Renaissance laid the foundations of
+modern civilization. The same spirit, in rejecting the authority and
+teachings of the
+<span class="pagenum">271</span>
+<a name="page271" id="page271"> </a>
+Church in matters of purely secular knowledge, led to the questionings
+of the precursors of modern science and the discoveries of the early
+navigators. But in nothing did the reaction against mediæval
+scholasticism and asceticism display itself more strikingly than in the
+joyful enthusiasm which marked the pursuit of classic studies. The
+long-neglected treasures of classic literature were reopened, almost
+rediscovered, in the fourteenth century by the immortal
+trio&mdash;Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. The joy of living, the
+hitherto forbidden delight in beauty and pleasure for their own sakes,
+the exultant awakening to the sense of personal freedom, which came with
+the bursting of mediæval fetters, found in classic art and literature
+their most sympathetic expression. It was in Italy, where feudalism had
+never fully established itself, and where the municipalities and guilds
+had developed, as nowhere else, the sense of civic and personal freedom,
+that these symptoms first manifested themselves. In Italy, and above all
+in the Tuscan cities, they appeared throughout the fourteenth century in
+the growing enthusiasm for all that recalled the antique culture, and in
+the rapid advance of luxury and refinement in both public and private
+life.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE RENAISSANCE OF THE ARTS.</b> Classic Roman architecture had
+never lost its influence on the Italian taste. Gothic art, already
+declining in the West, had never been in Italy more than a borrowed
+garb, clothing architectural conceptions classic rather than Gothic in
+spirit. The antique monuments which abounded on every hand were ever
+present models for the artist, and to the Florentines of the early
+fifteenth century the civilization which had created them represented
+the highest ideal of human culture. They longed to revive in their own
+time the glories of ancient Rome, and appropriated with uncritical and
+undiscriminating enthusiasm the good and the bad, the early and the late
+forms of Roman art, Naïvely unconscious of the disparity
+<span class="pagenum">272</span>
+<a name="page272" id="page272"> </a>
+between their own architectural conceptions and those they fancied they
+imitated, they were, unknown to themselves, creating a new style, in
+which the details of Roman art were fitted in novel combinations to new
+requirements. In proportion as the Church lost its hold on the culture
+of the age, this new architecture entered increasingly into the service
+of private luxury and public display. It created, it is true, striking
+types of church design, and made of the dome one of the most imposing of
+external features; but its most characteristic products were palaces,
+villas, council halls, and monuments to the great and the powerful. The
+personal element in design asserted itself as never before in the growth
+of schools and the development of styles. Thenceforward the history of
+Italian architecture becomes the history of the achievements of
+individual artists.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>EARLY BEGINNINGS.</b> Already in the 13th century the pulpits of
+Niccolo Pisano at Sienna and Pisa had revealed that master’s direct
+recourse to antique monuments for inspiration and suggestion. In the
+frescoes of Giotto and his followers, and in the architectural details
+of many nominally Gothic buildings, classic forms had appeared with
+increasing frequency during the fourteenth century. This was especially
+true in Florence, which was then the artistic capital of Italy. Never,
+perhaps, since the days of Pericles, had there been another community so
+permeated with the love of beauty in art, and so endowed with the
+capacity to realize it. Nowhere else in Europe at that time was there
+such strenuous life, such intense feeling, or such free course for
+individual genius as in Florence. Her artists, with unexampled
+versatility, addressed themselves with equal success to goldsmiths’
+work, sculpture, architecture and engineering&mdash;often to painting
+and poetry as well; and they were quick to catch in their art the spirit
+of the classic revival. The new movement achieved its first
+architectural
+<span class="pagenum">273</span>
+<a name="page273" id="page273"> </a>
+triumph in the dome of the cathedral of Florence (1420&ndash;64); and it
+was Florentine&mdash;or at least Tuscan&mdash;artists who planted in
+other centres the seeds of the new art that were to spring up in the
+local and provincial schools of Sienna, Milan, Pavia, Bologna, and
+Venice, of Brescia, Lucca, Perugia, and Rimini, and many other North
+Italian cities. The movement asserted itself late in Rome and Naples, as
+an importation from Northern Italy, but it bore abundant fruit in these
+cities in its later stages.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PERIODS.</b> The classic styles which grew up out of the
+Renaissance may be divided for convenience into four periods.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">The Early Renaissance</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Formative Period</span>, 1420&ndash;90; characterized by
+the grace and freedom of the decorative detail, suggested by Roman
+prototypes and applied to compositions of great variety and
+originality.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">The High Renaissance</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Formally Classic Period</span>, 1490&ndash;1550. During
+this period classic details were copied with increasing fidelity, the
+orders especially appearing in almost all compositions; decoration
+meanwhile losing somewhat in grace and freedom.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">The Early Baroque</span> (or <span class="smallcaps">Baroco</span>), 1550&ndash;1600; a&nbsp;period of classic
+formality characterized by the use of colossal orders, engaged columns
+and rather scanty decoration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">The Decline</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Later Baroque</span>, marked by poverty of invention in the
+composition and a predominance of vulgar sham and display in the
+decoration. Broken pediments, huge scrolls, florid stucco-work and a
+general disregard of architectural propriety were universal.</p>
+
+<p>During the eighteenth century there was a reaction from these
+extravagances, which showed itself in a return to the servile copying of
+classic models, sometimes not without a certain dignity of composition
+and restraint in the decoration.</p>
+
+<p>By many writers the name Renaissance is confined to the
+<span class="pagenum">274</span>
+<a name="page274" id="page274"> </a>
+first period. This is correct from the etymological point of view; but
+it is impossible to dissociate the first period historically from those
+which followed it, down to the final exhaustion of the artistic movement
+to which it gave birth, in the heavy extravagances of the Rococo.</p>
+
+<p>Another division is made by the Italians, who give the name of the
+<i>Quattrocento</i> to the period which closed with the end of the
+fifteenth century, <i>Cinquecento</i> to the sixteenth <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘cenury’">century</ins>, and
+<i>Seicento</i> to the seventeenth century or Rococo. It has, however,
+become common to confine the use of the term Cinquecento to the first
+half of the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w270">
+<a name="fig158" id="fig158"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig158.jpg" width="264" height="284"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 158.&mdash;EARLY RENAISSANCE CAPITAL, PAL. ZORZI, VENICE.</p>
+
+<p><b>CONSTRUCTION AND DETAIL.</b> The architects of the Renaissance
+occupied themselves more with form than with construction, and rarely
+set themselves constructive problems of great difficulty. Although the
+new architecture began with the colossal dome of the cathedral of
+Florence, and culminated in the stupendous church of St. Peter at Rome,
+it was pre-eminently an architecture of palaces and villas, of façades
+and of decorative display. Constructive difficulties were reduced to
+their lowest terms, and the constructive framework was concealed, not
+emphasized, by the decorative apparel of the design. Among the
+masterpieces of the early Renaissance are many buildings of small
+dimensions, such as gates, chapels, tombs and fountains. In these the
+individual fancy had full sway, and produced surprising results by the
+beauty of enriched mouldings, of carved friezes with infant genii,
+wreaths of fruit, griffins, masks and scrolls; by pilasters covered with
+arabesques as delicate in modelling as if wrought in silver; by inlays
+of marble, panels of glazed terra-cotta, marvellously carved doors, fine
+stucco-work in relief, capitals and cornices of wonderful richness and
+variety. The Roman orders appeared only in free imitations, with
+panelled and carved pilasters for the most part instead of columns, and
+capitals
+<span class="pagenum">275</span>
+<a name="page275" id="page275"> </a>
+of fanciful design, recalling remotely the Corinthian by their volutes
+and leaves (Fig. 158). Instead of the low-pitched classic pediments,
+there appears frequently an arched cornice enclosing a sculptured
+lunette. Doors and windows were enclosed in richly carved frames,
+sometimes arched and sometimes square. Façades were flat and unbroken,
+depending mainly for effect upon the distribution and adornment of the
+openings, and the design of doorways, courtyards and cornices.
+Internally vaults and flat ceilings of wood and plaster were about
+equally common, the barrel vault and dome occurring far more frequently
+than the groined vault. Many of the ceilings of this period are of
+remarkable richness and beauty.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig159" id="fig159"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig159.png" width="175" height="268"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 159.<!-- invisible . -->&mdash;SECTION OF DOME OF DUOMO,
+FLORENCE.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN FLORENCE: THE DUOMO.</b> In the year 1417
+a public competition was held for completing the cathedral of Florence
+by a dome over the immense octagon, 143 feet in diameter. <i>Filippo
+Brunelleschi</i>, sculptor and architect (1377&ndash;1446), who with
+Donatello had journeyed to Rome to study there the masterworks of
+ancient art, after demonstrating the inadequacy of all the solutions
+proposed by the competitors, was finally permitted to undertake the
+gigantic task according to his own plans. These provided for an
+octagonal dome in two shells, connected
+<span class="pagenum">276</span>
+<a name="page276"> </a>
+by eight major and sixteen minor ribs, and crowned by a lantern at the
+top (Fig. 159). This wholly original conception, by which for the first
+time (outside of Moslem art) the dome was made an external feature fitly
+terminating in the light forms and upward movement of a lantern, was
+carried out between the years 1420 and 1464. Though in no wise an
+imitation of Roman forms, it was classic in its spirit, in its vastness
+and its simplicity of line, and was made possible solely by
+Brunelleschi’s studies of Roman design and construction (Fig. 160).</p>
+
+
+<p><b>OTHER CHURCHES.</b> From Brunelleschi’s designs were also erected
+the <b>Pazzi Chapel</b> in Sta. Croce, a&nbsp;charming design of a Greek
+cross covered with a dome at the intersection, and preceded by a
+vestibule with a richly decorated vault; and the two great churches of
+<b>S.&nbsp;Lorenzo</b> (1425) and <b>S.&nbsp;Spirito</b>
+(1433&ndash;1476, Fig. 161). Both reproduced in a measure the plan of
+the Pisa Cathedral, having a three-aisled nave and transepts, with a low
+dome over the crossing. The side aisles were covered with domical vaults
+and the central aisles with flat wooden or plaster ceilings. All the
+details of columns, arches and mouldings were imitated from Roman
+models, and yet the result was something entirely new. Consciously or
+unconsciously, Brunelleschi was reviving Byzantine rather than Roman
+conceptions in the planning and structural design of these domical
+churches, but the garb in which he clothed them was Roman, at least in
+detail. The <b>Old Sacristy</b> of S.&nbsp;Lorenzo was another domical
+design of great beauty.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">277</span>
+<a name="page277" id="page277"> </a>
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig160" id="fig160"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig160.jpg" width="241" height="338"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 160.<!-- invisible both . -->&mdash;EXTERIOR OF DOME OF DUOMO,
+FLORENCE.</p>
+
+<p>From this time on the new style was in general use for church
+designs. <i>L.&nbsp;B. Alberti</i> (1404&ndash;73), who had in Rome
+mastered classic details more thoroughly than Brunelleschi, remodelled
+the church of <b>S.&nbsp;Francesco</b> at <b>Rimini</b> with Roman
+pilasters and arches, and with engaged orders in the façade, which,
+however, was never completed. His great work was the church of
+<b>S.&nbsp;Andrea</b> at <b>Mantua</b>, a&nbsp;Latin cross in plan, with
+a dome at the intersection (the present high dome dating however, only
+from the 18th century) and a façade to which the conception of a Roman
+triumphal arch was skilfully adapted. His façade of incrusted marbles
+for the church of S.&nbsp;M. Novella at Florence was a less successful
+work, though its flaring consoles over the side aisles established an
+unfortunate precedent frequently imitated in later churches.</p>
+
+<p>A great activity in church-building marked the period between 1475
+and 1490. The plans of the churches erected about this time throughout
+north Italy display an interesting variety of arrangements, in nearly
+all of which the dome is combined with the three-aisled cruciform plan,
+either as a central feature at the crossing or as a domical vault over
+each bay. Bologna and Ferrara possess a number of churches of this kind.
+Occasionally the basilican arrangement was followed, with columnar
+arcades separating
+<span class="pagenum">278</span>
+<a name="page278" id="page278"> </a>
+the aisles. More often, however, the pier-arches were of the Roman type,
+with engaged columns or pilasters between them. The interiors,
+presumably intended to receive painted decorations, were in most cases
+somewhat bare of ornament, pleasing rather by happy proportions and
+effective vaulting or rich flat ceilings, panelled, painted and gilded,
+than by elaborate architectural detail. A&nbsp;similar scantiness of
+ornament is to be remarked in the exteriors, excepting the façades,
+which were sometimes highly ornate; the doorways, with columns,
+pediments, sculpture and carving, receiving especial attention. High
+external domes did not come into general use until the next period. In
+Milan, Pavia, and some other Lombard cities, the internal cupola over
+the crossing was, however, covered externally by a lofty structure in
+diminishing stages, like that of the Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 152), or
+that erected by Bramante for the church of S.&nbsp;M. delle Grazie at
+Milan. At Prato, in the church of the <b>Madonna delle Carceri</b>
+(1495&ndash;1516), by <i>Giuliano da S.&nbsp;Gallo</i>, the type of the
+Pazzi chapel reappears in a larger scale; the plan is cruciform, with
+equal or nearly equal arms covered by barrel vaults, at whose
+intersection rises a dome of
+<span class="pagenum">279</span>
+<a name="page279" id="page279"> </a>
+moderate height on pendentives. This charming edifice, with its
+unfinished exterior of white marble, its simple and dignified lines, and
+internal embellishments in della-Robbia ware, is one of the masterpieces
+of the period.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig161" id="fig161"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig161.jpg" width="260" height="350"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 161.&mdash;INTERIOR OF S.&nbsp;SPIRITO, FLORENCE.</p>
+
+<p>In the designing of chapels and oratories the architects of the early
+Renaissance attained conspicuous success, these edifices presenting
+fewer structural limitations and being more purely decorative in
+character than the larger churches. Such façades as that of
+<b>S.&nbsp;Bernardino</b> at Perugia and of the <b>Frati di
+S.&nbsp;Spirito</b> at Bologna are among the most delightful products of
+the decorative fancy of the 15th century.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig162" id="fig162"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig162.jpg" width="265" height="315"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 162.&mdash;COURTYARD OF RICCARDI PALACE, FLORENCE.<!-- invisible
+all . --></p>
+
+<p><b>FLORENTINE PALACES.</b> While the architects of this period failed
+to develop any new and thoroughly satisfactory ecclesiastical type, they
+attained conspicuous success in palace-architecture. The <b>Riccardi</b>
+palace in Florence (1430) marks the first step of the Renaissance in
+this direction. It was built for the great Cosimo di Medici by
+<i>Michelozzi</i> (1397&ndash;1473), a&nbsp;contemporary of Brunelleschi
+and Alberti, and a man of great talent. Its imposing rectangular façade,
+with widely spaced mullioned windows in two stories over a massive
+basement, is crowned with a classic cornice of unusual and perhaps
+excessive size. In
+<span class="pagenum">280</span>
+<a name="page280" id="page280"> </a>
+spite of the bold and fortress-like character of the rusticated masonry
+of these façades, and the mediæval look they seem to present to modern
+eyes, they marked a revolution in style and established a type
+frequently imitated in later years. The courtyard, in contrast with this
+stern exterior, appears light and cheerful (Fig. 162). Its wall is
+carried on round arches borne by columns with Corinthianesque capitals,
+and the arcade is enriched with sculptured medallions. <b>The Pitti
+Palace</b>, by Brunelleschi (1435), embodies the same ideas on a more
+colossal scale, but lacks the grace of an adequate cornice.
+A&nbsp;lighter and more ornate style appeared in 1460 in the
+<b>P.&nbsp;Rucellai</b>, by Alberti, in which for the first time
+classical pilasters in superposed stages were applied to a street
+façade. To avoid the dilemma of either insufficiently crowning the
+edifice or making the cornice too heavy for the upper range of
+pilasters, Alberti made use of brackets, occupying the width of the
+upper frieze, and converting the whole upper entablature into a cornice.
+But this compromise was not quite successful, and it remained for later
+architects in Venice, Verona, and Rome to work out more satisfactory
+methods of applying the orders to many-storied palace façades. In the
+great <b>P.&nbsp;Strozzi</b> (Fig. 163), erected in 1490 by <i>Benedetto
+da Majano</i> and <i>Cronaca</i>, the architects reverted to the earlier
+type of the P.&nbsp;Riccardi, treating it with greater refinement and
+producing one of the noblest palaces of Italy.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig163" id="fig163"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig163.jpg" width="261" height="205"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 163.&mdash;FAÇADE OF STROZZI PALACE, FLORENCE.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">281</span>
+<a name="page281" id="page281"> </a>
+<p><b>COURTYARDS; ARCADES.</b> These palaces were all built around
+interior courts, whose walls rested on columnar arcades, as in the
+P.&nbsp;Riccardi (Fig. 162). The origin of these arcades may be found in
+the arcaded cloisters of mediæval monastic churches, which often suggest
+classic models, as in those of St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls and St. John
+Lateran at Rome. Brunelleschi not only introduced columnar arcades into
+a number of cloisters and palace courts, but also used them effectively
+as exterior features in the <b>Loggia S.&nbsp;Paolo</b> and the
+Foundling Hospital (<b>Ospedale degli Innocenti</b>) at Florence. The
+chief drawback in these light arcades was their inability to withstand
+the thrust of the vaulting over the space behind them, and the
+consequent recourse to iron tie-rods where vaulting was used. The
+Italians, however, seemed to care little about this disfigurement.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>MINOR WORKS.</b> The details of the new style were developed quite
+as rapidly in purely decorative works as in monumental buildings.
+Altars, mural monuments, tabernacles, pulpits and <i>ciboria</i>
+afforded scope for the genius of the most distinguished artists. Among
+those who were specially celebrated in works of this kind should be
+named <i>Lucca della Robbia</i> (1400&ndash;82) and his successors,
+<i>Mino da Fiesole</i> (1431&ndash;84) and <i>Benedetto da Majano</i>
+(1442&ndash;97). Possessed of a wonderful fertility of invention, they
+and their pupils multiplied their works in extraordinary number and
+variety, not only throughout north Italy, but also in Rome and Naples.
+Among the most famous examples of this branch of design may be mentioned
+a pulpit in Sta. Croce by B.&nbsp;da Majano; a&nbsp;terra-cotta fountain
+in the sacristy of S.&nbsp;M. Novella, by the della Robbias; the
+Marsupini tomb in Sta. Croce, by <i>Desiderio da Settignano</i> (all in
+Florence); the della Rovere tomb in S.&nbsp;M. del Popolo, Rome, by Mino
+da Fiesole, and in the Cathedral at Lucca the Noceto tomb and the
+Tempietto, by <i>Matteo Civitali</i>. It was in
+<span class="pagenum">282</span>
+<a name="page282" id="page282"> </a>
+works of this character that the Renaissance oftenest made its first
+appearance in a new centre, as was the case in Sienna, Pisa, Lucca,
+Naples, etc.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig164" id="fig164"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig164.jpg" width="261" height="517"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 164.&mdash;TOMB OF PIETRO DI NOCETO, LUCCA.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>NORTH ITALY.</b> Between 1450 and 1490 the Renaissance presented
+in Sienna, in a number of important palaces, a&nbsp;sharp contrast to
+the prevalent Gothic style of that city. The
+<b>P.&nbsp;Piccolomini</b>&mdash;a&nbsp;somewhat crude imitation of the
+P.&nbsp;Riccardi in Florence&mdash;dates from 1463; the <b>P.&nbsp;del
+Governo</b> was built 1469, and the <b>Spannocchi Palace</b> in 1470. In
+1463 <i>Ant. Federighi</i> built there the <b>Loggia del Papa</b>. About
+the same time <i>Bernardo di Lorenzo</i> was building for Pope Pius II.
+(Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini) an entirely new city, <b>Pienza</b>, with a
+cathedral, archbishop’s palace, town hall and Papal residence (the
+<b>P.&nbsp;Piccolomini</b>), which are interesting if not strikingly
+original works. Pisa possesses few early Renaissance structures, owing
+to the utter prostration of her fortunes
+<span class="pagenum">283</span>
+<a name="page283" id="page283"> </a>
+in the 15th century, and the dominance of Pisan Gothic traditions. In
+Lucca, besides a wealth of minor monuments (largely the work of Matteo
+Civitali, 1435&ndash;1501) in various churches, a&nbsp;number of palaces
+date from this period, the most important being the
+<b>P.&nbsp;Pretorio</b> and P.&nbsp;Bernardini. To Milan the Renaissance
+was carried by the Florentine masters <i>Michelozzi</i> and
+<i>Filarete</i>, to whom are respectively due the <b>Portinari
+Chapel</b> in S.&nbsp;Eustorgio (1462) and the earlier part of the great
+<b>Ospedale Maggiore</b> (1457). In the latter, an edifice of brick with
+terra-cotta enrichments, the windows were Gothic in outline&mdash;an
+unusual mixture of styles, even in Italy. The munificence of the
+Sforzas, the hereditary tyrants of the province, embellished the
+semi-Gothic <b>Certosa</b> of Pavia with a new marble façade, begun 1476
+or 1491, which in its fanciful and exuberant decoration, and the small
+scale of its parts, belongs properly to the early Renaissance.
+Exquisitely beautiful in detail, it resembles rather a magnified
+altar-piece than a work of architecture, properly speaking. Bologna and
+Ferrara developed somewhat late in the century a strong local school of
+architecture, remarkable especially for the beauty of its courtyards,
+its graceful street arcades, and its artistic treatment of brick and
+terra-cotta (<b>P.&nbsp;Bevilacqua</b>, <b>P.&nbsp;Fava</b>, at Bologna;
+<b>P.&nbsp;Scrofa</b>, <b>P.&nbsp;Roverella</b>, at Ferrara). About the
+same time palaces with interior arcades and details in the new style
+were erected in Verona, Vicenza, Mantua, and other cities.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>VENICE.</b> In this city of merchant princes and a wealthy
+<i>bourgeoisie</i>, the architecture of the Renaissance took on a new
+aspect of splendor and display. It was late in appearing, the Gothic
+style with its tinge of Byzantine decorative traditions having here
+developed into a style well suited to the needs of a rich and relatively
+tranquil community. These traditions the architects of the new style
+appropriated in a measure, as in the marble incrustations of the
+exquisite little church of <b>S.&nbsp;M. dei Miracoli</b>
+(1480&ndash;89), and the façade
+<span class="pagenum">284</span>
+<a name="page284" id="page284"> </a>
+of the <b>Scuola di S.&nbsp;Marco</b> (1485&ndash;1533), both by
+<i>Pietro Lombardo</i>. Nowhere else, unless on the contemporary façade
+of the Certosa at Pavia, were marble inlays and delicate carving,
+combined with a framework of thin pilasters, finely profiled
+entablatures and arched pediments, so lavishly bestowed upon the street
+fronts of churches and palaces. The family of the <i>Lombardi</i>
+(Martino, his sons Moro and Pietro, and grandsons Antonio and Tullio),
+with <i>Ant. Bregno</i> and <i>Bart. Buon</i>, were the leaders in the
+architectural Renaissance of this period, and to them Venice owes her
+choicest masterpieces in the new style. Its first appearance is noted in
+the later portions of the church of <b>S.&nbsp;Zaccaria</b>
+(1456&ndash;1515), partly Gothic internally, with a façade whose
+semicircular pediment and small decorative arcades show a somewhat timid
+but interesting application of classic details. In this church, and
+still more so in S.&nbsp;Giobbe (1451&ndash;93) and the Miracoli above
+mentioned, the decorative element predominates throughout. It is hard to
+imagine details more graceful in design, more effective in the swing of
+their movement, or more delicate in execution than the mouldings,
+reliefs, wreaths, scrolls, and capitals one encounters in these
+buildings. Yet in structural interest, in scale and breadth of planning,
+these early Renaissance Venetian buildings hold a relatively inferior
+rank.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig165" id="fig165"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig165.jpg" width="412" height="312"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 165.&mdash;VENDRAMINI PALACE, VENICE.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PALACES.</b> The great <b>Court</b> of the <b>Doge’s Palace</b>,
+begun 1483 by <i>Ant. Rizzio</i>, belongs only in part to the first
+period. It shows, however, the lack of constructive principle and of
+largeness of composition just mentioned, but its decorative effect and
+picturesque variety elicit almost universal admiration. Like the
+neighboring façade of St. Mark’s, it violates nearly every principle of
+correct composition, and yet in a measure atones for this capital defect
+by its charm of detail. Far more satisfactory from the purely
+architectural point of view is the façade of the
+<b>P.&nbsp;Vendramini</b> (Vendramin-Calergi), by Pietro Lombardo
+(1481). The simple,
+<span class="pagenum">285</span>
+<a name="page285" id="page285"> </a>
+stately lines of its composition, the dignity of its broad arched and
+mullioned windows, separated by engaged columns&mdash;the earliest
+example in Venice of this feature, and one of the earliest in
+Italy&mdash;its well-proportioned basement and upper stories, crowned by
+an adequate but somewhat heavy entablature, make this one of the finest
+palaces in Italy (Fig. 165) It established a type of large-windowed,
+vigorously modelled façades which later architects developed, but hardly
+surpassed. In the smaller contemporary, P.&nbsp;Dario, another type
+appears, better suited for small buildings, depending for effect mainly
+upon well-ordered openings and incrusted panelling of colored
+marble.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ROME.</b> Internal disorders and the long exile of the popes had
+by the end of the fourteenth century reduced Rome to utter
+insignificance. Not until the second half of the fifteenth century did
+returning prosperity and wealth afford
+<span class="pagenum">286</span>
+<a name="page286" id="page286"> </a>
+the Renaissance its opportunity in the Eternal City. Pope
+Nicholas&nbsp;V. had, indeed, begun the rebuilding of St. Peter’s from
+designs by B.&nbsp;Rossellini, in 1450, but the project lapsed shortly
+after with the death of the pope. The earliest Renaissance building in
+Rome was the <b>P.&nbsp;di Venezia</b>, begun in 1455, together with the
+adjoining porch of S.&nbsp;Marco. In this palace and the adjoining
+unfinished Palazzetto we find the influence of the old Roman monuments
+clearly manifested in the court arcades, built like those of the
+Colosseum, with superposed stages of massive piers and engaged columns
+carrying entablatures. The proportions are awkward, the details coarse;
+but the spirit of Roman classicism is here seen in the germ. The
+exterior of this palace is, however, still Gothic in spirit. The
+architects are unknown; <i>Giuliano da Majano</i> (1452&ndash;90),
+<i>Giacomo di Pietrasanta</i>, and <i>Meo del Caprino</i>
+(1430&ndash;1501) are known to have worked upon it, but it is not
+certain in what capacity.</p>
+
+<p>The new style, reaching, and in time overcoming, the conservatism of
+the Church, overthrew the old basilican traditions. In
+<b>S.&nbsp;Agostino</b> (1479&ndash;83), by <i>Pietrasanta</i>, and
+<b>S.&nbsp;M. del Popolo</b>, by Pintelli (?), piers with pilasters or
+half-columns and massive arches separate the aisles, and the crossing is
+crowned with a dome. To the same period belong the Sistine chapel and
+parts of the Vatican palace, but the interest of these lies rather in
+their later decorations than in their somewhat scanty architectural
+merit.</p>
+
+<p>The architectural renewal of Rome, thus begun, reached its
+culmination in the following period.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>OTHER MONUMENTS.</b> The complete enumeration of even the most
+important Early Renaissance monuments of Italy is impossible within our
+limits. Two or three only can here be singled out as suggesting types.
+Among town halls of this period the first place belongs to the
+<b>P.&nbsp;del Consiglio</b> at Verona, by <i>Fra Giocondo</i>
+(1435&ndash;1515). In this beautiful edifice the façade consists of a
+light and graceful
+<span class="pagenum">287</span>
+<a name="page287" id="page287"> </a>
+arcade supporting a wall pierced with four windows, and covered with
+elaborate frescoed arabesques (recently restored). Its unfortunate
+division by pilasters into four bays, with a pier in the centre, is a
+blemish avoided in the contemporary <b>P.&nbsp;del Consiglio</b> at
+Padua. The <b>Ducal Palace</b> at Urbino, by <i>Luciano da Laurano</i>
+(1468), is noteworthy for its fine arcaded court, and was highly famed
+in its day. At Brescia <b>S.&nbsp;M. dei Miracoli</b> is a remarkable
+example of a cruciform domical church dating from the close of this
+period, and is especially celebrated for the exuberant decoration of its
+porch and its elaborate detail. Few campaniles were built in this
+period; the best of them are at Venice. Naples possesses several
+interesting Early Renaissance monuments, chief among which are the
+<b>Porta Capuana</b> (1484), by <i>Giul. da Majano</i>, the triumphal
+<b>Arch of Alphonso</b> of Arragon, by <i>Pietro di Martino</i>, and the
+<b>P.&nbsp;Gravina</b>, by <i>Gab. d’Agnolo</i>. Naples is also very
+rich in minor works of the early Renaissance, in which it ranks with
+Florence, Venice, and Rome.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">288</span>
+<a name="page288" id="page288"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXXI" id="chapXXI">CHAPTER XXI.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY&mdash;<i>Continued</i>.</h3>
+
+<h3 class="subsub">
+THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE AND DECLINE.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before,
+Burckhardt, Cicognara, Fergusson, Palustre. Also, Gauthier, <i>Les plus
+beaux edifices de Gênes</i>. Geymüller, <i>Les projets primitifs pour la
+basilique de St. Pierre de Rome</i>. Gurlitt, <i>Geschichte des
+Barockstiles in Italien</i>. Letarouilly, <i>Édifices de Rome
+Moderne</i>; <i>Le Vatican</i>. Palladio, <i>The Works of
+A.&nbsp;Palladio</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHARACTER OF THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE.</b> It was inevitable that
+the study and imitation of Roman architecture should lead to an
+increasingly literal rendering of classic details and a closer copying
+of antique compositions. Toward the close of the fifteenth century the
+symptoms began to multiply of the approaching reign of formal
+classicism. Correctness in the reproduction of old Roman forms came in
+time to be esteemed as one of the chief of architectural virtues, and in
+the following period the orders became the principal resource of the
+architect. During the so-called Cinquecento, that is, from the close of
+the fifteenth century to nearly or quite 1550, architecture still
+retained much of the freedom and refinement of the Quattrocento. There
+was meanwhile a notable advance in dignity and amplitude of design,
+especially in the internal distribution of buildings. Externally the
+orders were freely used as subordinate features in the decoration of
+doors and windows, and in court arcades of the Roman type. The
+lantern-crowned
+<span class="pagenum">289</span>
+<a name="page289" id="page289"> </a>
+dome upon a high drum was developed into one of the noblest of
+architectural forms. Great attention was bestowed upon all subordinate
+features; doors and windows were treated with frames and pediments of
+extreme elegance and refinement; all the cornices and mouldings were
+proportioned and profiled with the utmost care, and the balustrade was
+elaborated into a feature at once useful and highly ornate. Interior
+decoration was even more splendid than before, if somewhat less delicate
+and subtle; relief enrichments in stucco were used with admirable
+effect, and the greatest artists exercised their talents in the painting
+of vaults and ceilings, as in P.&nbsp;del Té at Mantua, by <i>Giulio
+Romano</i> (1492&ndash;1546), and the Sistine Chapel at Rome, by Michael
+Angelo. This period is distinguished by an exceptional number of great
+architects and buildings. It was ushered in by <i>Bramante Lazzari</i>,
+of Urbino (1444&ndash;1514), and closed during the career of <i>Michael
+Angelo Buonarotti</i> (1475&ndash;1564); two names worthy to rank with
+that of Brunelleschi. Inferior only to these in architectural genius
+were <i>Raphael</i> (1483&ndash;1520), <i>Baldassare Peruzzi</i>
+(1481&ndash;1536), <i>Antonio da San Gallo the Younger</i>
+(1485&ndash;1546), and <i>G.&nbsp;Barozzi da Vignola</i>
+(1507&ndash;1572), in Rome; <i>Giacopo Tatti Sansovino</i>
+(1479&ndash;1570), in Venice, and others almost equally illustrious.
+This period witnessed the erection of an extraordinary series of
+palaces, villas, and churches, the beginning and much of the
+construction of St. Peter’s at Rome, and a complete transformation in
+the aspect of that city.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig166" id="fig166"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig166.png" width="275" height="239"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 166.&mdash;FAÇADE OF THE GIRAUD PALACE, ROME.</p>
+
+<p><b>BRAMANTE’S WORKS.</b> While precise time limits cannot be set to
+architectural styles, it is not irrational to date this period from the
+maturing of Bramante’s genius. While his earlier works in Milan belong
+to the Quattrocento (S.&nbsp;M. delle Grazie, the sacristy of San
+Satiro, the extension of the Great Hospital), his later designs show the
+classic tendency very clearly. The charming <b>Tempietto</b> in the
+court of
+<span class="pagenum">290</span>
+<a name="page290" id="page290"> </a>
+S.&nbsp;Pietro in Montorio at Rome, a&nbsp;circular temple-like chapel
+(1502), is composed of purely classic elements. In the
+<b>P.&nbsp;Giraud</b> (Fig. 166) and the great <b>Cancelleria</b>
+Palace, pilasters appear in the external composition, and all the
+details of doors and windows betray the results of classic study, as
+well as the refined taste of their designer.<a class="tag" name="tag24" id="tag24" href="#note24">24</a> The beautiful courtyard of
+the Cancelleria combines the Florentine system of arches on columns with
+the Roman system of superposed arcades independent of the court wall. In
+1506 Bramante began the rebuilding of St. Peter’s for Julius II. (see <a
+href="#page294">p.&nbsp;294</a>) and the construction of a new and
+imposing papal palace adjoining it on the Vatican hill. Of this colossal
+group of edifices, commonly known as the <b>Vatican</b>, he executed the
+greater Belvedere court (afterward divided in two by the Library and the
+Braccio Nuovo), the lesser octagonal court of the Belvedere, and the
+court of San Damaso, with its arcades afterward frescoed by Raphael and
+his school. Besides these, the cloister of S.&nbsp;M. della Pace, and
+many other works in and out of Rome, reveal the impress of Bramante’s
+genius, alike in their admirable plans and in the harmony and beauty of
+their details.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>FLORENTINE PALACES.</b> The P. Riccardi long remained the accepted
+type of palace in Florence. As we have seen, it was imitated in the
+Strozzi palace, as late as 1489, with
+<span class="pagenum">291</span>
+<a name="page291" id="page291"> </a>
+greater perfection of detail, but with no radical change of conception.
+In the <b>P.&nbsp;Gondi</b>, however, begun in the following year by
+<i>Giuliano da San Gallo</i> (1445&ndash;1516), a&nbsp;more pronounced
+classic spirit appears, especially in the court and the interior design.
+Early in the 16th century classic columns and pediments began to be used
+as decorations for doors and windows; the rustication was confined to
+basements and corner-quoins, and niches, loggias, and porches gave
+variety of light and shade to the façades (<b>P.&nbsp;Bartolini</b>, by
+<i>Baccio d’Agnolo</i>; <b>P.&nbsp;Larderel</b>, 1515, by <i>Dosio</i>;
+<b>P.&nbsp;Guadagni</b>, by <i>Cronaca</i>; <b>P.&nbsp;Pandolfini</b>,
+1518, attributed to Raphael). In the <b>P.&nbsp;Serristori</b>, by
+Baccio d’Agnolo (1510), pilasters were applied to the composition of the
+façade, but this example was not often followed in Florence.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ROMAN PALACES.</b> These followed a different type. They were
+usually of great size, and built around ample courts with arcades of
+classic model in two or three stories. The broad street façade in three
+stories with an attic or mezzanine was crowned with a rich cornice. The
+orders were sparingly used externally, and effect was sought principally
+in the careful proportioning of the stories, in the form and
+distribution of the square-headed and arched openings, and in the design
+of mouldings, string-courses, cornices, and other details. The <i>piano
+nobile</i>, or first story above the basement, was given up to suites of
+sumptuous reception-rooms and halls, with magnificent ceilings and
+frescoes by the great painters of the day, while antique statues and
+reliefs adorned the courts, vestibules, and niches of these princely
+dwellings. The <b>Massimi</b> palace, by Peruzzi, is an interesting
+example of this type. The Vatican, Cancelleria, and Giraud palaces have
+already been mentioned; other notable palaces are the Palma (1506) and
+Sacchetti (1540), by A.&nbsp;da San Gallo the Younger; the
+<b>Farnesina</b>, by Peruzzi, with celebrated fresco decorations
+designed by Raphael;
+<span class="pagenum">292</span>
+<a name="page292" id="page292"> </a>
+and the Lante (1520) and Altemps (1530), by Peruzzi. But the noblest
+creation of this period was the</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig167" id="fig167"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig167.png" width="210" height="276"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 167.<!-- invisible both . -->&mdash;PLAN OF FARNESE PALACE.<br>
+<a class="closeup" href="images/fig167_large.png" target="_blank">
+Larger View</a></p>
+
+<p><b>FARNESE PALACE</b>, by many esteemed the finest in Italy. It was
+begun in 1530 for Alex. Farnese (Paul III.) by A.&nbsp;da San Gallo the
+Younger, with Vignola’s collaboration. The simple but admirable plan is
+shown in Fig. 167, and the courtyard, the most imposing in Italy, in
+Fig. 168. The exterior is monotonous, but the noble cornice by Michael
+Angelo measurably redeems this defect. The fine vaulted columnar
+entrance vestibule, the court and the <i>salons</i>, make up an
+<i>ensemble</i> worthy of the great architects who designed it. The
+loggia toward the river was added by <i>G.&nbsp;della Porta</i> in
+1580.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>VILLAS.</b> The Italian villa of this pleasure-loving period
+afforded full scope for the most playful fancies of the architect,
+decorator, and landscape gardener. It comprised usually a dwelling,
+a&nbsp;<i>casino</i> or amusement-house, and many minor edifices,
+summer-houses, arcades, etc., disposed in extensive grounds laid out
+with terraces, cascades, and shaded alleys. The style was graceful,
+sometimes trivial, but almost always pleasing, making free use of stucco
+enrichments, both internally and externally, with abundance of gilding
+and frescoing. The <b>Villa Madama</b> (1516), by Raphael, with
+stucco-decorations by Giulio Romano, though incomplete and now
+dilapidated, is a noted example of the style. More complete, the
+<b>Villa of Pope Julius</b>, by Vignola (1550), belongs by its purity of
+style to this period; its façade well exemplifies the simplicity,
+<span class="pagenum">293</span>
+<a name="page293" id="page293"> </a>
+dignity, and fine proportions of this master’s work. In addition to
+these Roman villas may be mentioned the <b>V. Medici</b> (1540, by
+<i>Annibale Lippi</i>; now the French Academy of Rome); the <b>Casino
+del Papa</b> in the Vatican Gardens, by <i>Pirro Ligorio</i> (1560); the
+<b>V. Lante</b>, near Viterbo, and the <b>V. d’Este</b>, at Tivoli, as
+displaying among almost countless others the Italian skill in combining
+architecture and gardening.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig168" id="fig168"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig168.jpg" width="205" height="277"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 168.<!-- invisible both . -->&mdash;ANGLE OF COURT OF FARNESE
+PALACE, ROME.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHURCHES AND CHAPELS.</b> This period witnessed the building of a
+few churches of the first rank, but it was especially prolific in
+memorial, votive, and sepulchral chapels added to churches already
+existing, like the <b>Chigi Chapel</b> of S.&nbsp;M. del Popolo, by
+Raphael. The earlier churches of this period generally followed
+antecedent types, with the dome as the central feature dominating a
+cruciform plan, and simple, unostentatious and sometimes uninteresting
+exteriors. Among them may be mentioned: at Pistoia, S.&nbsp;M. del Letto
+and <b>S.&nbsp;M. dell’ Umiltà</b>, the latter a fine domical rotunda by
+<i>Ventura Vitoni</i> (1509), with an imposing vestibule; at Venice,
+<b>S.&nbsp;Salvatore</b>, by <i>Tullio Lombardo</i> (1530), an admirable
+edifice with alternating domical and barrel-vaulted bays;
+<b>S.&nbsp;Georgio dei Grechi</b> (1536), by <i>Sansovino</i>, and
+S.&nbsp;M. Formosa; at Todi, the <b>Madonna della Consolazione</b>
+(1510), by <i>Cola da Caprarola</i>, a&nbsp;charming design with a high
+dome and four apses; at Montefiascone, the <b>Madonna delle Grazie</b>,
+by <i>Sammichele</i> (1523), besides several churches at Bologna,
+Ferrara, Prato, Sienna, and Rome of almost or quite equal
+<span class="pagenum">294</span>
+<a name="page294" id="page294"> </a>
+interest. In these churches one may trace the development of the dome as
+an external feature, while in <b>S.&nbsp;Biagio</b>, at Montepulciano,
+the effort was made by <i>Ant. da San Gallo the Elder</i> to combine
+with it the contrasting lines of two campaniles, of which, however, but
+one was completed.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig169" id="fig169"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig169.png" width="241" height="240"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 169.&mdash;ORIGINAL PLAN OF ST. PETER’S, ROME.</p>
+
+<p><b>ST. PETER’S.</b> The culmination of Renaissance church
+architecture was reached in <b>St. Peter’s</b>, at Rome. The original
+project of Nicholas&nbsp;V. having lapsed with his death, it was the
+intention of Julius II. to erect on the same site a stupendous mausoleum
+over the monument he had ordered of Michael Angelo. The design of
+Bramante, who began its erection in 1506, comprised a Greek cross with
+apsidal arms, the four angles occupied by domical chapels and loggias
+within a square outline (Fig. 169). The too hasty execution of this
+noble design led to the collapse of two of the arches under the dome,
+and to long delays after Bramante’s death in 1514. Raphael, Giuliano da
+San Gallo, Peruzzi, and A.&nbsp;da San Gallo the Younger successively
+supervised the works under the popes from Leo&nbsp;X. to Paul III., and
+devised a vast number of plans for its completion. Most of these
+involved fundamental alterations of the original scheme, and were
+motived by the abandonment of the proposed monument of Julius II.;
+a&nbsp;church, and not a mausoleum, being in consequence required. In
+1546 Michael Angelo was assigned by Paul III. to the works, and gave
+final form to the general design in a simplified
+<span class="pagenum">295</span>
+<a name="page295" id="page295"> </a>
+version of Bramante’s plan with more massive supports, a&nbsp;square
+east front with a portico for the chief entrance, and the unrivalled
+<b>Dome</b>, which is its most striking feature. This dome, slightly
+altered and improved in curvature by della Porta after M.&nbsp;Angelo’s
+death in 1564, was completed by <i>D.&nbsp;Fontana</i> in 1604. It is
+the most majestic creation of the Renaissance, and one of the greatest
+architectural conceptions of all history. It measures 140 feet in
+internal diameter, and with its two shells rises from a lofty drum,
+buttressed by coupled Corinthian columns, to a height of 405 feet to the
+top of the lantern. The church, as left by Michael Angelo, was
+harmonious in its proportions, though the single order used internally
+and externally dwarfed by its colossal scale the vast dimensions of the
+edifice. Unfortunately in 1606 <i>C.&nbsp;Maderna</i> was employed by
+Paul&nbsp;V. to lengthen the nave by two bays, destroying the
+proportions of the whole, and hiding the dome from view on a near
+approach. The present tasteless façade was Maderna’s work. The splendid
+atrium or portico added (1629&ndash;67), by <i>Bernini</i>, as an
+approach, mitigates but does not cure the ugliness and pettiness of this
+front.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig170" id="fig170"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig170.png" width="228" height="336"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 170.&mdash;PLAN OF ST. PETER’S, ROME, AS NOW STANDING.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">
+The portion below the line <i>A</i>,&nbsp;<i>B</i>, and the side chapels
+<i>C</i>,&nbsp;<i>D</i>, were added by Maderna. The remainder represents
+Michael Angelo’s plan.</p>
+
+<p>St. Peter’s as thus completed (Fig. 170) is the largest
+<span class="pagenum">296</span>
+<a name="page296" id="page296"> </a>
+church in existence, and in many respects is architecturally worthy of
+its pre-eminence. The central aisle, nearly 600 feet long, with its
+stupendous panelled and gilded vault, 83 feet in span, the vast central
+area and the majestic dome, belong to a conception unsurpassed in
+majestic simplicity and effectiveness. The construction is almost
+excessively massive, but admirably disposed. On the other hand the nave
+is too long, and the details not only lack originality and interest, but
+are also too large and coarse in scale, dwarfing the whole edifice. The
+interior (Fig. 171) is wanting in the sobriety of color that befits so
+stately a design; it suggests rather a pagan temple than a Christian
+basilica. These faults reveal the decline of taste which had already set
+in before Michael Angelo took charge of the work, and which appears even
+in the works of that master.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE PERIOD OF FORMAL CLASSICISM.</b> With the middle of the 16th
+century the classic orders began to dominate all architectural design.
+While Vignola, who wrote a treatise upon the orders, employed them with
+unfailing refinement and judgment, his contemporaries showed less
+discernment and taste, making of them an end rather than a means. Too
+often mere classical correctness was substituted for the fundamental
+qualities of original invention and intrinsic beauty of composition. The
+innovation of colossal orders extending through several stories, while
+it gave to exterior designs a certain grandeur of scale, tended to
+coarseness and even vulgarity of detail. Sculpture and ornament began to
+lose their refinement; and while street-architecture gained in
+monumental scale, and public squares received a more stately adornment
+than ever before, the street-façades individually were too often bare
+and uninteresting in their correct formality. In the interiors of
+churches and large halls there appears a struggle between a cold and
+dignified simplicity and a growing tendency toward pretentious sham. But
+these pernicious tendencies did
+<span class="pagenum">299</span>
+<a name="page299" id="page299"> </a>
+not fully mature till the latter part of the century, and the
+half-century after 1540 or 1550 was prolific of notable works in both
+ecclesiastical and secular architecture. The names of Michael Angelo and
+Vignola, whose careers began in the preceding period; of Palladio and
+della Porta (1541&ndash;1604) in Rome; of Sammichele and Sansovino in
+Verona and Venice, and of Galeazzo Alessi in Genoa, stand high in the
+ranks of architectural merit.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">[297]</span>
+<a name="page297" id="page297"> </a>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig171" id="fig171"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig171.jpg" width="477" height="289"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 171.&mdash;INTERIOR OF ST. PETER’S, ROME.</p>
+
+<a name="page298" id="page298"> </a>
+<!-- moved two pages -->
+
+
+<p><b>CHURCHES.</b> The type established by St. Peter’s was widely
+imitated throughout Italy. The churches in which a Greek or Latin cross
+is dominated by a high dome rising from a drum and terminating in a
+lantern, and is treated both internally and externally with Roman
+Corinthian pilasters and arches, are almost numberless. Among the best
+churches of this type is the <b>Gesù</b> at Rome, by Vignola (1568),
+with a highly ornate interior of excellent proportions and a less
+interesting exterior, the façade adorned with two stories of orders and
+great flanking volutes over the sides (see <a href="#page277">p.&nbsp;277</a>). Two churches at Venice, by
+<i>Palladio</i>&mdash;<b>S.&nbsp;Giorgio Maggiore</b> (1560; façade by
+<i>Scamozzi</i>, 1575) and the <b>Redentore</b>&mdash;offer a strong
+contrast to the Gesù, in their cold and almost bare but pure and correct
+design. An imitation of Bramante’s plan for St. Peter’s appears in
+<b>S.&nbsp;M. di Carignano</b>, at Genoa, by <i>Galeazzo Alessi</i>
+(1500&ndash;72), begun 1552, a&nbsp;fine structure, though inferior in
+scale and detail to its original. Besides these and other important
+churches there were many large domical chapels of great splendor added
+to earlier churches; of these the <b>Chapel of Sixtus&nbsp;V.</b> in
+S.&nbsp;M. Maggiore, at Rome, by <i>D.&nbsp;Fontana</i>
+(1543&ndash;1607), is an excellent example.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PALACES: ROME.</b> The palaces on the Capitoline Hill, built at
+different dates (1540&ndash;1644) from designs by Michael Angelo,
+illustrate the palace architecture of this period, and the imposing
+effect of a single colossal order running through two stories. This
+treatment, though well adapted
+<span class="pagenum">300</span>
+<a name="page300" id="page300"> </a>
+to produce monumental effects in large squares, was dangerous in its
+bareness and heaviness of scale, and was better suited for buildings of
+vast dimensions than for ordinary street-façades. In other Roman palaces
+of this time the traditions of the preceding period still prevailed, as
+in the <b>Sapienza</b> (University), by della Porta (1575), which has a
+dignified court and a façade of great refinement without columns or
+pilasters. The <b>Papal palaces</b> built by Domenico Fontana on the
+Lateran, Quirinal, and Vatican hills, between 1574 and 1590, externally
+copying the style of the Farnese, show a similar return to earlier
+models, but are less pure and refined in detail than the Sapienza. The
+great pentagonal <b>Palace of Caprarola</b>, near Rome, by Vignola, is
+perhaps the most successful and imposing production of the Roman classic
+school.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>VERONA.</b> Outside of Rome, palace-building took on various local
+and provincial phases of style, of which the most important were the
+closely related styles of Verona, Venice, and Vicenza. <i>Michele
+Sammichele</i> (1484&ndash;1549), who built in Verona the
+<b>Bevilacqua</b>, <b>Canossa</b>, <b>Pompei</b>, and <b>Verzi</b>
+palaces and the four chief city gates, and in Venice the
+<b>P.&nbsp;Grimani</b>, his masterpiece (1550), was a designer of great
+originality and power. He introduced into his military architecture, as
+in the gates of Verona, the use of rusticated orders, which he treated
+with skill and taste. The idea was copied by later architects and
+applied, with doubtful propriety, to palace-façades; though Ammanati’s
+garden-façade for the Pitti palace, in Florence (cir. 1560), is an
+impressive and successful design.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>VENICE.</b> Into the development of the maturing classic style
+<i>Giacopo Tatti Sansovino</i> (1477&ndash;1570) introduced in his
+Venetian buildings new elements of splendor. Coupled columns between
+arches themselves supported on columns, and a profusion of figure
+sculpture, gave to his palace-façades a hitherto unknown magnificence of
+effect, as
+<span class="pagenum">301</span>
+<a name="page301" id="page301"> </a>
+in the <b>Library of St. Mark</b> (now the Royal Palace, Fig. 172), and
+the <b>Cornaro</b> palace (P.&nbsp;Corner de Cà Grande), both dating
+from about 1530&ndash;40. So strongly did he impress upon Venice these
+ornate and sumptuous variations on classic themes, that later architects
+adhered, in a very debased period, to the main features and spirit of
+his work.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig172" id="fig172"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig172.jpg" width="249" height="420"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 172.&mdash;LIBRARY OF ST. MARK, VENICE.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>VICENZA.</b> Of <i>Palladio’s</i> churches in Venice we have
+already spoken; his palaces are mainly to be found in his native city,
+Vicenza. In these structures he displayed great fertility of invention
+and a profound familiarity with the classic orders, but the degenerate
+taste of the Baroque period already begins to show itself in his work.
+There is far less of architectural propriety and grace in these
+pretentious palaces, with their colossal orders and their affectation of
+grandeur, than in the designs of Vignola or Sammichele. Wood and
+plaster, used to mimic stone, indicate the approaching reign of sham in
+all design (<b>P.&nbsp;Barbarano</b>, 1570; <b>Chieregati</b>, 1560;
+<b>Tiene</b>, <b>Valmarano</b>, 1556; <b>Villa Capra</b>). His
+masterpiece is the two-storied arcade about the mediæval
+<b>Basilica</b>, in which the arches are supported on a minor order
+between engaged columns serving
+<span class="pagenum">302</span>
+<a name="page302" id="page302"> </a>
+as buttresses. This treatment has in consequence ever since been known
+as the <i>Palladian Motive</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>GENOA.</b> During the second half of the sixteenth century a
+remarkable series of palaces was erected in Genoa, especially notable
+for their great courts and imposing staircases. These last were given
+unusual prominence owing to differences of level in the courts, arising
+from the slope of their sites on the hillside. Many of these palaces
+were by Galeazzo Alessi (1502&ndash;72); others by architects of lesser
+note; but nearly all characterized by their effective planning, fine
+stairs and loggias, and strong and dignified, if sometimes
+uninteresting, detail (<b>P.&nbsp;Balbi</b>, <b>Brignole</b>,
+<b>Cambiasi</b>, <b>Doria-Tursi</b> [or Municipio], <b>Durazzo</b> [or
+Reale], <b>Pallavicini</b>, and <b>University</b>).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig173" id="fig173"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig173.jpg" width="248" height="393"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 173.&mdash;INTERIOR OF SAN SEVERO, NAPLES.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE BAROQUE STYLE.</b> A reaction from the cold <i>classicismo</i>
+of the late sixteenth century showed itself in the following period, in
+the lawless and vulgar extravagances of the so-called <i>Baroque</i>
+style. The wealthy Jesuit order was a notorious contributor to the
+debasement of architectural taste. Most of the Jesuit churches and many
+others not belonging to the order, but following its <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘pernicous’">pernicious</ins> example,
+are monuments of bad taste and pretentious sham. Broken
+<span class="pagenum">303</span>
+<a name="page303" id="page303"> </a>
+and contorted pediments, huge scrolls, heavy mouldings, ill-applied
+sculpture in exaggerated attitudes, and a general disregard for
+architectural propriety characterized this period, especially in its
+church architecture, to whose style the name <i>Jesuit</i> is often
+applied. Sham marble and heavy and excessive gilding were universal
+(Fig. 173). <i>C.&nbsp;Maderna</i> (1556&ndash;1629), <i>Lorenzo
+Bernini</i> (1589&ndash;1680), and <i>F.&nbsp;Borromini</i>
+(1599&ndash;1667) were the worst offenders of the period, though Bernini
+was an artist of undoubted ability, as proved by his colonnades or
+atrium in front of St. Peter’s. There were, however, architects of purer
+taste whose works even in that debased age were worthy of
+admiration.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig174" id="fig174"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig174.jpg" width="271" height="372"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 174.&mdash;CHURCH OF S. M. DELLA SALUTE, VENICE.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>BAROQUE CHURCHES.</b> The Baroque style prevailed in church
+architecture for almost two centuries. The majority of the churches
+present varieties of the cruciform plan crowned by a high dome which is
+usually the best part of the design. Everywhere else the vices of the
+period appear in these churches, especially in their façades and
+internal decoration. <b>S.&nbsp;M. della Vittoria</b>, by Maderna, and
+<b>Sta. Agnese</b>, by Borromini, both at Rome, are examples of the
+<span class="pagenum">304</span>
+<a name="page304" id="page304"> </a>
+style. Naples is particularly full of Baroque churches (Fig. 173),
+a&nbsp;few of which, like the <b>Gesù Nuovo</b> (1584), are dignified
+and creditable designs. The domical church of <b>S.&nbsp;M. della
+Salute</b>, at Venice (1631), by Longhena, is also a majestic edifice in
+excellent style (Fig. 174), and here and there other churches offer
+exceptions to the prevalent baseness of architecture. Particularly
+objectionable was the wholesale disfigurement of existing monuments by
+ruthless remodelling, as in S.&nbsp;John Lateran, at Rome, the
+cathedrals of Ferrara and Ravenna, and many others.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PALACES.</b> These were generally superior to the churches, and
+not infrequently impressive and dignified structures. The two best
+examples in Rome are the <b>P.&nbsp;Borghese</b>, by <i>Martino Lunghi
+the Elder</i> (1590), with a fine court arcade on coupled Doric and
+Ionic columns, and the <b>P.&nbsp;Barberini</b>, by Maderna and
+Borromini, with an elliptical staircase by Bernini, one of the few
+palaces in Italy with projecting lateral wings. In Venice, Longhena, in
+the <b>Rezzonico</b> and <b>Pesaro</b> palaces (1650&ndash;80), showed
+his freedom from the mannerisms of the age by reproducing successfully
+the ornate but dignified style of Sansovino (see <a href="#page301">p.&nbsp;301</a>). At Naples D.&nbsp;Fontana, whose works
+overlap the Baroque period, produced in the <b>Royal Palace</b> (1600)
+and the <b>Royal Museum</b> (1586&ndash;1615) designs of considerable
+dignity, in some respects superior to his papal residences in Rome. In
+suburban villas, like the <b>Albani</b> and <b>Borghese</b> villas near
+Rome, the ostentatious style of the Decline found free and congenial
+expression.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LATER MONUMENTS.</b> In the few eighteenth-century buildings which
+are worthy of mention there is noticeable a reaction from the
+extravagances of the seventeenth century, shown in the dignified
+correctness of the exteriors and the somewhat frigid splendor of the
+interiors. The most notable work of this period is the <b>Royal
+Palace</b> at <b>Caserta</b>, by <i>Van Vitelli</i> (1752), an architect
+of considerable taste and inventiveness, considering his time. This
+great palace, 800
+<span class="pagenum">305</span>
+<a name="page305" id="page305"> </a>
+feet square, encloses four fine courts, and is especially remarkable for
+the simple if monotonous dignity of the well proportioned exterior and
+the effective planning of its three octagonal vestibules, its ornate
+chapel and noble staircase. Staircases, indeed, were among the most
+successful features of late Italian architecture, as in the <b>Scala
+Regia</b> of the Vatican, and in the Corsini, Braschi, and Barberini
+palaces at Rome, the Royal Palace at Naples, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In church architecture the <b>east front</b> of <b>S.&nbsp;John
+Lateran</b> in Rome, by <i>Galilei</i> (1734), and the whole
+<b>exterior</b> of <b>S.&nbsp;M. Maggiore</b>, by <i>Ferd. Fuga</i>
+(1743), are noteworthy designs: the former an especially powerful
+conception, combining a colossal order with two smaller orders in
+superposed <i>loggie</i>, but marred by the excessive scale of the
+statues which crown it. The <b>Fountain</b> of <b>Trevi</b>, conceived
+in much the same spirit (1735, by <i>Niccola Salvi</i>), is a striking
+piece of decorative architecture. The Sacristy of St. Peter’s, by
+<i>Marchionne</i> (1775), also deserves mention as a monumental and not
+uninteresting work. In the early years of the present century the
+<b>Braccio Nuovo</b> of the Vatican, by <i>Stern</i>, the imposing
+church of <b>S.&nbsp;Francesco di Paola</b> at Naples, by
+<i>Bianchi</i>, designed in partial imitation of the Pantheon, and the
+great <b>S.&nbsp;Carlo Theatre</b> at Naples, show the same coldly
+classical spirit, not wholly without merit, but lacking in true
+originality and freedom of conception.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CAMPANILES.</b> The <b>campaniles</b> of the Renaissance and
+Decline deserve at least passing reference, though they are neither
+numerous nor often of conspicuous interest. That of the
+<b>Campidoglio</b> (Capitol) at Rome, by Martino Lunghi, is a good
+example of the classical type. Venetia possesses a number of graceful
+and lofty bell-towers, generally of brick with marble bell-stages, of
+which the upper part of the <b>Campanile</b> of <b>St. Mark</b> and the
+tower of S.&nbsp;Giorgio Maggiore are the finest examples.</p>
+
+<p>The Decline attained what the early Renaissance aimed
+<span class="pagenum">306</span>
+<a name="page306" id="page306"> </a>
+at&mdash;the revival of Roman forms. But it was no longer a Renaissance;
+it was a decrepit and unimaginative art, held in the fetters of a
+servile imitation, copying the letter rather than the spirit of antique
+design. It was the mistaken and abject worship of precedent which
+started architecture upon its downward path and led to the atrocious
+products of the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+
+<div class="monuments">
+
+<p><b>MONUMENTS</b> (mainly in addition to those mentioned in the text).
+<span class="smallcaps">15th Century</span>&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Florence</span>: Foundling Hospital (Innocenti), 1421; Old
+Sacristy and Cloister S.&nbsp;Lorenzo; P.&nbsp;Quaratesi, 1440;
+cloisters at Sta. Croce and Certosa, all by Brunelleschi; façade
+S.&nbsp;M. Novella, by Alberti, 1456; Badia at Fiesole, from designs of
+Brunelleschi, 1462; Court of P.&nbsp;Vecchio, by Michelozzi, 1464
+(altered and enriched, 1565); P.&nbsp;Guadagni, by Cronaca, 1490; Hall
+of 500 in P.&nbsp;Vecchio, by same, 1495.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Venice</span>: S.&nbsp;Zaccaria, by Martino Lombardo,
+1457&ndash;1515; S.&nbsp;Michele, by Moro Lombardo, 1466; S.&nbsp;M. del
+Orto, 1473; S.&nbsp;Giovanni Crisostomo, by Moro Lombardo, atrium of
+S.&nbsp;Giovanni Evangelista, Procurazie Vecchie, all 1481; Scuola di
+S.&nbsp;Marco, by Martino Lombardo, 1490; P.&nbsp;Dario;
+P.&nbsp;Corner-Spinelli.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Ferrara</span>:
+P.&nbsp;Schifanoja, 1469; P.&nbsp;Scrofa or Costabili, 1485; S.&nbsp;M.
+in Vado, P.&nbsp;dei Diamanti, P.&nbsp;Bevilacqua, S.&nbsp;Francesco,
+S.&nbsp;Benedetto, S.&nbsp;Cristoforo, all 1490&ndash;1500.&mdash;<span
+class="smallcaps">Milan</span>: Ospedale Grande (or Maggiore), begun
+1457 by Filarete, extended by Bramante, cir. 1480&ndash;90 (great court
+by Richini, 17th century); S.&nbsp;M. delle Grazie, E.&nbsp;end,
+Sacristy of S.&nbsp;Satiro, S.&nbsp;M. presso S.&nbsp;Celso, all by
+Bramante, 1477&ndash;1499.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Rome</span>:
+S.&nbsp;Pietro in Montorio, 1472; S.&nbsp;M. del Popolo, 1475?; Sistine
+Chapel of Vatican, 1475; S.&nbsp;Agostino, 1483.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Sienna</span>: Loggia del Papa and P.&nbsp;Nerucci, 1460;
+P.&nbsp;del Governo, 1469&ndash;1500; P.&nbsp;Spannocchi, 1470; Sta.
+Catarina, 1490, by di Bastiano and Federighi, church later by Peruzzi;
+Library in cathedral by L.&nbsp;Marina, 1497; Oratory of
+S.&nbsp;Bernardino, by Turrapili, 1496.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Pienza</span>: Cathedral, Bishop’s Palace (Vescovado),
+P.&nbsp;Pubblico, all cir. 1460, by B.&nbsp;di Lorenzo (or Rosselini?).
+<span class="smallcaps">Elsewhere</span> (in chronological order):
+Arch of Alphonso, Naples, 1443, by P.&nbsp;di Martino; Oratory
+S.&nbsp;Bernardino, Perugia, by di Duccio, 1461; Church over Casa-Santa,
+Loreto, 1465&ndash;1526; P.&nbsp;del Consiglio at Verona, by Fra
+Giocondo, 1476; Capella Colleoni, Bergamo, 1476; S.&nbsp;M. in Organo,
+Verona, 1481; Porta Capuana, Naples, by Giul. da Majano, 1484; Madonna
+della Croce, Crema, by B.&nbsp;Battagli, 1490&ndash;1556; Madonna di
+Campagna and S.&nbsp;Sisto, Piacenza, both 1492&ndash;1511;
+P.&nbsp;Bevilacqua, Bologna, by Nardi, 1492 (?); P.&nbsp;Gravina,
+Naples; P.&nbsp;Fava, Bologna; P.&nbsp;Pretorio, Lucca; S.&nbsp;M. dei
+Miracoli Brescia; all at close of 15th century.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">307</span>
+<a name="page307" id="page307"> </a>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">16th Century</span>&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Rome</span>: P.&nbsp;Sora, 1501; S.&nbsp;M. della Pace and
+cloister, 1504, both by Bramante (façade of church by P.&nbsp;da
+Cortona, 17th century); S.&nbsp;M. di Loreto, 1507, by A.&nbsp;da San
+Gallo the Elder; P.&nbsp;Vidoni, by Raphael; P.&nbsp;Lante, 1520; Vigna
+Papa Giulio, 1534, by Peruzzi; P.&nbsp;dei Conservatori, 1540, and
+P.&nbsp;del Senatore, 1563 (both on Capitol), by M.&nbsp;Angelo,
+Vignola, and della Porta; Sistine Chapel in S.&nbsp;M. Maggiore, 1590;
+S.&nbsp;Andrea della Valle, 1591, by Olivieri (façade, 1670, by
+Rainaldi).&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Florence</span>: Medici
+Chapel of S.&nbsp;Lorenzo, new <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘sacristry’">sacristy</ins> of same, and Laurentian Library, all
+by M.&nbsp;Angelo, 1529&ndash;40; Mercato Nuovo, 1547, by B.&nbsp;Tasso;
+P.&nbsp;degli Uffizi, 1560&ndash;70, by Vasari; P.&nbsp;Giugni, <ins
+class="correction" title="text reads ‘-1560’: corrected from 8th edition">1560&ndash;8</ins>.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Venice</span>: P.&nbsp;Camerlinghi, 1525, by Bergamasco;
+S.&nbsp;Francesco della Vigna, by Sansovino, 1539, façade by Palladio,
+1568; Zecca or Mint, 1536, and Loggetta of Campanile, 1540, by
+Sansovino<a class="tag" name="tag25" id="tag25" href="#note25">25</a>, Procurazie Nuove, 1584, by Scamozzi.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Verona</span>: Capella Pellegrini in S.&nbsp;Bernardino,
+1514; City Gates, by Sammichele, 1530&ndash;40 (Porte Nuova, Stuppa,
+S.&nbsp;Zeno, S.&nbsp;Giorgio).&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Vicenza</span>: P.&nbsp;Porto, 1552; Teatro Olimpico, 1580;
+both by Palladio.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Genoa</span>:
+P.&nbsp;Andrea Doria, by Montorsoli, 1529; P.&nbsp;Ducale, by Pennone,
+1550; P.&nbsp;Lercari, P.&nbsp;Spinola, P.&nbsp;Sauli, P.&nbsp;Marcello
+Durazzo, all by Gal. Alessi, cir. 1550; Sta. Annunziata, 1587, by della
+Porta; Loggia dei Banchi, end of 16th century.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Elsewhere</span> (in chronological order).
+P.&nbsp;Roverella, Ferrara, 1508; P.&nbsp;del Magnifico, Sienna, 1508,
+by Cozzarelli; P.&nbsp;Communale, Brescia, 1508, by Formentone;
+P.&nbsp;Albergati, Bologna, 1510; P.&nbsp;Ducale, Mantua, 1520&ndash;40;
+P.&nbsp;Giustiniani, Padua, by Falconetto, 1524; Ospedale del Ceppo,
+Pistoia, 1525; Madonna delle Grazie, Pistoia, by Vitoni, 1535;
+P.&nbsp;Buoncampagni-Ludovisi, Bologna, 1545; Cathedral, Padua, 1550, by
+Righetti and della Valle, after M.&nbsp;Angelo; P.&nbsp;Bernardini,
+1560, and P.&nbsp;Ducale, 1578, at Lucca, both by Ammanati.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">17th Century</span>: Chapel of the Princes
+in S.&nbsp;Lorenzo, Florence, 1604, by Nigetti; S.&nbsp;Pietro, Bologna,
+1605; S.&nbsp;Andrea delle Fratte, Rome, 1612; Villa Borghese, Rome,
+1616, by Vasanzio; P.&nbsp;Contarini delle Scrigni, Venice, by Scamozzi;
+Badia at Florence, rebuilt 1625 by Segaloni; S.&nbsp;Ignazio, Rome,
+1626&ndash;85; Museum of the Capitol, Rome, 1644&ndash;50; Church of Gli
+Scalzi, Venice, 1649; P.&nbsp;Pesaro, Venice, by Longhena, 1650;
+S.&nbsp;Moisé, Venice, 1668; Brera Palace, Milan; S.&nbsp;M. Zobenigo,
+Venice, 1680; Dogana di Mare, Venice, 1686, by Benone; Santi Apostoli,
+Rome.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">18th and early 19th Century</span>:
+Gesuati, at Venice, 1715&ndash;30; S.&nbsp;Geremia, Venice, 1753, by
+Corbellini; P.&nbsp;Braschi, Rome, by Morelli, 1790; Nuova Fabbrica,
+Venice, 1810.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="note24" id="note24" href="#tag24">24.</a>
+See <a href="#appC">Appendix C</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note25" id="note25" href="#tag25">25.</a>
+See <a href="#appB">Appendix B</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum">308</span>
+<a name="page308" id="page308"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXXII" id="chapXXII">CHAPTER XXII.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before,
+Fergusson, Müntz, Palustre. Also Berty, <i>La Renaissance monumentale en
+France</i>. Château, <i>Histoire et caractères de l’architecture en
+France</i>. Daly, <i>Motifs historiques d’architecture et de
+sculpture</i>. De Laborde, <i>La Renaissance des arts à la cour de
+France</i>. Du Cerceau, <i>Les plus excellents bastiments de France</i>.
+Lübke, <i>Geschichte der Renaissance in Frankreich</i>. Mathews, <i>The
+Renaissance under the Valois Kings</i>. Palustre, <i>La Renaissance en
+France</i>. Pattison, <i>The Renaissance of the Fine Arts in France</i>.
+Rouyer et Darcel, <i>L’Art architectural en France</i>. Sauvageot,
+<i>Choix de palais, châteaux, hôtels, et maisons de France</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ORIGIN AND CHARACTER.</b> The vitality and richness of the Gothic
+style in France, even in its decline in the fifteenth century, long
+stood in the way of any general introduction of classic forms. When the
+Renaissance appeared, it came as a foreign importation, introduced from
+Italy by the king and the nobility. It underwent a protracted
+transitional phase, during which the national Gothic forms and
+traditions were picturesquely mingled with those of the Renaissance. The
+campaigns of Charles VIII. (1489), Louis XII. (1499), and
+Francis&nbsp;I. (1515), in vindication of their claims to the thrones of
+Naples and Milan, brought these monarchs and their nobles into contact
+with the splendid material and artistic civilization of Italy, then in
+the full tide of the maturing Renaissance. They returned to France,
+filled with the ambition to rival the splendid palaces and gardens of
+Italy, taking with them Italian artists to teach their arts to the
+French. But while these Italians successfully
+<span class="pagenum">309</span>
+<a name="page309" id="page309"> </a>
+introduced many classic elements and details into French architecture,
+they wholly failed to dominate the French master-masons and <i>tailleurs
+de pierre</i> in matters of planning and general composition. The early
+Renaissance architecture of France is consequently wholly unlike the
+Italian, from which it derived only minor details and a certain
+largeness and breadth of spirit.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PERIODS.</b> The French Renaissance and its sequent developments
+may be broadly divided into three periods, with subdivisions coinciding
+more or less closely with various reigns, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>I. <span class="smallcaps">The Valois Period</span>, or Renaissance
+proper, 1483&ndash;1589, subdivided into:</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> <span class="smallcaps">The Transition</span>, comprising
+the reigns of Charles VIII. and Louis XII. (1483&ndash;1515), and the
+early years of that of Francis&nbsp;I.; characterized by a picturesque
+mixture of classic details with Gothic conceptions.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> <span class="smallcaps">The Style of Francis I.</span>,
+or Early Renaissance, from about 1520 to that king’s death in 1547;
+distinguished by a remarkable variety and grace of composition and
+beauty of detail.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> <span class="smallcaps">The Advanced Renaissance</span>,
+comprising the reigns of Henry II. (1547), Francis II. (1559), Charles
+IX. (1560), and Henry III. (1574&ndash;89); marked by the gradual
+adoption of the classic orders and a decline in the delicacy and
+richness of the ornament.</p>
+
+<p>II. <span class="smallcaps">The Bourbon or Classic Period</span>
+(1589&ndash;1715):</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> <span class="smallcaps">Style of Henry IV.</span>,
+covering his reign and partly that of Louis XIII. (1610&ndash;45),
+employing the orders and other classic forms with a somewhat heavy,
+florid style of ornament.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> <span class="smallcaps">Style of Louis XIV.</span>,
+beginning in the preceding reign and extending through that of Louis
+XIV. (1645&ndash;1715); the great age of classic architecture in France,
+corresponding to the Palladian in Italy.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">310</span>
+<a name="page310" id="page310"> </a>
+<p>III. <span class="smallcaps">The Decline or Rococo Period</span>,
+corresponding with the reign of Louis XV. (1715&ndash;74); marked by
+pompous extravagance and capriciousness.</p>
+
+<p>During this period a reaction set in toward a severer classicism,
+leading to the styles of Louis XVI. and of the Empire, to be treated of
+in a later chapter.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE TRANSITION.</b> As early as 1475 the new style made its
+appearance in altars, tombs, and rood-screens wrought by French carvers
+with the collaboration of Italian artificers. The tomb erected by
+Charles of Anjou to his father in Le Mans cathedral (1475, by
+<i>Francesco Laurana</i>), the chapel of St. Lazare in the cathedral of
+Marseilles (1483), and the tomb of the children of Charles VIII. in
+Tours cathedral (1506), by <i>Michel Columbe</i>, the greatest artist of
+his time in France, are examples. The schools of Rouen and Tours were
+especially prominent in works of this kind, marked by exuberant fancy
+and great delicacy of execution. In church architecture Gothic
+traditions were long dominant, in spite of the great numbers of Italian
+prelates in France. It was in <i>châteaux</i>, palaces, and dwellings
+that the new style achieved its most notable triumphs.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>EARLY CHÂTEAUX.</b> The castle of Charles VIII., at Amboise on the
+Loire, shows little trace of Italian influence. It was under Louis XII.
+that the transformation of French architecture really began. The
+<b>Château de Gaillon</b> (of which unfortunately only fragments remain
+in the École des Beaux-Arts at Paris), built for the Cardinal George of
+Amboise, between 1497 and 1509, by <i>Pierre Fain</i>, was the
+masterwork of the Rouen school. It presented a curious mixture of
+styles, with its irregular plan, its moat, drawbridge, and round
+corner-towers, its high roofs, turrets, and dormers, which gave it, in
+spite of many Renaissance details, a&nbsp;mediæval picturesqueness. The
+<b>Château de Blois</b> (the east and south wings of the present group),
+begun for Louis XII. about 1500, was the first of a remarkable series
+<span class="pagenum">311</span>
+<a name="page311" id="page311"> </a>
+of royal palaces which are the glory of French architecture. It shows
+the new influences in its horizontal lines and flat, unbroken façades of
+brick and stone, rather than in its architectural details (Fig. 175).
+The <b>Ducal Palace</b> at Nancy and the <b>Hôtel de Ville</b> at
+Orléans, by <i>Viart</i>, show a similar commingling of the classic and
+mediæval styles.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig175" id="fig175"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig175.jpg" width="245" height="444"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 175.<!-- invisible both . -->&mdash;BLOIS, COURT FAÇADE OF WING OF
+LOUIS XII.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>STYLE OF FRANCIS I.</b> Early in the reign of this monarch, and
+partly under the lead of Italian artists, like il Rosso, Serlio, and
+Primaticcio, classic elements began to dominate the general composition
+and Gothic details rapidly disappeared. A&nbsp;simple and effective
+system of exterior design was adopted in the castles and palaces of this
+period. Finely moulded belt-courses at the sills and heads of the
+windows marked the different stories, and were crossed by a system of
+almost equally important vertical lines, formed by superposed pilasters
+flanking the windows continuously from basement to roof. The façade was
+crowned by a slight cornice and open balustrade, above which rose a
+steep and lofty roof, diversified by elaborate dormer windows which were
+<span class="pagenum">312</span>
+<a name="page312" id="page312"> </a>
+adorned with gables and pinnacles (<a href="#fig178">Fig.&nbsp;178</a>). Slender pilasters, treated like long
+panels ornamented with arabesques of great beauty, or with a species of
+baluster shaft like a candelabrum, were preferred to columns, and were
+provided with graceful capitals of the Corinthianesque type. The
+mouldings were minute and richly carved; pediments were replaced by
+steep gables, and mullioned windows with stone crossbars were used in
+preference to the simpler Italian openings. In the earlier monuments
+Gothic details were still used occasionally; and round corner-towers,
+high dormers, and numerous turrets and pinnacles appear even in the
+châteaux of later date.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHURCHES.</b> Ecclesiastical architecture received but scant
+attention under Francis&nbsp;I., and, so far as it was practised, still
+clung tenaciously to Gothic principles. Among the few important churches
+of this period may be mentioned <b>St. Etienne du Mont</b>, at Paris
+(1517&ndash;38), in which classic and Gothic features appear in nearly
+equal proportions; the east end of <b>St. Pierre</b>, at Caen, with rich
+external carving; and the great parish church of <b>St. Eustache</b>, at
+Paris (1532, by <i>Lemercier</i>), in which the plan and construction
+are purely Gothic, while the details throughout belong to the new style,
+though with little appreciation of the spirit and proportions of classic
+art. New façades were also built for a number of already existing
+churches, among which <b>St. Michel</b>, at Dijon, is conspicuous, with
+its vast portal arch and imposing towers. The Gothic towers of Tours
+cathedral were completed with Renaissance lanterns or belfries, the
+northern in 1507, the southern in 1547.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig176" id="fig176"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig176.jpg" width="212" height="434"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 176.&mdash;STAIRCASE TOWER, BLOIS.</p>
+
+<p><b>PALACES.</b> To the palace at Blois begun by his predecessor,
+Francis&nbsp;I. added a northern and a western wing, completing the
+court. The north wing is one of the masterpieces of the style,
+presenting toward the court a simple and effective composition, with a
+rich but slightly projecting cornice and a high roof with elaborate
+dormers. This
+<span class="pagenum">313</span>
+<a name="page313" id="page313"> </a>
+façade is divided into two unequal sections by the open <b>Staircase
+Tower</b> (Fig. 176), a&nbsp;<i>chef-d’œuvre</i> in boldness of
+construction as well as in delicacy and richness of carving. The outer
+façade of this wing is a less ornate but more vigorous design, crowned
+by a continuous open loggia under the roof. More extensive than Blois
+was <b>Fontainebleau</b>, the favorite residence of the king and of many
+of his successors. Following in parts the irregular plan of the convent
+it replaced, its other portions were more symmetrically disposed, while
+the whole was treated externally in a somewhat severe, semi-classic
+style, singularly lacking in ornament. Internally, however, this palace,
+begun in 1528 by <i>Gilles Le Breton</i>, was at that time the most
+splendid in France, the gallery of Francis&nbsp;I. being especially
+noted. The <b>Château</b> of <b>St. Germain</b>, near Paris (1539, by
+<i>Pierre Chambiges</i>), is of a very different character. Built
+largely of brick, with flat balustraded roof and deep buttresses
+carrying three ranges of arches, it is neither Gothic nor classic,
+neither fortress nor palace in aspect, but a wholly unique
+conception.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft">
+<a name="fig177" id="fig177"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig177.png" width="250" height="188"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 177.&mdash;PLAN OF CHAMBORD.<!-- invisible . --></p>
+
+<p>The rural châteaux and hunting-lodges erected by Francis&nbsp;I.
+display the greatest diversity of plan and treatment,
+<span class="pagenum">314</span>
+<a name="page314" id="page314"> </a>
+attesting the inventiveness of the French genius, expressing itself in a
+new-found language, whose formal canons it disdained. Chief among them
+is the <b>Château of Chambord</b> (Figs. 177, 178)&mdash;“a Fata Morgana
+in the midst of a wild, woody thicket,” to use Lübke’s language. This
+extraordinary edifice, resembling in plan a feudal castle with
+curtain-walls, bastions, moat, and donjon, is in its architectural
+treatment a palace with arcades, open-stair towers, a&nbsp;noble double
+spiral staircase terminating in a graceful lantern, and a roof of the
+most bewildering complexity of towers, chimneys, and dormers (1526, by
+<i>Pierre le Nepveu</i>). The hunting-lodges of La Muette and Chalvau,
+and the so-called <b>Château de Madrid</b>&mdash;all three demolished
+during or since the Revolution&mdash;deserve mention, especially
+<span class="pagenum">315</span>
+<a name="page315" id="page315"> </a>
+the last. This consisted of two rectangular pavilions, connected by a
+lofty banquet-hall, and adorned externally with arcades in Florentine
+style, and with medallions and reliefs of della Robbia ware (1527, by
+<i>Gadyer</i>).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig178" id="fig178"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig178.jpg" width="429" height="229"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 178.<!-- invisible . -->&mdash;VIEW OF CHAMBORD.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE LOUVRE.</b> By far the most important of all the architectural
+enterprises of this reign, in ultimate results, if not in original
+extent, was the beginning of a new palace to replace the old Gothic
+fortified palace of the Louvre. To this task Pierre Lescot was summoned
+in 1542, and the work of erection actually begun in 1546. The new
+palace, in a sumptuous and remarkably dignified classic style, was to
+have covered precisely the area of the demolished fortress. Only the
+southwest half, comprising two sides of the court, was, however,
+undertaken at the outset (Fig. 179). It remained for later monarchs to
+amplify the original scheme, and ultimately to complete, late in the
+present century, the most extensive and beautiful of all the royal
+residences of Europe. (See Figs. <a href="#fig181">181</a>, <a href="#fig208">208</a>, <a href="#fig209">209</a>.)</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig179" id="fig179"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig179.jpg" width="263" height="358"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 179.&mdash;DETAIL OF COURT OF LOUVRE, PARIS.<!-- invisible last two
+. --></p>
+
+<p>Want of space forbids more than a passing reference to the rural
+castles of the nobility, rivalling those of the king. Among them Bury,
+La Rochefoucauld, Bournazel, and
+<span class="pagenum">316</span>
+<a name="page316" id="page316"> </a>
+especially <b>Azay-le-Rideau</b> (1520) and <b>Chenonceaux</b>
+(1515&ndash;23), may be mentioned, all displaying that love of rural
+pleasure, that hatred of the city and its confinement, which so
+distinguish the French from the Italian Renaissance.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>OTHER BUILDINGS.</b> The <b>Hôtel-de-Ville</b> (town hall), of
+Paris, begun during this reign, from plans by <i>Domenico di Cortona</i>
+(?), and completed under Henry IV., was the most important edifice of a
+class which in later periods numbered many interesting structures. The
+town hall of <b>Beaugency</b> (1527) is one of the best of minor public
+buildings in France, and in its elegant treatment of a simple
+two-storied façade may be classed with the <b>Maison
+François&nbsp;I.</b>, at Paris. This stood formerly at Moret, whence it
+was transported to Paris and re-erected about 1830 in somewhat modified
+form. The large city houses of this period are legion; we can mention
+only the Hôtel Carnavalet at Paris; the Hôtel Bourgtheroude at Rouen;
+the Hôtel d’Écoville at Caen; the archbishop’s palace at Sens, and a
+number of houses in Orléans. The <b>Tomb of Louis XII.</b>, at St.
+Denis, deserves especial mention for its fine proportions and beautiful
+arabesques.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE.</b> By the middle of the sixteenth
+century the new style had lost much of its earlier charm. The orders,
+used with increasing frequency, were more and more conformed to antique
+precedents. Façades were flatter and simpler, cornices more pronounced,
+arches more Roman in treatment, and a heavier style of carving took the
+place of the delicate arabesques of the preceding age. The reigns of
+Henry II. (1547&ndash;59) and Charles IX. (1560&ndash;74) were
+especially distinguished by the labors of three celebrated architects:
+<i>Pierre Lescot</i> (1515&ndash;78), who continued the work on the
+southwest angle of the Louvre; <i>Jean Bullant</i> (1515&ndash;78), to
+whom are due the right wing of Ecouen and the porch of colossal
+Corinthian columns in the left wing of the same, built under
+Francis&nbsp;I.; and, finally, <i>Philibert de l’Orme</i>
+(1515&ndash;70). <i>Jean Goujon</i> (1510&ndash;72) also
+<span class="pagenum">317</span>
+<a name="page317" id="page317"> </a>
+executed during this period most of the remarkable architectural
+sculptures which have made his name one of the most illustrious in the
+annals of French art. Chief among the works of de l’Orme was the palace
+of the <b>Tuileries</b>, built under Charles IX. for Cathérine de
+Médicis, not far from the Louvre, with which it was ultimately connected
+by a long gallery. Of the vast plan conceived for this palace, and
+comprising a succession of courts and wings, only a part of one side was
+erected (1564&ndash;72). This consisted of a domical pavilion, flanked
+by low wings only a story and a half high, to which were added two
+stories under Henry IV., to the great advantage of the design. Another
+masterpiece was the <b>Château d’Anet</b>, built in 1552 by Henry II.
+for Diane de Poitiers, of which, unfortunately, only fragments survive.
+This beautiful edifice, while retaining the semi-military moat and
+bastions of feudal tradition, was planned with classic symmetry, adorned
+with superposed orders, court arcades, and rectangular corner-pavilions,
+and provided with a domical cruciform chapel, the earliest of its class
+in France. All the details were unusually pure and correct, with just
+enough of freedom and variety to lend a charm wanting in later works of
+the period. To the reign of Henry II. belong also the châteaux of
+Ancy-le-Franc, Verneuil, Chantilly (the “petit château,” by Bullant),
+the banquet-hall over the bridge at Chenonceaux (1556), several notable
+residences at Toulouse, and the tomb of Francis&nbsp;I. at St. Denis.
+The châteaux of <b>Pailly</b> and <b>Sully</b>, distinguished by the
+sobriety and monumental quality of their composition, in which the
+orders are important elements, belong to the reign of Charles IX.,
+together with the Tuileries, already mentioned.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig180" id="fig180"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig180.jpg" width="414" height="277"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 180.&mdash;THE LUXEMBURG, PARIS.<!-- invisible all . --></p>
+
+<p><b>THE CLASSIC PERIOD: HENRY IV.</b> Under this energetic but
+capricious monarch (1589&ndash;1610) and his Florentine queen, Marie de
+Médicis, architecture entered upon a new period of activity and a new
+stage of development. Without the
+<span class="pagenum">318</span>
+<a name="page318" id="page318"> </a>
+charm of the early Renaissance or the stateliness of the age of Louis
+XIV., it has a touch of the Baroque, attributable partly to the
+influence of Marie de Médicis and her Italian prelates, and partly to
+the Italian training of many of the French architects. The great work of
+this period was the extension of the Tuileries by <i>J.&nbsp;B. du
+Cerceau</i>, and the completion, by <i>Métézeau</i> and others, of the
+long gallery next the Seine, begun under Henry II., with the view of
+connecting the Tuileries with the Louvre. In this part of the work
+colossal orders were used with indifferent effect. Next in importance
+was the addition to Fontainebleau of a great court to the eastward,
+whose relatively quiet and dignified style offers less contrast than one
+might expect to the other wings and courts dating from Francis&nbsp;I.
+More successful architecturally than either of the above was the
+<b>Luxemburg</b> palace, built for the queen by <i>Salomon De
+Brosse</i>, in 1616 (Fig. 180). Its plan presents the favorite French
+arrangement of a main building separated from the street
+<span class="pagenum">319</span>
+<a name="page319" id="page319"> </a>
+by a garden or court, the latter surrounded on three sides by low wings
+containing the dependencies. Externally, rusticated orders recall the
+garden front of the Pitti at Florence; but the scale is smaller, and the
+projecting pavilions and high roofs give it a grace and picturesqueness
+wanting in the Florentine model. The <b>Place Royale</b>, at Paris, and
+the château of Beaumesnil, illustrate a type of brick-and-stone
+architecture much in vogue at this time, stone quoins decorating the
+windows and corners, and the orders being generally omitted.</p>
+
+<p>Under Louis XIII. the Tuileries were extended northward and the
+Louvre as built by Lescot was doubled in size by the architect
+<i>Lemercier</i>, the Pavillon de l’Horloge being added to form the
+centre of the enlarged court façade.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHURCHES.</b> To this reign belong also the most important
+churches of the period. The church of <b>St. Paul-St. Louis</b>, at
+Paris (1627, by <i>Derrand</i>), displays the worst faults of the time,
+in the overloaded and meaningless decoration of its uninteresting front.
+Its internal dome is the earliest in Paris. Far superior was the chapel
+of the <b>Sorbonne</b>, a&nbsp;well-designed domical church by
+<i>Lemercier</i>, with a sober and appropriate exterior treated with
+superposed orders.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV.</b> This was an age of remarkable literary
+and artistic activity, pompous and pedantic in many of its
+manifestations, but distinguished also by productions of a very high
+order. Although contemporary with the Italian Baroque&mdash;Bernini
+having been the guest of Louis XIV.&mdash;the architecture of this
+period was free from the wild extravagances of that style. In its often
+cold and correct dignity it resembled rather that of Palladio, making
+large use of the orders in exterior design, and tending rather to
+monotony than to overloaded decoration. In interior design there was
+more of lightness and caprice. Papier-maché and stucco were freely used
+in a fanciful style of relief ornamentation by scrolls, wreaths, shells,
+etc., and
+<span class="pagenum">320</span>
+<a name="page320" id="page320"> </a>
+decorative panelling was much employed. The whole was saved from
+triviality only by the controlling lines of the architecture which
+framed it. But it was better suited to cabinet-work or to the
+prettinesses of the boudoir than to monumental interiors. The <b>Galerie
+d’Apollon</b>, built during this reign over the Petite Galerie in the
+Louvre, escapes this reproach, however, by the sumptuous dignity of its
+interior treatment.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>VERSAILLES.</b> This immense edifice, built about an already
+existing villa of Louis XIII., was the work of <i>Levau</i> and
+<i>J.&nbsp;H. Mansart</i> (1647&ndash;1708). Its erection, with the
+laying out of its marvellous park, almost exhausted the resources of the
+realm, but with results quite incommensurate with the outlay. In spite
+of its vastness, its exterior is commonplace; the orders are used with
+singular monotony, which is not redeemed by the deep breaks and
+projections of the main front. There is no controlling or dominant
+feature; there is no adequate entrance or approach; the grand staircases
+are badly placed and unworthily treated, and the different elements of
+the plan are combined with singular lack of the usual French sense of
+monumental and rational arrangement. The chapel is by far the best
+single feature in the design.</p>
+
+<p>Far more successful was the completion of the Louvre, in 1688, from
+the designs of <i>Claude Perrault</i>, the court physician, whose plans
+were fortunately adopted in preference to those of Bernini. For the east
+front he designed a magnificent Corinthian colonnade nearly 600 feet
+long, with coupled columns upon a plain high basement, and with a
+central pediment and terminal pavilions (Fig. 181). The whole forms one
+of the most imposing façades in existence; but it is a mere decoration,
+having no practical relation to the building behind it. Its height
+required the addition of a third story to match it on the north and
+south sides of the court, which as thus completed quadrupled the
+original area
+<span class="pagenum">321</span>
+<a name="page321" id="page321"> </a>
+proposed by Lescot. Fortunately the style of Lescot’s work was retained
+throughout in the court façades, while externally the colonnade was
+recalled on the south front by a colossal order of pilasters. The Louvre
+as completed by Louis XIV. was a stately and noble palace, as remarkable
+for the surpassing excellence of the sculptures of Jean Goujon as for
+the dignity and beauty of its architecture. Taken in connection with the
+Tuileries, it was unrivalled by any palace in Europe except the
+Vatican.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig181" id="fig181"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig181.jpg" width="432" height="248"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 181.<!-- invisible . -->&mdash;COLONNADE OF LOUVRE.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>OTHER BUILDINGS.</b> To Louis XIV. is also due the vast but
+uninteresting <b>Hôtel des Invalides</b> or veteran’s asylum, at Paris,
+by J.&nbsp;H. Mansart. To the chapel of this institution was added, in
+1680&ndash;1706, the celebrated <b>Dome</b> of the Invalides,
+a&nbsp;masterpiece by the same architect. In plan it somewhat resembles
+Bramante’s scheme for St. Peter’s&mdash;a&nbsp;Greek cross with domical
+chapels in the four angles and a dome over the centre. The exterior
+(Fig. 182), with the lofty gilded dome on a high drum adorned with
+engaged columns, is somewhat high for its breadth, but is a
+<span class="pagenum">322</span>
+<a name="page322" id="page322"> </a>
+harmonious and impressive design; and the interior, if somewhat cold, is
+elegant and well proportioned. The chief innovation in the design was
+the wide separation of the interior stone dome from the lofty exterior
+decorative cupola and lantern of wood, this separation being designed to
+meet the conflicting demands of internal and external effect. To the
+same architect is due the formal monotony of the <b>Place Vendôme</b>,
+all the houses surrounding it being treated with a uniform architecture
+of colossal pilasters, at once monumental and inappropriate. One of the
+most pleasing designs of the time is the <b>Château de Maisons</b>
+(1658), by <i>F.&nbsp;Mansart</i>, uncle of J.&nbsp;H. Mansart. In this
+the proportions of the central and terminal pavilions, the mass and
+lines of the steep roof <i>à&nbsp;la Mansarde</i>, the simple and
+effective use of the orders, and the refinement of all the details
+impart a grace of aspect rare in contemporary works. The same qualities
+appear also in the <b>Val-de-Grâce</b>, by F.&nbsp;Mansart and
+Lemercier, a&nbsp;domical church of excellent proportions begun under
+Louis XIII. The want of space forbids mention of other buildings of this
+period.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig182" id="fig182"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig182.jpg" width="263" height="459"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 182.&mdash;DOME OF THE INVALIDES.<!-- invisible last two . --></p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">323</span>
+<a name="page323" id="page323"> </a>
+<p><b>THE DECLINE.</b> Under Louis XV. the pedantry of the classic
+period gave place to a protracted struggle between license and the
+severest classical correctness. The exterior designs of this time were
+often even more uninteresting and bare than under Louis XIV.; while, on
+the other hand, interior decoration tended to the extreme of
+extravagance and disregard of constructive propriety. Contorted lines
+and crowded scrolls, shells, and palm-leaves adorned the mantelpieces,
+cornices, and ceilings, to the almost complete suppression of straight
+lines.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig183" id="fig183"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig183.jpg" width="256" height="295"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 183.&mdash;FAÇADE OF ST. SULPICE, PARIS.</p>
+
+<p>While these tendencies prevailed in many directions,
+a&nbsp;counter-current of severe classicism manifested itself in the
+designs of a number of important public buildings, in which it was
+sought to copy the grandeur of the old Roman colonnades and arcades. The
+important church of <b>St. Sulpice</b> at Paris (Fig. 183) is an
+excellent example of this. Its interior, dating from the preceding
+century, is well designed, but in no wise a remarkable composition,
+following Italian models. The façade, added in 1755 by
+<i>Servandoni</i>, is, on the other hand, one of the most striking
+architectural objects in the city. It is a correct and well proportioned
+classic composition in two stories&mdash;an Ionic arcade over a Doric
+colonnade, surmounted by two lateral turrets. Other monuments of this
+classic revival will be noticed in Chapter XXV.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">324</span>
+<a name="page324" id="page324"> </a>
+<p><b>PUBLIC SQUARES.</b> Much attention was given to the embellishment
+of open spaces in the cities, for which the classic style was admirably
+suited. The most important work of this kind was that on the north side
+of the Place de la Concorde, Paris. This splendid square, perhaps, on
+the whole, the finest in Europe (though many of its best features belong
+to a later date), was at this time adorned with the two monumental
+colonnades by <i>Gabriel</i>. These colonnades, which form the
+decorative fronts for blocks of houses, deserve praise for the beauty of
+their proportions, as well as for the excellent treatment of the arcade
+on which they rest, and of the pavilions at the ends.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>IN GENERAL.</b> French Renaissance architecture is marked by good
+proportions and harmonious and appropriate detail. Its most interesting
+phase was unquestionably that of Francis&nbsp;I., so far, at least, as
+concerns exterior design. It steadily progressed, however, in its
+mastery of planning; and in its use of projecting pavilions crowned by
+dominant masses of roof, it succeeded in preserving, even in severely
+classic designs, a&nbsp;picturesqueness and variety otherwise
+impossible. Roofs, dormers, chimneys, and staircases it treated with
+especial success; and in these matters, as well as in monumental
+dispositions of plan, the French have largely retained their
+pre-eminence to our own day.</p>
+
+
+<div class="monuments">
+
+<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> (Mainly supplementary to text. Ch. = château;
+P.&nbsp;= palace; C.&nbsp;= cathedral; Chu. = church; H.&nbsp;= hôtel;
+T.H. = town hall.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Transition</span>: Blois, E. wing, 1499;
+Ch. Meillant; Ch. Chaumont; T.H. Amboise, 1502&ndash;05.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Francis I.</span>: Ch. Nantouillet,
+1517&ndash;25; Ch. Blois, W.&nbsp;wing (afterward demolished) and
+N.&nbsp;wing, 1520&ndash;30; H.&nbsp;Lallemant, Bourges, 1520; Ch.
+Villers-Cotterets, 1520&ndash;59; P.&nbsp;of Archbishop, Sens,
+1521&ndash;35; P.&nbsp;Fontainebleau (Cour Ovale, Cour d’Adieux, Gallery
+Francis&nbsp;I., 1527&ndash;34; Peristyle, Chapel St. Saturnin,
+1540&ndash;47, by <i>Gilles le Breton</i>; Cour du Cheval Blanc,
+1527&ndash;31, by <i>P.&nbsp;Chambiges</i>); H.&nbsp;Bernuy, Toulouse,
+1528&ndash;39; P.&nbsp;Granvelle, Besançon, 1532&ndash;40; T.H. Niort,
+T.H. Loches, 1532&ndash;43: H.&nbsp;de Ligeris (Carnavalet), Paris,
+1544, by <i>P.&nbsp;Lescot</i>; churches of Gisors,
+<span class="pagenum">325</span>
+<a name="page325" id="page325"> </a>
+nave and façade, 1530; La Dalbade, Toulouse, portal, 1530; St.
+Symphorien Tours, 1531; Chu. Tillières, 1534&ndash;46.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Advanced Renaissance</span>: Fontaine des
+Innocents, Paris, 1547&ndash;50, by <i>P.&nbsp;Lescot</i> and
+<i>J.&nbsp;Goujon</i>; tomb Francis&nbsp;I., at St. Denis, 1555, by
+<i>Ph. de l’Orme</i>; H.&nbsp;Catelan, Toulouse, 1555; tomb Henry II.,
+at St. Denis, 1560; portal S.&nbsp;Michel, Dijon, 1564; Ch. Sully, 1567;
+T.H. Arras, 1573; P.&nbsp;Fontainebleau (Cour du Cheval Blanc
+remodelled, 1564&ndash;66, by <i>P.&nbsp;Girard</i>; Cour de la
+Fontaine, same date); T.H. Besançon, 1582; Ch. Charleval, 1585, by,
+<i>J.&nbsp;B. du Cerceau</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Style of Henry IV.</span>:
+P.&nbsp;Fontainebleau (Galerie des Cerfs, Chapel of the Trinity,
+Baptistery, etc.); P.&nbsp;Tuileries (Pav. de Flore, by <i>du
+Cerceau</i>, 1590&ndash;1610; long gallery continued); Hôtel Vogüé, at
+Dijon, 1607; Place Dauphine, Paris, 1608; P.&nbsp;de Justice, Paris,
+Great Hall, by <i>S.&nbsp;de Brosse</i>, 1618; H.&nbsp;Sully, Paris,
+1624&ndash;39; P.&nbsp;Royal, Paris, by <i>J.&nbsp;Lemercier</i>, for
+Cardinal Richelieu, 1627&ndash;39; P.&nbsp;Louvre doubled in size, by
+the same; P.&nbsp;Tuileries (N.&nbsp;wing, and Pav. Marsan, long gallery
+completed); H.&nbsp;Lambert, Paris; T.H. Reims, 1627; Ch. Blois,
+W.&nbsp;wing for Gaston d’Orléans, by <i>F.&nbsp;Mansart</i>, 1635;
+façade St. Étienne du Mont, Paris, 1610; of St. Gervais, Paris,
+1616&ndash;21, by <i>S.&nbsp;de Brosse</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Style of Louis XIV.</span>: T.H. Lyons,
+1646; P.&nbsp;Louvre, E.&nbsp;colonnade and court completed,
+1660&ndash;70; Tuileries altered by Le Vau, 1664; observatory at Paris,
+1667&ndash;72; arch of St. Denis, Paris, 1672, by <i>Blondel</i>; Arch
+of St. Martin, 1674, by <i>Bullet</i>; Banque de France, H.&nbsp;de
+Luyne, H.&nbsp;Soubise, all in Paris; Ch. Chantilly; Ch. de Tanlay;
+P.&nbsp;St. Cloud; Place des Victoires, 1685; Chu. St. Sulpice, Paris,
+by <i>Le Vau</i> (façade, 1755); Chu. St. Roch, Paris, 1653, by
+<i>Lemercier</i> and <i>de Cotte</i>; Notre Dame des Victoires, Paris,
+1656, by <i>Le Muet</i> and <i>Bruant</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">The Decline</span>: P.&nbsp;Bourbon, 1722;
+T.H. Rouen; Halle aux Blés (recently demolished), 1748; École Militaire,
+1752&ndash;58, by <i>Gabriel</i>; P.&nbsp;Louvre, court completed, 1754,
+by the same; Madeleine begun, 1764; H.&nbsp;des Monnaies (Mint), by
+<i>Antoine</i>; École de Médecine, 1774, by <i>Gondouin</i>;
+P.&nbsp;Royal, Great Court, 1784, by <i>Louis</i>; Théâtre Français,
+1784 (all the above at Paris); Grand Théâtre, Bordeaux, 1785&ndash;1800,
+by <i>Louis</i>; Préfecture at Bordeaux, by the same; Ch. de Compiegne,
+1770, by <i>Gabriel</i>; P.&nbsp;Versailles, theatre by the same;
+H.&nbsp;Montmorency, Soubise, de Varennes, and the Petit Luxembourg, all
+at Paris, by <i>de Cotte</i>; public squares at Nancy, Bordeaux,
+Valenciennes, Rennes, Reims.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">326</span>
+<a name="page326" id="page326"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXXIII" id="chapXXIII">CHAPTER XXIII.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before,
+Fergusson, Palustre. Also, Belcher and Macartney, <i>Later Renaissance
+Architecture in England</i>. Billings, <i>Baronial and Ecclesiastical
+Antiquities of Scotland</i>. Blomfield, <i>A&nbsp;Short History of
+Renaissance Architecture in England</i>. Britton, <i>Architectural
+Antiquities of Great Britain</i>. Ewerbeck, <i>Die Renaissance in
+Belgien und Holland</i>. Galland, <i>Geschichte der Hollandischen
+Baukunst im Zeitalter der Renaissance</i>. Gotch and Brown,
+<i>Architecture of the Renaissance in England</i>. Loftie, <i>Inigo
+Jones and Wren</i>. Nash, <i>Mansions of England</i>. Papworth,
+<i>Renaissance and Italian Styles of Architecture in Great Britain</i>.
+Richardson, <i>Architectural Remains of the Reigns of Elizabeth and
+James&nbsp;I.</i> Schayes, <i>Histoire de l’architecture en
+Belgique</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE TRANSITION.</b> The architectural activity of the sixteenth
+century in England was chiefly devoted to the erection of vast country
+mansions for the nobility and wealthy <i>bourgeoisie</i>. In these
+seignorial residences a degenerate form of the Gothic, known as the
+Tudor style, was employed during the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry
+VIII., and they still retained much of the feudal aspect of the Middle
+Ages. This style, with its broad, square windows and ample halls, was
+well suited to domestic architecture, as well as to collegiate
+buildings, of which a considerable number were erected at this time.
+Among the more important palaces and manor-houses of this period are the
+earlier parts of Hampton Court, Haddon and Hengreave Halls, and the now
+ruined castles of Raglan and Wolterton.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig184" id="fig184"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig184.jpg" width="405" height="300"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 184.&mdash;BURGHLEY HOUSE.</p>
+
+<p><b>ELIZABETHAN STYLE.</b> Under Elizabeth (1558&ndash;1603) the
+progress of classic culture and the employment of Dutch
+<span class="pagenum">327</span>
+<a name="page327" id="page327"> </a>
+and Italian artists led to a gradual introduction of Renaissance forms,
+which, as in France, were at first mingled with others of Gothic origin.
+Among the foreign artists in England were the versatile Holbein, Trevigi
+and Torregiano from Italy, and Theodore Have, Bernard Jansen, and Gerard
+Chrismas from Holland. The pointed arch disappeared, and the orders
+began to be used as subordinate features in the decoration of doors,
+windows, chimneys, and mantels. Open-work balustrades replaced
+externally the heavy Tudor battlements, and a peculiar style of carving
+in flat relief-patterns, resembling <i>appliqué</i> designs cut out with
+the jigsaw and attached by nails or rivets, was applied with little
+judgment to all possible features. Ceilings were commonly finished in
+plaster, with elaborate interlacing patterns in low relief; and this,
+with the increasing use of interior woodwork, gave to the mansions of
+this time a more homelike but less monumental aspect internally. English
+<span class="pagenum">328</span>
+<a name="page328" id="page328"> </a>
+architects, like Smithson and Thorpe, now began to win the patronage at
+first monopolized by foreigners. In <b>Wollaton Hall</b> (1580), by
+Smithson, the orders were used for the main composition with mullioned
+windows, much after the fashion of <b>Longleat House</b>, completed a
+year earlier by his master, John of Padua. During the following period,
+however (1590&ndash;1610), there was a reaction toward the Tudor
+practice, and the orders were again relegated to subordinate uses. Of
+their more monumental employment, the <b>Gate of Honor</b> of Caius
+College, Cambridge, is one of the earliest examples. Hardwicke and
+Charlton Halls, and Burghley, Hatfield, and Holland Houses (Fig. 184),
+are noteworthy monuments of the style.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>JACOBEAN STYLE.</b> During the reign of James&nbsp;I.
+(1603&ndash;25), details of classic origin came into more general use,
+but caricatured almost beyond recognition. The orders, though much
+employed, were treated without correctness or grace, and the ornament
+was unmeaning and heavy. It is not worth while to dwell further upon
+this style, which produced no important public buildings, and soon gave
+way to a more rigid classicism.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig185" id="fig185"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig185.jpg" width="259" height="286"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 185.&mdash;BANQUETING HALL, WHITEHALL.</p>
+
+<p><b>CLASSIC PERIOD.</b> If the classic style was late in its
+appearance in England, its final sway was complete and long-lasting. It
+was <i>Inigo Jones</i> (1572&ndash;1652) who first introduced the
+correct and monumental style of the Italian masters of classic design.
+For Palladio, indeed, he seems to have entertained a sort of veneration,
+and the villa which he designed at Chiswick was a reduced copy of
+Palladio’s Villa Capra, near Vicenza. This and other works of his show a
+failure to appreciate the unsuitability of Italian conceptions to the
+climate and tastes of Great Britain; his efforts to popularize Palladian
+architecture, without the resources which Palladio controlled in the way
+of decorative sculpture and painting, were consequently not always happy
+in their results. His greatest work was the design
+<span class="pagenum">329</span>
+<a name="page329" id="page329"> </a>
+for a new <b>Palace at Whitehall</b>, London. Of this colossal scheme,
+which, if completed, would have ranked as the grandest palace of the
+time, only the <b>Banqueting Hall</b> (now used as a museum) was ever
+built (Fig. 185). It is an effective composition in two stories,
+rusticated throughout and adorned with columns and pilasters, and
+contains a fine vaulted hall in three aisles. The plan of the palace,
+which was to have measured 1,152 × 720 feet, was excellent, largely
+conceived and carefully studied in its details, but it was wholly beyond
+the resources of the kingdom. The garden-front of <b>Somerset House</b>
+(1632; demolished) had the same qualities of simplicity and dignity,
+recalling the works of Sammichele. Wilton House, Coleshill, the Villa at
+Chiswick, and St. Paul’s, Covent Garden, are the best known of his
+works, showing him to have been a designer of ability, but hardly of the
+consummate genius which his admirers attribute to him.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig186" id="fig186"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig186.png" width="153" height="278"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 186.&mdash;PLAN OF ST. PAUL’S, LONDON.</p>
+
+<p><b>ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL.</b> The greatest of Jones’s successors was
+<i>Sir Christopher Wren</i> (1632&ndash;1723), principally known as the
+architect of <b>St. Paul’s Cathedral</b>, London, built to replace the
+earlier Gothic cathedral destroyed in the great fire of 1666. It was
+begun in 1675, and its designer had the rare good fortune to witness its
+completion in 1710. The plan, as finally adopted, retained the general
+<span class="pagenum">330</span>
+<a name="page330" id="page330"> </a>
+proportions of an English Gothic church, measuring 480 feet in length,
+with transepts 250 feet long, and a grand rotunda 108 feet in diameter
+at the crossing (Fig. 186). The style was strictly Italian, treated with
+sobriety and dignity, if somewhat lacking in variety and inspiration.
+Externally two stories of the Corinthian order appear, the upper story
+being merely a screen to hide the clearstory and its buttresses. This is
+an architectural deception, not atoned for by any special beauty of
+detail. The dominant feature of the design is the dome over the central
+area. It consists of an inner shell, reaching a height of 216 feet,
+above which rises the exterior dome of wood, surmounted by a stone
+lantern, the summit of which is 360 feet from the pavement (Fig. 187).
+This exterior dome, springing from a high drum surrounded by a
+magnificent peristyle, gives to the otherwise commonplace exterior of
+the cathedral a signal majesty of effect. Next to the dome the most
+successful part of the design is the west front, with its two-storied
+porch and flanking bell-turrets. Internally the excessive relative
+length, especially that of the choir, detracts from the effect of the
+dome, and the poverty of detail gives the whole a somewhat bare aspect.
+It is intended to relieve this ultimately by a systematic use of mosaic
+decoration, especially in the dome. The central area itself, in spite of
+the awkward treatment of the four smaller arches of the eight which
+support the dome, is a noble design, occupying the whole width of the
+three aisles, like the Octagon at Ely, and producing a striking effect
+of amplitude
+<span class="pagenum">331</span>
+<a name="page331" id="page331"> </a>
+and grandeur. The dome above it is constructively interesting from the
+employment of a cone of brick masonry to support the stone lantern which
+rises above the exterior wooden shell. The lower part of the cone forms
+the drum of the inner dome, its contraction upward being intended to
+produce a perspective illusion of increased height.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig187" id="fig187"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig187.jpg" width="430" height="323"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 187.<!-- invisible . -->&mdash;EXTERIOR OF ST. PAUL’S
+CATHEDRAL.</p>
+
+<p>St. Paul’s ranks among the five <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘of’">or</ins> six greatest domical buildings of Europe, and
+is the most imposing modern edifice in England.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>WREN’S OTHER WORKS.</b> Wren was conspicuously successful in the
+designing of parish churches in London. <b>St. Stephen’s</b>, Walbrook,
+is the most admired of these, with a dome resting on eight columns. Wren
+may be called the inventor of the English Renaissance type of steeple,
+in which a conical or pyramidal spire is harmoniously added
+<span class="pagenum">332</span>
+<a name="page332" id="page332"> </a>
+to a belfry on a square tower with classic details. The steeple of
+<b>Bow Church</b>, Cheapside, is the most successful example of the
+type. In secular architecture Wren’s most important works were the plan
+for rebuilding London after the Great Fire; the new courtyard of Hampton
+Court, a&nbsp;quiet and dignified composition in brick and stone; the
+pavilions and colonnade of <b>Greenwich Hospital</b>; the Sheldonian
+Theatre at Oxford, and the Trinity College Library at Cambridge. Without
+profound originality, these works testify to the sound good taste and
+intelligence of their designer.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig188" id="fig188"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig188.png" width="245" height="170"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 188.&mdash;PLAN OF BLENHEIM.<!-- invisible . --><br>
+<a class="closeup" href="images/fig188_large.png" target="_blank">
+Larger View</a></p>
+
+<p><b>THE 18TH CENTURY.</b> The Anglo-Italian style as used by Jones and
+Wren continued in use through the eighteenth century, during the first
+half of which a number of important country-seats and some churches were
+erected. <i>Van Brugh</i> (1666&ndash;1726), <i>Hawksmoor</i>
+(1666&ndash;1736), and <i>Gibbs</i> (1683&ndash;1751) were then the
+leading architects. Van Brugh was especially skilful in his dispositions
+of plan and mass, and produced in the designs of Blenheim and Castle
+Howard effects of grandeur and variety of perspective hardly equalled by
+any of his contemporaries in France or Italy. <b>Blenheim</b>, with its
+monumental plan and the sweeping curves of its front (Fig. 188), has an
+unusually palatial aspect, though the striving for picturesqueness is
+carried too far. Castle Howard is simpler, depending largely for effect
+on a somewhat inappropriate dome. To Hawksmoor, his pupil, are due
+<b>St. Mary’s, Woolnoth</b> (1715), at London, in which by a bold
+rustication of the whole exterior and by windows set in
+<span class="pagenum">333</span>
+<a name="page333" id="page333"> </a>
+large recessed arches he was enabled to dispense wholly with the orders;
+St. George’s, Bloomsbury; the new quadrangle of All Souls at Oxford, and
+some minor works. The two most noted designs of James Gibbs are <b>St.
+Martin’s-in-the-Fields</b>, at London (1726), and the <b>Radcliffe
+Library</b>, at Oxford (1747). In the former the use of a Corinthian
+portico&mdash;a&nbsp;practically uncalled-for but decorative
+appendage&mdash;and of a steeple mounted on the roof, with no visible
+lines of support from the ground, are open to criticism. But the
+excellence of the proportions, and the dignity and appropriateness of
+the composition, both internally and externally, go far to redeem these
+defects (Fig. 189). The Radcliffe Library is a circular domical hall
+surrounded by a lower circuit of alcoves and rooms, the whole treated
+with straightforward simplicity and excellent proportions. Colin
+Campbell, Flitcroft, Kent and Wood, contemporaries of Gibbs, may be
+dismissed with passing mention.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig189" id="fig189"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig189.jpg" width="225" height="382"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 189.&mdash;ST. MARTIN’S-IN-THE-FIELDS, LONDON.<!-- invisible .
+--></p>
+
+<p><i>Sir William Chambers</i> (1726&ndash;96) was the greatest of the
+later 18th-century architects. His fame rests chiefly on his <i>Treatise
+on Civil Architecture</i>, and the extension and remodelling of
+<b>Somerset House</b>, in which he retained the general
+<i>ordonnance</i> of Inigo Jones’s design, adapting it to a
+<span class="pagenum">334</span>
+<a name="page334" id="page334"> </a>
+frontage of some 600 feet. <i>Robert <ins class="correction" title="consistent error for ‘Adam’">Adams</ins></i>, the designer of
+Keddlestone Hall, <i>Robert Taylor</i> (1714&ndash;88), the architect of
+the Bank of England, and <i>George Dance</i>, who designed the Mansion
+House and Newgate Prison, at London&mdash;the latter a vigorous and
+appropriate composition without the orders&mdash;close the list of noted
+architects of the eighteenth century. It was a period singularly wanting
+in artistic creativeness and spontaneity; its productions were nearly
+all dull and respectable, or at best dignified, but without charm.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>BELGIUM.</b> As in all other countries where the late Gothic style
+had been highly developed, Belgium was slow to accept the principles of
+the Renaissance in art. Long after the dawn of the sixteenth century the
+Flemish architects continued to employ their highly florid Gothic alike
+for churches and town-halls, with which they chiefly had to do. The
+earliest Renaissance buildings date from 1530&ndash;40, among them being
+the Hôtel du Saumon, at Malines, at Bruges the Ancien Greffe, by <i>Jean
+Wallot</i>, and at Liège the <b>Archbishop’s Palace</b>, by
+<i>Borset</i>. The last named, in the singular and capricious form of
+the arches and baluster-like columns of its court, reveals the taste of
+the age for what was <i>outré</i> and odd; a&nbsp;taste partly due, no
+doubt, to Spanish influences, as Belgium was in reality from 1506 to
+1712 a Spanish province, and there was more or less interchange of
+artists between the two countries. The <b>Hôtel de Ville</b>, at
+Antwerp, by <i>Cornelius de Vriendt</i> or <i>Floris</i>
+(1518&ndash;75), erected in 1565, is the most important monument of the
+Renaissance in Belgium. Its façade, 305 feet long and 102 feet high, in
+four stories, is an impressive creation in spite of its somewhat
+monotonous fenestration and the inartistic repetition in the third story
+of the composition and proportions of the second. The basement story
+forms an open arcade, and an open colonnade or loggia runs along under
+the roof, thus imparting to the composition a considerable play of light
+and shade, enhanced by the picturesque
+<span class="pagenum">335</span>
+<a name="page335" id="page335"> </a>
+central pavilion which rises to a height of six stories in diminishing
+stages. The style is almost Palladian in its severity, but in general
+the Flemish architects disdained the restrictions of classic canons,
+preferring a more florid and fanciful effect than could be obtained by
+mere combinations of Roman columns, arches, and entablatures. De
+Vriendt’s other works were mostly designs for altars, tabernacles and
+the like; among them the rood screen in Tournay Cathedral. His influence
+may be traced in the Hôtel<!-- invisible accent --> de Ville at Flushing
+(1594).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig190" id="fig190"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig190.jpg" width="230" height="312"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 190.&mdash;RENAISSANCE HOUSES, BRUSSELS.</p>
+
+<p>The ecclesiastical architecture of the Flemish Renaissance is almost
+as destitute of important monuments as is the secular. <b>Ste. Anne</b>,
+at Bruges, fairly illustrates the type, which is characterized in
+general by heaviness of detail and a cold and bare aspect internally.
+The Renaissance in Belgium is best exemplified, after all, by minor
+works and ordinary dwellings, many of which have considerable artistic
+grace, though they are quaint rather than monumental (Fig. 190). Stepped
+gables, high dormers, and volutes flanking each diminishing stage of the
+design, give a certain piquancy to the street architecture of the
+period.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>HOLLAND.</b> Except in the domain of realistic painting, the Dutch
+have never manifested pre-eminent artistic endowments, and the
+Renaissance produced in Holland few monuments of consequence. It began
+there, as in many
+<span class="pagenum">336</span>
+<a name="page336" id="page336"> </a>
+other places, with minor works in the churches, due largely to Flemish
+or Italian artists. About the middle of the 16th century two native
+architects, <i>Sebastian van Noye</i> and <i>William van Noort</i>,
+first popularized the use of carved pilasters and of gables or steep
+pediments adorned with carved scallop-shells, in remote imitation of the
+style of Francis&nbsp;I. The principal monuments of the age were
+town-halls, and, after the war of independence in which the yoke of
+Spain was finally broken (1566&ndash;79), local administrative
+buildings&mdash;mints, exchanges and the like. The <b>Town Hall</b> of
+<b>The Hague</b> (1565), with its stepped gable or great dormer, its
+consoles, statues, and octagonal turrets, may be said to have
+inaugurated the style generally followed after the war. Owing to the
+lack of stone, brick was almost universally employed, and stone imported
+by sea was only used in edifices of exceptional cost and importance. Of
+these the <b>Town Hall</b> at Amsterdam holds the first place. Its
+façade is of about the same dimensions as the one at Antwerp, but
+compares unfavorably with it in its monotony and want of interest. The
+<b>Leyden Town Hall</b>, by the Fleming, <i>Lieven de Key</i> (1597),
+the Bourse or Exchange and the Hanse House at Amsterdam, by <i>Hendrik
+de Keyser</i>, are also worthy of mention, though many lesser buildings,
+built of brick combined with enamelled terra-cotta and stone, possess
+quite as much artistic merit.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>DENMARK.</b> In Denmark the monuments of the Renaissance may
+almost be said to be confined to the reign of Christian IV.
+(1588&ndash;1648), and do not include a single church of any importance.
+The royal castles of the <b>Rosenborg</b> at Copenhagen (1610) and the
+<b>Fredericksborg</b> (1580&ndash;1624), the latter by a Dutch
+architect, are interesting and picturesque in mass, with their fanciful
+gables, mullioned windows and numerous turrets, but can hardly lay claim
+to beauty of detail or purity of style. The Exchange at Copenhagen,
+built of brick and stone in the same general
+<span class="pagenum">337</span>
+<a name="page337" id="page337"> </a>
+style (1619&ndash;40), is still less interesting both in mass and
+detail.</p>
+
+<p>The only other important Scandinavian monument deserving of special
+mention in so brief a sketch as this is the <b>Royal Palace</b> at
+<b>Stockholm</b>, Sweden (1698&ndash;1753), due to a foreign architect,
+<i>Nicodemus de Tessin</i>. It is of imposing dimensions, and although
+simple in external treatment, it merits praise for the excellent
+disposition of its plan, its noble court, imposing entrances, and the
+general dignity and appropriateness of its architecture.</p>
+
+
+<div class="monuments">
+<p><b>MONUMENTS</b> (in addition to those mentioned in text). <span
+class="smallcaps">England, Tudor Style</span>: Several palaces by
+Henry VIII., no longer extant; Westwood, later rebuilt; Gosfield Hall;
+Harlaxton.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Elizabethan</span>:
+Buckhurst, 1565; Kirby House, 1570, both by Thorpe; Caius College,
+1570&ndash;75, by Theodore Have; “The Schools,” Oxford, by Thomas Holt,
+1600; Beaupré Castle, 1600.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Jacobean</span>: Tombs of Mary of Scotland and of Elizabeth
+in Westminster Abbey; Audsley Inn; Bolsover Castle, 1613; Heriot’s
+Hospital, Edinburgh, 1628.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Classic</span> or <span class="smallcaps">Anglo-Italian</span>: St. John’s College, Oxford; Queen’s
+House, Greenwich; Coleshill; all by Inigo Jones, 1620&ndash;51;
+Amesbury, by Webb; Combe Abbey; Buckingham and Montague Houses; The
+Monument, London, 1670, by Wren; Temple Bar, by the same; Winchester
+Palace, 1683; Chelsea College; Towers of Westminster Abbey, 1696; St.
+Clement Dane’s; St. James’s, Westminster; St. Peter’s, Cornhill, and
+many others, all by Wren.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">18th
+Century</span>: Seaton Delaval and Grimsthorpe, by Van Brugh; Wanstead
+House, by Colin Campbell; Treasury Buildings, by Kent.</p>
+
+<p>The most important Renaissance buildings of <span class="smallcaps">Belgium</span> and <span class="smallcaps">Holland</span>
+have been mentioned in the text.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">338</span>
+<a name="page338" id="page338"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXXIV" id="chapXXIV">CHAPTER XXIV.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before,
+Fergusson, Palustre Also, von Bezold, <i>Die Baukunst der Renaissance in
+Deutschland, Holland, Belgien und Dänemark</i> <!-- invisible umlaut -->
+(in <i>Hdbuch. d. Arch.</i>). Caveda (tr. Kugler), <i>Geschichte der
+Baukunst in Spanien</i>. Fritsch, <i>Denkmäler der deutschen
+Renaissance</i> (plates). Junghändel, <i>Die Baukunst Spaniens</i>.
+Lambert und Stahl, <i>Motive der deutschen Architektur</i>. Lübke,
+<i>Geschichte der Renaissance in Deutschland</i>. Prentice,
+<i>Renaissance Architecture and Ornament in Spain</i>. Uhde,
+<i>Baudenkmäler in Spanien</i>. Verdier et Cattois, <i>Architecture
+civile et domestique</i>. Villa Amil, <i>Hispania Artistica y
+Monumental</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>AUSTRIA</b>; <b>BOHEMIA</b>. The earliest appearance of the
+Renaissance in the architecture of the German states was in the eastern
+provinces. Before the close of the fifteenth century Florentine and
+Milanese architects were employed in Austria, Bohemia, and the Tyrol,
+where there are a number of palaces and chapels in an unmixed Italian
+style. The portal of the castle of Mahrisch-Trübau dates from 1492;
+while to the early years of the 16th century belong a cruciform chapel
+at Gran, the remodelling of the castle at Cracow, and the chapel of the
+Jagellons in the same city&mdash;the earliest domical structure of the
+German Renaissance, though of Italian design. The <b>Schloss Porzia</b>
+(1510), at Spital in Carinthia, is a fine quadrangular palace,
+surrounding a court with arcades on three sides, in which the open
+stairs form a picturesque interruption with their rampant arches. But
+for the massiveness of the details it might be a Florentine palace. In
+addition to this, the famous <b>Arsenal</b> at Wiener-Neustadt (1524),
+the portal of the Imperial
+<span class="pagenum">339</span>
+<a name="page339" id="page339"> </a>
+Palace (1552), and the <b>Castle Schalaburg</b> on the Danube
+(1530&ndash;1601), are attributed to Italian architects, to whom must
+also be ascribed a number of important works at Prague. Chief among
+these the <b>Belvedere</b> (1536, by <i>Paolo della Stella</i>),
+a&nbsp;rectangular building surrounded by a graceful open arcade, above
+which it rises with a second story crowned by a curved roof; the
+Waldstein Palace (1621&ndash;29), by <i>Giov. Marini</i>, with its
+imposing loggia; <b>Schloss Stern</b>, built on the plan of a
+six-pointed star (1459&ndash;1565) and embellished by Italian artists
+with stucco ornaments and frescoes; and parts of the palace on the
+Hradschin, by <i>Scamozzi</i>, attest the supremacy of Italian art in
+Bohemia. The same is true of Styria, Carinthia, and the Tyrol;
+<i>e.g.</i> <b>Schloss Ambras</b> at Innsbrück (1570).</p>
+
+
+<p><b>GERMANY: PERIODS.</b> The earliest manifestation of the
+Renaissance in what is now the German Empire, appeared in the works of
+painters like Dürer and Burkmair, and in occasional buildings previous
+to 1525. The real transformation of German architecture, however, hardly
+began until after the Peace of Augsburg, in 1555. From that time on its
+progress was rapid, its achievements being almost wholly in the domain
+of secular architecture&mdash;princely and ducal castles, town halls or
+<i>Rathhäuser</i>, <!-- invisible umlaut --> and houses of wealthy
+burghers or corporations. It is somewhat singular that the German
+emperors should not have undertaken the construction of a new imperial
+residence on a worthy scale, the palaces of Munich and Berlin being
+aggregations of buildings of various dates about a nucleus of mediæval
+origin, and with no single portion to compare with the stately châteaux
+of the French kings. Church architecture was neglected, owing to the
+Reformation, which turned to its own uses the existing churches, while
+the Roman Catholics were too impoverished to replace the edifices they
+had lost.</p>
+
+<p>The periods of the German Renaissance are less well
+<span class="pagenum">340</span>
+<a name="page340" id="page340"> </a>
+marked than those of the French; but its successive developments follow
+the same general progression, divided into three stages:</p>
+
+<p>I. <span class="smallcaps">The Early Renaissance</span>,
+1525&ndash;1600, in which the orders were infrequently used, mainly for
+porches and for gable decoration. The conceptions and spirit of most
+monuments were still strongly tinged with Gothic feeling.</p>
+
+<p>II. <span class="smallcaps">The Late Renaissance</span>,
+1600&ndash;1675, characterized by a dry, heavy treatment, in which too
+often neither the fanciful gayety of the previous period nor the simple
+and monumental dignity of classic design appears. Broken curves, large
+scrolls, obelisks, and a style of flat relief carving resembling the
+Elizabethan are common. Occasional monuments exhibit a more correct and
+classic treatment after Italian models.</p>
+
+<p>III. <span class="smallcaps">The Decline or Baroque Period</span>,
+1675&ndash;1800, employing the orders in a style of composition
+oscillating between the extremes of bareness and of Rococo
+over-decoration. The ornament partakes of the character of the Louis XV.
+and Italian Jesuit styles, being most successful in interior decoration,
+but externally running to the extreme of unrestrained fancy.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig191" id="fig191"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig191.jpg" width="259" height="453"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 191.&mdash;SCHLOSS HÄMELSCHENBURG.<!-- invisible umlaut --></p>
+
+<p><b>CHARACTERISTICS.</b> In none of these periods do we meet with the
+sober, monumental treatment of the Florentine or Roman schools.
+A&nbsp;love of picturesque variety in masses and sky-lines, inherited
+from mediæval times, appears in the high roofs, stepped gables and lofty
+dormers which are universal. The roofs often comprise several stories,
+and are lighted by lofty gables at either end, and by dormers carried up
+from the side walls through two or three stories. Gables and dormers
+alike are built in diminishing stages, each step adorned with a console
+or scroll, and the whole treated with pilasters or colonnettes and
+entablatures breaking over each support (Fig. 191). These roofs,
+dormers, and gables contribute the most noticeable element to the
+general
+<span class="pagenum">341</span>
+<a name="page341" id="page341"> </a>
+effect of most German Renaissance buildings, and are commonly the
+best-designed features in them. The orders are scantily used and usually
+treated with utter disregard of classic canons, being generally far too
+massive and overloaded with ornament. Oriels, bay-windows, and turrets,
+starting from corbels or colonnettes, or rarely from the ground,
+diversify the façade, and spires of curious bulbous patterns give added
+piquancy to the picturesque sky-line. The plans seldom had the
+monumental symmetry and largeness of Italian and French models;
+courtyards were often irregular in shape and diversified with balconies
+and spiral staircase-turrets. The national leaning was always toward the
+quaint and fantastic, as well in the decoration as in the composition.
+Grotesques, caryatids, <i>gaînes</i> (half-figures terminating below in
+sheath-like supports), fanciful rustication, and many other details give
+a touch of the Baroque even to works of early date. The same principles
+were applied with better success to interior decoration, especially in
+the large halls of
+<span class="pagenum">342</span>
+<a name="page342" id="page342"> </a>
+the castles and town-halls, and many of their ceilings were sumptuous
+and well-considered designs, deeply panelled, painted and gilded in wood
+or plaster.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CASTLES.</b> The <i>Schloss</i> or <i>Burg</i> of the German
+prince or duke retained throughout the Renaissance many mediæval
+characteristics in plan and aspect. A&nbsp;large proportion of these
+noble residences were built upon foundations of demolished feudal
+castles, reproducing in a new dress the ancient round towers and vaulted
+guard-rooms and halls, as in the Hartenfels at Torgau, the Heldburg
+(both in Saxony), and the castle of Trausnitz, in Bavaria, among many
+others. The <b>Castle</b> at <b>Torgau</b> (1540) is one of the most
+imposing of its class, with massive round and square towers showing
+externally, and court façades full of picturesque irregularities. In the
+great <b>Castle</b> at <b>Dresden</b> the plan is more symmetrical, and
+the Renaissance appears more distinctly in the details of the
+Georgenflügel (1530&ndash;50), though at that early date the classic
+orders were almost ignored. The portal of the Heldburg, however, built
+in 1562, is a composition quite in the contemporary French vein, with
+superposed orders and a crowning pediment over a massive basement.</p>
+
+<p>Another important series of castles or palaces are of more regular
+design, in which the feudal traditions tend to disappear. The majority
+belong to the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. They
+are built around large rectangular courts with arcades in two or three
+stories on one or more sides, but rarely surrounding it entirely. In
+these the segmental arch is more common than the semicircular, and
+springs usually from short and stumpy Ionic or Corinthian columns. The
+rooms and halls are arranged <i>en suite</i>, without corridors, and a
+large and lofty banquet hall forms the dominant feature of the series.
+The earliest of these regularly planned palaces are of Italian design.
+Chief among them is the <b>Residenz</b> at <b>Landshut</b>
+(1536&ndash;43),
+<span class="pagenum">343</span>
+<a name="page343" id="page343"> </a>
+with a thoroughly Roman plan, by pupils of Giulio Romano, and exterior
+and court façades of great dignity treated with the orders. More German
+in its details, but equally interesting, is the <b>Fürstenhof</b> <!--
+missing umlaut --> at <b>Wismar</b>, in brick and terra-cotta, by
+<i>Valentino di Lira</i> and <i>Van Aken</i> (1553); while in the
+<b>Piastenschloss</b> at Brieg (1547&ndash;72), by Italian architects,
+the treatment in parts suggests the richest works of the style of
+Francis&nbsp;I. In other castles the segmental arch and stumpy columns
+or piers show the German taste, as in the <b>Plassenburg</b>, by
+<i>Kaspar Vischer</i> (1554&ndash;64), the castle at Plagnitz, and the
+<b>Old Castle</b> at <b>Stuttgart</b>, all dating from about
+1550&ndash;55. <b>Heidelberg Castle</b>, in spite of its mediæval aspect
+from the river and its irregular plan, ranks as the highest achievement
+of the German Renaissance in palace design. The most interesting parts
+among its various wings built at different dates&mdash;the earlier
+portions still Gothic in design&mdash;are the <b>Otto Heinrichsbau</b>
+(1554) and the <b>Friedrichsbau</b> (1601). The first of these appears
+somewhat simpler in its lines than the second, by reason of having lost
+its original dormer-gables. The orders, freely treated, are superposed
+in three stories, and twin windows, niches, statues, <i>gaînes</i>,
+medallions and profuse carving produce an effect of great gayety and
+richness. The Friedrichsbau (Fig. 192), less quiet in its lines, and
+with high scroll-gabled and stepped dormers, is on the other hand more
+soberly decorated and more characteristically German. The Schloss
+Hämelschenburg (<a href="#fig191">Fig.&nbsp;191</a>) is designed in
+somewhat the same spirit, but with even greater simplicity of
+detail.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig192" id="fig192"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig192.jpg" width="247" height="457"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 192.&mdash;THE FRIEDRICHSBAU, HEIDELBERG.</p>
+
+<p><b>TOWN HALLS.</b> These constitute the most interesting class of
+Renaissance buildings in Germany, presenting a considerable variety of
+types, but nearly all built in solid blocks without courts, and adorned
+with towers or spires. A&nbsp;high roof crowns the building, broken by
+one or more high gables or many-storied dormers. The majority of these
+town
+<span class="pagenum">344</span>
+<a name="page344" id="page344"> </a>
+halls present façades much diversified by projecting wings, as at Lemgo
+and Paderborn, or by oriels and turrets, as at <b>Altenburg</b>
+(1562&ndash;64); and the towers which dominate the whole terminate
+usually in bell-shaped cupolas, or in more capricious forms with
+successive swellings and contractions, as at Dantzic (1587). A&nbsp;few,
+however, are designed with monumental simplicity of mass; of these that
+at <b>Bremen</b> (1612) is perhaps the finest, with its beautiful
+exterior arcade on strong Doric columns. The town hall of Nuremberg is
+one of the few with a court, and presents a façade of almost Roman
+simplicity (1613&ndash;19); that at <b>Augsburg</b> (1615) is equally
+classic and more pleasing; while at Schweinfurt, Rothenburg (1572),
+Mülhausen, etc., are others worthy of mention.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHURCHES.</b> <b>St. Michael’s</b>, at Munich, is almost the only
+important church of the first period in Germany (1582), but it is worthy
+to rank with many of the most notable contemporary Italian churches.
+A&nbsp;wide nave covered by a majestic barrel vault, is flanked by side
+chapels, separated from each other by massive piers and
+<span class="pagenum">345</span>
+<a name="page345" id="page345"> </a>
+forming a series of gallery bays above. There are short transepts and a
+choir, all in excellent proportion and treated with details which, if
+somewhat heavy, are appropriate and reasonably correct. The
+<b>Marienkirche</b> at Wolfenbüttel <!-- missing umlaut --> (1608) is a
+fair sample of the parish churches of the second period. In the exterior
+of this church pointed arches and semi-Gothic tracery are curiously
+associated with heavy rococo carving. The simple rectangular mass,
+square tower, and portal with massive orders and carving are
+characteristic features. Many of the church-towers are well proportioned
+and graceful structures in spite of the fantastic outlines of their
+spires. One of the best and purest in style is that of the University
+Church at Würzburg (1587&ndash;1600).</p>
+
+
+<p><b>HOUSES.</b> Many of the German houses of the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries would merit extended notice in a larger work, as
+among the most interesting lesser monuments of the Renaissance.
+Nuremberg and Hildesheim are particularly rich in such houses, built
+either for private citizens or for guilds and corporations. Not a few of
+the half-timbered houses of the time are genuine works of art, though
+interest chiefly centres in the more monumental
+<span class="pagenum">346</span>
+<a name="page346" id="page346"> </a>
+dwellings of stone. In this domestic architecture the picturesque
+quality of German design appears to better advantage than in more
+monumental edifices, and their broadly stepped gables, corbelled oriels,
+florid portals and want of formal symmetry imparting a peculiar and
+undeniable charm. The Kaiserhaus and Wedekindsches Haus at Hildesheim;
+<b>Fürstenhaus</b> at Leipzig; Peller, Hirschvogel, and Funk houses at
+Nuremberg; the Salt House at Frankfurt, and Ritter House at Heidelberg,
+are a few of the most noted among these examples of domestic
+architecture.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig193" id="fig193"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig193.jpg" width="225" height="419"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 193.&mdash;ZWINGER PALACE, DRESDEN.</p>
+
+<p><b>LATER MONUMENTS.</b> The <b>Zwinger Palace</b> at Dresden (Fig.
+193), is the most elaborate and wayward example of the German palace
+architecture of the third period. Its details are of the most
+exaggerated rococo type, like confectioner’s work done in stone; and yet
+the building has an air of princely splendor which partly atones for its
+details. Besides this palace, Dresden possesses in the domical
+<b>Marienkirche</b> (Fig. 194) a&nbsp;very meritorious example of late
+design. The proportions are good, and the detail, if not interesting, is
+at least inoffensive, while the whole is
+<span class="pagenum">347</span>
+<a name="page347" id="page347"> </a>
+a&nbsp;dignified and rational piece of work. At Vienna are a number of
+palaces of the third period, more interesting for their beautiful
+grounds and parks than for intrinsic architectural merit. As in Italy,
+this was the period of stucco, and although in Vienna this cheap and
+perishable material was cleverly handled, and the ornament produced was
+often quaint and effective, the results lack the permanence and dignity
+of true building in stone or brick, and may be dismissed without further
+mention.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft w240">
+<a name="fig194" id="fig194"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig194.jpg" width="239" height="417"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 194.&mdash;CHURCH OF ST. MARY (MARIENKIRCHE), DRESDEN.</p>
+
+<p>In minor works the Germans were far less prolific than the Italians
+or Spaniards. Few of their tombs were of the first importance, though
+one, the <b>Sebald Shrine</b>, in Nuremberg, by <i>Peter Vischer</i>
+(1506&ndash;19), is a splendid work in bronze, in the transitional
+style; a&nbsp;richly decorated canopy on slender metal colonnettes
+covering and enclosing the sarcophagus of the saint. There are a large
+number of fountains in the squares of German and Swiss cities which
+display a high order of design, and are among the most characteristic
+minor products of German art.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>SPAIN.</b> The flamboyant Gothic style sufficed for a while to
+meet the requirements of the arrogant and luxurious period which in
+Spain followed the overthrow of the Moors and the discovery of America.
+But it was inevitable that the Renaissance should in time make its
+influence felt in the arts of the Iberian peninsula, largely through the
+employment of Flemish artists. In jewelry and silverwork, arts which
+received a great impulse from the importation of the precious metals
+from the New World, the forms of the Renaissance found special
+acceptance, so that the new style received the name of the
+<i>Plateresque</i> (from <i>platero</i>, silversmith). This was a not
+inept name for the minutely detailed and sumptuous decoration of the
+early Renaissance, which lasted from 1500 to the accession of Philip II.
+in 1556. It was characterized by surface-decoration spreading over broad
+areas, especially around doors and windows,
+<span class="pagenum">348</span>
+<a name="page348" id="page348"> </a>
+florid escutcheons and Gothic details mingling with delicately chiselled
+arabesques. Decorative pilasters with broken entablatures and carved
+baluster-shafts were employed with little reference to constructive
+lines, but with great refinement of detail, in spite of the exuberant
+profusion of the ornament.</p>
+
+<p>To this style, after the artistic inaction of Philip II.’s reign,
+succeeded the coldly classic style practised by <i>Berruguete</i> and
+<i>Herrera</i>, and called the <i>Griego-Romano</i>. In spite of the
+attempt to produce works of classical purity, the buildings of this
+period are for the most part singularly devoid of originality and
+interest. This style lasted until the middle of the seventeenth century,
+and in the case of certain works and artists, until its close. It was
+followed, at least in ecclesiastical architecture, by the so-called
+<i>Churrigueresque</i>, a&nbsp;name derived from an otherwise
+insignificant architect, <i>Churriguera</i>, who like Maderna and
+Borromini in Italy, discarded all the proprieties of architecture, and
+rejoiced in the wildest extravagances of an untrained fancy and debased
+taste.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>EARLY MONUMENTS.</b> The earliest ecclesiastical works of the
+Renaissance period, like the cathedrals of Salamanca, Toledo, and
+Segovia, were almost purely Gothic in style. Not until 1525 did the new
+forms begin to dominate in cathedral design. The cathedral at
+<b>Jaen</b>, by <i>Valdelvira</i> (1525), an imposing structure with
+three aisles and side chapels, was treated internally with the
+Corinthian order throughout. The Cathedral of <b>Granada</b> (1529, by
+<i>Diego de Siloe</i>) is especially interesting for its great domical
+sanctuary 70 feet in diameter, and for the largeness and dignity of its
+conception and details. The cathedral of Malaga, the church of San
+Domingo at Salamanca, and the monastery of San Girolamo in the same city
+are either wholly or in part Plateresque, and provided with portals of
+especial richness of decoration. Indeed, the portal of S.&nbsp;Domingo
+practically forms the whole façade.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">349</span>
+<a name="page349" id="page349"> </a>
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig195" id="fig195"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig195.jpg" width="263" height="411"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 195.<!-- invisible . -->&mdash;DOOR OF THE UNIVERSITY,
+SALAMANCA.</p>
+
+<p>In secular architecture the <b>Hospital</b> of <b>Santa Cruz</b> at
+Toledo, by <i>Enrique de Egaz</i> (1504&ndash;16), is one of the
+earliest examples of the style. Here, as also in the <b>University</b>
+at <b>Salamanca</b> (Fig. 195), the portal is the most notable feature,
+suggesting both Italian and French models in its details. The great
+<b>College</b> at <b>Alcala de Heñares</b> is another important early
+monument of the Renaissance (1500&ndash;17, by <i>Pedro Gumiel</i>). In
+most designs the preference was for long façades of moderate height,
+with a basement showing few openings, and a <i>bel étage</i> lighted by
+large windows widely spaced. Ornament was chiefly concentrated about the
+doors and windows, except for the roof balustrades, which were often
+exceedingly elaborate. Occasionally a decorative motive is spread over
+the whole façade, as in the <b>Casa de las Conchas</b> at Salamanca,
+adorned with cockle-shells carved at intervals all over the
+front&mdash;a&nbsp;bold and effective device; or the Infantada palace
+with its spangling of carved diamonds. The courtyard or <i>patio</i> was
+an indispensable feature of these buildings, as in all hot countries,
+and was surrounded
+<span class="pagenum">350</span>
+<a name="page350" id="page350"> </a>
+by arcades frequently of the most fanciful design overloaded with minute
+ornament, as in the <b>Infantado</b> at Guadalajara, the <b>Casa de
+Zaporta</b>, formerly at Saragossa (now removed to Paris; Fig. 196), and
+the Lupiana monastery. The patios in the <b>Archbishop’s Palace</b> at
+Alcala de Heñares and the <b>Collegio de los Irlandeses</b> at Salamanca
+are of simpler design; that of the <b>Casa de Pilatos</b> at Seville is
+almost purely Moorish. Salamanca abounds in buildings of this
+period.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig196" id="fig196"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig196.jpg" width="244" height="467"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 196.<!-- invisible . -->&mdash;CASA DE ZAPORTA: <!-- invisible :
+--> COURTYARD.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE GRIEGO-ROMANO.</b> The more classic treatment of architectural
+designs by the use of the orders was introduced by <i>Alonzo
+Berruguete</i> (1480&ndash;1560?), who studied in Italy after 1503. The
+Archbishop’s Palace and the Doric <b>Gate</b> of <b>San Martino</b>,
+both at Toledo, were his work, as well as the first palace at Madrid.
+The Palladio of Spain was, however, by <i>Juan de Herrera</i> (died
+1597), the architect of <b>Valladolid Cathedral</b>, built under
+Philip&nbsp;V. This vast edifice follows the general lines of the
+earlier cathedrals of Jaen and Granada, but in a style of classical
+correctness almost
+<span class="pagenum">351</span>
+<a name="page351" id="page351"> </a>
+severe in aspect, but well suited to the grand scale of the church. The
+masterpiece of this period was the monastery of the <b>Escurial</b>,
+begun by <i>Juan Battista</i> of Toledo, in 1563, but not completed
+until nearly one hundred and fifty years later. Its final architectural
+aspect was largely due to Herrera. It is a vast rectangle of 740 × 580
+feet, comprising a complex of courts, halls, and cells, dominated by the
+huge mass of the chapel. This last is an imposing domical church
+covering 70,000 square feet, treated throughout with the Doric order,
+and showing externally a lofty dome and campaniles with domical
+lanterns, which serve to diversify the otherwise monotonous mass of the
+monastery. What the Escurial lacks in grace or splendor is at least in a
+measure redeemed by its majestic scale and varied sky-lines. The
+<b>Palace of Charles&nbsp;V.</b> (Fig. 197), adjoining the Alhambra at
+Granada, though begun as early as 1527 by <i>Machuca</i>, was mainly due
+to Berruguete, and is an excellent example of the Spanish Palladian
+style. With its circular court, admirable proportions and well-studied
+details, this often maligned edifice deserves to be ranked among the
+most successful examples of the style. During this period the cathedral
+of Seville received many alterations, and the upper part of the
+adjoining
+<span class="pagenum">352</span>
+<a name="page352" id="page352"> </a>
+Moorish tower of the <b>Giralda</b>, burned in 1395, was rebuilt by
+<i>Fernando Ruiz</i> in the prevalent style, and with considerable
+elegance and appropriateness of design.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w270">
+<a name="fig197" id="fig197"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig197.jpg" width="263" height="312"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 197.&mdash;PALACE OF CHARLES V., GRANADA.<!-- invisible last two .
+--></p>
+
+<p>Of the <b>Palace</b> at <b>Madrid</b>, rebuilt by Philip&nbsp;V.
+after the burning of the earlier palace in 1734, and mainly the work of
+an Italian, <i>Ivara</i>; the Aranjuez palace (1739, by <i>Francisco
+Herrera</i>), and the Palace at <b>San Ildefonso</b>, it need only be
+said that their chief merit lies in their size and the absence of those
+glaring violations of good taste which generally characterized the
+successors of Churriguera. In ecclesiastical design these violations of
+taste were particularly abundant and excessive, especially in the
+façades and in the sanctuary&mdash;huge aggregations of misplaced and
+vulgar detail, with hardly an unbroken pediment, column, or arch in the
+whole. Some extreme examples of this abominable style are to be found in
+the Spanish-American churches of the 17th and 18th centuries, as at
+Chihuahua (Mexico), Tucson (Arizona), and other places. The least
+offensive features of the churches of this period were the towers,
+usually in pairs at the west end, some of them showing excellent
+proportions and good composition in spite of their execrable
+details.</p>
+
+<p>Minor architectural works, such as the rood screens in the churches
+of Astorga and Medina de Rio Seco, and many tombs at Granada, Avila,
+Alcala, etc., give evidence of superior skill in decorative design,
+where constructive considerations did not limit the exercise of the
+imagination.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PORTUGAL.</b> The Renaissance appears to have produced few notable
+works in Portugal. Among the chief of these are the <b>Tower</b>, the
+church, and the <b>Cloister</b>, at Belem. These display a riotous
+profusion of minute carved ornament, with a free commingling of late
+Gothic details, wearisome in the end in spite of the beauty of its
+execution (1500&ndash;40?). The church of <b>Santa Cruz</b> at Coimbra,
+and that of <b>Luz</b>, near Lisbon, are among the most noted of the
+religious
+<span class="pagenum">353</span>
+<a name="page353" id="page353"> </a>
+monuments of the Renaissance, while in secular architecture the royal
+palace at <b>Mafra</b> is worthy of mention.</p>
+
+
+<div class="monuments">
+<p><b>MONUMENTS.</b> (Mainly supplementary to preceding text.) <span
+class="smallcaps">Austria</span>, <span class="smallcaps">Bohemia</span>, etc.: At Prague, Schloss Stern,
+1459&ndash;1565; Schwarzenburg Palace, 1544; Waldstein Palace, 1629;
+Salvator Chapel, Vienna, 1515; Schloss Schalaburg, near Mölk,
+1530&ndash;1601; Standehaus, Gratz, 1625. At Vienna: Imperial palace,
+various dates; Schwarzenburg and Lichtenstein palaces, 18th century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Germany</span>, <span class="smallcaps">First Period</span>: Schloss Baden, 1510&ndash;29 and part
+1569&ndash;82; Schloss Merseburg, 1514, with late 16th-century portals;
+Fuggerhaus at Augsburg, 1516; castles of Neuenstein, 1530&ndash;64;
+Celle, 1532&ndash;46 (and enlarged, 1665&ndash;70); Dessau, 1533;
+Leignitz, portal, 1533; Plagnitz, 1550; Schloss Gottesau, 1553&ndash;88;
+castle of Güstrow, 1555&ndash;65; of Oels, 1559&ndash;1616; of Bernburg,
+1565; of Heiligenburg, 1569&ndash;87; Münzhof at Munich, 1575; Lusthaus
+(demolished) at Stuttgart, 1575; Wilhelmsburg Castle at Schmalkald,
+1584&ndash;90; castle of Hämelschenburg, 1588&ndash;1612.&mdash;<span
+class="smallcaps">Second Period</span>: Zunfthaus at Basle, 1578, in
+advanced style; so also Juleum at Helmstädt, 1593&ndash;1612; gymnasium
+at Brunswick, 1592&ndash;1613; Spiesshof at Basle, 1600; castle at
+Berlin, 1600&ndash;1616, demolished in great part; castle Bevern, 1603;
+Dantzic, Zeughaus, 1605; Wallfahrtskirche at Dettelbach, 1613; castle
+Aschaffenburg, 1605&ndash;13; Schloss Weikersheim,
+1600&ndash;83.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Third Period</span>:
+Zeughaus at Berlin, 1695; palace at Berlin by Schlüter, 1699&ndash;1706;
+Catholic church, Dresden. (For Classic Revival, see next
+chapter.)&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">Town Halls</span>: At
+Heilbronn, 1535; Görlitz, 1537; Posen, 1550; Mülhausen, 1552; Cologne,
+porch with Corinthian columns and Gothic arches, 1569; Lübeck
+(Rathhaushalle), 1570; Schweinfurt, 1570; Gotha, 1574; Emden,
+1574&ndash;76; Lemgo, 1589; Neisse, 1604; Nordhausen, 1610; Paderborn,
+1612&ndash;16; Gernsbach, 1617.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Spain</span>, <span class="smallcaps">16th Century</span>: Monastery San Marcos at Leon; palace of
+the Infanta, Saragossa; Carcel del Corte at Baez; Cath. of Malaga,
+W.&nbsp;front, 1538, by de Siloë; Tavera Hospital, Toledo, 1541, by de
+Bustamente; Alcazar at Toledo, 1548; Lonja (Town Hall) at Saragossa,
+1551; Casa de la Sal, Casa Monterey, and Collegio de los Irlandeses, all
+at Salamanca; Town Hall, Casa de los Taveras and upper part of Giralda,
+all at Seville.&mdash;<span class="smallcaps">17th Century</span>:
+Cathedral del Pilar, Saragossa, 1677; Tower del Seo, 1685.&mdash;<span
+class="smallcaps">18th Century</span>: palace at Madrid, 1735; at
+Aranjuez, 1739; cathedral of Santiago, 1738; Lonja at Barcelona,
+1772.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">354</span>
+<a name="page354" id="page354"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXXV" id="chapXXV">CHAPTER XXV.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before,
+Fergusson. Also Chateau, <i>Histoire et caractères de l’architecture en
+France</i>; and Lübke, <i>Geschichte der Architektur</i>. (For the most
+part, however, recourse must be had to the general histories of
+architecture, and to monographs on special cities or buildings.)</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</b> By the end of the seventeenth century
+the Renaissance, properly speaking, had run its course in Europe. The
+increasing servility of its imitation of antique models had exhausted
+its elasticity and originality. Taste rapidly declined before the growth
+of the industrial and commercial spirit in the eighteenth century. The
+ferment of democracy and the disquiet of far-reaching political changes
+had begun to preoccupy the minds of men to the detriment of the arts. By
+the middle of the eighteenth century, however, the extravagances of the
+Rococo, Jesuit, and Louis XV. styles had begun to pall upon the popular
+taste. The creative spirit was dead, and nothing seemed more promising
+as a corrective for these extravagances than a return to classic models.
+But the demand was for a literal copying of the arcades and porticos of
+Rome, to serve as frontispieces for buildings in which modern
+requirements should be accommodated to these antique exteriors, instead
+of controlling the design. The result was a manifest gain in the
+splendor of the streets and squares adorned by these highly decorative
+frontispieces, but at the expense of convenience
+<span class="pagenum">355</span>
+<a name="page355" id="page355"> </a>
+and propriety in the buildings themselves. While this academic spirit
+too often sacrificed logic and originality to an arbitrary symmetry and
+to the supposed canons of Roman design, it also, on the other hand, led
+to a stateliness and dignity in the planning, especially in the
+designing of vestibules, stairs, and halls, which render many of the
+public buildings it produced well worthy of study. The architecture of
+the Roman Revival was pompous and artificial, but seldom trivial, and
+its somewhat affected grandeur was a welcome relief from the dull
+extravagance of the styles it replaced.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE GREEK REVIVAL.</b> The Roman revival was, however, displaced
+in England and Germany by the Greek Revival, which set in near the close
+of the eighteenth century. This was the result of a newly awakened
+interest in the long-neglected monuments of Attic art which the
+discoveries of Stuart and Revett&mdash;sent out in 1732 by the London
+Society of Dilettanti&mdash;had once more made known to the world. It
+led to a veritable <i>furore</i> in England for Greek Doric and Ionic
+columns, which were applied indiscriminately to every class of
+buildings, with utter disregard of propriety. The British taste was at
+this time at its lowest ebb, and failed to perceive the poverty of Greek
+architecture when deprived of its proper adornments of carving and
+sculpture, which were singularly lacking in the British examples.
+Nevertheless the Greek style in England had a long run of popular favor,
+yielding only during the reign of the present sovereign to the so-called
+Victorian Gothic, a&nbsp;revival of mediæval forms. In Germany the Greek
+Revival was characterized by a more cultivated taste and a more rational
+application of its forms, which were often freely modified to suit
+modern needs. In France, where the Roman Revival under Louis XV. had
+produced fairly satisfactory results, and where the influence of the
+Royal School of Fine Arts (<i>École des Beaux-Arts</i>) tended to
+perpetuate the
+<span class="pagenum">356</span>
+<a name="page356" id="page356"> </a>
+principles of Roman design, the Greek Revival found no footing. The
+Greek forms were seen to be too severe and intractable for present
+requirements. About 1830, however, a&nbsp;modified style of design,
+known since as the <i>Néo-Grec</i>, was introduced by the exertions of a
+small coterie of talented architects; and though its own life was short,
+it profoundly influenced French art in the direction of freedom and
+refinement for a long time afterward. In Italy there was hardly anything
+in the nature of a true revival of either Roman or Greek forms. The few
+important works of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries
+were conceived in the spirit of the late Renaissance, and took from the
+prevalent revival of classicism elsewhere merely a greater correctness
+of detail, not any radical change of form or spirit.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig198" id="fig198"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig198.jpg" width="458" height="280"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 198.&mdash;BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON.<!-- invisible . --></p>
+
+<p><b>ENGLAND.</b> There was, strictly speaking, no Roman revival in
+Great Britain. The modified Palladian style of Wren and Gibbs and their
+successors continued until superseded by the Greek revival. The first
+fruit of the new movement seems to have been the <b>Bank of England</b>
+at London, by <i>Sir John Soane</i> (1788). In this edifice the
+Greco-Roman order of the round temple at Tivoli was closely copied, and
+applied to a long façade, too low for its length and with no sufficient
+stylobate, but fairly effective with its recessed colonnade and
+unpierced walls. The <b>British Museum</b>, by <i>Robert Smirke</i>
+(Fig. 198), was a more ambitious essay in a more purely Greek style. Its
+colossal Ionic colonnade was, however, a&nbsp;mere frontispiece, applied
+to a badly planned and commonplace building, from which it cut off
+needed light. The more modest but appropriate columnar façade to the
+<b>Fitzwilliam Museum</b> at Cambridge, by <i>Bassevi</i>, was a more
+successful attempt in the same direction, better proportioned and
+avoiding the incongruity of modern windows in several stories. These
+have always been the stumbling-block of the revived Greek style. The
+<span class="pagenum">357</span>
+<a name="page357" id="page357"> </a>
+difficulties they raise are avoided, however, in buildings presenting
+but two stories, the order being applied to the upper story, upon a high
+stylobate serving as a basement. The <b>High School</b> and the Royal
+Institution at Edinburgh, and the University at London, by
+<i>Wilkins</i>, are for this reason, if for no other, superior to the
+British Museum and other many-storied Anglo-Greek edifices. In spite of
+all difficulties, however, the English extended the applications of the
+style with doubtful success not only to all manner of public buildings,
+but also to country residences. Carlton House, Bowden Park, and Grange
+House are instances of this misapplication of Greek forms. Neither did
+it prove more tractable for ecclesiastical purposes. <b>St.
+Pancras’s</b> Church at London, and several churches by <i>Thomson</i>
+(1817&ndash;75), in Glasgow, though interesting as experiments in such
+adaptation, are not to be commended for imitation. The most successful
+of all British Greek designs is perhaps <b>St. George’s
+<span class="pagenum">358</span>
+<a name="page358" id="page358"> </a>
+Hall</b> at Liverpool (Fig. 199), whose imposing peristyle and porches
+are sufficiently Greek in spirit and detail to class it among the works
+of the Greek Revival. But its great hall and its interior composition
+are really Roman and not Greek, emphasizing the teaching of experience
+that Greek architecture does not lend itself to the exigencies of modern
+civilization to nearly the same extent as the Roman.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig199" id="fig199"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig199.jpg" width="429" height="173"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 199.&mdash;ST.<!-- invisible . --> GEORGE’S HALL, LIVERPOOL.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>GERMANY.</b> During the eighteenth century the classic revival in
+Germany, which at first followed Roman precedents (as in the columns
+carved with spirally ascending reliefs in front of the church of <b>St.
+Charles Borromeo</b>, at Vienna), was directed into the channel of Greek
+imitation by the literary works of Winckelmann, Lessing, Goethe, and
+others, as well as by the interest aroused by the discoveries of Stuart
+and Revett. The <b>Brandenburg Gate</b> at Berlin (1784, by Langhans)
+was an early example of this Hellenism in architecture, and one of its
+most successful applications to civic purposes. Without precisely
+copying any Greek structure, it was evidently inspired from the Athenian
+Propylæa, and nothing in its purpose is foreign to the style employed.
+The greatest activity in the style came later, however, and was greatly
+stimulated by the achievements of <i>Fr. Schinkel</i> (1771&ndash;1841),
+one of the greatest of modern German architects.
+<span class="pagenum">359</span>
+<a name="page359" id="page359"> </a>
+While in the domical church of St. Nicholas at Potsdam, he employed
+Roman forms in a modernized Roman conception, and followed in one or two
+other buildings the principles of the Renaissance, his predilections
+were for Greek architecture. His masterpiece was the <b>Museum</b> at
+Berlin, with an imposing portico of 18 Ionic columns (Fig. 200). This
+building with its fine rotunda was excellently planned, and forms, in
+conjunction with the <b>New Museum</b> by <i>Stuhler</i>
+(1843&ndash;55), a&nbsp;noble palace of art, to whose monumental
+requirements and artistic purpose the Greek colonnades and pediments
+were not inappropriate. Schinkel’s greatest successor was <i>Leo von
+Klenze</i> (1784&ndash;1864), whose more textual reproductions of Greek
+models won him great favor and wide employment. The <b>Walhalla</b> near
+Ratisbon is a modernized Parthenon, internally vaulted with glass;
+elegant externally, but too obvious a plagiarism to be greatly admired.
+The <b>Ruhmeshalle</b> at Munich, a&nbsp;double <span class="sans">L</span> partly enclosing a colossal statue of Bavaria, and
+devoted to the commemoration of Bavaria’s great men, is copied from no
+Greek building, though purely Greek in design and correct to the
+smallest detail. In the <b>Glyptothek</b> (Sculpture Gallery), in the
+same city, the one distinctively
+<span class="pagenum">360</span>
+<a name="page360" id="page360"> </a>
+Greek feature introduced by Klenze, an Ionic portico, is also the one
+inappropriate note in the design. The <b>Propylæa</b> at Munich, by the
+same (Fig. 201), and the <b>Court Theatre</b> at Berlin, by Schinkel,
+are other important examples of the style. The latter is externally one
+of the most beautiful theatres in Europe, though less ornate than many.
+Schinkel’s genius was here remarkably successful in adapting Greek
+details to the exigent difficulties of theatre design, and there is no
+suggestion of copying any known Greek building.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig200" id="fig200"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig200.jpg" width="427" height="182"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 200.<!-- invisible both . -->&mdash;THE OLD MUSEUM, BERLIN.</p>
+
+<p>In Vienna the one notable monument of the Classic Revival is the
+<b>Reichsrathsgebäude</b> or Parliament House, by <i>Th. Hansen</i>
+(1843), an imposing two-storied composition with a lofty central
+colonnade and lower side-wings, harmonious in general proportions and
+pleasingly varied in outline and mass.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig201" id="fig201"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig201.jpg" width="436" height="243"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 201.<!-- invisible both . -->&mdash;THE PROPYLÆA, MUNICH.</p>
+
+<p>In general, the Greek Revival in Germany presents the aspect of a
+sincere striving after beauty, on the part of a limited number of
+artists of great talent, misled by the idea
+<span class="pagenum">361</span>
+<a name="page361" id="page361"> </a>
+that the forms of a dead civilization could be galvanized into new life
+in the service of modern needs. The result was disappointing, in spite
+of the excellent planning, admirable construction and carefully studied
+detail of these buildings, and the movement here as elsewhere was
+foredoomed to failure.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w180">
+<a name="fig202" id="fig202"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig202.png" width="170" height="249"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 202.&mdash;PLAN OF PANTHÉON, PARIS.<!-- invisible last two .
+--></p>
+
+<p><b>FRANCE.</b> In France the Classic Revival, as we have seen, had
+made its appearance during the reign of Louis XV. in a number of
+important monuments which expressed the protest of their authors against
+the caprice of the Rococo style then in vogue. The colonnades of the
+Garde-Meuble, the façade of St. Sulpice, and the coldly beautiful
+<b>Panthéon</b> (Figs. 202, 203) testified to the conviction in the most
+cultured minds of the time that Roman grandeur was to be attained only
+by copying the forms of Roman architecture with the closest possible
+approach to correctness. In the Panthéon, the greatest ecclesiastical
+monument of its time in France (otherwise known as the church of Ste.
+Genéviève), the spirit of correct classicism dominates the interior as
+well as the exterior. It is a Greek cross, measuring 362 × 267 feet,
+with a dome 265 feet high, and internally 69 feet in diameter. The four
+arms have domical vaulting and narrow aisles separated by Corinthian
+columns. The whole interior is a cold but extremely elegant composition.
+The most notable features of the exterior are its imposing portico of
+colossal Corinthian columns and the fine peristyle which surrounds the
+drum of the dome, giving it great dignity and richness of effect.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">362</span>
+<a name="page362" id="page362"> </a>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig203" id="fig203"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig203.jpg" width="252" height="363"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 203.&mdash;EXTERIOR OF PANTHÉON,<br>
+PARIS.<!-- invisible all . --></p>
+
+<p>The dome, which is of stone throughout, has three shells, the
+intermediate shell serving to support the heavy stone lantern. The
+architect was <i>Soufflot</i> (1713&ndash;81). The <b>Grand Théâtre</b>,
+at Bordeaux (1773, by <i>Victor Louis</i>), one of the largest and
+finest theatres in Europe, was another product of this movement, its
+stately colonnade forming one of the chief ornaments of the city. Under
+Louis XVI. there was a temporary reaction from this somewhat pompous
+affectation of antique grandeur; but there were few important buildings
+erected during that unhappy reign, and the reaction showed itself mainly
+in a more delicate and graceful style of interior decoration. It was
+reserved for the Empire to set the seal of official approval on the
+Roman Revival.
+<span class="illustration">
+<a name="fig204" id="fig204"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig204.jpg" width="286" height="325"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 204.&mdash;ARC DE L’ÉTOILE, PARIS.<!-- invisible all . --></span>
+The Arch of Triumph of the Carrousel, behind the Tuileries, by
+<i>Percier and Fontaine</i>, the magnificent Arc de l’Étoile, at the
+summit of the Avenue of the Champs Elysées, by <i>Chalgrin</i>; the wing
+begun by Napoleon to connect the Tuileries with the Louvre on the land
+side, and the church of the Madeleine, by <i>Vignon</i>, erected as a
+temple to the heroes of the Grande Armée, were all designed, in
+accordance with the expressed will of the Emperor himself, in a style as
+Roman as the requirements
+<span class="pagenum">363</span>
+<a name="page363" id="page363"> </a>
+of each case would permit. All these monuments, begun between 1806 and
+1809, were completed after the Restoration. The <b>Arch</b> of the
+<b>Carrousel</b> is a close copy of Roman models; that of the
+<b>Étoile</b> (Fig. 204) was a much more original design, of colossal
+dimensions. Its admirable proportions, simple composition and striking
+sculptures give it a place among the noblest creations of its class. The
+<b>Madeleine</b> (Fig. 205), externally a Roman Corinthian temple of the
+largest size, presents internally an almost Byzantine conception with
+the three pendentive domes that vault its vast nave, but all the details
+are Roman. However suitable for a pantheon or mausoleum, it seems
+strangely inappropriate as a design for a Christian church. To these
+monuments should be added the <b>Bourse</b> or Exchange, by
+<i>Brongniart</i>, heavy in spite of its Corinthian peristyle, and the
+river front of the <b>Corps Législatif</b> or Palais Bourbon, by
+<i>Poyet</i>, the only extant example of a dodecastyle portico with a
+pediment. All of these designs are characterized by great elegance of
+detail and excellence of execution, and however inappropriate in style
+to modern uses, they add immensely to the splendor of the French
+capital. Unquestionably no feature can take the place of a Greek or
+Roman
+<span class="pagenum">364</span>
+<a name="page364" id="page364"> </a>
+colonnade as an embellishment for broad avenues and open squares, or as
+the termination of an architectural vista.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig205" id="fig205"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig205.jpg" width="424" height="284"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 205.<!-- invisible . -->&mdash;THE MADELEINE, PARIS.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek revival took little hold of the Parisian imagination. Its
+forms were too cold, too precise and fixed, too intractable to modern
+requirements to appeal to the French taste. It counts but one notable
+monument, the church of <b>St. Vincent de Paul</b>, by <i>Hittorff</i>,
+who sought to apply to this design the principles of Greek external
+polychromy; but the frescoes and ornaments failed to withstand the
+Parisian climate, and were finally erased. The Néo-Grec movement already
+referred to, initiated by Duc, Duban, and Labrouste about 1830, aimed
+only to introduce into modern design the spirit and refinement, the
+purity and delicacy of Greek art, not its forms (Fig. 206). Its chief
+monuments were the remodelling, by <i>Duc</i>, of the <b>Palais de
+Justice</b>, of which the new west façade is the most striking single
+feature; the beautiful <b>Library of the École des Beaux-Arts</b>, by
+<i>Duban</i>; the
+<span class="pagenum">365</span>
+<a name="page365" id="page365"> </a>
+library of <b>Ste. Genéviève</b>, by <i>Labrouste</i>, in which a long
+façade is treated without a pilaster or column, simple arches over a
+massive basement forming the dominant motive, while in the interior a
+system of iron construction with glazed domes controls the design; and
+the commemorative <b>Colonne Juillet</b>, by Duc, the most elegant and
+appropriate of all modern memorial columns. All these buildings, begun
+between 1830 and 1850 and completed at various dates, are distinguished
+by a remarkable purity and freedom of conception and detail, quite
+unfettered by the artificial trammels of the official academic style
+then prevalent.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig206" id="fig206"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig206.jpg" width="262" height="422"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 206.&mdash;DOORWAY, ÉCOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS, PARIS.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE CLASSIC REVIVAL ELSEWHERE.</b> The other countries of Europe
+have little to show in the way of imitations of classic monuments or
+reproductions of Roman colonnades. In Italy the church of
+<b>S.&nbsp;Francesco di Paola</b>, at Naples, in quasi-imitation of the
+Pantheon at Rome, with wing-colonnades, and the <b>Superga</b>, at Turin
+(1706, by <i>Ivara</i>); the façade of the San Carlo Theatre, at Naples,
+and the Braccio Nuovo of the Vatican (1817, by <i>Stern</i>) are the
+monuments which come the nearest to the spirit and style of the Roman
+<span class="pagenum">366</span>
+<a name="page366" id="page366"> </a>
+Revival. Yet in each of these there is a large element of originality
+and freedom of treatment which renders doubtful their classification as
+examples of that movement.</p>
+
+<p>A reflection of the Munich school is seen in the modern public
+buildings of Athens, designed in some cases by German architects, and in
+others by native Greeks. The University, the Museum buildings, the
+Academy of Art and Science, and other edifices exemplify fairly
+successful efforts to adapt the severe details of classic Greek art to
+modern windowed structures. They suffer somewhat from the too liberal
+use of stucco in place of marble, and from the conscious affectation of
+an extinct style. But they are for the most part pleasing and monumental
+designs, adding greatly to the beauty of the modern city.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig207" id="fig207"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig207.jpg" width="224" height="254"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 207.&mdash;ST. ISAAC’S CATHEDRAL, ST.&nbsp;PETERSBURG.</p>
+
+<p>In Russia, during and after the reign of Peter the Great
+(1689&ndash;1725), there appeared a curious mixture of styles.
+A&nbsp;style analogous to the Jesuit in Italy and the Churrigueresque in
+Spain was generally prevalent, but it was in many cases modified by
+Muscovite traditions into nondescript forms like those of the
+<b>Kremlin</b>, at Moscow, or the less extravagant Citadel Church and
+Smolnoy Monastery at St. Petersburg. Along with this heavy and barbarous
+style, which prevails generally in the numerous palaces of the capital,
+finished in stucco with atrocious details, a&nbsp;more severe and
+classical spirit is met with. The church of the <b>Greek Rite</b> at St.
+Petersburg
+<span class="pagenum">367</span>
+<a name="page367" id="page367"> </a>
+combines a Roman domical interior with an exterior of the Greek Doric
+order. The Church of <b>Our Lady of Kazan</b> has a semicircular
+colonnade projecting from its transept, copying as nearly as may be the
+colonnades in front of St. Peter’s. But the greatest classic monument in
+Russia is the <b>Cathedral of St. Isaac</b> (Fig. 207), at St.
+Petersburg, a&nbsp;vast rectangular edifice with four Roman Corinthian
+pedimental colonnades projecting from its faces, and a dome with a
+peristyle crowning the whole. Despite many defects of detail, and the
+use of cast iron for the dome, which pretends to be of marble, this is
+one of the most impressive churches of its size in Europe. Internally it
+displays the costliest materials in extraordinary profusion, while
+externally its noble colonnades go far to redeem its bare attic and the
+material of its dome. The <b>Palace of the Grand Duke Michael</b>, which
+reproduces, with improvements, Gabriel’s colonnades of the Garde Meuble
+at Paris on its garden front, is a nobly planned and commendable design,
+agreeably contrasting with the debased architecture of many of the
+public buildings of the city. The Admiralty with its Doric pilasters,
+and the <b>New Museum</b>, by von Klenze of Munich, in a skilfully
+modified Greek style, with effective loggias, are the only other
+monuments of the classic revival in Russia which can find mention in a
+brief sketch like this. Both are notable and in many respects admirable
+buildings, in part redeeming the vulgarity which is unfortunately so
+prevalent in the architecture of St. Petersburg.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>MONUMENTS</b> of the Classic Revival have been referred to in
+the foregoing text at sufficient length to preclude the necessity of
+further enumeration here.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">368</span>
+<a name="page368" id="page368"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXXVI" id="chapXXVI">CHAPTER XXVI.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Chateau,
+Fergusson. Also Barqui, <i>L’Architecture moderne en
+France</i>.&mdash;<i>Berlin und seine Bauten</i> (and a series of
+similar works on the modern buildings of other German cities). Daly,
+<i>Architecture privée du XIXe siècle</i>. Garnier, <i>Le nouvel
+Opéra</i>. Gourlier, <i>Choix d’édifices publics</i>. Licht,
+<i>Architektur Deutschlands</i>. Lübke, <i>Denkmäler der Kunst</i>.
+Lützow und Tischler, <i>Wiener Neubauten</i>. Narjoux, <i>Monuments
+élevés par la ville de Paris, 1850&ndash;1880</i>. Rückwardt, <i>Façaden
+und Details modernen Bauten</i>.&mdash;<i><ins class="correction"
+title="text reads ‘Sammel mappe’">Sammelmappe</ins> hervorragenden
+Concurrenz-Entwurfen.</i> Sédille, <i>L’Architecture moderne</i>.
+Selfridge, <i>Modern French Architecture</i>. Statham, <i>Modern
+Architecture</i>. Villars, <i>England, Scotland, and Ireland</i> (tr.
+Henry Frith). Consult also <i>Transactions of the Royal Institute of
+British Architects</i>, and the leading architectural journals of recent
+years.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>MODERN CONDITIONS.<!-- invisible . --></b> The nineteenth century
+has been pre-eminently an age of industrial progress. Its most striking
+advances have been along mechanical, scientific, and commercial lines.
+As a result of this material progress the general conditions of mankind
+in civilized countries have undoubtedly been greatly bettered. Popular
+education and the printing-press have also raised the intellectual level
+of society, making learning the privilege of even the poorest.
+Intellectual, scientific, and commercial pursuits have thus largely
+absorbed those energies which in other ages found exercise in the
+creation of artistic forms and objects. The critical and sceptical
+spirit, the spirit of utilitarianism and realism, has checked the free
+and general development of the creative imagination, at least in the
+plastic arts. While
+<span class="pagenum">369</span>
+<a name="page369" id="page369"> </a>
+in poetry and music there have been great and noble achievements, the
+plastic arts, including architecture, have only of late years attained a
+position at all worthy of the intellectual advancement of the times.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless the artistic spirit has never been wholly crushed out by
+the untoward pressure of realism and commercialism. Unfortunately it has
+repeatedly been directed in wrong channels. Modern archæology and the
+publication of the forms of historic art by books and photographs have
+too exclusively fastened attention upon the details of extinct styles as
+a source of inspiration in design. The whole range of historic art is
+brought within our survey, and while this has on the one hand tended
+toward the confusion and multiplication of styles in modern work, it has
+on the other led to a slavish adherence to historic precedent or a
+literal copying of historic forms. Modern architecture has thus
+oscillated between the extremes of archæological servitude and of an
+unreasoning eclecticism. In the hands of men of inferior training the
+results have been deplorable travesties of all styles, or meaningless
+aggregations of ill-assorted forms.</p>
+
+<p>An important factor in this demoralization of architectural design
+has been the development of new constructive methods, especially in the
+use of iron and steel. It has been impossible for modern designers, in
+their treatment of style, to keep pace with the rapid changes in the
+structural use of metal in architecture. The roofs of vast span, largely
+composed of glass, which modern methods of trussing have made possible
+for railway stations, armories, and exhibition buildings; the immense
+unencumbered spaces which may be covered by them; the introduction and
+development, especially in the United States, of the post-and-girder
+system of construction for high buildings, in which the external walls
+are a mere screen or filling-in; these have revolutionized architecture
+so rapidly and completely
+<span class="pagenum">370</span>
+<a name="page370" id="page370"> </a>
+that architects are still struggling and groping to find the solution of
+many of the problems of style, scale, and composition which they have
+brought forward.</p>
+
+<p>Within the last thirty years, however, architecture has, despite
+these new conditions, made notable advances. The artistic emulation of
+repeated international exhibitions, the multiplication of museums and
+schools of art, the general advance in intelligence and enlightenment,
+have all contributed to this artistic progress. There appears to be more
+of the artistic and intellectual quality in the average architecture of
+the present time, on both sides of the Atlantic, than at any previous
+period in this century. The futility of the archæological revival of
+extinct styles is generally recognized. New conditions are gradually
+procuring the solution of the very problems they raise. Historic
+precedent sits more lightly on the architect than formerly, and the
+essential unity of principle underlying all good design is coming to be
+better understood.<a class="tag" name="tag26" id="tag26" href="#note26">26</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig208" id="fig208"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig208.png" width="430" height="203"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 208.&mdash;PLAN OF LOUVRE AND TUILERIES, PARIS.<br>
+<span class="caption">
+<i>A, A, the Old Louvre, so called; B,&nbsp;B, the New
+Louvre.</i></span></p>
+
+<p><b>FRANCE.</b> It is in France, Germany (including Austria), and
+England that the architectural progress of this period in Europe has
+been most marked. We have already noticed the results of the classic
+revivals in these three countries. Speaking broadly, it may be said that
+in France the influence of the <i>École des Beaux-Arts</i>, while it has
+tended to give greater unity and consistency to the national
+architecture, and has exerted a powerful influence in behalf of
+refinement of taste and correctness of style, has also stood in the way
+of a free development of new ideas. French architecture has throughout
+adhered to the principles of the Renaissance, though the style has
+during this century been modified by various influences. The first of
+these was the Néo-Grec movement, alluded to in the last chapter, which
+broke the grip of Roman tradition in matters of detail and gave greater
+elasticity to the national style. Next should be mentioned the Gothic
+movement represented by Viollet-le-Duc,
+<span class="pagenum">371</span>
+<a name="page371" id="page371"> </a>
+Lassus, Ballu, and their followers. Beginning about 1845, it produced
+comparatively few notable buildings, but gave a great impulse to the
+study of mediæval archæology and the restoration of mediæval monuments.
+The churches of Ste. Clothilde and of St. Jean de Belleville, at Paris,
+and the reconstruction of the Château de Pierrefonds, were among its
+direct results. Indirectly it led to a freer and more rational treatment
+of constructive forms and materials than had prevailed with the academic
+designers. The church of <b>St. Augustin</b>, by <i>Baltard</i>, at
+Paris, illustrates this in its use of iron and brick for the dome and
+vaulting, and the <b>College Chaptal</b>, by <i>E.&nbsp;Train</i>, in
+its decorative treatment of brick and tile externally. The general
+adoption of iron for roof-trusses and for the construction of markets
+and similar buildings tended further in the same direction, the
+<b>Halles Centrales</b> at Paris, by <i>Baltard</i>, being a notable
+example.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig209" id="fig209"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig209.jpg" width="215" height="404"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 209.&mdash;PAVILION OF RICHELIEU, LOUVRE.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE SECOND EMPIRE.</b> The reign of Napoleon III. (1852&ndash;70)
+was a period of exceptional activity, especially in Paris. The greatest
+monument of his reign was the completion of the <b>Louvre</b> and
+<b>Tuileries</b>, under <i>Visconti</i> and
+<span class="pagenum">372</span>
+<a name="page372" id="page372"> </a>
+<i>Lefuel</i>, including the remodelling of the pavilions de Flore and
+de Marsan. The new portions constitute the most notable example of
+modern French architecture, and the manner in which the two palaces were
+united deserves high praise. In spite of certain defects, this work is
+marked by a combination of dignity, richness, and refinement, such as
+are rarely found in palace architecture (Figs. 208, 209). The <b>New
+Opera</b> (1863&ndash;75), by <i>Garnier</i> (d.<!-- invisible .
+-->&nbsp;1898), stands next to the Louvre in importance as a national
+monument. It is by far the most sumptuous building for amusement in
+existence, but in purity of detail and in the balance and restraint of
+its design it is inferior to the work of Visconti and Lefuel (Fig. 210).
+To this reign belong the Palais de l’Industrie, by <i>Viel</i>, built
+for the exhibition of 1855, and several great railway stations (Gare du
+Nord, by Hitorff, Gare de l’Est, Gare d’Orléans, etc.), in which the
+modern French version of the Renaissance was applied with considerable
+skill to buildings largely constructed of iron and glass. Town halls and
+theatres were erected in great numbers, and in decorative works like
+fountains and monuments the French were particularly successful. The
+fountains of <b>St. Michel</b>, Cuvier, and Molière, at Paris, and of
+<b>Longchamps</b>, at Marseilles (Fig. 211),
+<span class="pagenum">373</span>
+<a name="page373" id="page373"> </a>
+illustrate the fertility of resource and elegance of detailed treatment
+of the French in this department. Mention should also here be made of
+the extensive enterprises carried out by Napoleon III., in rectifying
+and embellishing the street-plan of Paris by new avenues and squares on
+a vast scale, adding greatly to the monumental splendor of the city.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w270">
+<a name="fig210" id="fig210"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig210.jpg" width="260" height="429"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 210.<!-- invisible . -->&mdash;GRAND STAIRCASE OF THE OPERA,
+PARIS.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE REPUBLIC.</b> Since the disasters of 1870 a number of
+important structures have been erected, and French architecture has
+shown a remarkable vitality and flexibility under new conditions. Its
+productions have in general been marked by a refined taste and a
+conspicuous absence of eccentricity and excess; but it has for the most
+part trodden in well-worn paths. The most notable recent monuments are,
+in church architecture, the <b>Sacré-Cœur</b>, at Montmartre, by
+<i>Abadie</i>, a&nbsp;votive church inspired from the Franco-Byzantine
+style of Aquitania; in civil architecture the new <b>Hôtel de Ville</b>,
+at Paris, by <i>Ballu</i> and <i>Déperthes</i>, recalling the original
+structure destroyed by the Commune, but in reality an original creation
+of great merit; in scholastic
+<span class="pagenum">374</span>
+<a name="page374" id="page374"> </a>
+architecture the new École de Médecine, and the new <b>Sorbonne</b>, by
+<i>Nénot</i>, and in other branches of the art the metal-and-glass
+exhibition buildings of 1878, 1889, and 1900. In the last of these the
+striving for originality and the effort to discard traditional forms
+reached the extreme, although accompanied by much very clever detail and
+a masterly use of color-decoration.<!-- invisible . --> To these should
+be added many noteworthy theatres, town-halls, court-houses, and
+<i>préfectures</i> in provincial cities, and commemorative columns and
+monuments almost without number. In street architecture there is now
+much more variety and originality than formerly, especially in private
+houses, and the reaction against the orders and against traditional
+methods of design has of late been growing stronger.
+<span class="pagenum">375</span>
+<a name="page375" id="page375"> </a>
+The chief excellence of modern French architecture lies in its rational
+planning, monumental spirit, and refinement of detail (Fig. 212).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig211" id="fig211"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig211.jpg" width="348" height="357"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 211.&mdash;FOUNTAIN OF LONGCHAMPS, MARSEILLES.<!-- invisible last
+two . --></p>
+
+
+<p><b>GERMANY AND AUSTRIA.</b> German architecture has been more
+affected during the past fifty years by the archæological spirit than
+has the French. A&nbsp;pronounced mediæval revival partly accompanied,
+partly followed the Greek revival in Germany, and produced a number of
+churches and a few secular buildings in the basilican, Romanesque, and
+Gothic styles.<!-- invisible . --> These are less interesting than those
+in the Greek style, because mediæval forms are even more foreign to
+modern needs than the classic, being compatible only with systems of
+design and construction which are no longer practicable. At Munich the
+Auekirche, by <i>Ohlmuller</i>, in an attenuated Gothic style; the
+Byzantine Ludwigskirche, and <i>Ziebland’s</i> Basilica following Early
+Christian models; the Basilica by <i>Hübsch<!-- invisible umlaut
+--></i>, at Bulach, and the Votive Church at Vienna (1856) by
+H.&nbsp;Von Ferstel (1828&ndash;1883) are notable neo-mediæval
+monuments. The last-named church may be classed with Ste. Clothilde at
+Paris (see <a href="#page371">p.&nbsp;371</a>), and St. Patrick’s
+Cathedral at New York, all three being of approximately the same size
+and general style, recalling St. Ouen at Rouen. They are correct and
+elaborate, but more or less cold and artificial.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration floatleft">
+<a name="fig212" id="fig212"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig212.jpg" width="262" height="197"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 212.&mdash;MUSÉE GALLIÉRA, PARIS.<!-- invisible last two . --></p>
+
+<p>More successful are many of the German theatres and concert halls, in
+which Renaissance and classic forms have been freely used. In several of
+these the attempt has been
+<span class="pagenum">376</span>
+<a name="page376" id="page376"> </a>
+made to express by the external form the curvilinear plan of the
+auditorium, as in the <b>Dresden Theatre</b>, by <i>Semper</i> (1841;
+Fig. 213), the theatre at Carlsruhe, by Hübsch, and the double
+winter-summer <b>Victoria Theatre</b>, at Berlin, by <i>Titz</i>. But
+the practical and æsthetic difficulties involved in this treatment have
+caused its general abandonment. The <b>Opera House</b> at Vienna, by
+<i>Siccardsburg</i> and <i>Van der Null</i> (1861&ndash;69), is
+rectangular in its masses, and but for a certain triviality of detail
+would rank among the most successful buildings of its kind. The new
+<b>Burgtheater</b> in the same city is a more elaborately ornate
+structure in Renaissance style, somewhat florid and overdone.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig213" id="fig213"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig213.jpg" width="431" height="250"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 213.<!-- invisible both . -->&mdash;THEATRE AT DRESDEN.</p>
+
+<p>Modern German architecture is at its best in academic and residential
+buildings. The <b><ins class="correction" title="text has ‘Bauschüle’ with umlaut">Bauschule</ins></b>, at Berlin, by Schinkel, in
+which brick is used in a rational and dignified design without the
+orders; the Polytechnic School, at Zürich, by Semper; university
+buildings, and especially buildings for technical instruction, at
+Carlsruhe, Stuttgart, Strasburg, Vienna, and other cities, show a
+monumental
+<span class="pagenum">377</span>
+<a name="page377" id="page377"> </a>
+treatment of the exterior and of the general distribution, combined with
+a careful study of practical requirements. In administrative buildings
+the Germans have hardly been as successful; and the new <b>Parliament
+House</b>, at Berlin, by <i>Wallot</i>, in spite of its splendor and
+costliness, is heavy and unsatisfactory in detail. The larger cities,
+especially Berlin, contain many excellent examples of house
+architecture, mostly in the Renaissance style, sufficiently monumental
+in design, though usually, like most German work, inclined to heaviness
+of detail. The too free use of stucco in imitation of stone is also open
+to criticism.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig214" id="fig214"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig214.jpg" width="434" height="344"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 214.&mdash;BLOCK OF DWELLINGS (MARIE-THERESIENHOF), VIENNA.<!--
+invisible all . --></p>
+
+<p><b>VIENNA.</b> During the last thirty years Vienna has undergone a
+transformation which has made it the rival of Paris as a stately
+capital. The remodelling of the central portion, the creation of a
+series of magnificent boulevards and
+<span class="pagenum">378</span>
+<a name="page378" id="page378"> </a>
+squares, and the grouping of the chief state and municipal buildings
+about these upon a monumental scheme of arrangement, have given the city
+an unusual aspect of splendor. Among the most important monuments in
+this group are the <b>Parliament House</b>, by Hansen (see <a href="#page360">p.&nbsp;360</a>), and the <b>Town Hall</b>, by
+<i>Schmidt</i>. This latter is a Neo-Gothic edifice of great size and
+pretentiousness, but strangely thin and meagre in detail, and quite out
+of harmony with its surroundings. The university and museums are massive
+piles in Renaissance style; and it is the Renaissance rather than the
+classic or Gothic revival which prevails throughout the new city. The
+great blocks of residences and apartments (Fig. 214) which line its
+streets are highly ornate in their architecture, but for the most part
+done in stucco, which fails after all to give the aspect of solidity and
+durability which it seeks to counterfeit.</p>
+
+<p>The city of <b>Buda-Pesth</b> has also in recent years undergone a
+phenomenal transformation of a similar nature to that effected in
+Vienna, but it possesses fewer monuments of conspicuous architectural
+interest. The <b>Synagogue</b> is the most noted of these, a&nbsp;rich
+and pleasing edifice of brick in a modified Hispano-Moresque style.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig215" id="fig215"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig215.jpg" width="324" height="349"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 215.<!-- invisible . -->&mdash;HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, WESTMINSTER,
+LONDON.</p>
+
+<p><b>GREAT BRITAIN.</b> During the closing years of the Anglo-Greek
+style a coterie of enthusiastic students of British mediæval
+monuments&mdash;archæologists rather than architects&mdash;initiated a
+movement for the revival of the national Gothic architecture. The first
+fruits of this movement, led by Pugin, Brandon, Rickman, and others
+(about 1830&ndash;40), were seen in countless pseudo-Gothic structures
+in which the pointed arches, buttresses, and clustered shafts of
+mediæval architecture were imitated or parodied according to the
+designer’s ability, with frequent misapprehension of their proper use or
+significance. This unintelligent misapplication of Gothic forms was,
+however, confined to the earlier stages of the movement. With increasing
+light and experience
+<span class="pagenum">379</span>
+<a name="page379" id="page379"> </a>
+came a more correct and consistent use of the mediæval styles, dominated
+by the same spirit of archæological correctness which had produced the
+<i>classicismo</i> of the Late Renaissance in Italy. This spirit,
+stimulated by extensive enterprises in the restoration of the great
+mediæval monuments of the United Kingdom, was fatal to any free and
+original development of the style along new lines. But it rescued church
+architecture from the utter meanness and debasement into which it had
+fallen, and established a standard of taste which reacted on all other
+branches of design.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w210">
+<a name="fig216" id="fig216"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig216.jpg" width="224" height="488"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 216.&mdash;ASSIZE COURTS, MANCHESTER. DETAIL.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE VICTORIAN GOTHIC.</b> Between 1850 and 1870 the striving after
+archæological correctness gave place to the more rational effort to
+adapt Gothic principles to modern
+<span class="pagenum">380</span>
+<a name="page380" id="page380"> </a>
+requirements, instead of merely copying extinct styles. This effort,
+prosecuted by a number of architects of great intelligence, culture, and
+earnestness (Sir Gilbert Scott, George Edmund Street, William Burges,
+and others), resulted in a number of extremely interesting buildings.
+Chief among these in size and cost stand the <b>Parliament Houses</b> at
+Westminster, by <i>Sir Charles Barry</i> (begun 1839), in the
+Perpendicular style. This immense structure (Fig. 215), imposing in its
+simple masses and refined in its carefully studied detail, is the most
+successful monument of the Victorian Gothic style. It suffers, however,
+from the want of proper relation of scale between its decorative
+elements and the vast proportions of the edifice, which belittle its
+component elements. It cannot, on the whole, be claimed as a successful
+vindication of the claims of the promoters of the style as to the
+adaptability of Gothic forms to structures planned and built after the
+modern fashion. The <b>Assize Courts</b> at Manchester (Fig. 216), the
+<b>New Museum</b> at Oxford, the gorgeous <b>Albert Memorial</b> at
+London, by <i>Scott</i>, and the <b>New Law Courts</b> at London, by
+<i>Street</i>, are
+<span class="pagenum">381</span>
+<a name="page381" id="page381"> </a>
+all conspicuous illustrations of the same truth. They are conscientious,
+carefully studied designs in good taste, and yet wholly unsuited in
+style to their purpose. They are like labored and scholarly verse in a
+foreign tongue, correct in form and language, but lacking the
+naturalness and charm of true and unfettered inspiration. A&nbsp;later
+essay of the same sort in a slightly different field is the <b>Natural
+History Museum</b> at South Kensington, by <i>Waterhouse</i> (1879), an
+imposing building in a modified Romanesque style (Fig. 217).</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig217" id="fig217"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig217.jpg" width="260" height="460"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 217.&mdash;NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, LONDON.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>OTHER WORKS.</b> The Victorian Gothic style responded to no deep
+and general movement of the popular taste, and, like the Anglo-Greek
+style, was doomed to failure from the inherent incongruity between
+modern needs and mediæval forms. Within the last twenty years there has
+been a quite general return to Renaissance principles, and the result is
+seen in a large number of town-halls, exchanges, museums, and colleges,
+in which Renaissance forms, with and without the orders, have been
+treated with increasing freedom and skilful
+<span class="pagenum">382</span>
+<a name="page382" id="page382"> </a>
+adaptation to the materials and special requirements of each case. The
+Albert Memorial Hall (1863, by General Scott) may be taken as an early
+instance of this movement, and the <b>Imperial Institute</b> (Colonial
+offices), by Collcutt, and Oxford Town Hall, by Aston Webb, as among its
+latest manifestations. In domestic architecture the so-called Queen Anne
+style has been much in vogue, as practised by Norman Shaw, Ernest
+George, and others. It is really a modern style, originating in the
+imitation of the modified Palladian style as used in the brick
+architecture of Queen Anne’s time, but freely and often artistically
+altered to meet modern tastes and needs.</p>
+
+<p>In its emancipation from the mistaken principles of archæological
+revivals, and in its evidences of improved taste and awakened
+originality, contemporary British architecture shows promise of good
+things to come. It is still inferior to the French in the monumental
+quality, in technical resource and refinement of decorative detail.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ELSEWHERE IN EUROPE.</b> In other European countries recent
+architecture shows in general increasing freedom and improved good
+taste, but both its opportunities and its performance have been nowhere
+else as conspicuous as in France, Germany, and England. The costly
+Bourse and the vast but overloaded Palais de Justice at Brussels, by
+<i>Polaert</i>, are neither of them conspicuous for refined and
+cultivated taste. A&nbsp;few buildings of note in Switzerland, Russia,
+and Greece might find mention in a more extended review of architecture,
+but cannot here even be enumerated. In Italy, especially at Rome, Milan,
+Naples, and Turin, there has been a great activity in building since
+1870, but with the exception of the <b>Monument to Victor Emmanuel</b>
+and the National Museum at Rome, monumental arcades and passages at
+Milan and Naples, and <i>Campi Santi</i> or monumental cemeteries at
+Bologna, Genoa, and one or two other places, there has been almost
+nothing of real importance built in Italy of late years.<!-- invisible .
+--></p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="note26" id="note26" href="#tag26">26.</a>
+See <a href="#appD">Appendix D</a>.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">383</span>
+<a name="page383" id="page383"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXXVII" id="chapXXVII">CHAPTER XXVII.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: As before,
+Fergusson, Statham. Also, Chandler, <i>The Colonial Architecture of
+Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia</i>. Cleaveland and Campbell,
+<i>American Landmarks</i>. Corner and Soderholz, <i>Colonial
+Architecture in New England</i>. Crane and Soderholz, <i>Examples of
+Colonial Architecture in Charleston and Savannah</i>. Drake, <i>Historic
+Fields and Mansions of Middlesex</i>. Everett, <i>Historic Churches of
+America</i>. King, <i>Handbook of Boston</i>; <i>Handbook of New
+York</i>. Little, <i>Early New England Interiors</i>. Schuyler,
+<i>American Architecture</i>. Van Rensselaer, <i>H.&nbsp;H. Richardson
+and His Works</i>. Wallis, <i>Old Colonial Architecture and
+Furniture</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>GENERAL REMARKS.</b> The colonial architecture of modern times
+presents a peculiar phenomenon. The colonizing nation, carrying into its
+new <i>habitat</i> the tastes and practices of a long-established
+civilization, modifies these only with the utmost reluctance, under the
+absolute compulsion of new conditions. When the new home is virgin soil,
+destitute of cultivation, government, or civilized inhabitants, the
+accompaniments and activities of civilization introduced by the
+colonists manifest themselves at first in curious contrast to the
+primitive surroundings. The struggle between organized life and chaos,
+the laborious subjugation of nature to the requirements of our complex
+modern life, for a considerable period absorb the energies of the
+colonists. The amenities of culture, the higher intellectual life, the
+refinements of art can, during this period, receive little
+<span class="pagenum">384</span>
+<a name="page384" id="page384"> </a>
+attention. Meanwhile a new national character is being formed; the
+people are undergoing the moral training upon which their subsequent
+achievements must depend. With the conquest of brute nature, however,
+and the gradual emergence of a more cultivated class, with the growth of
+commerce and wealth and the consequent increase of leisure, the
+humanities find more place in the colonial life. The fine arts appear in
+scattered centres determined by peculiarly favorable conditions. For a
+long time they retain the impress, and seek to reproduce the forms, of
+the art of the mother country. But new conditions impose a new
+development. Maturing commerce with other lands brings in foreign
+influences, to which the still unformed colonial art is peculiarly
+susceptible. Only with political and commercial independence, fully
+developed internal resources, and a high national culture do the arts
+finally attain, as it were, their majority, and enter upon a truly
+national growth.</p>
+
+<p>These facts are abundantly illustrated by the architectural history
+of the United States. The only one among the British colonies to attain
+political independence, it is the only one among them whose architecture
+has as yet entered upon an independent course of development, and this
+only within the last twenty-five or thirty years. Nor has even this
+development produced as yet a distinctive local style. It has, however,
+originated new constructive methods, new types of buildings, and a
+distinctively American treatment of the composition and the masses; the
+decorative details being still, for the most part, derived from historic
+precedents. The architecture of the other British colonies has retained
+its provincial character, though producing from time to time individual
+works of merit. In South America and Mexico the only buildings of
+importance are Spanish, French, or German in style, according to the
+nationality of the architects employed. The following
+<span class="pagenum">385</span>
+<a name="page385" id="page385"> </a>
+sketch of American architecture refers, therefore, exclusively to its
+development in the United States.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>FORMATIVE PERIOD.</b> Buildings in stone were not undertaken by
+the early English colonists. The more important structures in the
+Southern and Dutch colonies were of brick imported from Europe. Wood
+was, however, the material most commonly employed, especially in New
+England, and its use determined in large measure the form and style of
+the colonial architecture. There was little or no striving for
+architectural elegance until well into the eighteenth century, when
+Wren’s influence asserted itself in a modest way in the Middle and
+Southern colonies. The very simple and unpretentious town-hall at
+Williamsburg, Va., and St. Michael’s, Charleston, are attributed to him;
+but the most that can be said for these, as for the brick churches and
+manors of Virginia previous to 1725, is that they are simple in design
+and pleasing in proportion, without special architectural elegance. The
+same is true of the wooden houses and churches of New England of the
+period, except that they are even simpler in design.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration float w240">
+<a name="fig218" id="fig218"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig218.jpg" width="241" height="315"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 218.&mdash;CHRIST CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA.<!-- invisible all . --></p>
+
+<p>From 1725 to 1775 increased population and wealth along the coast
+brought about a great advance in architecture, especially in churches
+and in the dwellings of the wealthy. During this period was developed
+the <i>Colonial style</i>, based on that of the reigns of Anne and the
+first two Georges in England, and in church architecture on the models
+set by Wren and Gibbs. All the details were, however, freely modified by
+the general employment of wood. The scarcity of architects trained in
+Old World traditions contributed to this departure from classic
+precision of form. The style, especially in interior design, reflected
+the cultured taste of the colonial aristocracy in its refined treatment
+of the woodwork. But there was little or no architecture of a truly
+monumental character. Edifices of stone were singularly few, and
+administrative buildings were small and modest,
+<span class="pagenum">386</span>
+<a name="page386" id="page386"> </a>
+owing to insufficient grants from the Crown, as well as to the poverty
+of the colonies.</p>
+
+<p>The churches of this period include a number of interesting designs,
+especially pleasing in the forms of their steeples. The “<b>Old
+South</b>” at Boston (now a museum), Trinity at Newport, and <b>St.
+Paul’s</b> at New York&mdash;one of the few built of stone
+(1764)&mdash;are good examples of the style. <b>Christ Church</b> at
+Philadelphia (1727&ndash;35, by Dr. Kearsley) is another example,
+historically as well as architecturally interesting (Fig. 218); and
+there are scores of other churches almost equally noteworthy, scattered
+through New England, Maryland, Virginia, and the Middle States.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>DWELLINGS.</b> These reflect better than the churches the varying
+tastes of the different colonies. Maryland and Virginia abound in fine
+brick manor-houses, set amid extensive grounds walled in and entered
+through iron gates of artistic design. The interior finish of these
+houses was often elaborate in conception and admirably executed.
+Westover (1737), Carter’s Grove (1737) in Virginia, and the Harwood and
+Hammond Houses at Annapolis, Md. (1770), are examples. The majority of
+the New England houses were of wood, more compact in plan, more varied
+and picturesque in design than those of the South, but wanting somewhat
+of their stateliness.
+<span class="pagenum">387</span>
+<a name="page387" id="page387"> </a>
+The interior finish of wainscot, cornices, stairs, and mantelpieces
+shows, however, the same general style, in a skilful and artistic
+adaptation of classic forms to the slender proportions of wood
+construction. Externally the orders appear in porches and in colossal
+pilasters, with well designed entablatures, and windows of Italian
+model. The influence of the <ins class="correction" title="consistent error for ‘Adam’">Adams</ins> and Sheraton furniture is
+doubtless to be seen in these quaint and often charming versions of
+classic motives. The Hancock House, Boston (of stone, demolished); the
+Sherburne House, Portsmouth (1730); Craigie House, Cambridge (1757, Fig.
+219); and Rumford House, North Woburn (Mass.), are typical examples.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig219" id="fig219"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig219.jpg" width="431" height="287"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 219.&mdash;CRAIGIE (LONGFELLOW) HOUSE, CAMBRIDGE.<!-- invisible .
+--></p>
+
+<p>In the Middle States architectural activity was chiefly centred in
+Philadelphia and New York, and one or two other towns, where a number of
+manor-houses, still
+<span class="pagenum">388</span>
+<a name="page388" id="page388"> </a>
+extant, attest the wealth and taste of the time. It is noticeable that
+the veranda or piazza was confined to the Southern States, but that the
+climate seems to have had little influence on the forms of roofs. These
+were gambrelled, hipped, gabled, or flat, alike in the North and South,
+according to individual taste.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PUBLIC BUILDINGS.</b> Of public and monumental architecture this
+period has little to show. Large cities did not exist; New York, Boston,
+and Philadelphia were hardly more than overgrown villages. The public
+buildings&mdash;court-houses and town-halls&mdash;were modest and
+inexpensive structures. The Old State House and Faneuil Hall at Boston,
+the Town Hall at Newport (R.I.), and Independence Hall at Philadelphia,
+the best known of those now extant, are not striking architecturally.
+Monumental design was beyond the opportunities and means of the
+colonies. It was in their churches, all of moderate size, and in their
+dwellings that the colonial builders achieved their greatest successes;
+and these works are quaint, charming, and refined, rather than
+impressive or imposing.</p>
+
+<p>To the latter part of the colonial period belong a number of
+interesting buildings which remain as monuments of Spanish rule in
+California, Florida, and the Southwest. The old Fort S.&nbsp;Marco, now
+Fort Marion (1656&ndash;1756), and the Catholic cathedral (1793; after
+the fire of 1887 rebuilt in its original form with the original façade
+uninjured), both at St. Augustine, Fla.; the picturesque buildings of
+the California missions (mainly 1769&ndash;1800), the majority of them
+now in ruins; scattered Spanish churches in California, Arizona, and New
+Mexico, and a few unimportant secular buildings, display among their
+modern and American settings a picturesque and interesting Spanish
+aspect and character, though from the point of view of architectural
+detail they represent merely a crude phase of the Churrigueresque
+style.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">389</span>
+<a name="page389" id="page389"> </a>
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig220" id="fig220"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig220.jpg" width="355" height="243"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 220.&mdash;NATIONAL CAPITOL, WASHINGTON.</p>
+
+<p><b>EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD.</b> Between the Revolution and the War of
+1812, under the new conditions of independence and self-government,
+architecture took on a more monumental character. Buildings for the
+State and National administrations were erected with the rapidly
+increasing resources of the country. Stone was more generally used;
+colonnades, domes, and cupolas or bell-towers, were adopted as
+indispensable features of civic architecture. In church-building the
+Wren-Gibbs type continued to prevail, but with greater correctness of
+classic forms. The gambrel roof tended to disappear from the houses of
+this period, and there was some decline in the refinement and delicacy
+of the details of architecture. The influence of the Louis XVI. style is
+traceable in many cases, as in the New York City Hall (1803&ndash;12, by
+<i>McComb</i> and <i>Mangin</i>), one of the very best designs of the
+time, and in the delicate stucco-work and interior finish of many
+houses, The original <b>Capitol</b> at Washington&mdash;the central
+portion of the present edifice&mdash;by <i>Thornton</i>, <i>Hallet</i>,
+and <i>B.&nbsp;H. Latrobe</i> (1793&ndash;1830; Fig. 220),
+<span class="pagenum">390</span>
+<a name="page390" id="page390"> </a>
+the <b>State House</b> at Boston (1795, by <i>Bulfinch</i>), and the
+University of Virginia, at Charlotteville, by <i>Thomas Jefferson</i>
+(1817; recently destroyed in part by fire), are the most interesting
+examples of the classic tendencies of this period. Their freedom from
+the rococo vulgarities generally prevalent at the time in Europe is
+noticeable.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w270">
+<a name="fig221" id="fig221"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig221.jpg" width="264" height="327"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 221.&mdash;CUSTOM HOUSE, NEW YORK.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE CLASSIC REVIVAL.</b> The influence of the classic revivals of
+Europe began to appear before the close of this period, and reached its
+culmination about 1830&ndash;40. It left its impress most strongly on
+our Federal architecture, although it invaded domestic architecture,
+producing countless imitations, in brick and wooden houses, of Grecian
+colonnades and porticos. One of its first-fruits was the White House, or
+Executive Mansion, at Washington, by <i>Hoban</i> (1792), recalling the
+large English country houses of the time. The <b>Treasury</b> and
+<b>Patent Office</b> buildings at Washington, the Philadelphia Mint, the
+<b>Sub-treasury</b> and <b>Custom House</b> at New York (the latter
+erected originally for a bank; Fig. 221), and the <b>Boston Custom
+House</b> are among the important Federal buildings of this period.
+Several State capitols were also erected under the same influence; and
+the Marine Exchange and <b>Girard College</b> at Philadelphia should
+also be mentioned
+<span class="pagenum">391</span>
+<a name="page391" id="page391"> </a>
+as conspicuous examples of the pseudo-Greek style. The last-named
+building is a Corinthian dormitory, its tiers of small windows
+contrasting strangely with its white marble columns. These classic
+buildings were solidly and carefully constructed, but lacked the grace,
+cheerfulness, and appropriateness of earlier buildings. The Capitol at
+Washington was during this period greatly enlarged by terminal wings
+with fine Corinthian porticos, of Roman rather than Greek design. The
+<b>Dome</b>, by <i>Walters</i>, was not added until 1858&ndash;73; it is
+a successful and harmonious composition, nobly completing the building.
+Unfortunately, it is an afterthought, built of iron painted to simulate
+marble, the substructure being inadequate to support a dome of masonry.
+The Italian or Roman style which it exemplified, in time superseded the
+less tractable Greek style.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE WAR PERIOD.</b> The period from 1850 to 1876 was one of
+intense political activity and rapid industrial progress. The former
+culminated in the terrible upheaval of the civil war; the latter in the
+completion of the Pacific Railroad (1869) and a remarkable development
+of the mining resources and manufactures of the country. It was a period
+of feverish commercial activity, but of artistic stagnation, and
+witnessed the erection of but few buildings of architectural importance.
+A&nbsp;number of State capitols, city halls and churches, of
+considerable size and cost but of inferior design, attest the decline of
+public taste and architectural skill during these years. The huge
+Municipal Building at Philadelphia and the still unfinished Capitol at
+Albany are full of errors of planning and detail which twenty-five years
+of elaboration have failed to correct. Next to the dome of the Capitol
+at Washington, completed during this period, of which it is the most
+signal architectural achievement, its most notable monument was the
+<b>St. Patrick’s Cathedral</b> at New York, by <i>Renwick</i>;
+a&nbsp;Gothic church which, if somewhat cold and mechanical in detail,
+is
+<span class="pagenum">392</span>
+<a name="page392" id="page392"> </a>
+a&nbsp;stately and well-considered design. Its west front and spires
+(completed 1886) are particularly successful. Trinity Church (1843, by
+<i>Upjohn</i>) and Grace Church (1840, by Renwick), though of earlier
+date, should be classed with this cathedral as worthy examples of modern
+Gothic design. Indeed, the churches designed in this style by a few
+thoroughly trained architects during this period are the most creditable
+and worthy among its lesser productions. In general an undiscriminating
+eclecticism of style prevailed, unregulated by sober taste or technical
+training. The Federal buildings by <i>Mullett</i> were monuments of
+perverted design in a heavy and inartistic rendering of French
+Renaissance motives. The New York Post Office and the State, Army and
+Navy Department building at Washington are examples of this style.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig222" id="fig222"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig222.jpg" width="431" height="382"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 222.&mdash;TRINITY CHURCH, BOSTON.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE ARTISTIC AWAKENING.</b> Between 1870 and 1880 a remarkable
+series of events exercised a powerful influence on the artistic life of
+the United States. Two terrible conflagrations in Chicago (1871) and
+Boston (1872) gave unexampled opportunities for architectural
+improvement and greatly stimulated the public interest in the art. The
+feverish and abnormal industrial activity which followed the war and the
+rapid growth of the parvenu spirit were checked by the disastrous
+“panic” of 1873. With the completion of the Pacific railways and the
+settlement of new communities in the West, industrial prosperity, when
+it returned, was established on a firmer basis. An extraordinary
+expansion of travel to Europe began to disseminate the seeds of artistic
+culture throughout the country. The successful establishment of schools
+of architecture in Boston (1866) and other cities, and the opening or
+enlargement of art museums in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore,
+Detroit, Milwaukee, and elsewhere, stimulated the artistic awakening
+which now manifested itself. In architecture the personal influence of
+two men, trained in the Paris École des Beaux-Arts,<!-- invisible hyphen
+-->
+<span class="pagenum">393</span>
+<a name="page393" id="page393"> </a>
+was especially felt&mdash;of <i>R.&nbsp;M. Hunt</i> (1827&ndash;95)
+through his words and deeds quite as much as through his works; and of
+<i>H.&nbsp;H. Richardson</i> (1828&ndash;86) predominantly through his
+works. These two men, with others of less fame but of high ideals and
+thorough culture, did much to elevate architecture as an art in the
+public esteem. To all these influences new force was added by the
+Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia (1876). Here for the first time
+the American people were brought into contact, in their own land, with
+the products of European and Oriental art. It was to them an artistic
+revelation, whose results were prompt and far-reaching. Beginning first
+in the domain of industrial and decorative art, its stimulating
+influence rapidly extended to painting and architecture, and with
+permanent consequences. American students began to throng the centres of
+Old World art, while the setting of higher standards of artistic
+excellence at home, and the development of important art-industries,
+were other fruits of this artistic awakening. The recent Columbian
+Exhibition at Chicago (1893), its latest and most important
+manifestation, has added a new impulse to the movement, especially in
+architecture.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig223" id="fig223"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig223.jpg" width="433" height="299"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 223.&mdash;LIBRARY AT WOBURN, MASS.</p>
+
+<p><b>STYLE IN RECENT ARCHITECTURE.</b> The rapid increase in the number
+of American architects trained in Paris or under the indirect influence
+of the École des Beaux-Arts has been an important factor in recent
+architectural progress. Yet it has by no means imposed the French
+academic formulæ upon American architecture. The conditions, materials,
+and constructive processes here prevailing, and above all the
+eclecticism of the public taste, have prevented this. The French
+influence is perceived rather in a growing appreciation of monumental
+design in the planning, composition, and setting of buildings, than in
+any direct imitation of French models. The Gothic revival which
+prevailed more or less widely from 1840 to 1875, as already noticed, and
+of which the <b>State Capitol</b> at Hartford
+<span class="pagenum">394</span>
+<a name="page394" id="page394"> </a>
+(Conn.; 1875&ndash;78), and the <b>Fine Arts Museum</b> at Boston, were
+among the last important products, was generally confined to church
+architecture, for which Gothic forms are still largely employed, as in
+the Protestant <b>Cathedral</b> of <b>All Saints</b> now building at
+Albany (N.Y.), by an English architect. For the most part the works of
+the last twenty years show a more or less judicious eclecticism, the
+choice of style being determined partly by the person and training of
+the designer, partly by the nature of the building. The powerfully
+conceived works of Richardson, in a free version of the French
+Romanesque, for a time exercised a wide influence, especially among the
+younger architects. <b>Trinity Church</b>, Boston (<a href="#fig222">Fig. 222</a>), his earliest important work; many public
+libraries and business buildings, and finally the impressive <b>County
+Buildings</b> at Pittsburgh (Pa.), all
+<span class="pagenum">395</span>
+<a name="page395" id="page395"> </a>
+treated in this style, are admirable rather for the strong individuality
+of their designer, displayed in their vigorous composition, than on
+account of the historic style he employed (Fig. 223). Yet it appeared in
+his hands so flexible and effective that it was widely imitated. But if
+easy to use, it is most difficult to use well; its forms are too massive
+for ordinary purposes, and in the hands of inferior designers it was so
+often travestied that it has now lost its wide popularity. While a
+number of able architects have continued to use it effectively in
+ecclesiastical, civic, and even commercial architecture, it is being
+generally superseded by various forms of the Renaissance. Here also a
+wide eclecticism prevails, the works of the same architect often varying
+from the gayest Francis&nbsp;I. designs in domestic architecture, or
+free adaptations of Quattrocento details for theatres and street
+architecture, to the most formal classicism in colossal
+exhibition-buildings, museums, libraries, and the like. Meanwhile there
+are many more or less successful ventures in other historic
+<span class="pagenum">396</span>
+<a name="page396" id="page396"> </a>
+styles applied to public and private edifices. Underlying this apparent
+confusion, almost anarchy in the use of historic styles, the careful
+observer may detect certain tendencies crystallizing into definite form.
+New materials and methods of construction, increased attention to
+detail, a&nbsp;growing sense of monumental requirements, even the
+development of the elevator as a substitute for the grand staircase, are
+leaving their mark on the planning, the proportions, and the artistic
+composition of American buildings, irrespective of the styles used. The
+art is with us in a state of transition, and open to criticism in many
+respects; but it appears to be full of life and promise for the
+future.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig224" id="fig224"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig224.jpg" width="157" height="283"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 224.&mdash;“TIMES” BUILDING, NEW YORK.</p>
+
+<p><b>COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS.</b> This class of edifices has in our great
+cities developed wholly new types, which have taken shape under four
+imperative influences. These are the demand for fire-proof construction,
+the demand for well-lighted offices, the introduction of elevators, and
+the concentration of business into limited areas, within which land has
+become inordinately costly. These causes have led to the erection of
+buildings of excessive height (Fig. 224); the more recent among them
+constructed with a framework of iron or steel columns and beams, the
+visible walls being a mere filling-in. To render a building of twenty
+stories attractive to the eye, especially when built on an irregular
+site, is a difficult problem, of which a wholly satisfactory solution
+has yet to be found. There have been, however, some notable achievements
+in this line, in most of which the principle has been clearly recognized
+that a lofty building should have a well-marked
+<span class="pagenum">397</span>
+<a name="page397" id="page397"> </a>
+basement or pedestal and a somewhat ornate crowning portion or capital,
+the intervening stories serving as a die or shaft and being treated with
+comparative simplicity. The difficulties of scale and of handling one
+hundred and fifty to three hundred windows of uniform style have been
+surmounted with conspicuous skill (<b>American Surety Building</b> and
+Broadway Chambers, New York; Ames Building, Boston; Carnegie Building,
+Pittsburgh; Union Trust, St. Louis). In some cases, especially in
+Chicago and the Middle West, the metallic framework is suggested by
+slender piers between the windows, rising uninterrupted from the
+basement to the top story. In others, especially in New York and the
+East, the walls are treated as in ordinary masonry buildings. The
+Chicago school is marked by a more utilitarian and unconventional
+treatment, with results which are often extremely bold and effective,
+but rarely as pleasing to the eye as those attained by the more
+conservative Eastern school. In the details of American office-buildings
+every variety of style is to be met with; but the Romanesque and the
+Renaissance, freely modified, predominate. The tendency towards two or
+three well-marked types in the external composition of these buildings,
+as above suggested, promises, however, the evolution of a style in which
+the historic origin of the details will be a secondary matter. Certain
+Chicago architects have developed an original treatment of architectural
+forms by exaggerating some of the structural lines, by suppressing the
+mouldings and more familiar historic forms, and by the free use of flat
+surface ornament. The Schiller, Auditorium, and Fisher Buildings, all at
+Chicago, Guaranty Building, Buffalo, and Majestic Building, Detroit, are
+examples of this personal style, which illustrates the untrammelled
+freedom of the art in a land without traditions.<a class="tag" name="tag27" id="tag27" href="#note27">27</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig225" id="fig225"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig225.jpg" width="441" height="327"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 225.&mdash;COUNTRY HOUSE, MASSACHUSETTS.</p>
+
+<p><b>DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.</b> It is in this field that the most
+characteristic and original phases of American architecture
+<span class="pagenum">398</span>
+<a name="page398" id="page398"> </a>
+are to be met with, particularly in rural and suburban residences. In
+these the peculiar requirements of our varying climates and of American
+domestic life have been studied and in large measure met with great
+frankness and artistic appreciation. The broad staircase-hall, serving
+often as a sort of family sitting-room, the piazza, and a picturesque
+massing of steep roofs, have been the controlling factors in the
+evolution of two or three general types which appear in infinite
+variations. The material most used is wood, but this has had less
+influence in the determination of form than might have been expected.
+The artlessness of the planning, which is arranged to afford the maximum
+of convenience rather than to conform to any traditional type, has been
+the element of greatest artistic success. It has resulted in exteriors
+which are the natural outgrowth of
+<span class="pagenum">399</span>
+<a name="page399" id="page399"> </a>
+the interior arrangements, frankly expressed, without affectation of
+style (Fig. 225). The resulting picturesqueness has, however, in many
+cases been treated as an end instead of an incidental result, and the
+affectation of picturesqueness has in such designs become as detrimental
+as any affectation of style. In the internal treatment of American
+houses there has also been a notable artistic advance, harmony of color
+and domestic comfort and luxury being sought after rather than
+monumental effects. A&nbsp;number of large city and country houses
+designed on a palatial scale have, however, given opportunity for a more
+elaborate architecture; notably the Vanderbilt, Villard, and Huntington
+residences at New York, the great country-seat of <b>Biltmore</b>, near
+Asheville (N.C.), in the Francis&nbsp;I. style (by R.&nbsp;M. Hunt), and
+many others.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>OTHER BUILDINGS.</b> American architects have generally been less
+successful in public, administrative, and ecclesiastical architecture
+than in commercial and domestic work. The preference for small parish
+churches, treated as audience-rooms rather than as places of worship,
+has interfered with the development of noble types of church-buildings.
+Yet there are signs of improvement; and the new <b>Cathedral</b> of
+<b>St. John the Divine</b> at New York, in a modified Romanesque style,
+promises to be a worthy and monumental building. In semi-public
+architecture, such as hotels, theatres, clubs, and libraries, there are
+many notable examples of successful design. The <b>Ponce de Leon
+Hotel</b> at St. Augustine, a&nbsp;sumptuous and imposing pile in a free
+version of the Spanish Plateresco; the Auditorium Theatre at Chicago,
+the Madison Square Garden and the Casino at New York, may be cited as
+excellent in general conception and well carried out in detail,
+externally and internally. The Century and Metropolitan Clubs at New
+York, the <b>Boston Public Library</b>, the Carnegie Library at
+Pittsburgh, the <b>Congressional Library</b> at Washington, and the
+recently
+<span class="pagenum">400</span>
+<a name="page400" id="page400"> </a>
+completed Minnesota <b>State Capitol</b> at St. Paul, exemplify in
+varying degrees of excellence the increasing capacity of American
+architects for monumental design. This was further shown in the
+buildings of the <b>Columbian Exposition</b> at Chicago in 1893. These,
+in spite of many faults of detail, constituted an aggregate of
+architectural splendor such as had never before been seen or been
+possible on this side the Atlantic. They further brought architecture
+into closer union with the allied arts and formed an object lesson in
+the value of appropriate landscape gardening as a setting to monumental
+structures.</p>
+
+<p>It should be said, in conclusion, that with the advances of recent
+years in artistic design in the United States there has been at least as
+great improvement in scientific construction. The sham and flimsiness of
+the Civil War period are passing away, and solid and durable building is
+becoming more general throughout the country, but especially in the
+Northeast and in some of the great Western cities, notably in Chicago.
+In this onward movement the Federal buildings&mdash;post-offices,
+custom-houses, and other governmental edifices&mdash;have not, till
+lately, taken high rank. Although solidly and carefully constructed,
+those built during the period 1875&ndash;1895 were generally inferior to
+the best work produced by private enterprise, or by State and municipal
+governments. This was in large part due to enactments devolving upon the
+supervising architect at Washington the planning of all Federal
+buildings, as well as a burden of supervisory and clerical duties
+incompatible with the highest artistic results. Since 1898, however,
+a&nbsp;more enlightened policy has prevailed, and a number of notable
+designs for Federal buildings have been secured by carefully-conducted
+competitions.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="note27" id="note27" href="#tag27">27.</a>
+See <a href="#appD">Appendix, D</a> and <a href="#appE">E</a>.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">401</span>
+<a name="page401" id="page401"> </a>
+
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="chapXXVIII" id="chapXXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII.</a></h3>
+
+<h3 class="subhead">
+ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+<h3 class="subsub">
+INDIA, CHINA, AND JAPAN.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="books">
+<span class="smallcaps">Books Recommended</span>: Cole, <i>Monographs
+of Ancient Monuments of India</i>. Conder, <i>Notes on Japanese
+Architecture</i> (in Transactions of R.I.B.A., for 1886). Cunningham,
+<i>Archæological Survey of India</i>. Fergusson, <i>Indian and Eastern
+Architecture</i>; <i>Picturesque Illustrations of Indian
+Architecture</i>. Le Bon, <i>Les Monuments de l’Inde</i>. Morse,
+<i>Japanese Houses</i>. Stirling, <i>Asiatic Researches</i>. Consult
+also the <i>Journal</i> and the <i>Transactions</i> of the Royal Asiatic
+Society.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>INTRODUCTORY NOTE.</b> The architecture of the non-Moslem
+countries and races of Asia has been reserved for this closing chapter,
+in order not to interrupt the continuity of the history of European
+styles, with which it has no affinity and scarcely even a point of
+contact. Among them all, India alone has produced monuments of great
+architectural importance. The buildings of China and Japan, although
+interesting for their style, methods, and detail, and so deserving at
+least of brief mention, are for the most part of moderate size and of
+perishable materials. Outside of these three countries there is little
+to interest the general student of architecture.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>INDIA: PERIODS.</b> It is difficult to classify the non-Mohammedan
+styles of India, owing to their frequently overlapping, both
+geographically and artistically; while the lack of precise dates in
+Indian literature makes the chronology of many of the monuments more or
+less doubtful. The
+<span class="pagenum">402</span>
+<a name="page402" id="page402"> </a>
+divisions given below are a modification of those first established by
+Fergusson, and are primarily based on the three great religions, with
+geographical subdivisions, as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallroman">THE BUDDHIST STYLE</span>, from the reign
+of Asoka, <i>cir.</i> 250 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, to the
+7th century <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> Its monuments occupy
+mainly a broad band running northeast and southwest, between the Indian
+Desert and the Dekkan. Offshoots of the style are found as far north as
+Gandhara, and as far south as Ceylon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallroman">THE JAINA STYLE</span>, akin to the
+preceding if not derived from it, covering the same territory as well as
+southern India; from 1000 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> to the
+present time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallroman">THE BRAHMAN</span> or <span class="smallroman">HINDU STYLES</span>, extending over the whole peninsula.
+They are sub-divided geographically into the <span class="smallroman">NORTHERN BRAHMAN</span>, the <span class="smallroman">CHALUKYAN</span> in the Dekkan, and the <span class="smallroman">DRAVIDIAN</span> in the south; this last style being
+coterminous with the populations speaking the Tamil and cognate
+languages. The monuments of these styles are mainly subsequent to the
+10th century, though a few date as far back as the 7th.</p>
+
+<p>The great majority of Indian monuments are religious&mdash;temples,
+shrines, and monasteries. Secular buildings do not appear until after
+the Moslem conquests, and most of them are quite modern.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>GENERAL CHARACTER.</b> All these styles possess certain traits in
+common. While stone and brick are both used, sandstone predominating,
+the details are in large measure derived from wooden prototypes.
+Structural lines are not followed in the exterior treatment, purely
+decorative considerations prevailing. Ornament is equally lavished on
+all parts of the building, and is bewildering in its amount and
+complexity. Realistic and grotesque sculpture is freely used, forming
+multiplied horizontal bands of extraordinary richness and minuteness of
+execution. Spacious and lofty
+<span class="pagenum">403</span>
+<a name="page403" id="page403"> </a>
+interiors are rarely attempted, but wonderful effects are produced by
+seemingly endless repetition of columns in halls, and corridors, and by
+external emphasis of important parts of the plan by lofty tower-like
+piles of masonry.</p>
+
+<p>The source of the various Indian styles, the origin of the forms
+used, the history of their development, are all wrapped in obscurity.
+All the monuments show a fully developed style and great command of
+technical resources from the outset. When, where, and how these were
+attained is as yet an unsolved mystery. In all its phases previous to
+the Moslem conquest Indian architecture appears like an indigenous art,
+borrowing little from foreign styles, and having no affinities with the
+arts of Occidental nations.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>BUDDHIST STYLE.</b> Although Buddhism originated in the sixth
+century <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, the earliest
+architectural remains of the style date from its wide promulgation in
+India under Asoka (272&ndash;236 <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>). Buddhist monuments comprise three chief
+classes of structures: the <i>stupas</i> or <i>topes</i>, which are
+mounds more or less domical in shape, enclosing relic-shrines of Buddha,
+or built to mark some sacred spot; <i>chaityas</i>, or temple halls, cut
+in the rock; and <i>viharas</i>, or monasteries. The style of the detail
+varies considerably in these three classes, but is in general simpler
+and more massive than in the other styles of India.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>TOPES.</b> These are found in groups, of which the most important
+are at or near Bhilsa in central India, at Manikyala in the northwest,
+at Amravati in the south, and in Ceylon at Ruanwalli and Tuparamaya. The
+best known among them is the <b>Sanchi Tope</b>, near Bhilsa, 120 feet
+in diameter and 56 feet high. It is surrounded by a richly carved stone
+rail or fence, with gateways of elaborate workmanship, having three
+sculptured lintels crossing the carved uprights. The tope at Manikyala
+is larger, and dates from the 7th century. It is exceeded in size by
+many in Ceylon, that at Abayagiri measuring 360 feet in
+<span class="pagenum">404</span>
+<a name="page404" id="page404"> </a>
+diameter. Few of the topes retain the <i>tee</i>, or model of a shrine,
+which, like a lantern, once crowned each of them.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the topes there are a few stupas of tower-like form, square
+in plan, of which the most famous is that at <b>Buddh Gaya</b>, near the
+sacred Bodhi tree, where Buddha attained divine light in 588&nbsp;<span
+class="smallroman">B.C.</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHAITYA HALLS.</b> The Buddhist speos-temples&mdash;so far as
+known the only extant halls of worship of that religion, except one at
+Sanchi&mdash;are mostly in the Bombay Presidency, at Ellora, Karli,
+Ajunta, Nassick, and Bhaja. The earliest, that at Karli, dates from 78
+<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, the latest (at Ellora),
+<i>cir.</i> 600 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span> They consist
+uniformly of a broad nave ending in an apse, and covered by a roof like
+a barrel vault, and two narrow side aisles. In the apse is the
+<i>dagoba</i> or relic-shrine, shaped like a miniature tope. The front
+of the cave was originally adorned with an open-work screen or frame of
+wood, while the face of the rock about the opening was carved into the
+semblance of a sumptuous structural façade. Among the finest of these
+caverns is that at <b>Karli</b>, whose massive columns and impressive
+scale recall Egyptian models, though the resemblance is superficial and
+has no historic significance. More suggestive is the affinity of many of
+the columns which stand before these caves to Persian prototypes (see <a
+href="#fig21">Fig.&nbsp;21</a>). It is not improbable that
+both Persian and classic forms were introduced into India through the
+Bactrian kingdom 250 years <span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>
+Otherwise we must seek for the origin of nearly all Buddhist forms in a
+pre-existing wooden architecture, now wholly perished, though its
+traditions may survive in the wooden screens in the fronts of the caves.
+While some of these caverns are extremely simple, as at Bhaja, others,
+especially at <b>Nassick</b> and <b>Ajunta</b>, are of great splendor
+and complexity.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>VIHARAS.</b> Except at Gandhara in the Punjab, the structural
+monasteries of the Buddhists were probably all of wood and have long ago
+perished. The Gandhara monasteries
+<span class="pagenum">405</span>
+<a name="page405" id="page405"> </a>
+of Jamalgiri and Takht-i-Bahi present in plan three or four courts
+surrounded by cells. The centre of one court is in both cases occupied
+by a platform for an altar or shrine. Among the ruins there have been
+found a number of capitals whose strong resemblance to the Corinthian
+type is now generally attributed to Byzantine rather than Bactrian
+influences. These viharas may therefore be assigned to the 6th or 7th
+century&nbsp;<span class="smallroman">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p>The rock-cut viharas are found in the neighborhood of the chaityas
+already described. Architecturally, they are far more elaborate than the
+chaityas. Those at Salsette, Ajunta, and Bagh are particularly
+interesting, with pillared halls or courts, cells, corridors, and
+shrines. The hall of the <b>Great Vihara</b> at <b>Bagh</b> is 96 feet
+square, with 36 columns. Adjoining it is the school-room, and the whole
+is fronted by a sumptuous rock-cut colonnade 200 feet long. These caves
+were mostly hewn between the 5th and 7th centuries, at which time
+sculpture was more prevalent in Buddhist works than previously, and some
+of them are richly adorned with figures.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>JAINA STYLE.</b> The religion and the architecture of the Jainas
+so closely resemble those of the Buddhists, that recent authorities are
+disposed to treat the Jaina style as a mere variation or continuation of
+the Buddhist. Chronologically they are separated by an interval of some
+three centuries, <i>cir.</i> 650&ndash;950 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, which have left us almost no monuments of
+either style. The Jaina is moreover easily distinguished from the
+Buddhist architecture by the great number and elaborateness of its
+structural monuments. The multiplication of statues of Tirthankhar in
+the cells about the temple courts, the exuberance of sculpture, the use
+of domes built in horizontal courses, and the imitation in stone of
+wooden braces or struts are among its distinguishing features.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig226" id="fig226"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig226.jpg" width="424" height="326"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 226.&mdash;PORCH OF TEMPLE ON MOUNT ABU.</p>
+
+<p><b>JAINA TEMPLES.</b> The earliest examples are on <b>Mount Abu</b>
+<span class="pagenum">406</span>
+<a name="page406" id="page406"> </a>
+in the Indian Desert. Built by Vimalah Sah in 1032, the chief of these
+consists of a court measuring 140 × 90 feet, surrounded by cells and a
+double colonnade. In the centre rises the shrine of the god, containing
+his statue, and terminating in a lofty tower or <i>sikhra</i>. An
+imposing columnar porch, cruciform in plan, precedes this cell (Fig.
+226). The intersection of the arms is covered by a dome supported on
+eight columns with stone brackets or struts. The dome and columns are
+covered with profuse carving and sculptured figures, and the total
+effect is one of remarkable dignity and splendor. The temple of
+<b>Sadri</b> is much more extensive, twenty minor domes and one of
+larger size forming cruciform porches on all four sides of the central
+<i>sikhra</i>. The cells about the court are each covered by a small
+<i>sikhra</i>, and these, with the twenty-one domes (four of which are
+<span class="pagenum">407</span>
+<a name="page407" id="page407"> </a>
+built in three stories), all grouped about the central tower and adorned
+with an astonishing variety of detail, constitute a monument of the
+first importance. It was built by Khumbo Rana, about 1450. At
+<b>Girnar</b> are several 12th-century temples with enclosed instead of
+open vestibules. One of these, that of <b>Neminatha</b>, retains intact
+its court enclosure and cells, which in most other cases have perished.
+The temple at <b>Somnath</b> resembles it, but is larger; the dome of
+its porch, 33 feet in diameter, is the largest Jaina dome in India.
+Other notable temples are at Gwalior, Khajuraho, and Parasnatha.</p>
+
+<p>In all the Jaina temples the salient feature is the sikhra or
+<i>vimana</i>. This is a tower of approximately square plan, tapering by
+a graceful curve toward a peculiar terminal ornament shaped like a
+flattened melon. Its whole surface is variegated by horizontal bands and
+vertical breaks, covered with sculpture and carving. Next in importance
+are the domes, built wholly in horizontal courses and resting on stone
+lintels carried by bracketed columns. These same traits appear in
+relatively modern examples, as at Delhi.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float w150">
+<a name="fig227" id="fig227"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig227.jpg" width="148" height="497"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 227.&mdash;TOWER OF VICTORY, CHITTORE.</p>
+
+<p><b>TOWERS.</b> A similar predilection for minutely broken surfaces
+marks the towers which sometimes adjoin the temples, as at Chittore
+(tower of <b>Sri Allat</b>, 13th century), or were erected as trophies
+of victory, like that of <b>Khumbo Rana</b> in
+<span class="pagenum">408</span>
+<a name="page408" id="page408"> </a>
+the same town (Fig. 227). The combination of horizontal and vertical
+lines, the distribution of the openings, and the rich ornamentation of
+these towers are very interesting, though lacking somewhat in structural
+propriety of design.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>HINDU STYLES: NORTHERN BRAHMAN.</b> The origin of this style is as
+yet an unsolved problem. Its monuments were mainly built between 600 and
+1200 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>, the oldest being in Orissa,
+at Bhuwanesevar, Kanaruk, and Puri. In northern India the temples are
+about equally divided between the two forms of Brahmanism&mdash;the
+worship of Vishnu or <i>Vaishnavism</i>, and that of Siva or
+<i>Shaivism</i>&mdash;and do not differ materially in style. As in the
+Jaina style, the <i>vimana</i> is their most striking feature, and this
+is in most cases adorned with numerous reduced copies of its own form
+grouped in successive stages against its sides and angles. This curious
+system of design appears in nearly all the great temples, both of Vishnu
+and Siva. The Jaina melon ornament is universal, surmounted generally by
+an urn-shaped finial.</p>
+
+<p>In plan the vimana shrine is preceded by two or three chambers,
+square or polygonal, some with and some without columns. The foremost of
+these is covered by a roof formed like a stepped pyramid set cornerwise.
+The fine porch of the ruined temple at <b>Bindrabun</b> is cruciform in
+plan and forms the chief part of the building, the shrine at the further
+end being relatively small and its tower unfinished or ruined. In some
+modern examples the antechamber is replaced by an open porch with a
+Saracenic dome, as at Benares; in others the old type is completely
+abandoned, as in the temple at <b>Kantonnuggur</b> (1704&ndash;22). This
+is a square hall built of terra-cotta, with four three-arched porches
+and nine towers, more Saracenic than Brahman in general aspect.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Kandarya Mahadeo</b>, at Khajuraho, is the most noted example
+of the northern Brahman style, and one of the most splendid structures
+extant. A&nbsp;strong and lofty basement
+<span class="pagenum">409</span>
+<a name="page409" id="page409"> </a>
+supports an extraordinary mass of roofs, covering the six open porches
+and the antechamber and hypostyle hall, which precede the shrine, and
+rising in successive pyramidal masses until the vimana is reached which
+covers the shrine. This is 116 feet high, but seems much loftier, by
+reason of the small scale of its constituent parts and the marvellously
+minute decoration which covers the whole structure. The vigor of its
+masses and the grand stairways which lead up to it give it a dignity
+unusual for its size, 60 × 109 feet in plan (<i>cir.</i> 1000 <span
+class="smallroman">A.D.</span>).</p>
+
+<p>At Puri, in Orissa, the <b>Temple</b> of <b>Jugganat</b>, with its
+double enclosure and numerous subordinate shrines, the Teli-ka-Mandir at
+Gwalior, and temples at <b>Udaipur</b> near Bhilsa, at <b>Mukteswara</b>
+in Orissa, at Chittore, Benares, and Barolli, are important examples.
+The few tombs erected subsequent to the Moslem conquest, combining Jaina
+bracket columns with Saracenic domes, and picturesquely situated palaces
+at Chittore (1450), Oudeypore (1580), and Gwalior, should also be
+mentioned.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHALUKYAN STYLE.</b> Throughout a central zone crossing the
+peninsula from sea to sea about the Dekkan, and extending south to
+Mysore on the west, the Brahmans developed a distinct style during the
+later centuries of the Chalukyan dynasty. Its monuments are mainly
+comprised between 1050 and the Mohammedan conquest in 1310. The most
+notable examples of the style are found along the southwest coast, at
+Hullabid, Baillur, and Somnathpur.</p>
+
+
+<p class="illustration float">
+<a name="fig228" id="fig228"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig228.jpg" width="259" height="407"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 228.&mdash;TEMPLE AT HULLABÎD. DETAIL.</p>
+
+<p><b>TEMPLES.</b> Chalukyan architecture is exclusively religious and
+its temples are easily recognized. The plans comprise the same elements
+as those of the Jainas, but the Chalukyan shrine is always star-shaped
+externally in plan, and the vimana takes the form of a stepped pyramid
+instead of a curved outline. The Jaina dome is, moreover, wholly
+wanting. All the details are of extraordinary richness and beauty, and
+the breaking up of the surfaces by rectangular
+<span class="pagenum">410</span>
+<a name="page410" id="page410"> </a>
+projections is skilfully managed so as to produce an effect of great
+apparent size with very moderate dimensions. All the known examples
+stand on raised platforms, adding materially to their dignity. Some are
+double temples, as at Hullabid (Fig. 228); others are triple in plan.
+A&nbsp;noticeable feature of the style is the deeply cut stratification
+of the lower part of the temples, each band or stratum bearing a
+distinct frieze of animals, figures or ornament, carved with masterly
+skill. Pierced stone slabs filling the window openings are also not
+uncommon.</p>
+
+<p>The richest exemplars of the style are the temples at <b>Baillur</b>
+and Somnathpur, and at Hullabîd the <b>Kait Iswara</b> and the
+incomplete <b>Double Temple</b>. The Kurti Stambha, or gate at Worangul,
+and the Great Temple at <b>Hamoncondah</b> should also be mentioned.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>DRAVIDIAN STYLE.</b> The Brahman monuments of southern India
+exhibit a style almost as strongly marked as the Chalukyan. This appears
+less in their details than in their general plan and conception. The
+Dravidian temples are not single structures, but aggregations of
+buildings of varied size and form, covering extensive areas enclosed by
+walls
+<span class="pagenum">411</span>
+<a name="page411" id="page411"> </a>
+and entered through gates made imposing by lofty pylons called
+<i>gopuras</i>. As if to emphasize these superficial resemblances to
+Egyptian models, the sanctuary is often low and insignificant. It is
+preceded by much more imposing porches (<i>mantapas</i>) and hypostyle
+halls or <i>choultries</i>, the latter being sometimes of extraordinary
+extent, though seldom lofty. The choultrie, sometimes called the Hall of
+1,000 Columns, is in some cases replaced by pillared corridors of great
+length and splendor, as at <b>Ramisseram</b> and <b>Madura.</b> The
+plans are in most cases wholly irregular, and the architecture, so far
+from resembling the Egyptian in its scale and massiveness, is marked by
+the utmost minuteness of ornament and tenuity of detail, suggesting wood
+and stucco rather than stone. The <b>Great Hall</b> at Chillambaram is
+but 10 to 12 feet high, and the corridors at Ramisseram, 700 feet long,
+are but 30 feet high. The effect of <i>ensemble</i> of the Dravidian
+temples is disappointing. They lack the emphasis of dominant masses and
+the dignity of symmetrical and logical arrangement. The very loftiness
+of the gopuras makes the buildings of the group within seem low by
+contrast. In nearly every temple, however, some one feature attracts
+merited admiration by its splendor, extent, or beauty. Such are the
+<b>Choultrie</b>, built by Tirumalla Nayak at Madura (1623&ndash;45),
+measuring 333 × 105 feet; the corridors already mentioned at Ramisseram
+and in the <b>Great Temple</b> at Madura; the gopuras at <b>Tarputry</b>
+and Vellore, and the <b>Mantapa</b> of <b>Parvati</b> at Chillambaram
+(1595&ndash;1685). Very noticeable are the compound columns of this
+style, consisting of square piers with slender shafts coupled to them
+and supporting brackets, as at Chillambaram, Peroor, and Vellore; the
+richly banded square piers, the grotesques of rampant horses and
+monsters, and the endless labor bestowed upon minute carving and
+ornament in superposed bands.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>OTHER MONUMENTS.</b> Other important temples are at Tiruvalur,
+Seringham, Tinevelly, and Conjeveram, all alike
+<span class="pagenum">412</span>
+<a name="page412" id="page412"> </a>
+in general scheme of design, with enclosures varying from 300 to 1,000
+feet in length and width. At <b>Tanjore</b> is a magnificent temple with
+two courts, in the larger of which stands a <i>pagoda</i> or shrine with
+a pyramidal vimana, unusual in Dravidian temples, and beside it the
+smaller <b>Shrine</b> of <b>Soubramanya</b> (Fig. 229), a&nbsp;structure
+of unusual beauty of detail. In both, the vertical lower story with its
+pilasters and windows is curiously suggestive of Renaissance design. The
+pagoda dates from the 14th, the smaller temple from the 15th
+century.</p>
+
+<p class="illustration">
+<a name="fig229" id="fig229"> </a>
+<img src="images/fig229.jpg" width="431" height="429"
+alt="see caption and text"><br>
+FIG. 229.&mdash;SHRINE OF SOUBRAMANYA, TANJORE.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>ROCK-CUT RATHS.</b> All the above temples were built subsequently
+to the 12th century. The rock-cut shrines date in some cases as far back
+as the 7th century; they are called <i>kylas</i> and <i>raths</i>, and
+are not caves, but isolated edifices,
+<span class="pagenum">413</span>
+<a name="page413" id="page413"> </a>
+imitating structural designs, but hewn bodily from the rock. Those at
+Mahavellipore are of diminutive size; but at <b>Purudkul</b> there is an
+extensive temple with shrine, choultrie, and gopura surrounded by a
+court enclosure measuring 250 × 150 feet (9th century). More famous
+still is the elaborate <b>Kylas</b> at <b>Ellora</b>, of about the same
+size as the above, but more complex and complete in its details.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>PALACES.</b> At Madura, Tanjore, and Vijayanagar are Dravidian
+palaces, built after the Mohammedan conquest and in a mixed style. The
+domical octagonal throne-room and the <b>Great Hall</b> at Madura (17th
+century), the most famous edifices of the kind, were evidently inspired
+from Gothic models, but how this came about is not known. The Great Hall
+with its pointed arched barrel vault of 67 feet span, its cusped arches,
+round piers, vaulting shafts, and triforium, appears strangely foreign
+to its surroundings.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CAMBODIA.</b> The subject of Indian architecture cannot be
+dismissed without at least brief mention of the immense temple of
+<b>Nakhon Wat</b> in Cambodia. This stupendous creation covers an area
+of a full square mile, with its concentric courts, its encircling moat
+or lake, its causeways, porches, and shrines, dominated by a central
+structure 200 feet square with nine pagoda-like towers. The corridors
+around the inner court have square piers of almost classic Roman type.
+The rich carving, the perfect masonry, and the admirable composition of
+the whole leading up to the central mass, indicate architectural ability
+of a high order.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>CHINESE ARCHITECTURE.</b> No purely Mongolian nation appears ever
+to have erected buildings of first-rate importance. It cannot be denied,
+however, that the Chinese are possessed of considerable decorative skill
+and mechanical ingenuity; and these qualities are the most prominent
+elements in their buildings. Great size and splendor, massiveness and
+originality of construction, they do not possess. Built in large measure
+of wood, cleverly framed and decorated
+<span class="pagenum">414</span>
+<a name="page414" id="page414"> </a>
+with a certain richness of color and ornament, with a large element of
+the grotesque in the decoration, the Chinese temples, pagodas, and
+palaces are interesting rather than impressive. There is not a single
+architectural monument of imposing size or of great antiquity, so far as
+we know. The celebrated <b>Porcelain Tower</b> of Nankin is no longer
+extant, having been destroyed in the Tæping rebellion in 1850. It was a
+nine-storied polygonal pagoda 236 feet high, revetted with porcelain
+tiles, and was built in 1412. The largest of Chinese temples, that of
+the <b>Great Dragon</b> at Pekin, is a circular structure of moderate
+size, though its enclosure is nearly a mile square. Pagodas with
+diminishing stories, elaborately carved entrance gates and successive
+terraces are mainly relied upon for effect. They show little structural
+art, but much clever ornament. Like the monasteries and the vast
+<i>lamaseries</i> of Thibet, they belong to the Buddhist religion.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from the ingenious framing and bracketing of the carpentry, the
+most striking peculiarity of Chinese buildings is their broad-spreading
+tiled roofs. These invariably slope downward in a curve, and the tiling,
+with its hip-ridges, crestings, and finials in terra-cotta or metal,
+adds materially to the picturesqueness of the general effect. Color and
+gilding are freely used, and in some cases&mdash;as in a summer pavilion
+at Pekin&mdash;porcelain tiling covers the walls, with brilliant effect.
+The chief wonder is that this resource of the architectural decorator
+has not been further developed in China, where porcelain and earthenware
+are otherwise treated with such remarkable skill.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE.</b> Apparently associated in race with the
+Chinese and Koreans, the Japanese are far more artistic in temperament
+than either of their neighbors. The refinement and originality of their
+decorative art have given it a wide reputation. Unfortunately the
+prevalence of earthquakes has combined with the influence of the
+traditional
+<span class="pagenum">415</span>
+<a name="page415" id="page415"> </a>
+habits of the people to prevent the maturing of a truly monumental
+architecture. Except for the terraces, gates, and enclosures of their
+palaces and temples, wood is the predominant building material. It is
+used substantially as in China, the framing, dovetailing, bracketing,
+broad eaves and tiled roofs of Japan closely resembling those of China.
+The chief difference is in the greater refinement and delicacy of the
+Japanese details and the more monumental disposition of the temple
+terraces, the beauty of which is greatly enhanced by skillful landscape
+gardening. The gateways recall somewhat those of the Sanchi Tope in
+India (<a href="#page403">p.&nbsp;403</a>), but are commonly of wood.
+Owing to the danger from earthquakes, lofty towers and pagodas are
+rarely seen.</p>
+
+<p>The domestic architecture of Japan, though interesting for its
+arrangements, and for its sensible and artistic use of the most flimsy
+materials, is too trivial in scale, detail, and construction to receive
+more than passing reference. Even the great palace at Tokio,<a class="tag" name="tag28" id="tag28" href="#note28">28</a> covering an
+immense area, is almost entirely composed of one-storied buildings of
+wood, with little of splendor or architectural dignity.</p>
+
+<div class="monuments">
+<p><b>MONUMENTS</b> (additional to those in text). <span class="smallroman">BUDDHIST</span>: Topes at Sanchi, Sonari, Satdara, Andher,
+in Central India; at Sarnath, near Benares; at Jelalabad and Salsette;
+in Ceylon at Anuradhapura, Tuparamaya, Lankaramaya.&mdash;Grotto temples
+(chaityas), mainly in Bombay and Bengal Presidencies; at Behar,
+especially the Lomash Rishi, and Cuttack; at Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajunta, and
+Ellora (Wiswakarma Cave); in Salsette, the Kenheri Cave.&mdash;Viharas:
+Structural at Nalanda and Sarnath, demolished; rock-cut in Bengal, at
+Cuttack, Udayagiri (the Ganesa); in the west, many at Ajunta, also at
+Bagh, Bedsa, Bhaja, Nassick (the Nahapana, Vadnya Sri, etc.), Salsette,
+Ellora (the Dekrivaria, etc.). In Nepâl, stupas of Swayanbunath and
+Bouddhama.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallroman">JAINA</span>: Temples at Aiwulli, Kanaruc
+(Black Pagoda), and Purudkul;
+<span class="pagenum">416</span>
+<a name="page416" id="page416"> </a>
+groups of temples at Palitana, Gimar, Mount Abu, Somnath, Parisnath; the
+Sas Bahu at Gwalior, 1093; Parswanatha and Ganthai (650) at Khajuraho;
+temple at Gyraspore, 7th century; modern temples at Ahmedabad
+(Huttising), Delhi, and Sonaghur; in the south at Moodbidri, Sravana
+Belgula; towers at Chittore.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallroman">NORTHERN BRAHMAN</span>: Temples,
+Parasumareswara (500 <span class="smallroman">A.D.</span>),
+Mukteswara, and Great Temple (600&ndash;650), all at Bhuwaneswar, among
+many others; of Papanatha at Purudkul; grotto temples at Dhumnar,
+Ellora, and Poonah; temples at Chandravati, Udaipur, and Amritsur (the
+last modern); tombs of Singram Sing and others at Oudeypore; of Rajah
+Baktawar at Ulwar, and others at Goverdhun; ghâts or landings at Benares
+and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallroman">CHALUKYAN</span>: Temples at Buchropully
+and Hamoncondah, 1163; ruins at Kalyani; grottoes of Hazar Khutri.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallroman">DRAVIDIAN</span>: Rock-cut temples (raths)
+at Mahavellipore; Tiger Cave at Saluvan Kuppan; temples at Pittadkul
+(Purudkul), Tiruvalur, Combaconum, Vellore, Peroor, Vijayanagar;
+pavilions at Tanjore and Vijayanagar.</p>
+
+<p>There are also many temples in the Kashmir Valley difficult of
+assignment to any of the above styles and religions.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="note28" id="note28" href="#tag28">28.</a>
+See Transactions R.I.B.A., 52d year, 1886, article by R.&nbsp;J. Conder,
+pp. 185&ndash;214.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">417</span>
+<a name="page417" id="page417"> </a>
+<h3 class="chapter">
+<a name="appendix" id="appendix">APPENDIX.</a></h3>
+
+<p><a name="appA">A.</a> <b>PRIMITIVE GREEK
+ARCHITECTURE.</b>&mdash;The researches of Schliemann commented by
+Schuchardt, of Dörpfeld, Stamakis, Tsoundas, Perrot, and others, in
+Troy, Mycenæ, and Tiryns, and the more recent discoveries of Evans at
+Gnossus, in Crete, have greatly extended our knowledge of the
+prehistoric art of Greece and the Mediterranean basin, and established
+many points of contact on the one hand with ancient Egyptian and
+Phœnician art, and on the other, with the art of historic Greece. They
+have proved the existence of an active and flourishing commerce between
+Egypt and the Mediterranean shores and Aegean islands more than 2000
+<span class="smallroman">B.C.</span>, and of a flourishing material
+civilization in those islands and on the mainland of Greece, borrowing
+much, but not everything, from Egypt. While the origin of the Doric
+order in the structural methods of the pre-Homeric architecture of
+Tiryns and Mycenæ, as set forth by Dörpfeld and by Perrot and Chipiez,
+can hardly be regarded as proved in all details, since much of the
+argument advanced for this derivation rests on more or less conjectural
+restorations of the existing remains, it seems to be fairly well
+established that the Doric order, and historic Greek architecture in
+general, trace their genesis in large measure back in direct line to
+this prehistoric art. The remarkable feature of this early architecture
+is the apparently complete absence of temples. Fortifications, houses,
+palaces, and tombs make up the ruins thus far discovered, and seem to
+indicate clearly the derivation of the temple-type of later Greek art
+from the primitive house, consisting of a hall or <i>megaron</i> with
+four columns about the central hearth (whence
+<span class="pagenum">418</span>
+<a name="page418" id="page418"> </a>
+no doubt, the atrium and peristyle of Roman houses, through their Greek
+intermediary prototypes) and a porch or <i>aithousa</i>, with or without
+columns <i>in antis</i>, opening directly into the <i>megaron</i>, or
+indirectly through an ante-room called the <i>prodomos</i>. Here we have
+the prototypes of the Greek temple <i>in antis</i>, with its <i>naos</i>
+having interior columns, whether roofed over or hypæthral (see pp. 54,
+55). It is probable also that the evidently liberal use of timber for
+many of the structural details led in time to many of the forms later
+developed in stone in the entablature of the Doric order. But it is hard
+to discover, as Dörpfeld would have it, in the slender Mycenæan columns
+with their inverted taper, the prototype of the massive Doric column
+with its upward taper. The Mycenæan column was evidently derived from
+wooden models; the sturdy Doric column&mdash;the earliest being the most
+massive&mdash;seems plainly derived from stone or rubble piers (see <a
+href="#page50">p.&nbsp;50</a>), and thus to have come from a
+different source from the Mycenæan forms.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>gynecæum</i>, or women’s apartments, the men’s apartments, and
+the bath were in these ancient palaces grouped in varying relations
+about the <i>megaron</i>: their plan, purpose, and arrangement are
+clearly revealed in the ruins of Tiryns, where they are more complete
+and perfect than either at Troy or Mycenæ.</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="appB">B.</a> <b>CAMPANILES IN
+ITALY.</b>&mdash;Reference is made on <a href="#page264">page 264</a> to the towers or campaniles of the
+Italian Gothic style and period, and six of these are specifically
+mentioned; and on <a href="#page305">page 305</a> mention is also made
+of those of the Renaissance in Italy. The number and importance of the
+Italian campaniles and the interest attaching to their origin and
+design, warrant a more extended notice than has been assigned them in
+the pages cited.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest of these bell-towers appear to be those adjoining
+<span class="pagenum">419</span>
+<a name="page419" id="page419"> </a>
+the two churches of San Apollinare in and near Ravenna (see <a href="#page114">p.&nbsp;114</a>), and date presumably from the
+sixth century. They are plain circular towers with few and small
+openings, except in the uppermost story, where larger arched openings
+permit the issue of the sound of the bells. This type, which might have
+been developed into a very interesting form of tower, does not seem to
+have been imitated. It was at Rome, and not till the ninth or tenth
+century, that the campanile became a recognized feature of church
+architecture. It was invariably treated as a structure distinct from the
+church, and was built of brick upon a square plan, rising with little or
+no architectural adornment to a height usually of a hundred feet or
+more, and furnished with but a few small openings below the belfry
+stage, where a pair of coupled arched windows separated by a simple
+column opened from each face of the tower. Above these windows a
+pyramidal roof of low pitch terminated the tower. In spite of their
+simplicity of design these Roman bell-towers often possess a noticeable
+grace of proportions, and furnish the prototype of many of the more
+elaborate campaniles erected during the Middle Ages in other central and
+north Italian cities. The towers of Sta. Maria in Cosmedin, Sta. Maria
+in Trastevere, and S.&nbsp;Giorgio in Velabro are examples of this type.
+Most of the Roman examples date from the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries.</p>
+
+<p>In other cities, the campanile was treated with some variety of form
+and decoration, as well as of material. In Lombardy and Venetia the
+square red-brick shaft of the tower is often adorned with long, narrow
+pilaster strips, as at Piacenza (p.&nbsp;158, <a href="#fig91">Fig.&nbsp;91</a>) and Venice, and an arcaded cornice
+not infrequently crowns the structure. The openings at the top may be
+three or four in number on each face, and even the plan is sometimes
+octagonal or circular. The brick octagonal campanile of
+<b>S.&nbsp;Gottardo</b> at Milan is one of the finest Lombard church
+towers. At Verona the
+<span class="pagenum">420</span>
+<a name="page420" id="page420"> </a>
+brick tower on the Piazza <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘dell ’Erbe’ with misplaced apostrophe">dell’ Erbe</ins> and
+that of S.&nbsp;Zeno are conspicuous; but every important town of
+northern Italy possesses one or more examples of these structures dating
+from the eleventh, twelfth, or thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly the three most noted bell-towers in Italy are those of
+Venice, Pisa, and Florence. The great <b>Campanile</b> of <b>St.
+Mark</b> at Venice, first begun in 874, carried higher in the twelfth
+and fourteenth centuries, and finally completed in the sixteenth century
+with the marble belvedere and wooden spire so familiar in pictures of
+Venice, was formerly the highest of all church campaniles in Italy,
+measuring approximately 325 feet to the summit. But this superb historic
+monument, weakened by causes not yet at this writing fully understood,
+fell in sudden ruin on the 14th of July, 1902, to the great loss not
+only of Venice, but of the world of art, though fortunately without
+injuring the neighboring buildings on the Piazza and Piazzetta of St.
+Mark. Since then the campanile of S.&nbsp;Stefano, in the same city, has
+been demolished to forestall another like disaster. The <b>Leaning
+Tower</b> of Pisa (see p.&nbsp;160, <a href="#fig92">Fig.&nbsp;92</a>) dates from 1174, and is unique in
+its plan and its exterior treatment with superposed arcades. Begun
+apparently as a leaning tower, it seems to have increased this lean to a
+dangerous point, by the settling of its foundations during construction,
+as its upper stages were made to deviate slightly towards the vertical
+from the inclination of the lower portion. It has always served rather
+as a watch-tower and belvedere than as a bell-tower. The
+<b>Campanile</b> adjoining the Duomo at <b>Florence</b> is described on
+<a href="#page263">p.&nbsp;263</a> and illustrated in <a
+href="#fig154">Fig.&nbsp;154</a>, and does not require
+further notice here. The black-and-white banded towers of Sienna, Lucca,
+and Pistoia, and the octagonal lanterns crowning those of Verona and
+Mantua, also referred to in the text on <a href="#page264">p.&nbsp;264</a>, need here only be mentioned again
+as illustrating the variety of treatment of these Italian towers.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">421</span>
+<a name="page421" id="page421"> </a>
+<p>The Renaissance architects developed new types of campanile, and in
+such variety that they can only be briefly referred to. Some, like a
+brick tower at Perugia, are simple square towers with pilasters; more
+often engaged columns and entablatures mark the several stories, and the
+upper portion is treated either with an octagonal lantern or with
+diminishing stages, and sometimes with a spire. Of the latter class the
+best example is that of S.&nbsp;Biagio, at Montepulciano,&mdash;one of
+the two designed to flank the façade of Ant. da S.&nbsp;Gallo’s
+beautiful church of that name. One or two good late examples are to be
+found at Naples. Of the more massive square type there are examples in
+the towers of S.&nbsp;Michele, Venice; of the cathedral at Ferrara, Sta.
+Chiara at Naples, and Sta. Maria dell’ Anima&mdash;one of the
+earliest&mdash;at Rome. The most complete and perfect of these square
+belfries of the Renaissance is that of the <b>Campidoglio</b> at Rome,
+by Martino Lunghi, dating from the end of the sixteenth century, which
+groups so admirably with the palaces of the Capitol.</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="appC" id="appC">C.</a> <b>BRAMANTE’S WORKS.</b>&mdash;A
+more or less animated controversy has arisen regarding the authenticity
+of many of the works attributed to Bramante, and the tendency has of
+late been to deny him any part whatever in several of the most important
+of these works. The first of these to be given a changed assignment was
+the church of the Consolazione at Todi (<a href="#page293">p.&nbsp;293</a>), now believed to be by Cola di Caprarola;
+and it is now denied by many investigators that either the Cancelleria
+or the Giraud palace (<a href="#page290">p.&nbsp;290</a>) is his work,
+or any one of two or three smaller houses in Rome showing a somewhat
+similar architectural treatment. The evidence adduced in support of this
+denial is rather speculative and critical than documentary, but is not
+without weight. The date 1495 carved on a doorway of the Cancelleria
+palace is thought to forbid its attribution to
+<span class="pagenum">422</span>
+<a name="page422" id="page422"> </a>
+Bramante, who is not known to have come to Rome till 1503; and there is
+a lack of positive evidence of his authorship of the Giraud palace and
+the other houses which seem to be by the same hand as the Cancelleria.
+To the advocates of this view there is not enough resemblance in style
+between this group of buildings and his acknowledged work either in
+Milan or in the Vatican to warrant their being attributed to him.</p>
+
+<p>It must, however, be remarked, that this notable group of works,
+stamped with the marks and even the mannerisms of a strong personality,
+reveal in their unknown author gifts amounting to genius, and heretofore
+deemed not unworthy of Bramante. It is almost inconceivable that they
+should have been designed by a mere beginner previously utterly unknown
+and forgotten soon after. It is incumbent upon those who deny the
+attribution to Bramante to find another name, if possible, on which to
+fasten the credit of these works. Accordingly, they have been variously
+attributed to Alberti (who died in 1472) or his followers; to Bernardo
+di Lorenzo, and to other later fifteenth-century artists. The difficulty
+here is to discover any name that fits the conditions even as well as
+Bramante’s; for the supposed author must have been in Rome between 1495
+and 1505, and his other works must be at least as much like these as
+were Bramante’s. No name has thus far been found satisfactory to careful
+critics; and the alternative theory, that there existed in Rome, before
+Bramante’s coming, a&nbsp;group of architects unknown to later fame,
+working in a common style and capable of such a masterpiece as the
+Cancelleria, does not harmonize with the generally accepted facts of
+Renaissance art history. Moreover, the comparison of these works with
+Bramante’s Milanese work on the one hand and his great Court of the
+Belvedere in the Vatican on the other, yields, to some critics,
+conclusions quite opposed to those of the advocates of another
+authorship than Bramante’s.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">423</span>
+<a name="page423" id="page423"> </a>
+<p>The controversy must be considered for the present as still open.
+There are manifest difficulties with either of the two opposed views,
+and these can hardly be eliminated, except by the discovery of documents
+not now known to exist, whose testimony will be recognized as
+unimpeachable.</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="appD" id="appD">D.</a> <b>L’ART NOUVEAU.</b>&mdash;Since
+1896, and particularly since the Paris Exposition of 1900,
+a&nbsp;movement has manifested itself in France and Belgium, and spread
+to Germany and Austria and even measurably to England, looking towards a
+more personal and original style of decorative and architectural design,
+in which the traditions and historic styles of the past shall be
+ignored. This movement has received from its adherents and the public
+the name of “L’Art Nouveau,” or, according to some, “L’Art Moderne”; but
+this name must not be held to connote either a really new style or a
+fundamentally new principle in art. Indeed, it may be questioned whether
+any clearly-defined body of principles whatever underlies the movement,
+or would be acknowledged equally by all its adherents. It appears to be
+a reaction against a too slavish adherence to traditional forms and
+methods of design (see pp. <a href="#page370">370</a>, <a href="#page375">375</a>), a&nbsp;striving to ignore or forget the past rather
+than a reaching out after any well-understood, positive end; as such, it
+possesses the negative strength of protest rather than the affirmative
+strength of a vital principle. Its lack of cohesion is seen in the
+division of its adherents into groups, some looking to nature for
+inspiration, while others decry this as a mistaken quest; some seeking
+to emphasize structural lines, and others to ignore them altogether.
+All, however, are united in the avoidance of commonplace forms and
+historic styles, and this preoccupation has developed an amazing amount
+of originality and individualism of style, frequently reaching the
+extreme of eccentricity. The results have therefore been, as might be
+expected, extremely varied in
+<span class="pagenum">424</span>
+<a name="page424" id="page424"> </a>
+merit, ranging from the most refined and reserved in style to the most
+harshly bizarre and extravagant. As a rule, they have been most
+successful in small and semi-decorative objects&mdash;jewelry,
+silverware, vases, and small furniture; and one most desirable feature
+of the movement has been the stimulus it has given (especially in France
+and England), to the organization and activity of “arts-and-crafts”
+societies which occupy themselves with the encouragement of the
+decorative and industrial arts and the diffusion of an improved taste.
+In the field of the larger objects of design, in which the dominance of
+traditional form and of structural considerations is proportionally more
+imperious, the struggle to evade these restrictions becomes more
+difficult, and results usually in more obvious and disagreeable
+eccentricities, which the greater size and permanence of the object tend
+further to exaggerate. The least successful achievements of the movement
+have accordingly been in architecture. The buildings designed by its
+most fervent disciples (<i>e.g.</i> the Pavillon Bleu at the Exposition
+of 1900, the Castel Béranger, Paris, by <i>H.&nbsp;Guimard</i>, the
+houses of the artist colony at Darmstadt, and others) are for the most
+part characterized by extreme stiffness, eccentricity, or ugliness. The
+requirements of construction and of human habitation cannot easily be
+met without sometimes using the forms which past experience has
+developed for the same ends; and the negation of precedent is not the
+surest path to beauty or even reasonableness of design. It is
+interesting to notice that in the intermediate field of furniture-design
+some of the best French productions recall the style of Louis XV.,
+modified by Japanese ideas and spirit. This singular but not unpleasing
+combination is less surprising when we reflect that the style of Louis
+XV. was itself a protest against the formalism of the heavy classic
+architecture of preceding reigns, and achieved its highest successes in
+the domain of furniture and interior decoration.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">425</span>
+<a name="page425" id="page425"> </a>
+<p>It may be fair to credit the new movement with one positive
+characteristic in its prevalent regard for line, especially for the
+effect of long and swaying lines, whether in the contours or
+ornamentation of an object. This is especially noticeable in the Belgian
+work, and in that of the Viennese “Secessionists,” who have, however,
+carried eccentricity to a further point of extravagance than any
+others.</p>
+
+<p>Whether “L’Art Nouveau” will ever produce permanent results time
+alone can show. Its present vogue is probably evanescent and it cannot
+claim to have produced a style; but it seems likely to exert on European
+architecture an influence, direct and indirect, not unlike that of the
+Néo-Grec movement of 1830 in France (<a href="#page364">p.&nbsp;364</a>), but even more lasting and beneficial. It
+has already begun to break the hold of rigid classical tradition in
+design; and recent buildings, especially in Germany and Austria, like
+the works of the brilliant <i>Otto Wagner</i> in Vienna, show a pleasing
+freedom of personal touch without undue striving after eccentric
+novelty. Doubtless in French and other European architecture the same
+result will in time manifest itself.</p>
+
+<p>The search for novelty and the desire to dispense wholly with
+historic forms of design which are the chief marks of the Art <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Noveau’">Nouveau</ins>, were
+emphatically displayed in many of the remarkable buildings of the Paris
+<b>Exhibition of 1900</b>, in which a striking fertility and facility of
+design in the decorative details made more conspicuous the failure to
+improve upon the established precedents of architectural style in the
+matters of proportion, scale, general composition, and contour. As usual
+the metallic construction of these buildings was almost without
+exception admirable, and the decorative details, taken by themselves,
+extremely clever and often beautiful, but the combined result was not
+satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States the movement has not found a firm foothold
+because there has been no dominant, enslaving tradition to protest
+against. Not a few of the ideas, not a
+<span class="pagenum">426</span>
+<a name="page426" id="page426"> </a>
+little of the spirit of the movement may be recognized in the work of
+individual architects and decorative artists in the United States,
+executed years before the movement took recognizable form in Europe: and
+American decorative design has generally been, at least since 1880 or
+1885, sufficiently free, individual and personal, to render unnecessary
+and impossible any concerted movement of artistic revolt against slavery
+to precedent.</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="appE" id="appE">E.</a> <b>RECENT AMERICAN
+ARCHITECTURE.</b>&mdash;Architectural activity in the United States
+continues to share in the general prosperity which has marked the years
+since 1898, and this activity has by no means been confined to
+industrial and commercial architecture. Indeed, while the erection of
+“sky scrapers” or excessively lofty office-buildings has continued to be
+a feature of this activity in the great commercial centres, the most
+notable architectural enterprises of recent years have been in the field
+of educational buildings, both in the East and West. In 1898 a great
+international competition resulted in the selection of the design of Mr.
+<i>E.&nbsp;Bénard</i> of Paris for a magnificent group of buildings for
+the <b>University of California</b> on a scale of unexampled grandeur,
+and the erection of this colossal project has been begun. An almost
+equally ambitious project, by a firm of Philadelphia architects, has
+been adopted for the Washington University at St. Louis; and many other
+universities and colleges have either added extensively to their
+existing buildings or planned an entire rebuilding on new designs. Among
+these the national military and naval academies at <b>West Point</b> and
+<b>Annapolis</b> take the first rank in the extent and splendor of the
+projected improvements. Museums and libraries have also been erected or
+begun in various cities, and the <b>New York Public Library</b>, now
+building, will rank in cost and beauty with those already erected in
+Boston and Washington.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">427</span>
+<a name="page427" id="page427"> </a>
+<p>In other departments mention should be made of recent Federal
+buildings (custom-houses, post-offices, and court-houses) erected under
+the provisions of the Tarsney act from designs secured by competition
+among the leading architects of the country; among those the <b>New York
+Custom House</b> is the most important, but other buildings, at
+Washington, Indianapolis, and elsewhere, are also conspicuous, and many
+of them worthy of high praise. The tendency to award the designing of
+important public buildings, such as State capitols, county court houses,
+city halls, libraries, and hospitals, by competition instead of by
+personal and political favor, has resulted in a marked improvement in
+the quality of American public architecture.</p>
+
+<p><a name="appF">F.</a> <b>THE ERECHTHEUM: RECENT
+INVESTIGATIONS.</b>&mdash;During the past two years, extensive repairs
+and partial restorations of the Erechtheum at Athens, undertaken by the
+Greek Archæological Society, have afforded opportunities for a new and
+thoroughgoing study of the existing portions of the building and of the
+surrounding ruins. In these investigations a prominent part has been
+borne by Mr. Gorham P.&nbsp;Stevens, representing the Archæological
+Institute of America, to whom must be credited, among other things, the
+demonstration of the existence, in the east wall of the original
+structure, of two windows previously unknown. Other peculiarities of
+design and construction were also discovered, which add greatly to the
+interest of the building. These investigations are reported in the
+<i>American Journal of Archæology</i>, Second Series; <i>Journal of the
+Archæological Institute of America</i>, Vol.&nbsp;X., No.&nbsp;1, <i>et
+seq.</i> The illustrations, Figures 35 and 36, are, by Mr. Stevens’
+courtesy, based upon, though not reproductions of, his original
+drawings.</p>
+
+</div> <!-- end div maintext -->
+
+<a name="page428" id="page428"> </a>
+
+
+<hr class="mid">
+
+<hr>
+
+<hr class="mid">
+
+<div class="maintext">
+
+<span class="pagenum">429</span>
+<a name="page429" id="page429"> </a>
+
+<h3><a name="glossary" id="glossary">
+GLOSSARY</a><br>
+<span class="smaller">
+OF TERMS NOT DEFINED IN THE TEXT.</span></h3>
+
+<div class="hanging">
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Alcazar</span> (Span., from Arabic <i>Al
+Kasr</i>), a&nbsp;palace or castle, especially of a governing
+official.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Archivolt</span>, a band or group of
+mouldings decorating the wall-face of an arch; or a transverse arch
+projecting slightly from the surface of a barrel or groined vault.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Astylar</span>, without columns.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Balnea</span>, a Roman bathing establishment,
+less extensive than the <i>thermæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bel Etage</span>, the principal story of a
+building, containing the reception rooms and saloons; usually the second
+story (first above the ground story).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Broken Entablature</span>, an entablature
+which projects forward over each column or pilaster, returning back to
+the wall and running along with diminished projection between the
+columns, as in the Arch of Constantine (<a href="#fig63">Fig.&nbsp;63</a>).</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Cantoned Piers</span>, piers adorned with
+columns or pilasters at the corners or on the outer faces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Cartouche</span> (Fr.), an ornament shaped
+like a shield or oval. In Egyptian hieroglyphics, the oval encircling
+the name of a king.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Cavetto</span>, a concave, quarter-round
+moulding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chevron</span>, a V-shaped ornament.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chryselephantine</span>, of ivory and gold;
+used of statues in which the nude portions are of ivory and the
+draperies of gold.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Console</span>, a large scroll-shaped
+bracket or ornament, having its broadest curve at the bottom.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Corinthianesque</span>, resembling the
+Corinthian; used of capitals having corner-volutes and acanthus leaves,
+but combined otherwise than in the classic Corinthian type.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Empaistic</span>, made of, or overlaid with,
+sheet-metal beaten or hammered into decorative patterns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Exedræ</span>, curved seats of stone;
+niches or recesses, sometimes of considerable size, provided with seats
+for the public.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Fenestration</span>, the whole system or
+arrangement of windows and openings in an architectural composition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Four-part.</span> A four-part vault is a
+groined vault formed by the intersection of two barrel vaults. Its
+diagonal edges or <i>groins</i> divide it into four sections, triangular
+in plan, each called a <i>compartment</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Gigantomachia</span>, a group or composition
+representing the mythical combat between the gods and the giants.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">430</span>
+<a name="page430" id="page430"> </a>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Half-timbered</span>, constructed with a
+timber framework showing externally, and filled in with masonry or
+brickwork.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Imaum</span>, imâm, a Mohammedan priest.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Kaabah</span>, the sacred shrine at Meccah,
+a&nbsp;nearly cubical structure hung with black cloth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Karafah</span>, a region in Cairo
+containing the so-called tombs of the Khalifs.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Laconicum</span>, the sweat-room in a Roman
+bath; usually of domical design in the larger thermæ.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Mezzanine</span>, a low, intermediate
+story.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Mueddin</span>, a Mohammedan
+mosque-official who calls to prayer.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Narthex</span>, a porch or vestibule running
+across the front of a basilica or church.</p>
+
+<table class="bracket" summary="paired definitions">
+<tr>
+<td><p class="smallcaps">Neo-Gothic,</p></td>
+<td class="bracket" rowspan="2">
+<p>in a style which seeks to revive and adapt or apply to modern uses
+the forms of the Middle Ages.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class="smallcaps">Neo&#x2011;Mediæval,</p></td>
+<!-- <td></td> -->
+</table>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Oculus</span>, a circular opening, especially
+in the crown of a dome.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ogee Arch</span>, one composed of two
+juxtaposed S-shaped or wavy curves, meeting in a point at the top.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Palæstra</span>, an establishment among the
+ancient Greeks for physical training.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Pavilion</span> (Fr. <i>pavillon</i>),
+ordinarily a light open structure of ornate design. As applied to
+architectural composition, a&nbsp;projecting section of a façade,
+usually rectangular in plan, and having its own distinct mass of
+roof.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Quarry Ornament</span>, any ornament covering
+a surface with two series of reticulated lines enclosing approximately
+quadrangular spaces or meshes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps"><ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Quartrefoil’">Quatrefoil</ins></span>, with four leaves or
+<i>foils</i>; composed of four arcs of circles meeting in cusps pointing
+inward.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Quoins</span>, slightly projecting blocks
+of stone, alternately long and short, decorating or strengthening a
+corner or angle of a façade.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Revetment</span>, a veneering or
+sheathing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Rustication</span>, treatment of the
+masonry with blocks having roughly broken faces, or with deeply grooved
+or bevelled joints.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Soffit</span>, the under-side of an
+architrave, beam, arch, or corona.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Spandril</span>, the triangular wall-space
+between two contiguous arches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Squinch</span>, a bit of conical vaulting
+filling in the angles of a square so as to provide an octagonal or
+circular base for a dome or lantern.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Stoa</span>, an open colonnade for public
+resort.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Tepidarium</span>, the hot-water hall or
+chamber of a Roman bath.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Tympanum</span>, the flat space comprised
+between the horizontal and raking cornices of a pediment, or between a
+lintel and the arch over&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p class="space">
+<span class="smallcaps">Voussoir</span>, any one of the radial stones
+composing an arch.</p>
+
+</div> <!-- end div hanging -->
+
+</div> <!-- end div maintext -->
+
+<div class="index arch">
+
+<span class="pagenum">431</span>
+<a name="page431" id="page431"> </a>
+
+<h3><a name="index_arch" id="index_arch">
+INDEX OF ARCHITECTS.</a></h3>
+
+<p class="mynote note center">
+<a href="#arch_A">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_B">&nbsp;B&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_C">&nbsp;C&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_D">&nbsp;D&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_E">&nbsp;E&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_F">&nbsp;F&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_G">&nbsp;G&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_H">&nbsp;H&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_I">&nbsp;I&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_J">&nbsp;J&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_K">&nbsp;K&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_L">&nbsp;L&nbsp;</a><br>
+<a href="#arch_M">&nbsp;M&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_N">&nbsp;N&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_O">&nbsp;O&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_P">&nbsp;P&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_R">&nbsp;R&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_S">&nbsp;S&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_T">&nbsp;T&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_U">&nbsp;U&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_V">&nbsp;V&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_W">&nbsp;W&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#arch_Z">&nbsp;Z&nbsp;</a><br>
+&nbsp;<br>
+Highlighted names link back to the beginning of this Index. Page numbers
+link to the referenced page.</p>
+
+<p class="note center">
+The <i>surname</i> is in all cases followed by a comma.</p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_A" id="arch_A" href="#index_arch">Abadie</a>,
+<a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+
+<p><ins class="correction" title="consistent error for ‘Adam’">Adams</ins>, Robert <a href="#page234">234</a></p>
+
+<p>Agnolo, Baccio d’ <a href="#page291">291</a></p>
+
+<p>Agnolo, Gabriele d’ <a href="#page287">287</a></p>
+
+<p>Alberti, Leo Battista <a href="#page277">277</a>,
+<a href="#page280">280</a></p>
+
+<p>Alessi, Galeazzo <a href="#page299">299</a>,
+<a href="#page302">302</a></p>
+
+<p>Ammanati, Bartolomeo <a href="#page300">300</a></p>
+
+<p>Anselm, Prior <a href="#page219">219</a></p>
+
+<p>Anthemius of Tralles, <a href="#page127">127</a></p>
+
+<p>Antonio, Master <a href="#page259">259</a></p>
+
+<p>Arnold, Master <a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+
+<p>Arnolfo di Cambio, <a href="#page162">162</a>,
+<a href="#page265">265</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_B" id="arch_B" href="#index_arch">Baccio D’ Agnolo</a>,
+<a href="#page291">291</a></p>
+
+<p>Ballu, <a href="#page371">371</a>,
+<a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+
+<p>Baltard, Victor <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+
+<p>Barry, Sir Charles <a href="#page380">380</a></p>
+
+<p>Bassevi, <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+
+<p>Battista, Juan <a href="#page351">351</a></p>
+
+<p>Benci di Cione, <a href="#page266">266</a></p>
+
+<p>Benedetto da Majano, <a href="#page280">280</a>,
+<a href="#page281">281</a></p>
+
+<p>Bernardo di Lorenzo, <a href="#page282">282</a></p>
+
+<p>Bernini, Lorenzo <a href="#page295">295</a>,
+<a href="#page303">303</a>,
+<a href="#page319">319</a></p>
+
+<p>Berruguete, Alonzo <a href="#page348">348</a>,
+<a href="#page350">350</a></p>
+
+<p>Bianchi, <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+
+<p>Bondone, Giotto di <a href="#page258">258</a>,
+<a href="#page263">263</a>,
+<a href="#page272">272</a></p>
+
+<p>Boromini, Francesco <a href="#page303">303</a>,
+<a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+
+<p>Borset, <a href="#page334">334</a></p>
+
+<p>Bramante Lazzari, <a href="#page289">289</a>,
+<a href="#page290">290</a>,
+<a href="#page294">294</a>,
+<a href="#page295">295</a>,
+<a href="#page321">321</a></p>
+
+<p>Brandon, Richard <a href="#page378">378</a></p>
+
+<p>Bregno, Antonio <a href="#page284">284</a></p>
+
+<p>Brongniart, <a href="#page363">363</a></p>
+
+<p>Brunelleschi, Filippo <a href="#page275">275</a>,
+<a href="#page276">276</a>,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>,
+<a href="#page281">281</a>,
+<a href="#page289">289</a></p>
+
+<p>Bullant, Jean <a href="#page316">316</a>,
+<a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+
+<p>Bulfinch, Charles <a href="#page390">390</a></p>
+
+<p>Buon, Bartolomeo <a href="#page284">284</a></p>
+
+<p>Buonarotti, Michael Angelo <a href="#page289">289</a>,
+<a href="#page292">292</a>,
+<a href="#page294">294</a>,
+<a href="#page295">295</a>,
+<a href="#page296">296</a>,
+<a href="#page299">299</a></p>
+
+<p>Burges, William <a href="#page380">380</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_C" id="arch_C" href="#index_arch">Callicrates</a>,
+<a href="#page63">63</a></p>
+
+<p>Cambio, Arnolfo di <a href="#page162">162</a>,
+<a href="#page265">265</a></p>
+
+<p>Campbell, Colin <a href="#page333">333</a></p>
+
+<p>Campello, <a href="#page255">255</a></p>
+
+<p>Caprarola, Cola da <a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+
+<p>Caprino, Meo del <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+
+<p>Chalgrin, <a href="#page362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Chambers, Sir William <a href="#page333">333</a></p>
+
+<p>Chambiges, Pierre <a href="#page313">313</a></p>
+
+<p>Chrismas, Gerard <a href="#page327">327</a></p>
+
+<p>Christodoulos, <a href="#page150">150</a></p>
+
+<p>Churriguera, <a href="#page348">348</a>,
+<a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p>Cimabue, <a href="#page258">258</a></p>
+
+<p>Civitale, Matteo <a href="#page281">281</a>,
+<a href="#page283">283</a></p>
+
+<p>Columbe, Michel <a href="#page310">310</a></p>
+
+<p>Cortona, Domenico di <a href="#page316">316</a></p>
+
+<p>Cossutius, <a href="#page68">68</a></p>
+
+<p>Cronaca, <a href="#page280">280</a>,
+<a href="#page291">291</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_D" id="arch_D" href="#index_arch">Dance, George</a>
+<a href="#page334">334</a></p>
+
+<p>De Brosse, Salomon <a href="#page318">318</a>,
+<a href="#page319">319</a></p>
+
+<p>De Fabris, <a href="#page261">261</a></p>
+
+<p>De Key, Lieven <a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+
+<p>De Keyser, Hendrik <a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+
+<p>Della Porta, Giacomo <a href="#page292">292</a>,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>,
+<a href="#page300">300</a></p>
+
+<p>Della Robbia, Luca <a href="#page281">281</a></p>
+
+<p>De l’Orme, Philibert <a href="#page316">316</a>,
+<a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+
+<p>Déperthes, <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">432</span>
+<a name="page432" id="page432"> </a>
+<p>Derrand, François <a href="#page319">319</a></p>
+
+<p>Desiderio da Settignano, <a href="#page281">281</a></p>
+
+<p>De Tessin, Nicodemus <a href="#page337">337</a></p>
+
+<p>De Vriendt (or Floris), Cornelius <a href="#page334">334</a>,
+<a href="#page335">335</a></p>
+
+<p>Diego de Siloë, <a href="#page348">348</a></p>
+
+<p>Domenico di Cortona, <a href="#page316">316</a></p>
+
+<p>Donatello, <a href="#page275">275</a></p>
+
+<p>Dosio, Giovanni Antonio <a href="#page291">291</a></p>
+
+<p>Duban, Félix <a href="#page364">364</a></p>
+
+<p>Duc, <a href="#page364">364</a>,
+<a href="#page365">365</a></p>
+
+<p>Du Cerceau, Jean Batiste <a href="#page318">318</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_E" id="arch_E" href="#index_arch">Edington</a>,
+<a href="#page226">226</a></p>
+
+<p>Emerson, William <a href="#page382">382</a></p>
+
+<p>Enrique de Egaz, <a href="#page349">349</a></p>
+
+<p>Erwin von Steinbach, <a href="#page241">241</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_F" id="arch_F" href="#index_arch">Fain, Pierre</a>
+<a href="#page310">310</a></p>
+
+<p>Federighi, Antonio <a href="#page282">282</a></p>
+
+<p>Ferstel, H. von <a href="#page375">375</a></p>
+
+<p>Fiesole, Mino da <a href="#page281">281</a></p>
+
+<p>Filarete, Antonio <a href="#page283">283</a></p>
+
+<p>Flitcroft, <a href="#page333">333</a></p>
+
+<p>Floris (De Vriendt), Cornelius <a href="#page334">334</a>,
+<a href="#page335">335</a></p>
+
+<p>Fontaine, <a href="#page362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Fontana, Domenico <a href="#page295">295</a>,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>,
+<a href="#page300">300</a>,
+<a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+
+<p>Fra Giocondo, <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+
+<p>Fra Ristoro, <a href="#page256">256</a></p>
+
+<p>Fra Sisto, <a href="#page256">256</a></p>
+
+<p>Fuga, Ferdinando <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_G" id="arch_G" href="#index_arch">Gabriel, Jacques Ange</a>
+<a href="#page324">324</a>,
+<a href="#page367">367</a></p>
+
+<p>Gabriele d’Agnolo, <a href="#page287">287</a></p>
+
+<p>Gaddi, Taddeo <a href="#page263">263</a></p>
+
+<p>Gadyer, Pierre <a href="#page315">315</a></p>
+
+<p>Galilei, Alessandro <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+
+<p>Garnier, Charles <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+
+<p>Gerhardt von Riel, <a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+
+<p>Giacomo di Pietrasanta, <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+
+<p>Gibbs, James <a href="#page332">332</a>,
+<a href="#page333">333</a>,
+<a href="#page356">356</a>,
+<a href="#page385">385</a></p>
+
+<p>Giocondo, Fra <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+
+<p>Giotto di Bondone, <a href="#page258">258</a>,
+<a href="#page263">263</a>,
+<a href="#page272">272</a></p>
+
+<p>Giuliano da Majano, <a href="#page286">286</a>,
+<a href="#page287">287</a></p>
+
+<p>Giulio Romano, <a href="#page289">289</a>,
+<a href="#page292">292</a></p>
+
+<p>Goujon, Jean <a href="#page316">316</a>,
+<a href="#page321">321</a></p>
+
+<p>Gumiel, Pedro <a href="#page349">349</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_H" id="arch_H" href="#index_arch">Hallet, Stephen (Étienne)</a>
+<a href="#page389">389</a></p>
+
+<p>Hansen, Theophil <a href="#page360">360</a></p>
+
+<p>Have, Theodore <a href="#page327">327</a></p>
+
+<p>Hawksmoor, <a href="#page332">332</a></p>
+
+<p>Hendrik de Keyser, <a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+
+<p>Henri de Narbonne, <a href="#page249">249</a></p>
+
+<p>Henry of Gmünd, <a href="#page255">255</a></p>
+
+<p>Herrera, Francisco <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p>Herrera, Juan d’ <a href="#page348">348</a>,
+<a href="#page350">350</a>,
+<a href="#page351">351</a></p>
+
+<p>Hitorff, J. J. <a href="#page364">364</a>,
+<a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+
+<p>Hoban, Thomas <a href="#page390">390</a></p>
+
+<p>Holbein, Hans <a href="#page327">327</a></p>
+
+<p>Hübsch, Heinrich <a href="#page375">375</a>,
+<a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+
+<p>Hunt, Richard M. <a href="#page393">393</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_I" id="arch_I" href="#index_arch">Ictinus</a>,
+<a href="#page62">62</a>,
+<a href="#page63">63</a>,
+<a href="#page65">65</a></p>
+
+<p>Isodorus of Miletus, <a href="#page127">127</a></p>
+
+<p>Ivara, Ferdinando <a href="#page352">352</a>,
+<a href="#page365">365</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_J" id="arch_J" href="#index_arch">Jacobus of Meruan</a>,
+<a href="#page255">255</a></p>
+
+<p>Jansen, Bernard <a href="#page327">327</a></p>
+
+<p>Jefferson, Thomas <a href="#page390">390</a></p>
+
+<p>John, Master <a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+
+<p>John of Padua, <a href="#page328">328</a></p>
+
+<p>Jones, Inigo <a href="#page328">328</a>,
+<a href="#page332">332</a>,
+<a href="#page333">333</a></p>
+
+<p>Juan Battista, <a href="#page351">351</a></p>
+
+<p>Junckher of Cologne, <a href="#page241">241</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_K" id="arch_K" href="#index_arch">Kearsley, Dr.</a>
+<a href="#page386">386</a></p>
+
+<p>Kent, <a href="#page333">333</a></p>
+
+<p>Klenze, Leo von <a href="#page359">359</a>,
+<a href="#page360">360</a>,
+<a href="#page367">367</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_L" id="arch_L" href="#index_arch">Labrouste, Henri</a>
+<a href="#page364">364</a></p>
+
+<p>Lassus, J. B. A. <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+
+<p>Latrobe, Benjamin H. <a href="#page389">389</a></p>
+
+<p>Laurana, Francesco <a href="#page310">310</a></p>
+
+<p>Laurana, Luciano <a href="#page287">287</a></p>
+
+<p>Le Breton, Gilles <a href="#page313">313</a></p>
+
+<p>Lefuel, Hector <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+
+<p>Lemercier, Jacques <a href="#page312">312</a>,
+<a href="#page319">319</a>,
+<a href="#page322">322</a></p>
+
+<p>Le Nepveu, Pierre <a href="#page314">314</a></p>
+
+<p>Lescot, Pierre <a href="#page316">316</a>,
+<a href="#page321">321</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">433</span>
+<a name="page433" id="page433"> </a>
+<p>Le Vau (or Levau) <a href="#page320">320</a></p>
+
+<p>Lieven de Key, <a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+
+<p>Ligorio, Pirro <a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+
+<p>Lippi, Annibale <a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+
+<p>Lira, Valentino di <a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+
+<p>Lombardi, Antonio <a href="#page284">284</a></p>
+
+<p>Lombardi, Martino <a href="#page284">284</a></p>
+
+<p>Lombardi, Moro <a href="#page284">284</a></p>
+
+<p>Lombardi, Pietro <a href="#page284">284</a></p>
+
+<p>Lombardi, Tullio <a href="#page284">284</a>,
+<a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+
+<p>Longhena, Baldassare <a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+
+<p>Lorenzo, Bernardo di <a href="#page282">282</a></p>
+
+<p>Louis, Victor <a href="#page362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Luca della Robbia, <a href="#page281">281</a></p>
+
+<p>Lunghi, Martino (the elder) <a href="#page304">304</a>,
+<a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_M" id="arch_M" href="#index_arch">Machuca</a>,
+<a href="#page351">351</a></p>
+
+<p>Maderna, Carlo <a href="#page295">295</a>,
+<a href="#page303">303</a></p>
+
+<p>Majano, Benedetto da <a href="#page280">280</a>,
+<a href="#page281">281</a></p>
+
+<p>Majano, Giuliano da <a href="#page286">286</a>,
+<a href="#page287">287</a></p>
+
+<p>Mansart, François <a href="#page322">322</a></p>
+
+<p>Mansart, Jules Hardouin <a href="#page320">320</a>,
+<a href="#page321">321</a>,
+<a href="#page322">322</a></p>
+
+<p>Marchionne, <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+
+<p>Marini, Giovanni <a href="#page339">339</a></p>
+
+<p>Martino, Pietro di <a href="#page287">287</a></p>
+
+<p>Matthew of Arras, <a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+
+<p>Meo del Caprino, <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+
+<p>Meruan, Jacobus of <a href="#page255">255</a></p>
+
+<p>Métézeau, <a href="#page318">318</a></p>
+
+<p>Michelozzi, Michelozzo <a href="#page279">279</a>,
+<a href="#page283">283</a></p>
+
+<p>Mino da Fiesole, <a href="#page281">281</a></p>
+
+<p>Mnesicles, <a href="#page65">65</a></p>
+
+<p>Mullet, A. B. <a href="#page392">392</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_N" id="arch_N" href="#index_arch">Narbonne, Henri de</a>
+<a href="#page249">249</a></p>
+
+<p>Nénot, Henri P. <a href="#page374">374</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_O" id="arch_O" href="#index_arch">Ohlmüller</a>,
+<a href="#page375">375</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_P" id="arch_P" href="#index_arch">Palladio, Andrea</a>
+<a href="#page299">299</a>,
+<a href="#page301">301</a>,
+<a href="#page319">319</a>,
+<a href="#page328">328</a>,
+<a href="#page350">350</a></p>
+
+<p>Percier, Charles <a href="#page362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Perrault, Claude <a href="#page320">320</a></p>
+
+<p>Peruzzi, Baldassare <a href="#page289">289</a>,
+<a href="#page291">291</a>,
+<a href="#page292">292</a>,
+<a href="#page294">294</a></p>
+
+<p>Phidias, <a href="#page62">62</a></p>
+
+<p>Philibert de l’Orme, <a href="#page316">316</a>,
+<a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+
+<p>Pietrasanta, Giacomo di <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+
+<p>Pintelli, Baccio <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+
+<p>Pisano, Giovanni <a href="#page260">260</a></p>
+
+<p>Pisano, Niccolo <a href="#page272">272</a></p>
+
+<p>Polaert, <a href="#page382">382</a></p>
+
+<p>Poyet, <a href="#page363">363</a></p>
+
+<p>Pugin, A. Welby <a href="#page378">378</a></p>
+
+<p>Pythius, <a href="#page71">71</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_R" id="arch_R" href="#index_arch">Raphael Sanzio</a>,
+<a href="#page289">289</a>,
+<a href="#page290">290</a>,
+<a href="#page291">291</a>,
+<a href="#page292">292</a>,
+<a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+
+<p>Renwick, James <a href="#page391">391</a>,
+<a href="#page392">392</a></p>
+
+<p>Revett, Nicholas <a href="#page355">355</a>,
+<a href="#page358">358</a></p>
+
+<p>Richardson, Henry H. <a href="#page393">393</a>,
+<a href="#page394">394</a></p>
+
+<p>Rickman, Thomas <a href="#page378">378</a></p>
+
+<p>Riel, Gerhardt von <a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+
+<p>Ristoro, Fra <a href="#page256">256</a></p>
+
+<p>Rizzio, Antonio <a href="#page284">284</a></p>
+
+<p>Romano, Giulio <a href="#page289">289</a>,
+<a href="#page292">292</a></p>
+
+<p>Rossellini, Bernardo <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+
+<p>Ruiz, Fernando <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_S" id="arch_S" href="#index_arch">Salvi, Niccola</a>
+<a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+
+<p>Sammichele, Michele <a href="#page293">293</a>,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>,
+<a href="#page300">300</a>,
+<a href="#page329">329</a></p>
+
+<p>San Gallo, Antonio da (the Elder) <a href="#page294">294</a></p>
+
+<p>San Gallo, Antonio da (the Younger) <a href="#page289">289</a>,
+<a href="#page291">291</a>,
+<a href="#page294">294</a></p>
+
+<p>San Gallo, Giuliano da <a href="#page278">278</a>,
+<a href="#page291">291</a>,
+<a href="#page292">292</a>,
+<a href="#page294">294</a></p>
+
+<p>Sansovino, Giacopo Tatti <a href="#page289">289</a>,
+<a href="#page293">293</a>,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>,
+<a href="#page300">300</a>,
+<a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+
+<p>Satyrus, <a href="#page71">71</a></p>
+
+<p>Scamozzi, Vincenzo <a href="#page299">299</a>,
+<a href="#page339">339</a></p>
+
+<p>Schinkel, Friedrich <a href="#page358">358</a>,
+<a href="#page360">360</a>,
+<a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+
+<p>Schmidt, F. <a href="#page378">378</a></p>
+
+<p>Scott (General) <a href="#page382">382</a></p>
+
+<p>Scott, Sir Gilbert <a href="#page380">380</a></p>
+
+<p>Semper, Ottfried <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+
+<p>Sens, William of <a href="#page219">219</a></p>
+
+<p>Servandoni, <a href="#page323">323</a></p>
+
+<p>Settignano, Desiderio da <a href="#page281">281</a></p>
+
+<p>Shaw, Norman <a href="#page382">382</a></p>
+
+<p>Siccardsburg, <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+
+<p>Smirke, Robert <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">434</span>
+<a name="page434" id="page434"> </a>
+<p>Smithson, Robert <a href="#page328">328</a></p>
+
+<p>Soane, Sir John <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+
+<p>Soufflot, J. J. <a href="#page362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Steinbach, Erwin von <a href="#page241">241</a></p>
+
+<p>Stella, Paolo della <a href="#page339">339</a></p>
+
+<p>Stern, Raphael <a href="#page305">305</a>,
+<a href="#page365">365</a></p>
+
+<p>Street, George Edmund <a href="#page380">380</a></p>
+
+<p>Stuart, James <a href="#page355">355</a>,
+<a href="#page358">358</a></p>
+
+<p>Stuhler, <a href="#page359">359</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_T" id="arch_T" href="#index_arch">Talenti, Francesco Di</a>
+<a href="#page259">259</a>,
+<a href="#page263">263</a></p>
+
+<p>Talenti, Simone di <a href="#page266">266</a></p>
+
+<p>Taylor, Robert <a href="#page334">334</a></p>
+
+<p>Tessin, Nicodemus de <a href="#page337">337</a></p>
+
+<p>Thomson, Alexander <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+
+<p>Thornton, <a href="#page389">389</a></p>
+
+<p>Thorpe, John <a href="#page328">328</a></p>
+
+<p>Titz, <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+
+<p>Torregiano, <a href="#page327">327</a></p>
+
+<p>Trevigi, <a href="#page327">327</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_U" id="arch_U" href="#index_arch">Upjohn, Richard</a>
+<a href="#page392">392</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_V" id="arch_V" href="#index_arch">Val Del Vira</a>,
+<a href="#page348">348</a></p>
+
+<p>Valentino di Lira, <a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+
+<p>Van Aken, <a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+
+<p>Van Brugh, Sir John <a href="#page332">332</a></p>
+
+<p>Van Noort, William <a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+
+<p>Van Noye, Sebastian <a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+
+<p>Van Vitelli, <a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+
+<p>Vasari, Giorgio <a href="#page162">162</a></p>
+
+<p>Viart, Charles <a href="#page311">311</a></p>
+
+<p>Viel, <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+
+<p>Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da <a href="#page289">289</a>,
+<a href="#page292">292</a>,
+<a href="#page296">296</a>,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>,
+<a href="#page300">300</a>,
+<a href="#page301">301</a></p>
+
+<p>Vignon, Pierre <a href="#page362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene Emmanuel <a href="#page370">370</a>,
+<a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+
+<p>Vischer, Kaspar <a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+
+<p>Vischer, Peter <a href="#page347">347</a></p>
+
+<p>Visconti, Louis T. J. <a href="#page371">371</a>,
+<a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+
+<p>Vitoni, Ventura <a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+
+<p>Vitruvius, <a href="#page56">56</a>,
+<a href="#page71">71</a>,
+<a href="#page77">77</a></p>
+
+<p>Von der Null, <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_W" id="arch_W" href="#index_arch">Wallot, Paul</a>
+<a href="#page377">377</a></p>
+
+<p>Wallot, Jean <a href="#page333">333</a></p>
+
+<p>Walter, Thomas Ustick <a href="#page391">391</a></p>
+
+<p>Waterhouse, Alfred <a href="#page381">381</a></p>
+
+<p>Webb, Aston <a href="#page382">382</a></p>
+
+<p>Wilkins, <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+
+<p>William of Sens, <a href="#page219">219</a></p>
+
+<p>William of Wykeham, <a href="#page222">222</a>,
+<a href="#page226">226</a></p>
+
+<p>Wood, <a href="#page333">333</a></p>
+
+<p>Wren, Sir Christopher <a href="#page329">329</a>,
+<a href="#page331">331</a>,
+<a href="#page332">332</a>,
+<a href="#page356">356</a>,
+<a href="#page385">385</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="arch_Z" id="arch_Z" href="#index_arch">Ziebland</a>,
+<a href="#page375">375</a></p>
+
+</div> <!-- end div index -->
+
+<div class="index">
+
+<span class="pagenum">435</span>
+<a name="page435" id="page435"> </a>
+
+<h3><a name="index" id="index">
+INDEX.</a></h3>
+
+<p class="mynote note center">
+<a href="#index_A">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_B">&nbsp;B&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_C">&nbsp;C&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_D">&nbsp;D&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_E">&nbsp;E&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_F">&nbsp;F&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_G">&nbsp;G&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_H">&nbsp;H&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_I">&nbsp;I&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_J">&nbsp;J&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_K">&nbsp;K&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_L">&nbsp;L&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_M">&nbsp;M&nbsp;</a><br>
+<a href="#index_N">&nbsp;N&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_O">&nbsp;O&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_P">&nbsp;P&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_R">&nbsp;R&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_S">&nbsp;S&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_T">&nbsp;T&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_U">&nbsp;U&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_V">&nbsp;V&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_W">&nbsp;W&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_X">&nbsp;X&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_Y">&nbsp;Y&nbsp;</a>
+<a href="#index_Z">&nbsp;Z&nbsp;</a><br>
+&nbsp;<br>
+Highlighted names link back to the beginning of this Index. Page and
+figure numbers link to the referenced page or figure.</p>
+
+<p class="note">
+The buildings are arranged according to location. Those which appear
+only in the lists of monuments at the ends of chapters are omitted.
+<i>Numerals in parentheses refer to illustrations.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_A" id="index_A" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Abayagiri.</span></a></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tope, <a href="#page403">403</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Abbeville.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Wulfrand, <a href="#page209">209</a>,
+<a href="#page213">213</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Abu-Seir.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Stepped pyramid, <a href="#page9">9</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Abydos.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Columns, <a href="#page12">12</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple, <a href="#page19">19</a>,
+<a href="#page21">21</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tombs, <a href="#page11">11</a>
+(<a href="#fig5"><b>5</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Addeh.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Grotto-temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Æmilia.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Churches in, <a href="#page157">157</a>,
+<a href="#page262">262</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Agra</span>,
+<a href="#page149">149</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pearl Mosque, <a href="#page148">148</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Taj Mahal, <a href="#page148">148</a>
+(<a href="#fig86"><b>86</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Agrigentum.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Zeus, <a href="#page56">56</a>,
+<a href="#page61">61</a>
+(<a href="#fig33"><b>33</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ahmedabad</span>,
+<a href="#page148">148</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Aix-la-Chapelle.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Minster (palatine Chapel),
+<a href="#page172">172</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace of Charlemagne,
+<a href="#page176">176</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Aizanoi.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Zeus, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theatre, <a href="#page70">70</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ajmir</span>,
+<a href="#page148">148</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ajunta.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Brahman Chaityas, <a href="#page404">404</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+viharas, <a href="#page405">405</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Albano.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tomb, <a href="#page89">89</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Albany.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+All Saints’ Cathedral,
+<a href="#page394">394</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Capitol, <a href="#page391">391</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Alby</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page185">185</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>,
+<a href="#page206">206</a>,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>,
+<a href="#page249">249</a>
+(<a href="#fig123"><b>123</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Alcala de Heñares</span>,
+<a href="#page352">352</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Archepiscopal Palace, <a href="#page350">350</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+College, <a href="#page349">349</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Alcantara.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Bridge, <a href="#page108">108</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Alençon</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page209">209</a>,
+<a href="#page213">213</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Alexandria Troas.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palæstra, <a href="#page71">71</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Allahabad.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Akbar’s Palace, <a href="#page148">148</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Altenburg</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Amada.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Columns, <a href="#page12">12</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Amboise</span> Castle,
+<a href="#page310">310</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Amiens</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page189">189</a>,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>,
+<a href="#page203">203</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>,
+<a href="#page206">206</a>,
+<a href="#page219">219</a>,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>
+(<a href="#fig122"><b>122</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+west front of, <a href="#page207">207</a>,
+<a href="#page208">208</a>,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>,
+<a href="#page227">227</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Amravati.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Topes, <a href="#page403">403</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Amsterdam.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Bourse (Exchange) Hanse House, Town hall, <a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ancy le Franc.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Anet.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Angers.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral S. Maurice, <a href="#page200">200</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hospital, <a href="#page214">214</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Angora</span> (Ancyra),
+<a href="#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Angoulême</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page164">164</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ani</span>,
+<a href="#page134">134</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Annapolis.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Harwood and Hammond Houses, <a href="#page386">386</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Antioch</span>,
+<a href="#page115">115</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Antiphellus.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theatre, <a href="#page70">70</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tombs, <a href="#page72">72</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Antwerp</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral,
+<a href="#page190">190</a>,
+<a href="#page246">246</a>,
+<a href="#page247">247</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town Hall, <a href="#page334">334</a>,
+<a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Aquitania.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Churches of, <a href="#page164">164</a>,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>,
+<a href="#page168">168</a>,
+<a href="#page179">179</a>,
+<a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Aranjuez.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace, <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Arezzo</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page257">257</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sta. Maria della Pieve,
+<a href="#page159">159</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">436</span>
+<a name="page436" id="page436"> </a>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Argos.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gates, <a href="#page45">45</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Arizona.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Spanish churches in, <a href="#page388">388</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Arles.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Trophime, <a href="#page165">165</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Aschaffenburg.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Asheville.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Biltmore House, <a href="#page399">399</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Asia Minor</span>,
+<a href="#page53">53</a>,
+<a href="#page55">55</a>,
+<a href="#page58">58</a>,
+<a href="#page62">62</a>,
+<a href="#page66">66</a>,
+<a href="#page122">122</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Aspendus.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theatre, <a href="#page70">70</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Assisi.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. Francis (S.&nbsp;Francesco), <a href="#page255">255</a>,
+<a href="#page256">256</a>,
+<a href="#page258">258</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Assos</span>,
+<a href="#page55">55</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Public cquare, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple, <a href="#page61">61</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Asti.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page256">256</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Astorga.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Rood-screen, <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Athens.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Academy, <a href="#page365">365</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Acropolis, <a href="#page65">65</a>,
+<a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Agora Gate, <a href="#page68">68</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page134">134</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Choragic Monument of Lysicrates,
+<a href="#page66">66</a>
+(<a href="#fig30"><b>30</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig38"><b>38</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Erechtheum, <a href="#page64">64</a>
+(<a href="#fig35"><b>35</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig36"><b>36</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Museum, <a href="#page365">365</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Odeion of Regilla (of Herodes Atticus),
+<a href="#page68">68</a>,
+<a href="#page69">69</a>,
+<a href="#page70">70</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Parthenon, <a href="#page56">56</a>,
+<a href="#page58">58</a>,
+<a href="#page63">63</a>,
+<a href="#page64">64</a>,
+<a href="#page131">131</a>,
+<a href="#page359">359</a>
+(<a href="#frontis">Frontispiece</a>,
+<a href="#fig31"><b>31</b> <i>d</i></a>,
+<a href="#fig34"><b>34</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Propylæa, <a href="#page58">58</a>,
+<a href="#page65">65</a>,
+<a href="#page69">69</a>,
+<a href="#page358">358</a>
+(<a href="#fig37"><b>37</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Stoa of Attalus, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Nike Apteros,
+<a href="#page64">64</a>,
+<a href="#page65">65</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Olympian Zeus,
+<a href="#page68">68</a>
+(<a href="#fig39"><b>39</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theatre of Dionysus, <a href="#page69">69</a>,
+<a href="#page70">70</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theseum (Temple of Theseus or Heracles),
+<a href="#page62">62</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tower of Winds (Clepsydra of Cyrrhestes),
+<a href="#page53">53</a>,
+<a href="#page67">67</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+University, <a href="#page365">365</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Attica</span>,
+<a href="#page50">50</a>,
+<a href="#page55">55</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Augsburg.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Austria</span>,
+<a href="#page330">330</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Autun</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page166">166</a>,
+<a href="#page167">167</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Auvergne.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Churches, <a href="#page204">204</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Auxerre</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page201">201</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Avignon.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Notre Dame Des Doms, <a href="#page165">165</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Avila.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S. Vincente, <a href="#page180">180</a>,
+<a href="#page247">247</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tombs in, <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Azay-le-rideau.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page316">316</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_B" id="index_B" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Baalbec</span></a>
+(Heliopolis), <a href="#page83">83</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Circular Temple, <a href="#page94">94</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Sun, <a href="#page92">92</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bab-el-Molouk</span>,
+<a href="#page14">14</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bagdad.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tombs, etc., <a href="#page145">145</a>,
+<a href="#page146">146</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bagh.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Viharas, Great Vihara, <a href="#page405">405</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Baillur.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temples, <a href="#page409">409</a>,
+<a href="#page410">410</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bamberg.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Barcelona.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page189">189</a>,
+<a href="#page249">249</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sta. Maria del Pi, <a href="#page249">249</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Barolli.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hindu Temple, <a href="#page409">409</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Basle.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Spahlenthor, <a href="#page246">246</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bassæ</span> (Phigalæa).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Apollo Epicurius,
+<a href="#page65">65</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Batalha.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, mausoleum, <a href="#page251">251</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bavaria</span>,
+<a href="#page342">342</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bayeux</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bayonne</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Beaugency.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page316">316</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Beaumesnil.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page319">319</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Beaune.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hospital, <a href="#page214">214</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Beauvais</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page189">189</a>,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page211">211</a>,
+<a href="#page219">219</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+chapels, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+size, <a href="#page206">206</a>,
+<a href="#page211">211</a>,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>,
+<a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Beit-el-wali.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Rock-cut Temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Belem.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page251">251</a>,
+<a href="#page352">352</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cloister, tower, <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Belgium</span>,
+<a href="#page334">334</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Benares.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hindu Temples, <a href="#page408">408</a>,
+<a href="#page409">409</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Beni Hassan.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Columns, <a href="#page11">11</a>,
+<a href="#page24">24</a>,
+<a href="#page50">50</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Speos Artemidos, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tombs, <a href="#page11">11</a>
+(<a href="#fig6"><b>6</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig7"><b>7</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bergamo.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town Hall, <a href="#page266">266</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Berlin.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<ins class="correction" title="text has ‘Bauschüle’ with umlaut">Bauschule</ins>,
+<a href="#page376">376</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Brandenburg Gate, <a href="#page358">358</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Old Museum, <a href="#page359">359</a>
+(<a href="#fig200"><b>200</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+New Museum, <a href="#page359">359</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+<span class="mynote">
+Alphabetized as shown; body text has “Museum” and “New
+Museum”.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Parliament House, <a href="#page377">377</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theatres, <a href="#page360">360</a>,
+<a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bethlehem.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of the Nativity, <a href="#page115">115</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bhaja.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Chaityas, <a href="#page404">404</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">437</span>
+<a name="page437" id="page437"> </a>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bhilsa.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Topes, <a href="#page403">403</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bhuwaneswar.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hindu temples, <a href="#page408">408</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bidar</span>,
+<a href="#page146">146</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bijapur.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tomb of Mahmud, <a href="#page148">148</a>,
+<a href="#page153">153</a>
+(<a href="#fig85"><b>85</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Jumma Musjid, <a href="#page148">148</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Mogul architecture, <a href="#page149">149</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Biltmore</span> House,
+<a href="#page399">399</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bindrabun.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ruined temple, <a href="#page408">408</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Birs Nimroud.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Stepped pyramid, <a href="#page31">31</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Blenheim</span> House,
+<a href="#page332">332</a>
+(<a href="#fig188"><b>188</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Blois.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château of, <a href="#page216">216</a>,
+<a href="#page310">310</a>,
+<a href="#page313">313</a>
+(<a href="#fig175"><b>175</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig176"><b>176</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bohemia</span>,
+<a href="#page338">338</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bologna</span>,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Brick houses, <a href="#page266">266</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Campo Santo, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Frati di S. Spirito, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Local style, <a href="#page283">283</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pal. Bevilacqua, Pal. Fava,
+<a href="#page283">283</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palazzo Communale (town Hall),
+<a href="#page266">266</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Renaissance churches in,
+<a href="#page277">277</a>,
+<a href="#page293">293</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S. Francesco, <a href="#page256">256</a>,
+<a href="#page263">263</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S. Petronio, <a href="#page257">257</a>,
+<a href="#page258">258</a>,
+<a href="#page259">259</a>,
+<a href="#page263">263</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sta. Maria dei Servi, <a href="#page263">263</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bonn.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Minster, <a href="#page174">174</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Baptistery, <a href="#page175">175</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bordeaux.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, spires, <a href="#page209">209</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Grand Théatre, <a href="#page362">362</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Boston.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ames Building, <a href="#page397">397</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Custom House, <a href="#page390">390</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Faneuil Hall, <a href="#page388">388</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Fine Arts Museum, <a href="#page394">394</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hancock House, <a href="#page387">387</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Old State House, <a href="#page388">388</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Old South Church, <a href="#page386">386</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Public Library, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+State House, <a href="#page390">390</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Trinity Church, <a href="#page394">394</a>
+(<a href="#fig222"><b>222</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bourges</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page189">189</a>,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page199">199</a>,
+<a href="#page202">202</a>,
+<a href="#page249">249</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+chapels, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+size, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+portals, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+House of Jacques Cœur,
+<a href="#page215">215</a>
+(<a href="#fig127"><b>127</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bournazel.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page315">315</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bowden Park</span>,
+<a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bozrah</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page117">117</a>
+(<a href="#fig70"><b>70</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Brandenburg.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Catherine, St. Godehard, <a href="#page244">244</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bremen.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page246">246</a>,
+<a href="#page344">344</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Brescia.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, <a href="#page287">287</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Brieg.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Piastenschloss, <a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bristol</span> Cathedral, piers,
+<a href="#page178">178</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bruges.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ancien Greffe, <a href="#page334">334</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cloth hall, <a href="#page247">247</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ste. Anne, <a href="#page334">334</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page247">247</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Brunswick.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Burg Dankwargerode, <a href="#page176">176</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page246">246</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Brusa</span>,
+<a href="#page150">150</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Brussels.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Bourse, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral (ste. Gudule),
+<a href="#page246">246</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pal. de Justice, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Renaissance Houses, <a href="#page335">335</a>
+(<a href="#fig190"><b>190</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town Hall, <a href="#page247">247</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bubastis.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple, <a href="#page13">13</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Buda-Pesth.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Synagogue, <a href="#page378">378</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Buddh Gaya.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tope or stupa, <a href="#page404">404</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Buffalo.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Guaranty Building, <a href="#page397">397</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bulach.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Basilica, <a href="#page375">375</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Burgundy.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedrals in, <a href="#page197">197</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Burghley</span> House,
+<a href="#page328">328</a>
+(<a href="#fig184"><b>184</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Bury.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page315">315</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Burgos</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page248">248</a>,
+<a href="#page249">249</a>,
+<a href="#page251">251</a>
+(<a href="#fig145"><b>145</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Byzantium</span>,
+<a href="#page92">92</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+See Constantinople</p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_C" id="index_C" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Caen.</span></a></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Churches, <a href="#page167">167</a>,
+<a href="#page178">178</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Étienne (Abbaye aux Hommes) and Ste. Trinité (Abbaye aux Dames),
+<a href="#page168">168</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Pierre, <a href="#page312">312</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hôtel D’Écoville, <a href="#page316">316</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Cahors</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page164">164</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Cairo.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Karafah (Tombs of Khalîfs),
+<a href="#page137">137</a>,
+<a href="#page138">138</a>,
+<a href="#page139">139</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Mohammedan monuments (list),
+<a href="#page136">136</a>,
+<a href="#page153">153</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Mosque of Amrou, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Ibn Touloun, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Barkouk, <a href="#page137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Kalaoun, <a href="#page137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Sultan Hassan, <a href="#page137">137</a>,
+<a href="#page138">138</a>
+(<a href="#fig80"><b>80</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of El Muayyad, <a href="#page137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Kaîd Bey, <a href="#page137">137</a>
+(<a href="#fig81"><b>81</b></a>)</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">438</span>
+<a name="page438" id="page438"> </a>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">California.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Spanish missions and churches, <a href="#page388">388</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Cambodia.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Nakhon Wat, <a href="#page413">413</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Cambray</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Cambridge.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Caius College, Gate of Honor,
+<a href="#page328">328</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Fitzwilliam Museum, <a href="#page356">356</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+King’s College Chapel,
+<a href="#page223">223</a>,
+<a href="#page227">227</a>,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Trinity College Library,
+<a href="#page332">332</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Cambridge</span> (Mass.).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Craigie (Longfellow) House,
+<a href="#page387">387</a>
+(<a href="#fig219"><b>219</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Canterbury</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page219">219</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+central tower of, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+chapels, <a href="#page231">231</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+transepts, <a href="#page232">232</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+minor works in, <a href="#page234">234</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Caprarola.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace of, <a href="#page300">300</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Capua.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Amphitheatre, <a href="#page103">103</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Caria</span>,
+<a href="#page71">71</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+see Halicamassus</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Carinthia</span>,
+<a href="#page338">338</a>,
+<a href="#page339">339</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Carlton</span> House,
+<a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Carter’s Grove</span>,
+<a href="#page386">386</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Caserta.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Royal Palace, <a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Castle Howard</span>,
+<a href="#page332">332</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Cérisy-la-Forêt.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page178">178</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ceylon.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Topes, <a href="#page403">403</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chaise-Dieu.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cloister, <a href="#page213">213</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Châlons</span> (Châlons-sur-Marne)
+Cathedral,
+<a href="#page205">205</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chalvau.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page314">314</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chambord.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page314">314</a>
+(<a href="#fig177"><b>177</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig178"><b>178</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chantilly.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+“Petit Château,” <a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Charleston.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Michael’s, <a href="#page385">385</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Charlotteville.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+University of Virginia, <a href="#page390">390</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Charlton</span> Hall,
+<a href="#page328">328</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Charlton-on-Oxmore.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Plate tracery (<a href="#fig110"><b>110</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chartres</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>,
+<a href="#page203">203</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+chapels of, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+size of, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+W. front, <a href="#page207">207</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+transept porches, <a href="#page208">208</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+spires, <a href="#page209">209</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+capital from (<a href="#fig126"><b>126</b></a> C).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+hospital, <a href="#page214">214</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chemnitz</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page245">245</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chenonceaux.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page316">316</a>,
+<a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chiaravalle.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Certosa, <a href="#page255">255</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chicago.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Auditorium Theatre, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Columbian Exposition, <a href="#page393">393</a>,
+<a href="#page399">399</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Masonic Building, <a href="#page396">396</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Fisher Building, Schiller Building,
+<a href="#page397">397</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chichester</span> Cathedral, spire,
+<a href="#page229">229</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chihuahua.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chillambaram.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Dravidian Temple, Mantapa of Parvati, <a href="#page411">411</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chiswick.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Villa, <a href="#page328">328</a>,
+<a href="#page329">329</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Chittore.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hindu temples, <a href="#page409">409</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace, <a href="#page409">409</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Towers, <a href="#page407">407</a>,
+<a href="#page408">408</a>
+(<a href="#fig227"><b>227</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Clermont</span> (Clermont-Ferrand)</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page197">197</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+chapels of, <a href="#page205">205</a>,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Notre-Dame-du-Port, <a href="#page165">165</a>,
+<a href="#page204">204</a>
+(<a href="#fig96"><b>96</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig97"><b>97</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Cluny.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Abbey Church, <a href="#page166">166</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Houses at, <a href="#page214">214</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hôtel de (at Paris), <a href="#page216">216</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Coblentz.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. Castor, <a href="#page237">237</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Coimbra.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sta. Cruz, <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Coleshill.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+House, <a href="#page329">329</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Cologne.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Apostles’ Church, <a href="#page174">174</a>,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>
+(<a href="#fig101"><b>101</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page189">189</a>,
+<a href="#page192">192</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>,
+<a href="#page249">249</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+vaulting of, <a href="#page239">239</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+spires, <a href="#page240">240</a>,
+<a href="#page241">241</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+plan, <a href="#page189">189</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>
+(<a href="#fig141"><b>141</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. Mary-in-the-Capitol,
+<a href="#page174">174</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Great St. Martin’s, <a href="#page174">174</a>,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Romanesque Houses, Etc.,
+<a href="#page176">176</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Como.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall (broletto), <a href="#page266">266</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Compostella.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Iago, <a href="#page180">180</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Conjeveram.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Dravidian temple, <a href="#page411">411</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">439</span>
+<a name="page439" id="page439"> </a>
+<p class="smallcaps">Constantine.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Constantinople</span>,
+<a href="#page120">120</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Byzantine monuments (list),
+<a href="#page134">134</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of Hagia Sophia (Santa Sophia, Divine Wisdom),
+<a href="#page111">111</a>,
+<a href="#page123">123</a>,
+<a href="#page124">124</a>,
+<a href="#page127">127&ndash;131</a>,
+<a href="#page132">132</a>,
+<a href="#page133">133</a>,
+<a href="#page150">150</a>,
+<a href="#page151">151</a>
+(<a href="#fig72"><b>72</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig75"><b>75</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig76"><b>76</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig77"><b>77</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of the Apostles,
+<a href="#page132">132</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Early Christian monuments (list),
+<a href="#page119">119</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Fountains, Fountain of Ahmet III.,
+<a href="#page152">152</a>,
+<a href="#page153">153</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Mosque of Ahmet II. (Ahmediyeh),
+<a href="#page151">151</a>
+(<a href="#fig88"><b>88</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Mehmet II., <a href="#page150">150</a>,
+<a href="#page151">151</a>
+(<a href="#fig87"><b>87</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Osman III. (Nouri Osman),
+<a href="#page151">151</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Soliman (Suleimaniyeh),
+<a href="#page151">151</a>
+(<a href="#fig89"><b>89</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Yeni Djami, <a href="#page151">151</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palaces, <a href="#page153">153</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Bacchus, <a href="#page127">127</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. John Studius (Emir Akhor mosque),
+<a href="#page118">118</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Sergius, <a href="#page117">117</a>,
+<a href="#page127">127</a>
+(<a href="#fig74"><b>74</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tchinli Kiosque (Imperial Museum),
+<a href="#page153">153</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+sarcophagi in, <a href="#page66">66</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tombs, <a href="#page152">152</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Turkish mosques, <a href="#page150">150</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Copenhagen.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Exchange, Fredericksborg,
+<a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Cordova</span>,
+<a href="#page141">141</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Great Mosque, <a href="#page142">142</a>,
+<a href="#page143">143</a>
+(<a href="#fig83"><b>83</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Corinth.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Zeus, <a href="#page60">60</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Coutances</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+chapels of, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+spires, <a href="#page209">209</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Cracow</span> Castle,
+<a href="#page338">338</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Chapel of Jagellons, <a href="#page338">338</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Cremona.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page266">266</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Ctesiphon.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tâk-kesra, <a href="#page145">145</a></p>
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_D" id="index_D" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Damascus</span></a>,
+Mosque of El-walîd, <a href="#page136">136</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Dantzic.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Dashour.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pyramid, <a href="#page9">9</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Deir-el-bahari.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tomb-temple of Hatasu,
+<a href="#page15">15</a>,
+<a href="#page21">21</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Deir-el-medineh.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Hathor, <a href="#page19">19</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Delhi.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Jaina Temples, <a href="#page407">407</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Jumma Musjid, <a href="#page148">148</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Mogul Architecture of,
+<a href="#page149">149</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace of Shah Jehan, <a href="#page148">148</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pathan arches, Etc., <a href="#page148">148</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Delos.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gates, <a href="#page45">45</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Portico of Philip, <a href="#page67">67</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Denderah.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Hathor, <a href="#page17">17</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Group of Temples, <a href="#page22">22</a>,
+<a href="#page24">24</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hathoric columns, <a href="#page24">24</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Detroit.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Majestic Building, <a href="#page397">397</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Dieppe.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. Jacques,
+<a href="#page213">213</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Dijon.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Michel, <a href="#page312">312</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Dol</span> Cathedral, east end,
+<a href="#page205">205</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Dresden.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Castle, Georgenflügel,
+<a href="#page342">342</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. Mary (Marienkirche) <a href="#page346">346</a>
+(<a href="#fig194"><b>194</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theatre, <a href="#page376">376</a>
+(<a href="#fig213"><b>213</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Zwinger Palace, <a href="#page346">346</a>
+(<a href="#fig193"><b>193</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Drügelte.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Circular church, <a href="#page175">175</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Durham</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page177">177</a>,
+<a href="#page178">178</a>,
+<a href="#page220">220</a>,
+<a href="#page221">221</a>
+(<a href="#fig116"><ins class="correction" title="text has ‘116’"><b>102</b></ins></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+central tower of, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Chapel of Nine Altars,
+<a href="#page232">232</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_E" id="index_E" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Earl’s Barton</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tower, <a href="#page176">176</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Ecouen.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page316">316</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Edfou.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Great Temple, <a href="#page16">16</a>,
+<a href="#page17">17</a>,
+<a href="#page22">22</a>
+(<a href="#fig9"><b>9</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig10"><b>10</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig14"><b>14</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Peripteral Temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Edinburgh.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+High School, Royal Institution,
+<a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Egypt.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Early Christian buildings in,
+<a href="#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Elephantine.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Amenophis III.,
+<a href="#page22">22</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">El Kab.</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Amenophis III.; <a href="#page18">18</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Eleusis.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Propylæa, <a href="#page69">69</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Ellora.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Chaityas, <a href="#page404">404</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Dravidian Kylas, <a href="#page413">413</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Elne.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cloister, <a href="#page170">170</a>,
+<a href="#page213">213</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ely</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page220">220</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+choir vault, <a href="#page222">222</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+octagon, <a href="#page224">224</a>,
+<a href="#page330">330</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+clearstory, <a href="#page225">225</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+towers, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+interior, <a href="#page229">229</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+size, <a href="#page232">232</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Lady Chapel, <a href="#page234">234</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">440</span>
+<a name="page440" id="page440"> </a>
+<p class="smallcaps">Ephesus.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Artemis (Artemisium),
+<a href="#page66">66</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ionic Order, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palæstra, <a href="#page71">71</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Erech</span>,
+<a href="#page31">31</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Escurial.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Monastery, <a href="#page351">351</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Esneh.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hathoric columns, <a href="#page25">25</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple, <a href="#page23">23</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Essen.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Nun’s choir, <a href="#page172">172</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Esslingen.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church spire, <a href="#page240">240</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Etchmiadzin.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Byzantine monuments, <a href="#page134">134</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Evreux</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Exeter</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page221">221</a>
+(<a href="#fig129"><b>129</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Ezra.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. George, <a href="#page117">117</a></p>
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_F" id="index_F" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Feraig</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Rock-cut Temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ferrara</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page261">261</a>,
+<a href="#page304">304</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Churches, <a href="#page277">277</a>,
+<a href="#page293">293</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palaces Scrofa, Roverella,
+<a href="#page283">283</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Firouzabad.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sassanian Buildings, <a href="#page144">144</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Florence.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Baptistery, <a href="#page162">162</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Bartolini, Guadagni, Larderel, Pandolfini, Serristori palaces,
+<a href="#page291">291</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Campanile, <a href="#page263">263</a>,
+<a href="#page264">264</a>
+(<a href="#fig147"><b>147</b> <i>a</i></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral (Duomo, Santa Maria del Fiore),
+<a href="#page257">257</a>,
+<a href="#page258">258</a>,
+<a href="#page263">263</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+façade, <a href="#page261">261</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+marble incrustation, <a href="#page263">263</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+dome,
+<a href="#page273">273&ndash;275</a>
+(<a href="#fig147"><b>147</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig148"><b>148</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig159"><b>159</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig160"><b>160</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of San Miniato, <a href="#page115">115</a>,
+<a href="#page161">161</a>,
+<a href="#page162">162</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Or San Michele, <a href="#page264">264</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gondi Palace, <a href="#page291">291</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Loggia dei Lanzi, <a href="#page266">266</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Loggia di San Paolo, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Minor works, <a href="#page287">287</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ospedale degli Innocenti,
+<a href="#page281">281</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palazzo Vecchio, <a href="#page265">265</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pitti Palace, <a href="#page280">280</a>,
+<a href="#page300">300</a>,
+<a href="#page319">319</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Riccardi Palace, <a href="#page279">279</a>,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>,
+<a href="#page281">281</a>,
+<a href="#page290">290</a>
+(<a href="#fig162"><b>162</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Rucellai Palace, <a href="#page280">280</a>,
+<a href="#page282">282</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Santa Croce, <a href="#page258">258</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pazzi Chapel of, <a href="#page276">276</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+pulpit in, <a href="#page281">281</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Marsupini tomb, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+San Lorenzo, <a href="#page276">276</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+San Spirito, <a href="#page276">276</a>
+(<a href="#fig161"><b>161</b></a>),</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Santa Maria Novella, <a href="#page256">256</a>,
+<a href="#page258">258</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+façade, <a href="#page277">277</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+fountain in sacristy of,
+<a href="#page281">281</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Strozzi Palace, <a href="#page280">280</a>,
+<a href="#page290">290</a>
+(<a href="#fig163"><b>163</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Flushing.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall (Hôtel de Ville),
+<a href="#page335">335</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Fontainebleau.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace, <a href="#page313">313</a>,
+<a href="#page318">318</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Fontevrault.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Abbey, <a href="#page164">164</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Fontfroide.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cloister, <a href="#page213">213</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">France.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Romanesque monuments (list),
+<a href="#page170">170</a>,
+<a href="#page171">171</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gothic monuments (list),
+<a href="#page216">216</a>,
+<a href="#page217">217</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Renaissance monuments (list),
+<a href="#page324">324</a>,
+<a href="#page325">325</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Frankfort.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Salt House, <a href="#page346">346</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Freiburg</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page239">239</a>,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Spire, <a href="#page240">240</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Freiberg im Erzgebirge.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Golden portal, <a href="#page242">242</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Fritzlar.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Fulda.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Monastery, <a href="#page172">172</a>,
+<a href="#page173">173</a>,
+<a href="#page175">175</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Furness.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Abbey, pointed arches,
+<a href="#page219">219</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Futtehpore Sikhri.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Mosque of Akbar, <a href="#page148">148</a></p>
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_G" id="index_G" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Gandhara</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Monasteries, <a href="#page404">404</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Gaillon.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page310">310</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Gelnhausen.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Abbey Church,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>. Castle ruins,
+<a href="#page176">176</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Genoa.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Campo Santo, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, west front,
+<a href="#page261">261</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span>:&mdash;
+Balbi, Brignole, Cambiasi, Doria-tursi (municipio), Durazzo (reale),
+Pallavicini, University,
+<a href="#page302">302</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sta. Maria Di Carignano,
+<a href="#page299">299</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Germany.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Mediæval, <a href="#page172">172</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Romanesque monuments (list),
+<a href="#page180">180</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gothic monuments (list),
+<a href="#page252">252</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Renaissance monuments (list),
+<a href="#page353">353</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">441</span>
+<a name="page441" id="page441"> </a>
+<p class="smallcaps">Gernrode.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Romanesque church, <a href="#page173">173</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Gerona</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page185">185</a>,
+<a href="#page249">249</a>,
+<a href="#page250">250</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ghent</span> (Gand).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cloth hall, <a href="#page247">247</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Gherf Hossein.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Rock-cut temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ghertashi</span> (Kardassy).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple, <a href="#page23">23</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Ghizeh.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pyramids, <a href="#page4">4</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pyramid of Cheops, <a href="#page7">7</a>
+(<a href="#fig1"><b>1</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig2"><b>2</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+of Chephren, <a href="#page8">8</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+of Mycerinus, <a href="#page8">8</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sphinx, Sphinx temple,
+<a href="#page10">10</a>
+(<a href="#fig3"><b>3</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig4"><b>4</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Girnar.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Jaina temples, <a href="#page407">407</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Neminatha, <a href="#page407">407</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Glasgow.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Churches in Greek style,
+<a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Gloucester</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page178">178</a>,
+<a href="#page220">220</a>,
+<a href="#page222">222</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+cloisters, <a href="#page222">222</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+east window, <a href="#page227">227</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+central tower, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Lady Chapel, <a href="#page234">234</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Goslar.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace of Henry III., <a href="#page176">176</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Gournah.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Columns, <a href="#page24">24</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple, <a href="#page21">21</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Gran.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cruciform Chapel, <a href="#page338">338</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Granada</span>,
+<a href="#page141">141</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Alhambra, <a href="#page142">142</a>,
+<a href="#page143">143</a>,
+<a href="#page144">144</a>,
+<a href="#page351">351</a>
+(<a href="#fig84"><b>84</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page348">348</a>,
+<a href="#page350">350</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+minor works in, <a href="#page352">352</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace of Charles V., <a href="#page352">352</a>
+(<a href="#fig197"><b>197</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Grange</span> House,
+<a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Great Britain.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gothic monuments (list),
+<a href="#page235">235</a>,
+<a href="#page236">236</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Norman monuments (list),
+<a href="#page181">181</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Renaissance monuments (list),
+<a href="#page337">337</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Guadalajara.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Infantado, <a href="#page350">350</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Gujerat</span>,
+<a href="#page146">146</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Gwalior.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Jaina Temples, <a href="#page407">407</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace, <a href="#page409">409</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Teli-ka-mandir, <a href="#page409">409</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_H" id="index_H" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Haddon</span></a> Hall,
+<a href="#page326">326</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Hague, The.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Hämelschenburg</span> Castle,
+<a href="#page343">343</a>
+(<a href="#fig191"><b>191</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Halberstadt</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page244">244</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page245">245</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Halicarnassus.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Mausoleum, <a href="#page4">4</a>,
+<a href="#page53">53</a>,
+<a href="#page71">71</a>,
+<a href="#page72">72</a>
+(<a href="#fig41"><b>41</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Hamoncondah.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple, <a href="#page410">410</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Hampton</span> Court,
+<a href="#page326">326</a>,
+<a href="#page332">332</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Hartford.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+State Capitol, <a href="#page393">393</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Hauran.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Roman works in, <a href="#page92">92</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+domestic buildings, <a href="#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Hardwicke</span> Hall,
+<a href="#page328">328</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Hatfield</span> House,
+<a href="#page328">328</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Hecklingen.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Romanesque church, <a href="#page173">173</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Heidelberg</span> Castle,
+<a href="#page343">343</a>
+(<a href="#fig192"><b>192</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ritter House, <a href="#page346">346</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Heilsberg</span> Castle,
+<a href="#page245">245</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Heldburg</span> Castle,
+<a href="#page342">342</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Hengreave</span> Hall,
+<a href="#page326">326</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Herculanum</span>,
+<a href="#page86">86</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Houses, <a href="#page107">107</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theatre, (<a href="#fig61"><b>61</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Hereford</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page220">220</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Hierapolis.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Early Christian buildings in,
+<a href="#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Hildesheim.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Kaiserhaus, <a href="#page346">346</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Renaissance houses, <a href="#page345">345</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Godehard, <a href="#page173">173</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page245">245</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Wedekindsches Haus, <a href="#page346">346</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Holland</span> House,
+<a href="#page328">328</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Howard</span> Castle,
+<a href="#page332">332</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Hullabîd.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temples, <a href="#page409">409</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+double temple, <a href="#page410">410</a>
+(<a href="#fig228"><b>228</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Kaît Iswara, <a href="#page410">410</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_I" id="index_I" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Iffley</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page179">179</a>(<a href="#fig104"><b>104</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">India</span>,
+<a href="#page146">146&ndash;149</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Moslem monuments (list),
+<a href="#page154">154</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Non-moslem monuments (list),
+<a href="#page415">415</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Innsbrück</span>, Schloss Ambras,
+<a href="#page339">339</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Ipsamboul.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+(Abou Simbel). Grotto temples,
+<a href="#page21">21</a>,
+<a href="#page22">22</a>
+(<a href="#fig13"><b>13</b></a>)</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">442</span>
+<a name="page442" id="page442"> </a>
+<p class="smallcaps">Ireland.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Celtic Towers, <a href="#page176">176</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Ispahan.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Meidan (Meidan-Shah), Mesjid-Shah, Bazaar, Medress,
+<a href="#page146">146</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Issoire.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. Paul, <a href="#page165">165</a>,
+<a href="#page204">204</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Italy.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Early Christian monuments (list),
+<a href="#page119">119</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Romanesque monuments (list),
+<a href="#page170">170</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gothic monuments (list),
+<a href="#page268">268&ndash;269</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Renaissance monuments (list),
+<a href="#page306">306&ndash;307</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_J" id="index_J" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Jaen</span></a> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page348">348</a>,
+<a href="#page350">350</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Jamalgiri.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Monastery, <a href="#page405">405</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Jerusalem.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of the Ascension, <a href="#page115">115</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Early Christian churches, <a href="#page111">111</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Herod’s temple, <a href="#page41">41</a>,
+<a href="#page83">83</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Mosque of Omar (Dome of the Rock, Kubbet-es-sakhrah),
+<a href="#page116">116</a>,
+<a href="#page136">136</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Octagonal church on temple site,
+<a href="#page115">115</a>,
+<a href="#page116">116</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tombs of the Kings, Etc., <a href="#page39">39</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tomb of Absalom, of Hezekiah, Golden Gate, Solomon’s temple,
+<a href="#page40">40</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Wall of Lamentations, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Zerubbabel’s temple, <a href="#page41">41</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Jaunpore</span>,
+<a href="#page146">146</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_K" id="index_K" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Kalabshé</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Columns, <a href="#page12">12</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple, <a href="#page23">23</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Kalb Louzeh.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page117">117</a>(<a href="#fig69"><b>69</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Kalburgah</span>,
+<a href="#page146">146</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Kanaruk.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hindu temples, <a href="#page408">408</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Kantonnuggur.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hindu temple, <a href="#page408">408</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Kardassy</span> (Ghertashi).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple, <a href="#page23">23</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Karli.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Chaityas, <a href="#page404">404</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Karlstein</span> Castle,
+<a href="#page245">245</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Karnak</span>,
+<a href="#page50">50</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Great Temple (of Amen Ra) and Hypostyle Hall,
+<a href="#pagexxiii">xxiii.</a>,
+<a href="#page17">17</a>,
+<a href="#page18">18</a>,
+<a href="#page19">19</a>,
+<a href="#page24">24</a>,
+<a href="#page36">36</a>
+(<a href="#fig11"><b>11</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig12"><b>12</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ancient temple, <a href="#page13">13</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Khonsu, <a href="#page16">16</a>,
+<a href="#page20">20</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Kaschau</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page245">245</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Kasr.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Mound, <a href="#page31">31</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Keddlestone</span> Hall,
+<a href="#page334">334</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Kelat Seman.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. Simeon <!-- invisible hyphen --></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Stylites, <a href="#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Khajuraho.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Jaina temples, <a href="#page407">407</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Kandarya Mahadeo, <a href="#page408">408</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Khorsabad.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace of Sargon, <a href="#page31">31</a>,
+<a href="#page32">32</a>
+(<a href="#fig18"><b>18</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+City Gate, <a href="#page32">32</a>,
+<a href="#page33">33</a>,
+(<a href="#fig19"><b>19</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Kirkstall</span> Abbey, pointed arches,
+<a href="#page219">219</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Königsberg.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church At, <a href="#page244">244</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Koyunjik.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palaces of Sennacherib and Assur-bani-pal,
+<a href="#page31">31</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Kuttenberg.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. Barbara,
+<a href="#page239">239</a>,
+<a href="#page240">240</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_L" id="index_L" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Laach</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Abbey of, <a href="#page174">174</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Labyrinth</span> (of Moeris or Fayoum in
+Egypt),
+<a href="#page26">26</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">La Muette.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page314">314</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Landshut.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Residenz, <a href="#page342">342</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Martin’s, <a href="#page240">240</a>,
+<a href="#page244">244</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Langres</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page167">167</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Laon</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>,
+<a href="#page206">206</a>,
+<a href="#page210">210</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+porches, <a href="#page208">208</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">La Rochefoucauld.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page315">315</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Laval</span> Cathedral (La Trinité),
+<a href="#page201">201</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Le Mans</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>,
+<a href="#page206">206</a>
+(<a href="#fig118"><b>118</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+tomb in, <a href="#page310">310</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Leon.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page189">189</a>,
+<a href="#page249">249</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Panteon of S. Isidore,
+<a href="#page179">179</a>,
+<a href="#page180">180</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Le Puy</span> (Puy-en-Vélay).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page204">204</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+cloister of same, <a href="#page213">213</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Leipzig.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Fürstenhaus<!-- invisible umlaut -->,
+<a href="#page346">346</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Lemgo.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Leyden.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Lichfield</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page225">225</a>,
+<a href="#page229">229</a>
+(<a href="#fig135"><b>135</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+west front, <a href="#page228">228</a>
+(<a href="#fig134"><b>134</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+spire, <a href="#page229">229</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">443</span>
+<a name="page443" id="page443"> </a>
+<p class="smallcaps">Liège.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Archbishop’s Palace, <a href="#page334">334</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. Jacques,
+<a href="#page247">247</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Limburg-on-the-Hardt.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page193">193</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Limburg-on-Lahn.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Abbey Church, <a href="#page174">174</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral of St. George,
+<a href="#page239">239</a>
+(<a href="#fig139"><b>139</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Limoges</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>,
+<a href="#page212">212</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Lincoln</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page219">219</a>,
+<a href="#page225">225</a>,
+<a href="#page229">229</a>,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+west front, <a href="#page227">227</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+central tower, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+chapter-house, <a href="#page223">223</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Lisbon</span>,
+<a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Lisieux</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Liverpool.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. George’s Hall, <a href="#page358">358</a>(<a href="#fig199"><b>199</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Loire Valley.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Churches of, <a href="#page165">165</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Lombardy.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Romanesque Monuments In,
+<a href="#page157">157</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">London.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Albert Memorial, <a href="#page380">380</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Albert Memorial Hall, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Bank of England, <a href="#page334">334</a>,
+<a href="#page356">356</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+British Museum, <a href="#page356">356</a>
+(<a href="#fig198"><b>198</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Elgin marbles in, <a href="#page57">57</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+mausoleum fragments in,
+<a href="#page71">71</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral (St. Paul’s),
+<a href="#page329">329&ndash;331</a>
+(<a href="#fig186"><b>186</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig187"><b>187</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Chapel Royal (Banqueting Hall, Whitehall),
+<a href="#page329">329</a>
+(<a href="#fig185"><b>185</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Churches</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Bow Church, <a href="#page332">332</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. George’s, Bloomsbury,
+<a href="#page333">333</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields,
+<a href="#page333">333</a>
+(<a href="#fig189"><b>189</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Mary’s, Woolnoth, <a href="#page332">332</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Pancras’s, <a href="#page357">357</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Paul’s Cathedral,
+<a href="#page329">329&ndash;331</a>
+(<a href="#fig186"><b>186</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig187"><b>187</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Paul’s, Covent Garden,
+<a href="#page329">329</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Stephen’s, Walbrook,
+<a href="#page331">331</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Temple Church, pointed arches in,
+<a href="#page219">219</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Westminster Abbey, <a href="#page220">220</a>
+(<a href="#fig137"><b>137</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset3">
+Henry VII.’s chapel in same,
+<a href="#page192">192</a>,
+<a href="#page223">223</a>,
+<a href="#page227">227</a>,
+<a href="#page229">229</a>,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>
+(<a href="#fig136"><b>136</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Greenwich Hospital, <a href="#page332">332</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Mansion House, <a href="#page334">334</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Natural History Museum, South Kensington,
+<a href="#page381">381</a>
+(<a href="#fig216"><b>216</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+New Law Courts, <a href="#page380">380</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Newgate Prison, <a href="#page334">334</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Parliament Houses, <a href="#page234">234</a>,
+<a href="#page380">380</a>
+(<a href="#fig215"><b>215</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Somerset House, <a href="#page329">329</a>,
+<a href="#page333">333</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+South Kensington Museum, new building,
+<a href="#page382">382</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+University, <a href="#page357">357</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Westminster Abbey, see above.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Westminster Hall, <a href="#page233">233</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Whitehall Palace, <a href="#page329">329</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Banqueting Hall (Chapel Royal) in same,
+<a href="#page329">329</a>
+(<a href="#fig185"><b>185</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Longleat</span> House,
+<a href="#page328">328</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Louvain</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page246">246</a>,
+<a href="#page247">247</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cloth hall, <a href="#page247">247</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page248">248</a>
+(<a href="#fig144"><b>144</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Lübeck.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+City Gates, <a href="#page246">246</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Mary’s, <a href="#page242">242</a>,
+<a href="#page244">244</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Catharine’s, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page246">246</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Lucca.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Campanile, <a href="#page264">264</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral (S. Martino),
+<a href="#page161">161</a>,
+<a href="#page257">257</a>,
+<a href="#page258">258</a>,
+<a href="#page260">260</a>
+(<a href="#fig149"><b>149</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+tempietto in same, <a href="#page281">281</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+tomb of P. di Noceto in same,
+<a href="#page281">281</a>
+(<a href="#fig164"><b>164</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S.&nbsp;Frediano, S. Michele,
+<a href="#page161">161</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Minor works, <a href="#page282">282</a>,
+<a href="#page283">283</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palazzo Pretorio, Pal. Bernardini,
+<a href="#page283">283</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Lupiana</span> Monastery,
+<a href="#page350">350</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Luxor</span>,
+<a href="#page50">50</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple, <a href="#page19">19</a>,
+<a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Osirid Piers, <a href="#page24">24</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Luz.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church at, <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Lycia.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tombs, <a href="#page37">37</a>,
+<a href="#page39">39</a>,
+<a href="#page52">52</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_M" id="index_M" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Madrid</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+First Palace, <a href="#page350">350</a>.</p>
+<p> New Palace, <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Madrid</span>, Château de (at Boulogne),
+<a href="#page314">314</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Madura.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Choultrie of Tirumalla Nayak,
+<a href="#page411">411</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Great Temple, corridors,
+<a href="#page411">411</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace, <a href="#page413">413</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mafra.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace, <a href="#page353">353</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Magdeburg</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page189">189</a>,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>,
+<a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">444</span>
+<a name="page444" id="page444"> </a>
+<p class="smallcaps">Mahrisch Trübau.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Castle portal, <a href="#page338">338</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Maisons.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page322">322</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Malaga.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Alcazar, <a href="#page142">142</a>,
+<a href="#page143">143</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page348">348</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Malines</span> (Mechlin).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral of St. Rombaut,
+<a href="#page246">246</a>,
+<a href="#page247">247</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cloth hall, <a href="#page247">247</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hôtel du Saumon, <a href="#page324">324</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Manchester.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Assize Courts, <a href="#page380">380</a>(<a href="#fig216"><b>216</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Manikyala.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tope, <a href="#page403">403</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Manresa.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Collegiate Church, <a href="#page249">249</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mantinæa.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theatre, <a href="#page69">69</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mantua.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Campanile, <a href="#page264">264</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of S. Andrea, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Early Renaissance palaces,
+<a href="#page283">283</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palazzo del Té, <a href="#page289">289</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Marburg.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Elizabeth, <a href="#page240">240</a>,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>
+(<a href="#fig140"><b>140</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Marienburg</span> Castle, Great Hall,
+<a href="#page245">245</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Marienwerder.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Castle, <a href="#page245">245</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Marseilles.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Chapel of St. Lazare, <a href="#page310">310</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Fountain of Longchamps,
+<a href="#page372">372</a>
+(<a href="#fig211"><b>211</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mashita.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace of Chosroes, <a href="#page145">145</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Massachusetts.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Country house in (<a href="#fig225"><b>225</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Maulbronn.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Monastery, <a href="#page176">176</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Mayence</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page174">174</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Meaux</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page212">212</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mecca.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Kaabah, <a href="#page136">136</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Medina de Rio Seco.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Rood-screen, <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Medinet Abou.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Osirid piers, <a href="#page24">24</a>(<a href="#fig15"><b>15</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pavilion of Rameses III.,
+<a href="#page26">26</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Peripteral temple, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tomb-temple of Rameses III.,
+<a href="#page15">15</a>,
+<a href="#page21">21</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Meissen.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Albrechtsburg, <a href="#page245">245</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Meroë.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pyramids, <a href="#page9">9</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Metz</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page244">244</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Meydoum.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Stepped Pyramid, <a href="#page9">9</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Milan</span>,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Arcade, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page243">243</a>,
+<a href="#page255">255</a>,
+<a href="#page257">257</a>,
+<a href="#page260">260</a>,
+<a href="#page261">261</a>,
+<a href="#page262">262</a>,
+<a href="#page263">263</a>,
+<a href="#page264">264</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Domical churches, <a href="#page278">278</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ospedale Maggiore, <a href="#page283">283</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S. Ambrogio, <a href="#page158">158</a>,
+<a href="#page159">159</a>
+(<a href="#fig90"><b>90</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S. Eustorgio, Portinari Chapel in,
+<a href="#page283">283</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S. Satiro, sacristy of,
+<a href="#page289">289</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sta. Maria delle Grazie,
+<a href="#page278">278</a>,
+<a href="#page289">289</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Miletus.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Apollo Didymæus,
+<a href="#page53">53</a>,
+<a href="#page66">66</a>
+(<a href="#fig28"><b>28</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig29"><b>29</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Minden</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page244">244</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mœris.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Labyrinth of, <a href="#page26">26</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Moissac.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cloister, <a href="#page170">170</a>,
+<a href="#page213">213</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Monreale.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Churches, cathedral, <a href="#page162">162</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mons.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, St. Wandru,
+<a href="#page246">246</a>,
+<a href="#page247">247</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Montepulciano.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of S. Biagio, <a href="#page294">294</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Montmajour.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cloister, <a href="#page170">170</a>,
+<a href="#page213">213</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mont St. Michel.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Abbey, <a href="#page167">167</a>,
+<a href="#page168">168</a>,
+<a href="#page213">213</a>,
+<a href="#page214">214</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+cloister of same, <a href="#page213">213</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Moret.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+House of Francis I., <a href="#page316">316</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Moscow.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+The Kremlin, <a href="#page366">366</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Mosul</span>,
+<a href="#page33">33</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mount Abu.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Jaina temples, Temple of Vimalah Sah,
+<a href="#page405">405</a>,
+<a href="#page406">406</a>
+(<a href="#fig226"><b>226</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mount Athos.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Monastery, <a href="#page134">134</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mugheir.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Sin Or Hurki, <a href="#page30">30</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mujelibeh.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Mound, <a href="#page31">31</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mukteswara.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hindu temples, <a href="#page409">409</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mülhausen.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town Hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Munich</span>,
+<a href="#page366">366</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Auekirche, <a href="#page375">375</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Basilica, <a href="#page375">375</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page240">240</a>,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Glyptothek, <a href="#page359">359</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ludwigskirche, <a href="#page375">375</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Propylæa, <a href="#page360">360</a>
+(<a href="#fig201"><b>201</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ruhmeshalle, <a href="#page359">359</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Michael’s, <a href="#page344">344</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">445</span>
+<a name="page445" id="page445"> </a>
+<p class="smallcaps">Münster.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church at, <a href="#page243">243</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page245">245</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Münzenberg.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Castle ruins, <a href="#page176">176</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mycenæ.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Fortifications, <a href="#page44">44</a>(<a href="#fig23"><b>23</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Lion Gate, <a href="#page44">44</a>
+(<a href="#fig22"><b>22</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tholos of Atreus, <a href="#page45">45</a>,
+<a href="#page46">46</a>,
+<a href="#page148">148</a>
+(<a href="#fig24"><b>24</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig25"><b>25</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tombs, <a href="#page4">4</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Mylassa.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tomb, <a href="#page72">72</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Myra.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theatre, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tombs, <a href="#page72">72</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_N" id="index_N" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Nakhon Wat</span></a>,
+Temple of, <a href="#page413">413</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Naksh-i-roustam</span> (persepolis),
+<a href="#page36">36</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tomb of Darius, <a href="#page37">37</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Nancy.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ducal Palace, <a href="#page216">216</a>,
+<a href="#page311">311</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Nankin.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Porcelain Tower, <a href="#page414">414</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Naples.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Arcade, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Arch of Alphonso, <a href="#page287">287</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Gesù Nuovo, <a href="#page304">304</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of S. Francesco di Paola, <a href="#page305">305</a>,
+<a href="#page365">365</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of S. Lorenzo, <a href="#page263">263</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of S. Severo (<a href="#fig173"><b>173</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Minor works, <a href="#page281">281</a>,
+<a href="#page282">282</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pal. Gravina, Porta Capuana,
+<a href="#page287">287</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Royal Museum, <a href="#page304">304</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Royal Palace, <a href="#page304">304</a>,
+<a href="#page305">305</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theatre of S. Carlo, <a href="#page305">305</a>,
+<a href="#page365">365</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Narbonne</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>,
+<a href="#page211">211</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Nassick.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Chaityas, <a href="#page404">404</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Naukratis</span>,
+<a href="#page44">44</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Naumburg.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church At, <a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Netherlands</span>,
+<a href="#page146">146</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gothic monuments (list),
+<a href="#page252">252&ndash;253</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Neuweiler.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. Peter And St. Paul,
+<a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Nevers.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Étienne, <a href="#page165">165</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">New Mexico.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Spanish churches, <a href="#page388">388</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Newport.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page388">388</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Trinity Church, <a href="#page386">386</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">New York.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+American Surety Building, Broadway Chambers,
+<a href="#page397">397</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Casino, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of St. John the Divine, <a href="#page399">399</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of St. Patrick, <a href="#page375">375</a>,
+<a href="#page391">391</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Century Club, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+City Hall, <a href="#page389">389</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Custom House, <a href="#page390">390</a>
+(<a href="#fig221"><b>221</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Grace Church, <a href="#page392">392</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Huntington house, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Madison Square Garden, Metropolitan Club,
+<a href="#page399">399</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Paul’s, <a href="#page386">386</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sub-Treasury, <a href="#page390">390</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Times Building, (<a href="#fig224"><b>224</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Trinity Church, <a href="#page392">392</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Vanderbilt and Villard houses,
+<a href="#page399">399</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Nîmes.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Maison Carrée, <a href="#page93">93</a>,
+<a href="#page94">94</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Nimroud.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palaces of Assur-nazir-pal and Shalmaneser,
+<a href="#page31">31</a>,
+<a href="#page32">32</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Nineveh</span>,
+<a href="#page31">31</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Nippur</span> (Niffer).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ruins of, <a href="#page29">29</a>,
+<a href="#page31">31</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Normandy.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Romanesque churches in,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>,
+<a href="#page177">177</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+cathedrals in, <a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page213">213</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">North Germany.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Brick churches in, <a href="#page244">244</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">North Woburn.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Rumford House, <a href="#page387">387</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Norwich</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page177">177</a>,
+<a href="#page178">178</a>,
+<a href="#page220">220</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Noyon</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>,
+<a href="#page203">203</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>,
+<a href="#page246">246</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Nubia.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Early Christian buildings,
+<a href="#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Nuremberg</span>,
+<a href="#page238">238</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Churches of St. Sebald, St. Lorenz,
+<a href="#page245">245</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Funk, Hirschvogel, and Keller houses,
+<a href="#page346">346</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Renaissance houses, <a href="#page345">345</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Shrine of St. Sebald, <a href="#page347">347</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_O" id="index_O" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Olympia</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Altis, Echo Hall, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Heraion, <a href="#page50">50</a>,
+<a href="#page62">62</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temples, <a href="#page55">55</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+sculptures from, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Zeus, <a href="#page62">62</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Oppenheim.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Catharine’s, <a href="#page239">239</a>,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>,
+<a href="#page244">244</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Oudeypore.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hindu temples, palace,
+<a href="#page409">409</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Orange.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theatre, <a href="#page101">101</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Orchomenos.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ceiling, <a href="#page47">47</a></p>
+<span class="pagenum">446</span>
+<a name="page446" id="page446"> </a>
+<p class="smallcaps">Orléans.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Houses, <a href="#page316">316</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall (hôtel de ville),
+<a href="#page311">311</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Orvieto</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page257">257</a>,
+<a href="#page259">259</a>,
+<a href="#page261">261</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+façade of same, <a href="#page260">260</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Osnabrück.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church at, <a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Ottmarsheim.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church at, <a href="#page172">172</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Oudenärde.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page247">247</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Ourscamp.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hospital, <a href="#page214">214</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Oxford.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+All Souls’ College, <a href="#page333">333</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral (Christ Church),
+<a href="#page220">220</a>,
+<a href="#page222">222</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Christ Church Hall, <a href="#page233">233</a>,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Merton College Chapel,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Radcliffe Library, <a href="#page333">333</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sheldonian Theatre, <a href="#page332">332</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_P" id="index_P" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Paderborn</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Padua.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Arena chapel, <a href="#page258">258</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palazzo del Consiglio,
+<a href="#page287">287</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Pæstum.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Basilica, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temples, <a href="#page61">61</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Pailly.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Palermo.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Churches of Eremitani, La Martorana,
+<a href="#page162">162</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Palmyra</span>,
+<a href="#page83">83</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of the Sun, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ceiling panels (<a href="#fig50"><b>50</b> <i>a</i></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Parasnatha.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Jaina temples, <a href="#page407">407</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Paris.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Arch of Triumph of the Carrousel,
+<a href="#page362">362</a>,
+<a href="#page363">363</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of l’Étoile, <a href="#page362">362</a>,
+<a href="#page363">363</a>
+(<a href="#fig204"><b>204</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Bourse (Exchange), <a href="#page363">363</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral (Notre Dame),
+<a href="#page189">189</a>,
+<a href="#page197">197&ndash;202</a>,
+<a href="#page249">249</a>
+(<a href="#fig116"><b>116</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig117"><b>117</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig124"><b>124</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+rose windows, <a href="#page203">203</a>,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+chapels, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+size, <a href="#page206">206</a>,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+west front, <a href="#page207">207</a>,
+<a href="#page227">227</a>
+(<a href="#fig124"><b>124</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+capital from (<a href="#fig126"><b>126</b>
+<i>b</i></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+early carving (<a href="#fig114"><ins class="correction" title="text has ‘122’"><b>114</b></ins></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Churches</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Chapel and Dome of the Invalides, <a href="#page321">321</a>
+(<a href="#fig182"><b>182</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Madeleine, <a href="#page362">362</a>,
+<a href="#page363">363</a>
+(<a href="#fig205"><b>205</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Panthéon, <a href="#page361">361</a>,
+<a href="#page362">362</a>
+(<a href="#fig202"><b>202</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig203"><b>203</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sacré-Cœur at Montmartre,
+<a href="#page373">373</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sainte Chapelle, <a href="#page185">185</a>,
+<a href="#page203">203</a>,
+<a href="#page224">224</a>
+(<a href="#fig106"><b>106</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig121"><b>121</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset3">
+capital from same (<a href="#fig126"><b>126</b>
+<i>a</i></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sorbonne, <a href="#page319">319</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Augustin, <a href="#page371">371</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Ste. Clothilde, <a href="#page371">371</a>,
+<a href="#page375">375</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Étienne-du-Mont, St. Eustache,
+<a href="#page312">312</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Jean de Belleville,
+<a href="#page371">371</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Merri, St. Sévérin,
+<a href="#page213">213</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Paul-St. Louis, <a href="#page319">319</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Sulpice, <a href="#page323">323</a>,
+<a href="#page361">361</a>
+(<a href="#fig183"><b>183</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Vincent-de-Paul, <a href="#page364">364</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Val-de-Grâce, <a href="#page322">322</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Collège Chaptal, <a href="#page371">371</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Colonnades of the Garde-Meuble,
+<a href="#page361">361</a>,
+<a href="#page367">367</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Column of July (Colonne Juillet),
+<a href="#page365">365</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Corps Législatif (Palais Bourbon),
+<a href="#page363">363</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+École des Beaux-Arts, <a href="#page355">355</a>,
+<a href="#page370">370</a>,
+<a href="#page392">392</a>,
+<a href="#page393">393</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+library of same, <a href="#page364">364</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+door (<a href="#fig206"><b>206</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+École de Médecine, new buildings,
+<a href="#page374">374</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Exhibition buildings, <a href="#page374">374</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Fountains</span>:&mdash;
+of Cuvier, Molière, St. Michel, <a href="#page372">372</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Halles Centrales, <a href="#page371">371</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hôtel-de-Ville (town hall),
+<a href="#page316">316</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+new building, <a href="#page373">373</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Hôtels</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Carnavalet (de Ligeris), <a href="#page316">316</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+de Cluny, <a href="#page216">216</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+des Invalides, <a href="#page321">321</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+House of Francis&nbsp;I. (Maison François I.),
+<a href="#page316">316</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Library of the Beaux-Arts,
+<a href="#page364">364</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Ste. Genéviève, <a href="#page365">365</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Louvre (see palaces). Museum (Musée) Galliéra (<a href="#fig212"><b>212</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Opera House (Nouvel Opéra),
+<a href="#page372">372</a>
+(<a href="#fig210"><b>210</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Palais Bourbon (Corps Législatif), <a href="#page363">363</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Palais de l’Industrie, <a href="#page364">364</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Pal. de Justice, <a href="#page364">364</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Louvre and Tuileries, <a href="#page215">215</a>,
+<a href="#page315">315&ndash;319</a>,
+<a href="#page321">321</a>,
+<a href="#page362">362</a>,
+<a href="#page371">371</a>,
+<a href="#page372">372</a>
+(<a href="#fig179"><b>179</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig208"><b>208</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig209"><b>209</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Luxemburg Palace, <a href="#page318">318</a>
+(<a href="#fig180"><b>180</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Places</span> (Squares):&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+de la Concorde, <a href="#page324">324</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Royale, <a href="#page319">319</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Vendôme, <a href="#page322">322</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Railway stations (du Nord, de l’Est, d’Orléans),
+<a href="#page372">372</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sorbonne, new academic buildings,
+<a href="#page374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">447</span>
+<a name="page447" id="page447"> </a>
+<p class="smallcaps">Paulinzelle.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Romanesque church, <a href="#page173">173</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Pavia</span>,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Certosa, <a href="#page255">255</a>,
+<a href="#page262">262</a>,
+<a href="#page263">263</a>,
+<a href="#page278">278</a>,
+<a href="#page283">283</a>,
+<a href="#page284">284</a>
+(<a href="#fig152"><b>152</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig153"><b>153</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of S. Michele, <a href="#page159">159</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Domical churches, <a href="#page278">278</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Pekin.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Summer pavilion, Temple of Great Dragon,
+<a href="#page414">414</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Pergamon</span> (Pergamus).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Altar of Eumenes II., <a href="#page67">67</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Christian buildings, <a href="#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Perigueux.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Front, <a href="#page164">164</a>(<a href="#fig94"><b>94</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig95"><b>95</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Peroor.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple, <a href="#page411">411</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Persepolis</span>,
+<a href="#page145">145</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Columns, <a href="#page37">37</a>,
+<a href="#page38">38</a>
+(<a href="#fig21"><b>21</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hall of Xerxes, <a href="#page36">36</a>,
+<a href="#page37">37</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palaces, <a href="#page35">35</a>,
+<a href="#page69">69</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Persia.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Moslem architecture, <a href="#page145">145</a>,
+<a href="#page146">146</a>
+(list <a href="#page154">154</a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sassanian buildings, <a href="#page144">144</a>,
+<a href="#page145">145</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Perugia.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Oratory of San Bernardino,
+<a href="#page279">279</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall (Pal. Communale),
+<a href="#page266">266</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Roman Gates, <a href="#page88">88</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Peterborough</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page178">178</a>,
+<a href="#page220">220</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+retro-choir, <a href="#page222">222</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+west front, <a href="#page227">227</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Phigalæa</span> (Bassæ).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gate, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sculptures from, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Apollo Epicurius,
+<a href="#page65">65</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Philadelphia.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Christ Church, <a href="#page386">386</a>(<a href="#fig218"><b>218</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Girard College, <a href="#page390">390</a>,
+<a href="#page391">391</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Independence Hall, <a href="#page388">388</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Marine Exchange, Mint,
+<a href="#page390">390</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Municipal Building, <a href="#page391">391</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Philæ.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Great Temple, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Peripteral temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Piacenza</span>,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>. Campanile,
+<a href="#page159">159</a>
+(<a href="#fig91"><b>91</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral (<a href="#fig91"><b>91</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page266">266</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Piastenschloss</span> at Brieg,
+<a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Pienza.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palazzo Piccolomini, etc.,
+<a href="#page282">282</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Pierrefonds.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Pisa.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Churches in, <a href="#page115">115</a>,
+<a href="#page261">261</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+minor works in, <a href="#page282">282</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+early Renaissance in,
+<a href="#page282">282&ndash;283</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Baptistery, <a href="#page160">160</a>
+(<a href="#fig92"><b>92</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral (Duomo), <a href="#page159">159</a>,
+<a href="#page160">160</a>,
+<a href="#page276">276</a>
+(<a href="#fig92"><b>92</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig93"><b>93</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Leaning Tower, <a href="#page160">160</a>
+(<a href="#fig92"><b>92</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sta. Maria della Spina,
+<a href="#page264">264</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Pistoia.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Campanile, <a href="#page264">264</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Churches, <a href="#page161">161</a>,
+<a href="#page261">261</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Podestà, Palazzo Communale,
+<a href="#page266">266</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sta. Maria dell’ Umiltà,
+<a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Pittsburgh.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Carnegie Building, <a href="#page397">397</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Carnegie Library, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+County Buildings, <a href="#page394">394</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Plagnitz.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Castle, <a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Plassenburg.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Castle, <a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Poitiers</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Pola.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a>,
+<a href="#page102">102</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Pompeii.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Baths, <a href="#page86">86</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Houses, <a href="#page72">72</a>,
+<a href="#page107">107</a>,
+<a href="#page108">108</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+House of Pansa (<a href="#fig65"><b>65</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theatre, <a href="#page101">101</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tombs, <a href="#page105">105</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Pont Du Gard.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Bridge, <a href="#page108">108</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Portsmouth.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sherburne House, <a href="#page387">387</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Portugal</span>,
+<a href="#page352">352</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gothic monuments (list), <a href="#page253">253</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Potsdam.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Nicholas Church, <a href="#page359">359</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Prague.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Belvedere, <a href="#page339">339</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page239">239</a>,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>,
+<a href="#page244">244</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace on Hradschin, Schloss Stern, Waldstein palace,
+<a href="#page339">339</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Prato.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Churches in, <a href="#page161">161</a>,
+<a href="#page293">293</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Madonna delle Carceri,
+<a href="#page278">278</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Prentzlau.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page244">244</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Priene.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ionic order, <a href="#page53">53</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Propylæa, <a href="#page69">69</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Provence</span>,
+<a href="#page164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Provins.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Houses at, <a href="#page214">214</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Puri.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temples, <a href="#page408">408</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Jugganât, <a href="#page409">409</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Purudkul.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Rock-cut raths, <a href="#page413">413</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">448</span>
+<a name="page448" id="page448"> </a>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_R" id="index_R" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Ramesseum</span></a>
+(Thebes). Tomb-temple of Rameses II.,
+<a href="#page15">15</a>,
+<a href="#page21">21</a>,
+<a href="#page24">24</a>
+(<a href="#fig8"><b>8</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Ramisseram.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple, corridors, <a href="#page411">411</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ratisbon</span> (Regensburg) Cathedral,
+<a href="#page239">239</a>,
+<a href="#page241">241</a>,
+<a href="#page244">244</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page245">245</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Walhalla, <a href="#page359">359</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ravenna</span>,
+<a href="#page114">114</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Baptistery of St. John,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Byzantine monuments (list),
+<a href="#page134">134</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page304">304</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Early Christian monuments (list),
+<a href="#page119">119</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S.&nbsp;Apollinare Nuovo, S. Apollinare in Classe,
+<a href="#page114">114</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S. Vitale, <a href="#page117">117</a>,
+<a href="#page122">122</a>,
+<a href="#page127">127</a>,
+<a href="#page172">172</a>
+(<a href="#fig73"><b>73</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Reggio.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Reims</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page189">189</a>,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>,
+<a href="#page202">202</a>,
+<a href="#page203">203</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+size, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+west front, <a href="#page207">207</a>,
+<a href="#page213">213</a>,
+<a href="#page227">227</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+towers, <a href="#page209">209</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+portals, <a href="#page208">208</a>,
+<a href="#page210">210</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Rimini.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S. Francesco, <a href="#page277">277</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Rochester</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page220">220</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Rodez</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page212">212</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Rome.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ancient monuments, (list) <a href="#page108">108</a>,
+<a href="#page109">109</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus,
+<a href="#page102">102</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Arches</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+in general, <a href="#page77">77</a>,
+<a href="#page103">103</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Constantine, <a href="#page80">80</a>,
+<a href="#page103">103</a>
+(<a href="#fig63"><b>63</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Septimius Severus, <a href="#page103">103</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Titus, <a href="#page92">92</a>,
+<a href="#page103">103</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Trajan, <a href="#page97">97</a>,
+<a href="#page103">103</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Basilicas</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+in general, <a href="#page97">97</a>,
+<a href="#page98">98</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Basilica Æmilia, <a href="#page98">98</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Constantine, xxiii,
+<a href="#page80">80</a>,
+<a href="#page82">82</a>,
+<a href="#page98">98</a>,
+<a href="#page99">99</a>
+(<a href="#fig50"><b>50</b> <i>b</i></a>,
+<a href="#fig58"><b>58</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig59"><b>59</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Julian Basilica, <a href="#page98">98</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sempronian, <a href="#page98">98</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Ulpian, <a href="#page97">97</a>,
+<a href="#page98">98</a>
+(<a href="#fig57"><b>57</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+(For Early Christian Basilicas, see Churches.)</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Baths</span> (Thermæ):&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+in general, <a href="#page71">71</a>,
+<a href="#page92">92</a>,
+<a href="#page99">99</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Agrippa, <a href="#page91">91</a>,
+<a href="#page100">100</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Caracalla, <a href="#page87">87</a>,
+<a href="#page92">92</a>
+(<a href="#fig60"><b>60</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Diocletian, <a href="#page92">92</a>,
+<a href="#page100">100</a>,
+<a href="#page101">101</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Titus, <a href="#page86">86</a>,
+<a href="#page91">91</a>,
+<a href="#page100">100</a>,
+<a href="#page105">105</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Campanile of Campidoglio (Capitol),
+<a href="#page305">305</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Capitol, <a href="#page91">91</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+palaces on, <a href="#page299">299</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Churches</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+in general, <a href="#page293">293</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Church of Gesù, <a href="#page299">299</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sistine Chapel of Vatican,
+<a href="#page286">286</a>,
+<a href="#page289">289</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sta. Agnese</p>
+<p class="inset3">
+(basilica), <a href="#page112">112</a></p>
+<p class="inset3">
+(modern church), <a href="#page303">303</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+S. Agostino, <a href="#page286">286</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+S. Clemente, <a href="#page114">114</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sta. Costanza, <a href="#page111">111</a>
+(<a href="#fig66"><b>66</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. John Lateran, <a href="#page113">113</a>,
+<a href="#page251">251</a>,
+<a href="#page304">304</a>,
+<a href="#page305">305</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset3">
+cloister of same, <a href="#page281">281</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+S. Lorenzo, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+S.&nbsp;Lorenzo in Miranda,
+<a href="#page93">93</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sta. Maria degli Angeli,
+<a href="#page101">101</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sta. Maria Maggiore, <a href="#page113">113</a>,
+<a href="#page305">305</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset3">
+Chapel of Sixtus V. in same,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sta. Maria del Popolo,
+<a href="#page286">286</a>,
+<a href="#page287">287</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset3">
+Chigi Chapel in same, <a href="#page293">293</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sta. Maria della Vittoria,
+<a href="#page303">303</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sta. Maria sopra Minerva,
+<a href="#page256">256</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls,
+<a href="#page113">113</a>,
+<a href="#page281">281</a>
+(<a href="#fig67"><b>67</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig68"><b>68</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Peter’s, original basilica,
+<a href="#page113">113</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+existing church of, <a href="#page274">274</a>,
+<a href="#page286">286</a>,
+<a href="#page289">289</a>,
+<a href="#page290">290</a>,
+<a href="#page294">294&ndash;296</a>,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>,
+<a href="#page321">321</a>
+(<a href="#fig169"><b>169</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig170"><b>170</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig171"><b>171</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset3">
+colonnade of same, <a href="#page295">295</a>,
+<a href="#page303">303</a>,
+<a href="#page367">367</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset3">
+sacristy of same, <a href="#page305">305</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+S. Pietro in Montorio, Tempietto in court of,
+<a href="#page209">209</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Circuses</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Maximus, <a href="#page103">103</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Caligula and Nero, <a href="#page103">103</a>,
+<a href="#page113">113</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cloaca Maxima, <a href="#page81">81</a>,
+<a href="#page90">90</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Colosseum (Flavian amphitheatre) <a href="#page91">91</a>,
+<a href="#page92">92</a>,
+<a href="#page102">102</a>
+(<a href="#fig45"><b>45</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig62"><b>62</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Columns</span>:&mdash;
+<a href="#page103">103</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#page104">104</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Trajan, <a href="#page97">97</a>,
+<a href="#page104">104</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Early Christian monuments,
+<a href="#page111">111</a>; (list),
+<a href="#page118">118</a>,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Fora</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+in general, <a href="#page97">97</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Augustus, <a href="#page91">91</a>,
+<a href="#page97">97</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Julius, Nerva, Vespasian,
+<a href="#page97">97</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Forum Romanum (Magnum),
+<a href="#page97">97</a>,
+<a href="#page98">98</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Forum of Trajan, <a href="#page97">97</a>,
+<a href="#page98">98</a>
+(<a href="#fig57"><b>57</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Fountain of Trevi, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Houses</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+in general, <a href="#page105">105</a>,
+<a href="#page106">106</a>,
+<a href="#page108">108</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Vestals (Atrium Vestæ),
+<a href="#page94">94</a>,
+<a href="#page106">106</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Livia, <a href="#page107">107</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Lateran, carved ornament from Museum of (<a href="#fig49"><b>49</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+palace of, <a href="#page300">300</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">449</span>
+<a name="page449" id="page449"> </a>
+<p class="inset1">
+Mausoleum of Augustus, of Hadrian,
+<a href="#page104">104</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Minor Works in Rome, <a href="#page287">287</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Monument to Victor Emmanuel,
+<a href="#page382">382</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+National Museum, <a href="#page382">382</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span> (Ancient):&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Cæsars on Palatine Hill, <a href="#page86">86</a>,
+<a href="#page91">91</a>,
+<a href="#page105">105</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Nero (Golden House),
+<a href="#page91">91</a>,
+<a href="#page92">92</a>,
+<a href="#page100">100</a>,
+<a href="#page105">105</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Septizonium, <a href="#page105">105</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span> (Renaissance):&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Altemps, <a href="#page292">292</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Barberini, <a href="#page304">304</a>,
+<a href="#page305">305</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Borghese, <a href="#page304">304</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Braschi, <a href="#page305">305</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Capitol, <a href="#page299">299</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Cancelleria, <a href="#page290">290</a>,
+<a href="#page291">291</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Corsini, <a href="#page305">305</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Farnese, <a href="#page292">292</a>
+(<a href="#fig167"><b>167</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig168"><b>168</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Farnesina, <a href="#page291">291</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Giraud, <a href="#page290">290</a>,
+<a href="#page291">291</a>
+(<a href="#fig166"><b>166</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Lante, <a href="#page292">292</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Massimi, Palma, <a href="#page291">291</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Quirinal, <a href="#page300">300</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sacchetti, <a href="#page291">291</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Vatican, Belvedere, greater and lesser court, Court of S.&nbsp;Damaso,
+Loggie,
+<a href="#page209">209</a>,
+<a href="#page291">291</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Braccio Nuovo, <a href="#page305">305</a>,
+<a href="#page365">365</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Casino del Papa in gardens,
+<a href="#page293">293</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+papal residence, <a href="#page300">300</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Scala Reggia, <a href="#page305">305</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+palazzo di Venezia, <a href="#page286">286</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pantheon of Agrippa, <a href="#page82">82</a>,
+<a href="#page91">91</a>,
+<a href="#page94">94&ndash;96</a>,
+<a href="#page100">100</a>,
+<a href="#page118">118</a>,
+<a href="#page122">122</a>,
+<a href="#page127">127</a>,
+<a href="#page365">365</a>
+(<a href="#fig54"><b>54</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig55"><b>55</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig56"><b>56</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pons Ælius (Ponte S. Angelo),
+<a href="#page108">108</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Porta Maggiore, <a href="#page108">108</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Portico of Octavia, <a href="#page91">91</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Temples</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Of Castor and Pollux (Dioscuri), <a href="#page84">84</a>,
+<a href="#page91">91</a>,
+<a href="#page94">94</a>
+(<a href="#fig44"><b>44</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Concord, <a href="#page94">94</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Faustina, <a href="#page93">93</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Fortuna Virilis, <a href="#page89">89</a>,
+<a href="#page90">90</a>,
+<a href="#page93">93</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Hercules or Vesta, <a href="#page90">90</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Julius, <a href="#page94">94</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Jupiter Capitolinus,
+<a href="#page68">68</a>,
+<a href="#page89">89</a>,
+<a href="#page91">91</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Jupiter Stator, so called (see Temple of Castor and Pollux);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Jupiter Tonans, <a href="#page91">91</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Mars Ultor, <a href="#page91">91</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Minerva Medica, <a href="#page127">127</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Peace, <a href="#page98">98</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Trajan, <a href="#page97">97</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Venus and Rome, <a href="#page94">94</a>
+(<a href="#fig53"><b>53</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Vesta, in Forum, <a href="#page94">94</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Vesta, so called, or Hercules,
+<a href="#page90">90</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Theatres</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Of Marcellus, <a href="#page91">91</a>,
+<a href="#page101">101</a>
+(<a href="#fig42"><b>42</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Mummius, of Pompey,
+<a href="#page101">101</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Tombs</span>:&mdash;
+<a href="#page86">86</a>,
+<a href="#page104">104</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Caius Cestius, of Cecilia Metella,
+<a href="#page104">104</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Helena, <a href="#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Rosenborg</span> Castle,
+<a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Rosheim.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church façade, <a href="#page175">175</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Rothenburg.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Rouen</span>,
+<a href="#page310">310</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page192">192</a>,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>,
+<a href="#page202">202</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+size of, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+west front, <a href="#page207">207</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+rose windows, <a href="#page212">212</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hôtel Bourgtheroude, <a href="#page316">316</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palais de Justice, <a href="#page214">214</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Maclou, <a href="#page209">209</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Ouen, <a href="#page212">212</a>,
+<a href="#page213">213</a>,
+<a href="#page375">375</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+rose window from (<a href="#fig112"><b>112</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Rouheiha.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Early Christian church,
+<a href="#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Royal Domain</span>,
+<a href="#page166">166</a>,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>,
+<a href="#page197">197</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Ruanwalli.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Topes, <a href="#page403">403</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Russia</span>,
+<a href="#page367">367</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Byzantine monuments (list),
+<a href="#page134">134</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_S" id="index_S" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Sadri</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple, <a href="#page406">406</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Sakkarah.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pyramid, <a href="#page9">9</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Salamanca.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Casa de las Conchas, <a href="#page349">349</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral (old), <a href="#page180">180</a>,
+<a href="#page248">248</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+(new), <a href="#page250">250</a>,
+<a href="#page348">348</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Monastery of S. Girolamo,
+<a href="#page348">348</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S. Domingo, <a href="#page348">348</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+University, <a href="#page349">349</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+portal of (<a href="#fig195"><b>195</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Salisbury</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page219">219</a>,
+<a href="#page223">223</a>,
+<a href="#page225">225</a>,
+<a href="#page229">229</a>,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>
+(<a href="#fig128"><b>128</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+west front, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+spire, <a href="#page228">228</a>,
+<a href="#page229">229</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Market cross, <a href="#page234">234</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Salonica.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. George, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Other monuments (list),
+<a href="#page134">134</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Salsette.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Viharas, <a href="#page405">405</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Salzburg.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. Francis,
+<a href="#page242">242</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Samos.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gate, <a href="#page45">45</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Sanchi.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Brahman temple, <a href="#page404">404</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tope, <a href="#page403">403</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">450</span>
+<a name="page450" id="page450"> </a>
+<p class="smallcaps">San Ildefonso.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Royal Palace, <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Sabagossa.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Casa de Zaporta, <a href="#page350">350</a>(<a href="#fig196"><b>196</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Saxony</span>,
+<a href="#page173">173</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Schalaburg.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Castle, <a href="#page339">339</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Schlettstadt</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page239">239</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Schloss Hämelschenburg</span>,
+<a href="#page343">343</a>
+(<a href="#fig191"><b>191</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Schloss Porzia</span> at Spital,
+<a href="#page338">338</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Schloss Stern</span> at Prague,
+<a href="#page339">339</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Schwarz-Rheindorf.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page174">174</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Schweinfürth.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page344">344</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Scinde</span>,
+<a href="#page146">146</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Secundra.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tomb of Akbar, <a href="#page148">148</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Sedinga.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hathoric columns, <a href="#page24">24</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Séez</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Segovia</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page190">190</a>,
+<a href="#page249">249</a>,
+<a href="#page348">348</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of S. Millan, of Templars,
+<a href="#page180">180</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Selinus.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temples, <a href="#page49">49</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+northern temple, <a href="#page60">60</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Temple of Zeus, <a href="#page61">61</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Semneh.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pavilion, <a href="#page26">26</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Senlis</span> Cathedral, <a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>,
+<a href="#page209">209</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Sens.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Archbishop’s palace, <a href="#page317">317</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page203">203</a>,
+<a href="#page219">219</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Serbistan.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sassanian buildings, <a href="#page144">144</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Seville.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Alcazar, <a href="#page142">142</a>,
+<a href="#page143">143</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Casa de Pilato (House of Pilate),
+<a href="#page142">142</a>,
+<a href="#page350">350</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page244">244</a>,
+<a href="#page250">250</a>,
+<a href="#page257">257</a>,
+<a href="#page351">351</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Giralda, <a href="#page142">142</a>,
+<a href="#page143">143</a>,
+<a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Sheepree.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Pathan arches, <a href="#page148">148</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Sienna.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Brick houses, <a href="#page266">266</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Campanile, <a href="#page264">264</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral (Duomo), <a href="#page257">257</a>,
+<a href="#page259">259</a>,
+<a href="#page263">263</a>
+(<a href="#fig150"><b>150</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+west front, <a href="#page260">260</a>
+(<a href="#fig151"><b>151</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Loggia del Papa, <a href="#page282">282</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Minor works, <a href="#page282">282</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Del Governo, Piccolomini, Spannocchi, <a href="#page282">282</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Palazzo Pubblico, <a href="#page266">266</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Renaissance churches, <a href="#page293">293</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S. Giovanni in Fonte, <a href="#page260">260</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Silsileh.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Grotto temple, <a href="#page22">22</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Soissons</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>,
+<a href="#page203">203</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>,
+<a href="#page243">243</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Somnath.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Jaina temple, <a href="#page407">407</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Somnathpur.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Chalukyan temples, <a href="#page409">409</a>,
+<a href="#page410">410</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Southwell</span> Minster, carving from, (<a
+href="#fig115"><b>115</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Spain</span>,
+<a href="#page347">347</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gothic monuments (list),
+<a href="#page253">253</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Romanesque churches,
+<a href="#page179">179&ndash;180</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Spalato.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace of Diocletian, <a href="#page92">92</a>,
+<a href="#page106">106</a>,
+<a href="#page113">113</a>
+(<a href="#fig64"><b>64</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Spital.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Schloss Porzia, <a href="#page338">338</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Spires</span> (Speyer) Cathedral,
+<a href="#page174">174</a>
+(<a href="#fig100"><b>100</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">St. Alban’s</span> Abbey, tombs, etc., in,
+<a href="#page234">234</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">St. Augustine.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Fort Marion (S. Marco),
+<a href="#page388">388</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ponce de Leon Hotel, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Roman Catholic cathedral,
+<a href="#page388">388</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">St. Benoît-sur-Loire.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Antechurch, <a href="#page177">177</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">St. Denis.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Abbey, <a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page198">198</a>,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>,
+<a href="#page202">202</a>,
+<a href="#page203">203</a>
+(<a href="#fig120"><b>120</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+tomb of Louis XII. in,
+<a href="#page316">316</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Francis I., <a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">St. Germain-en-Laye.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château,
+<a href="#page313">313</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Royal chapel in, <a href="#page204">204</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">St. Gilles.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page165">165</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">St. Louis.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Union Trust Bdg., <a href="#page397">397</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">St. Paul.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+State Capitol, <a href="#page400">400</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">St. Petersburg</span>,
+<a href="#page366">366</a>,
+<a href="#page367">367</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Admiralty, <a href="#page367">367</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral of St. Isaac,
+<a href="#page367">367</a>
+(<a href="#fig207"><b>207</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Churches</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of the Citadel, of the Greek Rite, <a href="#page366">366</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Our Lady of Kazan, <a href="#page367">367</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+New Museum, Palace of Grand Duke Michael,
+<a href="#page367">367</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Smolnoy Monastery, <a href="#page366">366</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">St. Rémy.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tombs, <a href="#page105">105</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Stabiæ</span>,
+<a href="#page92">92</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Stockholm.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace, <a href="#page337">337</a></p>
+<span class="pagenum">451</span>
+<a name="page451" id="page451"> </a>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Strasburg</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page243">243</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+spire of, <a href="#page238">238</a>,
+<a href="#page240">240</a>,
+<a href="#page241">241</a>,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+University Buildings, <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Stuttgart.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Old Castle, <a href="#page343">343</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Technical School, <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Styria</span>,
+<a href="#page339">339</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Sully.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Sultaniyeh.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Tomb, <a href="#page145">145</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Sunium.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Propylæa, <a href="#page69">69</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Susa</span>,
+<a href="#page145">145</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palaces, <a href="#page35">35</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Syracuse.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Theatre, <a href="#page70">70</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Syria</span>,
+<a href="#page122">122</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+early Christian churches in,
+<a href="#page115">115</a>,
+<a href="#page116">116</a>,
+<a href="#page117">117</a>; (list),
+<a href="#page119">119</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_T" id="index_T" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Tabriz</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ruined Mosque, <a href="#page145">145</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Tafkhah.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Early <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Christain’">Christian</ins> Church,
+<a href="#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Takht-i-Bahi.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Monastery, <a href="#page405">405</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Tängermünde.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page244">244</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Tanjore.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Great temple, <a href="#page412">412</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace, <a href="#page413">413</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Shrine of Soubramanya,
+<a href="#page412">412</a>
+(<a href="#fig229"><b>229</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Tarputry.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gopura, <a href="#page411">411</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Teheran</span>,
+<a href="#page146">146</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Tel-el-Amarna</span>,
+<a href="#page27">27</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Tewkesbury</span> Abbey,
+<a href="#page222">222</a>
+(<a href="#fig130"><b>130</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Thebes.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Amenopheum, <a href="#page15">15</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ramesseum, <a href="#page15">15</a>
+(<a href="#fig8"><b>8</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Thoricus.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gate, <a href="#page45">45</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Stoa Diple, <a href="#page69">69</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Tinnevelly.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Dravidian temples, <a href="#page411">411</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Tiruvalur.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Dravidian temples, <a href="#page411">411</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Tiryns</span>,
+<a href="#page44">44</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Tivoli.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Circular temple, <a href="#page90">90</a>,
+<a href="#page356">356</a>
+(<a href="#fig52"><b>52</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Villas</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+D’Este, <a href="#page293">293</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Hadrian, <a href="#page87">87</a>,
+<a href="#page106">106</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Tokio.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Great Palace, <a href="#page415">415</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Toledo.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Archbishop’s Palace, <a href="#page360">360</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page189">189</a>,
+<a href="#page248">248</a>,
+<a href="#page348">348</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gate of S. Martino, <a href="#page350">350</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hospital of Sta. Cruz,
+<a href="#page349">349</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S. Juan de los Reyes, <a href="#page251">251</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Tonnerre.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hospital, <a href="#page214">214</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Torgau.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Hartenfels Castle, <a href="#page342">342</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Toro.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Collegiate church, <a href="#page180">180</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Toulouse</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. Sernin, <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Houses, <a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Tournay</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page190">190</a>,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>,
+<a href="#page209">209</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+rood-screen in, <a href="#page335">335</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Tours</span>,
+<a href="#page310">310</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>,
+<a href="#page209">209</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+towers of, <a href="#page312">312</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+tomb of children of Charles VIII. in,
+<a href="#page310">310</a>,
+<a href="#page342">342</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Trausnitz</span> Castle,
+<a href="#page342">342</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Treves</span> (Trier).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page174">174</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Frauenkirche (Liebfrauenkirche, Church of Our Lady),
+<a href="#page189">189</a>,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>
+(<a href="#fig142"><b>142</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Troyes</span></p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>,
+<a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+size, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+west portals, <a href="#page209">209</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Urbain, <a href="#page212">212</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Tucson.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Tuparamaya.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Topes, <a href="#page403">403</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Turin.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of La Superga, <a href="#page365">365</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Turkey</span>,
+<a href="#page149">149</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Monuments (list), <a href="#page154">154</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Tusculum.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Tyrol</span>,
+<a href="#page338">338</a>,
+<a href="#page339">339</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_U" id="index_U" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Udaipur</span></a>
+(near Bhilsa). Hindu temples,
+<a href="#page409">409</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ulm</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page238">238</a>,
+<a href="#page239">239</a>,
+<a href="#page241">241</a>,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+spire, <a href="#page241">241</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Ur</span>,
+<a href="#page30">30</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Urbino.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ducal palace, <a href="#page287">287</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Utrecht</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page244">244</a></p>
+
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_V" id="index_V" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Valencia</span></a> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page249">249</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Valladolid.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral, <a href="#page350">350</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S. Gregorio, portal (<a href="#fig146"><b>146</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Vellore.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gopura, <a href="#page411">411</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Vendôme</span> Cathedral, portal,
+<a href="#page209">209</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">452</span>
+<a name="page452" id="page452"> </a>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Venetia</span>,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>,
+<a href="#page262">262</a>,
+<a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Venice</span>,
+<a href="#page300">300</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Campaniles of St. Mark, of S. Giorgio Maggiore,
+<a href="#page305">305</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Churches</span>:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Frari (S. M. Gloriosa dei Frari),
+<a href="#page256">256</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Redentore, <a href="#page299">299</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+S. Giobbe, <a href="#page284">284</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+S. Giorgio dei Grechi,
+<a href="#page293">293</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+S. Giorgio Maggiore, <a href="#page299">299</a>,
+<a href="#page305">305</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+SS. Giovanni e Paolo, <a href="#page256">256</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Sta. Maria Formosa, <a href="#page293">293</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+S. M. dei Miracoli, <a href="#page283">283</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+S. M. della Salute, <a href="#page304">304</a>,
+(<a href="#fig174"><b>174</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+St. Mark’s, <a href="#page132">132</a>,
+<a href="#page164">164</a>
+(<a href="#fig78"><b>78</b></a>,
+<a href="#fig79"><b>79</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset3">
+Library of same (Royal Palace),
+<a href="#page301">301</a>
+(<a href="#fig172"><b>172</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+S. Salvatore, <a href="#page293">293</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+S. Zaccaria, <a href="#page284">284</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Doge’s Palace, <a href="#page267">267</a>,
+<a href="#page284">284</a>
+(<a href="#fig157"><b>157</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Minor works, <a href="#page287">287</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span>:&mdash;
+<a href="#page267">267</a>,
+<a href="#page283">283</a>,
+<a href="#page284">284</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Cà d’Oro, Cavalli, Contarini-Fasan,
+<a href="#page268">268</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Cornaro (Corner de Cà Grande) <a href="#page301">301</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Dario, <a href="#page285">285</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Ducale (Doge’s Palace),
+<a href="#page267">267</a>,
+<a href="#page284">284</a>
+(<a href="#fig157"><b>157</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Foscari, <a href="#page268">268</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Grimani, <a href="#page300">300</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Pesaro, <a href="#page304">304</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Pisani, <a href="#page268">268</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Rezzonico, <a href="#page304">304</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Vendramini (Vendramin-Calergi),
+<a href="#page284">284</a>,
+<a href="#page285">285</a>
+(<a href="#fig165"><b>165</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Zorzi, capital, <a href="#page275">275</a>
+(<a href="#fig158"><b>158</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Vercelli.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+S. Andrea, <a href="#page256">256</a>,
+<a href="#page263">263</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Verneuil.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Château, <a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Verona</span>,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Amphitheatre, <a href="#page92">92</a>,
+<a href="#page102">102</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Campanile, <a href="#page264">264</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of Sta. Anastasia, <a href="#page256">256</a>,
+<a href="#page258">258</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+of S. Zeno, <a href="#page159">159</a>,
+<a href="#page175">175</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span>:&mdash;
+<a href="#page283">283</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Bevilacqua, Canossa, <a href="#page300">300</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+del Consiglio, <a href="#page286">286</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Pompeii, Verzi, <a href="#page300">300</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Tombs of Scaligers, <a href="#page264">264</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Versailles</span> Palace,
+<a href="#page320">320</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Vézélay.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Abbey, <a href="#page166">166</a>,
+<a href="#page198">198</a>,
+<a href="#page203">203</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Vicenza</span>,
+<a href="#page300">300</a>,
+<a href="#page301">301</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Basilica, <a href="#page301">301</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+<span class="smallcaps">Palaces</span>:&mdash;
+<a href="#page283">283</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Barbarano, Chieregati, Tiene, Valmarano,
+<a href="#page301">301</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+Villa Capra, <a href="#page301">301</a>,
+<a href="#page328">328</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Vienna</span>,
+<a href="#page347">347</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Arsenal at Wiener Neustadt,
+<a href="#page338">338</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Burgtheater, <a href="#page376">376</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cathedral (St. Stephen),
+<a href="#page239">239</a>,
+<a href="#page240">240</a>,
+<a href="#page241">241</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset2">
+spire of, <a href="#page240">240</a>,
+<a href="#page241">241</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church of St. Charles Borromeo,
+<a href="#page358">358</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Imperial Palace, portal,
+<a href="#page339">339</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Museums, <a href="#page378">378</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Opera House, <a href="#page376">376</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Parliament House, or Reichsrathsgebäude,
+<a href="#page360">360</a>,
+<a href="#page378">378</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Residence-block (Maria-Theresienhof),
+<a href="#page378">378</a>
+(<a href="#fig214"><b>214</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Sta. Maria in Gestade,
+<a href="#page245">245</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, University,
+<a href="#page378">378</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Votiv Kirche, <a href="#page375">375</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Vijayanagar.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace, <a href="#page413">413</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Vincennes.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Royal chapel, <a href="#page204">204</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Viterbo.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Houses, <a href="#page267">267</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall (Palazzo Communale),
+<a href="#page266">266</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Villa Lante, <a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Volterra</span> (Volaterræ).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Gate, <a href="#page88">88</a></p>
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_W" id="index_W" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Waltham</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Abbey, <a href="#page178">178</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Eleanor’s Cross, <a href="#page234">234</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Warfield.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. Michael’s, window
+(<a href="#fig111"><b>111</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Warkah</span> (Erech).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Palace terraces, <a href="#page31">31</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Wartburg</span> Castle,
+<a href="#page176">176</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Washington.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Capitol, <a href="#page389">389</a>,
+<a href="#page391">391</a>
+(<a href="#fig220"><b>220</b></a>).</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Congressional Library,
+<a href="#page399">399</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Patent Office, <a href="#page390">390</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+State, Army, and Navy Building,
+<a href="#page392">392</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+White House, <a href="#page390">390</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Wells</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page222">222</a>,
+<a href="#page225">225</a>,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+west front, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+chapter house of, <a href="#page223">223</a>
+(<a href="#fig131"><b>131</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Westminster.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+See <span class="smallcaps">London</span></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Westonzoyland.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Ceiling of St. Mary’s
+(<a href="#fig138"><b>138</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Westover</span> House,
+<a href="#page386">386</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Wiener-neustadt.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+See <span class="smallcaps">Vienna</span></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Williamsburg.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Town hall, <a href="#page385">385</a></p>
+<span class="pagenum">453</span>
+<a name="page453" id="page453"> </a>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Wilton</span> House,
+<a href="#page329">329</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Winchester</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page178">178</a>,
+<a href="#page220">220</a>,
+<a href="#page222">222</a>,
+<a href="#page226">226</a>,
+<a href="#page229">229</a>
+(<a href="#fig103"><b>103</b></a>);</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+tombs, etc., in, <a href="#page234">234</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Windsor.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+St. George’s Chapel, <a href="#page223">223</a>,
+<a href="#page227">227</a>,
+<a href="#page234">234</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Wismar.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Castle (Fürstenhof), <a href="#page343">343</a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+City Gates, <a href="#page246">246</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Woburn.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Public Library (<a href="#fig223"><b>223</b></a>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Wollaton</span> Hall,
+<a href="#page328">328</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Wolfenbüttel.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Marienkirche, <a href="#page345">345</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Wolterton</span> Castle,
+<a href="#page326">326</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Worangul.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Kurti Stambha, <a href="#page410">410</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Worcester</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page232">232</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Worms.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Minster (cathedral), <a href="#page174">174</a>
+(<a href="#fig99"><ins class="correction" title="text has ‘112’"><b>99</b></ins></a>)</p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Würzburg.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+University Church, <a href="#page345">345</a></p>
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_X" id="index_X" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Xanten</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Church, <a href="#page242">242</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Xanthus.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Nereid monument, <a href="#page71">71</a></p>
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_Y" id="index_Y" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">York</span></a> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page192">192</a>,
+<a href="#page225">225</a>,
+<a href="#page226">226</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+west front, <a href="#page227">227</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+tower, <a href="#page228">228</a>;</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+minor works in, <a href="#page234">234</a></p>
+
+<p class="smallcaps">Ypres.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Cloth hall, <a href="#page247">247</a></p>
+<p class="first">
+<a class="plain" name="index_Z" id="index_Z" href="#index">
+<span class="smallcaps">Zurich</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="inset1">
+Polytechnic School, <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+<p><span class="smallcaps">Zwettl</span> Cathedral,
+<a href="#page242">242</a></p>
+
+</div> <!-- end div index -->
+
+<div class="endnote">
+<h4><a name="errors" id="errors">
+Errors and Inconsistencies</a></h4>
+
+<p>Missing or invisible punctuation has been silently supplied, as have
+missing umlauts and line-end hyphens. Errors of this type were assumed
+to be mechanical, introduced either in printing or scanning.</p>
+
+<p>Hyphenization of some words was inconsistent: zigzag and zig-zag,
+semicircular and semi-circular, staircase and stair-case. The plural of
+“portico” is regularly “porticos”, rarely “porticoes”. Both occurrences
+of “mantelpiece” are at line-break; the hyphen was omitted based on
+usage in the 8th edition.</p>
+
+<p>Alphabetization in the Index is as printed.</p>
+
+<h5>Names</h5>
+
+<div class="hanging">
+<p>The architect Robert Adam is consistently called “Adams”; the error
+was corrected in the 8th edition. The name form “Michael Angelo” is
+standard for the time.</p>
+
+<p>Columbia College changed its name to Columbia University in 1896,
+presumably after the book’s original preface (dated January 20, 1896)
+was
+written.</p>
+
+<p>The French palace is variously Luxembourg and Luxemburg.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h5>Place Names</h5>
+
+<p>Spelling of place names was unchanged except when there was an
+unambiguous error.</p>
+
+<p>The form “Herculanum” (for Herculanum) was used consistently. The
+English city is Peterboro’ (with apostrophe) in its first few
+appearances, and then changes to Peterborough for the remainder of the
+book. The Italian city was conventionally spelled “Sienna” (with
+two n’s) in English.</p>
+
+<p>Many names, especially non-European ones, differ significantly from
+their modern form. Some of the following are conjectural.</p>
+
+<table class="names" summary="place names">
+<tr>
+<td>Ipsamboul</td>
+<td><p>Abu Simbel</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Bozrah</td>
+<td><p>probably modern Bouseira, Jordan (not “Bosrah”, modern
+Basra)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="space">
+<td>Tope</td>
+<td><p>the form “stupa” is more common</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Indian desert</td>
+<td><p>Thar desert</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="space">
+<td>Baillur</td>
+<td><p>Belur</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Chillambaram</td>
+<td><p>probably Chidambaram; the author’s sources seem to have had
+trouble with “l” in South Indian names</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Conjeveram</td>
+<td><p>Kanchipuram</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Futtehpore&nbsp;Sikhri</p></td>
+<td><p>Fatehpur Sikri</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Hullabid</td>
+<td><p>Halebid</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Jaunpore</td>
+<td><p>Janpur</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Jugganat</td>
+<td><p>the name of the deity is Jagannath; the English name-form led to
+the word “juggernaut”</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Kantonnuggur</td>
+<td><p>Kantanagar</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Oudeypore</td>
+<td><p>the author seems not to have realized that this is the same place
+as Udaipur, cited with that spelling in the same paragraph</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Scinde</td>
+<td><p>Sind</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Shepree or Sheepree</td>
+<td><p>could not be identified. The author’s source is probably James
+Ferguson, who describes it as “near Gualior” (Gwalior)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tanjore</td>
+<td><p>Thanjavur</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Worangul</td>
+<td><p>Varangal</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="space">
+<td><p>Nakhon Wat</p></td>
+<td><p>better known as Angkor Wat</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
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+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #26319 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26319)
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Text-Book of the History of Architecture, by 
+Alfred D. F. Hamlin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Text-Book of the History of Architecture
+       Seventh Edition, revised
+
+Author: Alfred D. F. Hamlin
+
+Release Date: August 15, 2008 [EBook #26319]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Joseph R. Hauser and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. (This
+file includes images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive: Canadian Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[This text is intended for users whose text readers cannot use the
+"real" (unicode/utf-8) version. A few letters such as "oe" have been
+unpacked, and curly quotes and apostrophes have been replaced with the
+simpler "typewriter" form. One Greek word has been transliterated and
+shown between #marks#.
+
+Errors and inconsistencies, including details about some place names,
+are listed at the end of the e-text. Spelling variations are as in the
+original.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+            COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART
+
+                   Edited By
+            JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.
+
+                   *   *   *
+
+            HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
+                A. D. F. Hamlin
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+            COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART
+
+                   Edited By
+
+            JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.
+
+        Professor of the History of Art
+               in Rutgers College
+
+                   *   *   *
+
+              HISTORY OF PAINTING
+
+By JOHN C. VAN DYKE, the Editor of the Series. With Frontispiece
+and 110 Illustrations, Bibliographies, and Index. Crown 8vo, $1.50.
+
+            HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
+
+By ALFRED D. F. HAMLIN, A.M. Adjunct Professor of Architecture,
+Columbia College, New York. With Frontispiece and 229 Illustrations
+and Diagrams, Bibliographies, Glossary, Index of Architects, and
+a General Index. Crown 8vo, $2.00.
+
+              HISTORY OF SCULPTURE
+
+By ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D. and ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr.,
+Ph.D., Professors of Arch�ology and the History of Art in Princeton
+University. With Frontispiece and 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, $1.50.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+  [Illustration: THE PARTHENON, ATHENS, AS RESTORED BY CH. CHIPIEZ.
+  (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)]
+
+
+
+
+                  A TEXT-BOOK
+
+                     of the
+
+            HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+                       by
+
+             A. D. F. HAMLIN, A.M.
+
+    Professor of the History of Architecture
+         in the School of Architecture,
+              Columbia University
+
+
+                SEVENTH EDITION
+                    Revised
+
+
+            LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+        91 and 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
+         London, Bombay, and Calcutta
+                      1909
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright, 1895, by
+  LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+
+  _All rights reserved._
+
+  First Edition, March, 1896
+  Printed and Revised, December, 1896.
+  December, 1898 (Revised)
+  October, 1900 (Revised)
+  October, 1902 (Revised)
+  September, 1904, June, 1906 (Revised).
+  November, 1907 (Revised)
+  January, 1909
+
+  Press of J. J. Little & Ives Co.
+  425-435 East 24th Street, New York
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The aim of this work has been to sketch the various periods and styles
+of architecture with the broadest possible strokes, and to mention,
+with such brief characterization as seemed permissible or necessary,
+the most important works of each period or style. Extreme condensation
+in presenting the leading facts of architectural history has been
+necessary, and much that would rightly claim place in a larger work has
+been omitted here. The danger was felt to be rather in the direction of
+too much detail than of too little. While the book is intended primarily
+to meet the special requirements of the college student, those of the
+general reader have not been lost sight of. The majority of the
+technical terms used are defined or explained in the context, and the
+small remainder in a glossary at the end of the work. Extended criticism
+and minute description were out of the question, and discussion of
+controverted points has been in consequence as far as possible avoided.
+
+The illustrations have been carefully prepared with a view to
+elucidating the text, rather than for pictorial effect. With the
+exception of some fifteen cuts reproduced from L�bke's _Geschichte der
+Architektur_ (by kind permission of Messrs. Seemann, of Leipzig), the
+illustrations are almost all entirely new. A�large number are from
+original drawings made by myself, or under my direction, and the
+remainder are, with a few exceptions, half-tone reproductions prepared
+specially for this work from photographs in my possession.
+Acknowledgments are due to Messrs. H.�W. Buemming, H.�D. Bultman, and
+A.�E. Weidinger for valued assistance in preparing original drawings;
+and to Professor W.�R. Ware, to Professor W.�H. Thomson, M.D., and to
+the Editor of the Series for much helpful criticism and suggestion.
+
+It is hoped that the lists of monuments appended to the history of each
+period down to the present century may prove useful for reference, both
+to the student and the general reader, as a supplement to the body of
+the text.
+
+  A. D. F. HAMLIN.
+
+  COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK,
+  January 20, 1896.
+
+
+The author desires to express his further acknowledgments to the friends
+who have at various times since the first appearance of this book called
+his attention to errors in the text or illustrations, and to recent
+advances in the art or in its arch�ology deserving of mention in
+subsequent editions. As far as possible these suggestions have been
+incorporated in the various revisions and reprints which have appeared
+since the first publication.
+
+  A. D. F. H.
+
+  COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY,
+  October 28, 1907.
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+                                                            PAGE
+  Preface                                                      v
+
+  List of Illustrations                                       xi
+
+  General Bibliography                                       xix
+
+  Introduction                                               xxi
+
+    CHAPTER I.
+  Primitive and Prehistoric Architecture                       1
+
+    CHAPTER II.
+  Egyptian Architecture                                        6
+
+    CHAPTER III.
+  Egyptian Architecture, _Continued_                          16
+
+    CHAPTER IV.
+  Chald�an and Assyrian Architecture                          28
+
+    CHAPTER V.
+  Persian, Lycian, and Jewish Architecture                    35
+
+    CHAPTER VI.
+  Greek Architecture                                          43
+
+    CHAPTER VII.
+  Greek Architecture, _Continued_                             60
+
+    CHAPTER VIII.
+  Roman Architecture                                          74
+
+    CHAPTER IX.
+  Roman Architecture, _Continued_                             88
+
+    CHAPTER X.
+  Early Christian Architecture                               110
+
+    CHAPTER XI.
+  Byzantine Architecture                                     120
+
+    CHAPTER XII.
+  Sassanian and Mohammedan Architecture--Arabian,
+      Moresque, Persian, indian, and Turkish                 135
+
+    CHAPTER XIII.
+  Early Medi�val Architecture in Italy and France            155
+
+    CHAPTER XIV.
+  Early Medi�val Architecture in Germany,
+      Great Britain, and Spain                               172
+
+    CHAPTER XV.
+  Gothic Architecture                                        182
+
+    CHAPTER XVI.
+  Gothic Architecture in France                              196
+
+    CHAPTER XVII.
+  Gothic Architecture in Great Britain                       218
+
+    CHAPTER XVIII.
+  Gothic Architecture in Germany, the Netherlands,
+      and Spain                                              237
+
+    CHAPTER XIX.
+  Gothic Architecture in Italy                               254
+
+    CHAPTER XX.
+  Early Renaissance Architecture in Italy                    270
+
+    CHAPTER XXI.
+  Renaissance Architecture in Italy--The Advanced
+      Renaissance and Decline                                288
+
+    CHAPTER XXII.
+  Renaissance Architecture in France                         308
+
+    CHAPTER XXIII.
+  Renaissance Architecture in Great Britain
+      and the Netherlands                                    326
+
+    CHAPTER XXIV.
+  Renaissance Architecture in Germany, Spain,
+      and Portugal                                           338
+
+    CHAPTER XXV.
+  The Classic Revivals in Europe                             354
+
+    CHAPTER XXVI.
+  Recent Architecture in Europe                              368
+
+    CHAPTER XXVII.
+  Architecture in the United States                          383
+
+    CHAPTER XXVIII.
+  Oriental Architecture--India, China, and Japan             401
+
+  Appendix                                                   417
+
+  Glossary                                                   429
+
+  Index of Architects                                        431
+
+  Index                                                      435
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+The authorship of the original drawings is indicated by the initials
+affixed: A. = drawings by the author; B. = H.�W. Buemming; Bn. = H.�D.
+Bultman; Ch. = Ch�teau, _L'Architecture en France_; G. = drawings
+adapted from Gwilt's _Encyclop�dia of Architecture_; L. = L�bke's
+_Geschichte der Architektur_; W. = A.�E. Weidinger. All other
+illustrations are from photographs.
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+  FRONTISPIECE. The Parthenon Restored
+      (from model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)
+    1 Section of Great Pyramid (A.)                            8
+    2 Section of King's Chamber (A.)                           9
+    3 Plan of Sphinx Temple (A.)                               9
+    4 Ruins of Sphinx Temple (A.)                             10
+    5 Tomb at Abydos (A.)                                     11
+    6 Tomb at Beni-Hassan (A.)                                11
+    7 Section and Half-plan of same (A.)                      12
+    8 Plan of the Ramesseum (A.)                              14
+    9 Temple of Edfou. Plan (B.)                              17
+   10 Temple of Edfou. Section (B.)                           17
+   11 Temple of Karnak. Plan (L.)                             18
+   12 Central Portion of Hypostyle Hall at Karnak
+          (from model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)       20
+   13 Great Temple of Ipsamboul                               21
+   14 Edfou. Front of Hypostyle Hall                          23
+   15 Osirid Pier (Medinet Abou) (A.)                         24
+   16 Types of Column (A.)                                    25
+   17 Egyptian Floral Ornament-Forms (A.)                     26
+   18 Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad. Plan (L.)                30
+   19 Gate, Khorsabad (A.)                                    32
+   20 Assyrian Ornament (A.)                                  34
+   21 Column from Persepolis (B.)                             37
+   22 Lion Gate at Mycen� (A.)                                44
+   23 Polygonal Masonry, Mycen� (A.)                          45
+   24 Tholos of Atreus; Plan and Section (A.)                 46
+   25 Tholos of Atreus, Doorway (after Clarke) (A.)           46
+   26 Greek Doric Order (A.)                                  48
+   27 Doric Order of the Parthenon.
+          (From cast in Metropolitan Museum, New York)        49
+   28 Greek Ionic Order, Miletus (A.)                         51
+   29 Side View of Ionic Capital (B.)                         52
+   30 Greek Corinthian Order (A.)                             53
+   31 Types of Greek Temple Plans (A.)                        54
+   32 Carved Anthemion Ornament, Athens                       57
+   33 Temple of Zeus, Agrigentum; Plan (A.)                   61
+   34 Ruins of the Parthenon                                  63
+   35 Plan of the Erechtheum (A.)                             64
+   36 West End of the Erechtheum (A.)                         64
+   37 Propyl�a at Athens. Plan (G.)                           65
+   38 Choragic Monument of Lysicrates.
+          (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)       67
+   39 Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens. Plan (A.)              68
+   40 Plan of Greek Theatre (A.)                              70
+   41 Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (A.)                         72
+   42 Roman Doric Order from Theatre of Marcellus.
+          (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)            77
+   43 Roman Ionic Order (A.)                                  78
+   44 Roman Corinthian Order.
+          (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)       79
+   45 Roman Arcade with Engaged Columns (A.)                  80
+   46 Barrel Vault (A.)                                       81
+   47 Groined Vault (A.)                                      81
+   48 Roman Wall Masonry (B.)                                 83
+   49 Roman Carved Ornament. (Lateran Museum)                 85
+   50 Roman Ceiling Panels (A.)                               86
+   51 Temple of Fortuna Virilis. Plan                         89
+   52 Circular Temple, Tivoli (A.)                            90
+   53 Temple of Venus and Rome. Plan (A.)                     93
+   54 Plan of the Pantheon (B.)                               94
+   55 Interior of the Pantheon                                95
+   56 Exterior of the Pantheon.
+          (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)            96
+   57 Forum and Basilica of Trajan (A.)                       97
+   58 Basilica of Constantine. Plan (G.)                      98
+   59 Ruins of Basilica of Constantine                        99
+   60 Central Block, Therm� of Caracalla. Plan (G.)          100
+   61 Roman Theatre, Herculanum                              101
+   62 Colosseum at Rome. Half Plan (A.)                      102
+   63 Arch of Constantine.
+          (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York)           104
+   64 Palace of Diocletian, Spalato. Plan (G.)               106
+   65 Plan of House of Pansa, Pompeii (A.)                   107
+   66 Plan of Santa Costanza, Rome (A.)                      111
+   67 Plan of the Basilica of
+          St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls, Rome (A.)               113
+   68 St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls. Interior                    114
+   69 Church at Kalb Louzeh (A.)                             116
+   70 Cathedral at Bozrah. Plan (A.)                         117
+   71 Diagram of Pendentives (A.)                            123
+   72 Spandril, Hagia Sophia                                 125
+   73 Capital with Impost Block, S. Vitale                   126
+   74 Plan of St. Sergius, Constantinople (A.)               127
+   75 Plan of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (A.)              128
+   76 Section of Hagia Sophia (A.)                           128
+   77 Interior of Hagia Sophia (full page)                   129
+   78 Plan of St. Mark's, Venice (A.)                        132
+   79 Interior of St. Mark's                                 133
+   80 Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo. Sanctuary              137
+   81 Mosque of Ka�d Bey, Cairo                              139
+   82 Moorish Detail, Alhambra                               141
+   83 Interior of Great Mosque, Cordova                      142
+   84 Plan of the Alhambra (A.)                              144
+   85 Tomb of Mahm�d, Bijapur. Section (A.)                  147
+   86 The Taj Mahal, Agra                                    149
+   87 Mosque of Mehmet II., Constantinople. Plan (L.)        151
+   88 Exterior of Ahmediyeh Mosque, Constantinople           152
+   89 Interior of Suleimaniyeh Mosque, Constantinople        153
+   90 Interior of San Ambrogio, Milan                        157
+   91 West Front and Campanile, Cathedral of Piacenza        158
+   92 Baptistery, Cathedral, and Leaning Tower, Pisa         160
+   93 Interior of Pisa Cathedral                             161
+   94 Plan of St. Front, Perigueux (G.)                      164
+   95 Interior of St. Front (L.)                             165
+   96 Plan of Notre Dame du Port, Clermont (Ch.)             166
+   97 Section of same (Ch.)                                  166
+   98 A Six-part Ribbed Vault (A.)                           167
+   99 Plan of Minster at Worms (G.)                          173
+  100 One Bay, Cathedral of Spires (L.)                      174
+  101 East End, Church of the Apostles, Cologne              175
+  102 Plan of Durham Cathedral (Bn.)                         177
+  103 One Bay, Transept of Winchester Cathedral (G.)         178
+  104 Front of Iffley Church (A.)                            179
+  105 Constructive System of Gothic Church (A.)              183
+  106 Plan of Sainte Chapelle, Paris (Bn.)                   184
+  107 Early Gothic Flying Buttress (Bn.)                     185
+  108 Ribbed Vault, English Type (Bn. after Babcock)         186
+  109 Penetrations and Intersections of Vaults (Bn.)         187
+  110 Plate Tracery, Charlton-on-Oxmore                      188
+  111 Bar Tracery, St. Michael's, Warfield (W.)              189
+  112 Rose Window from St. Ouen, Rouen (G.)                  190
+  113 Flamboyant Detail, Strasburg                           191
+  114 Early Gothic Carving (A.)                              192
+  115 Carving, Decorated Period, from Southwell Minster      193
+  116 Plan of Notre Dame, Paris (L.)                         198
+  117 Interior of Notre Dame                                 199
+  118 Interior of Le Mans Cathedral                          200
+  119 Vaulting with Zigzag Ridge Joints (A.)                 201
+  120 One Bay, Abbey of St. Denis (G.)                       203
+  121 The Sainte Chapelle, Paris. Exterior                   204
+  122 Amiens Cathedral; Plan (G.)                            205
+  123 Alby Cathedral. Plan (A. after L�bke)                  206
+  124 West Front of Notre Dame, Paris                        207
+  125 West Front of St. Maclou, Rouen                        208
+  126 French Gothic Capitals (A.)                            210
+  127 House of Jacques Coeur, Bourges (L.)                   215
+  128 Plan of Salisbury Cathedral (Bn.)                      219
+  129 Ribbed Vaulting, Choir of Exeter Cathedral             221
+  130 Lierne Vaulting, Tewkesbury Abbey                      222
+  131 Vault of Chapter House, Wells                          223
+  132 Cloisters of Salisbury Cathedral                       225
+  133 Perpendicular Tracery, St. George's, Windsor           226
+  134 West Front, Lichfield Cathedral                        228
+  135 One Bay of Choir, Lichfield Cathedral (A.)             229
+  136 Fan Vaulting, Henry VII.'s Chapel                      231
+  137 Eastern Part, Westminster Abbey. Plan (L.)             232
+  138 Roof of Nave, St. Mary's, Westonzoyland (W.)           233
+  139 One Bay, Cathedral of St. George, Limburg (L.)         239
+  140 Section of St. Elizabeth, Marburg (Bn.)                240
+  141 Cologne Cathedral, Plan (G.)                           242
+  142 Church of Our Lady, Treves (L.)                        243
+  143 Plan of Ulm Cathedral (L.)                             244
+  144 Town Hall, Louvain                                     247
+  145 Fa�ade of Burgos Cathedral                             249
+  146 Detail from S. Gregorio, Valladolid                    251
+  147 Duomo at Florence, Plan (G.)                           256
+  148 Duomo at Florence, Nave                                257
+  149 One Bay, Cathedral of S. Martino, Lucca (L.)           258
+  150 Interior of Sienna Cathedral                           259
+  151 Fa�ade of Sienna Cathedral                             261
+  152 Exterior of the Certosa, Pavia                         262
+  153 Plan of the Certosa, Pavia                             263
+  154 Upper Part of Campanile, Florence                      265
+  155 Upper Part of Palazzo Vecchio, Florence                266
+  156 Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence                             267
+  157 West Front of Doge's Palace, Venice                    268
+  158 Capital, Palazzo Zorzi, Venice                         275
+  159 Section of Dome, Duomo of Florence (Bn.)               276
+  160 Exterior of Dome, Duomo of Florence                    277
+  161 Interior of S. Spirito, Florence                       278
+  162 Court of Riccardi Palace, Florence                     279
+  163 Fa�ade of Strozzi Palace, Florence                     280
+  164 Tomb of Pietro di Noceto, Lucca                        282
+  165 Vendramini Palace, Venice                              285
+  166 Fa�ade of Giraud Palace, Rome (L.)                     290
+  167 Plan of Farnese Palace, Rome (L.)                      292
+  168 Court of Farnese Palace, Rome                          293
+  169 Bramante's Plan for St. Peter's, Rome (L.)             294
+  170 Plan of St. Peter's, Rome, as now standing
+          (Bn. after G.)                                     295
+  171 Interior of St. Peter's (full page)                    297
+  172 Library of St. Mark, Venice                            301
+  173 Interior of San Severo, Naples                         302
+  174 Church of Santa Maria della Salute, Naples             303
+  175 Court Fa�ade, East Wing of Blois                       311
+  176 Staircase Tower, Blois                                 313
+  177 Plan of Ch�teau of Chambord (A.)                       314
+  178 Upper Part of Ch�teau of Chambord                      314
+  179 Detail of Court of Louvre, southwest portion           315
+  180 The Luxemburg Palace, Paris                            318
+  181 Colonnade of the Louvre                                321
+  182 Dome of the Invalides, Paris                           322
+  183 Fa�ade of St. Sulpice, Paris                           323
+  184 Burghley House                                         327
+  185 Whitehall Palace. The Banqueting Hall                  329
+  186 Plan of St. Paul's Cathedral, London (G.)              330
+  187 Exterior of St. Paul's Cathedral                       331
+  188 Plan of Blenheim (G.)                                  332
+  189 St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, London                     333
+  190 Renaissance Houses, Brussels                           335
+  191 The Castle, H�melschenburg                             341
+  192 The Friedrichsbau, Heidelberg Castle                   344
+  193 Pavilion of Zwinger Palace, Dresden                    345
+  194 Marienkirche, Dresden                                  346
+  195 Portal of University, Salamanca                        349
+  196 Court (Patio) of Casa de Zaporta                       350
+  197 Palace of Charles V., Granada                          351
+  198 Fa�ade of British Museum, London                       357
+  199 St. George's Hall, Liverpool                           358
+  200 The Old Museum, Berlin                                 359
+  201 The Propyl�a, Munich                                   360
+  202 Plan of the Panth�on, Paris (G.)                       361
+  203 Exterior of the Panth�on                               362
+  204 Arch of Triumph of l'�toile, Paris                     363
+  205 The Madeleine, Paris                                   364
+  206 Door of �cole des Beaux-Arts, Paris                    365
+  207 St. Isaac's Cathedral, St. Petersburg                  366
+  208 Plan of Louvre and Tuileries (A.)                      371
+  209 Pavilion Richelieu, Louvre                             372
+  210 Grand Staircase, Paris Opera House                     373
+  211 Fountain of Longchamps, Marseilles                     374
+  212 Galli�ra Museum, Paris                                 375
+  213 Royal Theatre, Dresden                                 376
+  214 Maria-Theresienhof, Vienna                             377
+  215 Houses of Parliament, London                           379
+  216 Assize Courts, Manchester                              380
+  217 Natural History Museum, South Kensington               381
+  218 Christ Church, Philadelphia                            386
+  219 Craigie House, Cambridge (Mass.)                       387
+  220 National Capitol, Washington                           389
+  221 Custom House, New York                                 390
+  222 Trinity Church, Boston                                 394
+  223 Public Library, Woburn (Mass.)                         395
+  224 Times Building, New York                               396
+  225 Country House (Mass.)                                  398
+  226 Porch of Temple of Vimalah Sah, Mount Abu.             406
+  227 Tower of Victory, Chittore                             407
+  228 Double Temple at Hullab�d: Detail                      410
+  229 Shrine of Soubramanya, Tanjore                         412
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+
+(This includes the leading architectural works treating of more than one
+period or style. The reader should consult also the special references
+at the head of each chapter. Valuable material is also contained in the
+leading architectural periodicals and in monographs too numerous to
+mention.)
+
+
+DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS.
+
+Agincourt, _History of Art by its Monuments_; London.
+
+Architectural Publication Society, _Dictionary of Architecture_; London.
+
+Bosc, _Dictionnaire raisonn� d'architecture_; Paris.
+
+Durm and others, _Handbuch der Architektur_; Stuttgart. (This is an
+encyclopedic compendium of architectural knowledge in many volumes; the
+series not yet complete. It is referred to as the _Hdbuch. d. Arch._)
+
+Gwilt, _Encyclopedia of Architecture_; London.
+
+Longfellow and Frothingham, _Cyclopedia of Architecture in Italy and the
+Levant_; New York.
+
+Planat, _Encyclop�die d'architecture_; Paris.
+
+Sturgis, _Dictionary of Architecture and Building_; New York.
+
+
+GENERAL HANDBOOKS AND HISTORIES.
+
+B�hlmann, _Die Architektur des klassischen Alterthums und der
+Renaissance_; Stuttgart. (Also in English, published in New York.)
+
+Choisy, _Histoire de l'architecture_; Paris.
+
+Durand, _Recueil et parall�le d'�difices de tous genres_; Paris.
+
+Fergusson, _History of Architecture in All Countries_; London.
+
+Fletcher and Fletcher, _A History of Architecture_; London.
+
+Gailhabaud, _L'Architecture du Vme. au XVIIIme. si�cle_;
+Paris.--_Monuments anciens et modernes_; Paris.
+
+Kugler, _Geschichte der Baukunst_; Stuttgart.
+
+Longfellow, _The Column and the Arch_; New York.
+
+L�bke, _Geschichte der Architektur_; Leipzig.--_History of Art_, tr. and
+rev. by R. Sturgis; New York.
+
+Perry, _Chronology of Medi�val and Renaissance Architecture_; London.
+
+Reynaud, _Trait� d'architecture_; Paris.
+
+Rosengarten, _Handbook of Architectural Styles_; London and New York.
+
+Simpson, _A History of Architectural Development_; London.
+
+Spiers, _Architecture East and West_; London.
+
+Stratham, _Architecture for General Readers_; London.
+
+Sturgis, _European Architecture_; New York.
+
+_Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects_; London.
+
+Viollet-le-Duc, _Discourses on Architecture_; Boston.
+
+
+THEORY, THE ORDERS, ETC.
+
+Chambers, _A Treatise on Civil Architecture_; London.
+
+Daviler, _Cours d'architecture de Vignole_; Paris.
+
+Esqui�, _Trait� �l�mentaire d'architecture_; Paris.
+
+Guadet, _Th�orie de l'architecture_; Paris.
+
+Robinson, _Principles of Architectural Composition_; New York.
+
+Ruskin, _The Seven Lamps of Architecture_; London.
+
+Sturgis, _How to Judge Architecture_; New York.
+
+Tuckerman, _Vignola, the Five Orders of Architecture_; New York.
+
+Van Brunt, _Greek Lines and Other Essays_; Boston.
+
+Van Pelt, _A Discussion of Composition_.
+
+Ware, _The American Vignola_; Scranton.
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+A history of architecture is a record of man's efforts to build
+beautifully. The erection of structures devoid of beauty is mere
+building, a�trade and not an art. Edifices in which strength and
+stability alone are sought, and in designing which only utilitarian
+considerations have been followed, are properly works of engineering.
+Only when the idea of beauty is added to that of use does a structure
+take its place among works of architecture. We may, then, define
+architecture as the art which seeks to harmonize in a building the
+requirements of utility and of beauty. It is the most useful of the fine
+arts and the noblest of the useful arts. It touches the life of man at
+every point. It is concerned not only in sheltering his person and
+ministering to his comfort, but also in providing him with places for
+worship, amusement, and business; with tombs, memorials, embellishments
+for his cities, and other structures for the varied needs of a complex
+civilization. It engages the services of a larger portion of the
+community and involves greater outlays of money than any other
+occupation except agriculture. Everyone at some point comes in contact
+with the work of the architect, and from this universal contact
+architecture derives its significance as an index of the civilization of
+an age, a�race, or a people.
+
+It is the function of the historian of architecture to trace the origin,
+growth, and decline of the architectural styles which have prevailed in
+different lands and ages, and to show how they have reflected the great
+movements of civilization. The migrations, the conquests, the
+commercial, social, and religious changes among different peoples have
+all manifested themselves in the changes of their architecture, and it
+is the historian's function to show this. It is also his function to
+explain the principles of the styles, their characteristic forms and
+decoration, and to describe the great masterpieces of each style and
+period.
+
+
++STYLE+ is a quality; the "historic styles" are phases of development.
+_Style_ is character expressive of definite conceptions, as of grandeur,
+gaiety, or solemnity. An _historic style_ is the particular phase, the
+characteristic manner of design, which prevails at a given time and
+place. It is not the result of mere accident or caprice, but of
+intellectual, moral, social, religious, and even political conditions.
+Gothic architecture could never have been invented by the Greeks, nor
+could the Egyptian styles have grown up in Italy. Each style is based
+upon some fundamental principle springing from its surrounding
+civilization, which undergoes successive developments until it either
+reaches perfection or its possibilities are exhausted, after which a
+period of decline usually sets in. This is followed either by a reaction
+and the introduction of some radically new principle leading to the
+evolution of a new style, or by the final decay and extinction of the
+civilization and its replacement by some younger and more virile
+element. Thus the history of architecture appears as a connected chain
+of causes and effects succeeding each other without break, each style
+growing out of that which preceded it, or springing out of the
+fecundating contact of a higher with a lower civilization. To study
+architectural styles is therefore to study a branch of the history of
+civilization.
+
+Technically, architectural styles are identified by the means they
+employ to cover enclosed spaces, by the characteristic forms of the
+supports and other members (piers, columns, arches, mouldings,
+traceries, etc.), and by their decoration. The +plan+ should receive
+special attention, since it shows the arrangement of the points of
+support, and hence the nature of the structural design. A�comparison,
+for example, of the plans of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (Fig. 11,�h)
+and of the Basilica of Constantine (Fig. 58) shows at once a radical
+difference in constructive principle between the two edifices, and hence
+a difference of style.
+
+
++STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES.+ All architecture is based on one or more of
+three fundamental structural principles; that of the _lintel_, of the
+_arch_ or _vault_, and of the _truss_. The principle of the +lintel+ is
+that of resistance to transverse strains, and appears in all
+construction in which a cross-piece or beam rests on two or more
+vertical supports. The +arch+ or +vault+ makes use of several pieces to
+span an opening between two supports. These pieces are in compression
+and exert lateral pressures or _thrusts_ which are transmitted to the
+supports or abutments. The thrust must be resisted either by the
+massiveness of the abutments or by the opposition to it of
+counter-thrusts from other arches or vaults. Roman builders used the
+first, Gothic builders the second of these means of resistance. The
++truss+ is a framework so composed of several pieces of wood or metal
+that each shall best resist the particular strain, whether of tension or
+compression, to which it is subjected, the whole forming a compound beam
+or arch. It is especially applicable to very wide spans, and is the most
+characteristic feature of modern construction. How the adoption of one
+or another of these principles affected the forms and even the
+decoration of the various styles, will be shown in the succeeding
+chapters.
+
+
++HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT.+ Geographically and chronologically, architecture
+appears to have originated in the Nile valley. A�second centre of
+development is found in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, not
+uninfluenced by the older Egyptian art. Through various channels the
+Greeks inherited from both Egyptian and Assyrian art, the two influences
+being discernible even through the strongly original aspect of Greek
+architecture. The Romans in turn, adopting the external details of Greek
+architecture, transformed its substance by substituting the Etruscan
+arch for the Greek construction of columns and lintels. They developed a
+complete and original system of construction and decoration and spread
+it over the civilized world, which has never wholly outgrown or
+abandoned�it.
+
+With the fall of Rome and the rise of Constantinople these forms
+underwent in the East another transformation, called the Byzantine, in
+the development of Christian domical church architecture. In the North
+and West, meanwhile, under the growing institutions of the papacy and of
+the monastic orders and the emergence of a feudal civilization out of
+the chaos of the Dark Ages, the constant preoccupation of architecture
+was to evolve from the basilica type of church a vaulted structure, and
+to adorn it throughout with an appropriate dress of constructive and
+symbolic ornament. Gothic architecture was the outcome of this
+preoccupation, and it prevailed throughout northern and western Europe
+until nearly or quite the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+During this fifteenth century the Renaissance style matured in Italy,
+where it speedily triumphed over Gothic fashions and produced a
+marvellous series of civic monuments, palaces, and churches, adorned
+with forms borrowed or imitated from classic Roman art. This influence
+spread through Europe in the sixteenth century, and ran a course of two
+centuries, after which a period of servile classicism was followed by a
+rapid decline in taste. To this succeeded the eclecticism and confusion
+of the nineteenth century, to which the rapid growth of new requirements
+and development of new resources have largely contributed.
+
+In Eastern lands three great schools of architecture have grown up
+contemporaneously with the above phases of Western art; one under the
+influence of Mohammedan civilization, another in the Brahman and
+Buddhist architecture of India, and the third in China and Japan. The
+first of these is the richest and most important. Primarily inspired
+from Byzantine art, always stronger on the decorative than on the
+constructive side, it has given to the world the mosques and palaces of
+Northern Africa, Moorish Spain, Persia, Turkey, and India. The other two
+schools seem to be wholly unrelated to the first, and have no affinity
+with the architecture of Western lands.
+
+Of Mexican, Central American, and South American architecture so little
+is known, and that little is so remote in history and spirit from the
+styles above enumerated, that it belongs rather to arch�ology than to
+architectural history, and will not be considered in this work.
+
+
+NOTE.--The reader's attention is called to the Appendix to this volume,
+in which are gathered some of the results of recent investigations and
+of the architectural progress of the last few years which could not
+readily be introduced into the text of this edition. The General
+Bibliography and the lists of books recommended have been revised and
+brought up to date.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Desor, _Les constructions lacustres du lac de
+  Neufchatel_. Fergusson, _Rude Stone Monuments_. R. C. Hoare,
+  _Ancients Wiltshire_. Lyell, _The Antiquity of Man_. Lubbock,
+  _Prehistoric Times_. Nadaillac, _Prehistoric America_. Rougemont,
+  _L'age du Bronze_. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_.
+
+
++EARLY BEGINNINGS.+ It is impossible to trace the early stages of the
+process by which true architecture grew out of the first rude attempts
+of man at building. The oldest existing monuments of architecture--those
+of Chald�a and Egypt--belong to an advanced civilization. The rude and
+elementary structures built by savage and barbarous peoples, like the
+Hottentots or the tribes of Central Africa, are not in themselves works
+of architecture, nor is any instance known of the evolution of a
+civilized art from such beginnings. So far as the monuments testify, no
+savage people ever raised itself to civilization, and no primitive
+method of building was ever developed into genuine architecture, except
+by contact with some existing civilization of which it appropriated the
+spirit, the processes, and the forms. How the earliest architecture came
+into existence is as yet an unsolved problem.
+
+
++PRIMITIVE ARCHITECTURE+ is therefore a subject for the arch�ologist
+rather than the historian of art, and needs here only the briefest
+mention. If we may judge of the condition of the primitive races of
+antiquity by that of the savage and barbarous peoples of our own time,
+they required only the simplest kinds of buildings, though the purposes
+which they served were the same as those of later times in civilized
+communities. A�hut or house for shelter, a�shrine of some sort for
+worship, a�stockade for defence, a�cairn or mound over the grave of the
+chief or hero, were provided out of the simplest materials, and these
+often of a perishable nature. Poles supplied the framework; wattles,
+skins, or mud the walls; thatching or stamped earth the roof. Only the
+simplest tools were needed for such elementary construction. There was
+ingenuity and patient labor in work of this kind; but there was no
+planning, no fitting together into a complex organism of varied
+materials shaped with art and handled with science. Above all, there was
+no progression toward higher ideals of fitness and beauty. Rudimentary
+art displayed itself mainly in objects of worship, or in carvings on
+canoes and weapons, executed as talismans to ward off misfortune or to
+charm the unseen powers; but even this art was sterile and never grew of
+itself into civilized and progressive art.
+
+Yet there must have been at some point in the remote past an exception
+to this rule. Somewhere and somehow the people of Egypt must have
+developed from crude beginnings the architectural knowledge and resource
+which meet us in the oldest monuments, though every vestige of that
+early age has apparently perished. But although nothing has come down to
+us of the actual work of the builders who wrought in the primitive ages
+of mankind, there exist throughout Europe and Asia almost countless
+monuments of a primitive character belonging to relatively recent times,
+but executed before the advent of historic civilization to the regions
+where they are found. A�general resemblance among them suggests a common
+heritage of traditions from the hoariest antiquity, and throws light on
+the probable character of the transition from barbaric to civilized
+architecture.
+
+
++PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS.+ These monuments vary widely as well as in
+excellence; some of them belong to Roman or even Christian times; others
+to a much remoter period. They are divided into two principal classes,
+the megalithic structures and lake dwellings. The latter class may be
+dismissed with the briefest mention. It comprises a considerable number
+of very primitive houses or huts built on wooden piles in the lakes of
+Switzerland and several other countries in both hemispheres, and forming
+in some cases villages of no mean size. Such villages, built over the
+water for protection from attack, are mentioned by the writers of
+antiquity and portrayed on Assyrian reliefs. The objects found in them
+reveal an incipient but almost stationary civilization, extending back
+from three thousand to five thousand years or more, and lasting through
+the ages of stone and bronze down into historic times.
+
+The +megalithic+ remains of Europe and Asia are far more important. They
+are very widely distributed, and consist in most cases of great blocks
+of stone arranged in rows, circles, or avenues, sometimes with huge
+lintels resting upon them. Upright stones without lintels are called
+_menhirs_; standing in pairs with lintels they are known as _dolmens_;
+the circles are called _cromlechs_. Some of the stones are of gigantic
+size, some roughly hewn into shape; others left as when quarried. Their
+age and purpose have been much discussed without reaching positive
+results. It is probable that, like the lake dwellings, they cover a long
+range of time, reaching from the dawn of recorded history some thousands
+of years back into the unknown past, and that they were erected by races
+which have disappeared before the migrations to which Europe owes her
+present populations. That most of them were in some way connected with
+the worship of these prehistoric peoples is generally admitted; but
+whether as temples, tombs, or memorials of historical or mythical events
+cannot, in all cases, be positively asserted. They were not dwellings or
+palaces, and very few were even enclosed buildings. They are imposing by
+the size and number of their immense stones, but show no sign of
+advanced art, or of conscious striving after beauty of design. The small
+number of "carved stones," bearing singular ornamental patterns,
+symbolic or mystical rather than decorative in intention, really tends
+to prove this statement rather than to controvert it. It is not
+impossible that the dolmens were generally intended to be covered by
+mounds of earth. This would group them with the tumuli referred to
+below, and point to a sepulchral purpose in their erection. Some
+antiquaries, Fergusson among them, contend that many of the European
+circles and avenues were intended as battle-monuments or trophies.
+
+There are also +walls+ of great antiquity in various parts of Europe,
+intended for fortification; the most important of these in Greece and
+Italy will be referred to in later chapters. They belong to a more
+advanced art, some of them even deserving to be classed among works of
+archaic architecture.
+
+The +tumuli+, or burial mounds, which form so large a part of the
+prehistoric remains of both continents, are interesting to the architect
+only as revealing the prototypes of the pyramids of Egypt and the
+subterranean tombs of Mycen� and other early Greek centres. The piling
+of huge cairns or commemorative heaps of stone is known from the
+Scriptures and other ancient writings to have been a custom of the
+greatest antiquity. The pyramids and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus are
+the most imposing and elaborate outgrowths of this practice, of which
+the prehistoric tumuli are the simpler manifestations.
+
+These crude and elementary products of undeveloped civilizations have no
+place, however, in any list of genuine architectural works. They belong
+rather to the domain of arch�ology and ethnology, and have received this
+brief mention only as revealing the beginnings of the builder's art, and
+the wide gap that separates them from that genuine architecture which
+forms the subject of the following chapters.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: The most celebrated in England are at Avebury, an
+  avenue, large and small circles, barrows, and the great tumuli of
+  Bartlow and Silbury "Hills;" at Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain,
+  great megalithic circles and many barrows; "Sarsen stones" at
+  Ashdown; tumuli, dolmens, chambers, and circles in Derbyshire. In
+  Ireland, many cairns and circles. In Scotland, circles and barrows
+  in the Orkney Islands. In France, Carnac and Lokmariaker in
+  Brittany are especially rich in dolmens, circles, and avenues. In
+  Scandinavia, Germany, and Italy, in India and in Africa, are many
+  similar remains.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Champollion, _Monuments de l'Egypte et de la
+  Nubie_. Choisy, _L'art de b�tir chez les Egyptiens_.
+  Flinders-Petrie, _History of Egypt; Ten Years Digging in Egypt,
+  1881-91_. Jomard, _Description de l'Egypte, Antiquit�s_. Lepsius,
+  _Denkm�ler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien_. Mariette, _Monuments of
+  Upper Egypt_. Maspero, _Egyptian Arch�ology_. Perrot and Chipiez,
+  _History of Art in Ancient Egypt_. Prisse d'Avennes, _Histoire de
+  l'art �gyptien_. Reber, _History of Ancient Art_. Rossellini,
+  _Monumenti del Egitto_. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of Ancient
+  Egyptians_.
+
+
++LAND AND PEOPLE.+ As long ago as 5000 B.C., the Egyptians were a people
+already highly civilized, and skilled in the arts of peace and war. The
+narrow valley of the Nile, fertilized by the periodic overflow of the
+river, was flanked by rocky heights, nearly vertical in many places,
+which afforded abundance of excellent building stone, while they both
+isolated the Egyptians and protected them from foreign aggression. At
+the Delta, however, the valley widened out, with the falling away of
+these heights, into broad lowlands, from which there was access to the
+outer world.
+
+The art history of Egypt may be divided into five periods as follows:
+
+I. THE ANCIENT EMPIRE (cir. 4500?-3000 B.C.), comprising the first ten
+dynasties, with Memphis as the capital.
+
+II. THE FIRST THEBAN MONARCHY or MIDDLE EMPIRE (3000-2100 B.C.)
+comprising the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth dynasties reigning at
+Thebes.
+
+The Hyksos invasion, or incursion of the Shepherd Kings, interrupted the
+current of Egyptian art history for a period of unknown length, probably
+not less than four or five centuries.
+
+III. THE SECOND THEBAN MONARCHY (1700?-1000 B.C.), comprising the
+eighteenth to twentieth dynasties inclusive, was the great period of
+Egyptian history; the age of conquests and of vast edifices.
+
+IV. THE DECADENCE or SAITIC PERIOD (1000-324 B.C.), comprising the
+dynasties twenty-one to thirty (Saitic, Bubastid, Ethiopic, etc.),
+reigning at Sais, Tanis, and Bubastis, and the Persian conquest;
+a�period almost barren of important monuments.
+
+(Periods III. and IV. constitute together the period of the NEW EMPIRE,
+if we omit the Persian dominion.)
+
+V. THE REVIVAL (from 324 B.C. to cir. 330 A.D.) comprises the Ptolemaic
+or Macedonian and Roman dominations.
+
+
++THE ANCIENT EMPIRE: THE PYRAMIDS.+ The great works of this period are
+almost exclusively sepulchral, and include the most ancient buildings of
+which we have any remains. While there is little of strictly
+architectural art, the overwhelming size and majesty of the Pyramids,
+and the audacity and skill shown in their construction, entitle them to
+the first place in any sketch of this period. They number over a
+hundred, scattered in six groups, from Abu-Roash in the north to Meidoum
+in the south, and are of various shapes and sizes. They are all royal
+tombs and belong to the first twelve dynasties; each contains a
+sepulchral chamber, and each at one time possessed a small chapel
+adjacent to it, but this has, in almost every case, perished.
+
+Three pyramids surpass all the rest by their prodigious size; these are
+at Ghizeh and belong to the fourth dynasty. They are known by the names
+of their builders; the oldest and greatest being that of +Cheops+, or
+Khufu;[1] the second, that of +Chephren+, or Khafra; and the third, that
+of +Mycerinus+, or Menkhara. Other smaller ones stand at the feet of
+these giants.
+
+    [Footnote 1: The Egyptian names known to antiquity are given
+    here first in the more familiar classic form, and then in the
+    Egyptian form.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--SECTION OF GREAT PYRAMID.
+  a, _King's Chamber_; b, _Queen's Chamber_; c, _Chamber
+  cut in Rock_.]
+
+The base of the "Great Pyramid" measures 764 feet on a side; its height
+is 482 feet, and its volume must have originally been nearly three and
+one-half million cubic yards (Fig.�1). It is constructed of limestone
+upon a plateau of rock levelled to receive it, and was finished
+externally, like its two neighbors, with a coating of polished stone,
+supposed by some to have been disposed in bands of different colored
+granites, but of which it was long ago despoiled. It contained three
+principal chambers and an elaborate system of inclined passages, all
+executed in finely cut granite and limestone. The sarcophagus was in the
+uppermost chamber, above which the superincumbent weight was relieved by
+open spaces and a species of rudimentary arch of [A]-shape (Fig.�2). The
+other two pyramids differ from that of Cheops in the details of their
+arrangement and in size, not in the principle of their construction.
+Chephren is 454 feet high, with a base 717 feet square. Mycerinus, which
+still retains its casing of pink granite, is but 218 feet in height,
+with a base 253 feet on a side.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--SECTION OF KING'S CHAMBER.]
+
+Among the other pyramids there is considerable variety both of type and
+material. At Sakkarah is one 190 feet high, constructed in six unequal
+steps on a slightly oblong base measuring nearly 400 � 357 feet. It was
+attributed by Mariette to Ouenephes, of the first dynasty, though now
+more generally ascribed to Senefrou of the third. At Abu-Seir and
+Meidoum are other stepped pyramids; at Dashour is one having a broken
+slope, the lower part steeper than the upper. Several at Mero� with
+unusually steep slopes belong to the Ethiopian dynasties of the
+Decadence. A�number of pyramids are built of brick.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--PLAN OF SPHINX TEMPLE.]
+
++TOMBS.+ The Ancient Empire has also left us a great number of tombs of
+the type known as _Mastabas_. These are oblong rectangular structures of
+stone or brick with slightly inclined sides and flat ceilings. They
+uniformly face the east, and are internally divided into three parts;
+the chamber or chapel, the _serdab_, and the well. In the first of
+these, next the entrance, were placed the offerings made to the _Ka_ or
+"double," for whom also scenes of festivity or worship were carved and
+painted on its walls to minister to his happiness in his incorporeal
+life. The serdabs, or secret inner chambers, of which there were several
+in each mastaba, contained statues of the defunct, by which the
+existence and identity of the Ka were preserved. Finally came the well,
+leading to the mummy chamber, deep underground, which contained the
+sarcophagus. The sarcophagi, both of this and later ages, are good
+examples of the minor architecture of Egypt; many of them are panelled
+in imitation of wooden construction and richly decorated with color,
+symbols, and hieroglyphs.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--RUINS OF SPHINX TEMPLE.]
+
++OTHER MONUMENTS.+ Two other monuments of the Ancient Empire also claim
+attention: the +Sphinx+ and the adjacent so-called "+Sphinx temple+" at
+Ghizeh. The first of these, a�huge sculpture carved from the rock,
+represents Harmachis in the form of a human-headed lion. It is
+ordinarily partly buried in the sand; is 70 feet long by 66 feet high,
+and forms one of the most striking monuments of Egyptian art. Close to
+it lie the nearly buried ruins of the temple once supposed to be that of
+the Sphinx, but now proved by Petrie to have been erected in connection
+with the second pyramid. The plan and present aspect of this venerable
+edifice are shown in Figs. 3 and�4. The hall was roofed with stone
+lintels carried on sixteen square monolithic piers of alabaster. The
+whole was buried in a rectangular mass of masonry and revetted
+internally with alabaster, but was wholly destitute internally as well
+as externally of decoration or even of mouldings. With the exception of
+scanty remains of a few of the pyramid-temples or chapels, and the
+temple discovered by Petrie in Meidoum, it is the only survival from the
+temple architecture of that early age.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--TOMB AT ABYDOS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.]
+
++THE MIDDLE EMPIRE: TOMBS.+ The monuments of this period, as of the
+preceding, are almost wholly sepulchral. We now encounter two types of
+tombs. One, structural and pyramidal, is represented by many examples at
+Abydos, the most venerated of all the burial grounds of Egypt (Fig.�5).
+All of these are built of brick, and are of moderate size and little
+artistic interest. The second type is that of tombs cut in the vertical
+cliffs of the west bank of the Nile Valley. The entrance to these faces
+eastward as required by tradition; the remoter end of the excavation
+pointing toward the land of the Sun of Night. But such tunnels only
+become works of architecture when, in addition to the customary mural
+paintings, they receive a decorative treatment in the design of their
+structural forms. Such a treatment appears in several tombs at
+Beni-Hassan, in which columns are reserved in cutting away the rock,
+both in the chapel-chambers and in the vestibules or porches which
+precede them. These columns are polygonal in some cases, clustered in
+others. The former type, with eight, sixteen, or thirty-two sides (in
+these last the _arrises_ or edges are emphasized by a slight concavity
+in each face, like embryonic fluting), have a square abacus, suggesting
+the Greek Doric order, and giving rise to the name _proto-Doric_
+(Fig.�6). Columns of this type are also found at Karnak, Kalabsh�,
+Amada, and Abydos. A�reminiscence of primitive wood construction is seen
+in the dentils over the plain architrave of the entrance, which in other
+respects recalls the triple entrances to certain mastabas of the Old
+Empire. These dentils are imitations of the ends of rafters, and to some
+arch�ologists suggest a wooden origin for the whole system of columnar
+design. But these rock-cut shafts and heavy architraves in no respect
+resemble wooden prototypes, but point rather to an imitation cut in the
+rock of a well-developed, pre-existing system of stone construction,
+some of whose details, however, were undoubtedly derived from early
+methods of building in wood. The vault was below the chapel and reached
+by a separate entrance. The serdab was replaced by a niche in which was
+the figure of the defunct carved from the native rock. Some of the tombs
+employed in the chapel-chamber columns of quatrefoil section with
+capitals like clustered buds (Fig.�7), and this type became in the next
+period one of the most characteristic forms of Egyptian architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--SECTION AND HALF-PLAN OF A TOMB AT
+  BENI-HASSAN.]
+
+
++TEMPLES.+ Of the temples of this period only two have left any remains
+of importance. Both belong to the twelfth dynasty (cir. 2200 B.C.). Of
+one of these many badly shattered fragments have been found in the ruins
+of Bubastis; these show the clustered type of lotus-bud column mentioned
+above. The other, of which a few columns have been identified among the
+ruins of the Great Temple at Karnak, constituted the oldest part of that
+vast agglomeration of religious edifices, and employed columns of the
+so-called proto-Doric type. From these remains it appears that
+structural stone columns as well as those cut in the rock were used at
+this early period (2200 B.C.). Indeed, it is probable that the whole
+architectural system of the New Empire was based on models developed in
+the age we are considering; that the use of multiplied columns of
+various types and the building of temples of complex plan adorned with
+colossal statues, obelisks, and painted reliefs, were perfectly
+understood and practised in this period. But the works it produced have
+perished, having been most probably demolished to make way for the more
+sumptuous edifices of later times.
+
+
++THE NEW EMPIRE.+ This was the grand age of Egyptian architecture and
+history. An extraordinary series of mighty men ruled the empire during a
+long period following the expulsion of the Hyksos usurpers. The names of
+Thothmes, Amenophis, Hatasu, Seti, and Rameses made glorious the
+eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties. Foreign conquests in Ethiopia,
+Syria, and Assyria enlarged the territory and increased the splendor of
+the empire. The majority of the most impressive ruins of Egypt belong to
+this period, and it was in these buildings that the characteristic
+elements of Egyptian architecture were brought to perfection and carried
+out on the grandest scale.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--PLAN OF THE RAMESSEUM.
+  a, _Sanctuary_; b, _Hypostyle Hall_; c, _Second court_;
+  d, _Entrance court_; e, _Pylons_.]
+
++TOMBS OF THE NEW EMPIRE.+ Some of these are structural, others
+excavated; both types displaying considerable variety in arrangement and
+detail. The rock-cut tombs of Bab-el-Molouk, among which are twenty-five
+royal sepulchres, are striking both by the simplicity of their openings
+and the depth and complexity of their shafts, tunnels, and chambers.
+From the pipe-like length of their tunnels they have since the time of
+Herodotus been known by the name _syrinx_. Every precaution was taken to
+lead astray and baffle the intending violator of their sanctity. They
+penetrated hundreds of feet into the rock; their chambers, often formed
+with columns and vault-like roofs, were resplendent with colored reliefs
+and ornament destined to solace and sustain the shadowy Ka until the
+soul itself, the Ba, should arrive before the tribunal of Osiris, the
+Sun of Night. Most impressively do these brilliant pictures,[2] intended
+to be forever shut away from human eyes, attest the sincerity of the
+Egyptian belief and the conscientiousness of the art which it inspired.
+
+    [Footnote 2: See Van Dyke's _History of Painting_, Figure 1.]
+
+While the tomb of the private citizen was complete in itself, containing
+the Ka-statues and often the chapel, as well as the mummy, the royal
+tomb demanded something more elaborate in scale and arrangement. In some
+cases external structures of temple-form took the place of the
+underground chapel and serdab. The royal effigy, many times repeated in
+painting and sculpture throughout this temple-like edifice, and flanking
+its gateways with colossal seated figures, made buried Ka-statues
+unnecessary. Of these sepulchral temples three are of the first
+magnitude. They are that of +Queen Hatasu+ (XVIIIth dynasty) at
+Deir-el-Bahari; that of +Rameses II.+ (XIXth dynasty), the +Ramesseum+,
+near by to the southwest; and that of +Rameses III.+ (XXth dynasty) at
+Medinet Abou still further to the southwest. Like the tombs, these were
+all on the west side of the Nile; so also was the sepulchral temple of
+Amenophis III. (XVIIIth dynasty), the +Amenopheum+, of which hardly a
+trace remains except the two seated colossi which, rising from the
+Theban plain, have astonished travellers from the times of Pausanias and
+Strabo down to our own. These mutilated figures, one of which has been
+known ever since classic times as the "vocal Memnon," are 56 feet high,
+and once flanked the entrance to the forecourt of the temple of
+Amenophis. The plan of the Ramesseum, with its sanctuary, hypostyle
+hall, and forecourts, its pylons and obelisks, is shown in Figure�8, and
+may be compared with those of other temples given on pp. 17 and 18. That
+of Medinet Abou resembles it closely. The Ramesseum occupies a rectangle
+of 590 � 182 feet; the temple of Medinet Abou measures 500 � 160 feet,
+not counting the extreme width of the entrance pylons. The temple of
+Hatasu at Deir-el-Bahari is partly excavated and partly structural,
+a�model which is also followed on a smaller scale in several lesser
+tombs. Such an edifice is called a _hemispeos_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE--_Continued_.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter�II.
+
+
++TEMPLES.+ The surpassing glory of the New Empire was its great temples.
+Some of them were among the most stupendous creations of structural art.
+To temples rather than palaces were the resources and energies of the
+kings devoted, and successive monarchs found no more splendid outlet for
+their piety and ambition than the founding of new temples or the
+extension and adornment of those already existing. By the forced labor
+of thousands of fellaheen (the system is in force to this day and is
+known as the _corv�e_) architectural piles of vast extent could be
+erected within the lifetime of a monarch. As in the tombs the internal
+walls bore pictures for the contemplation of the Ka, so in the temples
+the external walls, for the glory of the king and the delectation of the
+people, were covered with colored reliefs reciting the monarch's
+glorious deeds. Internally the worship and attributes of the gods were
+represented in a similar manner, in endless iteration.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--TEMPLE OF EDFOU. PLAN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--TEMPLE OF EDFOU. SECTION.]
+
++THE TEMPLE SCHEME.+ This is admirably shown in the temple of Khonsu, at
+Karnak, built by Rameses III. (XXth dynasty), and in the temple of Edfou
+(Figs. 9 and 10), though this belongs to the Roman period. It comprised
+a sanctuary or _sekos_, a�hypostyle (columnar) hall, known as the "hall
+of assembly," and a forecourt preceded by a double pylon or gateway.
+Each of these parts might be made more or less complex in different
+temples, but the essential features are encountered everywhere under all
+changes of form. The building of a temple began with the sanctuary,
+which contained the sacred chamber and the shrine of the god, with
+subordinate rooms for the priests and for various rites and functions.
+These chambers were low, dark, mysterious, accessible only to the
+priests and king. They were given a certain dignity by being raised upon
+a sort of platform above the general level, and reached by a few steps.
+They were sumptuously decorated internally with ritual pictures in
+relief. The hall was sometimes loftier, but set on a slightly lower
+level; its massive columns supported a roof of stone lintels, and light
+was admitted either through clearstory windows under the roof of a
+central portion higher than the sides, as at Karnak, or over a low
+screen-wall built between the columns of the front row, as at Edfou and
+Denderah. This method was peculiar to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.
+The court was usually surrounded by a single or double colonnade;
+sometimes, however, this colonnade only flanked the sides or fronted the
+hall, or again was wholly wanting. The _pylons_ were twin buttress-like
+masses flanking the entrance gate of the court. They were shaped like
+oblong truncated pyramids, crowned by flaring cornices, and were
+decorated on the outer face with masts carrying banners, with obelisks,
+or with seated colossal figures of the royal builder. An avenue of
+sphinxes formed the approach to the entrance, and the whole temple
+precinct was surrounded by a wall, usually of crude brick, pierced by
+one or more gates with or without pylons. The piety of successive
+monarchs was displayed in the addition of new hypostyle halls, courts,
+pylons, or obelisks, by which the temple was successively extended in
+length, and sometimes also in width, by the increased dimensions of the
+new courts. The great Temple of Karnak most strikingly illustrates this
+growth. Begun by Osourtesen (XIIth dynasty) more than 2000 years B.C.,
+it was not completed in its present form until the time of the
+Ptolemies, when the last of the pylons and external gates were erected.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--TEMPLE OF KARNAK. PLAN.]
+
+The variations in the details of this general type were numerous. Thus,
+at El Kab, the temple of Amenophis III. has the sekos and hall but no
+forecourt. At Deir-el-Medineh the hall of the Ptolemaic Hathor-temple is
+a mere porch in two parts, while the enclosure within the circuit wall
+takes the place of the forecourt. At Karnak all the parts were repeated
+several times, and under Amenophis III. (XVIIIth dynasty) a�wing was
+built at a nearly right angle to the main structure. At Luxor, to a
+complete typical temple were added three aisles of an unfinished
+hypostyle hall, and an elaborate forecourt, whose axis is inclined to
+that of the other buildings, owing to a bend of the river at that point.
+At Abydos a complex sanctuary of many chambers extends southeast at
+right angles to the general mass, and the first court is without
+columns. But in all these structures a certain unity of effect is
+produced by the lofty pylons, the flat roofs diminishing in height over
+successive portions from the front to the sanctuary, the sloping
+windowless walls covered with carved and painted pictures, and the dim
+and massive interiors of the columnar halls.
+
+
++TEMPLES OF KARNAK.+ Of these various temples that of +Amen-Ra+ is
+incomparably the largest and most imposing. Its construction extended
+through the whole duration of the New Empire, of whose architecture it
+is a splendid _r�sum�_ (Fig. 11). Its extreme length is 1,215 feet, and
+its greatest width 376 feet. The sanctuary and its accessories, mainly
+built by Thothmes�I. and Thothmes III., cover an area nearly 456 � 290
+feet in extent, and comprise two hypostyle halls and countless smaller
+halls and chambers. It is preceded by a narrow columnar vestibule and
+two pylons enclosing a columnar atrium and two obelisks. This is entered
+from the +Great Hypostyle Hall+ (h in Fig. 11; Fig. 12), the noblest
+single work of Egyptian architecture, measuring 340 � 170 feet, and
+containing 134 columns in sixteen rows, supporting a massive stone roof.
+The central columns with bell-capitals are 70 feet high and nearly 12
+feet in diameter; the others are smaller and lower, with lotus-bud
+capitals, supporting a�roof lower than that over the three central
+aisles. A�clearstory of stone-grated windows makes up the difference in
+height between these two roofs. The interior, thus lighted, was splendid
+with painted reliefs, which helped not only to adorn the hall but to
+give scale to its massive parts. The whole stupendous creation was the
+work of three kings--Rameses�I., Seti�I., and Rameses II. (XIXth
+dynasty).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--CENTRAL PORTION OF HYPOSTYLE HALL
+  AT KARNAK.
+  (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)]
+
+In front of it was the great court, flanked by columns, and still
+showing the ruins of a central avenue of colossal pillars begun, but
+never completed, by the Bubastid kings of the XXIId dynasty. One or two
+smaller structures and the curious lateral wing built by Amenophis III.,
+interrupt the otherwise orderly and symmetrical advance of this plan
+from the sanctuary to the huge first pylon (last in point of date)
+erected by the Ptolemies.
+
+The smaller temple of Khonsu, south of that of Amen-Ra, has already been
+alluded to as a typical example of templar design. Next to Karnak in
+importance comes the +Temple of Luxor+ in its immediate neighborhood. It
+has two forecourts adorned with double-aisled colonnades and connected
+by what seems to be an unfinished hypostyle hall. The +Ramesseum+ and
+the temples of +Medinet Abou+ and +Deir-El-Bahari+ have already been
+mentioned (p.�15). At Gournah and Abydos are the next most celebrated
+temples of this period; the first famous for its rich clustered
+lotus-columns, the latter for its beautiful sanctuary chambers,
+dedicated each to a different deity, and covered with delicate painted
+reliefs of the time of Seti�I.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--GREAT TEMPLE OF IPSAMBOUL.]
+
++GROTTO TEMPLES.+ Two other styles of temple remain to be noticed. The
+first is the subterranean or grotto temple, of which the two most
+famous, at Ipsamboul (Abou-simbel), were excavated by Rameses II. They
+are truly colossal conceptions, reproducing in the native rock the main
+features of structural temples, the court being represented by the
+larger of two chambers in the Greater Temple (Fig. 13) Their fa�ades are
+adorned with colossal seated figures of the builder; the smaller has
+also two effigies of Nefert-Ari, his consort. Nothing more striking and
+boldly impressive is to be met with in Egypt than these singular
+rock-cut fa�ades. Other rock-cut temples of more modest dimensions are
+at Addeh, Feraig, Beni-Hassan (the "Speos Artemidos"), Beit-el-Wali, and
+Silsileh. At Gherf-Hossein, Asseboua, and Derri are temples partly
+excavated and partly structural.
+
+
++PERIPTERAL TEMPLES.+ The last type of temple to be noticed is
+represented by only three or four structures of moderate size; it is the
+_peripteral_, in which a small chamber is surrounded by columns, usually
+mounted on a terrace with vertical walls. They were mere chapels, but
+are among the most graceful of existing ruins. At Phil� are two
+structures, one by Nectanebo, the other Ptolemaic, resembling peripteral
+temples, but without cella-chambers or roofs. They may have been
+waiting-courts for the adjoining temples. That at Elephantine (Amenophis
+III.) has square piers at the sides, and columns only at the ends.
+Another by Thothmes II., at Medinet Abou, formed only a part (the
+sekos?) of a larger plan. At Edfou is another, belonging to the
+Ptolemaic period.
+
+
++LATER TEMPLES.+ After the architectural inaction of the Decadence came
+a marvellous recrudescence of splendor under the Ptolemies, whose
+Hellenic origin and sympathies did not lead them into the mistaken
+effort to impose Greek models upon Egyptian art. The temples erected
+under their dominion, and later under Roman rule, vied with the grandest
+works of the Ramessid�, and surpassed them in the rich elaboration and
+variety of their architectural details. The temple at Edfou (Figs. 9,
+10, 14) is the most perfectly preserved, and conforms most closely to
+the typical plan; that of Isis, at Phil�, is the most elaborate and
+ornate. Denderah also possesses a group of admirably preserved temples
+of the same period. At Esneh, and at Kalabsh� and Kardassy or Ghertashi
+in Nubia are others. In all these one notes innovations of detail and a
+striving for effect quite different from the simpler majesty of the
+preceding age (Fig. 14). One peculiar feature is the use of screen walls
+built into the front rows of columns of the hypostyle hall. Light was
+admitted above these walls, which measured about half the height of the
+columns and were interrupted at the centre by a curious doorway cut
+through their whole height and without any lintel. Long disused types of
+capital were revived and others greatly elaborated; and the wall-reliefs
+were arranged in bands and panels with a regularity and symmetry rather
+Greek than Egyptian.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--EDFOU. FRONT OF HYPOSTYLE HALL.]
+
++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ With the exception of a few purely utilitarian
+vaulted structures, all Egyptian architecture was based on the principle
+of the lintel. Artistic splendor depended upon the use of painted and
+carved pictures, and the decorative treatment of the very simple
+supports employed. Piers and columns sustained the roofs of such
+chambers as were too wide for single lintels, and produced, in halls
+like those of Karnak, of the Ramesseum, or of Denderah, a�stupendous
+effect by their height, massiveness, number, and colored decoration. The
+simplest piers were plain square shafts; others, more elaborate, had
+lotus stalks and flowers or heads of Hathor carved upon them. The most
+striking were those against whose front faces were carved colossal
+figures of Osiris, as at Luxor, Medmet Abou, and Karnak (Fig. 15). The
+columns, which were seldom over six diameters in height, were treated
+with greater variety; the shafts, slightly tapering upward, were either
+round or clustered in section, and usually contracted at the base. The
+capitals with which they were crowned were usually of one of the five
+chief types described below. Besides round and clustered shafts, the
+Middle Empire and a few of the earlier monuments of the New Empire
+employed polygonal or slightly fluted shafts (see p.�11), as at Beni
+Hassan and Karnak; these had a plain square abacus, with sometimes a
+cushion-like echinus beneath it. A�round plinth served as a base for
+most of the columns.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--OSIRID PIER (MEDINET ABOU).]
+
++CAPITALS.+ The five chief types of capital were: a, the plain lotus
+bud, as at Karnak (Great Hall); b, the clustered lotus bud (Beni-Hassan,
+Karnak, Luxor, Gournah, etc.); c, the _campaniform_ or inverted bell
+(central aisles at Karnak, Luxor, the Ramesseum); d, the palm-capital,
+frequent in the later temples; and e, the Hathor-headed, in which heads
+of Hathor adorn the four faces of a cubical mass surmounted by a model
+of a shrine (Sedinga, Edfou, Denderah, Esneh). These types were richly
+embellished and varied by the Ptolemaic architects, who gave a clustered
+or quatrefoil plan to the bell-capital, or adorned its surface with palm
+leaves. A�few other forms are met with as exceptions. The first four are
+shown in Fig.�16.
+
+Every part of the column was richly decorated in color. Lotus-leaves or
+petals swathed the swelling lower part of the shaft, which was elsewhere
+covered with successive bands of carved pictures and of hieroglyphics.
+The capital was similarly covered with carved and painted ornament,
+usually of lotus-flowers or leaves, or alternate stalks of lotus and
+papyrus.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--TYPES OF COLUMN.
+  a, _Campaniform_; b, _Clustered Lotus-Column_; c, _Simple
+  Lotus-Column_; d, _Palm-Column_.]
+
+The lintels were plain and square in section, and often of prodigious
+size. Where they appeared externally they were crowned with a simple
+cavetto cornice, its curved surface covered with colored flutings
+alternating with _cartouches_ of hieroglyphics. Sometimes, especially on
+the screen walls of the Ptolemaic age, this was surmounted by a cresting
+of adders or ur�i in closely serried rank. No other form of cornice or
+cresting is met with. Mouldings as a means of architectural effect were
+singularly lacking in Egyptian architecture. The only moulding known is
+the clustered torus (_torus_ = a convex moulding of semicircular
+profile), which resembles a bundle of reeds tied together with cords or
+ribbons. It forms an astragal under the cavetto cornice and runs down
+the angles of the pylons and walls.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--EGYPTIAN FLORAL ORNAMENT-FORMS.]
+
++POLYCHROMY AND ORNAMENT.+ Color was absolutely essential to the
+decorative scheme. In the vast and dim interiors, as well as in the
+blinding glare of the sun, mere sculpture or relief would have been
+wasted. The application of brilliant color to pictorial forms cut in low
+relief, or outlined by deep incision with the edges of the figures
+delicately rounded (_intaglio rilievo_) was the most appropriate
+treatment possible. The walls and columns were covered with pictures
+treated in this way, and the ceilings and lintels were embellished with
+symbolic forms in the same manner. All the ornaments, as distinguished
+from the paintings, were symbolical, at least in their origin. Over the
+gateway was the solar disk or globe with wide-spread wings, the symbol
+of the sun winging its way to the conquest of night; upon the ceiling
+were sacred vultures, zodiacs, or stars spangled on a blue ground.
+Externally the temples presented only masses of unbroken wall; but
+these, as well as the pylons, were covered with huge pictures of a
+historical character. Only in the tombs do we find painted ornament of a
+purely conventional sort (Fig. 17). Rosettes, diaper patterns, spirals,
+and checkers are to be met with in them; but many of these can be traced
+to symbolic origins.[3]
+
+    [Footnote 3: See Goodyear's _Grammar of the Lotus_ for an
+    elaborate and ingenious presentation of the theory of a common
+    lotus-origin for all the conventional forms occurring in Egyptian
+    ornament.]
+
+
++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ The only remains of palaces are the pavilion of
+Rameses III. at Medinet Abou, and another at Semneh. The Royal Labyrinth
+has so completely perished that even its site is uncertain. The
+Egyptians lived so much out of doors that the house was a less important
+edifice than in colder climates. Egyptian dwellings were probably in
+most cases built of wood or crude brick, and their disappearance is thus
+easily explained. Relief pictures on the monuments indicate the use of
+wooden framing for the walls, which were probably filled in with crude
+brick or panels of wood. The architecture was extremely simple. Gateways
+like those of the temples on a smaller scale, the cavetto cornice on the
+walls, and here and there a porch with carved columns of wood or stone,
+were the only details pretending to elegance. The ground-plans of many
+houses in ruined cities, as at Tel-el-Amarna and a nameless city of
+Amenophis IV., are discernible in the ruins; but the superstructures are
+wholly wanting. It was in religious and sepulchral architecture that the
+constructive and artistic genius of the Egyptians was most fully
+manifested.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: The principal necropolis regions of Egypt are centred
+  about Ghizeh and ancient Memphis for the Old Empire (pyramids and
+  mastabas), Thebes for the Middle Empire (Silsileh, Beni Hassan),
+  and Thebes (Vale of the Kings, Vale of the Queens) and Abydos for
+  the New Empire.
+
+  The Old Empire has also left us the Sphinx, Sphinx temple, and the
+  temple at Meidoum.
+
+  The most important temples of the New Empire were those of Karnak
+  (the great temple, the southern or temple of Khonsu), of Luxor,
+  Medinet Abou (great temple of Rameses III., lesser temples of
+  Thothmes II. and III. with peripteral sekos; also Pavilion of
+  Rameses III.); of Abydos; of Gournah; of Eilithyia (Amenophis
+  III.); of Soleb and Sesebi in Nubia; of Elephantine (peripteral);
+  the tomb temple of Deir-el-Bahari, the Ramesseum, the Amenopheum;
+  hemispeos at Gherf Hossein; two grotto temples at Ipsamboul.
+
+  At Mero� are pyramids of the Ethiopic kings of the Decadence.
+
+  Temples of the Ptolemaic period: Phil�, Denderah.
+
+  Temples of the Roman period: Koum Ombos, Edfou; Kalabsh�, Kardassy
+  and Dandour in Nubia; Esneh.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+CHALD�AN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Reber. Also, Babelon, _Manual of
+  Oriental Antiquities_. Botta and Flandin, _Monuments de Ninive_.
+  Layard, _Discoveries in Nineveh_; _Nineveh and its Remains_.
+  Loftus, _Travels and Researches in Chald�a and Susiana_. Perrot
+  and Chipiez, _History of Art in Chald�a and Assyria_. Peters,
+  _Nippur_. Place, _Ninive et l'Assyrie_.
+
+
++SITUATION; HISTORIC PERIODS.+ The Tigro-Euphrates valley was the seat
+of a civilization nearly or quite as old as that of the Nile, though
+inferior in its monumental art. The kingdoms of Chald�a and Assyria
+which ruled in this valley, sometimes as rivals and sometimes as
+subjects one of the other, differed considerably in character and
+culture. But the scarcity of timber and the lack of good building-stone
+except in the limestone table-lands and more distant mountains of upper
+Mesopotamia, the abundance of clay, and the flatness of the country,
+imposed upon the builders of both nations similar restrictions of
+conception, form, and material. Both peoples, moreover, were probably,
+in part at least, of Semitic race.[4] The Chald�ans attained
+civilization as early as 4000 B.C., and had for centuries maintained
+fixed institutions and practised the arts and sciences when the
+Assyrians began their career as a nation of conquerors by reducing
+Chald�a to subjection.
+
+    [Footnote 4: This is denied by some recent writers, so far as
+    the Chald�ans are concerned, and is not intended here to apply
+    to the Accadians and Summerians of primitive Chald�a.]
+
+The history of Chald�o-Assyrian art may be divided into three main
+periods, as follows:
+
+1. The EARLY CHALD�AN, 4000 to 1250 B.C.
+
+2. The ASSYRIAN, 1250 to 606 B.C.
+
+3. The BABYLONIAN, 606 to 538 B.C.
+
+In 538 the empire fell before the Persians.
+
+
++GENERAL CHARACTER OF MONUMENTS.+ Recent excavations at Nippur (Niffer),
+the sacred city of Chald�a, have uncovered ruins older than the
+Pyramids. Though of slight importance architecturally, they reveal the
+early knowledge of the arch and the possession of an advanced culture.
+The poverty of the building materials of this region afforded only the
+most limited resources for architectural effect. Owing to the flatness
+of the country and the impracticability of building lofty structures
+with sun-dried bricks, elevation above the plain could be secured only
+by erecting buildings of moderate height upon enormous mounds or
+terraces, built of crude brick and faced with hard brick or stone. This
+led to the development of the stepped pyramid as the typical form of
+Chald�o-Assyrian architecture. Thick walls were necessary both for
+stability and for protection from the burning heat of that climate. The
+lack of stone for columns and the difficulty of procuring heavy beams
+for long spans made broad halls and chambers impossible. The plans of
+Assyrian palaces look like assemblages of long corridors and small cells
+(Fig. 18). Neither the wooden post nor the column played any part in
+this architecture except for window-mullions and subordinate members.[5]
+It is probable that the vault was used for roofing many of the halls;
+the arch was certainly employed for doors and the barrel-vault for the
+drainage-tunnels under the terraces, made necessary by the heavy
+rainfall. What these structures lacked in durability and height was made
+up in decorative magnificence. The interior walls were wainscoted to a
+height of eight or nine feet with alabaster slabs covered with those
+low-relief pictures of hunting scenes, battles, and gods, which now
+enrich the museums of London, Paris, and other modern cities. Elsewhere
+painted plaster or more durable enamelled tile in brilliant colors
+embellished the walls, and, doubtless, rugs and tapestries added their
+richness to this architectural splendor.
+
+    [Footnote 5: See Fergusson, _Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis_,
+    for an ingenious but unsubstantiated argument for the use of
+    columns in Assyrian palaces.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--PALACE OF SARGON AT KHORSABAD.]
+
+
++CHALD�AN ARCHITECTURE.+ The ruins at Mugheir (the Biblical Ur), dating,
+perhaps, from 2200 B.C., belong to the two-storied terrace or platform
+of a temple to Sin or Hurki. The wall of sun-dried brick is faced with
+enamelled tile. The shrine, which was probably small, has wholly
+disappeared from the summit of the mound. At Warka (the ancient Erech)
+are two terrace-walls of palaces, one of which is ornamented with convex
+flutings and with a species of mosaic in checker patterns and zigzags,
+formed by terra-cotta cones or spikes driven into the clay, their
+exposed bases being enamelled in the desired colors. The other shows a
+system of long, narrow panels, in a style suggesting the influence of
+Egyptian models through some as yet unknown channel. This panelling
+became a common feature of the later Assyrian art (see Fig. 19). At
+Birs-Nimroud are the ruins of a stepped pyramid surmounted by a small
+shrine. Its seven stages are said to have been originally faced with
+glazed tile of the seven planetary colors, gold, silver, yellow, red,
+blue, white, and black. The ruins at Nippur, which comprise temples,
+altars, and dwellings dating from 4000 B.C., have been alluded to.
+Babylon, the later capital of Chald�a, to which the shapeless mounds of
+Mujehbeh and Kasr seem to have belonged, has left no other recognizable
+vestige of its ancient magnificence.
+
+
++ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE.+ Abundant ruins exist of Nineveh, the Assyrian
+capital, and its adjacent palace-sites. Excavations at Koyunjik,
+Khorsabad, and Nimroud have laid bare a number of these royal dwellings.
+Among them are the palace of Assur-nazir-pal (885 B.C.) and two palaces
+of Shalmaneser II. (850 B.C.) at Nimroud; the great palace of Sargon at
+Khorsabad (721 B.C.); that of Sennacherib at Koyunjik (704 B.C.); of
+Esarhaddon at Nimroud (650 B.C.); and of Assur-bani-pal at Koyunjik (660
+B.C.). All of these palaces are designed on the same general principle,
+best shown by the plan (Fig. 18) of the palace of Sargon at Khorsabad,
+excavated by Botta and Place.
+
+In this palace two large and several smaller courts are surrounded by a
+complex series of long, narrow halls and small, square chambers. One
+court probably belonged to the harem, another to the king's apartments,
+others to dependents and to the service of the palace. The crude brick
+walls are immensely thick and without windows, the only openings being
+for doors. The absence of columns made wide halls impossible, and great
+size could only be attained in the direction of length. A�terraced
+pyramid supported an altar or shrine to the southwest of the palace; at
+the west corner was a temple, the substructure of which was crowned by a
+cavetto cornice showing plainly the influence of Egyptian models. The
+whole palace stood upon a stupendous platform faced with cut stone, an
+unaccustomed extravagance in Assyria.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--GATE, KHORSABAD.]
+
++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ There is no evidence that the Assyrians ever
+used columnar supports except in minor or accessory details. There are
+few halls in any of the ruins too wide to be spanned by good Syrian
+cedar beams or palm timbers, and these few cases seem to have had
+vaulted ceilings. So clumsy a feature as the central wall in the great
+hall of Esarhaddon's palace at Nimroud would never have been resorted to
+for the support of the ceiling, had the Assyrians been familiar with the
+use of columns. That they understood the arch and vault is proved by
+their admirable terrace-drains and the fine arched gate in the walls of
+Khorsabad (Fig. 19), as well as by bas-reliefs representing dwellings
+with domes of various forms. Moreover, a�few vaulted chambers of
+moderate size, and fallen fragments of crude brick vaulting of larger
+span, have been found in several of the Assyrian ruins.
+
+The construction was extremely simple. The heavy clay walls were faced
+with alabaster, burned brick, or enamelled tiles. The roofs were
+probably covered with stamped earth, and sometimes paved on top with
+tiles or slabs of alabaster to form terraces. Light was introduced most
+probably through windows immediately under the roof and divided by small
+columns forming mullions, as suggested by certain relief pictures. No
+other system seems consistent with the windowless walls of the ruins. It
+is possible that many rooms depended wholly on artificial light or on
+the scant rays coming through open doors. To this day, in the hot season
+the population of Mosul takes refuge from the torrid heats of summer in
+windowless basements lighted only by lamps.
+
+
++ORNAMENT.+ The only structural decorations seem to have been the
+panelling of exterior walls in a manner resembling the Chald�an
+terrace-walls, and a form of parapet like a stepped cresting. There were
+no characteristic mouldings, architraves, capitals, or cornices. Nearly
+all the ornament was of the sort called _applied_, _i.e._, added after
+the completion of the structure itself. Pictures in low relief covered
+the alabaster revetment. They depicted hunting-scenes, battles, deities,
+and other mythological subjects, and are interesting to the architect
+mainly for their occasional representations of buildings and details of
+construction. Above this wainscot were friezes of enamelled brick
+ornamented with symbolic forms used as decorative motives; winged bulls,
+the "sacred tree" and mythological monsters, with rosettes, palmettes,
+lotus-flowers, and _guilloches_ (ornaments of interlacing bands winding
+about regularly spaced buttons or eyes). These ornaments were also used
+on the archivolts around the great arches of palace gates. The most
+singular adornments of these gates were the carved "portal guardians"
+set into the deep jambs--colossal monsters with the bodies of bulls, the
+wings of eagles, and human heads of terrible countenance. Of mighty
+bulk, they were yet minutely wrought in every detail of head-dress,
+beard, feathers, curly hair, and anatomy.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT.]
+
+The purely conventional ornaments mentioned above--the rosette,
+guilloche, and lotus-flower, and probably also the palmette, were
+derived from Egyptian originals. They were treated, however, in a quite
+new spirit and adapted to the special materials and uses of their
+environment. Thus the form of the palmette, even if derived, as is not
+unlikely, from the Egyptian lotus-motive, was assimilated to the more
+familiar palm-forms of Assyria (Fig. 20).
+
+Assyrian architecture never rivalled the Egyptian in grandeur or
+constructive power, in seriousness, or the higher artistic qualities. It
+did, however, produce imposing results with the poorest resources, and
+in its use of the arch and its development of ornamental forms it
+furnished prototypes for some of the most characteristic features of
+later Asiatic art, which profoundly influenced both Greek and Byzantine
+architecture.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: The most important Chald�an and Assyrian monuments of
+  which there are extant remains, have already been enumerated in
+  the text. It is therefore unnecessary to duplicate the list here.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+PERSIAN, LYCIAN AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Babelon; Bliss, _Excavations at
+  Jerusalem_. Reber. Also Dieulafoy, _L'Art antique de la Perse_.
+  Fellows, _Account of Discoveries in Lycia_. Fergusson, _The Temple
+  at Jerusalem_. Flandin et Coste, _Perse ancienne_. Perrot and
+  Chipiez, _History of Art in Persia_; _History of Art in Phrygia,
+  Lydia, Caria, and Lycia_; _History of Art in Sardinia and Jud�a_.
+  Texier, _L'Arm�nie et la Perse_; _L'Asie Mineure_. De Vog��, _Le
+  Temple de J�rusalem_.
+
+
++PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE.+ With the Persians, who under Cyrus (536 B.C.)
+and Cambyses (525 B.C.) became the masters of the Orient, the Aryan race
+superseded the Semitic, and assimilated in new combinations the forms it
+borrowed from the Assyrian civilization. Under the Ach�menid� (536 to
+330 B.C.) palaces were built in Persepolis and Susa of a splendor and
+majesty impossible in Mesopotamia, and rivalling the marvels in the Nile
+Valley. The conquering nation of warriors who had overthrown the
+Egyptians and Assyrians was in turn conquered by the arts of its
+vanquished foes, and speedily became the most luxurious of all nations.
+The Persians were not great innovators in art; but inhabiting a land of
+excellent building resources, they were able to combine the Egyptian
+system of interior columns with details borrowed from Assyrian art, and
+suggestions, derived most probably from the general use in Persia and
+Central Asia, of wooden posts or columns as intermediate supports. Out
+of these elements they evolved an architecture which has only become
+fully known to us since the excavations of M. and Mme. Dieulafoy at Susa
+in 1882.
+
+
++ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE.+ The Persians used both crude and
+baked bricks, the latter far more freely than was practicable in
+Assyria, owing to the greater abundance of fuel. Walls when built of the
+weaker material were faced with baked brick enamelled in brilliant
+colors, or both moulded and enamelled, to form colored pictures in
+relief. Stone was employed for walls and columns, and, in conjunction
+with brick, for the jambs and lintels of doors and windows. Architraves
+and ceiling-beams were of wood. The palaces were erected, as in Assyria,
+upon broad platforms, partly cut in the rock and partly structural,
+approached by imposing flights of steps. These palaces were composed of
+detached buildings, propyl�a or gates of honor, vast audience-halls open
+on one or two sides, and chambers or dwellings partly enclosing or
+flanking these halls, or grouped in separate buildings. Temples appear
+to have been of small importance, perhaps owing to habits of out-of-door
+worship of fire and sun. There are few structural tombs, but there are a
+number of imposing royal sepulchres cut in the rock at Naksh-i-Roustam.
+
+
++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ The Persians, like the Egyptians, used the
+column as an internal feature in hypostyle halls of great size, and
+externally to form porches, and perhaps, also, open kiosks without
+walls. The great +Hall of Xerxes+ at Persepolis covers 100,000 square
+feet--more than double the area of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. But the
+Persian column was derived from wooden prototypes and used with wooden
+architraves, permitting a wider spacing than is possible with stone. In
+the present instance thirty-six columns sufficed for an area which in
+the Karnak hall contained one hundred and thirty-four. The shafts being
+slender and finely fluted instead of painted or carved, the effect
+produced was totally different from that sought by the Egyptians. The
+most striking peculiarity of the column was the capital, which was
+forked (Fig. 21). In one of the two principal types the fork, formed by
+the coupled fore-parts of bulls or symbolic monsters, rested directly on
+the top of the shaft. In the other, two singular members were interposed
+between the fork and the shaft; the lower, a�sort of double bell or
+bell-and-palm capital, and above it, just beneath the fork, a�curious
+combination of vertical scrolls or volutes, resembling certain ornaments
+seen in Assyrian furniture. The transverse architrave rested in the
+fork; the longitudinal architrave was supported on the heads of the
+monsters. A�rich moulded base, rather high and in some cases adorned
+with carved leaves or flutings, supported the columns, which in the Hall
+of Xerxes were over 66 feet high and 6 feet in diameter. The architraves
+have perished, but the rock-cut tomb of Darius at Naksh-i-Roustam
+reproduces in its fa�ade a palace-front, showing a banded architrave
+with dentils--an obvious imitation of the ends of wooden rafters on a
+lintel built up of several beams.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS.]
+
+These features of the architrave, as well as the fine flutings and
+moulded bases of the columns, are found in Ionic architecture, and in
+part, at least, in Lycian tombs. As all these examples date from nearly
+the same period, the origin of these forms and their mutual relations
+have not been fully determined. The Persian capitals, however, are
+unique, and so far as known, without direct prototypes or derivatives.
+Their constituent elements may have been borrowed from various sources.
+One can hardly help seeing the Egyptian palm-capital in the lower member
+of the compound type (Fig. 21).
+
+The doors and windows had banded architraves or trims and cavetto
+cornices very Egyptian in character. The portals were flanked, as in
+Assyria, by winged monsters; but these were built up in several courses
+of stone, not carved from single blocks like their prototypes. Plaster
+or, as at Susa, enamelled bricks, replaced as a wall-finish the Assyrian
+alabaster wainscot. These bricks, splendid in color, and moulded into
+relief pictures covering large surfaces, are the oldest examples of the
+skill of the Persians in a branch of ceramic art in which they have
+always excelled down to our own day.
+
+
++LYCIAN ARCHITECTURE.+ The architecture of those Asiatic peoples which
+served as intermediaries between the ancient civilizations of Egypt and
+Assyria on the one hand and of the Greeks on the other, need occupy us
+only a moment in passing. None of them developed a complete and
+independent style or produced monuments of the first rank. Those chiefly
+concerned in the transmission of ideas were the Cypriotes, Phoenicians,
+and Lycians. The part played by other Asiatic nations is too slight to
+be considered here. From Cyprus the Greeks could have learned little
+beyond a few elementary notions regarding sculpture and pottery,
+although it is possible that the volute-form in Ionic architecture was
+originally derived from patterns on Cypriote pottery and from certain
+Cypriote steles, where it appears as a modified lotus motive. The
+Phoenicians were the world's traders from a very early age down to the
+Persian conquest. They not only distributed through the Mediterranean
+lands the manufactures of Egypt and Assyria, but also counterfeited them
+and adopted their forms in decorating their own wares. But they have
+bequeathed us not a single architectural ruin of importance, either of
+temples or palaces, nor are the few tombs still extant of sufficient
+artistic interest to deserve even brief mention in a work of this scope.
+
+In Lycia, however, there arose a system of tomb-design which came near
+creating a new architectural style, and which doubtless influenced both
+Persia and the Ionian colonies. The tombs were mostly cut in the rock,
+though a few are free-standing monolithic monuments, resembling
+sarcophagi or small shrines mounted on a high base or pedestal.
+
+In all of these tombs we recognize a manifest copying in stone of framed
+wooden structures. The walls are panelled, or imitate open structures
+framed of squared timbers. The roofs are often gabled, sometimes in the
+form of a pointed arch; they generally show a banded architrave,
+dentils, and a raking cornice, or else an imitation of broadly
+projecting eaves with small round rafters. There are several with
+porches of Ionic columns; of these, some are of late date and evidently
+copied from Asiatic Greek models. Others, and notably one at Telmissus,
+seem to be examples of a primitive Ionic, and may indeed have been early
+steps in the development of that splendid style which the Ionic Greeks,
+both in Asia Minor and in Attica, carried to such perfection.
+
+
++JEWISH ARCHITECTURE.+ The Hebrews borrowed from the art of every people
+with whom they had relations, so that we encounter in the few extant
+remains of their architecture Egyptian, Assyrian, Phoenician, Greek,
+Roman, and Syro-Byzantine features, but nothing like an independent
+national style. Among the most interesting of these remains are tombs of
+various periods, principally occurring in the valleys near Jerusalem,
+and erroneously ascribed by popular tradition to the judges, prophets,
+and kings of Israel. Some of them are structural, some cut in the rock;
+the former (tomb of Absalom, of Zechariah) decorated with Doric and
+Ionic engaged orders, were once supposed to be primitive types of these
+orders and of great antiquity. They are now recognized to be debased
+imitations of late Greek work of the third or second century B.C. They
+have Egyptian cavetto cornices and pyramidal roofs, like many Asiatic
+tombs. The openings of the rock-cut tombs have frames or pediments
+carved with rich surface ornament showing a similar mixture of
+types--Roman triglyphs and garlands, Syrian-Greek acanthus leaves,
+conventional foliage of Byzantine character, and naturalistic carvings
+of grapes and local plant-life. The carved arches of two of the ancient
+city gates (one the so-called Golden Gate) in Jerusalem display rich
+acanthus foliage somewhat like that of the tombs, but more vigorous and
+artistic. If of the time of Herod or even of Constantine, as claimed by
+some, they would indicate that Greek artists in Syria created the
+prototypes of Byzantine ornament. They are more probably, however,
+Byzantine restorations of the 6th century A.D.
+
+The one great achievement of Jewish architecture was the national
++Temple of Jehovah+, represented by three successive edifices on Mount
+Moriah, the site of the present so-called "Mosque of Omar." The first,
+built by Solomon (1012 B.C.) appears from the Biblical description[6] to
+have combined Egyptian conceptions (successive courts, lofty
+entrance-pylons, the Sanctuary and the sekos or "Holy of Holies") with
+Phoenician and Assyrian details and workmanship (cedar woodwork,
+empaistic decoration or overlaying with _repouss�_ metal work, the
+isolated brazen columns Jachin and Boaz). The whole stood on a mighty
+platform built up with stupendous masonry and vaulted chambers from the
+valley surrounding the rock on three sides. This precinct was nearly
+doubled in size by Herod (18 B.C.) who extended it southward by a
+terrace-wall of still more colossal masonry. Some of the stones are
+twenty-two feet long; one reaches the prodigious length of forty feet.
+The "Wall of Lamentations" is a part of this terrace, upon which stood
+the Temple on a raised platform. As rebuilt by Herod, the Temple
+reproduced in part the antique design, and retained the porch of Solomon
+along the east side; but the whole was superbly reconstructed in white
+marble with abundance of gilding. Defended by the Castle of Antonia on
+the northwest, and embellished with a new and imposing triple colonnade
+on the south, the whole edifice, a�conglomerate of Egyptian, Assyrian,
+and Roman conceptions and forms, was one of the most singular and yet
+magnificent creations of ancient art.
+
+    [Footnote 6: 1 Kings vi.-vii.; 2 Chronicles iii.-iv.]
+
+The temple of Zerubbabel (515 B.C.), intermediate between those above
+described, was probably less a re-edification of the first, than a new
+design. While based on the scheme of the first temple, it appears to
+have followed more closely the pattern described in the vision of
+Ezekiel (chapters xl.-xlii.). It was far inferior to its predecessor in
+splendor and costliness. No vestiges of it remain.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ PERSIAN: at Murghab, the tomb of Cyrus, known as
+  Gabr�-Madr�-Soleiman--a�gabled structure on a seven-stepped
+  pyramidal basement (525 B.C.). At Persepolis the palace of Darius
+  (521 B.C.); the Propyl�a of Xerxes, his palace and his harem (?)
+  or throne-hall (480 B.C.). These splendid structures, several of
+  them of vast size, resplendent with color and majestic with their
+  singular and colossal columns, must have formed one of the most
+  imposing architectural groups in the world. At various points,
+  tower-like tombs, supposed erroneously by Fergusson to have been
+  fire altars. At Naksh-i-Roustam, the tomb of Darius, cut in the
+  rock. Other tombs near by at Persepolis proper and at Pasargad�.
+  At the latter place remains of the palace of Cyrus. At Susa the
+  palace of Xerxes and Artaxerxes (480-405 B.C.).
+
+  There are no remains of private houses or temples.
+
+  LYCIAN: the principal Lycian monuments are found in Myra,
+  Antiphellus, and Telmissus. Some of the monolithic tombs have been
+  removed to the British and other European museums.
+
+  JEWISH: the temples have been mentioned above. The palace of
+  Solomon. The rock-cut monolithic tomb of Siloam. So-called tombs
+  of Absalom and Zechariah, structural; probably of Herod's time or
+  later. Rock-cut Tombs of the Kings; of the Prophets, etc. City
+  gates (Herodian or early Christian period).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Reber. Also, Anderson and Spiers,
+  _Architecture of Greece and Rome_. Baumeister, _Denkm�ler der
+  Klassischen Alterthums_. B�tticher, _Tektonik der Hellenen_.
+  Chipiez, _Histoire critique des ordres grecs_. Curtius, Adler and
+  Treu, _Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia_. Durm, _Antike Baukunst_ (in
+  _Handbuch d. Arch._). Frazer, _Pausanias' Description of Greece_.
+  Hitorff, _L'architecture polychrome chez les Grecs_. Michaelis,
+  _Der Parthenon_. Penrose, _An Investigation, etc., of Athenian
+  Architecture_. Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in Primitive
+  Greece_; _La Gr�ce de l'Epop�e_; _La Gr�ce archa�que_. Stuart and
+  Revett, _Antiquities of Athens_. Tarbell, _History of Greek Art_.
+  Texier, _L'Asie Mineure_. Wilkins, _Antiquities of Magna Gr�cia_.
+
+
++GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.+ Greek art marks the beginning of European
+civilization. The Hellenic race gathered up influences and suggestions
+from both Asia and Africa and fused them with others, whose sources are
+unknown, into an art intensely national and original, which was to
+influence the arts of many races and nations long centuries after the
+decay of the Hellenic states. The Greek mind, compared with the Egyptian
+or Assyrian, was more highly intellectual, more logical, more
+symmetrical, and above all more inquiring and analytic. Living nowhere
+remote from the sea, the Greeks became sailors, merchants, and
+colonizers. The Ionian kinsmen of the European Greeks, speaking a
+dialect of the same language, populated the coasts of Asia Minor and
+many of the islands, so that through them the Greeks were open to the
+influences of the Assyrian, Phoenician, Persian, and Lycian
+civilizations. In Cyprus they encountered Egyptian influences, and
+finally, under Psammetichus, they established in Egypt itself the Greek
+city of Naukratis. They were thus by geographical situation, by
+character, and by circumstances, peculiarly fitted to receive, develop,
+and transmit the mingled influences of the East and the South.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--LION GATE AT MYCEN�.]
+
++PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS.+[7] Authentic Greek history begins with the
+first Olympiad, 776 B.C. The earliest monuments of that historic
+architecture which developed into the masterpieces of the Periclean and
+Alexandrian ages, date from the middle of the following century. But
+there are a number of older buildings, belonging presumably to the
+so-called Heroic Age, which, though seemingly unconnected with the later
+historic development of Greek architecture, are still worthy of note.
+They are the work of a people somewhat advanced in civilization,
+probably the Pelasgi, who preceded the Dorians on Greek soil, and
+consist mainly of fortifications, walls, gates, and tombs, the most
+important of which are at +Mycen�+ and +Tiryns+. At the latter place is
+a well-defined acropolis, with massive walls in which are passages
+covered by stones successively overhanging or corbelled until they meet.
+The masonry is of huge stones piled without cement. At Mycen� the city
+wall is pierced by the remarkable +Lion Gate+ (Fig. 22), consisting of
+two jambs and a huge lintel, over which the weight is relieved by a
+triangular opening. This is filled with a sculptured group, now much
+defaced, representing two rampant lions flanking a singular column which
+tapers downward. This symbolic group has relations with Hittite and
+Phrygian sculptures, and with the symbolism of the worship of Rhea
+Cybele. The masonry of the wall is carefully dressed but not regularly
+coursed. Other primitive walls and gates showing openings and embryonic
+arches of various forms, are found widely scattered, at Samos and Delos,
+at Phigaleia, Thoricus, Argos and many other points. The very earliest
+are hardly more than random piles of rough stone. Those which may fairly
+claim notice for their artistic masonry are of a later date and of two
+kinds: the coursed, and the polygonal or Cyclopean, so called from the
+tradition that they were built by the Cyclopes. These Cyclopean walls
+were composed of large, irregular polygonal blocks carefully fitted
+together and dressed to a fairly smooth face (Fig. 23). Both kinds were
+used contemporaneously, though in the course of time the regular coursed
+masonry finally superseded the polygonal.
+
+    [Footnote 7: For enlargement on this topic see Appendix�A.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--POLYGONAL MASONRY.]
+
+
++THOLOS OF ATREUS.+ All these structures present, however, only the
+rudiments of architectural art. The so-called +Tholos+ (or Treasury) of
++Atreus+, at Mycen�, on the other hand, shows the germs of truly
+artistic design (Fig. 24). It is in reality a tomb, and is one of a
+large class of prehistoric tombs found in almost every part of the
+globe, consisting of a circular stone-walled and stone-roofed chamber
+buried under a tumulus of earth. This one is a beehive-shaped
+construction of horizontal courses of masonry, with a stone-walled
+passage, the _dromos_, leading to the entrance door. Though internally
+of domical form, its construction with horizontal beds in the masonry
+proves that the idea of the true dome with the beds of each course
+pitched at an angle always normal to the curve of the vault, was not yet
+grasped. A�small sepulchral chamber opens from the great one, by a door
+with the customary relieving triangle over�it.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--THOLOS OF ATREUS. PLAN AND SECTION.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--THOLOS OF ATREUS. DOORWAY.]
+
+Traces of a metal lining have been found on the inner surface of the
+dome and on the jambs of the entrance door. This entrance is the most
+artistic and elaborate part of the edifice (Fig. 25). The main opening
+is enclosed in a three-banded frame, and was once flanked by columns
+which, as shown by fragments still existing and by marks on either side
+the door, tapered downward as in the sculptured column over the Lion
+Gate. Shafts, bases, and capitals were covered with zig-zag bands or
+chevrons of fine spirals. This well-studied decoration, the banded
+jambs, and the curiously inverted columns (of which several other
+examples exist in or near Mycen�), all point to a fairly developed art,
+derived partly from Egyptian and partly from Asiatic sources. That
+Egyptian influences had affected this early art is further proved by a
+fragment of carved and painted ornament on a ceiling in Orchomenos,
+imitating with remarkable closeness certain ceiling decorations in
+Egyptian tombs.
+
+
++HISTORIC MONUMENTS; THE ORDERS.+ It was the Dorians and Ionians who
+developed the architecture of classic Greece. This fact is perpetuated
+in the traditional names, Doric and Ionic, given to the two systems of
+columnar design which formed the most striking feature of that
+architecture. While in Egypt the column was used almost exclusively as
+an internal support and decoration, in Greece it was chiefly employed to
+produce an imposing exterior effect. It was the most important element
+in the temple architecture of the Greeks, and an almost indispensable
+adornment of their gateways, public squares, and temple enclosures. To
+the column the two races named above gave each a special and radically
+distinct development, and it was not until the Periclean age that the
+two forms came to be used in conjunction, even by the mixed Doric-Ionic
+people of Attica. Each of the two types had its own special shaft,
+capital, entablature, mouldings, and ornaments, although considerable
+variation was allowed in the proportions and minor details. The general
+type, however, remained substantially unchanged from first to last. The
+earliest examples known to us of either order show it complete in all
+its parts, its later development being restricted to the refining and
+perfecting of its proportions and details. The probable origin of these
+orders will be separately considered later�on.
+
+
++THE DORIC.+ The column of the Doric order (Figs. 26, 27) consists of a
+tapering shaft rising directly from the stylobate or platform and
+surmounted by a capital of great simplicity and beauty. The shaft is
+fluted with sixteen to twenty shallow channellings of segmental or
+elliptical section, meeting in sharp edges or _arrises_. The capital is
+made up of a circular cushion or _echinus_ adorned with fine grooves
+called _annul�_, and a plain square _abacus_ or cap Upon this rests a
+plain architrave or _epistyle_, with a narrow fillet, the _t�nia_,
+running along its upper edge. The frieze above it is divided into square
+panels, called the _metopes_, separated by vertical _triglyphs_ having
+each two vertical grooves and chamfered edges. There is a triglyph over
+each column and one over each intercolumniation, or two in rare
+instances where the columns are widely spaced. The cornice consists of a
+broadly projecting _corona_ resting on a _bed-mould_ of one or two
+simple mouldings. Its under surface, called the _soffit_, is adorned
+with _mutules_, square, flat projections having each eighteen _gutt�_
+depending from its under side. Two or three small mouldings run along
+the upper edge of the corona, which has in addition, over each slope of
+the gable, a�gutter-moulding or _cymatium_. The cornices along the
+horizontal edges of the roof have instead of the cymatium a row of
+_antefix�_, ornaments of terra-cotta or marble placed opposite the foot
+of each tile-ridge of the roofing. The enclosed triangular field of the
+gable, called the _tympanum_, was in the larger monuments adorned with
+sculptured groups resting on the shelf formed by the horizontal cornice
+below. Carved ornaments called _acroteria_ commonly embellished the
+three angles of the gable or pediment.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--GREEK DORIC ORDER.
+  A, _Crepidoma, or stylobate_; b, _Column_; c, _Architrave_;
+  d, _T�nia_; e, _Frieze_; f, _Horizontal cornice_; g, _Raking
+  cornice_; h, _Tympanum of pediment_; k, _Metope_.]
+
+
++POLYCHROMY.+ It has been fully proved, after a century of debate, that
+all this elaborate system of parts, severe and dignified in their
+simplicity of form, received a rich decoration of color. While the
+precise shades and tones employed cannot be predicated with certainty,
+it is well established that the triglyphs were painted blue and the
+metopes red, and that all the mouldings were decorated with
+leaf-ornaments, "eggs-and-darts," and frets, in red, green, blue, and
+gold. The walls and columns were also colored, probably with pale tints
+of yellow or buff, to reduce the glare of the fresh marble or the
+whiteness of the fine stucco with which the surfaces of masonry of
+coarser stone were primed. In the clear Greek atmosphere and outlined
+against the brilliant sky, the Greek temple must have presented an
+aspect of rich, sparkling gayety.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--DORIC ORDER OF THE PARTHENON.]
+
++ORIGIN OF THE ORDER.+ It is generally believed that the details of the
+Doric frieze and cornice were reminiscences of a primitive wood
+construction. The triglyph suggests the chamfered ends of cross-beams
+made up of three planks each; the mutules, the sheathing of the eaves;
+and the gutt�, the heads of the spikes or trenails by which the
+sheathing was secured. It is known that in early astylar temples the
+metopes were left open like the spaces between the ends of
+ceiling-rafters. In the earlier peripteral temples, as at Selinus, the
+triglyph-frieze is retained around the cella-wall under the ceiling of
+the colonnade, where it has no functional significance, as a survival
+from times antedating the adoption of the colonnade, when the tradition
+of a wooden roof-construction showing externally had not yet been
+forgotten.
+
+A similar wooden origin for the Doric column has been advocated by some,
+who point to the assertion of Pausanias that in the Doric Heraion at
+Olympia the original wooden columns had with one exception been replaced
+by stone columns as fast as they decayed. (See p.�62.) This, however,
+only proves that wooden columns were sometimes used in early buildings,
+not that the Doric column was derived from them. Others would derive it
+from the Egyptian columns of Beni Hassan (p.�12), which it certainly
+resembles. But they do not explain how the Greeks could have been
+familiar with the Beni Hassan column long before the opening of Egypt to
+them under Psammetichus; nor why, granting them some knowledge of
+Egyptian architecture, they should have passed over the splendors of
+Karnak and Luxor to copy these inconspicuous tombs perched high up on
+the cliffs of the Nile. It would seem that the Greeks invented this form
+independently, developing it in buildings which have perished; unless,
+indeed, they brought the idea with them from their primitive Aryan home
+in Asia.
+
+
++THE IONIC ORDER+ was characterized by greater slenderness of proportion
+and elegance of detail than the Doric, and depended more on carving than
+on color for the decoration of its members (Fig. 28). It was adopted in
+the fifth century B.C. by the people of Attica, and used both for civic
+and religious buildings, sometimes alone and sometimes in conjunction
+with the Doric. The column was from eight to ten diameters in height,
+against four and one-third to seven for the Doric. It stood on a base
+which was usually composed of two tori (see p.�25 for definition)
+separated by a _scotia_ (a�concave moulding of semicircular or
+semi-elliptical profile), and was sometimes provided also with a square
+flat base-block, the _plinth_. There was much variety in the proportions
+and details of these mouldings, which were often enriched by flutings or
+carved guilloches. The tall shaft bore twenty-four deep narrow flutings
+separated by narrow fillets. The capital was the most peculiar feature
+of the order. It consisted of a bead or _astragal_ and echinus, over
+which was a horizontal band ending on either side in a scroll or volute,
+the sides of which presented the aspect shown in Fig. 29. A�thin moulded
+abacus was interposed between this member and the architrave.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--GREEK IONIC ORDER. (MILETUS.)]
+
+The Ionic capital was marked by two awkward features which all its
+richness could not conceal. One was the protrusion of the echinus beyond
+the face of the band above it, the other was the disparity between the
+side and front views of the capital, especially noticeable at the
+corners of a colonnade. To obviate this, various contrivances were
+tried, none wholly successful. Ordinarily the two adjacent exterior
+sides of the corner capital were treated alike, the scrolls at their
+meeting being bent out at an angle of 45�, while the two inner faces
+simply intersected, cutting each other in halves.
+
+The entablature comprised an architrave of two or three flat bands
+crowned by fine mouldings; an uninterrupted frieze, frequently
+sculptured in relief; and a simple cornice of great beauty. In addition
+to the ordinary bed-mouldings there was in most examples a row of narrow
+blocks or _dentils_ under the corona, which was itself crowned by a high
+cymatium of extremely graceful profile, carved with the rich
+"honeysuckle" (_anthemion_) ornament. All the mouldings were carved with
+the "egg-and-dart," heart-leaf and anthemion ornaments, so designed as
+to recall by their outline the profile of the moulding itself. The
+details of this order were treated with much more freedom and variety
+than those of the Doric. The pediments of Ionic buildings were rarely or
+never adorned with groups of sculpture. The volutes and echinus of the
+capital, the fluting of the shaft, the use of a moulded circular base,
+and in the cornice the high corona and cymatium, these were constant
+elements in every Ionic order, but all other details varied widely in
+the different examples.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--SIDE VIEW OF IONIC CAPITAL.]
+
++ORIGIN OF THE IONIC ORDER.+ The origin of the Ionic order has given
+rise to almost as much controversy as that of the Doric. Its different
+elements were apparently derived from various sources. The Lycian tombs
+may have contributed the denticular cornice and perhaps also the general
+form of the column and capital. In the Persian architecture of the sixth
+century B.C., the high moulded base, the narrow flutings of the shaft,
+the carved bead-moulding and the use of scrolls in the capital are
+characteristic features, which may have been borrowed by the Ionians
+during the same century, unless, indeed, they were themselves the work
+of Ionic or Lycian workmen in Persian employ. The banded architrave and
+the use of the volute in the decoration of stele-caps (from #st�l�# =
+a memorial stone or column standing isolated and upright), furniture,
+and minor structures are common features in Assyrian, Lycian, and other
+Asiatic architecture of early date. The volute or scroll itself as an
+independent decorative motive may have originated in successive
+variations of Egyptian lotus-patterns.[8] But the combination of these
+diverse elements and their development into the final form of the order
+was the work of the Ionian Greeks, and it was in the Ionian provinces of
+Asia Minor that the most splendid examples of its use are to be found
+(Halicarnassus, Miletus, Priene, Ephesus), while the most graceful and
+perfect are those of Doric-Ionic Attica.
+
+    [Footnote 8: As contended by W. H. Goodyear in his _Grammar of
+    the Lotus_.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--GREEK CORINTHIAN ORDER.
+  (From the monument of Lysicrates.)]
+
++THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.+ This was a late outgrowth of the Ionic rather
+than a new order, and up to the time of the Roman conquest was only used
+for monuments of small size (see Fig. 38). Its entablature in pure Greek
+examples was identical with the Ionic; the shaft and base were only
+slightly changed in proportion and detail. The capital, however, was a
+new departure, based probably on metallic embellishments of altars,
+pedestals, etc., of Ionic style. It consisted in the best examples of a
+high bell-shaped core surrounded by one or two rows of acanthus leaves,
+above which were pairs of branching scrolls meeting at the corners in
+spiral volutes. These served to support the angles of a moulded abacus
+with concave sides (Fig. 30). One example, from the Tower of the Winds
+(the clepsydra of Andronicus Cyrrhestes) at Athens, has only smooth
+pointed palm-leaves and no scrolls above a single row of acanthus
+leaves. Indeed, the variety and disparity among the different examples
+prove that we have here only the first steps toward the evolution of an
+independent order, which it was reserved for the Romans to fully
+develop.
+
+
++GREEK TEMPLES; THE TYPE.+ With the orders as their chief decorative
+element the Greeks built up a splendid architecture of religious and
+secular monuments. Their noblest works were temples, which they designed
+with the utmost simplicity of general scheme, but carried out with a
+mastery of proportion and detail which has never been surpassed. Of
+moderate size in most cases, they were intended primarily to enshrine
+the simulacrum of the deity, and not, like Christian churches, to
+accommodate great throngs of worshippers. Nor were they, on the other
+hand, sanctuaries designed, like those of Egypt, to exclude all but a
+privileged few from secret rites performed only by the priests and king.
+The statue of the deity was enshrined in a chamber, the _naos_ (see
+plan, Fig. 31), often of considerable size, and accessible to the public
+through a columnar porch the _pronaos_. A�smaller chamber, the
+_opisthodomus_, was sometimes added in the rear of the main sanctuary,
+to serve as a treasury or depository for votive offerings. Together
+these formed a windowless structure called the _cella_, beyond which was
+the rear porch, the _posticum_ or _epinaos_. This whole structure was in
+the larger temples surrounded by a colonnade, the _peristyle_, which
+formed the most splendid feature of Greek architecture. The external
+aisle on either side of the cella was called the _pteroma_. A�single
+gabled roof covered the entire building.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31.--TYPES OF GREEK TEMPLE PLANS.
+  a, _In Antis_; b, _Prostyle_; c, _Amphiprostyle_; d, _Peripteral_
+  (_The Parthenon_); N, _Naos_; O, _Opisthodomus_; S, _Statue_.]
+
+The Greek colonnade was thus an exterior feature, surrounding the solid
+cella-wall instead of being enclosed by it as in Egypt. The temple was a
+public, not a royal monument; and its builders aimed, not as in Egypt at
+size and overwhelming sombre majesty, but rather at sunny beauty and the
+highest perfection of proportion, execution, and detail (Fig. 34).
+
+There were of course many variations of the general type just described.
+Each of these has received a special name, which is given below with
+explanations and is illustrated in Fig.�31.
+
+_In antis_; with a porch having two or more columns enclosed between the
+projecting side-walls of the cella.
+
+_Prostylar_ (or prostyle); with a columnar porch in front and no
+peristyle.
+
+_Amphiprostylar_ (or -style); with columnar porches at both ends but no
+peristyle.
+
+_Peripteral_; surrounded by columns.
+
+_Pseudoperipteral_; with false or engaged columns built into the walls
+of the cella, leaving no pteroma.
+
+_Dipteral_; with double lateral ranges of columns (see Fig. 39).
+
+_Pseudodipteral_; with a single row of columns on each side, whose
+distance from the wall is equal to two intercolumniations of the front.
+
+_Tetrastyle_, _hexastyle_, _octastyle_, _decastyle_, etc.; with four,
+six, eight, or ten columns in the end rows.
+
+
++CONSTRUCTION.+ All the temples known to us are of stone, though it is
+evident from allusions in the ancient writers that wood was sometimes
+used in early times. (See p.�62.) The finest temples, especially those
+of Attica, Olympia, and Asia Minor, were of marble. In Magna Gr�cia, at
+Assos, and in other places where marble was wanting, limestone,
+sandstone, or lava was employed and finished with a thin, fine stucco.
+The roof was almost invariably of wood and gabled, forming at the ends
+pediments decorated in most cases with sculpture. The disappearance of
+these inflammable and perishable roofs has given rise to endless
+speculations as to the lighting of the cellas, which in all known ruins,
+except one at Agrigentum, are destitute of windows. It has been
+conjectured that light was admitted through openings in the roof, and
+even that the central part of the cella was wholly open to the sky. Such
+an arrangement is termed _hyp�thral_, from an expression used in a
+description by Vitruvius;[9] but this description corresponds to no
+known structure, and the weight of opinion now inclines against the use
+of the hyp�thral opening, except possibly in one or two of the largest
+temples, in which a part of the cella in front of the statue may have
+been thus left open. But even this partial _hyp�thros_ is not
+substantiated by direct evidence. It hardly seems probable that the
+magnificent chryselephantine statues of such temples were ever thus left
+exposed to the extremes of the climate, which are often severe even in
+Greece. In the model of the Parthenon designed by Ch. Chipiez for the
+Metropolitan Museum in New York, a�small clerestory opening through the
+roof admits a moderate amount of light to the cella; but this ingenious
+device rests on no positive evidence (see Frontispiece). It seems on the
+whole most probable that the cella was lighted entirely by artificial
+illumination; but the controversy in its present state is and must be
+wholly speculative.
+
+    [Footnote 9: Lib. III., Cap. I.]
+
+The wooden roof was covered with tiles of terra-cotta or marble. It was
+probably ceiled and panelled on the under side, and richly decorated
+with color and gold. The pteroma had under the exterior roof a ceiling
+of stone or marble, deeply panelled between transverse architraves.
+
+The naos and opisthodomus being in the larger temples too wide to be
+spanned by single beams, were furnished with interior columns to afford
+intermediate support. To avoid the extremes of too great massiveness and
+excessive slenderness in these columns, they were built in two stages,
+and advantage was taken of this arrangement, in some cases, at least, to
+introduce lateral galleries into the naos.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--CARVED ANTHEMION ORNAMENT. ATHENS.]
+
++SCULPTURE AND CARVING.+ All the architectural membering was treated
+with the greatest refinement of design and execution, and the aid of
+sculpture, both in relief and in the round, was invoked to give splendor
+and significance to the monument. The statue of the deity was the focus
+of internal interest, while externally, groups of statues representing
+the Olympian deities or the mythical exploits of gods, demigods, and
+heroes, adorned the gables. Relief carvings in the friezes and metopes
+commemorated the favorite national myths. In these sculptures we have
+the finest known adaptations of pure sculpture--_i.e._, sculpture
+treated as such and complete in itself--to an architectural framework.
+The noblest examples of this decorative sculpture are those of the
+Parthenon, consisting of figures in the full round from the pediments,
+groups in high relief from the metopes, and the beautiful frieze of the
+Panathenaic procession from the cella-wall under the pteroma ceiling.
+The greater part of these splendid works are now in the British Museum,
+whither they were removed by Lord Elgin in 1801. From Olympia, �gina,
+and Phigaleia, other master-works of the same kind have been transferred
+to the museums of Europe. In the Doric style there was little carving
+other than the sculpture, the ornament being mainly polychromatic. Greek
+Ionic and Corinthian monuments, however, as well as minor works such as
+steles, altars, etc., were richly adorned with carved mouldings and
+friezes, festoons, acroteria, and other embellishments executed with the
+chisel. The anthemion ornament, a�form related to the Egyptian lotus and
+Assyrian palmette, most frequently figures in these. It was made into
+designs of wonderful vigor and beauty (Fig. 32).
+
+
++DETAIL AND EXECUTION.+ In the handling and cutting of stone the Greeks
+displayed a surpassing skill and delicacy. While ordinarily they were
+content to use stones of moderate size, they never hesitated at any
+dimension necessary for proper effect or solid construction. The lower
+drums of the Parthenon peristyle are 6�feet 6� inches in diameter, and
+2�feet 10 inches high, cut from single blocks of Pentelic marble. The
+architraves of the Propyl�a at Athens are each made up of two lintels
+placed side by side, the longest 17 feet 7�inches long, 3�feet 10 inches
+high, and 2�feet 4�inches thick. In the colossal temples of Asia Minor,
+where the taste for the vast and grandiose was more pronounced, blocks
+of much greater size were used. These enormous stones were cut and
+fitted with the most scrupulous exactness. The walls of all important
+structures were built in regular courses throughout, every stone
+carefully bedded with extremely close joints. The masonry was usually
+laid up without cement and clamped with metal; there is no filling in
+with rubble and concrete between mere facings of cut stone, as in most
+modern work. When the only available stone was of coarse texture it was
+finished with a coating of fine stucco, in which sharp edges and minute
+detail could be worked.
+
+The details were, in the best period, executed with the most
+extraordinary refinement and care. The profiles of capitals and
+mouldings, the carved ornament, the arrises of the flutings, were cut
+with marvellous precision and delicacy. It has been rightly said that
+the Greeks "built like Titans and finished like jewellers." But this
+perfect finish was never petty nor wasted on unworthy or vulgar design.
+The just relation of scale between the building and all its parts was
+admirably maintained; the ornament was distributed with rare judgment,
+and the vigor of its design saved it from all appearance of triviality.
+
+The sensitive taste of the Greeks led them into other refinements than
+those of mere mechanical perfection. In the Parthenon especially, but
+also in lesser degree in other temples, the seemingly straight lines of
+the building were all slightly curved, and the vertical faces inclined.
+This was done to correct the monotony and stiffness of absolutely
+straight lines and right angles, and certain optical illusions which
+their acute observation had detected. The long horizontal lines of the
+stylobate and cornice were made convex upward; a�similar convexity in
+the horizontal corona of the pediment counteracted the seeming concavity
+otherwise resulting from its meeting with the multiplied inclined lines
+of the raking cornice. The columns were almost imperceptibly inclined
+toward the cella, and the corner intercolumniations made a trifle
+narrower than the rest; while the vertical lines of the arrises of the
+flutings were made convex outward with a curve of the utmost beauty and
+delicacy. By these and other like refinements there was imparted to the
+monument an elasticity and vigor of aspect, an elusive and surprising
+beauty impossible to describe and not to be explained by the mere
+composition and general proportions, yet manifest to every cultivated
+eye.[10]
+
+    [Footnote 10: These refinements, first noticed by Allason in
+    1814, and later confirmed by Cockerell and Haller as to the
+    columns, were published to the world in 1838 by Hoffer, verified
+    by Penrose in 1846, and further developed by the investigations
+    of Ziller and later observers.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE--_Continued_.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter VI. Also, Bacon and Clarke,
+  _Investigations at Assos_. Espouy, _Fragments d'architecture
+  antique_. Harrison and Verrall, _Mythology and Monuments of
+  Ancient Athens_. Hitorff et Zanth, _Recueil des Monuments de
+  S�geste et S�linonte_. Magne, _Le Parth�non_. Koldewey and
+  Puchstein, _Die griechischen Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien_.
+  Waldstein, _The Argive Her�um_.
+
+
++HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT.+ The history of Greek architecture, subsequent to
+the Heroic or Primitive Age, may be divided into periods as follows:
+
+The ARCHAIC; from 650 to 500 B.C.
+
+The TRANSITIONAL; from 500 to 460 B.C., or to the revival of prosperity
+after the Persian wars.
+
+The PERICLEAN; from 460 to 400 B.C.
+
+The FLORID or ALEXANDRIAN; from 400 to 300 B.C.
+
+The DECADENT; 300 to 100 B.C.
+
+The ROMAN; 100 B.C. to 200 A.D.
+
+These dates are, of course, somewhat arbitrary; it is impossible to set
+exact bounds to style-periods, which must inevitably overlap at certain
+points, but the dates, as given above, will assist in distinguishing the
+successive phases of the history.
+
+
++ARCHAIC PERIOD.+ The archaic period is characterized by the exclusive
+use of the Doric order, which appears in the earliest monuments complete
+in all its parts, but heavy in its proportions and coarse in its
+execution. The oldest known temples of this period are the +Apollo
+Temple+ at Corinth (650 B.C.?), and the +Northern Temple+ on the
+acropolis at +Selinus+ in Sicily (cir. 610-590 B.C.). They are both of a
+coarse limestone covered with stucco. The columns are low and massive
+(4-1/3 to 4-2/3 diameters in height), widely spaced, and carry a very
+high entablature. The triglyphs still appear around the cella wall under
+the pteroma ceiling, an illogical detail destined to disappear in later
+buildings. Other temples at Selinus date from the middle or latter part
+of the sixth century; they have higher columns and finer profiles than
+those just mentioned. The great +Temple of Zeus+ at +Selinus+ was the
+earliest of five colossal Greek temples of very nearly identical
+dimensions; it measured 360 feet by 167 feet in plan, but was never
+completed. During the second half of the sixth century important Doric
+temples were built at P�stum in South Italy, and Agrigentum in Sicily;
+the somewhat primitive temple at Assos in Asia Minor, with uncouth
+carvings of centaurs and monsters on its architrave, belongs to this
+same period. The +Temple of Zeus+ at +Agrigentum+ (Fig. 33) is another
+singular and exceptional design, and was the second of the five colossal
+temples mentioned above. The pteroma was entirely enclosed by walls with
+engaged columns showing externally, and was of extraordinary width. The
+walls of the narrow cella were interrupted by heavy piers supporting
+atlantes, or applied statues under the ceiling. There seem to have been
+windows between these figures, but it is not clear whence they borrowed
+their light, unless it was admitted by the omission of the metopes
+between the external triglyphs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--TEMPLE OF ZEUS. AGRIGENTUM.]
+
+
++THE TRANSITION.+ During the transitional period there was a marked
+improvement in the proportions, detail, and workmanship of the temples.
+The cella was made broader, the columns more slender, the entablature
+lighter. The triglyphs disappeared from the cella wall, and sculpture of
+a higher order enhanced the architectural effect. The profiles of the
+mouldings and especially of the capitals became more subtle and refined
+in their curves, while the development of the Ionic order in important
+monuments in Asia Minor was preparing the way for the splendors of the
+Periclean age. Three temples especially deserve notice: the +Athena
+Temple+ on the island of +�gina+, the +Temple of Zeus+ at +Olympia+, and
+the so-called +Theseum+--perhaps a temple of Heracles--in Athens. They
+belong to the period 470-450 B.C.; they are all hexastyle and
+peripteral, and without triglyphs on the cella wall. Of the three the
+second in the list is interesting as the scene of those rites which
+preceded and accompanied the Panhellenic Olympian games, and as the
+central feature of the Altis, the most complete temple-group and
+enclosure among all Greek remains. It was built of a coarse
+conglomerate, finished with fine stucco, and embellished with sculpture
+by the greatest masters of the time. The adjacent +Heraion+ (temple of
+Hera) was a highly venerated and ancient shrine, originally built with
+wooden columns which, according to Pausanias, were replaced one by one,
+as they decayed, by stone columns. The truth of this statement is
+attested by the discovery of a singular variety of capitals among its
+ruins, corresponding to the various periods at which they were added.
+The Theseum is the most perfectly preserved of all Greek temples, and in
+the refinement of its forms is only surpassed by those of the Periclean
+age.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--RUINS OF THE PARTHENON.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--PLAN OF ERECHTHEUM.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--WEST END OF ERECHTHEUM, RESTORED.]
+
++THE PERICLEAN AGE.+ The Persian wars may be taken as the dividing line
+between the Transition period and the Periclean age. The _�lan_ of
+national enthusiasm that followed the expulsion of the invader, and the
+glory and wealth which accrued to Athens as the champion of all Hellas,
+resulted in a splendid reconstruction of the Attic monuments as well as
+a revival of building activity in Asia Minor. By the wise administration
+of Pericles and by the genius of Ictinus, Phidias, and other artists of
+surpassing skill, the Acropolis at Athens was crowned with a group of
+buildings and statues absolutely unrivalled. Chief among them was the
++Parthenon+, the shrine of Athena Parthenos, which the critics of all
+schools have agreed in considering the most faultless in design and
+execution of all buildings erected by man (Figs. 31, 34, and
+Frontispiece). It was an octastyle peripteral temple, with seventeen
+columns on the side, and measured 220 by 100 feet on the top of the
+stylobate. It was the work of Ictinus and Callicrates, built to enshrine
+the noble statue of the goddess by Phidias, a�standing chryselephantine
+figure forty feet high. It was the masterpiece of Greek architecture not
+only by reason of its refinements of detail, but also on account of the
+beauty of its sculptural adornments. The frieze about the cella wall
+under the pteroma ceiling, representing in low relief with masterly
+skill the Panathenaic procession; the sculptured groups in the metopes,
+and the superb assemblages of Olympic and symbolic figures of colossal
+size in the pediments, added their majesty to the perfection of the
+architecture. Here also the horizontal curvatures and other refinements
+are found in their highest development. Northward from it, upon the
+Acropolis, stood the +Erechtheum+, an excellent example of the
+Attic-Ionic style (Figs. 35, 36). Its singular irregularities of plan
+and level, and the variety of its detail, exhibit in a striking way the
+Greek indifference to mere formal symmetry when confronted by practical
+considerations. The motive in this case was the desire to include in one
+design several existing and venerated shrines to Attic deities and
+heroes--Athena Polias, Poseidon, Pandrosus, Erechtheus, Boutes, etc.
+Begun by unknown architects in 479 B.C., and not completed until 408
+B.C., it remains in its ruin still one of the most interesting and
+attractive of ancient buildings. Its two colonnades of differing design,
+its beautiful north doorway, and the unique and noble caryatid porch or
+balcony on the south side are unsurpassed in delicate beauty combined
+with vigor of design.[11] A�smaller monument of the Ionic order, the
+amphiprostyle temple to +Nike Apteros+--the Wingless Victory--stands on
+a projecting spur of the Acropolis to the southwest. It measures only 27
+feet by 18 feet in plan; the cella is nearly square; the columns are
+sturdier than those of the Erechtheum, and the execution of the monument
+is admirable. It was the first completed of the extant buildings of the
+group of the Acropolis and dates from 466 B.C.
+
+    [Footnote 11: See Appendix, p. 427.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--PROPYL�A AT ATHENS. PLAN.]
+
+In the +Propyl�a+ (Fig. 37), the monumental gateway to the Acropolis,
+the Doric and Ionic orders appear to have been combined for the first
+time (437 to 432 B.C.). It was the master work of Mnesicles. The front
+and rear fa�ades were Doric hexastyles; adjoining the front porch were
+two projecting lateral wings employing a smaller Doric order. The
+central passageway led between two rows of Ionic columns to the rear
+porch, entered by five doorways and crowned, like the front, with a
+pediment. The whole was executed with the same splendor and perfection
+as the other buildings of the Acropolis, and was a worthy gateway to the
+group of noble monuments which crowned that citadel of the Attic
+capital. The two orders were also combined in the temple of +Apollo
+Epicurius+ at +Phigal�a+ (Bass�). This temple was erected in 430 B.C. by
+Ictinus, who used the Ionic order internally to decorate a row of
+projecting piers instead of free-standing columns in the naos, in which
+there was also a single Corinthian column of rather archaic design,
+which may have been used as a support for a statue or votive offering.
+
+
++ALEXANDRIAN AGE.+ A period of reaction followed the splendid
+architectural activity of the Periclean age. A�succession of disastrous
+wars--the Sicilian, Peloponnesian, and Corinthian--drained the energies
+and destroyed the peace of European Greece for seventy-five years,
+robbing Athens of her supremacy and inflicting wounds from which she
+never recovered. In the latter part of the fourth century, however, the
+triumph of the Macedonian empire over all the Mediterranean lands
+inaugurated a new era of architectural magnificence, especially in Asia
+Minor. The keynote of the art of this time was splendor, as that of the
+preceding age was artistic perfection. The Corinthian order came into
+use, as though the Ionic were not rich enough for the sumptuous taste of
+the time, and capitals and bases of novel and elaborate design
+embellished the Ionic temples of Asia Minor. In the temple of +Apollo
+Didym�us+ at Miletus, the plinths of the bases were made octagonal and
+panelled with rich scroll-carvings; and the piers which buttressed the
+interior faces of the cella-walls were given capitals of singular but
+elegant form, midway between the Ionic and Corinthian types. This temple
+belongs to the list of colossal edifices already referred to; its
+dimensions were 366 by 163 feet, making it the largest of them all. The
+famous +Artemisium+ (temple of Artemis or Diana) measured 342 by 163
+feet. Several of the columns of the latter were enriched with sculptured
+figures encircling the lower drums of the colossal shafts. The most
+lavish expenditure was bestowed upon small structures, shrines, and
+sarcophagi. The graceful monument still visible in Athens, erected by
+the choragus Lysicrates in token of his victory in the choral
+competitions, belongs to this period (330 B.C.). It is circular, with a
+slightly domical imbricated roof, and is decorated with elegant engaged
+Corinthian columns (Fig. 38). In the Imperial Museum at Constantinople
+are several sarcophagi of this period found at Sidon, but executed by
+Greek artists, and of exceptional beauty. They are in the form of
+temples or shrines; the finest of them, supposed by some to have been
+made for Alexander's favorite general Perdiccas, and by others for the
+Persian satrap who figures prominently on its sculptured reliefs, is the
+most sumptuous work of the kind in existence. The exquisite polychromy
+of its beautiful reliefs and the perfection of its rich details of
+cornice, pediment, tiling, and crestings, make it an exceedingly
+interesting and instructive example of the minor architecture of the
+period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--CHORAGIC MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES.
+  (Restored model, N.Y.)]
+
+
++THE DECADENCE.+ After the decline of Alexandrian magnificence Greek art
+never recovered its ancient glory, but the flame was not suddenly
+extinguished. While in Greece proper the works of the second and third
+centuries B.C., are for the most part weak and lifeless, like the +Stoa
+of Attalus+ (175 B.C.) and the +Tower of the Winds+ (the Clepsydra of
+Andronicus Cyrrhestes, 100 B.C.) at Athens or the Portico of Philip in
+Delos, there were still a few worthy works built in Asia Minor. The
+splendid +Altar+ erected at +Pergamon+ by Eumenes II. (circ. 180 B.C.)
+in the Ionic order, combined sculpture of extraordinary vigor with
+imposing architecture in masterly fashion. At +Aizanoi+ an Ionic +Temple
+to Zeus+, by some attributed to the Roman period, but showing rather the
+character of good late Greek work, deserves mention for its elegant
+details, and especially for its frieze-decoration of acanthus leaves and
+scrolls resembling those of a Corinthian capital.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--TEMPLE OF OLYMPIAN ZEUS. ATHENS.]
+
++ROMAN PERIOD.+ During this period, _i.e._, throughout the second and
+first centuries B.C., the Roman dominion was spreading over Greek
+territory, and the structures erected subsequent to the conquest partake
+of the Roman character and mingle Roman conceptions with Greek details
+and _vice vers�_. The temple of the +Olympian Zeus+ at Athens (Fig. 39),
+a�mighty dipteral Corinthian edifice measuring 354 by 171 feet, standing
+on a vast terrace or temenos surrounded by a buttressed wall, was begun
+by Antiochus Epiphanes (170 B.C.) on the site of an earlier unfinished
+Doric temple of the time of Pisistratus, and carried out under the
+direction of the Roman architect, Cossutius. It was not, however,
+finally completed until the time of Hadrian, 130 A.D. Meanwhile Sulla
+had despoiled it of several columns[12] which he carried to Rome (86
+B.C.), to use in the rebuilding of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol,
+where they undoubtedly served as models in the development of the Roman
+Corinthian order. The columns were 57 feet high, with capitals of the
+most perfect Corinthian type; fifteen are now standing, and one lies
+prostrate near by. To the Roman period also belong the +Agora Gate+
+(circ. 35 B.C.), the +Arch of Hadrian+ (117 A.D.), the +Odeon of
+Regilla+ or of Herodes Atticus (143 A.D.), at Athens, and many temples
+and tombs, theatres, arches, etc., in the Greek provinces.
+
+    [Footnote 12: L. Bevier, in _Papers of the American Classical
+    School at Athens_ (vol. i., pp. 195, 196), contends that these
+    were columns left from the old Doric temple. This is untenable,
+    for Sulla would certainly not have taken the trouble to carry
+    away archaic Doric columns, with such splendid Corinthian columns
+    before him.]
+
+
++SECULAR MONUMENTS; PROPYL�A.+ The stately gateway by which the
+Acropolis was entered has already been described. It was the noblest and
+most perfect of a class of buildings whose prototype is found in the
+monumental columnar porches of the palace-group at Persepolis. The
+Greeks never used the arch in these structures, nor did they attach to
+them the same importance as did most of the other nations of antiquity.
+The Altis of Olympia, the national shrine of Hellenism, appears to have
+had no central gateway of imposing size, but a number of insignificant
+entrances disposed at random. The +Propyl�a+ of +Sunium+, +Priene+ and
++Eleusis+ are the most conspicuous, after those of the Athenian
+Acropolis. Of these the Ionic gateway at Priene is the finest, although
+the later of the two at Eleusis is interesting for its anta-capitals.
+(_Anta_ = a flat pilaster decorating the end of a wing-wall and treated
+with a base and capital usually differing from those of the adjacent
+columns.) These are of Corinthian type, adorned with winged horses,
+scrolls, and anthemions of an exuberant richness of design,
+characteristic of this late period.
+
+
++COLONNADES, STO�.+ These were built to connect public monuments (as the
+Dionysiac theatre and Odeon at Athens); or along the sides of great
+public squares, as at Assos and Olympia (the so-called +Echo Hall+); or
+as independent open public halls, as the +Stoa Diple+ at Thoricus. They
+afforded shelter from sun and rain, places for promenading, meetings
+with friends, public gatherings, and similar purposes. They were rarely
+of great size, and most of them are of rather late date, though the
+archaic structure at P�stum, known as the +Basilica+, was probably in
+reality an open hall of this kind.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--PLAN OF GREEK THEATRE.
+  o, _Orchestra_; l, _Logeion_; p, _Paraskenai_; _s, s_, _Stoa_.]
+
++THEATRES, ODEONS.+ These were invariably cut out of the rocky
+hillsides, though in a few cases (Mantin�a, Myra, Antiphellus) a�part of
+the seats were sustained by a built-up substructure and walls to eke out
+the deficiency of the hill-slope under them. The front of the excavation
+was enclosed by a stage and a set scene or background, built up so as to
+leave somewhat over a semicircle for the _orchestra_ or space enclosed
+by the lower tier of seats (Fig. 40). An altar to Dionysus (Bacchus) was
+the essential feature in the foreground of the orchestra, where the
+Dionysiac choral dance was performed. The seats formed successive steps
+of stone or marble sweeping around the sloping excavation, with carved
+marble thrones for the priests, archons, and other dignitaries. The only
+architectural decoration of the theatre was that of the set scene or
+_skene_, which with its wing-walls (_paraskenai_) enclosing the stage
+(_logeion_) was a permanent structure of stone or marble adorned with
+doors, cornices, pilasters, etc. This has perished in nearly every case;
+but at Aspendus, in Asia Minor, there is one still fairly well
+preserved, with a rich architectural decoration on its inner face. The
+extreme diameter of the theatres varied greatly; thus at Aizanoi it is
+187 feet, and at Syracuse 495 feet. The theatre of Dionysus at Athens
+(finished 325 B.C.) could accommodate thirty thousand spectators.
+
+The odeon differed from the theatre principally in being smaller and
+entirely covered in by a wooden roof. The +Odeon of Regilla+, built by
+Herodes Atticus in Athens (143 A.D.), is a well-preserved specimen of
+this class, but all traces of its cedar ceiling and of its intermediate
+supports have disappeared.
+
+
++BUILDINGS FOR ATHLETIC CONTESTS.+ These comprised stadia and
+hippodromes for races, and gymnasia and pal�str� for individual
+exercise, bathing, and amusement. The _stadia_ and _hippodromes_ were
+oblong enclosures surrounded by tiers of seats and without conspicuous
+architectural features. The _pal�stra_ or _gymnasium_--for the terms are
+not clearly distinguished--was a combination of courts, chambers, tanks
+(_piscin�_) for bathers and _exedr�_ or semicircular recesses provided
+with tiers of seats for spectators and auditors, destined not merely for
+the exercises of athletes preparing for the stadium, but also for the
+instruction and diversion of the public by recitations, lectures, and
+discussions. It was the prototype of the Roman therm�, but less
+imposing, more simple in plan and adornment. Every Greek city had one or
+more of them, but they have almost wholly disappeared, and the brief
+description by Vitruvius and scanty remains at Alexandria Troas and
+Ephesus furnish almost the only information we possess regarding their
+form and arrangement.
+
+
++TOMBS.+ These are not numerous, and the most important are found in
+Asia Minor. The greatest of these is the famed +Mausoleum+ at
+Halicarnassus in Caria, the monument erected to the king Mausolus by his
+widow Artemisia (354 B.C.; Fig. 41). It was designed by Satyrus and
+Pythius in the Ionic style, and comprised a podium or base 50 feet high
+and measuring 80 feet by 100 feet, in which was the sepulchre. Upon this
+base stood a cella surrounded by thirty-six Ionic columns; and crowned
+by a pyramidal roof, on the peak of which was a colossal marble quadriga
+at a height of 130 feet. It was superbly decorated by Scopas and other
+great sculptors with statues, marble lions, and a magnificent frieze.
+The British Museum possesses fragments of this most imposing monument.
+At Xanthus the +Nereid Monument+, so called from its sculptured figures
+of Nereides, was a somewhat similar design on a smaller scale, with
+sixteen Ionic columns. At Mylassa was another tomb with an open
+Corinthian colonnade supporting a roof formed in a stepped pyramid. Some
+of the later rock-cut tombs of Lycia at Myra and Antiphellus may also be
+counted as Hellenic works.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS.
+  (As restored by the author.)]
+
+
++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ This never attained great importance in Greece,
+and our knowledge of the typical Greek house is principally derived from
+literary sources. Very few remains of Greek houses have been found
+sufficiently well preserved to permit of restoring even the plan. It is
+probable that they resembled in general arrangement the houses of
+Pompeii (see p.�107); but that they were generally insignificant in size
+and decoration. The exterior walls were pierced only by the entrance
+doors, all light being derived from one or more interior courts. In the
+Macedonian epoch there must have been greater display and luxury in
+domestic architecture, but no remains have come down to us of sufficient
+importance or completeness to warrant further discussion.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ In addition to those already mentioned in the text
+  the following should be enumerated:
+
+  PREHISTORIC PERIOD. In the Islands about Santorin, remains of
+  houses antedating 1500 B.C.; at Tiryns the Acropolis, walls, and
+  miscellaneous ruins; the like also at Mycen�, besides various
+  tombs; walls and gates at Samos, Thoricus, Menidi, Athens, etc.
+
+  ARCHAIC PERIOD. Doric Temples at Metapontium (by Durm assigned to
+  610 B.C.), Selinus, Agrigentum, P�stum; at Athens the first
+  Parthenon; in Asia Minor the primitive Ionic Artemisium at Ephesus
+  and the Heraion at Samos, the latter the oldest of colossal Greek
+  temples.
+
+  TRANSITIONAL PERIOD. At Agrigentum, temples of Concord, Castor and
+  Pollux, Demeter, �sculapius, all circ. 480 B.C.; temples at
+  Selinus and Segesta.
+
+  PERICLEAN PERIOD. In Athens the Ionic temple on the Illissus,
+  destroyed during the present century; on Cape Sunium the temple of
+  Athena, 430 B.C., partly standing; at Nemea, the temple of Zeus;
+  at Tegea, the temple of Athena Elea (400? B.C.); at Rhamnus, the
+  temples of Themis and of Nemesis; at Argos, two temples, stoa, and
+  other buildings; all these were Doric.
+
+  ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD. The temple of Dionysus at Teos; temple of
+  Artemis Leucophryne at Magnesia, both about 330 B.C. and of the
+  Ionic order.
+
+  DECADENCE AND ROMAN PERIOD. At Athens the Stoa of Eumenes, circ.
+  170 B.C.; the monument of Philopappus on the Museum hill, 110
+  A.D.; the Gymnasium of Hadrian, 114 to 137 A.D.; the last two of
+  the Corinthian order.
+
+  THEATRES. Besides those already mentioned there are important
+  remains of theatres at Epidaurus, Argos, Segesta, Iassus (400?
+  B.C.), Delos, Sicyon, and Thoricus; at Aizanoi, Myra, Telmissus,
+  and Patara, besides many others of less importance scattered
+  through the Hellenic world. At Taormina are extensive ruins of a
+  large Greek theatre rebuilt in the Roman period.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Anderson and Spiers, Baumeister,
+  Reber. Choisy, _L'Art de b�tir chez les Romains_. Desgodetz, _Rome
+  in her Ancient Grandeur_. Durm, _Die Baukunst der Etrusker_; _Die
+  Baukunst der Romer_. Lanciani, _Ancient Rome in the Light of
+  Modern Discovery_; _New Tales of Old Rome_; _Ruins and Excavations
+  of Ancient Rome_. De Martha, _Arch�ologie �trusque et romaine_.
+  Middleton, _Ancient Rome in 1888_.
+
+
++LAND AND PEOPLE.+ The geographical position of Italy conferred upon her
+special and obvious advantages for taking up and carrying northward and
+westward the arts of civilization. A�scarcity of good harbors was the
+only drawback amid the blessings of a glorious climate, fertile soil,
+varied scenery, and rich material resources. From a remote antiquity
+Dorian colonists had occupied the southern portion and the island of
+Sicily, enriching them with splendid monuments of Doric art; and
+Phoenician commerce had brought thither the products of Oriental art and
+industry. The foundation of Rome in 753 B.C. established the nucleus
+about which the sundry populations of Italy were to crystallize into the
+Roman nation, under the dominating influence of the Latin element. Later
+on, the absorption of the conquered Etruscans added to this composite
+people a race of builders and engineers, as yet rude and uncouth in
+their art, but destined to become a powerful factor in developing the
+new architecture that was to spring from the contact of the practical
+Romans with the noble art of the Greek centres.
+
+
++GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.+ While the Greeks bequeathed to posterity the
+most perfect models of form in literary and plastic art, it was reserved
+for the Romans to work out the applications of these to every-day
+material life. The Romans were above all things a practical people.
+Their consummate skill as organizers is manifest in the marvellous
+administrative institutions of their government, under which they united
+the most distant and diverse nationalities. Seemingly deficient in
+culture, they were yet able to recast the forms of Greek architecture in
+new moulds, and to evolve therefrom a mighty architecture adapted to
+wholly novel conditions. They brought engineering into the service of
+architecture, which they fitted to the varied requirements of
+government, public amusement, private luxury, and the common comfort.
+They covered the antique world with arches and amphitheatres, with
+villas, baths, basilicas, and temples, all bearing the unmistakable
+impress of Rome, though wrought by artists and artisans of divers races.
+Only an extraordinary genius for organization could have accomplished
+such results.
+
+The architects of Rome marvellously extended the range of their art, and
+gave it a flexibility by which it accommodated itself to the widest
+variety of materials and conditions. They made the arch and vault the
+basis of their system of design, employing them on a scale previously
+undreamed of, and in combinations of surpassing richness and majesty.
+They systematized their methods of construction so that soldiers and
+barbarians could execute the rough mass of their buildings, and
+formulated the designing of the decorative details so that artisans of
+moderate skill could execute them with good effect. They carried the
+principle of repetition of motives to its utmost limit, and sought to
+counteract any resulting monotony by the scale and splendor of the
+design. Above all they developed planning into a fine art, displaying
+their genius in a wonderful variety of combinations and in an unfailing
+sense of the demands of constructive propriety, practical convenience,
+and artistic effect. Where Egyptian or Greek architecture shows one type
+of plan, the Roman shows a score.
+
+
++GREEK INFLUENCE.+ Previous to the closing years of the Republic the
+Romans had no art but the Etruscan. The few buildings of importance they
+possessed were of Etruscan design and workmanship, excepting a small
+number built by Greek hands. It was not until the Empire that Roman
+architecture took on a truly national form. True Roman architecture is
+essentially imperial. The change from the primitive Etruscan style to
+the splendors of the imperial age was due to the conquest of the Greek
+states. Not only did the Greek campaigns enrich Rome with an
+unprecedented wealth of artistic spoils; they also brought into Italy
+hosts of Greek artists, and filled the minds of the campaigners with the
+ambition to realize in their own dominions the marble colonnades, the
+temples, theatres, and propyl�a of the Greek cities they had pillaged.
+The Greek orders were adopted, altered, and applied to arcaded designs
+as well as to peristyles and other open colonnades. The marriage of the
+column and arch gave birth to a system of forms as characteristic of
+Roman architecture as the Doric or Ionic colonnade is of the Greek.
+
+
++THE ROMAN ORDERS.+ To meet the demands of Roman taste the Etruscan
+column was retained with its simple entablature; the Doric and Ionic
+were adopted in a modified form; the Corinthian was developed into a
+complete and independent order, and the Composite was added to the list.
+A�regular system of proportions for all these five orders was gradually
+evolved, and the mouldings were profiled with arcs of circles instead of
+the subtler Greek curves. In the building of many-storied structures the
+orders were superposed, the more slender over the sturdier, in an
+orderly and graded succession. The immense extent and number of the
+Roman buildings, the coarse materials often used, the relative scarcity
+of highly trained artisans, and above all, the necessity of making a
+given amount of artistic design serve for the largest possible amount of
+architecture, combined to direct the designing of detail into uniform
+channels. Thus in time was established a sort of canon of proportions,
+which was reduced to rules by Vitruvius, and revived in much more
+detailed and precise form by Vignola in the sixteenth century.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.--ROMAN DORIC ORDER.
+  (THEATRE OF MARCELLUS).]
+
+In each of the orders, including the Doric, the column was given a base
+one half of a diameter in height (the unit of measurement being the
+diameter of the lower part of the shaft, the _crassitudo_ of Vitruvius).
+The shaft was made to contract about one-sixth in diameter toward the
+capital, under which it was terminated by an _astragal_ or collar of
+small mouldings; at the base it ended in a slight flare and fillet
+called the _cincture_. The entablature was in all cases given not far
+from one quarter the height of the whole column. The +Tuscan+ order was
+a rudimentary or Etruscan Doric with a column seven diameters high and a
+simple entablature without triglyphs, mutules, or dentils. But few
+examples of its use are known. The +Doric+ (Fig. 42) retained the
+triglyphs and metopes, the mutules and gutt� of the Greek; but the
+column was made eight diameters high, the shaft was smooth or had deep
+flutings separated by narrow fillets, and was usually provided with a
+simple moulded base on a square plinth. Mutules were used only over the
+triglyphs, and were even replaced in some cases by dentils; the corona
+was made lighter than the Greek, and a cymatium replaced the antefix� on
+the lateral cornices. The Ionic underwent fewer changes, and these
+principally in the smaller mouldings and details of the capital. The
+column was nine diameters high (Fig. 43). The +Corinthian+ was made into
+an independent order by the designing of a special base of small _tori_
+and _scoti�_, and by sumptuously carved _modillions_ or brackets
+enriching the cornice and supporting the corona above a denticulated
+bed-mould (Fig. 44). Though the first designers of the modillion were
+probably Greeks, it must, nevertheless, be taken as really a Roman
+device, worthily completing the essentially Roman Corinthian order. The
++Composite+ was formed by combining into one capital portions of the
+Ionic and Corinthian, and giving to it a simplified form of the
+Corinthian cornice. The Corinthian order remained, however, the favorite
+order of Roman architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.--ROMAN IONIC ORDER.]
+
+
++USE OF THE ORDERS.+ The Romans introduced many innovations in the
+general use and treatment of the orders. Monolithic shafts were
+preferred to those built up of superposed drums. The fluting was omitted
+on these, and when hard and semi-precious stone like porphyry or
+verd-antique was the material, it was highly polished to bring out its
+color. These polished monoliths were often of great size, and they were
+used in almost incredible numbers.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 44.--CORINTHIAN ORDER
+  (TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX).]
+
+Another radical departure from Greek usage was the mounting of columns
+on pedestals to secure greater height without increasing the size of the
+column and its entablature. The Greek _anta_ was developed into the
+Roman pilaster or flattened wall-column, and every free column, or range
+of columns perpendicular to the fa�ade, had its corresponding pilaster
+to support the wall-end of the architrave. But the most radical
+innovation was the general use of engaged columns as wall-decorations or
+buttresses. The engaged column projected from the wall by more than half
+its diameter, and was built up with the wall as a part of its substance
+(Fig. 45). The entablature was in many cases advanced only over the
+columns, between which it was set back almost to the plane of the wall.
+This practice is open to the obvious criticism that it makes the column
+appear superfluous by depriving it of its function of supporting the
+continuous entablature. The objection has less weight when the
+projecting entablature over the column serves as a pedestal for a statue
+or similar object, which restores to the column its function as a
+support (see the Arch of Constantine, Fig. 63).
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 45.--ROMAN ARCADE WITH ENGAGED COLUMNS
+  (From the Colosseum.)]
+
++ARCADES.+ The orders, though probably at first used only as free
+supports in porticos and colonnades, were early applied as decorations
+to arcaded structures. This practice became general with the
+multiplication of many-storied arcades like those of the amphitheatres,
+the engaged columns being set between the arches as buttresses,
+supporting entablatures which marked the divisions into stories (Fig.
+45). This combination has been assailed as a false and illogical device,
+but the criticism proceeds from a too narrow conception of architectural
+propriety. It is defensible upon both artistic and logical grounds; for
+it not only furnishes a most desirable play of light and shade and a
+pleasing contrast of rectangular and curved lines, but by emphasizing
+the constructive divisions and elements of the building and the vertical
+support of the piers, it also contributes to the expressiveness and
+vigor of the design.
+
+
++VAULTING.+ The Romans substituted vaulting in brick, concrete, or
+masonry for wooden ceilings wherever possible, both in public and
+private edifices. The Etruscans were the first vault-builders, and the
+Cloaca Maxima, the great sewer of Republican Rome (about 500 B.C.) still
+remains as a monument of their engineering skill. Probably not only
+Etruscan engineers (whose traditions were perhaps derived from Asiatic
+sources in the remote past), but Asiatic builders also from conquered
+eastern provinces, were engaged together in the development of the
+wonderful system of vaulted construction to which Roman architecture so
+largely owed its grandeur. Three types of vault were commonly used: the
+barrel-vault, the groined or four-part vault, and the dome.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 46.--BARREL VAULT.]
+
+The barrel vault (Fig. 46) was generally semi-cylindrical in section,
+and was used to cover corridors and oblong halls, like the
+temple-cellas, or was bent around a curve, as in amphitheatre passages.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 47.--GROINED VAULT.
+  _g, g_, _Groins._]
+
+The groined vault is formed by the intersection of two barrel-vaults
+(Fig. 47). When several compartments of groined vaulting are placed
+together over an oblong plan, a�double advantage is secured. Lateral
+windows can be carried up to the full height of the vaulting instead of
+being stopped below its springing; and the weight and thrust of the
+vaulting are concentrated upon a number of isolated points instead of
+being exerted along the whole extent of the side walls, as with the
+barrel-vault. The Romans saw that it was sufficient to dispose the
+masonry at these points in masses at right angles to the length of the
+hall, to best resist the lateral thrust of the vault. This appears
+clearly in the plan of the Basilica of Constantine (Fig. 58).
+
+The dome was in almost all Roman examples supported on a circular wall
+built up from the ground, as in the Pantheon (Fig. 54). The pendentive
+dome, sustained by four or eight arches over a square or octagonal plan,
+is not found in true Roman buildings.
+
+The Romans made of the vault something more than a mere constructive
+device. It became in their hands an element of interior effect at least
+equally important with the arch and column. No style of architecture has
+ever evolved nobler forms of ceiling than the groined vault and the
+dome. Moreover, the use of vaulting made possible effects of
+unencumbered spaciousness and amplitude which could never be compassed
+by any combination of piers and columns. It also assured to the Roman
+monuments a duration and a freedom from danger of destruction by fire
+impossible with any wooden-roofed architecture, however noble its form
+or careful its execution.
+
+
++CONSTRUCTION.+ The constructive methods of the Romans varied with the
+conditions and resources of different provinces, but were everywhere
+dominated by the same practical spirit. Their vaulted architecture
+demanded for the support of its enormous weights and for resistance to
+its disruptive thrusts, piers and buttresses of great mass. To construct
+these wholly of cut stone appeared preposterous and wasteful to the
+Roman. Italy abounds in clay, lime, and a volcanic product, _pozzolana_
+(from Puteoli or Pozzuoli, where it has always been obtained in large
+quantities), which makes an admirable hydraulic cement. With these
+materials it was possible to employ unskilled labor for the great bulk
+of this massive masonry, and to erect with the greatest rapidity and in
+the most economical manner those stupendous piles which, even in their
+ruin, excite the admiration of every beholder.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 48.--ROMAN WALL MASONRY.
+  a, _Brickwork_; b, _Tufa ashlar_; r, _Opus reticulatum_;
+  i, _Opus incertum_.]
+
++STONE, CONCRETE, AND BRICK MASONRY.+ For buildings of an externally
+decorative character such as temples, arches of triumph, and
+amphitheatres, as well as in all places where brick and concrete were
+not easily obtained, stone was employed. The walls were built by laying
+up the inner and outer faces in _ashlar_ or cut stone, and filling in
+the intermediate space with rubble (random masonry of uncut stone) laid
+up in cement, or with concrete of broken stone and cement dumped into
+the space in successive layers. The cement converted the whole into a
+conglomerate closely united with the face-masonry. In Syria and Egypt
+the local preference for stones of enormous size was gratified, and even
+surpassed, as in Herod's terrace-walls for the temple at Jerusalem
+(p.�41), and in the splendid structures of Palmyra and Baalbec. In
+Italy, however, stones of moderate size were preferred, and when blocks
+of unusual dimensions occur, they are in many cases marked with false
+joints, dividing them into apparently smaller blocks, lest they should
+dwarf the building by their large scale. The general use in the Augustan
+period of marble for a decorative lining or wainscot in interiors led in
+time to the objectionable practice of coating buildings of concrete with
+an apparel of sham marble masonry, by carving false joints upon an
+external veneer of thin slabs of that material. Ordinary concrete walls
+were frequently faced with small blocks of tufa, called, according to
+the manner of its application, _opus reticulatum_, _opus incertum_,
+_opus spicatum_, etc. (Fig. 48). In most cases, however, the facing was
+of carefully executed brickwork, covered sometimes by a coating of
+stucco. The bricks were large, measuring from one to two feet square
+where used for quoins or arches, but triangular where they served only
+as facings. Bricks were also used in the construction of skeleton ribs
+for concrete vaults of large span.
+
+
++VAULTING.+ Here, as in the wall-masonry, economy and common sense
+devised methods extremely simple for accomplishing vast designs. While
+the smaller vaults were, so to speak, cast in concrete upon moulds made
+of rough boards, the enormous weight of the larger vaults precluded
+their being supported, while drying or "setting," upon timber centrings
+built up from the ground. Accordingly, a�skeleton of light ribs was
+first built on wooden centrings, and these ribs, when firmly "set,"
+became themselves supports for intermediate centrings on which to cast
+the concrete fillings between the ribs. The whole vault, once hardened,
+formed really a monolithic curved lintel, exerting no thrust whatever,
+so that the extraordinary precautions against lateral disruption
+practised by the Romans were, in fact, in many cases quite superfluous.
+
+
++DECORATION.+ The temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum (long
+miscalled the temple of Jupiter Stator), is a typical example of Roman
+architectural decoration, in which richness was preferred to the subtler
+refinements of design (see Fig. 44). The splendid figure-sculpture which
+adorned the Greek monuments would have been inappropriate on the
+theatres and therm� of Rome or the provinces, even had there been the
+taste or the skill to produce it. Conventional carved ornament was
+substituted in its place, and developed into a splendid system of highly
+decorative forms. Two principal elements appear in this decoration--the
+acanthus-leaf, as the basis of a whole series of wonderfully varied
+motives; and symbolism, represented principally by what are technically
+termed _grotesques_--incongruous combinations of natural forms, as when
+an infant's body terminates in a bunch of foliage (Fig. 49). Only to a
+limited extent do we find true sculpture employed as decoration, and
+that mainly for triumphal arches or memorial columns.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 49--ROMAN CARVED ORNAMENT.
+  (Lateran Museum.)]
+
+The architectural mouldings were nearly always carved, the Greek
+water-leaf and egg-and-dart forming the basis of most of the
+enrichments; but these were greatly elaborated and treated with more
+minute detail than the Greek prototypes. Friezes and bands were commonly
+ornamented with the foliated scroll or _rinceau_ (a�convenient French
+term for which we have no equivalent). This motive was as characteristic
+of Roman art as the anthemion was of the Greek. It consists of a
+continuous stem throwing out alternately on either side branches which
+curl into spirals and are richly adorned with rosettes, acanthus-leaves,
+scrolls, tendrils, and blossoms. In the best examples the detail was
+modelled with great care and minuteness, and the motive itself was
+treated with extraordinary variety and fertility of invention. A�derived
+and enriched form of the anthemion was sometimes used for bands and
+friezes; and grotesques, dolphins, griffins, infant genii, wreaths,
+festoons, ribbons, eagles, and masks are also common features in Roman
+relief carving.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50.--ROMAN CEILING PANELS.
+  (a, From Palmyra; b, Basilica of Constantine.)]
+
+The Romans made great use of panelling and of moulded plaster in their
+interior decoration, especially for ceilings. The panelling of domes and
+vaults was usually roughly shaped in their first construction and
+finished afterward in stucco with rich moulding and rosettes. The panels
+were not always square or rectangular, as in Greek ceilings, but of
+various geometric forms in pleasing combinations (Fig. 50). In works of
+a small scale the panels and decorations were wrought in relief in a
+heavy coating of plaster applied to the finished structure, and these
+stucco reliefs are among the most refined and charming products of Roman
+art. (Baths of Titus; Baths at Pompeii; Palace of the C�sars and tombs
+at Rome.)
+
+
++COLOR DECORATION.+ Plaster was also used as a ground for painting,
+executed in distemper or by the encaustic process, wax liquefied by a
+hot iron being the medium for applying the color in the latter case.
+Pompeii and Herculaneum furnish countless examples of brilliant
+wall-painting in which strong primary colors form the ground, and a
+semi-naturalistic, semi-fantastic representation of figures,
+architecture and landscape is mingled with festoons, vines, and purely
+conventional ornament. Mosaic was also employed to decorate floors and
+wall-spaces, and sometimes for ceilings.[13] The later imperial baths
+and palaces were especially rich in mosaic of the kind called opus
+Grecanicum, executed with numberless minute cubes of stone or glass, as
+in the Baths of Caracalla and the Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli.
+
+    [Footnote 13: See Van Dyke's _History of Paintings_, p.�33.]
+
+To the walls of monumental interiors, such as temples, basilicas, and
+therm�, splendor of color was given by veneering them with thin slabs of
+rare and richly colored marble. No limit seems to have been placed upon
+the costliness or amount of these precious materials. Byzantine
+architecture borrowed from this practice its system of interior color
+decoration.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ROMAN ARCHITECTURE--_Continued_.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter VIII. Also, Guhl and
+  Kohner, _Life of the Ancient Greeks and Romans_. Adams, _Ruins of
+  the Palace of Spalato_. Burn, _Rome and the Campagna_. Cameron,
+  _Roman Baths_. Mau, tr. by Kelcey, _Pompeii, its Life and Art_.
+  Mazois, _Ruines de Pompeii_. Von Presuhn, _Die neueste
+  Ausgrabungen zu Pompeii_. Wood, _Ruins of Palmyra and Baalbec_.
+
+
++THE ETRUSCAN STYLE.+ Although the first Greek architects were employed
+in Rome as early as 493 B.C., the architecture of the Republic was
+practically Etruscan until nearly 100 B.C. Its monuments, consisting
+mainly of city walls, tombs, and temples, are all marked by a general
+uncouthness of detail, denoting a lack of artistic refinement, but they
+display considerable constructive skill. In the Etruscan walls we meet
+with both polygonal and regularly coursed masonry; in both kinds the
+true arch appears as the almost universal form for gates and openings.
+A�famous example is the Augustan Gate at Perugia, a�late work rebuilt
+about 40 B.C., but thoroughly Etruscan in style. At Volaterr� (Volterra)
+is another arched gate, and in Perugia fragments of still another appear
+built into the modern walls.
+
+The Etruscans built both structural and excavated tombs; they consisted
+in general of a single chamber with a slightly arched or gabled roof,
+supported in the larger tombs on heavy square piers. The interiors were
+covered with pictures; externally there was little ornament except about
+the gable and doorway. The latter had a stepped or moulded frame with
+curious _crossettes_ or ears projecting laterally at the top. The gable
+recalled the wooden roofs of Etruscan temples, but was coarse in detail,
+especially in its mouldings. Sepulchral monuments of other types are
+also met with, such as _cippi_ or memorial pillars, sometimes in groups
+of five on a single pedestal (tomb at Albano).
+
+Among the temples of Etruscan style that of +Jupiter Capitolinus+ on the
+Capitol at Rome, destroyed by fire in 80 B.C., was the chief. Three
+narrow chambers side by side formed a cella nearly square in plan,
+preceded by a hexastyle porch of huge Doric, or rather Tuscan, columns
+arranged in three aisles, widely spaced and carrying ponderous wooden
+architraves. The roof was of wood; the cymatium and ornaments, as well
+as the statues in the pediment, were of terra-cotta, painted and gilded.
+The details in general showed acquaintance with Greek models, which
+appeared in debased and awkward imitations of triglyphs, cornices,
+antefix�, etc.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 51.--TEMPLE FORTUNA VIRILIS. PLAN.]
+
++GREEK STYLE.+ The victories of Marcellus at Syracuse, 212 B.C., Fabius
+Maximus at Tarentum (209 B.C.), Flaminius (196 B.C.), Mummius (146
+B.C.), Sulla (86 B.C.), and others in the various Greek provinces,
+steadily increased the vogue of Greek architecture and the number of
+Greek artists in Rome. The temples of the last two centuries B.C., and
+some of earlier date, though still Etruscan in plan, were in many cases
+strongly Greek in the character of their details. A�few have remained to
+our time in tolerable preservation. The temple of +Fortuna Virilis+
+(really of Fors Fortuna), of the second century (?) B.C., is a
+tetrastyle prostyle pseudoperipteral temple with a high _podium_ or
+base, a�typical Etruscan cella, and a deep porch, now walled up, but
+thoroughly Greek in the elegant details of its Ionic order (Fig. 51).
+Two circular temples, both called erroneously +Temples of Vesta+, one at
+Rome near the Cloaca Maxima, the other at Tivoli, belong among the
+monuments of Greek style. The first was probably dedicated to Hercules,
+the second probably to the Sibyls; the latter being much the better
+preserved of the two. Both were surrounded by peristyles of eighteen
+Corinthian columns, and probably covered by domical roofs with gilded
+bronze tiles. The Corinthian order appears here complete with its
+modillion cornice, but the crispness of the detail and the fineness of
+the execution are Greek and not Roman. These temples date from about 72
+B.C., though the one at Rome was probably rebuilt in the first century
+A.D. (Fig. 52).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 52.--CIRCULAR TEMPLE. TIVOLI.]
+
+
++IMPERIAL ARCHITECTURE; AUGUSTAN AGE.+ Even in the temples of Greek
+style Roman conceptions of plan and composition are dominant. The Greek
+architect was not free to reproduce textually Greek designs or details,
+however strongly he might impress with the Greek character whatever he
+touched. The demands of imperial splendor and the building of great
+edifices of varied form and complex structure, like the therm� and
+amphitheatres, called for new adaptations and combinations of planning
+and engineering. The reign of Augustus (27 B.C.-14 A.D.) inaugurated the
+imperial epoch, but many works erected before and after his reign
+properly belong to the Augustan age by right of style. In general, we
+find in the works of this period the happiest combination of Greek
+refinement with Roman splendor. It was in this period that Rome first
+assumed the aspect of an opulent and splendid metropolis, though the way
+had been prepared for this by the regularization and adornment of the
+Roman Forum and the erection of many temples, basilicas, fora, arches,
+and theatres during the generation preceding the accession of Augustus.
+His reign saw the inception or completion of the portico of Octavia, the
+Augustan forum, the Septa Julia, the first Pantheon, the adjoining
+Therm� of Agrippa, the theatre of Marcellus, the first of the imperial
+palaces on the Palatine, and a long list of temples, including those of
+the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), of Mars Ultor, of Jupiter Tonans on
+the Capitol, and others in the provinces; besides colonnades, statues,
+arches, and other embellishments almost without number.
+
+
++LATER IMPERIAL WORKS.+ With the successors of Augustus splendor
+increased to almost fabulous limits, as, for instance, in the vast
+extent and the prodigality of ivory and gold in the famous Golden House
+of Nero. After the great fire in Rome, presumably kindled by the agents
+of this emperor, a�more regular and monumental system of street-planning
+and building was introduced, and the first municipal building-law was
+decreed by him. To the reign of Vespasian (68-79 A.D.) we owe the
+rebuilding in Roman style and with the Corinthian order of the temple of
+Jupiter Capitolinus, the Baths of Titus, and the beginning of the
+Flavian amphitheatre or Colosseum. The two last-named edifices both
+stood on the site of Nero's Golden House, of which the greater part was
+demolished to make way for them. During the last years of the first
+century the arch of Titus was erected, the Colosseum finished,
+amphitheatres built at Verona, Pola, Reggio, Tusculum, N�mes (France),
+Constantine (Algiers), Pompeii and Herculanum (these last two cities and
+Stabi� rebuilt after the earthquake of 63 A.D.), and arches, bridges,
+and temples erected all over the Roman world.
+
+The first part of the second century was distinguished by the splendid
+architectural achievements of the reign of Hadrian (117-138 A.D.) in
+Rome and the provinces, especially Athens. Nearly all his works were
+marked by great dignity of conception as well as beauty of detail.
+During the latter part of the century a very interesting series of
+buildings were erected in the Hauran (Syria), in which Greek and Arab
+workmen under Roman direction produced examples of vigorous stone
+architecture of a mingled Roman and Syrian character.
+
+The most-remarkable therm� of Rome belong to the third century--those of
+Caracalla (211-217 A.D.) and of Diocletian (284-305 A.D.)--their ruins
+to-day ranking among the most imposing remains of antiquity. In Syria
+the temples of the Sun at Baalbec and Palmyra (273 A.D., under
+Aurelian), and the great palace of Diocletian at Spalato, in Dalmatia
+(300 A.D.), are still the wonder of the few travellers who reach those
+distant spots.
+
+While during the third and fourth centuries there was a marked decline
+in purity and refinement of detail, many of the later works of the
+period display a remarkable freedom and originality in conception. But
+these works are really not Roman, they are foreign, that is, provincial
+products; and the transfer of the capital to Byzantium revealed the
+increasing degree in which Rome was coming to look to the East for her
+strength and her art.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53.--TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME. PLAN.]
+
++TEMPLES.+ The Romans built both rectangular and circular temples, and
+there was much variety in their treatment. In the rectangular temples a
+high _podium_, or basement, was substituted for the Greek stepped
+stylobate, and the prostyle plan was more common than the peripteral.
+The cella was relatively short and wide, the front porch inordinately
+deep, and frequently divided by longitudinal rows of columns into three
+aisles. In most cases the exterior of the cella in prostyle temples was
+decorated by engaged columns. A�barrel vault gave the interior an aspect
+of spaciousness impossible with the Greek system of a wooden ceiling
+supported on double ranges of columns. In the place of these, free or
+engaged columns along the side-walls received the ribs of the vaulting.
+Between these ribs the ceiling was richly panelled, or coffered and
+sumptuously gilded. The temples of +Fortuna Virilis+ and of +Faustina+
+at Rome (the latter built 141 A.D., and its ruins incorporated into the
+modern church of S.�Lorenzo in Miranda), and the beautiful and admirably
+preserved +Maison Carr�e+, at N�mes (France) (4�A.D.) are examples of
+this type. The temple of +Concord+, of which only the podium remains,
+and the small temple of Julius (both of these in the Forum) illustrate
+another form of prostyle temple in which the porch was on a long side of
+the cella. Some of the larger temples were peripteral. The temple of the
++Dioscuri+ (Castor and Pollux) in the Forum, was one of the most
+magnificent of these, certainly the richest in detail (Fig. 44). Very
+remarkable was the double temple of +Venus and Rome+, east of the Forum,
+designed by the Emperor Hadrian about 130 A.D. (Fig. 53). It was a vast
+pseudodipteral edifice containing two cellas in one structure, their
+statue-niches or apses meeting back to back in the centre. The temple
+stood in the midst of an imposing columnar peribolus entered by
+magnificent gateways. Other important temples have already been
+mentioned on p.�91.
+
+Besides the two circular temples already described, the temple of Vesta,
+adjoining the House of the Vestals, at the east end of the Forum should
+be mentioned. At Baalbec is a circular temple whose entablature curves
+inward between the widely-spaced columns until it touches the cella in
+the middle of each intercolumniation. It illustrates the caprices of
+design which sometimes resulted from the disregard of tradition and the
+striving after originality (273 A.D.).
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 54.--PLAN OF THE PANTHEON.]
+
++THE PANTHEON.+ The noblest of all circular temples of Rome and of the
+world was the +Pantheon+. It was built by Hadrian, 117-138 A.D., on the
+site of the earlier rectangular temple of the same name erected by
+Agrippa. It measures 142 feet in diameter internally; the wall is 20
+feet thick and supports a hemispherical dome rising to a height of 140
+feet (Figs. 54, 55). Light is admitted solely through a round opening 28
+feet in diameter at the top of the dome, the simplest and most
+impressive method of illumination conceivable. The rain and snow that
+enter produce no appreciable effect upon the temperature of the vast
+hall. There is a single entrance, with noble bronze doors, admitting
+directly to the interior, around which seven niches, alternately
+rectangular and semicircular in plan and fronted by Corinthian columns,
+lighten, without weakening, the mass of the encircling wall. This wall
+was originally incrusted with rich marbles, and the great dome, adorned
+with deep coffering in rectangular panels, was decorated with rosettes
+and mouldings in gilt stucco. The dome appears to have been composed of
+numerous arches and ribs, filled in and finally coated with concrete.
+A�recent examination of a denuded portion of its inner surface has
+convinced the writer that the interior panelling was executed after, and
+not during, its construction, by hewing the panels out of the mass of
+brick and concrete, without regard to the form and position of the
+origin skeleton of ribs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 55.--INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--EXTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON.
+  (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)]
+
+The exterior (Fig. 56) was less successful than the interior. The gabled
+porch of twelve superb granite columns 50 feet high, three-aisled in
+plan after the Etruscan mode, and covered originally by a ceiling of
+bronze, was a rebuilding with the materials and on the plan of the
+original pronaos of the Pantheon of Agrippa. The circular wall behind it
+is faced with fine brickwork, and displays, like the dome, many curious
+arrangements of discharging arches, reminiscences of traditional
+constructive precautions here wholly useless and fictitious because only
+skin-deep. A�revetment of marble below and plaster above once concealed
+this brick facing. The portico, in spite of its too steep gable (once
+filled with a "gigantomachia" in gilt bronze) and its somewhat awkward
+association with a round building, is nevertheless a noble work, its
+capitals in Pentelic marble ranking among the finest known examples of
+the Roman Corinthian. Taken as a whole, the Pantheon is one of the great
+masterpieces of the world's architecture.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 57.--FORUM AND BASILICA OF TRAJAN.]
+
++FORA AND BASILICAS.+ The fora were the places for general public
+assemblage. The chief of those in Rome, the +Forum Magnum+, or +Forum
+Romanum+, was at first merely an irregular vacant space, about and in
+which, as the focus of the civic life, temples, halls, colonnades, and
+statues gradually accumulated. These chance aggregations the systematic
+Roman mind reduced in time to orderly and monumental form; successive
+emperors extended them and added new fora at enormous cost and with
+great splendor of architecture. Those of Julius, Augustus, Vespasian,
+and Nerva (or Domitian), adjoining the Roman Forum, were magnificent
+enclosures surrounded by high walls and single or double colonnades.
+Each contained a temple or basilica, besides gateways, memorial columns
+or arches, and countless statues. The +Forum of Trajan+ surpassed all
+the rest; it covered an area of thirty-five thousand square yards, and
+included, besides the main area, entered through a triumphal arch, the
+Basilica Ulpia, the temple of Trajan, and his colossal Doric column of
+Victory. Both in size and beauty it ranked as the chief architectural
+glory of the city (Fig. 57). The six fora together contained thirteen
+temples, three basilicas, eight triumphal arches, a�mile of porticos,
+and a number of other public edifices.[14] Besides these, a�net-work of
+colonnades covered large tracts of the city, affording sheltered
+communication in every direction, and here and there expanding into
+squares or gardens surrounded by peristyles.
+
+    [Footnote 14: Lanciani: _Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent
+    Discoveries_, p.�89.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 58.--BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE. PLAN.]
+
+The public business of Rome, both judicial and commercial, was largely
+transacted in the _basilicas_, large buildings consisting usually of a
+wide and lofty central nave flanked by lower side-aisles, and
+terminating at one or both ends in an apse or semicircular recess called
+the _tribune_, in which were the seats for the magistrates. The
+side-aisles were separated from the nave by columns supporting a
+clearstory wall, pierced by windows above the roofs of the side-aisles.
+In some cases the latter were two stories high, with galleries; in
+others the central space was open to the sky, as at Pompeii, suggesting
+the derivation of the basilica from the open square surrounded by
+colonnades, or from the forum itself, with which we find it usually
+associated. The most important basilicas in Rome were the +Sempronian+,
+the +�milian+ (about 54 B.C.), the +Julian+ in the Forum Magnum (51
+B.C.), and the +Ulpian+ in the Forum of Trajan (113 A.D.). The last two
+were probably open basilicas, only the side-aisles being roofed. The
+Ulpian (Fig. 57) was the most magnificent of all, and in conjunction
+with the Forum of Trajan formed one of the most imposing of those
+monumental aggregations of columnar architecture which contributed so
+largely to the splendor of the Roman capital.
+
+These monuments frequently suffered from the burning of their wooden
+roofs. It was Constantine who completed the first vaulted and fireproof
+basilica, begun by his predecessor and rival, Maxentius, on the site of
+the former Temple of Peace (Figs. 58, 59). Its design reproduced on a
+grand scale the plan of the tepidarium-halls of the therm�, the
+side-recesses of which were converted into a continuous side-aisle by
+piercing arches through the buttress-walls that separated them. Above
+the imposing vaults of these recesses and under the cross-vaults of the
+nave were windows admitting abundant light. A�_narthex_, or porch,
+preceded the hall at one end; there were also a side entrance from the
+Via Sacra, and an apse or tribune for the magistrates opposite each of
+these entrances. The dimensions of the main hall (325 � 85 feet), the
+height of its vault (117 feet), and the splendor of its columns and
+incrustations excited universal admiration, and exercised a powerful
+influence on later architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 59.--BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE. RUINS.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 60.--THERM� OF CARACALLA.
+  PLAN OF CENTRAL BLOCK.
+  A, _Caldarium, or Hot Bath_; B, _Intermediate Chamber_;
+  C, _Tepidarium, or Warm Bath_; D, _Frigidarium, or Cold Bath_;
+  E, _Peristyles_; a, _Gymnastic Rooms_; b, _Dressing Rooms_;
+  c, _Cooling Rooms_; d, _Small Courts_; e, _Entrances_;
+  v, _Vestibules_.]
+
++THERM�.+ The leisure of the Roman people was largely spent in the great
+baths, or _therm�_, which took the place substantially of the modern
+club. The establishments erected by the emperors for this purpose were
+vast and complex congeries of large and small halls, courts, and
+chambers, combined with a masterly comprehension of artistic propriety
+and effect in the sequence of oblong, square, oval, and circular
+apartments, and in the relation of the greater to the lesser masses.
+They were a combination of the Greek _pal�stra_ with the Roman _balnea_,
+and united in one harmonious design great public swimming-baths, private
+baths for individuals and families, places for gymnastic exercises and
+games, courts, peristyles, gardens, halls for literary entertainments,
+lounging-rooms, and all the complex accommodation required for the
+service of the whole establishment. They were built with apparent
+disregard of cost, and adorned with splendid extravagance. The earliest
+were the +Baths of Agrippa+ (27 B.C.) behind the Pantheon; next may be
+mentioned those of +Titus+, built on the substructions of Nero's Golden
+House. The remains of the +Therm� of Caracalla+ (211 A.D.) form the most
+extensive mass of ruins in Rome, and clearly display the admirable
+planning of this and similar establishments. A�gigantic block of
+buildings containing the three great halls for cold, warm, and hot
+baths, stood in the centre of a vast enclosure surrounded by private
+baths, _exedr�_, and halls for lecture-audiences and other gatherings.
+The enclosure was adorned with statues, flower-gardens, and places for
+out-door games. The +Baths of Diocletian+ (302 A.D.) embodied this
+arrangement on a still more extensive scale; they could accommodate
+3,500 bathers at once, and their ruins cover a broad territory near the
+railway terminus of the modern city. The church of S.�Maria degli Angeli
+was formed by Michael Angelo out of the _tepidarium_ of these
+baths--a�colossal hall 340 � 87 feet, and 90 feet high. The original
+vaulting and columns are still intact, and the whole interior most
+imposing, in spite of later stucco disfigurements. The circular
+_laconicum_ (sweat-room) serves as the porch to the present church. It
+was in the building of these great halls that Roman architecture reached
+its most original and characteristic expression. Wholly unrelated to any
+foreign model, they represent distinctively Roman ideals, both as to
+plan and construction.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 61.--ROMAN THEATRE. (HERCULANUM.)
+  (From model.)]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 62.--COLOSSEUM. HALF PLAN.]
+
++PLACES OF AMUSEMENT.+ The earliest Roman theatres differed from the
+Greek in having a nearly semicircular plan, and in being built up from
+the level ground, not excavated in a hillside (Fig. 61). The first
+theatre was of wood, built by Mummius 145 B.C., and it was not until
+ninety years later that stone was first substituted for the more
+perishable material, in the theatre of Pompey. The +Theatre of
+Marcellus+ (23-13 B.C.) is in part still extant, and later theatres in
+Pompeii, Orange (France), and in the Asiatic provinces are in excellent
+preservation. The orchestra was not, as in the Greek theatre, reserved
+for the choral dance, but was given up to spectators of rank; the stage
+was adorned with a permanent architectural background of columns and
+arches, and sometimes roofed with wood, and an arcade or colonnade
+surrounded the upper tier of seats. The amphitheatre was a still more
+distinctively Roman edifice. It was elliptical in plan, surrounding an
+elliptical arena, and built up with continuous encircling tiers of
+seats. The earliest stone amphitheatre was erected by Statilius Taurus
+in the time of Augustus. It was practically identical in design with the
+later and much larger Flavian amphitheatre, commonly known as the
++Colosseum+, begun by Vespasian and completed 82 A.D. (Fig. 62). This
+immense structure measured 607 � 506 feet in plan and was 180 feet high;
+it could accommodate eighty-seven thousand spectators. Engaged columns
+of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders decorated three stories of
+the exterior; the fourth was a nearly unbroken wall with slender
+Corinthian pilasters. Solidly constructed of travertine, concrete, and
+tufa, the Colosseum, with its imposing but monotonous exterior, almost
+sublime by its scale and seemingly endless repetition, but lacking in
+refinement or originality of detail and dedicated to bloody and cruel
+sports, was a characteristic product of the Roman character and
+civilization. At Verona, Pola, Capua, and many cities in the foreign
+provinces there are well-preserved remains of similar structures.
+
+Closely related to the amphitheatre were the circus and the stadium. The
++Circus Maximus+ between the Palatine and Aventine hills was the oldest
+of those in Rome. That erected by Caligula and Nero on the site
+afterward partly occupied by St. Peter's, was more splendid, and is said
+to have been capable of accommodating over three hundred thousand
+spectators after its enlargement in the fourth century. The long, narrow
+race-course was divided into two nearly equal parts by a low parapet,
+the _spina_, on which were the goals (_met�_) and many small decorative
+structures and columns. One end of the circus, as of the stadium also,
+was semicircular; the other was segmental in the circus, square in the
+stadium; a�colonnade or arcade ran along the top of the building, and
+the entrances and exits were adorned with monumental arches.
+
+
++TRIUMPHAL ARCHES AND COLUMNS.+ Rome and the provincial cities abounded
+in monuments commemorative of victory, usually single or triple arches
+with engaged columns and rich sculptural adornments, or single colossal
+columns supporting statues. The arches were characteristic products of
+Roman design, and some of them deserve high praise for the excellence of
+their proportions and the elegance of their details. There were in Rome
+in the second century A.D., thirty-eight of these monuments. The +Arch
+of Titus+ (71-82 A.D.) is the simplest and most perfect of those still
+extant in Rome; the arch of +Septimius Severus+ in the Forum (203 A.D.)
+and that of +Constantine+ (330 A.D.) near the Colosseum, are more
+sumptuous but less pure in detail. The last-named was in part enriched
+with sculptures taken from the earlier arch of Trajan. The statues of
+Dacian captives on the attic (_attic_ = a species of subordinate story
+added above the main cornice) of this arch were a fortunate addition,
+furnishing a _raison-d'�tre_ for the columns and broken entablatures on
+which they rest. Memorial columns of colossal size were erected by
+several emperors, both in Rome and abroad. Those of +Trajan+ and of
++Marcus Aurelius+ are still standing in Rome in perfect preservation.
+The first was 140 feet high including the pedestal and the statue which
+surmounted it; its capital marked the height of the ridge levelled by
+the emperor for the forum on which the column stands. Its most striking
+peculiarity is the spiral band of reliefs winding around the shaft from
+bottom to top and representing the Dacian campaigns of Trajan. The other
+column is of similar design and dimensions, but greatly inferior to the
+first in execution. Both are really towers, with interior stair-cases
+leading to the top.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 63.--ARCH OF CONSTANTINE.
+  (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)]
+
+
++TOMBS.+ The Romans developed no special and national type of tomb, and
+few of their sepulchral monuments were of large dimensions. The most
+important in Rome were the pyramid of +Caius Cestius+ (late first
+century B.C.), and the circular tombs of +Cecilia Metella+ (60 B.C.),
++Augustus+ (14 A.D.) and +Hadrian+, now the Castle of S.�Angelo (138
+A.D.). The latter was composed of a huge cone of marble supported on a
+cylindrical structure 230 feet in diameter standing on a square podium
+300 feet long and wide. The cone probably once terminated in the gilt
+bronze pine-cone now in the Giardino della Pigna of the Vatican. In the
+Mausoleum of Augustus a mound of earth planted with trees crowned a
+similar circular base of marble on a podium 220 feet square, now buried.
+
+The smaller tombs varied greatly in size and form. Some were vaulted
+chambers, with graceful internal painted decorations of figures and vine
+patterns combined with low-relief enrichments in stucco. Others were
+designed in the form of altars or sarcophagi, as at Pompeii; while
+others again resembled �dicul�, little temples, shrines, or small towers
+in several stories of arches and columns, as at St. R�my (France).
+
+
++PALACES AND DWELLINGS.+ Into their dwellings the Romans carried all
+their love of ostentation and personal luxury. They anticipated in many
+details the comforts of modern civilization in their furniture, their
+plumbing and heating, and their utensils. Their houses may be divided
+into four classes: the palace, the villa, the _domus_ or ordinary house,
+and the _insula_ or many-storied tenement built in compact blocks. The
+first three alone concern us, and will be taken up in the above order.
+
+The imperial +palaces+ on the Palatine Hill comprised a wide range in
+style and variety of buildings, beginning with the first simple house of
+Augustus (26 B.C.), burnt and rebuilt 3�A.D. Tiberius, Caligula, and
+Nero added to the Augustan group; Domitian rebuilt a second time and
+enlarged the palace of Augustus, and Septimius Severus remodelled the
+whole group, adding to it his own extraordinary seven-storied palace,
+the Septizonium. The ruins of these successive buildings have been
+carefully excavated, and reveal a remarkable combination of
+dwelling-rooms, courts, temples, libraries, basilicas, baths, gardens,
+peristyles, fountains, terraces, and covered passages. These were
+adorned with a profusion of precious marbles, mosaics, columns, and
+statues. Parts of the demolished palace of Nero were incorporated in the
+substructions of the Baths of Titus. The beautiful arabesques and
+plaster reliefs which adorned them were the inspiration of much of the
+fresco and stucco decoration of the Italian Renaissance. At Spalato, in
+Dalmatia, are the extensive ruins of the great +Palace of Diocletian+,
+which was laid out on the plan of a Roman camp, with two intersecting
+avenues (Fig. 64). It comprised a temple, mausoleum, basilica, and other
+structures besides those portions devoted to the purposes of a royal
+residence.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 64.--PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN. SPALATO.]
+
+The +villa+ was in reality a country palace, arranged with special
+reference to the prevailing winds, exposure to the sun and shade, and
+the enjoyment of a wide prospect. Baths, temples, _exedr�_, theatres,
+tennis-courts, sun-rooms, and shaded porticoes were connected with the
+house proper, which was built around two or three interior courts or
+peristyles. Statues, fountains, and colossal vases of marble adorned the
+grounds, which were laid out in terraces and treated with all the
+fantastic arts of the Roman landscape-gardener. The most elaborate and
+extensive villa was that of +Hadrian+, at Tibur (Tivoli); its ruins,
+covering hundreds of acres, form one of the most interesting spots to
+visit in the neighborhood of Rome.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 65.--HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII.
+  s, _Shops_; v, _Vestibule_; f, _Family Rooms_; k, _Kitchen_;
+  l, _Lavarium_; _P, P, P_, _Peristyles_.]
+
+There are few remains in Rome of the +domus+ or private house. Two,
+however, have left remarkably interesting ruins--the +Atrium Vest�+, or
+House of the Vestal Virgins, east of the Forum, a�well-planned and
+extensive house surrounding a cloister or court; and the +House of
+Livia+, so-called, on the Palatine Hill, the walls and decorations of
+which are excellently preserved. The typical Roman house in a provincial
+town is best illustrated by the ruins of Pompeii and Herculanum, which,
+buried by an eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D., have been partially
+excavated since 1721. The Pompeiian house (Fig. 65) consisted of several
+courts or _atria_, some of which were surrounded by colonnades and
+called _peristyles_. The front portion was reserved for shops, or
+presented to the street a wall unbroken save by the entrance; all the
+rooms and chambers opened upon the interior courts, from which alone
+they borrowed their light. In the brilliant climate of southern Italy
+windows were little needed, as sufficient light was admitted by the
+door, closed only by porti�res for the most part; especially as the
+family life was passed mainly in the shaded courts, to which fountains,
+parterres of shrubbery, statues, and other adornments lent their
+inviting charm. The general plan of these houses seems to have been of
+Greek origin, as well as the system of decoration used on the walls.
+These, when not wainscoted with marble, were covered with fantastic, but
+often artistic, painted decorations, in which an imaginary architecture
+as of metal, a�fantastic and arbitrary perspective, illusory pictures,
+and highly finished figures were the chief elements. These were executed
+in brilliant colors with excellent effect. The houses were lightly
+built, with wooden ceilings and roofs instead of vaulting, and usually
+with but one story on account of the danger from earthquakes. That the
+workmanship and decoration were in the capital often superior to what
+was to be found in a provincial town like Pompeii, is evidenced by
+beautiful wall-paintings and reliefs discovered in Rome in 1879 and now
+preserved in the Museo delle Terme. More or less fragmentary remains of
+Roman houses have been found in almost every corner of the Roman empire,
+but nowhere exhibiting as completely as in Pompeii the typical Roman
+arrangement.
+
+
++WORKS OF UTILITY.+ A word should be said about Roman engineering works,
+which in many cases were designed with an artistic sense of proportion
+and form which raises them into the domain of genuine art. Such were
+especially the bridges, in which a remarkable effect of monumental
+grandeur was often produced by the form and proportions of the arches
+and piers, and an appropriate use of rough and dressed masonry, as in
+the Pons �lius (Ponte S.�Angelo), the great bridge at Alcantara (Spain),
+and the Pont du Gard, in southern France. The aqueducts are impressive
+rather by their length, scale, and simplicity, than by any special
+refinements of design, except where their arches are treated with some
+architectural decoration to form gates, as in the Porta Maggiore, at
+Rome.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS:+ (Those which have no important extant remains are
+  given in italics.) TEMPLES: _Jupiter Capitolinus_, 600 B.C.;
+  _Ceres, Liber, and Libera_, 494 B.C. (ruins of later rebuilding in
+  S.�Maria in Cosmedin); _first T. of Concord_ (rebuilt in Augustan
+  age), 254 B.C.; _first marble temple_ in _portico of Metellus_, by
+  a Greek, Hermodorus, 143 B.C.; temples of Fortune at Pr�neste and
+  at Rome, and of "Vesta" at Rome, 83-78 B.C.; of "Vesta" at Tivoli,
+  and of Hercules at Cori, 72 B.C.; _first Pantheon_, 27 B.C. In
+  Augustan Age temples of _Apollo_, Concord rebuilt, Dioscuri,
+  _Julius_, _Jupiter Stator_, _Jupiter Tonans_, Mars Ultor, Minerva
+  (_at Rome_ and Assisi), Maison Carr�e at N�mes, Saturn; at
+  Puteoli, Pola, etc. _T. of Peace_; _T. Jupiter Capitolinus_,
+  rebuilt 70 A.D.; temple at Brescia. Temple of Vespasian, 96 A.D.;
+  also _of Minerva_ in Forum of Nerva; _of Trajan_, 117 A.D.; second
+  Pantheon; T. of Venus and Rome at Rome, and of Jupiter Olympius at
+  Athens, 135-138 A.D.; Faustina, 141 A.D.; many in Syria; temples
+  of Sun at _Rome_, Baalbec, and Palmyra, cir. 273 A.D.; of Romulus,
+  305 A.D. (porch S.�Cosmo and Damiano). PLACES OF ASSEMBLY:
+  FORA--Roman, Julian, 46 B.C.; Augustan, 40-42 B.C.; _of Peace_, 75
+  A.D.; Nerva, 97 A.D.; Trajan (by Apollodorus of Damascus, 117 A.D.)
+  BASILICAS: _Sempronian_, _�milian_, 1st century B.C.; Julian, 51
+  B.C.; _Septa Julia_, 26 B.C.; the Curia, later rebuilt by
+  Diocletian, 300 A.D. (now Church of S.�Adriano); _at Fano_, 20
+  A.D. (?); Forum and Basilica at Pompeii, 60 A.D.; of Trajan; of
+  Constantine, 310-324 A.D. THEATRES (th.) and AMPHITHEATRES (amp.):
+  th. _Pompey_, 55 B.C.; of _Balbus_ and of Marcellus, 13 B.C.; th.
+  and amp. at Pompeii and Herculanum; Colosseum at Rome, 78-82 A.D.;
+  th. at Orange and in Asia Minor; amp. at Albano, Constantine,
+  N�mes, Petra, Pola, Reggio, Trevi, Tusculum, Verona, etc.; amp.
+  Castrense at Rome, 96 A.D. Circuses and stadia at Rome. THERM�: of
+  Agrippa, 27 B.C.; _of Nero_; of Titus, 78 A.D. _Domitian_, 90
+  A.D.; Caracalla, 211 A.D.; Diocletian, 305 A.D.; _Constantine_,
+  320 A.D.; "Minerva Medica," 3d or 4th century A.D. ARCHES: _of
+  Stertinius_, 196 B.C.; _Scipio_, 190 B.C.; _Augustus_, 30 B.C.;
+  Titus, 71-82 A.D.; _Trajan_, 117 A.D.; Severus, 203 A.D.;
+  Constantine, 320 A.D.; of Drusus, Dolabella, Silversmiths, 204
+  A.D.; Janus Quadrifrons, 320 A.D. (?); all at Rome. Others at
+  Benevento, Ancona, Rimini in Italy; also at Athens, and at Reims
+  and St. Chamas in France. Columns of Trajan, _Antoninus_, Marcus
+  Aurelius at Rome, others at Constantinople, Alexandria, etc.
+  TOMBS: along Via Appia and Via Latina, at Rome; Via Sacra at
+  Pompeii; tower-tombs at St. R�my in France; rock-cut at Petra; at
+  Rome, of Caius Cestius and Cecilia Metella, 1st century B.C.; of
+  Augustus, 14 A.D.; Hadrian, 138 A.D. PALACES and PRIVATE HOUSES:
+  On Palatine, of Augustus, Tiberius, Nero, Domitian, Septimius
+  Severus, _Elagabalus_; Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli; palaces of
+  Diocletian at Spalato and _of Constantine_ at Constantinople.
+  House of Livia on Palatine (Augustan period); of Vestals, rebuilt
+  by Hadrian, cir. 120 A.D. Houses at Pompeii and Herculanum, cir.
+  60-79 A.D.; Villas of Gordianus ("Tor' de' Schiavi," 240 A.D.),
+  and _of Sallust_ at Rome and _of Pliny_ at Laurentium.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bunsen, _Die Basiliken christlichen Roms_.
+  Butler, _Architecture and other Arts in Northern Central Syria_.
+  Corroyer, _L'architecture romane_. Cummings, _A�History of
+  Architecture in Italy_. Essenwein (Handbuch d. Architektur),
+  _Ausg�nge der klassischen Baukunst_. Gutensohn u. Knapp,
+  _Denkm�ler der christlichen Religion_. H�bsch, _Monuments de
+  l'architecture chr�tienne_. Lanciani, _Pagan and Christian Rome_.
+  Mothes, _Die Basilikenform bei den Christen_, etc. Okely,
+  _Development of Christian Architecture in Italy_. Von Quast, _Die
+  altchristlichen Bauwerke zu Ravenna_. De Rossi, _Roma
+  Sotterranea_. De Vog��, _Syrie Centrale_; _�glises de la Terre
+  Sainte_.
+
+
++INTRODUCTORY.+ The official recognition of Christianity in the year 328
+by Constantine simply legalized an institution which had been for three
+centuries gathering momentum for its final conquest of the antique
+world. The new religion rapidly enlisted in its service for a common
+purpose and under a common impulse races as wide apart in blood and
+culture as those which had built up the art of imperial Rome. It was
+Christianity which reduced to civilization in the West the Germanic
+hordes that had overthrown Rome, bringing their fresh and hitherto
+untamed vigor to the task of recreating architecture out of the decaying
+fragments of classic art. So in the East its life-giving influence awoke
+the slumbering Greek art-instinct to new triumphs in the arts of
+building, less refined and perfect indeed, but not less sublime than
+those of the Periclean age. Long before the Constantinian edict, the
+Christians in the Eastern provinces had enjoyed substantial freedom of
+worship. Meeting often in the private basilicas of wealthy converts, and
+finding these, and still more the great public basilicas, suited to the
+requirements of their worship, they early began to build in imitation of
+these edifices. There are many remains of these early churches in
+northern Africa and central Syria.
+
+
++EARLY CHRISTIAN ART IN ROME.+ This was at first wholly sepulchral,
+developing in the catacombs the symbols of the new faith. Once
+liberated, however, Christianity appropriated bodily for its public
+rites the basilica-type and the general substance of Roman architecture.
+Shafts and capitals, architraves and rich linings of veined marble, even
+the pagan Bacchic symbolism of the vine, it adapted to new uses in its
+own service. Constantine led the way in architecture, endowing Bethlehem
+and Jerusalem with splendid churches, and his new capital on the
+Bosphorus with the first of the three historic basilicas dedicated to
+the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia). One of the greatest of innovators, he
+seems to have had a special predilection for circular buildings, and the
+tombs and baptisteries which he erected in this form, especially that
+for his sister Constantia in Rome (known as Santa Costanza, Fig. 66),
+furnished the prototype for numberless Italian baptisteries in later
+ages.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 66.--STA. COSTANZA, ROME.]
+
+The Christian basilica (see Figs. 67, 68) generally comprised a broad
+and lofty nave, separated by rows of columns from the single or double
+side-aisles. The aisles had usually about half the width and height of
+the nave, and like it were covered with wooden roofs and ceilings. Above
+the columns which flanked the nave rose the lofty clearstory wall,
+pierced with windows above the side-aisle roofs and supporting the
+immense trusses of the roof of the nave. The timbering of the latter was
+sometimes bare, sometimes concealed by a richly panelled ceiling,
+carved, gilded, and painted. At the further end of the nave was the
+sanctuary or apse, with the seats for the clergy on a raised platform,
+the _bema_, in front of which was the altar. Transepts sometimes
+expanded to right and left before the altar, under which was the
+_confessio_ or shrine of the titular saint or martyr.
+
+An _atrium_ or forecourt surrounded by a covered arcade preceded the
+basilica proper, the arcade at the front of the church forming a porch
+or _narthex_, which, however, in some cases existed without the atrium.
+The exterior was extremely plain; the interior, on the contrary, was
+resplendent with incrustations of veined marble and with sumptuous
+decorations in glass mosaic (called _opus Grecanicum_) on a blue or
+golden ground. Especially rich were the half-dome of the apse and the
+wall-space surrounding its arch and called the _triumphal arch_; next in
+decorative importance came the broad band of wall beneath the clearstory
+windows. Upon these surfaces the mosaic-workers wrought with minute
+cubes of colored glass pictures and symbols almost imperishable, in
+which the glow of color and a certain decorative grandeur of effect in
+the composition went far to atone for the uncouth drawing. With growing
+wealth and an increasingly elaborate ritual, the furniture and
+equipments of the church assumed greater architectural importance.
+A�large rectangular space was retained for the choir in front of the
+bema, and enclosed by a breast-high parapet of marble, richly inlaid. On
+either side were the pulpits or _ambones_ for the Gospel and Epistle.
+A�lofty canopy was built over the altar, the _baldaquin_, supported on
+four marble columns. A�few basilicas were built with side-aisles, in two
+stories, as in S.�Lorenzo and Sta. Agnese. Adjoining the basilica in the
+earlier examples were the baptistery and the tomb of the saint, circular
+or polygonal buildings usually; but in later times these were replaced
+by the font or baptismal chapel in the church and the _confessio_ under
+the altar.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 67.--PLAN OF THE BASILICA OF ST. PAUL.]
+
+Of the two Constantinian basilicas in Rome, the one dedicated to +St.
+Peter+ was demolished in the fifteenth century; that of +St. John
+Lateran+ has been so disfigured by modern alterations as to be
+unrecognizable. The former of the two adjoined the site of the martyrdom
+of St. Peter in the circus of Caligula and Nero; it was five-aisled, 380
+feet in length by 212 feet in width. The nave was 80 feet wide and 100
+feet high, and the disproportionately high clearstory wall rested on
+horizontal architraves carried by columns. The impressive dimensions and
+simple plan of this structure gave it a majesty worthy of its rank as
+the first church of Christendom. +St. Paul beyond the Walls+ (S.�Paolo
+fuori le mura), built in 386 by Theodosius, resembled St. Peter's
+closely in plan (Figs. 67, 68). Destroyed by fire in 1821, it has been
+rebuilt with almost its pristine splendor, and is, next to the modern
+St. Peter's and the Pantheon, the most impressive place of worship in
+Rome. +Santa Maria Maggiore+,[15] though smaller in size, is more
+interesting because it so largely retains its original aspect, its
+Renaissance ceiling happily harmonizing with its simple antique lines.
+Ionic columns support architraves to carry the clearstory, as in St.
+Peter's. In most other examples, St. Paul's included, arches turned from
+column to column perform this function. The first known case of such use
+of classic columns as arch-bearers was in the palace of Diocletian at
+Spalato; it also appears in Syrian buildings of the third and fourth
+centuries A.D.
+
+    [Footnote 15: Hereafter the abbreviation S.�M. will be generally
+    used instead of the name Santa Maria.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 68.--ST. PAUL BEYOND THE WALLS. INTERIOR.]
+
+The basilica remained the model for ecclesiastical architecture in Rome,
+without noticeable change either of plan or detail, until the time of
+the Renaissance. All the earlier examples employed columns and capitals
+taken from ancient ruins, often incongruous and ill-matched in size and
+order. +San Clemente+ (1084) has retained almost intact its early
+aspect, its choir-enclosure, baldaquin, and ambones having been well
+preserved or carefully restored. Other important basilicas are mentioned
+in the list of monuments on pages 118, 119.
+
+
++RAVENNA.+ The fifth and sixth centuries endowed Ravenna with a number
+of notable buildings which, with the exception of the cathedral,
+demolished in the last century, have been preserved to our day. Subdued
+by the Byzantine emperor Justinian in 537, Ravenna became the
+meeting-ground for Early Christian and Byzantine traditions and the
+basilican and circular plans are both represented. The two churches
+dedicated to St. Apollinaris, +S.�Apollinare Nuovo+ (520) in the city,
+and +S.�Apollinare in Classe+ (538) three miles distant from the city,
+in what was formerly the port, are especially interesting for their fine
+mosaics, and for the impost-blocks interposed above the capitals of
+their columns to receive the springing of the pier-arches. These blocks
+appear to be somewhat crude modifications of the fragmentary architraves
+or entablatures employed in classic Roman architecture to receive the
+springing of vaults sustained by columns, and became common in Byzantine
+structures (Fig. 73). The use of external arcading to give some slight
+adornment to the walls of the second of the above-named churches, and
+the round bell-towers of brick which adjoined both of them, were first
+steps toward the development of the "wall-veil" or arcaded decoration,
+and of the campaniles, which in later centuries became so characteristic
+of north Italian churches (see Chapter XIII.). In Rome the campaniles
+which accompany many of the medi�val basilicas are square and pierced
+with many windows.
+
+The basilican form of church became general in Italy, a�large proportion
+of whose churches continued to be built with wooden roofs and with but
+slight deviations from the original type, long after the appearance of
+the Gothic style. The chief departures from early precedent were in the
+exterior, which was embellished with marble incrustations as in
+S.�Miniato (Florence); or with successive stories of wall-arcades, as in
+many churches in Pisa and Lucca (see Fig. 90); until finally the
+introduction of clustered piers, pointed arches, and vaulting, gradually
+transformed the basilican into the Italian Romanesque and Gothic styles.
+
+
++SYRIA AND THE EAST.+ In Syria, particularly the central portion, the
+Christian architecture of the 3d to 8th centuries produced a number of
+very interesting monuments. The churches built by Constantine in
+Syria--the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (nominally built by his
+mother), of the Ascension at Jerusalem, the magnificent octagonal church
+on the site of the Temple, and finally the somewhat similar church at
+Antioch--were the most notable Christian monuments in Syria. The first
+three on the list, still extant in part at least, have been so altered
+by later additions and restorations that their original forms are only
+approximately known from early descriptions. They were all of large
+size, and the octagonal church on the Temple platform was of exceptional
+magnificence.[16] The columns and a part of the marble incrustations of
+the early design are still visible in the "Mosque of Omar," but most of
+the old work is concealed by the decoration of tiles applied by the
+Moslems, and the whole interior aspect altered by the wood-and-plaster
+dome with which they replaced the simpler roof of the original.
+
+    [Footnote 16: Fergusson (_History of Architecture_, vol. ii., pp.
+    408, 432) contends that this was the real Constantinian church of
+    the Holy Sepulchre, and that the one called to-day by that name
+    was erected by the Crusaders in the twelfth century. The more
+    general view is that the latter was originally built by
+    Constantine as the Church of the Sepulchre, though subsequently
+    much altered, and that the octagonal edifice was also his work,
+    but erected under some other name. Whether this church was later
+    incorporated in the "Mosque of Omar," or merely furnished some of
+    the materials for its construction, is not quite clear.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 69.--CHURCH AT KALB LOUZEH.]
+
+Christian architecture in Syria soon, however, diverged from Roman
+traditions. The abundance of hard stone, the total lack of clay or
+brick, the remoteness from Rome, led to a peculiar independence and
+originality in the forms and details of the ecclesiastical as well as of
+the domestic architecture of central Syria. These innovations upon Roman
+models resulted in the development of distinct types which, but for the
+arrest of progress by the Mohammedan conquest in the seventh century,
+would doubtless have inaugurated a new and independent style of
+architecture. Piers of masonry came to replace the classic column, as at
+Tafkha (third or fourth century), Rouheiha and Kalb Louzeh (fifth
+century? Fig. 69); the ceilings in the smaller churches were often
+formed with stone slabs; the apse was at first confined within the main
+rectangle of the plan, and was sometimes square. The exterior assumed a
+striking and picturesque variety of forms by means of turrets, porches,
+and gables. Singularly enough, vaulting hardly appears at all, though
+the arch is used with fine effect. Conventional and monastic groups of
+buildings appear early in Syria, and that of +St. Simeon Stylites+ at
+Kelat Seman is an impressive and interesting monument. Four three-aisled
+wings form the arms of a cross, meeting in a central octagonal open
+court, in the midst of which stood the column of the saint. The eastern
+arm of the cross forms a complete basilica of itself, and the whole
+cross measures 330 � 300 feet. Chapels, cloisters, and cells adjoin the
+main edifice.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 70.--CATHEDRAL AT BOZRAH.]
+
+Circular and polygonal plans appear in a number of Syrian examples of
+the early sixth century. Their most striking feature is the inscribing
+of the circle or polygon in a square which forms the exterior outline,
+and the use of four niches to fill out the corners. This occurs at Kelat
+Seman in a small double church, perhaps the tomb and chapel of a martyr;
+in the cathedral at +Bozrah+ (Fig. 70), and in the small domical church
+of +St. George+ at +Ezra+. These were probably the prototypes of many
+Byzantine churches like St. Sergius at Constantinople, and San Vitale at
+Ravenna (Fig. 74), though the exact dates of the Syrian churches are not
+known. The one at Ezra is the only one of the three which has a dome,
+the others having been roofed with wood.
+
+The interesting domestic architecture of this period is preserved in
+whole towns and villages in the Hauran, which, deserted at the Arab
+conquest, have never been reoccupied and remain almost intact but for
+the decay of their wooden roofs. They are marked by dignity and
+simplicity of design, and by the same picturesque massing of gables and
+roofs and porches which has already been remarked of the churches. The
+arches are broad, the columns rather heavy, the mouldings few and
+simple, and the scanty carving vigorous and effective, often strongly
+Byzantine in type.
+
+Elsewhere in the Eastern world are many early churches of which even the
+enumeration would exceed the limits of this work. Salonica counts a
+number of basilicas and several domical churches. The church of +St.
+George+, now a mosque, is of early date and thoroughly Roman in plan and
+section, of the same class with the Pantheon and the tomb of Helena, in
+both of which a massive circular wall is lightened by eight niches. At
+Angora (Ancyra), Hierapolis, Pergamus, and other points in Asia Minor;
+in Egypt, Nubia, and Algiers, are many examples of both circular and
+basilican edifices of the early centuries of Christianity. In
+Constantinople there remains but a single representative of the
+basilican type, the church of +St. John Studius+, now the Emir Akhor
+mosque.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: ROME: 4th century: St. Peter's, Sta. Costanza, 330?;
+  Sta. Pudentiana, 335 (rebuilt 1598); tomb of St. Helena;
+  Baptistery of Constantine; St. Paul's beyond the Walls, 386; St.
+  John Lateran (wholly remodelled in modern times). 5th century:
+  Baptistery of St. John Lateran; Sta. Sabina, 425; Sta. Maria
+  Maggiore, 432; S.�Pietro in Vincoli, 442 (greatly altered in
+  modern times). 6th century: S.�Lorenzo, 580 (the older portion in
+  two stories); SS. Cosmo e Damiano. 7th century: Sta. Agnese, 625;
+  S.�Giorgio in Velabro, 682. 8th century: Sta. Maria in Cosmedin;
+  S.�Crisogono. 9th century: S.�Nereo ed Achilleo; Sta. Prassede;
+  Sta. Maria in Dominica. 12th and 13th centuries: S.�Clemente,
+  1118; Sta. Maria in Trastevere; S.�Lorenzo (nave); Sta. Maria in
+  Ara Coeli. RAVENNA: Baptistery of S.�John, 400 (?); S.�Francesco;
+  S.�Giovanni Evangelista, 425; Sta. Agata, 430; S.�Giovanni
+  Battista, 439; tomb of Galla Placidia, 450; S.�Apollinare Nuovo,
+  500-520; S.�Apollinare in Classe, 538; St. Victor; Sta. Maria in
+  Cosmedin (the Arian Baptistery); tomb of Theodoric (Sta. Maria
+  della Rotonda, a�decagonal two-storied mausoleum, with a low dome
+  cut from a single stone 36 feet in diameter), 530-540. ITALY IN
+  GENERAL: basilica at Parenzo, 6th century; cathedral and Sta.
+  Fosca at Torcello, 640-700; at Naples Sta. Restituta, 7th century;
+  others, mostly of 10th-13th centuries, at Murano near Venice, at
+  Florence (S.�Miniato), Spoleto, Toscanella, etc.; baptisteries at
+  Asti, Florence, Nocera dei Pagani, and other places. IN SYRIA AND
+  THE EAST: basilicas of the Nativity at Bethlehem, of the Sepulchre
+  and of the Ascension at Jerusalem; also polygonal church on Temple
+  platform; these all of 4th century. Basilicas at Bakouzah, Hass,
+  Kelat Seman, Kalb Louzeh, Rouheiha, Tourmanin, etc.; circular
+  churches, tombs, and baptisteries at Bozrah, Ezra, Hass, Kelat
+  Seman, Rouheiha, etc.; all these 4th-8th centuries. Churches at
+  Constantinople (Holy Wisdom, St. John Studius, etc.), Hierapolis,
+  Pergamus, and Thessalonica (St. Demetrius, "Eski Djuma"); in Egypt
+  and Nubia (Djemla, Announa, Ibreem, Siout, etc.); at Orl�ansville
+  in Algeria. (For churches, etc., of 8th-10th centuries in the
+  West, see Chapter XIII.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Essenwein, H�bsch, Von Quast. Also,
+  Bayet, _L'Art Byzantin_. Choisy, _L'Art de b�tir chez les
+  Byzantins_. Lethaby and Swainson, _Sancta Sophia_. Ongania, _La
+  Basilica di San Marco_. Pulgher, _Anciennes �glises Byzantines de
+  Constantinople_. Salzenberg, _Altchristliche Baudenkm�le von
+  Constantinopel_. Texier and Pullan, _Byzantine Architecture_.
+
+
++ORIGIN AND CHARACTER.+ The decline and fall of Rome arrested the
+development of the basilican style in the West, as did the Arab conquest
+later in Syria. It was otherwise in the new Eastern capital founded by
+Constantine in the ancient Byzantium, which was rising in power and
+wealth while Rome lay in ruins. Situated at the strategic point of the
+natural highway of commerce between East and West, salubrious and
+enchantingly beautiful in its surroundings, the new capital grew rapidly
+from provincial insignificance to metropolitan importance. Its founder
+had embellished it with an extraordinary wealth of buildings, in which,
+owing to the scarcity of trained architects, quantity and cost doubtless
+outran quality. But at least the tameness of blindly followed precedent
+was avoided, and this departure from traditional tenets contributed
+undoubtedly to the originality of Byzantine architecture. A�large part
+of the artisans employed in building were then, as now, from Asia Minor
+and the �gean Islands, Greek in race if not in name. An Oriental taste
+for brilliant and harmonious color and for minute decoration spread over
+broad surfaces must have been stimulated by trade with the Far East and
+by constant contact with Oriental peoples, costumes, and arts. An
+Asiatic origin may also be assigned to the methods of vaulting employed,
+far more varied than the Roman, not only in form but also in materials
+and processes. From Roman architecture, however, the Byzantines borrowed
+the fundamental notion of their structural art; that, namely, of
+distributing the weights and strains of their vaulted structures upon
+isolated and massive points of support, strengthened by deep buttresses,
+internal or external, as the case might be. Roman, likewise, was the use
+of polished monolithic columns, and the incrustation of the piers and
+walls with panels of variegated marble, as well as the decoration of
+plastered surfaces by fresco and mosaic, and the use of _opus sectile_
+and _opus Alexandrinum_ for the production of sumptuous marble
+pavements. In the first of these processes the color-figures of the
+pattern are formed each of a single piece of marble cut to the shape
+required; in the second the pattern is compounded of minute squares,
+triangles, and curved pieces of uniform size. Under these combined
+influences the artists of Constantinople wrought out new problems in
+construction and decoration, giving to all that they touched a new and
+striking character.
+
+There is no absolute line of demarcation, chronological, geographical,
+or structural, between Early Christian and Byzantine architecture. But
+the former was especially characterized by the basilica with three or
+five aisles, and the use of wooden roofs even in its circular edifices;
+the vault and dome, though not unknown, being exceedingly rare.
+Byzantine architecture, on the other hand, rarely produced the simple
+three-aisled or five-aisled basilica, and nearly all its monuments were
+vaulted. The dome was especially frequent, and Byzantine architecture
+achieved its highest triumphs in the use of the _pendentive_, as the
+triangular spherical surfaces are called, by the aid of which a dome can
+be supported on the summits of four arches spanning the four sides of a
+square, as explained later. There is as little uniformity in the plans
+of Byzantine buildings as in the forms of the vaulting. A�few types of
+church-plan, however, predominated locally in one or another centre; but
+the controlling feature of the style was the dome and the constructive
+system with which it was associated. The dome, it is true, had long been
+used by the Romans, but always on a circular plan, as in the Pantheon.
+It is also a fact that pendentives have been found in Syria and Asia
+Minor older than the oldest Byzantine examples. But the special feature
+characterizing the Byzantine dome on pendentives was its almost
+exclusive association with plans having piers and columns or aisles,
+with the dome as the central and dominant feature of the complex design
+(see plans, Figs. 74, 75, 78). Another strictly Byzantine practice was
+the piercing of the lower portion of the dome with windows forming a
+circle or crown, and the final development of this feature into a high
+drum.
+
+
++CONSTRUCTION.+ Still another divergence from Roman methods was in the
+substitution of brick and stone masonry for concrete. Brick was used for
+the mass as well as the facing of walls and piers, and for the vaulting
+in many buildings mainly built of stone. Stone was used either alone or
+in combination with brick, the latter appearing in bands of four or five
+courses at intervals of three or four feet. In later work a regular
+alternation of the two materials, course for course, was not uncommon.
+In piers intended to support unusually heavy loads the stone was very
+carefully cut and fitted, and sometimes tied and clamped with iron.
+
+Vaults were built sometimes of brick, sometimes of cut stone; in a few
+cases even of earthenware jars fitting into each other, and laid up in a
+continuous contracting spiral from the base to the crown of a dome, as
+in San Vitale at Ravenna. Ingenious processes for building vaults
+without centrings were made use of--processes inherited from the
+drain-builders of ancient Assyria, and still in vogue in Armenia,
+Persia, and Asia Minor. The groined vault was common, but always
+approximated the form of a dome, by a longitudinal convexity upward in
+the intersecting vaults. The aisles of Hagia Sophia[17] display a
+remarkable variety of forms in the vaulting.
+
+    [Footnote 17: "St. Sophia," the common name of this church, is a
+    misnomer. It was not dedicated to a saint at all, but to the
+    Divine Wisdom (Hagia Sophia), which name the Turks have retained
+    in the softened form "Aya Sofia."]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 71.--DIAGRAM OF PENDENTIVES.]
+
++DOMES.+ The dome, as we have seen, early became the most characteristic
+feature of Byzantine architecture; and especially the dome on
+pendentives. If a hemisphere be cut by five planes, four perpendicular
+to its base and bounding a square inscribed therein, and the fifth plane
+parallel to the base and tangent to the semicircular intersections made
+by the first four, there will remain of the original surface only four
+triangular spaces bounded by arcs of circles. These are called
+_pendentives_ (Fig. 71 a). When these are built up of masonry, each
+course forms a species of arch, by virtue of its convexity. At the crown
+of the four arches on which they rest, these courses meet and form a
+complete circle, perfectly stable and capable of sustaining any
+superstructure that does not by excessive weight disrupt the whole
+fabric by overthrowing the four arches which support it. Upon these
+pendentives, then, a�new dome may be started of any desired curvature,
+or even a cylindrical drum to support a still loftier dome, as in the
+later churches (Fig. 71 b). This method of covering a square is simpler
+than the groined vault, having no sharp edges or intersections; it is at
+least as effective architecturally, by reason of its greater height in
+the centre; and is equally applicable to successive bays of an oblong,
+cruciform, and even columnar building. In the great cisterns at
+Constantinople vast areas are covered by rows of small domes supported
+on ranges of columns.
+
+The earlier domes were commonly pierced with windows at the base, this
+apparent weakening of the vault being compensated for by strongly
+buttressing the piers between the windows, as in Hagia Sophia. Here
+forty windows form a crown of light at the spring of the dome, producing
+an effect almost as striking as that of the simple _oculus_ of the
+Pantheon, and celebrated by ancient writers in the most extravagant
+terms. In later and smaller churches a high drum was introduced beneath
+the dome, in order to secure, by means of longer windows, more light
+than could be obtained by merely piercing the diminutive domes.
+
+Buttressing was well understood by the Byzantines, whose plans were
+skilfully devised to provide internal abutments, which were often
+continued above the roofs of the side-aisles to prop the main vaults,
+precisely as was done by the Romans in their therm� and similar halls.
+But the Byzantines, while adhering less strictly than the Romans to
+traditional forms and processes, and displaying much more ready
+contrivance and special adaptation of means to ends, never worked out
+this pregnant structural principle to its logical conclusion as did the
+Gothic architects of Western Europe a few centuries later.
+
+
++DECORATION+. The exteriors of Byzantine buildings (except in some of
+the small churches of late date) were generally bare and lacking in
+beauty. The interiors, on the contrary, were richly decorated, color
+playing a much larger part than carving in the designs. Painting was
+resorted to only in the smaller buildings, the more durable and splendid
+medium of mosaic being usually preferred. This was, as a rule, confined
+to the vaults and to those portions of the wall-surfaces embraced by the
+vaults above their springing. The colors were brilliant, the background
+being usually of gold, though sometimes of blue or a delicate green.
+Biblical scenes, symbolic and allegorical figures and groups of saints
+adorned the larger areas, particularly the half-dome of the apse, as in
+the basilicas. The smaller vaults, the soffits of arches, borders of
+pictures, and other minor surfaces, received a more conventional
+decoration of crosses, monograms, and set patterns.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 72.--SPANDRIL. HAGIA SOPHIA.]
+
+The walls throughout were sheathed with slabs of rare marble in panels
+so disposed that the veining should produce symmetrical figures. The
+panels were framed in billet-mouldings, derived perhaps from classic
+dentils; the billets or projections on one side the moulding coming
+opposite the spaces on the other. This seems to have been a purely
+Byzantine feature.
+
+
++CARVED DETAILS.+ Internally the different stories were marked by
+horizontal bands and cornices of white or inlaid marble richly carved.
+The arch-soffits, the archivolts or bands around the arches, and the
+spandrils between them were covered with minute and intricate incised
+carving. The motives used, though based on the acanthus and anthemion,
+were given a wholly new aspect. The relief was low and flat, the leaves
+sharp and crowded, and the effect rich and lacelike, rather than
+vigorous. It was, however, well adapted to the covering of large areas
+where general effect was more important than detail. Even the capitals
+were treated in the same spirit. The impost-block was almost universal,
+except where its use was rendered unnecessary by giving to the capital
+itself the massive pyramidal form required to receive properly the
+spring of the arch or vault. In such cases (more frequent in
+Constantinople than elsewhere) the surface of the capital was simply
+covered with incised carving of foliage, basketwork, monograms, etc.;
+rudimentary volutes in a few cases recalling classic traditions (Figs.
+72, 73). The mouldings were weak and poorly executed, and the vigorous
+profiles of classic cornices were only remotely suggested by the
+characterless aggregations of mouldings which took their place.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 73.--CAPITAL WITH IMPOST BLOCK, S.�VITALE.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 74.--ST. SERGIUS, CONSTANTINOPLE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 75.--PLAN OF HAGIA SOPHIA.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 76.--SECTION OF HAGIA SOPHIA.]
+
++PLANS.+ The remains of Byzantine architecture are almost exclusively of
+churches and baptisteries, but the plans of these are exceedingly
+varied. The first radical departure from the basilica-type seems to have
+been the adoption of circular or polygonal plans, such as had usually
+served only for tombs and baptisteries. The Baptistery of St. John at
+Ravenna (early fifth century) is classed by many authorities as a
+Byzantine monument. In the early years of the sixth century the adoption
+of this model had become quite general, and with it the development of
+domical design began to advance. The church of +St. Sergius+ at
+Constantinople (Fig. 74), originally joined to a short basilica
+dedicated to St. Bacchus (afterward destroyed by the Turks), as in the
+double church at Kelat Seman, was built about 520; that of +San Vitale+
+at Ravenna was begun a few years later; both are domical churches on an
+octagonal plan, with an exterior aisle. Semicircular niches--four in St.
+Sergius and eight in San Vitale--projecting into the aisle, enlarge
+somewhat the area of the central space and give variety to the internal
+effect. The origin of this characteristic feature may be traced to the
+eight niches of the Pantheon, through such intermediate examples as the
+temple of Minerva Medica at Rome. The true pendentive does not appear in
+these two churches. Timidly employed up to that time in small
+structures, it received a remarkable development in the magnificent
+church of +Hagia Sophia+, built by Anthemius of Tralles and Isodorus of
+Miletus, under Justinian, 532-538 A.D. In the plan of this marvellous
+edifice (Fig. 75) the dome rests upon four mighty arches bounding a
+square, into two of which open the half-domes of semicircular apses.
+These apses are penetrated and extended each by two smaller niches and a
+central arch, and the whole vast nave, measuring over 200 � 100 feet, is
+flanked by enormously wide aisles connecting at the front with a
+majestic narthex. Huge transverse buttresses, as in the Basilica of
+Constantine (with whose structural design this building shows striking
+affinities), divide the aisles each into three sections. The plan
+suggests that of St. Sergius cut in two, with a lofty dome on
+pendentives over a square plan inserted between the halves. Thus was
+secured a noble and unobstructed hall of unrivalled proportions and
+great beauty, covered by a combination of half-domes increasing in span
+and height as they lead up successively to the stupendous central vault,
+which rises 180 feet into the air and fitly crowns the whole. The
+imposing effect of this low-curved but loftily-poised dome, resting as
+it does upon a crown of windows, and so disposed that its summit is
+visible from every point of the nave (as may be easily seen from an
+examination of the section, Fig. 76), is not surpassed in any interior
+ever erected.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 77.--INTERIOR OF HAGIA SOPHIA,
+  CONSTANTINOPLE.]
+
+The two lateral arches under the dome are filled by clearstory walls
+pierced by twelve windows, and resting on arcades in two stories carried
+by magnificent columns taken from ancient ruins. These separate the nave
+from the side-aisles, which are in two stories forming galleries, and
+are vaulted with a remarkable variety of groined vaults. All the masses
+are disposed with studied reference to the resistance required by the
+many and complex thrusts exerted by the dome and other vaults. That the
+earthquakes of one thousand three hundred and fifty years have not
+destroyed the church is the best evidence of the sufficiency of these
+precautions.
+
+Not less remarkable than the noble planning and construction of this
+church was the treatment of scale and decoration in its interior design.
+It was as conspicuously the masterpiece of Byzantine architecture as the
+Parthenon was of the classic Greek. With little external beauty, it is
+internally one of the most perfectly composed and beautifully decorated
+halls of worship ever erected. Instead of the simplicity of the Pantheon
+it displays the complexity of an organism of admirably related parts.
+The division of the interior height into two stories below the spring of
+the four arches, reduces the component parts of the design to moderate
+dimensions, so that the scale of the whole is more easily grasped and
+its vast size emphasized by the contrast. The walls are incrusted with
+precious marbles up to the spring of the vaulting; the capitals,
+spandrils, and soffits are richly and minutely carved with incised
+ornament, and all the vaults covered with splendid mosaics. Dimmed by
+the lapse of centuries and disfigured by the vandalism of the Moslems,
+this noble interior, by the harmony of its coloring and its impressive
+grandeur, is one of the masterpieces of all time (Fig. 77).
+
+
++LATER CHURCHES.+ After the sixth century no monuments were built at all
+rivalling in scale the creations of the former period. The later
+churches were, with few exceptions, relatively small and trivial.
+Neither the plan nor the general aspect of Hagia Sophia seems to have
+been imitated in these later works. The crown of dome-windows was
+replaced by a cylindrical drum under the dome, which was usually of
+insignificant size. The exterior was treated more decoratively than
+before, by means of bands and incrustations of colored marble, or
+alternations of stone and brick; and internally mosaic continued to be
+executed with great skill and of great beauty until the tenth century,
+when the art rapidly declined. These later churches, of which a number
+were spared by the Turks, are, therefore, generally pleasing and elegant
+rather than striking or imposing.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 78.--PLAN OF ST. MARK'S, VENICE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 79.--INTERIOR OF ST. MARK'S.]
+
++FOREIGN MONUMENTS.+ The influence of Byzantine art was wide-spread,
+both in Europe and Asia. The leading city of civilization through the
+Dark Ages, Constantinople influenced Italy through her political and
+commercial relations with Ravenna, Genoa, and Venice. The church of +St.
+Mark+ in the latter city was one result of this influence (Figs. 78,
+79). Begun in 1063 to replace an earlier church destroyed by fire, it
+received through several centuries additions not always Byzantine in
+character. Yet it was mainly the work of Byzantine builders, who copied
+most probably the church of the Apostles at Constantinople, built by
+Justinian. The picturesque but wholly unstructural use of columns in the
+entrance porches, the upper parts of the fa�ade, the wooden cupolas over
+the five domes, and the pointed arches in the narthex, are deviations
+from Byzantine traditions dating in part from the later Middle Ages
+Nothing could well be conceived more irrational, from a structural point
+of view, than the accumulation of columns in the entrance-arches; but
+the total effect is so picturesque and so rich in color, that its
+architectural defects are easily overlooked. The external veneering of
+white and colored marble occurs rarely in the East, but became a
+favorite practice in Venice, where it continued in use for five hundred
+years. The interior of St. Mark's, in some respects better preserved
+than that of Hagia Sophia, is especially fine in color, though not equal
+in scale and grandeur to the latter church. With its five domes it has
+less unity of effect than Hagia Sophia, but more of the charm of
+picturesqueness, and its less brilliant and simpler lighting enhances
+the impressiveness of its more modest dimensions.
+
+In Russia and Greece the Byzantine style has continued to be the
+official style of the Greek Church. The Russian monuments are for the
+most part of a somewhat fantastic aspect, the Muscovite taste having
+introduced many innovations in the form of bulbous domes and other
+eccentric details. In Greece there are few large churches, and some of
+the most interesting, like the Cathedral at Athens, are almost toy-like
+in their diminutiveness. On +Mt. Athos+ (Hagion Oros) is an ancient
+monastery which still retains its Byzantine character and traditions. In
+Armenia (as at Ani, Etchmiadzin, etc.) are also interesting examples of
+late Armeno-Byzantine architecture, showing applications to exterior
+carved detail of elaborate interlaced ornament looking like a re-echo of
+Celtic MSS. illumination, itself, no doubt, originating in Byzantine
+traditions. But the greatest and most prolific offspring of Byzantine
+architecture appeared after the fall of Constantinople (1453) in the new
+mosque-architecture of the victorious Turks.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ CONSTANTINOPLE: St. Sergius, 520; Hagia Sophia,
+  532-538; Holy Apostles by Justinian (demolished); Holy Peace (St.
+  Irene) originally by Constantine, rebuilt by Justinian, and again
+  in 8th century by Leo the Isaurian; Hagia Theotokos, 12th century
+  (?); Mon�tes Choras ("Kahir� Djami"), 10th century; Pantokrator;
+  "Fetiyeh Djami." Cisterns, especially the "Bin Bir Direk" (1,001
+  columns) and "Yere Batan Serai;" palaces, few vestiges except the
+  great hall of the Blachern� palace. SALONICA: Churches--of Divine
+  Wisdom ("Aya Sofia") St. Bardias, St. Elias. RAVENNA: San Vitale,
+  527-540. VENICE: St. Mark's, 977-1071; "Fondaco dei Turchi," now
+  Civic Museum, 12th century. Other churches at Athens and Mt.
+  Athos; at Misitra, Myra, Ancyra, Ephesus, etc.; in Armenia at Ani,
+  Dighour, Etchmiadzin, Kouthais, Pitzounda, Usunlar, etc.; tombs at
+  Ani, Varzhahan, etc.; in Russia at Kieff (St. Basil, Cathedral),
+  Kostroma, Moscow (Assumption, St. Basil, Vasili Blaghennoi, etc.),
+  Novgorod, Tchernigoff; at Kurtea Darghish in Wallachia, and many
+  other places.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+(ARABIAN, MORESQUE, PERSIAN, INDIAN, AND TURKISH.)
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bourgoin, _Les Arts Arabes_. Coste, _Monuments
+  du Caire_; _Monuments modernes de la Perse_. Cunningham,
+  _Arch�ological Survey of India_. Fergusson, _Indian and Eastern
+  Architecture_. De Forest, _Indian Architecture and Ornament_.
+  Flandin et Coste, _Voyage en Perse_. Franz-Pasha, _Die Baukunst
+  des Islam_. Gayet, _L'Art Arabe_; _L'Art Persan_. Girault de
+  Prangey, _Essai sur l'architecture des Arabes en Espagne_, etc.
+  Goury and Jones, _The Alhambra_. Jacob, _Jeypore Portfolio of
+  Architectural Details_. Le Bon, _La civilisation des Arabes_; _Les
+  monuments de l'Inde_. Owen Jones, _Grammar of Ornament_.
+  Parvill�e, _L'Architecture Ottomane_. Prisse d'Avennes, _L'Art
+  Arabe_. Texier, _Description de l'Arm�nie, la Perse_, etc.
+
+
++GENERAL SURVEY.+ While the Byzantine Empire was at its zenith, the new
+faith of Islam was conquering Western Asia and the Mediterranean lands
+with a fiery rapidity, which is one of the marvels of history. The new
+architectural styles which grew up in the wake of these conquests,
+though differing widely in conception and detail in the several
+countries, were yet marked by common characteristics which set them
+quite apart from the contemporary Christian styles. The predominance of
+decorative over structural considerations, a�predilection for minute
+surface-ornament, the absence of pictures and sculpture, are found alike
+in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Indian buildings, though in varying
+degree. These new styles, however, were almost entirely the handiwork of
+artisans belonging to the conquered races, and many traces of Byzantine,
+and even after the Crusades, of Norman and Gothic design, are
+recognizable in Moslem architecture. But the Orientalism of the
+conquerors and their common faith, tinged with the poetry and
+philosophic mysticism of the Arab, stamped these works of Copts,
+Syrians, and Greeks with an unmistakable character of their own, neither
+Byzantine nor Early Christian.
+
+
++ARABIC ARCHITECTURE.+ In the building of mosques and tombs, especially
+at Cairo, this architecture reached a remarkable degree of decorative
+elegance, and sometimes of dignity. It developed slowly, the Arabs not
+being at the outset a race of builders. The early monuments of Syria and
+Egypt were insignificant, and the sacred _Kaabah_ at Mecca and the
+mosque at Medina hardly deserve to be called architectural monuments at
+all. The most important early works were the mosques of +'Amrou+ at
+Cairo (642, rebuilt and enlarged early in the eighth century), of +El
+Aksah+ on the Temple platform at Jerusalem (691, by Abd-el-Melek), and
+of +El Walid+ at Damascus (705-732, recently seriously injured by fire).
+All these were simple one-storied structures, with flat wooden roofs
+carried on parallel ranges of columns supporting pointed arches, the
+arcades either closing one side of a square court, or surrounding it
+completely. The long perspectives of the aisles and the minute
+decoration of the archivolts and ceilings alone gave them architectural
+character. The beautiful +Dome of the Rock+ (Kubbet-es-Sakhrah,
+miscalled the Mosque of Omar) on the Temple platform at Jerusalem is
+either a remodelled Constantinian edifice, or in large part composed of
+the materials of one (see p.�116).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 80.--MOSQUE OF SULTAN HASSAN, CAIRO: SANCTUARY.
+  a, _Mihr�b_, b, _Mimber_.]
+
+The splendid mosque of +Ibn Touloun+ (876-885) was built on the same
+plan as that of Amrou, but with cantoned piers instead of columns and a
+corresponding increase in variety of perspective and richness of effect.
+With the incoming of the Fatimite dynasty, however, and the foundation
+of the present city of Cairo (971), vaulting began to take the place of
+wooden ceilings, and then appeared the germs of those extraordinary
+applications of geometry to decorative design which were henceforth to
+be the most striking feature of Arabic ornament. Under the Ay�b dynasty,
+which began with Sal�h-ed-din (Saladin) in 1172, these elements, of
+which the great +Barkouk+ mosque (1149) is the most imposing early
+example, developed slowly in the domical tombs of the _Karafah_ at
+Cairo, and prepared the way for the increasing richness and splendor of
+a long series of mosques, among which those of +Kalaoun+ (1284-1318),
++Sultan Hassan+ (1356), +El Mu'ayyad+ (1415), and +Ka�d Bey+ (1463),
+were the most conspicuous examples (Fig. 80). They mark, indeed,
+successive advances in complexity of planning, ingenuity of
+construction, and elegance of decoration. Together they constitute an
+epoch in Arabic architecture, which coincides closely with the
+development of Gothic vaulted architecture in Europe, both in the stages
+and the duration of its advances.
+
+The mosques of these three centuries are, like the medi�val monasteries,
+impressive aggregations of buildings of various sorts about a central
+court of ablutions. The tomb of the founder, residences for the _imams_,
+or priests, schools (_madrassah_), and hospitals (_m�rist�n_) rival in
+importance the prayer-chamber. This last is, however, the real focus of
+interest and splendor; in some cases, as in Sultan Hassan, it is a
+simple barrel-vaulted chamber open to the court; in others an oblong
+arcaded hall with many small domes; or again, a�square hall covered with
+a high pointed dome on pendentives of intricately beautiful
+stalactite-work (see below). The ceremonial requirements of the mosque
+were simple. The-court must have its fountain of ablutions in the
+centre. The prayer-hall, or mosque proper, must have its _mihr�b_, or
+niche, to indicate the _kibleh_, the direction of Mecca; and its
+_mimber_, or high, slender pulpit for the reading of the K�ran. These
+were the only absolutely indispensable features of a mosque, but as
+early as the ninth century the _minaret_ was added, from which the call
+to prayer could be sounded over the city by the _mueddin_. Not until the
+Ayubite period, however, did it begin to assume those forms of varied
+and picturesque grace which lend to Cairo so much of its architectural
+charm.
+
+
++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ While Arabic architecture, in Syria and Egypt
+alike, possesses more decorative than constructive originality, the
+beautiful forms of its domes, pendentives, and minarets, the simple
+majesty of the great pointed barrel-vaults of the Hassan mosque and
+similar monuments, and the graceful lines of the universally used
+pointed arch, prove the Coptic builders and their later Arabic
+successors to have been architects of great ability. The Arabic domes,
+as seen both in the mosques and in the remarkable group of tombs
+commonly called "tombs of the Khal�fs," are peculiar not only in their
+pointed outlines and their rich external decoration of interlaced
+geometric motives, but still more in the external and internal treatment
+of the pendentives, exquisitely decorated with stalactite ornament. This
+ornament, derived, no doubt, from a combination of minute corbels with
+rows of small niches, and presumably of Persian origin, was finally
+developed into a system of extraordinary intricacy, applicable alike to
+the topping of a niche or panel, as in the great doorways of the
+mosques, and to the bracketing out of minaret galleries (Figs. 81, 82).
+Its applications show a bewildering variety of forms and an
+extraordinary aptitude for intricate geometrical design.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 81.--MOSQUE OF KA�D BEY, CAIRO]
+
+
++DECORATION.+ Geometry, indeed, vied with the love of color in its hold
+on the Arabic taste. Ceiling-beams were carved into highly ornamental
+forms before receiving their rich color-decoration of red, green, blue,
+and gold. The doors and the _mimber_ were framed in geometric patterns
+with slender intersecting bars forming complicated star-panelling. The
+voussoirs of arches were cut into curious interlocking forms; doorways
+and niches were covered with stalactite corbelling, and pavements and
+wall-incrustations, whether of marble or tiling, combined brilliancy and
+harmony of color with the perplexing beauty of interlaced
+star-and-polygon patterns of marvellous intricacy. Stained glass added
+to the interior color-effect, the patterns being perforated in plaster,
+with a bit of colored glass set into each perforation--a�device not very
+durable, perhaps, but singularly decorative.
+
+
++OTHER WORKS.+ Few of the medi�val Arabic palaces have remained to our
+time. That they were adorned with a splendid prodigality appears from
+contemporary accounts. This splendor was internal rather than external;
+the palace, like all the larger and richer dwellings in the East,
+surrounded one or more courts, and presented externally an almost
+unbroken wall. The fountain in the chief court, the _diw�n_ (a�great,
+vaulted reception-chamber opening upon the court and raised slightly
+above it), the _d�r_, or men's court, rigidly separated from the
+_hareem_ for the women, were and are universal elements in these great
+dwellings. The more common city-houses show as their most striking
+features successively corbelled-out stories and broad wooden eaves, with
+lattice-screens covering single windows, or almost a whole fa�ade,
+composed of turned work (_mashrabiyya_), in designs of great beauty.
+
+The fountains, gates, and minor works of the Arabs display the same
+beauty in decoration and color, the same general forms and details which
+characterize the larger works, but it is impossible here to
+particularize further with regard to them.
+
+
++MORESQUE.+ Elsewhere in Northern Africa the Arabs produced no such
+important works as in Egypt, nor is the architecture of the other Moslem
+states so well preserved or so well known. Constructive design would
+appear to have been there even more completely subordinated to
+decoration; tiling and plaster-relief took the place of more
+architectural elements and materials, while horseshoe and cusped arches
+were substituted for the simpler and more architectural pointed arch
+(Fig. 82). The courts of palaces and public buildings were surrounded by
+ranges of horseshoe arches on slender columns; these last being provided
+with capitals of a form rarely seen in Cairo. Towers were built of much
+more massive design than the Cairo minarets, usually with a square,
+almost solid shaft and a more open lantern at the top, sometimes in
+several diminishing stories.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 82.--MOORISH DETAIL, ALHAMBRA.
+  _Showing stalactite and perforated work, Moorish cusped arch,
+  Hispano-Moresque capitals, and decorative inscriptions._]
+
+
++HISPANO-MORESQUE.+ The most splendid phase of this branch of Arabic
+architecture is found not in Africa but in Spain, which was overrun in
+710-713 by the Moors, who established there the independent Khalifate of
+Cordova. This was later split up into petty kingdoms, of which the most
+important were Granada, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia. This
+dismemberment of the Khalifate led in time to the loss of these cities,
+which were one by one recovered by the Christians during the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries; the capture of Granada, in 1492, finally
+destroying the Moorish rule.
+
+The dominion of the Moors in Spain was marked by a high civilization and
+an extraordinary activity in building. The style they introduced became
+the national style in the regions they occupied, and even after the
+expulsion of the Moors was used in buildings erected by Christians and
+by Jews. The "House of Pilate," at Seville, is an example of this, and
+the general use of the Moorish style in Jewish synagogues, down to our
+own day, both in Spain and abroad, originated in the erection of
+synagogues for the Jews in Spain by Moorish artisans and in Moorish
+style, both during and after the period of Moslem supremacy.
+
+Besides innumerable mosques, castles, bridges, aqueducts, gates, and
+fountains, the Moors erected several monuments of remarkable size and
+magnificence. Specially worthy of notice among them are the Great Mosque
+at Cordova, the Alcazars of Seville and Malaga, the Giralda at Seville,
+and the Alhambra at Granada.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 83.--INTERIOR OF THE GREAT MOSQUE AT CORDOVA.]
+
+The +Mosque at Cordova+, begun in 786 by 'Abd-er-Rahman, enlarged in
+876, and again by El Mansour in 976, is a vast arcaded hall 375 feet �
+420 feet in extent, but only 30 feet high (Fig. 83). The rich wooden
+ceiling rests upon seventeen rows of thirty to thirty-three columns
+each, and two intersecting rows of piers, all carrying horseshoe arches
+in two superposed ranges, a�large portion of those about the sanctuary
+being cusped, the others plain, except for the alternation of color in
+the voussoirs. The _mihr�b_ niche is particularly rich in its minutely
+carved incrustations and mosaics, and a dome ingeniously formed by
+intersecting ribs covers the sanctuary before it. This form of dome
+occurs frequently in Spain.
+
+The +Alcazars+ at Seville and Malaga, which have been restored in recent
+years, present to-day a fairly correct counterpart of the castle-palaces
+of the thirteenth century. They display the same general conceptions and
+decorative features as the Alhambra, which they antedate. The +Giralda+
+at Seville is, on the other hand, unique. It is a lofty rectangular
+tower, its exterior panelled and covered with a species of
+quarry-ornament in relief; it terminated originally in two or three
+diminishing stages or lanterns, which were replaced in the sixteenth
+century by the present Renaissance belfry.
+
+The +Alhambra+ is universally considered to be the masterpiece of
+Hispano-Moresque art, partly no doubt on account of its excellent
+preservation. It is most interesting as an example of the splendid
+citadel-palaces built by the Moorish conquerors, as well as for its
+gorgeous color-decoration of minute quarry-ornament stamped or moulded
+in the wet plaster wherever the walls are not wainscoted with tiles. It
+was begun in 1248 by Mohammed-ben-Al-Hamar, enlarged in 1279 by his
+successor, and again in 1306, when its mosque was built. Its plan (Fig.
+84) shows two large courts and a smaller one next the mosque, with three
+great square chambers and many of minor importance. Light arcades
+surround the Court of the Lions with its fountain, and adorn the ends of
+the other chief court; and the stalactite pendentive, rare in Moorish
+work, appears in the "Hall of Ambassadors" and some other parts of the
+edifice. But its chief glory is its ornamentation, less durable, less
+architectural than that of the Cairene buildings, but making up for this
+in delicacy and richness. Minute vine-patterns and Arabic inscriptions
+are interwoven with waving intersecting lines, forming a net-like
+framework, to all of which deep red, blue, black, and gold give an
+indescribable richness of effect.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 84.--PLAN OF THE ALHAMBRA.
+  A, _Hall of Ambassadors_; a, _Mosque_; b, _Court of Mosque_;
+  c, _Sala della Barca_; _d, d_, _Baths_; e, _Hall of the
+  Two Sisters_; _f, f, f_, _Hall of the Tribunal_;
+  g, _Hall of the Abencerrages_.]
+
+The Moors also overran Sicily in the eighth century, but while their
+architecture there profoundly influenced that of the Christians who
+recovered Sicily in 1090, and copied the style of the conquered Moslems,
+there is too little of the original Moorish architecture remaining to
+claim mention here.
+
+
++SASSANIAN.+ The Sassanian empire, which during the four centuries from
+226 to 641 A.D. had withstood Rome and extended its own sway almost to
+India, left on Persian soil a number of interesting monuments which
+powerfully influenced the Mohammedan style of that region. The Sassanian
+buildings appear to have been principally palaces, and were all vaulted.
+With their long barrel-vaulted halls, combined with square domical
+chambers, as in Firouz-Abad and Serbistan, they exhibit reminiscences of
+antique Assyrian tradition. The ancient Persian use of columns was
+almost entirely abandoned, but doors and windows were still treated with
+the banded frames and cavetto-cornices of Persepolis and Susa. The
+Sassanians employed with these exterior details others derived perhaps
+from Syrian and Byzantine sources. A�sort of engaged buttress-column and
+blind arches repeated somewhat aimlessly over a whole fa�ade were
+characteristic features; still more so the huge arches, elliptical or
+horse-shoe shaped, which formed the entrances to these palaces, as in
+the T�k-Kesra at Ctesiphon. Ornamental details of a debased Roman type
+appear, mingled with more gracefully flowing leaf-patterns resembling
+early Christian Syrian carving. The last great monument of this style
+was the palace at Mashita in Moab, begun by the last Chosroes (627), but
+never finished, an imposing and richly ornamented structure about 500 �
+170 feet, occupying the centre of a great court.
+
+
++PERSIAN-MOSLEM ARCHITECTURE.+ These Sassanian palaces must have
+strongly influenced Persian architecture after the Arab conquest in 641.
+For although the architecture of the first six centuries after that date
+suffered almost absolute extinction at the hands of the Mongols under
+Genghis Khan, the traces of Sassanian influence are still perceptible in
+the monuments that rose in the following centuries. The dome and vault,
+the colossal portal-arches, and the use of brick and tile are evidences
+of this influence, bearing no resemblance to Byzantine or Arabic types.
+The Moslem monuments of Persia, so far as their dates can be
+ascertained, are all subsequent to 1200, unless tradition is correct in
+assigning to the time of Haroun Ar Rashid (786) certain curious tombs
+near Bagdad with singular pyramidal roofs. The ruined mosque at Tabriz
+(1300), and the beautiful domical +Tomb+ at +Sultaniyeh+ (1313) belong
+to the Mogul period. They show all the essential features of the later
+architecture of the Sufis (1499-1694), during whose dynastic period were
+built the still more splendid and more celebrated +Meidan+ or square,
+the great mosque of Mesjid Shah, the Bazaar and the College or Medress
+of Hussein Shah, all at Ispahan, and many other important monuments at
+Ispahan, Bagdad, and Teheran. In these structures four elements
+especially claim attention; the pointed bulbous dome, the round minaret,
+the portal-arch rising above the adjacent portions of the building, and
+the use of enamelled terra-cotta tiles as an external decoration. To
+these may be added the ogee arch (_ogee_ = double-reversed curve), as an
+occasional feature. The vaulting is most ingenious and beautiful, and
+its forms, whether executed in brick or in plaster, are sufficiently
+varied without resort to the perplexing complications of stalactite
+work. In Persian decoration the most striking qualities are the harmony
+of blended color, broken up into minute patterns and more subdued in
+tone than in the Hispano-Moresque, and the preference of flowing lines
+and floral ornament to the geometric puzzles of Arabic design. Persian
+architecture influenced both Turkish and Indo-Moslem art, which owe to
+it a large part of their decorative charm.
+
+
++INDO-MOSLEM.+ The Mohammedan architecture of India is so distinct from
+all the native Indian styles and so related to the art of Persia, if not
+to that of the Arabs, that it properly belongs here rather than in the
+later chapter on Oriental styles. It was in the eleventh century that
+the states of India first began to fall before Mohammedan invaders, but
+not until the end of the fifteenth century that the great Mogul dynasty
+was established in Hindostan as the dominant power. During the
+intervening period local schools of Moslem architecture were developing
+in the Pathan country of Northern India (1193-1554), in Jaunpore and
+Gujerat (1396-1572), in Scinde, where Persian influence predominated; in
+Kalburgah and Bidar (1347-1426). These schools differed considerably in
+spirit and detail; but under the Moguls (1494-1706) there was less
+diversity, and to this dynasty we owe many of the most magnificent
+mosques and tombs of India, among which those of Bijapur retain a marked
+and distinct style of their own.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 85.--TOMB OF MAHMUD, BIJAPUR. SECTION.]
+
+The Mohammedan monuments of India are characterized by a grandeur and
+amplitude of disposition, a�symmetry and monumental dignity of design
+which distinguishes them widely from the picturesque but sometimes
+trivial buildings of the Arabs and Moors. Less dependent on color than
+the Moorish or Persian structures, they are usually built of marble, or
+of marble and sandstone, giving them an air of permanence and solidity
+wanting in other Moslem styles except the Turkish. The dome, the round
+minaret, the pointed arch, and the colossal portal-arch, are universal,
+as in Persia, and enamelled tiles are also used, but chiefly for
+interior decoration. Externally the more dignified if less resplendent
+decoration of surface carving is used, in patterns of minute and
+graceful scrolls, leaf forms, and Arabic inscriptions covering large
+surfaces. The Arabic stalactite pendentive star-panelling and
+geometrical interlace are rarely if ever seen. The dome on the square
+plan is almost universal, but neither the Byzantine nor the Arabic
+pendentive is used, striking and original combinations of vaulting
+surfaces, of corner squinches, of corbelling and ribs, being used in its
+place. Many of the Pathan domes and arches at Delhi, Ajmir, Ahmedabad,
+Shepree, etc., are built in horizontal or corbelled courses supported on
+slender columns, and exert no thrust at all, so that they are vaults
+only in form, like the dome of the Tholos of Atreus (Fig. 24). The most
+imposing and original of all Indian domes are those of the +Jumma
+Musjid+ and of the +Tomb of Mahmud+, both at Bijapur, the latter 137
+feet in span (Fig. 85). These two monuments, indeed, with the Mogul Taj
+Mahal at Agra, not only deserve the first rank among Indian monuments,
+but in constructive science combined with noble proportions and
+exquisite beauty are hardly, if at all, surpassed by the greatest
+triumphs of western art. The Indo-Moslem architects, moreover,
+especially those of the Mogul period, excelled in providing artistic
+settings for their monuments. Immense platforms, superb courts, imposing
+flights of steps, noble gateways, minarets to mark the angles of
+enclosures, and landscape gardening of a high order, enhance greatly the
+effect of the great mosques, tombs, and palaces of Agra, Delhi,
+Futtehpore Sikhri, Allahabad, Secundra, etc.
+
+The most notable monuments of the Moguls are the +Mosque of Akbar+
+(1556-1605) at Futtehpore Sikhri, the tomb of that sultan at Secundra,
+and his palace at Allahabad; the +Pearl Mosque+ at Agra and the +Jumma
+Musjid+ at Delhi, one of the largest and noblest of Indian mosques, both
+built by Shah Jehan about 1650; his immense but now ruined palace in the
+same city; and finally the unrivalled mausoleum, the +Taj Mahal+ at
+Agra, built during his lifetime as a festal hall, to serve as his tomb
+after death (Fig. 86). This last is the pearl of Indian architecture,
+though it is said to have been designed by a European architect, French
+or Italian. It is a white marble structure 185 feet square, centred in a
+court 313 feet square, forming a platform 18 feet high. The corners of
+this court are marked by elegant minarets, and the whole is dominated by
+the exquisite white marble dome, 58 feet in diameter, 80 feet high,
+internally rising over four domical corner chapels, and covered
+externally by a lofty marble bulb-dome on a high drum. The rich
+materials, beautiful execution, and exquisite inlaying of this mausoleum
+are worthy of its majestic design. On the whole, in the architecture of
+the Moguls in Bijapur, Agra, and Delhi, Mohammedan architecture reaches
+its highest expression in the totality and balance of its qualities of
+construction, composition, detail, ornament, and settings. The later
+monuments show the decline of the style, and though often rich and
+imposing, are lacking in refinement and originality.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 86.--TAJ MAHAL, AGRA.]
+
+
++TURKISH.+ The Ottoman Turks, who began their conquering career under
+Osman�I. in Bithynia in 1299, had for a century been occupying the
+fairest portions of the Byzantine empire when, in 1453, they became
+masters of Constantinople. Hagia Sophia was at once occupied as their
+chief mosque, and such of the other churches as were spared, were
+divided between the victors and the vanquished. The conqueror, Mehmet
+II., at the same time set about the building of a new mosque, entrusting
+the design to a Byzantine, Christodoulos, whom he directed to reproduce,
+with some modifications, the design of the "Great Church"--Hagia Sophia.
+The type thus officially adopted has ever since remained the controlling
+model of Turkish mosque design, so far, at least, as general plan and
+constructive principles are concerned. Thus the conquering Turks,
+educated by a century of study and imitation of Byzantine models in
+Brusa, Nicomedia, Smyrna, Adrianople, and other cities earlier
+subjugated, did what the Byzantines had, during nine centuries, failed
+to do. The noble idea first expressed by Anthemius and Isidorus in the
+Church of Hagia Sophia had remained undeveloped, unimitated by later
+architects. It was the Turk who first seized upon its possibilities, and
+developed therefrom a style of architecture less sumptuous in color and
+decoration than the sister styles of Persia, Cairo, or India, but of
+great nobility and dignity, notwithstanding. The low-curved dome with
+its crown of buttressed windows, the plain spherical pendentives, the
+great apses at each end, covered by half-domes and penetrated by smaller
+niches, the four massive piers with their projecting buttress-masses
+extending across the broad lateral aisles, the narthex and the arcaded
+atrium in front--all these appear in the great Turkish mosques of
+Constantinople. In the Conqueror's mosque, however, two apses with
+half-domes replace the lateral galleries and clearstory of Hagia Sophia,
+making a perfectly quadripartite plan, destitute of the emphasis and
+significance of a plan drawn on one main axis (Fig. 87). The same
+treatment occurs in the mosque of Ahmed�I., the +Ahmediyeh+ (1608; Fig.
+88), and the +Yeni Djami+ ("New Mosque") at the port (1665). In the
+mosque of +Osman III.+ (1755) the reverse change was effected; the
+mosque has no great apses, four clearstories filling the four arches
+under the dome, as also in several of the later and smaller mosques. The
+greatest and noblest of the Turkish mosques, the +Suleimaniyeh+, built
+in 1553 by Soliman the Magnificent, returned to the Byzantine
+combination of two half-domes with two clearstories (Fig. 89).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 87.--MOSQUE OF MEHMET II., CONSTANTINOPLE.
+  PLAN.
+  (The dimensions figured in metres.)]
+
+In none of these monuments is there the internal magnificence of marble
+and mosaic of the Byzantine churches. These are only in a measure
+replaced by Persian tile-wainscoting and stained-glass windows of the
+Arabic type. The division into stories and the treatment of scale are
+less well managed than in the Hagia Sophia; on the other hand, the
+proportion of height to width is generally admirable. The exterior
+treatment is unique and effective, far superior to the Byzantine
+practice. The massing of domes and half-domes and roofs is more
+artistically arranged; and while there is little of that minute carved
+detail found in Egypt and India, the composition of the lateral arcades,
+the simple but impressive domical peristyles of the courts, and the
+graceful forms of the pointed arches, with alternating voussoirs of
+white and black marble, are artistic in a high degree. The minarets are,
+however, inferior to those of Indian, Persian, and Arabic art, though
+graceful in their proportions.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 88.--EXTERIOR AHMEDIYEH MOSQUE.]
+
+Nearly all the great mosques are accompanied by the domical tombs
+(_turbeh_) of their imperial founders. Some of these are of noble size
+and great beauty of proportion and decoration. The +Tomb of Roxelana+
+(Khourrem), the favorite wife of Soliman the Magnificent (1553), is the
+most beautiful of all, and perhaps the most perfect gem of Turkish
+architecture, with its elegant arcade surrounding the octagonal domical
+mausoleum-chamber. The +monumental fountains+ of Constantinople also
+deserve mention. Of these, the one erected by Ahmet III. (1710), near
+Hagia Sophia, is the most beautiful. They usually consist of a
+rectangular marble reservoir with pagoda-like roof and broad eaves, the
+four faces of the fountain adorned each with a niche and basin, and
+covered with relief carving and gilded inscriptions.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 89.--INTERIOR OF SULEIMANIYEH,
+  CONSTANTINOPLE.]
+
+
++PALACES.+ In this department the Turks have done little of importance.
+The buildings in the Seraglio gardens are low and insignificant. The
++Tchinli Kiosque+, now the Imperial Museum, is however, a�simple but
+graceful two-storied edifice, consisting of four vaulted chambers in the
+angles of a fine cruciform hall, with domes treated like those of
+Bijapur on a small scale; the tiling and the veranda in front are
+particularly elegant; the design suggests Persian handiwork. The later
+palaces, designed by Armenians, are picturesque white marble and stucco
+buildings on the water's edge; they possess richly decorated halls, but
+the details are of a debased European rococo style, quite unworthy of an
+Oriental monarch.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ ARABIAN: "Mosque of Omar," or Dome of the Rock, 638;
+  El Aksah, by 'Abd-el-Melek, 691, both at Jerusalem; Mosque 'Amrou
+  at Cairo, 642; mosques at Cyrene, 665; great mosque of El Wal�d,
+  Damascus, 705-717. Bagdad built, 755. Great mosque at Kairou�n,
+  737. At Cairo, Ibn Touloun, 876; Gama-El-Azhar, 971; Barkouk,
+  1149; "Tombs of Khal�fs" (Karafah), 1250-1400; Moristan Kalaoun,
+  1284; Medresseh Sultan Hassan, 1356; El Azhar enlarged; El M�ayed,
+  1415; Ka�d Bey, 1463; Sinan Pacha, 1468; "Tombs of Mamelukes,"
+  16th century. Also palaces, baths, fountains, mosques, and tombs.
+  MORESQUE: Mosque at Saragossa, 713; mosque and arsenal at Tunis,
+  742; great mosque at Cordova, 786, 876, 975; sanctuary, 14th
+  century. Mosques, baths, etc., at Cordova, Tarragona, Segovia,
+  Toledo, 960-980; mosque of Sobeiha at Cordova, 981. Palaces and
+  mosques at Fez; great mosque at Seville, 1172. Extensive building
+  in Morocco close of 12th century. Giralda at Seville, 1160;
+  Alcazars in Malaga and Seville, 1225-1300; Alhambra and Generalife
+  at Granada, 1248, 1279, 1306; also mosques, baths, etc. Yussuf
+  builds palace at Malaga, 1348; palaces at Granada. PERSIAN: Tombs
+  near Bagdad, 786 (?); mosque at Tabriz, 1300; tomb of Khodabendeh
+  at Sultaniyeh, 1313; Meidan Shah (square) and Mesjid Shah (mosque)
+  at Ispahan, 17th century; Medresseh (school) of Sultan Hussein,
+  18th century; palaces of Chehil Soutoun (forty columns) and Aineh
+  Khaneh (Palace of Mirrors). Baths, tombs, bazaars, etc., at
+  Cashan, Koum, Kasmin, etc. Aminabad Caravanserai between Shiraz
+  and Ispahan; bazaar at Ispahan.
+
+  INDIAN: Mosque and "Kutub Minar" (tower) _cir._ 1200; Tomb of
+  Altumsh, 1236; mosque at Ajmir, 1211-1236; tomb at Old Delhi;
+  Adina Mosque, Maldah, 1358. Mosques Jumma Musjid and Lal Durwaza
+  at Jaunpore, first half of 15th century. Mosque and bazaar,
+  Kalburgah, 1435 (?). Mosques at Ahmedabad and Sirkedj, middle 15th
+  century. Mosque Jumma Musjid and Tomb of Mahm�d, Bijapur, _cir._
+  1550. Tomb of Humay�n, Delhi; of Mohammed Ghaus, Gwalior; mosque
+  at Futtehpore Sikhri; palace at Allahabad; tomb of Akbar at
+  Secundra, all by Akbar, 1556-1605. Palace and Jumma Musjid at
+  Delhi; Muti Musjid (Pearl mosque) and Taj Mahal at Agra, by Shah
+  Jehan, 1628-1658.
+
+  TURKISH: Tomb of Osman, Brusa, 1326; Green Mosque (Yeshil Djami)
+  Brusa, _cir._ 1350. Mosque at Isnik (Nic�a), 1376. Mehmediyeh
+  (mosque Mehmet II.) Constantinople, 1453; mosque at Eyoub; Tchinli
+  Kiosque, by Mehmet II., 1450-60; mosque Bayazid, 1500; Selim�I.,
+  1520; Suleimaniyeh, by Sinan, 1553; Ahmediyeh by Ahmet�I., 1608;
+  Yeni Djami, 1665; Nouri Osman, by Osman III., 1755; mosque
+  Mohammed Ali in Cairo, 1824. Mosque at Adrianople. KHANS,
+  cloistered courts for public business and commercial lodgers,
+  various dates, 16th and 17th centuries (Valid� Khan, Vizir Khan),
+  vaulted bazaars, fountains, Seraskierat Tower, all at
+  Constantinople.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+EARLY MEDI�VAL ARCHITECTURE
+
+IN ITALY AND FRANCE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Cattaneo, _L'Architecture en Italie_. Chapuy,
+  _Le moyen age monumental_. Corroyer, _Architecture romane_.
+  Cummings, _A�History of Architecture in Italy_. Enlart, _Manuel
+  d'arch�ologie fran�aise_. H�bsch, _Monuments de l'architecture
+  chr�tienne_. Knight, _Churches of Northern Italy_. Lenoir,
+  _Architecture monastique_. Osten, _Bauwerke in der Lombardei_.
+  Quicherat, _M�langes d'histoire et d'arch�ologie_. Reber, _History
+  of Medi�val Architecture_. R�voil, _Architecture romane du midi de
+  la France_. Rohault de Fleury, _Monuments de Pise_. Sharpe,
+  _Churches of Charente_. De Verneilh, _L'Architecture byzantine en
+  France_. Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire raisonn� de l'architecture
+  fran�aise_ (especially in Vol. I., Architecture religieuse);
+  _Discourses on Architecture_.
+
+
++EARLY MEDI�VAL EUROPE.+ The fall of the Western Empire in 476 A.D.
+marked the beginning of a new era in architecture outside of the
+Byzantine Empire. The so-called Dark Ages which followed this event
+constituted the formative period of the new Western civilization, during
+which the Celtic and Germanic races were being Christianized and
+subjected to the authority and to the educative influences of the
+Church. Under these conditions a new architecture was developed, founded
+upon the traditions of the early Christian builders, modified in
+different regions by Roman or Byzantine influences. For Rome recovered
+early her antique prestige, and Roman monuments covering the soil of
+Southern Europe, were a constant object lesson to the builders of that
+time. To this new architecture of the West, which in the tenth and
+eleventh centuries first began to achieve worthy and monumental results,
+the generic name of +Romanesque+ has been commonly given, in spite of
+the great diversity of its manifestations in different countries.
+
+
++CHARACTER OF THE ARCHITECTURE.+ Romanesque architecture was
+pre-eminently ecclesiastical. Civilization and culture emanated from the
+Church, and her requirements and discipline gave form to the builder's
+art. But the basilican style, which had so well served her purposes in
+the earlier centuries and on classic soil, was ill-suited to the new
+conditions. Corinthian columns, marble incrustations, and splendid
+mosaics were not to be had for the asking in the forests of Gaul or
+Germany, nor could the Lombards and Ostrogoths in Italy or their
+descendants reproduce them. The basilican style was complete in itself,
+possessing no seeds of further growth. The priests and monks of Italy
+and Western Europe sought to rear with unskilled labor churches of stone
+in which the general dispositions of the basilica should reappear in
+simpler, more massive dress, and, as far as possible, in a fireproof
+construction with vaults of stone. This problem underlies all the varied
+phases of Romanesque architecture; its final solution was not, however,
+reached until the Gothic period, to which the Romanesque forms the
+transition and stepping-stone.
+
+
++MEDI�VAL ITALY.+ Italy in the Dark Ages stood midway between the
+civilization of the Eastern Empire and the semi-barbarism of the West.
+Rome, Ravenna, and Venice early became centres of culture and maintained
+continuous commercial relations with the East. Architecture did not lack
+either the inspiration or the means for advancing on new lines. But its
+advance was by no means the same everywhere. The unifying influence of
+the church was counterbalanced by the provincialism and the local
+diversities of the various Italian states, resulting in a wide variety
+of styles. These, however, may be broadly grouped in four divisions: the
++Lombard+, the +Tuscan-Romanesque+, the +Italo-Byzantine+, and the
+unchanged +Basilican+ or Early Christian, which last, as was shown in
+Chapter�X., continued to be practised in Rome throughout the Middle
+Ages.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 90.--INTERIOR OF SAN AMBROGIO, MILAN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 91.--WEST FRONT AND CAMPANILE OF CATHEDRAL,
+  PIACENZA.]
+
++LOMBARD STYLE.+ Owing to the general rebuilding of ancient churches
+under the more settled social conditions of the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries, little remains to us of the architecture of the three
+preceding centuries in Italy, except the Roman basilicas and a few
+baptisteries and circular churches, already mentioned in Chapter�X. The
+so-called Lombard monuments belong mainly to the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries. They are found not only in Lombardy, but also in Venetia and
+the �milia. Milan, Pavia, Piacenza, Bologna, and Verona were important
+centres of development of this style. The churches were nearly all
+vaulted, but the plans were basilican, with such variations as resulted
+from efforts to meet the exigencies of vaulted construction. The nave
+was narrowed, and instead of rows of columns carrying a thin clearstory
+wall, a�few massive piers of masonry, connected by broad pier-arches,
+supported the heavy ribs of the groined vaulting, as in S.�Ambrogio,
+Milan (Fig. 90). To resist the thrust of the main vault, the clearstory
+was sometimes suppressed, the side aisle carried up in two stories
+forming galleries, and rows of chapels added at the sides, their
+partitions forming buttresses. The piers were often of clustered
+section, the better to receive the various arches and ribs they
+supported. The vaulting was in square divisions or _vaulting-bays_, each
+embracing two pier-arches which met upon an intermediate pier lighter
+than the others. Thus the whole aspect of the interior was
+revolutionized. The lightness, spaciousness, and decorative elegance of
+the basilicas were here exchanged for a sombre and massive dignity
+severe in its plainness. The Choir was sometimes raised a few feet above
+the nave, to allow of a crypt and _confessio_ beneath, reached by broad
+flights of steps from the nave. Sta. Maria della Pieve at Arezzo
+(9th-11th century), +S.�Michele+ at Pavia (late 11th century), the
++Cathedral of Piacenza+ (1122), +S.�Ambrogio+ at Milan (12th century),
+and +S.�Zeno+ at Verona (1139) are notable monuments of this style.
+
+
++LOMBARD EXTERIORS.+ The few architectural embellishments employed on
+the simple exteriors of the Lombard churches were usually effective and
+well composed. Slender columnettes or long pilasters, blind arcades, and
+open arcaded galleries under the eaves gave light and shade to these
+exteriors. The fa�ades were mere frontispieces with a single broad
+gable, the three aisles of the church being merely suggested by flat or
+round pilasters dividing the front (Fig 91). Gabled porches, with
+columns resting on the backs of lions or monsters, adorned the doorways.
+The carving was often of a fierce and grotesque character. Detached
+bell-towers or _campaniles_ adjoined many of these churches; square and
+simple in mass, but with well-distributed openings and well-proportioned
+belfries (Piacenza S.�Zeno at Verona, etc.).[18]
+
+    [Footnote 18: See Appendix B.]
+
+
++THE TUSCAN ROMANESQUE.+ The churches of this style (sometimes called
+the +Pisan+) were less vigorous but more elegant and artistic in design
+than the Lombard. They were basilicas in plan, with timber ceilings and
+high clearstories on columnar arcades. In their decoration, both
+internal and external, they betray the influence of Byzantine
+traditions, especially in the use of white and colored marble in
+alternating bands or in panelled veneering. Still more striking is the
+external decorative application of wall-arcades, sometimes occupying the
+whole height of the wall and carried on flat pilasters, sometimes in
+superposed stages of small arches on slender columns standing free of
+the wall. In general the decorative element prevailed over the
+constructive in the design of these picturesquely beautiful churches,
+some of which are of noble size. The +Duomo+ (cathedral) of +Pisa+,
+built 1063-1118, is the finest monument of the style (Figs. 92, 93). It
+is 312 feet long and 118 wide, with long transepts and an elliptical
+dome of later date over the _crossing_ (the intersection of nave and
+transepts). Its richly arcaded front and banded flanks strikingly
+exemplify the illogical and unconstructive but highly decorative methods
+of the Tuscan Romanesque builders. The circular +Baptistery+ (1153),
+with its lofty domical central hall surrounded by an aisle, an imposing
+development of the type established by Constantine (p.�111), and the
+famous +Leaning Tower+ (1174), both designed with external arcading,
+combine with the Duomo to form the most remarkable group of
+ecclesiastical buildings in Italy, if not in Europe (Fig. 92).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 92.--BAPTISTERY, CATHEDRAL,
+  AND LEANING TOWER, PISA.]
+
+The same style appears in more flamboyant shape in some of the churches
+of Lucca. The cathedral +S.�Martino+ (1060; fa�ade, 1204; nave altered
+in fourteenth century) is the finest and largest of these; +S.�Michele+
+(fa�ade, 1288) and S.�Frediano (twelfth century) have the most
+elaborately decorated fa�ades. The same principles of design appear in
+the cathedral and several other churches in Pistoia and Prato; but these
+belong, for the most part, to the Gothic period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 93.--INTERIOR OF PISA CATHEDRAL.]
+
+
++FLORENCE.+ The church of +S. Miniato+, in the suburbs of Florence, is a
+beautiful example of a modification of the Pisan style. It is in plan a
+basilica with two piers interrupting the colonnade on each side of the
+nave and supporting powerful transverse arches. The interior is
+embellished with bands and patterns in black and white, and the woodwork
+of the open-timber roof is elegantly decorated with fine patterns in
+red, green, blue, and gold--a�treatment common in early medi�val
+churches, as at Messina, Orvieto, etc. The exterior is adorned with
+wall-arches of classic design and with panelled veneering in white and
+dark marble, instead of the horizontal bands of the Pisan churches. This
+system of external decoration, a�blending of Pisan and Italo-Byzantine
+methods, became the established practice in Florence, lasting through
+the whole Gothic period. The +Baptistery+ of Florence, originally the
+cathedral, an imposing polygonal domical edifice of the tenth century,
+presents externally one of the most admirable examples of this practice.
+Its marble veneering in black and white, with pilasters and arches of
+excellent design, is attributed by Vasari to Arnolfo di Cambio, but is
+by many considered to be much older, although restored by that architect
+in 1294.
+
+Suggestions of the Pisan arcade system are found in widely scattered
+examples in the east and south of Italy, mingled with features of
+Lombard and Byzantine design. In Apulia, as at Bari, Caserta Vecchia
+(1100), Molfetta (1192), and in Sicily, the Byzantine influence is
+conspicuous in the use of domes and in many of the decorative details.
+Particularly is this the case at Palermo and Monreale, where the
+churches erected after the Norman conquest--some of them domical, some
+basilican--show a strange but picturesque and beautiful mixture of
+Romanesque, Byzantine, and Arabic forms. The +Cathedral+ of +Monreale+
+and the churches of the +Eremiti+ and +La Martorana+ at Palermo are the
+most important.
+
+The +Italo-Byzantine+ style has already found mention in the latter part
+of Chapter XI. Venice and Ravenna were its chief centres; while the
+influence, both of the parent style and of its Italian offshoot was, as
+we have just shown, very widespread.
+
+
++WESTERN ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.+ In Western Europe the unrest and
+lawlessness which attended the unsettled relations of society under the
+feudal system long retarded the establishment of that social order
+without which architectural progress is impossible. With the eleventh
+century there began, however, a�great activity in building, principally
+among the monasteries, which represented all that there was of culture
+and stability amid the prevailing disorder. Undisturbed by war, the only
+abodes of peaceful labor, learning, and piety, they had become rich and
+powerful, both in men and land. Probably the more or less general
+apprehension of the supposed impending end of the world in the year 1000
+contributed to this result by driving unquiet consciences to seek refuge
+in the monasteries, or to endow them richly.
+
+The monastic builders, with little technical training, but with plenty
+of willing hands, sought out new architectural paths to meet their
+special needs. Remote from classic and Byzantine models, and mainly
+dependent on their own resources, they often failed to realize the
+intended results. But skill came with experience, and with advancing
+civilization and a surer mastery of construction came a finer taste and
+greater elegance of design. Meanwhile military architecture developed a
+new science of building, and covered Europe with imposing castles,
+admirably constructed and often artistic in design as far as military
+exigencies would permit.
+
+
++CHARACTER OF THE STYLE.+ The Romanesque architecture of the eleventh
+and twelfth centuries in Western Europe (sometimes called the
++Round-Arched Gothic+) was thus predominantly though not exclusively
+monastic. This gave it a certain unity of character in spite of national
+and local variations. The problem which the wealthy orders set
+themselves was, like that of the Lombard church-builders in Italy, to
+adapt the basilica plan to the exigencies of vaulted construction.
+Massive walls, round arches stepped or recessed to lighten their
+appearance, heavy mouldings richly carved, clustered piers and
+jamb-shafts, capitals either of the _cushion_ type or imitated from the
+Corinthian, and strong and effective carving--all these are features
+alike of French, German, English, and Spanish Romanesque architecture.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 94.--PLAN OF ST. FRONT.]
+
++THE FRENCH ROMANESQUE.+ Though monasticism produced remarkable results
+in France, architecture there did not wholly depend upon the
+monasteries. Southern Gaul (Provence) was full of classic remains and
+classic traditions while at the same time it maintained close trade
+relations with Venice and the East.[19] The church of +St. Front+ at
+Perigueux, built in 1120, reproduced the plan of St. Mark's with
+singular fidelity, but without its rich decoration, and with pointed
+instead of round arches (Figs. 94, 95). The domical cathedral of
++Cahors+ (1050-1100), an obvious imitation of S.�Irene at
+Constantinople, and the later and more Gothic Cathedral of +Angoul�me+
+display a notable advance in architectural skill outside of the
+monasteries. Among the abbeys, +Fontevrault+ (1101-1119) closely
+resembles Angoul�me, but surpasses it in the elegance of its choir and
+chapels. In these and a number of other domical churches of the same
+Franco-Byzantine type in Aquitania, the substitution of the Latin cross
+in the plan for the Greek cross used in St. Front, evinces the Gallic
+tendency to work out to their logical end new ideas or new applications
+of old ones. These striking variations on Byzantine themes might have
+developed into an independent local style but for the overwhelming tide
+of Gothic influence which later poured in from the North.
+
+    [Footnote 19: See Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire raisonn�_, article
+    ARCHITECTURE, vol. i., pp. 66 _et seq._; also de Verneilh,
+    _L'Architecture byzantine en France_.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 95.--INTERIOR OF ST. FRONT, PERIGUEUX.]
+
+Meanwhile, farther south (at Arles, Avignon, etc.), classic models
+strongly influenced the details, if not the plans, of an interesting
+series of churches remarkable especially for their porches rich with
+figure sculpture and for their elaborately carved details. The classic
+archivolt, the Corinthian capital, the Roman forms of enriched
+mouldings, are evident at a glance in the porches of Notre Dame des Doms
+at Avignon, of the church of St. Gilles, and of St. Trophime at Arles.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 96.--PLAN OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT, CLERMONT.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 97.--SECTION OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT, CLERMONT.]
+
++DEVELOPMENT OF VAULTING.+ It was in Central France, and mainly along
+the Loire, that the systematic development of vaulted church
+architecture began. Naves covered with barrel-vaults appear in a number
+of large churches built during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, with
+apsidal and transeptal chapels and aisles carried around the apse, as in
+St. Etienne, Nevers, +Notre Dame du Port+ at Clermont-Ferrand (Fig. 96),
+and +St. Paul+ at Issoire. The thrust of these ponderous vaults was
+clumsily resisted by half-barrel vaults over the side-aisles,
+transmitting the strain to massive side-walls (Fig. 97), or by high
+side-aisles with transverse barrel or groined vaults over each bay. In
+either case the clearstory was suppressed--a�fact which mattered little
+in the sunny southern provinces. In the more cloudy North, in Normandy,
+Picardy, and the Royal Domain, the nave-vault was raised higher to admit
+of clearstory windows, and its section was in some cases made like a
+pointed arch, to diminish its thrust, as at +Autun+. But these
+eleventh-century vaults nearly all fell in, and had to be reconstructed
+on new principles. In this work the Clunisians seem to have led the way,
+as at +Cluny+ (1089) and +V�zelay+ (1100). In the latter church, one of
+the finest and most interesting French edifices of the twelfth century,
+a�groined vault replaced the barrel-vault, though the oblong plan of the
+vaulting-bays, due to the nave being wider than the pier-arches, led to
+somewhat awkward twisted surfaces in the vaulting. But even here the
+vaults had insufficient lateral buttressing, and began to crack and
+settle; so that in the great ante-chapel, built thirty years later, the
+side-aisles were made in two stories, the better to resist the thrust,
+and the groined vaults themselves were constructed of pointed section.
+These seem to be the earliest pointed groined vaults in France. It was
+not till the second half of that century, however (1150-1200), that the
+flying buttress was combined with such vaults, so as to permit of high
+clearstories for the better lighting of the nave; and the problem of
+satisfactorily vaulting an oblong space with a groined vault was not
+solved until the following century.
+
+
++ONE-AISLED CHURCHES.+ In the Franco-Byzantine churches already
+described (p.�164) this difficulty of the oblong vaulting-bay did not
+occur, owing to the absence of side-aisles and pier-arches. Following
+this conception of church-planning, a�number of interesting parish
+churches and a few cathedrals were built in various parts of France in
+which side-recesses or chapels took the place of side-aisles. The
+partitions separating them served as abutments for the groined or
+barrel-vaults of the nave. The cathedrals of +Autun+ (1150) and
++Langres+ (1160), and in the fourteenth century that of Alby, employed
+this arrangement, common in many earlier Proven�al churches which have
+disappeared.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 98.--A SIX-PART RIBBED VAULT, SHOWING
+  TWO COMPARTMENTS WITH THE FILLINGS COMPLETE.
+  _a, a_, _Transverse ribs_ (_doubleaux_); _b, b_, _Wall-ribs_
+  (_formerets_); _c, c_, _Groin-ribs_ (_diagonaux_).
+  (All the ribs are semicircles.)]
+
++SIX-PART VAULTING.+ In the Royal Domain great architectural activity
+does not appear to have begun until the beginning of the Gothic period
+in the middle of the twelfth century. But in Normandy, and especially at
+Caen and Mont St. Michel, there were produced, between 1046 and 1120,
+some remarkable churches, in which a high clearstory was secured in
+conjunction with a vaulted nave, by the use of "six-part" vaulting (Fig.
+98). This was an awkward expedient, by which a square vaulting-bay was
+divided into six parts by the groins and by a middle transverse rib,
+necessitating two narrow skew vaults meeting at the centre. This
+unsatisfactory device was retained for over a century, and was common in
+early Gothic churches both in France and Great Britain. It made it
+possible to resist the thrust by high side-aisles, and yet to open
+windows above these under the cross-vaults. The abbey churches of +St.
+Etienne+ (the Abbaye aux Hommes) and +Ste. Trinit�+ (Abbaye aux Dames),
+at Caen, built in the time of William the Conqueror, were among the most
+magnificent churches of their time, both in size and in the excellence
+and ingenuity of their construction. The great abbey church of +Mont St.
+Michel+ (much altered in later times) should also be mentioned here. At
+the same time these and other Norman churches showed a great advance in
+their internal composition. A�well-developed triforium or subordinate
+gallery was introduced between the pier-arches and clearstory, and all
+the structural membering of the edifice was better proportioned and more
+logically expressed than in most contemporary work.
+
+
++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ The details of French Romanesque architecture
+varied considerably in the several provinces, according as classic,
+Byzantine, or local influences prevailed. Except in a few of the
+Aquitanian churches, the round arch was universal. The walls were heavy
+and built of rubble between facings of stones of moderate size dressed
+with the axe. Windows and doors were widely splayed to diminish the
+obstruction of the massive walls, and were treated with jamb-shafts and
+recessed arches. These were usually formed with large cylindrical
+mouldings, richly carved with leaf ornaments, zigzags, billets, and
+grotesques. Figure-sculpture was more generally used in the South than
+in the North. The interior piers were sometimes cylindrical, but more
+often clustered, and where square bays of four-part or six-part vaulting
+were employed, the piers were alternately lighter and heavier. Each
+shaft had its independent capital either of the block type or of a form
+resembling somewhat that of the Corinthian order. During the eleventh
+century it became customary to carry up to the main vaulting one or more
+shafts of the compound pier to support the vaulting ribs. Thus the
+division of the nave into _bays_ was accentuated, while at the same time
+the horizontal three-fold division of the height by a well-defined
+triforium between the pier-arches and clearstory began to be likewise
+emphasized.
+
+
++VAULTING.+ The vaulting was also divided into bays by transverse ribs,
+and where it was groined the groins themselves began in the twelfth
+century to be marked by groin-ribs. These were constructed independently
+of the vaulting, and the four or six compartments of each vaulting-bay
+were then built in, the ribs serving, in part at least, to support the
+centrings for this purpose. This far-reaching principle, already applied
+by the Romans in their concrete vaults (see p.�84), appears as a
+re-discovery, or rather an independent invention, of the builders of
+Normandy at the close of the eleventh century. The flying buttress was a
+later invention; in the round-arched buildings of the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries the buttressing was mainly internal, and was
+incomplete and timid in its arrangement.
+
+
++EXTERIORS.+ The exteriors were on this account plain and flat. The
+windows were small, the mouldings simple, and towers were rarely
+combined with the body of the church until after the beginning of the
+twelfth century. Then they appeared as mere belfries of moderate height,
+with pyramidal roofs and effectively arranged openings, the germs of the
+noble Gothic spires of later times. Externally the western porches and
+portals were the most important features of the design, producing an
+imposing effect by their massive arches, clustered piers, richly carved
+mouldings, and deep shadows.
+
+
++CLOISTERS, ETC.+ Mention should be made of the other monastic buildings
+which were grouped around the abbey churches of this period. These
+comprised refectories, chapter-halls, cloistered courts surrounded by
+the conventual cells, and a large number of accessory structures for
+kitchens, infirmaries, stores, etc. The whole formed an elaborate and
+complex aggregation of connected buildings, often of great size and
+beauty, especially the refectories and cloisters. Most of these
+conventual buildings have disappeared, many of them having been
+demolished during the Gothic period to make way for more elegant
+structures in the new style. There remain, however, a�number of fine
+cloistered courts in their original form, especially in Southern France.
+Among the most remarkable of these are those of +Moissac+, +Elne+, and
++Montmajour+.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ ITALY. (For basilicas and domical churches of
+  6th-12th centuries see pp. 118, 119.)--Before 11th century: Sta.
+  Maria at Toscanella, altered 1206; S.�Donato, Zara; chapel at
+  Friuli; baptistery at Boella. 11th century: S.�Giovanni, Viterbo;
+  Sta. Maria della Pieve, Arezzo; S.�Antonio, Piacenza, 1014;
+  Eremiti, 1132, and La Martorana, 1143, both at Palermo; Duomo at
+  Bari, 1027 (much altered); Duomo and baptistery, Novara, 1030;
+  Duomo at Parma, begun 1058; Duomo at Pisa, 1063-1118; S.�Miniato,
+  Florence, 1063-12th century; S.�Michele at Pavia and Duomo at
+  Modena, late 11th century.--12th century: in Calabria and Apulia,
+  cathedrals of Trani, 1100; Caserta, Vecchia, 1100-1153; Molfetta,
+  1162; Benevento; churches S.�Giovanni at Brindisi, S.�Niccolo at
+  Bari, 1139. In Sicily, Duomo at Monreale, 1174-1189. In Northern
+  Italy, S.�Tomaso in Limine, Bergamo, 1100 (?); Sta. Giulia,
+  Brescia; S.�Lorenzo, Milan, rebuilt 1119; Duomo at Piacenza, 1122;
+  S.�Zeno at Verona, 1139; S.�Ambrogio, Milan, 1140, vaulted in 13th
+  century; baptistery at Pisa, 1153-1278; Leaning Tower, Pisa,
+  1174.--14th century: S.�Michele, Lucca, 1188; S.�Giovanni and
+  S.�Frediano, Lucca. In Dalmatia, cathedral at Zara, 1192-1204.
+  Many castles and early town-halls, as at Bari, Brescia, Lucca,
+  etc.
+
+  FRANCE: Previous to 11th century: St. Germiny-des-Pr�s,
+  806, Chapel of the Trinity, St. Honorat-des-L�rins; Ste. Croix de
+  Montmajour.--11th century: C�risy-la-For�t and abbey church of
+  Mont St. Michel, 1020 (the latter altered in 12th and 16th
+  centuries); Vignory; St. Genou; porch of St. B�noit-sur-Loire,
+  1030; St. S�pulchre at Neuvy, 1045; Ste. Trinit� (Abbaye aux
+  Dames) at Caen, 1046, vaulted 1140; St. Etienne (Abbaye aux
+  Hommes) at Caen, same date; St. Front at Perigueux, 1120; Ste.
+  Croix at Quimperl�, 1081; cathedral, Cahors, 1050-1110; abbey
+  churches of Cluny (demolished) and V�zelay, 1089-1100; circular
+  church of Rieux-M�rinville, church of St. Savin in Auvergne, the
+  churches of St. Paul at Issoire and Notre-Dame-du-Port at
+  Clermont, St. Hilaire and Notre-Dame-la-Grande at Poitiers; also
+  St. Sernin (Saturnin) at Toulouse, all at close of 11th and
+  beginning of 12th century.--12th century: Domical churches of
+  Aquitania and vicinity; Solignac and Font�vrault, 1120; St.
+  Etienne (P�rigueux), St. Avit-S�nieur; Angoul�me, Souillac,
+  Broussac, etc., early 12th century; St. Trophime at Arles, 1110,
+  cloisters later; church of Vaison; abbeys and cloisters at
+  Montmajour, Tarascon, Moissac (with fragments of a 10th-century
+  cloister built into present arcades); St. Paul-du-Mausol�e;
+  Puy-en-V�lay, with fine church. Many other abbeys, parish
+  churches, and a few cathedrals in Central and Northern France
+  especially.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+EARLY MEDI�VAL ARCHITECTURE.--_Continued._
+
+IN GERMANY, GREAT BRITAIN, AND SPAIN.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, H�bsch and Reber. Bond, _Gothic
+  Architecture in England_. Also Brandon, _Analysis of Gothic
+  Architecture_. Boisser�e, _Nieder Rhein_. Ditchfield, _The
+  Cathedrals of England_. Hasak, _Die romanische und die gotische
+  Baukunst_ (in _Handbuch d. Arch._). L�bke, _Die Mittelalterliche
+  Kunst in Westfalen_. M�ller, _Denkm�ler der deutschen Baukunst_.
+  Puttrich, _Baukunst des Mittelalters in Sachsen_. Rickman, _An
+  Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of Architecture_. Scott,
+  _English Church Architecture_. Van Rensselaer, _English
+  Cathedrals_.
+
+
++MEDI�VAL GERMANY.+ Architecture developed less rapidly and
+symmetrically in Germany than in France, notwithstanding the strong
+centralized government of the empire. The early churches were of wood,
+and the substitution of stone for wood proceeded slowly. During the
+Carolingian epoch (800-919), however, a�few important buildings were
+erected, embodying Byzantine and classic traditions. Among these the
+most notable was the +Minster+ or palatine chapel of Charlemagne at
++Aix-la-Chapelle+, an obvious imitation of San Vitale at Ravenna. It
+consisted of an octagonal domed hall surrounded by a vaulted aisle in
+two stories, but without the eight niches of the Ravenna plan. It was
+preceded by a porch flanked by turrets. The Byzantine type thus
+introduced was repeated in later churches, as in the Nuns' Choir at
+Essen (947) and at Ottmarsheim (1050). In the great monastery at Fulda a
+basilica with transepts and with an apsidal choir at either end was
+built in 803. These choirs were raised above the level of the nave, to
+admit of crypts beneath them, as in many Lombard churches; a�practice
+which, with the reduplication of the choir and apse just mentioned,
+became very common in German Romanesque architecture.
+
+
++EARLY CHURCHES.+ It was in Saxony that this architecture first entered
+upon a truly national development. The early churches of this province
+and of Hildesheim (where architecture flourished under the favor of the
+bishops, as elsewhere under the royal influence) were of basilican plan
+and destitute of vaulting, except in the crypts. They were built with
+massive piers, sometimes rectangular, sometimes clustered, the two kinds
+often alternating in the same nave. Short columns were, however,
+sometimes used instead of piers, either alone, as at Paulinzelle and
+Limburg-on-the-Hardt (1024-39), or alternating with piers, as at
+Hecklingen, +Gernrode+ (958-1050), and +St. Godehard+ at Hildesheim
+(1133). A�triple eastern apse, with apsidal chapels projecting eastward
+from the transepts, were common elements in the plans, and a second
+apse, choir, and crypt at the west end were not infrequent. Externally
+the most striking feature was the association of two, four, or even six
+square or circular towers with the mass of the church, and the elevation
+of square or polygonal turrets or cupolas over the crossing. These
+adjuncts gave a very picturesque aspect to edifices otherwise somewhat
+wanting in artistic interest.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 99.--PLAN OF MINSTER AT WORMS.]
+
++RHENISH CHURCHES.+ It was in the Rhine provinces that vaulting was
+first applied to the naves of German churches, nearly a half century
+after its general adoption in France. Cologne possesses an interesting
+trio of churches in which the Byzantine dome on squinches or on
+pendentives, with three apses or niches opening into the central area,
+was associated with a long three aisled nave (+St. Mary-in-the-Capitol+,
+begun in 9th century; +Great St. Martin's+, 1150-70; +Apostles' Church+,
+1160-99: the naves vaulted later). The double chapel at
++Schwarz-Rheindorf+, near Bonn (1151), also has the crossing covered by
+a dome on pendentives.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 100.--ONE BAY OF CATHEDRAL AT SPIRES.]
+
+The vaulting of the nave itself was developed in another series of
+edifices of imposing size, the cathedrals of +Mayence+ (1036), +Spires+
+(Speyer), and +Worms+, and the +Abbey of Laach+, all built in the 11th
+century and vaulted early in the 12th. In the first three the main
+vaulting is in square bays, each covering two bays of the nave, the
+piers of which are alternately lighter and heavier (Figs. 99, 100). At
+Laach the vaulting-bays are oblong, both in nave and aisles. There was
+no triforium gallery, and stability was secured only by excessive
+thickness in the piers and clearstory walls, and by bringing down the
+main vault as near to the side-aisle roofs as possible.
+
+
++RHENISH EXTERIORS.+ These great churches, together with those of +Bonn+
+and +Limburg-on-the-Lahn+ and the cathedral of +Treves+ (Trier, 1047),
+are interesting, not only by their size and dignity of plan and the
+somewhat rude massiveness of their construction, but even more so by the
+picturesqueness of their external design (Fig. 101). Especially
+successful is the massing of the large and small turrets with the lofty
+nave-roof and with the apses at one or both ends. The systematic use of
+arcading to decorate the exterior walls, and the introduction of open
+arcaded dwarf galleries under the cornices of the apses, gables, and
+dome-turrets, gave to these Rhenish churches an external beauty hardly
+equalled in other contemporary edifices. This method of exterior design,
+and the system of vaulting in square bays over double bays of the nave,
+were probably derived from the Lombard churches of Northern Italy, with
+which the Hohenstauffen emperors had many political relations.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 101.--EAST END OF CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES,
+  COLOGNE.]
+
+The Italian influence is also encountered in a number of circular
+churches of early date, as at Fulda (9th-11th century), Dr�gelte, Bonn
+(baptistery, demolished), and in fa�ades like that at Rosheim, which is
+a copy in little of San Zeno at Verona.
+
+Elsewhere in Germany architecture was in a backward state, especially in
+the southern provinces. Outside of Saxony, Franconia, and the Rhine
+provinces, very few works of importance were erected until the
+thirteenth century.
+
+
++SECULAR ARCHITECTURE.+ Little remains to us of the secular architecture
+of this period in Germany, if we except the great feudal castles,
+especially those of the Rhine, which were, after all, rather works of
+military engineering than of architectural art. The palace of
+Charlemagne at Aix (the chapel of which was mentioned on p.�172) is
+known to have been a vast and splendid group of buildings, partly, at
+least of marble; but hardly a vestige of it remains. Of the extensive
++Palace of Henry III.+ at +Goslar+ there remain well-defined ruins of an
+imposing hall of assembly in two aisles with triple-arched windows. At
+Brunswick the east wing of the +Burg Dankwargerode+ displays, in spite
+of modern alterations, the arrangement of the chapel, great hall, two
+fortified towers, and part of the residence of Henry the Lion. The
++Wartburg+ palace (Ludwig III., _cir._ 1150) is more generally
+known--a�rectangular hall in three stories, with windows effectively
+grouped to form arcades; while at Gelnhausen and M�nzenberg are ruins of
+somewhat similar buildings. A�few of the Romanesque monasteries of
+Germany have left partial remains, as at +Maulbronn+, which was almost
+entirely rebuilt in the Gothic period, and isolated buildings in Cologne
+and elsewhere. There remain also in Cologne a number of Romanesque
+private houses with coupled windows and stepped gables.
+
+
++GREAT BRITAIN.+ Previous to the Norman conquest (1066) there was in the
+British Isles little or no architecture worthy of mention. The few
+extant remains of Saxon and Celtic buildings reveal a singular poverty
+of ideas and want of technical skill. These scanty remains are mostly of
+towers (those in Ireland nearly all round and tapering, with conical
+tops, their use and date being the subjects of much controversy) and
+crypts. The tower of Earl's Barton is the most important and best
+preserved of those in England. With the Norman conquest, however, began
+an extraordinary activity in the building of churches and abbeys.
+William the Conqueror himself founded a number of these, and his Norman
+ecclesiastics endeavored to surpass on British soil the contemporary
+churches of Normandy. The new churches differed somewhat from their
+French prototypes; they were narrower and lower, but much longer,
+especially as to the choir and transepts. The cathedrals of +Durham+
+(1096-1133) and +Norwich+ (same date) are important examples (Fig. 102).
+They also differed from the French churches in two important particulars
+externally; a�huge tower rose usually over the crossing, and the western
+portals were small and insignificant. Lateral entrances near the west
+end were given greater importance and called _Galilees_. At Durham a
+Galilee chapel (not shown in the plan), takes the place of a porch at
+the west end, like the ante-churches of St. Beno�t-sur-Loire and
+V�zelay.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 102.--PLAN OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL.]
+
+
++THE NORMAN STYLE.+ The Anglo-Norman builders employed the same general
+features as the Romanesque builders of Normandy, but with more of
+picturesqueness and less of refinement and technical elegance. Heavy
+walls, recessed arches, round mouldings, cubic cushion-caps, clustered
+piers, and in doorways a jamb-shaft for each stepping of the arch were
+common to both styles. But in England the Corinthian form of capital is
+rare, its place being taken by simpler forms.
+
+
++NORMAN INTERIORS.+ The interior design of the larger churches of this
+period shows a close general analogy to contemporaneous French Norman
+churches, as appears by comparing the nave of Waltham or Peterboro' with
+that of C�risy-la-For�t, in Normandy. Although the massiveness of the
+Anglo-Norman piers and walls plainly suggests the intention of vaulting
+the nave, this intention seems never to have been carried out except in
+small churches and crypts. All the existing abbeys and cathedrals of
+this period had wooden ceilings or were, like Durham, Norwich, and
+Gloucester, vaulted at a later date. Completed as they were with wooden
+nave-roofs, the clearstory was, without danger, made quite lofty and
+furnished with windows of considerable size. These were placed near the
+outside of the thick wall, and a passage was left between them and
+a triple arch on the inner face of the wall--a�device imitated
+from the abbeys at Caen. The vaulted side-aisles were low, with
+disproportionately wide pier-arches, above which was a high triforium
+gallery under the side-roofs. Thus a nearly equal height was assigned
+to each of the three stories of the bay, disregarding that subordination
+of minor to major parts which gives interest to an architectural
+composition. The piers were quite often round, as at Gloucester,
+Hereford, and Bristol. Sometimes round piers alternated with clustered
+piers, as at Durham and Waltham; and in some cases clustered piers alone
+were employed, as at Peterboro' and in the transepts of Winchester (Fig.
+103).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 103.--ONE BAY OF TRANSEPT,
+  WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL.]
+
+
++FA�ADES AND DOORWAYS.+ All the details were of the simplest character,
+except in the doorways. These were richly adorned with clustered
+jamb-shafts and elaborately carved mouldings, but there was little
+variety in the details of this carving. The zigzag was the most common
+feature, though birds' heads with the beaks pointing toward the centre
+of the arch were not uncommon. In the smaller churches (Fig. 104) the
+doorways were better proportioned to the whole fa�ade than in the larger
+ones, in which they appear as relatively insignificant features. Very
+few examples remain of important Norman fa�ades in their original form,
+nearly all of these having been altered after the round arch was
+displaced by the pointed arch in the latter part of the twelfth century.
+Iffley church (Fig. 104) is a good example of the style.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 104.--FRONT OF IFFLEY CHURCH.]
+
+
++SPAIN.+ During the Romanesque period a large part of Spain was under
+Moorish dominion. The capture of Toledo, in 1062, by the Christians,
+began the gradual emancipation of the country from Moslem rule, and in
+the northern provinces a number of important churches were erected under
+the influence of French Romanesque models. The use of domical
+pendentives (as in the +Panteon+ of +S.�Isidoro+, at Leon, and in the
+_cimborio_ or dome over the choir at the intersection of nave and
+transepts in old Salamanca cathedral) was probably derived from the
+domical churches of Aquitania and Anjou. Elsewhere the northern
+Romanesque type prevailed under various modifications, with long nave
+and transepts, a�short choir, and a complete _chevet_ with apsidal
+chapels. The church of +St. Iago+ at Compostella (1078) is the finest
+example of this class. These churches nearly all had groined vaulting
+over the side-aisles and barrel-vaults over the nave, the constructive
+system being substantially that of the churches of Auvergne and the
+Loire Valley (p.�165). They differed, however, in the treatment of the
+crossing of nave and transepts, over which was usually erected a dome or
+cupola or pendentives or squinches, covered externally by an imposing
+square lantern or tower, as in the +Old Cathedral+ at +Salamanca+,
+already mentioned (1120-78) and the +Collegiate Church+ at +Toro+.
+Occasional exceptions to these types are met with, as in the basilican
+wooden-roofed church of S.�Millan at Segovia; in +S.�Isidoro+ at Leon,
+with chapels and a later-added square eastern end, and the circular
+church of the Templars at Segovia.
+
+The architectural details of these Spanish churches did not differ
+radically from contemporary French work. As in France and England, the
+doorways were the most ornate parts of the design, the mouldings being
+carved with extreme richness and the jambs frequently adorned with
+statues, as in +S.�Vincente+ at Avila. There was no such logical and
+reasoned-out system of external design as in France, and there is
+consequently greater variety in the fa�ades. Perhaps the most remarkable
+thing about the architecture of this period is its apparent exemption
+from the influence of the Moorish monuments which abounded on every
+hand. This may be explained by the hatred which was felt by the
+Christians for the Moslems and all their works.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ GERMANY: Previous to 11th century: Circular churches
+  of Holy Cross at M�nster, and of Fulda; palace chapel of
+  Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, 804; St. Stephen, Mayence, 990;
+  primitive nave and crypt of St. Gereon, Cologne, 10th century;
+  Lorsch.--11th century: Churches of Gernrode, Goslar, and Merseburg
+  in Saxony; cathedral of Bremen; first restoration of cathedral of
+  Treves (Trier), 1010, west front, 1047; Limburg-on-Hardt, 1024;
+  St. Willibrod, Echternach, 1031; east end of Mayence Cathedral,
+  1036; Church of Apostles and nave St. Mary-in-Capitol at Cologne,
+  1036; cathedral of Spires (Speyer) begun 1040; Cathedral
+  Hildesheim, 1061; St. Joseph, Bamberg, 1073; Abbey of Laach,
+  1093-1156; round churches of Bonn, Dr�gelte, Nimeguen; cathedrals
+  of Paderborn and Minden.--12th century: Churches of Klus,
+  Paulinzelle, Hamersleben, 1100-1110; Johannisberg, 1130; St.
+  Godehard. Hildesheim, 1133; Worms, the Minster, 1118-83; Jerichau,
+  1144-60; Schwarz-Rheindorf, 1151; St. Michael, Hildesheim, 1162;
+  Cathedral Brunswick, 1172-94; Lubeck, 1172; also churches of
+  Gaudersheim, W�rzburg, St. Matthew at Treves, Limburg-on-Lahn,
+  Sinzig, St. Castor at Coblentz, Diesdorf, Rosheim; round churches
+  of Ottmarsheim and Rippen (Denmark); cathedral of Basle, cathedral
+  and cloister of Zurich (Switzerland).
+
+  ENGLAND: Previous to 11th century: Scanty vestiges of Saxon church
+  architecture, as tower of Earl's Barton, round towers and small
+  chapels in Ireland.--11th century: Crypt of Canterbury Cathedral,
+  1070; chapel St. John in Tower of London, 1070; Winchester
+  Cathedral, 1076-93 (nave and choir rebuilt later); Gloucester
+  Cathedral nave, 1089-1100 (vaulted later); Rochester Cathedral
+  nave, west front cloisters, and chapter-house, 1090-1130; Carlisle
+  Cathedral nave, transepts, 1093-1130; Durham Cathedral, 1095-1133,
+  vaulted 1233; Galilee and chapter-house, 1133-53; Norwich
+  Cathedral, 1096, largely rebuilt 1118-93; Hereford Cathedral, nave
+  and choir, 1099-1115.--12th century: Ely Cathedral, nave, 1107-33;
+  St. Alban's Abbey, 1116; Peterboro' Cathedral, 1117-45; Waltham
+  Abbey, early 12th century; Church of Holy Sepulchre, Cambridge,
+  1130-35; Worcester Cathedral chapter-house, 1140 (?); Oxford
+  Cathedral (Christ Church), 1150-80; Bristol Cathedral
+  chapter-house (square), 1155; Canterbury Cathedral, choir of
+  present structure by William of Sens, 1175; Chichester Cathedral,
+  1180-1204; Romsey Abbey, late 12th century; St. Cross Hospital
+  near Winchester, 1190 (?). Many more or less important parish
+  churches in various parts of England.
+
+  SPAIN. For principal monuments of 9th-12th centuries, see text,
+  latter part of this chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Adamy, _Architektonik des gotischen Stils_.
+  Corroyer, _L'Architecture gothique_. Enlart, _Manuel d'arch�ologie
+  fran�aise_. Hasak, _Einzelheiten des Kirchenbaues_ (in _Hdbuch d.
+  Arch._). Moore, _Development and Character of Gothic
+  Architecture_. Parker, _Introduction to Gothic Architecture._
+  Scott, _Medi�val Architecture_. Viollet-le-Duc, _Discourses on
+  Architecture_; _Dictionnaire raisonn� de l'architecture
+  fran�aise_.
+
+
++INTRODUCTORY.+ The architectural styles which were developed in Western
+Europe during the period extending from about 1150 to 1450 or 1500,
+received in an unscientific age the wholly erroneous and inept name of
+Gothic. This name has, however, become so fixed in common usage that it
+is hardly possible to substitute for it any more scientific designation.
+In reality the architecture to which it is applied was nothing more than
+the sequel and outgrowth of the Romanesque, which we have already
+studied. Its fundamental principles were the same; it was concerned with
+the same problems. These it took up where the Romanesque builders left
+them, and worked out their solution under new conditions, until it had
+developed out of the simple and massive models of the early twelfth
+century the splendid cathedrals of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries in England, France, Germany, the Low Countries and Spain.
+
+
++THE CHURCH AND ARCHITECTURE.+ The twelfth century was an era of
+transition in society, as in architecture. The ideas of Church and State
+were becoming more clearly defined in the common mind. In the conflict
+between feudalism and royalty the monarchy was steadily gaining ground.
+The problem of human right was beginning to present itself alongside of
+the problem of human might. The relations between the crown, the feudal
+barons, the pope, bishops, and abbots, differed widely in France,
+Germany, England, and other countries. The struggle among them for
+supremacy presented itself, therefore, in varied aspects; but the
+general outcome was essentially the same. The church began to appear as
+something behind and above abbots, bishops, kings, and barons. The
+supremacy of the papal authority gained increasing recognition, and the
+episcopacy began to overshadow the monastic institutions; the bishops
+appearing generally, but especially in France, as the champions of
+popular rights. The prerogatives of the crown became more firmly
+established, and thus the Church and the State emerged from the social
+confusion as the two institutions divinely appointed for the government
+of men.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 105.--CONSTRUCTIVE SYSTEM OF GOTHIC CHURCH,
+  ILLUSTRATING PRINCIPLES OF ISOLATED SUPPORTS AND BUTTRESSING.]
+
+Under these influences ecclesiastical architecture advanced with rapid
+strides. No longer hampered by monastic restrictions, it called into its
+service the laity, whose guilds of masons and builders carried from one
+diocese to another their constantly increasing stores of constructive
+knowledge. By a wise division of labor, each man wrought only such parts
+as he was specially trained to undertake. The master-builder--bishop,
+abbot, or mason--seems to have planned only the general arrangement and
+scheme of the building, leaving the precise form of each detail to be
+determined as the work advanced, according to the skill and fancy of the
+artisan to whom it was intrusted. Thus was produced that remarkable
+variety in unity of the Gothic cathedrals; thus, also, those singular
+irregularities and makeshifts, those discrepancies and alterations in
+the design, which are found in every great work of medi�val
+architecture. Gothic architecture was constantly changing, attacking new
+problems or devising new solutions of old ones. In this character of
+constant flux and development it contrasts strongly with the classic
+styles, in which the scheme and the principles were easily fixed and
+remained substantially unchanged for centuries.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 106.--PLAN OF SAINTE CHAPELLE, PARIS,
+  SHOWING SUPPRESSION OF SIDE-WALLS.]
+
++STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES.+ The pointed arch, so commonly regarded as the
+most characteristic feature of the Gothic styles, was merely an
+incidental feature of their development. What really distinguished them
+most strikingly was the systematic application of two principles which
+the Roman and Byzantine builders had recognized and applied, but which
+seem to have been afterward forgotten until they were revived by the
+later Romanesque architects. The first of these was the _concentration
+of strains_ upon isolated points of support, made possible by the
+substitution of groined for barrel vaults. This led to a corresponding
+concentration of the masses of masonry at these points; the building was
+constructed as if upon legs (Fig. 105). The wall became a mere
+filling-in between the piers or buttresses, and in time was, indeed,
+practically suppressed, immense windows filled with stained glass taking
+its place. This is well illustrated in the +Sainte Chapelle+ at Paris,
+built 1242-47 (Figs. 106, 122). In this remarkable edifice, a�series of
+groined vaults spring from slender shafts built against deep buttresses
+which receive and resist all the thrusts. The wall-spaces between them
+are wholly occupied by superb windows filled with stone tracery and
+stained glass. It would be impossible to combine the materials used more
+scientifically or effectively. The cathedrals of Gerona (Spain) and of
+Alby (France; Fig. 123) illustrate the same principle, though in them
+the buttresses are internal and serve to separate the flanking chapels.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 107.--EARLY GOTHIC FLYING BUTTRESS.]
+
+The second distinctive principle of Gothic architecture was that of
+_balanced thrusts_. In Roman buildings the thrust of the vaulting was
+resisted wholly by the inertia of mass in the abutments. In Gothic
+architecture thrusts were as far as possible resisted by
+counter-thrusts, and the final resultant pressure was transmitted by
+flying half-arches across the intervening portions of the structure to
+external buttresses placed at convenient points. This combination of
+flying half-arches and buttresses is called the _flying-buttress_ (Fig.
+107). It reached its highest development in the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries in the cathedrals of central and northern France.
+
+
++RIBBED VAULTING.+ These two principles formed the structural basis of
+the Gothic styles. Their application led to the introduction of two
+other elements, second only to them in importance, _ribbed vaulting_ and
+the _pointed arch_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 108.--RIBBED VAULT, ENGLISH TYPE,
+  WITH DIVIDED GROIN-RIBS AND RIDGE-RIBS.]
+
+The first of these resulted from the effort to overcome certain
+practical difficulties encountered in the building of large groined
+vaults. As ordinarily constructed, a�groined vault like that in Fig. 47,
+must be built as one structure, upon wooden centrings supporting its
+whole extent. The Romanesque architects conceived the idea of
+constructing an independent skeleton of ribs. Two of these were built
+against the wall (_wall-ribs_), two across the nave (transverse ribs);
+and two others were made to coincide with the groins (Figs. 98, 108).
+The _groin-ribs_, intersecting at the centre of the vault, divided each
+bay into four triangular portions, or _compartments_, each of which was
+really an independent vault which could be separately constructed upon
+light centrings supported by the groin-ribs themselves. This principle,
+though identical in essence with the Roman system of brick skeleton-ribs
+for concrete vaults, was, in application and detail, superior to it,
+both from the scientific and artistic point of view. The ribs, richly
+moulded, became, in the hands of the Gothic architects, important
+decorative features. In practice the builder gave to each set of ribs
+independently the curvature he desired. The vaulting-surfaces were then
+easily twisted or warped so as to fit the various ribs, which, being
+already in place, served as guides for their construction.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 109.--PENETRATIONS AND INTERSECTIONS
+  OF VAULTS.
+  _a, a_, _Penetrations by small semi-circular vaults sprung from
+  same level_. b, _Intersection by small semi-circular vault sprung
+  from higher level; groins form wavy lines_. c, _Intersection by
+  narrow pointed vault sprung from same level; groins are plane
+  curves_.]
+
++THE POINTED ARCH+ was adopted to remedy the difficulties encountered in
+the construction of oblong vaults. It is obvious that where a narrow
+semi-cylindrical vault intersects a wide one, it produces either what
+are called _penetrations_, as at a (Fig. 109), or intersections like
+that at b, both of which are awkward in aspect and hard to construct.
+If, however, one or both vaults be given a pointed section, the narrow
+vault may be made as high as the wide one. It is then possible, with but
+little warping of the vaulting surfaces, to make them intersect in
+groins c, which are vertical plane curves instead of wavy loops like a
+and b.
+
+The Gothic architects availed themselves to the full of these two
+devices. They built their groin-ribs of semi-circular or pointed form,
+but the wall-ribs and the transverse ribs were, without exception,
+pointed arches of such curvature as would bring the apex of each nearly
+or quite to the level of the groin intersection. The pointed arch, thus
+introduced as the most convenient form for the vaulting-ribs, was soon
+applied to other parts of the structure. This was a necessity with the
+windows and pier-arches, which would not otherwise fit well the
+wall-spaces under the wall-ribs of the nave and aisle vaulting.
+
+
++TRACERY AND GLASS.+ With the growth in the size of the windows and the
+progressive suppression of the lateral walls of vaulted structures,
+stained glass came more and more generally into use. Its introduction
+not only resulted in a notable heightening and enriching of the colors
+and scheme of the interior decoration, but reacted on the architecture,
+intensifying the very causes which led to its introduction. It
+stimulated the increase in the size of windows, and the suppression of
+the walls, and contributed greatly to the development of _tracery_. This
+latter feature was an absolute necessity for the support of the glass.
+Its evolution can be traced (Figs, 110, 111, 112) from the simple
+coupling of twin windows under a single hood-mould, or discharging arch,
+to the florid net-work of the fifteenth century. In its earlier forms it
+consisted merely of decorative openings, circles, and quatrefoils,
+pierced through slabs of stone (_plate-tracery_), filling the
+window-heads over coupled windows. Later attention was bestowed upon the
+form of the stonework, which was made lighter and richly moulded
+(_bar-tracery_), rather than upon that of the openings (Fig. 111). Then
+the circular and geometric patterns employed were abandoned for more
+flowing and capricious designs (_Flamboyant_ tracery, Fig. 112) or (in
+England) for more rigid and rectangular arrangements (_Perpendicular_,
+Fig. 134). It will be shown later that the periods and styles of Gothic
+architecture are more easily identified by the tracery than by any other
+feature.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 110.--PLATE TRACERY, CHARLTON-ON-OXMORE.]
+
+
++CHURCH PLANS.+ The original basilica-plan underwent radical
+modifications during the 12th-15th centuries. These resulted in part
+from the changes in construction which have been described, and in part
+from altered ecclesiastical conditions and requirements. Gothic church
+architecture was based on cathedral design; and the requirements of the
+cathedral differed in many respects from those of the monastic churches
+of the preceding period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 111--BAR TRACERY, ST. MICHAEL'S, WARFIELD.]
+
+The most important alterations in the plan were in the choir and
+transepts. The choir was greatly lengthened, the transepts often
+shortened. The choir was provided with two and often four side-aisles,
+and one or both of these was commonly carried entirely around the
+apsidal termination of the choir, forming a single or double
+_ambulatory_. This combination of choir, apse, and ambulatory was
+called, in French churches, the _chevet_.
+
+Another advance upon Romanesque models was the multiplication of
+chapels--a�natural consequence of the more popular character of the
+cathedral as compared with the abbey. Frequently lateral chapels were
+built at each bay of the side-aisles, filling up the space between the
+deep buttresses, flanking the nave as well as the choir. They were also
+carried around the _chevet_ in most of the French cathedrals (Paris,
+Bourges, Reims, Amiens, Beauvais, and many others); in many of those in
+Germany (Magdeburg, Cologne, Frauenkirche at Treves), Spain (Toledo,
+Leon, Barcelona, Segovia, etc.), and Belgium (Tournay, Antwerp). In
+England the choir had more commonly a square eastward termination.
+Secondary transepts occur frequently, and these peculiarities, together
+with the narrowness and great length of most of the plans, make of the
+English cathedrals a class by themselves.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 112.--ROSE WINDOW, CHURCH OF ST. OUEN, ROUEN.]
+
++PROPORTIONS AND COMPOSITION.+ Along with these modifications of the
+basilican plan should be noticed a great increase in the height and
+slenderness of all parts of the structure. The lofty clearstory, the
+arcaded triforium-passage or gallery beneath it, the high pointed
+pier-arches, the multiplication of slender clustered shafts, and the
+reduction in the area of the piers, gave to the Gothic churches an
+interior aspect wholly different from that of the simpler, lower, and
+more massive Romanesque edifices. The perspective effects of the plans
+thus modified, especially of the complex choir and _chevet_ with their
+lateral and radial chapels, were remarkably enriched and varied.
+
+The exterior was even more radically transformed by these changes, and
+by the addition of towers and spires to the fronts, and sometimes to the
+transepts and to their intersection with the nave. The deep buttresses,
+terminating in pinnacles, the rich traceries of the great lateral
+windows, the triple portals profusely sculptured, rose-windows of great
+size under the front and transept gables, combined to produce effects of
+marvellously varied light and shadow, and of complex and elaborate
+structural beauty, totally unlike the broad simplicity of the Romanesque
+exteriors.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 113.--FLAMBOYANT DETAIL FROM PULPIT
+  IN STRASBURG CATHEDRAL.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 114.--EARLY GOTHIC CARVING.]
+
++DECORATIVE DETAIL.+ The medi�val designers aimed to enrich every
+constructive feature with the most effective play of lights and shades,
+and to embody in the decorative detail the greatest possible amount of
+allegory and symbolism, and sometimes of humor besides. The deep jambs
+and soffits of doors and pier-arches were moulded with a rich succession
+of hollow and convex members, and adorned with carvings of saints,
+apostles, martyrs, and angels. Virtues and vices, allegories of reward
+and punishment, and an extraordinary world of monstrous and grotesque
+beasts, devils, and goblins filled the capitals and door-arches, peeped
+over tower-parapets, or leered and grinned from gargoyles and corbels.
+Another source of decorative detail was the application of tracery like
+that of the windows to wall-panelling, to balustrades, to open-work
+gables, to spires, to choir-screens, and other features, especially in
+the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (cathedrals of York, Rouen,
+Cologne; Henry VII.'s Chapel, Westminster). And finally in the carving
+of capitals and the ornamentation of mouldings the artists of the
+thirteenth century and their successors abandoned completely the classic
+models and traditions which still survived in the early twelfth century.
+The later monastic builders began to look directly to nature for
+suggestions of decorative form. The lay builders who sculptured the
+capitals and crockets and finials of the early Gothic cathedrals adopted
+and followed to its finality this principle of recourse to nature,
+especially to plant life. At first the budding shoots of early spring
+were freely imitated or skilfully conventionalized, as being by their
+thick and vigorous forms the best adapted for translation into stone
+(Fig. 114). During the thirteenth century the more advanced stages of
+plant growth, and leaves more complex and detailed, furnished the models
+for the carver, who displayed his skill in a closer and more literal
+imitation of their minute veinings and indentations (Fig. 115). This
+artistic adaptation of natural forms to architectural decoration
+degenerated later into a minutely realistic copying of natural foliage,
+in which cleverness of execution took the place of original invention.
+The spirit of display is characteristic of all late Gothic work.
+Slenderness, minuteness of detail, extreme complexity and intricacy of
+design, an unrestrained profusion of decoration covering every surface,
+a�lack of largeness and vigor in the conceptions, are conspicuous traits
+of Gothic design in the fifteenth century, alike in France, England,
+Germany, Spain, and the Low Countries. Having worked out to their
+conclusion the structural principles bequeathed to them by the preceding
+centuries, the authors of these later works seemed to have devoted
+themselves to the elaboration of mere decorative detail, and in
+technical finish surpassed all that had gone before (Fig. 113).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 115.--CARVING, DECORATED PERIOD,
+  FROM SOUTHWELL MINSTER.]
+
+
++CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARIZED.+ In the light of the preceding explanations
+Gothic architecture may be defined as that system of structural design
+and decoration which grew up out of the effort to combine, in one
+harmonious and organic conception, the basilican plan with a complete
+and systematic construction of groined vaulting. Its development was
+controlled throughout by considerations of stability and structural
+propriety, but in the application of these considerations the artistic
+spirit was allowed full scope for its exercise. Refinement, good taste,
+and great fertility of imagination characterize the details and
+ornaments of Gothic structures. While the Greeks in harmonizing the
+requirements of utility and beauty in architecture approached the
+problem from the �sthetic side, the Gothic architects did the same from
+the structural side. Their admirably reasoned structures express as
+perfectly the idea of vastness, mystery, and complexity as do the Greek
+temples that of simplicity and monumental repose.
+
+The excellence of Gothic architecture lay not so much in its individual
+details as in its perfect adaptation to the purposes for which it was
+developed--its triumphs were achieved in the building of cathedrals and
+large churches. In the domain of civil and domestic architecture it
+produced nothing comparable with its ecclesiastical edifices, because it
+was the requirements of the cathedral and not of the palace, town-hall,
+or dwelling, that gave it its form and character.
+
+
++PERIODS.+ The history of Gothic architecture is commonly divided into
+three periods, which are most readily distinguished by the character of
+the window-tracery. These periods were not by any means synchronous in
+the different countries; but the order of sequence was everywhere the
+same. They are here given, with a summary of the characteristics of
+each.
+
+EARLY POINTED PERIOD. [_Early French_; _Early English_ or _Lancet_
+Period in England; _Early German_, etc.] Simple groined vaults; general
+simplicity and vigor of design and detail; conventionalized foliage of
+small plants; plate tracery, and narrow windows coupled under pointed
+arch with circular foiled openings in the window-head. (In France, 1160
+to 1275.)
+
+MIDDLE POINTED PERIOD. [_Rayonnant_ in France; _Decorated_ or
+_Geometric_ in England.] Vaults more perfect; in England multiple ribs
+and liernes; greater slenderness and loftiness of proportions;
+decoration much richer, less vigorous; more naturalistic carving of
+mature foliage; walls nearly suppressed, windows of great size, bar
+tracery with slender moulded or columnar mullions and geometric
+combinations (circles and cusps) in window-heads, circular (rose)
+windows. (In France, 1275 to 1375.)
+
+FLORID GOTHIC PERIOD. [_Flamboyant_ in France; _Perpendicular_ in
+England.] Vaults of varied and richly decorated design; fan-vaulting and
+pendants in England, vault-ribs curved into fanciful patterns in Germany
+and Spain; profuse and minute decoration and cleverness of technical
+execution substituted for dignity of design; highly realistic carving
+and sculpture, flowing or flamboyant tracery in France; perpendicular
+bars with horizontal transoms and four-centred arches in England;
+"branch-tracery" in Germany. (In France, 1375 to 1525.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Adamy, Corroyer, Enlart, Hasak,
+  Moore, Reber, Viollet-le-Duc.[20] Also Chapuy, _Le moyen age
+  monumental_. Chateau, _Histoire et caract�res de l'architecture
+  fran�aise_. Davies, _Architectural Studies in France_. Ferree,
+  _The Chronology of the Cathedral Churches of France_. Johnson,
+  _Early French Architecture_. King, _The Study book of Medi�val
+  Architecture and Art_. Lassus and Viollet-le-Duc, _Notre Dame de
+  Paris_. Nesfield, _Specimens of Medi�val Architecture_. Pettit,
+  _Architectural Studies in France_.
+
+    [Footnote 20: Consult especially articles ARCHITECTURE,
+    CATH�DRALE, CHAPELLE, CONSTRUCTION, �GLISE, MAISON, VO�TE.]
+
+
++CATHEDRAL-BUILDING IN FRANCE.+ In the development of the principles
+outlined in the foregoing chapter the church-builders of France led the
+way. They surpassed all their contemporaries in readiness of invention,
+in quickness and directness of reasoning, and in artistic refinement.
+These qualities were especially manifested in the extraordinary
+architectural activity which marked the second half of the twelfth
+century and the first half of the thirteenth. This was the great age of
+cathedral-building in France. The adhesion of the bishops to the royal
+cause, and their position in popular estimation as the champions of
+justice and human rights, led to the rapid advance of the episcopacy in
+power and influence. The cathedral, as the throne-church of the bishop,
+became a truly popular institution. New cathedrals were founded on every
+side, especially in the Royal Domain and the adjoining provinces of
+Normandy, Burgundy, and Champagne, and their construction was warmly
+seconded by the people, the communes, and the municipalities. "Nothing
+to-day," says Viollet-le-Duc,[21] "unless it be the commercial movement
+which has covered Europe with railway lines, can give an idea of the
+zeal with which the urban populations set about building cathedrals; ...
+a�necessity at the end of the twelfth century because it was an
+energetic protest against feudalism." The collapse of the unscientific
+Romanesque vaulting of some of the earlier cathedrals and the
+destruction by fire of others stimulated this movement by the necessity
+for their immediate rebuilding. The entire reconstruction of the
+cathedrals of Bayeux, Bayonne, Cambray, Evreux, Laon, Lisieux, Le Mans,
+Noyon, Poitiers, Senlis, Soissons, and Troyes was begun between 1130 and
+1200.[22] The cathedrals of Bourges, Chartres, Paris, and Tours, and the
+abbey of St. Denis, all of the first importance, were begun during the
+same period, and during the next quarter-century those of Amiens,
+Auxerre, Rouen, Reims, S�ez, and many others. After 1250 the movement
+slackened and finally ceased. Few important cathedrals were erected
+during the latter half of the thirteenth century, the chief among them
+being at Beauvais (actively begun 1247), Clermont, Coutances, Limoges,
+Narbonne, and Rodez. During this period, and through the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries, French architecture was concerned rather with the
+completion and remodelling of existing cathedrals than the founding of
+new ones. There were, however, many important parish churches and civil
+or domestic edifices erected within this period.
+
+    [Footnote 21: _Dictionnaire raisonn� de l'architecture fran�aise_,
+    vol. ii., pp. 280, 281.]
+
+    [Footnote 22: See Ferree, _Chronology of Cathedral Churches of
+    France_.]
+
+
++STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT: VAULTING.+ By the middle of the twelfth century
+the use of barrel-vaulting over the nave had been generally abandoned
+and groined vaulting with its isolated points of support and resistance
+had taken its place. The timid experiments of the Clunisian architects
+at V�zelay in the use of the pointed arch and vault-ribs also led, in
+the second half of the twelfth century, to far-reaching results. The
+builders of the great +Abbey Church+ of +St. Denis+, near Paris, begun
+in 1140 by the Abbot Suger, appear to have been the first to develop
+these tentative devices into a system. In the original choir of this
+noble church all the arches, alike of the vault-ribs (except the
+groin-ribs, which were semi-circles) and of the openings, were pointed
+and the vaults were throughout constructed with cross-ribs, wall-ribs,
+and groin-ribs. Of this early work only the chapels remain. In other
+contemporary monuments, as for instance in the cathedral of Sens, the
+adoption of these devices was only partial and hesitating.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 116--PLAN OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 117.--INTERIOR OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.]
+
++NOTRE DAME AT PARIS.+ The next great step in advance was taken in the
+cathedral of +Notre Dame+[23] at Paris (Figs. 116, 117, 125). This was
+begun, under Maurice de Sully in 1163, on the site of the twin
+cathedrals of Ste. Marie and St. �tienne, and the choir was, as usual,
+the first portion erected. By 1196 the choir, transepts, and one or two
+bays of the nave were substantially finished. The completeness, harmony,
+and vigor of conception of this remarkable church contrast strikingly
+with the makeshifts and hesitancy displayed in many contemporary
+monuments in other provinces. The difficult vaulting over the radiating
+bays of the double ambulatory was here treated with great elegance. By
+doubling the number of supports in the exterior circuit of each aisle
+(Fig. 116) each trapezoidal bay of the vaulting was divided into three
+easily managed triangular compartments. Circular shafts were used
+between the central and side aisles. The side aisles were doubled and
+those next the centre were built in two stories, providing ample
+galleries behind a very open triforium. The nave was unusually lofty and
+covered with six-part vaults of admirable execution. The vault-ribs were
+vigorously moulded and each made to spring from a distinct
+vaulting-shaft, of which three rested upon the cap of each of the
+massive piers below (Fig. 117). The +Cathedral+ of +Bourges+, begun
+1190, closely resembled that of Paris in plan. Both were designed to
+accommodate vast throngs in their exceptionally broad central aisles and
+double side aisles, but Bourges has no side-aisle galleries, though the
+inner aisles are much loftier than the outer ones. Though later in date
+the vaulting of Bourges is inferior to that of Notre Dame, especially in
+the treatment of the trapezoidal bays of the ambulatory.
+
+    [Footnote 23: This cathedral will be hereafter referred to, for
+    the sake of brevity, by the name of _Notre Dame_. Other cathedrals
+    having the same name will be distinguished by the addition of the
+    name of the city, as "Notre Dame at Clermont-Ferrand."]
+
+The masterly examples set by the vault-builders of St. Denis and Notre
+Dame were not at once generally followed. Noyon, Senlis, and Soissons,
+contemporary with these, are far less completely Gothic in style. At +Le
+Mans+ the groined vaulting which in 1158 was substituted for the
+original barrel-vault of the cathedral is of very primitive design,
+singularly heavy and awkward, although nearly contemporary with that of
+Notre Dame (Fig. 118).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 118.--LE MANS CATHEDRAL. NAVE.]
+
+
++DOMICAL GROINED VAULTING.+ The builders of the South and West,
+influenced by Aquitanian models, adhered to the square plan and domical
+form of vaulting-bay, even after they had begun to employ groin-ribs.
+The latter, as at first used by them in imitation of Northern examples,
+had no organic function in the vault, which was still built like a dome.
+About 1145-1160 the cathedral of +St. Maurice+ at +Angers+ was vaulted
+with square, groin-ribbed vaults, domical in form but not in
+construction. The joints no longer described horizontal circles as in a
+dome, but oblique lines perpendicular to the groins and meeting in
+zigzag lines at the ridge (Fig. 119). This method became common in the
+West and was afterward generally adopted by the English architects. The
++Cathedrals+ of +Poitiers+ (1162) and +Laval+ (La Trinit�, 1180-1185)
+are examples of this system, which at Le Mans met with the Northern
+system and produced in the cathedral the awkward compromise described
+above.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 119.--GROINED VAULT WITH ZIG-ZAG RIDGE-JOINTS.
+  _a_ shows a small section of filling with courses parallel to
+  the ridge, for comparison with the other compartments.]
+
++THIRTEENTH-CENTURY VAULTING.+ Early in the thirteenth century the
+church-builders of Northern France abandoned the use of square
+vaulting-bays and six-part vaults. By the adoption of groin-ribs and the
+pointed arch, the building of vaults in oblong bays was greatly
+simplified. Each bay of the nave could now be covered with its own
+vaulting-bay, thus doing away with all necessity for alternately light
+and heavy piers. It is not quite certain when and where this system was
+first adopted for the complete vaulting of a church. It is, however,
+probable that the +Cathedral+ of +Chartres+, begun in 1194 and completed
+before 1240, deserves this distinction, although it is possible that the
+vaults of Soissons and Noyon may slightly antedate it. +Troyes+
+(1170-1267), +Rouen+ (1202-1220), +Reims+ (1212-1242), +Auxerre+
+(1215-1234, nave fourteenth century), +Amiens+ (1220-1288), and nearly
+all the great churches and chapels begun after 1200, employ the fully
+developed oblong vault.
+
+
++BUTTRESSING.+ Meanwhile the increasing height of the clearstories and
+the use of double aisles compelled the bestowal of especial attention
+upon the buttressing. The nave and choir of Chartres, the choirs of
+Notre Dame, Bourges, Rouen, and Reims, the chevet and later the choir of
+St. Denis, afford early examples of the flying-buttress (Fig. 107).
+These were at first simple and of moderate height. Single half-arches
+spanned the side aisles; in Notre Dame they crossed the double aisles in
+a single leap. Later the buttresses were given greater stability by the
+added weight of lofty pinnacles. An intermediate range of buttresses and
+pinnacles was built over the intermediate piers where double aisles
+flanked the nave and choir, thus dividing the single flying arch into
+two arches. At the same time a careful observation of statical defects
+in the earlier examples led to the introduction of subordinate arches
+and of other devices to stiffen and to beautify the whole system. At
++Reims+ and +Amiens+ these features received their highest development,
+though later examples are frequently much more ornate.
+
+
++INTERIOR DESIGN.+ The progressive change outlined in the last chapter,
+by which the wall was practically suppressed, the windows
+correspondingly enlarged, and every part of the structure made loftier
+and more slender, resulted in the evolution of a system of interior
+design well represented by the nave of Amiens. The second story or
+gallery over the side aisle disappeared, but the aisle itself was very
+high. The triforium was no longer a gallery, but a richly arcaded
+passage in the thickness of the wall, corresponding to the roofing-space
+over the aisle, and generally treated like a lower stage of the
+clearstory. Nearly the whole space above it was occupied in each bay by
+the vast clearstory window filled with simple but effective geometric
+tracery over slender mullions. The side aisles were lighted by windows
+which, like those in the clearstory, occupied nearly the whole available
+wall-space under the vaulting. The piers and shafts were all clustered
+and remarkably slender. The whole construction of this vast edifice,
+which covers nearly eighty thousand square feet, is a marvel of
+lightness, of scientific combinations, and of fine execution. Its great
+vault rises to a height of one hundred and forty feet. The nave of St.
+Denis, though less lofty, resembles it closely in style (Fig. 120).
+Earlier cathedrals show less of the harmony of proportion, the perfect
+working out of the relation of all parts of the composition of each bay,
+so conspicuous in the Amiens type, which was followed in most of the
+later churches.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 120.--ONE BAY, ABBEY OF ST. DENIS.]
+
++WINDOWS: TRACERY.+ The clearstory windows of Noyon, Soissons, Sens, and
+the choir of V�zelay (1200) were simple arched openings arranged singly,
+in pairs, or in threes. In the cathedral of Chartres (1194-1220) they
+consist of two arched windows with a circle above them, forming a sort
+of plate tracery under a single arch. In the chapel windows of the choir
+at Reims (1215) the tracery of mullions and circles was moulded inside
+and out, and the intermediate triangular spaces all pierced and glazed.
+Rose windows were early used in front and transept fa�ades. During the
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they were made of vast size and
+great lightness of tracery, as in the transepts of Notre Dame (1257) and
+the west front of Amiens (1288). From the design of these windows is
+derived the name _Rayonnant_, often applied to the French Gothic style
+of the period 1275-1375.
+
+
++THE SAINTE CHAPELLE.+ In this beautiful royal chapel at Paris, built
+1242-47, Gothic design was admirably exemplified in the noble windows 15
+by 50 feet in size, which perhaps furnished the models for those of
+Amiens and�St. Denis. Each was divided by slender mullions into four
+lancet-like lights gathered under the rich tracery of the window-head.
+They were filled with stained glass of the most brilliant but harmonious
+hues. They occupy the whole available wall-space, so that the ribbed
+vault internally seems almost to rest on walls of glass, so slender are
+the visible supports and so effaced by the glow of color in the windows.
+Certainly lightness of construction and the suppression of the
+wall-masonry could hardly be carried further than here (Fig. 121). Among
+other chapels of the same type are those in the palace of St.
+Germain-en-Laye (1240), and a later example in the ch�teau of Vincennes,
+begun by Charles VI., but not finished till 1525.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 121.--THE STE. CHAPELLE, PARIS.]
+
+
++PLANS.+ The most radical change from the primitive basilican type was,
+as already explained in the last chapter, the continuation of the side
+aisles around the apse to form a _chevet_; and later, the addition of
+chapels between the external buttresses. Radiating chapels, usually
+semi-octagons or semi-decagons in plan, early appeared as additions to
+the _chevet_ (Fig. 122). These may have originated in the apsidal
+chapels of Romanesque churches in Auvergne and the South, as at Issoire,
+Clermont-Ferrand, Le Puy, and Toulouse. They generally superseded the
+transept-chapels of earlier churches, and added greatly to the beauty of
+the interior perspective, especially when the encircling aisles of the
+chevet were doubled. Notre Dame, as at first erected, had a double
+ambulatory, but no chapels. Bourges has only five very small
+semicircular chapels. Chartres (choir 1220) and Le Mans, as
+reconstructed about the same date, have double ambulatories and radial
+chapels. After 1220 the second ambulatory no longer appears. Noyon,
+Soissons, Reims, Amiens, Troyes, and Beauvais, Tours, Bayeux, and
+Coutances, Clermont, Limoges, and Narbonne all have the single
+ambulatory and radiating chevet-chapels. The Lady-chapel in the axis of
+the church was often made longer and more important than the other
+chapels, as at Amiens, Le Mans, Rouen, Bayeux, and Coutances. Chapels
+also flanked the choir in most of the cathedrals named above, and Notre
+Dame and Tours also have side chapels to the nave. The only cathedrals
+with complete double side aisles alike to nave, choir, and chevet, were
+Notre Dame and Bourges. It is somewhat singular that the German
+cathedral of Cologne is the only one in which all these various
+characteristic French features were united in one design (see Fig. 140).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 122.--PLAN OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Local considerations had full sway in France, in spite of the tendency
+toward unity of type. Thus Dol, Laon, and Poitiers have square eastward
+terminations; Ch�lons has no ambulatory; Bourges no transept. In Notre
+Dame the transept was almost suppressed. At Soissons one transept, at
+Noyon both, had semicircular ends. +Alby+, a�late cathedral of brick,
+founded in 1280, but mostly built during the fourteenth century, has
+neither side aisles nor transepts, its wide nave being flanked by
+chapels separated by internal buttresses (Fig. 123).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 123.--PLAN OF CATHEDRAL OF ALBY.]
+
+
++SCALE.+ The French cathedrals were nearly all of imposing dimensions.
+Noyon, one of the smallest, is 333 feet long; Sens measures 354. Laon,
+Bourges, Troyes, Notre Dame, Le Mans, Rouen, and Chartres vary from 396
+to 437 feet in extreme length; Reims measures 483, and Amiens, the
+longest of all, 521 feet. Notre Dame is 124 feet wide across the five
+aisles of the nave; Bourges, somewhat wider. The central aisles of these
+two cathedrals, and of Laon, Amiens, and Beauvais, have a span of not
+far from 40 feet from centre to centre of the piers; while the ridge of
+the vaulting, which in Notre Dame is 108 feet above the pavement, and in
+Bourges 125, reaches in Amiens a height of 140 feet, and of nearly 160
+in Beauvais. This emphasis of the height, from 3 to 3� times the clear
+width of the nave or choir, is one of the most striking features of the
+French cathedrals. It produces an impressive effect, but tends to dwarf
+the great width of the central aisle.
+
+
++EXTERIOR DESIGN.+ Here, as in the interior, every feature had its
+constructive _raison d'�tre_, and the total effect was determined by the
+fundamental structural scheme. This was especially true of the lateral
+elevations, in which the pinnacled buttresses, the flying arches, and
+the traceried windows of the side aisle and clearstory, repeated
+uniformly at each bay, were the principal elements of the design. The
+transept fa�ades and main front allowed greater scope for invention and
+fancy, but even here the interior membering gave the key to the
+composition. Strong buttresses marked the division of the aisles and
+resisted the thrust of the terminal pier arches, and rose windows filled
+the greater part of the wall space under the end of the lofty vaulting.
+The whole structure was crowned by a steep-pitched roof of wood, covered
+with lead, copper, or tiles, to protect the vault from damage by snow
+and moisture. This roof occasioned the steep gables which crowned the
+transept and main fa�ades. The main front was frequently adorned, above
+the triple portal, with a gallery of niches or tabernacles filled with
+statues of kings. Different types of composition are represented by
+Chartres, Notre Dame, Amiens, Reims, and Rouen, of which Notre Dame
+(Fig. 124) and Reims are perhaps the finest. Notre Dame is especially
+remarkable for its stately simplicity and the even balancing of
+horizontal and vertical elements.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 124.--WEST FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 125.--WEST FRONT OF ST. MACLOU, ROUEN.]
+
++PORCHES.+ In most French church fa�ades the porches were the most
+striking features, with their deep shadows and sculptured arches. The
+Romanesque porches were usually limited in depth to the thickness of the
+front wall. The Gothic builders secured increased depth by projecting
+the portals out beyond the wall, and crowned them with elaborate gables.
+The vast central door was divided in two by a pier adorned with a niche
+and statue. Over this the tympanum of the arch was carved with
+scriptural reliefs; the jambs and arches were profusely adorned with
+figures of saints, apostles, martyrs, and angels, under elaborate
+canopies. The porches of Laon, Bourges, Amiens, and Reims are especially
+deep and majestic in effect, the last-named (built 1380) being the
+richest of all. Some of the transept fa�ades also had imposing portals.
+Those of +Chartres+ (1210-1245) rank among the finest works of Gothic
+decorative architecture, the south porch in some respects surpassing
+that of the north transept. The portals of the fifteenth and early
+sixteenth centuries were remarkable for the extraordinary richness and
+minuteness of their tracery and sculpture, as at Abbeville, Alen�on, the
+cathedral and St. Maclou at Rouen (Fig. 125), Tours, Troyes, Vend�me,
+etc.
+
+
++TOWERS AND SPIRES.+ The emphasizing of vertical elements reached its
+fullest expression in the towers and spires of the churches. What had
+been at first merely a lofty belfry roof was rapidly developed into the
+spire, rising three hundred feet or more into the air. This development
+had already made progress in the Romanesque period, and the south spire
+of Chartres is a notable example of late twelfth-century steeple design.
+The transition from the square tower to the slender octagonal pyramid
+was skilfully effected by means of corner pinnacles and dormers. During
+and after the thirteenth century the development was almost wholly in
+the direction of richness and complexity of detail, not of radical
+constructive modification. The northern spire of Chartres (1515) and the
+spires of Bordeaux, Coutances, Senlis, and the Flamboyant church of St.
+Maclou at Rouen, illustrate this development. In Normandy central spires
+were common, rising over the crossing of nave and transepts. In some
+cases the designers of cathedrals contemplated a group of towers; this
+is evident at Chartres, Coutances, and Reims. This intention was,
+however, never realized; it demanded resources beyond even the
+enthusiasm of the thirteenth century. Only in rare instances were the
+spires of any of the towers completed, and the majority of the French
+towers have square terminations, with low-pitched wooden roofs,
+generally invisible from below. In general, French towers are marked by
+their strong buttresses, solid lower stories, twin windows in each side
+of the belfry proper--these windows being usually of great size--and a
+skilful management of the transition to an octagonal plan for the belfry
+or the spire.
+
+
++CARVING AND SCULPTURE.+ The general superiority of French Gothic work
+was fully maintained in its decorative details. Especially fine is the
+figure sculpture, which in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries
+attained true nobility of expression, combined with great truthfulness
+and delicacy of execution. Some of its finest productions are found in
+the great doorway jambs of the west portals of the cathedrals, and in
+the ranks of throned and adoring angels which adorned their deep arches.
+These reach their highest beauty in the portals of Reims (1380). The
+_tabernacles_ or carved niches in which such statues were set were
+important elements in the decoration of the exteriors of churches.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 126.--FRENCH GOTHIC CAPITALS.
+  _a_, From Sainte Chapelle, Paris, 13th century. _b_, 14th-century
+  capital from transept of Notre Dame, Paris. _c_, 15th-century
+  capital from north spire of Chartres.]
+
+Foliage forms were used for nearly all the minor carved ornaments,
+though grotesque and human figures sometimes took their place. The
+gargoyles through which the roof-water was discharged clear of the
+building, were almost always composed in the form of hideous monsters;
+and symbolic beasts, like the oxen in the towers of Laon, or monsters
+like those which peer from the tower balustrades of Notre Dame, were
+employed with some mystical significance in various parts of the
+building. But the capitals corbels, crockets, and finials were mostly
+composed of floral or foliage forms. Those of the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries were for the most part simple in mass, and crisp and vigorous
+in design, imitating the strong shoots of early spring. The +capitals+
+were tall and slender, concave in profile, with heavy square or
+octagonal abaci. With the close of the thirteenth century this simple
+and forcible style of detail disappeared. The carving became more
+realistic; the leaves, larger and more mature, were treated as if
+applied to the capital or moulding, not as if they grew out of it. The
+execution and detail were finer and more delicate, in harmony with the
+increasing slenderness and lightness of the architecture (Fig. 126 a,
+b). +Tracery forms+ now began to be profusely applied to all manner of
+surfaces, and open-work gables, wholly unnecessary from the structural
+point of view, but highly effective as decorations, adorned the portals
+and crowned the windows.
+
+
++LATE GOTHIC MONUMENTS.+ So far our attention has been mainly occupied
+with the masterpieces erected previous to 1250. Among the cathedrals,
+relatively few in number, whose construction is referable to the second
+half of the century, that of +Beauvais+ stands first in importance.
+Designed on a colossal scale, its foundations were laid in 1225, but it
+was never completed, and the portion built--the choir and
+chapels--belonged really to the second half of the century, having been
+completed in 1270. But the collapse in 1284 of the central tower and
+vaulting of this incomplete cathedral, owing to the excessive loftiness
+and slenderness of its supports, compelled its entire reconstruction,
+the number of the piers being doubled and the span of the pier arches
+correspondingly reduced. As thus rebuilt, the cathedral aisle was 47
+feet wide from centre to centre of opposite piers, and 163 feet high to
+the top of the vault. Transepts were added after 1500. +Limoges+ and
++Narbonne+, begun in 1272 on a large scale (though not equal in size to
+Beauvais), were likewise never completed. Both had choirs of admirable
+plan, with well-designed chevet-chapels. Many other cathedrals begun
+during this period were completed only after long delays, as, for
+instance, Meaux, Rodez (1277), Toulouse (1272), and Alby (1282),
+finished in the sixteenth century, and Clermont (1248), completed under
+Napoleon III. But between 1260 or 1275 and 1350, work was actively
+prosecuted on many still incomplete cathedrals. The choirs of Beauvais
+(rebuilding), Limoges, and Narbonne were finished after 1330; and
+towers, transept-fa�ades, portals, and chapels added to many others of
+earlier date.
+
+The style of this period is sometimes designated as +Rayonnant+, from
+the characteristic wheel tracery of the rose-windows, and the prevalence
+of circular forms in the lateral arched windows, of the late thirteenth
+and early fourteenth centuries. The great rose windows in the transepts
+of Notre Dame, dating from 1257, are typical examples of the style.
+Those of Rouen cathedral belong to the same category, though of later
+date. The fa�ade of Amiens, completed by 1288, is one of the finest
+works of this style, of which an early example is the elaborate parish
+church of +St. Urbain+ at Troyes.
+
+
++THE FLAMBOYANT STYLE.+ The geometric treatment of the tracery and the
+minute and profuse decoration of this period gradually merged into the
+fantastic and unrestrained extravagances of the +Flamboyant+ style,
+which prevailed until the advent of the Renaissance--say 1525. The
+continuous logical development of forms ceased, and in its place caprice
+and display controlled the arts of design. The finest monument of this
+long period is the fifteenth-century nave and central tower of the
+church of +St. Ouen+ at Rouen, a�parish church of the first rank, begun
+in 1318, but not finished until 1515. The tracery of the lateral windows
+is still chiefly geometric, but the western rose window (Fig. 112) and
+the magnificent central tower or lantern, exhibit in their tracery the
+florid decoration and wavy, flame-like lines of this style. Slenderness
+of supports and the suppression of horizontal lines are here carried to
+an extreme; and the church, in spite of its great elegance of detail,
+lacks the vital interest and charm of the earlier Gothic churches. The
+cathedral of Alen�on and the church of +St. Maclou+ at Rouen, have
+portals with unusually elaborate detail of tracery and carving; while
+the fa�ade of Rouen cathedral (1509) surpasses all other examples in the
+lace-like minuteness of its open-work and its profusion of ornament. The
+churches of +St. Jacques+ at Dieppe, and of +St. Wulfrand+ at Abbeville,
+the fa�ades of Tours and Troyes, are among the masterpieces of the
+style. The upper part of the fa�ade of Reims (1380-1428) belongs to the
+transition from the Rayonnant to the Flamboyant. While some works of
+this period are conspicuous for the richness of their ornamentation,
+others are noticeably bare and poor in design, like St. Merri and St.
+S�verin in Paris.
+
+
++SECULAR AND MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ The building of cathedrals did not
+absorb all the architectural activity of the French during the Gothic
+period, nor did it by any means put an end to monastic building. While
+there are few Gothic cloisters to equal the Romanesque cloisters of
+Puy-en-V�lay, Montmajour, Elne, and Moissac, many of the abbeys either
+rebuilt their churches in the Gothic style after 1150, or extended and
+remodelled their conventual buildings. The cloisters of Fontfroide,
+Chaise-Dieu, and the Mont St. Michel rival those of Romanesque times,
+while many new refectories and chapels were built in the same style with
+the cathedrals. The most complete of these Gothic monastic
+establishments, that of the +Mont St. Michel+ in Normandy, presented a
+remarkable aggregation of buildings clustering around the steep isolated
+rock on which stands the abbey church. This was built in the eleventh
+century, and the choir and chapels remodelled in the sixteenth. The
+great refectory and dormitory, the cloisters, lodgings, and chapels,
+built in several vaulted stories against the cliffs, are admirable
+examples of the vigorous pointed-arch design of the early thirteenth
+century.
+
++Hospitals+ like that of St. Jean at Angers (late twelfth century), or
+those of Chartres, Ourscamps, Tonnerre, and Beaune, illustrate how
+skilfully the French could modify and adapt the details of their
+architecture to the special requirements of civil architecture. Great
+numbers of charitable institutions were built in the middle
+ages--asylums, hospitals, refuges, and the like--but very few of those
+in France are now extant. Town halls were built in the fifteenth century
+in some places where a certain amount of popular independence had been
+secured. The florid fifteenth-century +Palais de Justice+ at +Rouen+
+(1499-1508) is an example of another branch of secular Gothic
+architecture. In all these monuments the adaptation of means to ends is
+admirable. Wooden ceilings and roofs replaced stone, wherever required
+by great width of span or economy of construction. There was little
+sculpture; the wall-spaces were not suppressed in favor of stained glass
+and tracery; while the roofs were usually emphasized and adorned with
+elaborate crestings and finials in lead or terra-cotta.
+
+
++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ These same principles controlled the designing
+of houses, farm buildings, barns, granaries, and the like. The common
+closely-built French city house of the twelfth and thirteenth century is
+illustrated by many extant examples at Cluny, Provins, and other towns.
+A�shop opening on the street by a large arch, a�narrow stairway, and two
+or three stories of rooms lighted by clustered, pointed-arched windows,
+constituted the common type. The street front was usually gabled and the
+roof steep. In the fourteenth or fifteenth century half-timbered
+construction began to supersede stone for town houses, as it permitted
+of encroaching upon the street by projecting the upper stories. Many of
+the half-timbered houses of the fifteenth century were of elaborate
+design. The heavy oaken uprights were carved with slender colonnettes;
+the horizontal sills, bracketed out over the street, were richly
+moulded; picturesque dormers broke the sky-line, and the masonry filling
+between the beams was frequently faced with enamelled tiles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 127.--HOUSE OF JACQUES COEUR, BOURGES.
+  (After Viollet-le-Duc.)]
+
+The more considerable houses or palaces of royalty, nobles, and wealthy
+citizens rivalled, and in time surpassed, the monastic buildings in
+richness and splendor. The earlier examples retain the military aspect,
+with moat and donjon, as in the Louvre of Charles�V., demolished in the
+sixteenth century. The finest palaces are of late date, and the type is
+well represented by the Ducal Palace at Nancy (1476), the +Hotel de
+Cluny+ (1485) at Paris, the +Hotel Jacques Coeur+ at Bourges (Fig. 127),
+and the east wing of Blois (1498-1515). These palaces are not only
+excellently and liberally planned, with large halls, many staircases,
+and handsome courts; they are also extremely picturesque with their
+square and circular towers, slender turrets, elaborate dormers, and rich
+carved detail.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: (C. = cathedral; A. = abbey; trans. = transept; each
+  edifice is given under the date of its commencement; subsequent
+  alterations in parentheses.) Between 1130 and 1200: V�zelay�A.,
+  ante-chapel, 1130; St. Germer-de-Fly�C., 1130-1150 (chapel later);
+  St. Denis�A., choir, 1140 (choir rebuilt, nave and trans., 1240);
+  Sens�C., 1140-68 (W. front, 13th century; chapels, spire, 14th);
+  Senlis�C., 1145-83 (trans., spire, 13th century); Noyon�C.,
+  1149-1200 (W. front, vaults, 13th century); St. Germain-des-Pr�s�A.,
+  Paris, choir, 1150 (Romanesque nave); Angers�C., 1150 (choir,
+  trans., 1274); Langres, 1150-1200; Laon�C., 1150-1200; Le Mans�C.,
+  nave, 1150-58 (choir, 1217-54); Soissons�C., 1160-70 (choir, 1212;
+  nave chapels, 14th century); Poitiers�C., 1162-1204; Notre Dame,
+  Paris, choir, 1163-96 (nave, W. front finished, 1235; trans.
+  fronts, and chapels, 1257-75); Chartres�C., W. end, 1170; rest,
+  mainly 1194-98 (trans. porches, W. rose, 1210-1260; N. spire,
+  1506); Tours�C., 1170 (rebuilt, 1267; trans., portals, 1375; W.
+  portals, chapels, 15th century; towers finished, 1507-47);
+  Laval�C., 1180-85 (choir, 16th century); Mantes, church Notre
+  Dame, 1180-1200; Bourges�C., 1190-95 (E. end, 1210; W. end, 1275);
+  St. Nicholas at Caen, 1190 (vaults, 15th century); Reims, church
+  St. R�my, choir, end of 12th century (Romanesque nave); church St.
+  Leu d'Esserent, choir late 12th century (nave, 13th century);
+  Lyons�C., choir, end of 12th century (nave, 13th and 14th
+  centuries); Etampes, church Notre Dame, 12th and 13th
+  centuries.--13th century: Evreux C., 1202-75 (trans., central
+  tower, 1417; W. front rebuilt, 16th century); Rouen�C., 1202-20
+  (trans. portals, 1280; W. front, 1507); Nevers, 1211, N. portal,
+  1280 (chapels, S. portal, 15th century); Reims�C., 1212-42 (W.
+  front, 1380; W. towers, 1420); Bayonne�C., 1213 (nave, vaults, W.
+  portal, 14th century); Troyes�C., choir, 1214 (central tower,
+  nave, W. portal, and towers, 15th century); Auxerre�C., 1215-34
+  (nave, W. end, trans., 14th century); Amiens�C., 1220-88; St.
+  Etienne at Chalons-sur-Marne, 1230 (spire, 1520); S�ez�C., 1230,
+  rebuilt 1260 (remodelled 14th century); Notre Dame de Dijon, 1230;
+  Reims, Lady chapel of Archbishop's palace, 1230; Chapel Royal at
+  St. Germain-en-Laye, 1240; Ste. Chapelle at Paris, 1242-47 (W.
+  rose, 15th century); Coutances�C., 1254-74; Beauvais�C., 1247-72
+  (rebuilt 1337-47; trans. portals, 1500-48); Notre Dame de Grace at
+  Clermont, 1248 (finished 1350); D�l�C., 13th century; St.
+  Martin-des-Champs at Paris, nave 13th century (choir Romanesque);
+  Bordeaux�C., 1260; Narbonne�C., 1272-1320; Limoges, 1273 (finished
+  16th century); St. Urbain, Troyes, 1264; Rodez�C., 1277-1385
+  (altered, completed 16th century); church St. Quentin, 1280-1300;
+  St. Benigne at Dijon, 1280-91; Alby�C., 1282 (nave, 14th; choir,
+  15th century; S. portal, 1473-1500); Meaux�C., mainly rebuilt 1284
+  (W. end much altered 15th, finished 16th century); Cahors�C.,
+  rebuilt 1285-93 (W. front, 15th century); Orl�ans, 1287-1328
+  (burned, rebuilt 1601-1829).--14th century: St. Bertrand de
+  Comminges, 1304-50; St. Nazaire at Carcassonne, choir and trans.
+  on Romanesque nave; Montpellier�C., 1364; St. Ouen at Rouen,
+  choir, 1318-39 (trans., 1400-39; nave, 1464-91; W. front, 1515);
+  Royal Chapel at Vincennes, 1385 (?)-1525.--15th and 16th century:
+  St. Nizier at Lyons rebuilt; St. S�verin, St. Merri, St. Germain
+  l'Auxerrois, all at Paris; Notre Dame de l'Epine at
+  Chalons-sur-Marne; choir of St. Etienne at Beauvais; Saintes�C.,
+  rebuilt, 1450; St. Maclou at Rouen (finished 16th century); church
+  at Brou; St. Wulfrand at Abbeville; abbey of St. Riquier--these
+  three all early 16th century.--HOUSES, CASTLES, AND PALACES:
+  Bishop's palace at Paris, 1160 (demolished); castle of Coucy,
+  1220-30; Louvre at Paris (the original ch�teau), 1225-1350; Palais
+  de Justice at Paris, originally the royal residence, 1225-1400;
+  Bishop's palace at Laon, 1245 (addition to Romanesque hall);
+  castle Montargis, 13th century; castle Pierrefonds, Bishop's
+  palace at Narbonnne, palace of Popes at Avignon--all 14th century;
+  donjon of palace at Poitiers, 1395; H�tel des Ambassadeurs at
+  Dijon, 1420; house of Jacques Coeur at Bourges, 1443; Palace,
+  Dijon, 1467; Ducal palace at Nancy, 1476; H�tel Cluny at Paris,
+  1490; castle of Creil, late 15th century, finished in 16th; E.
+  wing palace of Blois, 1498-1515, for Louis XII.; Palace de Justice
+  at Rouen, 1499-1508.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Corroyer, Parker, Reber. Also,
+  Bell's Series of _Handbooks of English Cathedrals_. Billings, _The
+  Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland_. Bond,
+  _Gothic Architecture in England_. Brandon, _Analysis of Gothic
+  Architecture_. Britton, _Cathedral Antiquities of Great Britain_.
+  Ditchfield, _The Cathedrals of England_. Murray, _Handbooks of the
+  English Cathedrals_. Parker, _Introduction to Gothic
+  Architecture_; _Glossary of Architectural Terms_; _Companion to
+  Glossary_, etc. Rickman, _An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of
+  English Architecture_. Sharpe, _Architectural Parallels_; _The
+  Seven Periods of English Architecture_. Van Rensselaer, _English
+  Cathedrals_. Winkles and Moule, _Cathedral Churches of England and
+  Wales_. Willis, _Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral_;
+  ditto _of Winchester Cathedral_; _Treatise on Vaults_.
+
+
++GENERAL CHARACTER.+ Gothic architecture was developed in England under
+a strongly established royal power, with an episcopate in no sense
+hostile to the abbots or in arms against the barons. Many of the
+cathedrals had monastic chapters, and not infrequently abbots were
+invested with the episcopal rank.
+
+English Gothic architecture was thus by no means predominantly an
+architecture of cathedrals. If architectural activity in England was on
+this account less intense and widespread in the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries than in France, it was not, on the other hand, so soon
+exhausted. Fewer new cathedrals were built, but the progressive
+rebuilding of those already existing seems not to have ceased until the
+middle or end of the fifteenth century. Architecture in England
+developed more slowly, but more uniformly than in France. It contented
+itself with simpler problems; and if it failed to rival Amiens in
+boldness of construction and in lofty majesty, it at least never
+perpetrated a folly like Beauvais. In richness of internal decoration,
+especially in the mouldings and ribbed vaulting, and in the picturesque
+grouping of simple masses externally, the British builders went far
+toward atoning for their structural timidity.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 128.--PLAN OF SALISBURY CATHEDRAL.]
+
+
++EARLY GOTHIC BUILDINGS.+ The pointed arch and ribbed vault were
+importations from France. Early examples appear in the Cistercian abbeys
+of Furness and Kirkstall, and in the Temple Church at London (1185). But
+it was in the +Choir of Canterbury+, as rebuilt by William of Sens,
+after the destruction by fire in 1170 of Anselm's Norman choir, that
+these French Gothic features were first applied in a thoroughgoing
+manner. In plan this choir resembled that of the cathedral of Sens; and
+its coupled round piers, with capitals carved with foliage, its pointed
+arches, its six-part vaulting, and its _chevet_, were distinctly French.
+The Gothic details thus introduced slowly supplanted the round arch and
+other Norman features. For fifty years the styles were more or less
+mingled in many buildings, though +Lincoln Cathedral+, as rebuilt in
+1185-1200, retained nothing of the earlier round-arched style. But the
+first church to be designed and built from the foundations in the new
+style was the cathedral of +Salisbury+ (1220-1258; Fig. 128).
+Contemporary with Amiens, it is a homogeneous and typical example of the
+Early English style. The predilection for great length observable in the
+Anglo-Norman churches (as at Norwich and Durham) still prevailed, as it
+continued to do throughout the Gothic period; Salisbury is 480 feet
+long. The double transepts, the long choir, the square east end, the
+relatively low vault (84 feet to the ridge), the narrow grouped windows,
+all are thoroughly English. Only the simple four-part vaulting recalls
+French models. +Westminster Abbey+ (1245-1269), on the other hand,
+betrays in a marked manner the French influence in its internal
+loftiness (100 feet), its polygonal _chevet_ and chapels, and its
+strongly accented exterior flying-buttresses (Fig. 137).
+
+
++MIXTURE OF STYLES.+ Very few English cathedrals are as homogeneous as
+the two just mentioned, nearly all having undergone repeated
+remodellings in successive periods. Durham, Norwich, and Oxford are
+wholly Norman but for their Gothic vaults. Ely, Rochester, Gloucester,
+and Hereford have Norman naves and Gothic choirs. Peterborough has an
+early Gothic fa�ade and late Gothic retro-choir added to an otherwise
+completely Norman structure. Winchester is a Norman church remodelled
+with early Perpendicular details. The purely Gothic churches and
+cathedrals, except parish churches--in which England is very rich--are
+not nearly as numerous in England as in France.
+
+
++PERIODS.+ The development of English Gothic architecture followed the
+same general sequence as the French, and like it the successive stages
+were most conspicuously characterized by the forms of the tracery.
+
+The EARLY ENGLISH or LANCET period extended roundly from 1175 or 1180 to
+1280, and was marked by simplicity, dignity, and purity of design.
+
+The DECORATED or GEOMETRIC period covered another century, 1280 to 1380,
+and was characterized by its decorative richness and greater lightness
+of construction.
+
+The PERPENDICULAR period extended from 1380, or thereabout, well into
+the sixteenth century. Its salient features were the use of
+fan-vaulting, four-centred arches, and tracery of predominantly vertical
+and horizontal lines. The tardy introduction of Renaissance forms
+finally put an end to the Gothic style in England, after a long period
+of mixed and transitional architecture.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 129.--RIBBED VAULTING,
+  CHOIR OF EXETER CATHEDRAL.]
+
++VAULTING.+ The richness and variety of English vaulting contrast
+strikingly with the persistent uniformity of the French. A�few of the
+early Gothic vaults, as in the aisles of Peterborough, and later the
+naves of Durham, Salisbury, and Gloucester, were simple four-part,
+ribbed vaults substantially like the French. But the English disliked
+and avoided the twisted and dome-like surfaces of the French vaults,
+preferring horizontal ridges, and, in the filling-masonry, straight
+courses meeting at the ridge in zigzag lines, as in southwest France
+(see p.�200). This may be seen in Westminster Abbey. The idea of ribbed
+construction was then seized upon and given a new application. By
+springing a large number of ribs from each point of support, the
+vaulting-surfaces were divided into long, narrow, triangles, the filling
+of which was comparatively easy (Fig. 129). The ridge was itself
+furnished with a straight rib, decorated with carved rosettes or
+_bosses_ at each intersection with a vaulting-rib. The naves and choirs
+of Lincoln, Lichfield, Exeter, and the nave of Westminster illustrate
+this method. The logical corollary of this practice was the introduction
+of minor ribs called _liernes_, connecting the main ribs and forming
+complex reticulated and star-shaped patterns. Vaults of this description
+are among the most beautiful in England. One of the richest is in the
+choir of Gloucester (1337-1377). Less correct constructively is that
+over the choir of Wells, while the choir of Ely, the nave of Tewkesbury
+Abbey (Fig. 130), and all the vaulting of Winchester as rebuilt by
+William of Wykeham (1390), illustrate the same system. Such vaults are
+called _lierne_ or _star_ vaults.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 130.--NET OR LIERNE VAULTING,
+  TEWKESBURY ABBEY.]
+
+
++FAN-VAULTING.+ The next step in the process may be observed in the
+vaults of the choir of Oxford Cathedral (Christ Church), of the
+retro-choir of Peterborough, of the cloisters of Gloucester, and many
+other examples. The diverging ribs being made of uniform curvature, the
+_severeys_ (the inverted pyramidal vaulting-masses springing from each
+support) became a species of concave conoids, meeting at the ridge in
+such a way as to leave a series of flat lozenge-shaped spaces at the
+summit of the vault (Fig. 136). The ribs were multiplied indefinitely,
+and losing thus in individual and structural importance became a mere
+decorative pattern of tracery on the severeys. To conceal the awkward
+flat lozenges at the ridge, elaborate panelling was resorted to; or, in
+some cases, long stone pendents were inserted at those points--a�device
+highly decorative but wholly unconstructive. At Cambridge, in +King's
+College Chapel+, at Windsor, in +St. George's Chapel+, and in the
++Chapel of Henry VII.+ at Westminster, this sort of vaulting received
+its most elaborate development. The _fan-vault_, as it is called,
+illustrates the logical evolution of a decorative element from a
+structural starting--point, leading to results far removed from the
+original conception. Rich and sumptuous as are these ceilings, they are
+with all their ornament less satisfactory than the ribbed vaults of the
+preceding period.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 131.--VAULT OF CHAPTER-HOUSE, WELLS.]
+
++CHAPTER-HOUSES.+ One of the most beautiful forms of ribbed vaulting was
+developed in the polygonal halls erected for the deliberations of the
+cathedral chapters of Lincoln (1225), Westminster (1250), Salisbury
+(1250), and Wells (1292), in which the vault-ribs radiated from a
+central column to the sides and angles of the polygon (Fig. 131). If
+these vaults were less majestic than domes of the same diameter, they
+were far more decorative and picturesque, while the chapter-houses
+themselves were the most original and striking products of English
+Gothic art. Every feature was designed with strict regard for the
+structural system determined by the admirable vaulting, and the Sainte
+Chapelle was not more logical in its exemplification of Gothic
+principles. To the four above-mentioned examples should be added that of
+York (1280-1330), which differs from them in having no central column:
+by some critics it is esteemed the finest of them all. Its ceiling is a
+Gothic dome, 57 feet in diameter, but unfortunately executed in wood.
+Its geometrical window-tracery and richly canopied stalls are admirable.
+
+
++OCTAGON AT ELY.+ The magnificent +Octagon+ of Ely Cathedral, at the
+intersection of the nave and transepts, belongs in the same category
+with these polygonal chapter-house vaults. It was built by Alan of
+Walsingham in 1337, after the fall of the central tower and the
+destruction of the adjacent bays of the choir. It occupies the full
+width of the three aisles, and covers the ample space thus enclosed with
+a simple but beautiful groined and ribbed vault of wood reaching to a
+central octagonal lantern, which rises much higher and shows externally
+as well as internally. Unfortunately, this vault is of wood, and would
+require important modifications of detail if carried out in stone. But
+it is so noble in general design and total effect, that one wonders the
+type was not universally adopted for the crossing in all cathedrals,
+until one observes that no cathedral of importance was built after
+Walsingham's time, nor did any other central towers opportunely fall to
+the ground.
+
+
++WINDOWS AND TRACERY.+ In the Early English Period (1200-1280 or 1300)
+the windows were tall and narrow (_lancet_ windows), and generally
+grouped by twos and threes, though sometimes four and even five are seen
+together (as the "Five Sisters" in the N. transept of York). In the nave
+of Salisbury and the retro-choir of Ely the side aisles are lighted by
+coupled windows and the clearstory by triple windows, the central one
+higher than the others--a�surviving Norman practice. Plate-tracery was,
+as in France, an intermediate step leading to the development of
+bar-tracery (see Fig. 110). The English followed here the same reasoning
+as the French. At first the openings constituted the design, the
+intervening stonework being of secondary importance. Later the forms of
+the openings were subordinated to the pattern of the stone framework of
+bars, arches, circles, and cusps. Bar-tracery of this description
+prevailed in England through the greater part of the Decorated Period
+(1280-1380), and somewhat resembled the contemporary French geometric
+tracery, though more varied and less rigidly constructive in design. An
+early example of this tracery occurs in the cloisters of Salisbury (Fig.
+132); others in the clearstories of the choirs of Lichfield, Lincoln,
+and Ely, the nave of York, and the chapter-houses mentioned above,
+where, indeed, it seems to have received its earliest development. After
+the middle of the fourteenth century lines of double curvature were
+introduced, producing what is called _flowing_ tracery, somewhat
+resembling the French flamboyant, though earlier in date (Fig. 111).
+Examples of this style are found in Wells, in the side aisles and
+triforium of the choir of Ely, and in the S. transept rose-window of
+Lincoln.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 132.--CLOISTERS, SALISBURY CATHEDRAL
+  (SHOWING UPPER PART OF CHAPTER-HOUSE).]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 133.--PERPENDICULAR TRACERY,
+  WEST WINDOW OF ST. GEORGE'S, WINDSOR.]
+
++THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE.+ Flowing tracery was, however, a�transitional
+phase of design, and was soon superseded by _Perpendicular_ tracery, in
+which the mullions were carried through to the top of the arch and
+intersected by horizontal transoms. This formed a very rigid and
+mechanically correct system of stone framing, but lacked the grace and
+charm of the two preceding periods. The earliest examples are seen in
+the work of Edington and of Wykeham in the reconstructed cathedral of
+Winchester (1360-1394), where the tracery was thus made to harmonize
+with the accentuated and multiplied vertical lines of the interior
+design. It was at this late date that the English seem first to have
+fully appropriated the Gothic ideas of emphasized vertical elements and
+wall surfaces reduced to a minimum. The development of fan-vaulting had
+led to the adoption of a new form of arch, the four-centred or _Tudor
+arch_ (Fig. 133), to fit under the depressed apex of the vault. The
+whole design internally and externally was thenceforward controlled by
+the form of the vaulting and of the openings. The windows were made of
+enormous size, especially at the east end of the choir, which was square
+in nearly all English churches, and in the west windows over the
+entrance. These windows had already reached, in the Decorated Period, an
+enormous size, as at York; in the Perpendicular Period the two ends of
+the church were as nearly as possible converted into walls of glass. The
+East Window of Gloucester reaches the prodigious dimensions of 38 by 72
+feet. The most complete examples of the Perpendicular tracery and of the
+style in general are the three chapels already mentioned (p.�223);
+those, namely, of +King's College+ at Cambridge, of +St. George+ at
+Windsor, and of +Henry VII.+ in Westminster Abbey.
+
+
++CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN.+ The most striking peculiarity of English Gothic
+design was its studious avoidance of temerity or venturesomeness in
+construction. Both the height and width of the nave were kept within
+very moderate bounds, and the supports were never reduced to extreme
+slenderness. While much impressiveness of effect was undoubtedly lost
+thereby, there was some gain in freedom of design, and there was less
+obtrusion of constructive elements in the exterior composition. The
+flying-buttress became a feature of minor importance where the
+clearstory was kept low, as in most English churches. In many cases the
+flying arches were hidden under the aisle roofs. The English cathedrals
+and larger churches are long and low, depending for effect mainly upon
+the projecting masses of their transepts, the imposing square central
+towers which commonly crown the crossing, and the grouping of the main
+structure with chapter-houses, cloisters, and Lady-chapels.
+
+
++FRONTS.+ The sides and east ends were, in most cases, more successful
+than the west fronts. In these the English displayed a singular
+indifference or lack of creative power. They produced nothing to rival
+the majestic fa�ades of Notre Dame, Amiens, or Reims, and their portals
+are almost ridiculously small. The front of +York+ Cathedral is the most
+notable in the list for its size and elaborate decoration. Those of
++Lincoln+ and +Peterborough+ are, however, more interesting in the
+picturesqueness and singularity of their composition. The first-named
+forms a vast arcaded screen, masking the bases of the two western
+towers, and pierced by three huge Norman arches, retained from the
+original fa�ade. The west front of Peterborough is likewise a mask or
+screen, mainly composed of three colossal recessed arches, whose vast
+scale completely dwarfs the little porches which give admittance to the
+church. Salisbury has a curiously illogical and ineffective fa�ade.
+Those of +Lichfield+ and +Wells+ are, on the other hand, imposing and
+beautiful designs, the first with its twin spires and rich arcading
+(Fig. 134), the second with its unusual wealth of figure-sculpture, and
+massive square towers.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 134.--WEST FRONT, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL.]
+
+
++CENTRAL TOWERS.+ These are the most successful features of English
+exterior design. Most of them form lanterns internally over the
+crossing, giving to that point a considerable increase of dignity.
+Externally they are usually massive and lofty square towers, and having
+been for the most part completed during the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries they are marked by great richness and elegance of detail.
+Durham, York, Ely, Canterbury, Lincoln, and Gloucester maybe mentioned
+as notable examples of such square towers; that of Canterbury is the
+finest. Two or three have lofty spires over the lantern. Among these,
+that of Salisbury is chief, rising 424 feet from the ground, admirably
+designed in every detail. It was not completed till the middle of the
+fourteenth century, but most fortunately carries out with great felicity
+the spirit of the earlier style in which it was begun. Lichfield and
+Chichester have somewhat similar central spires, but less happy in
+proportion and detail than the beautiful Salisbury example.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 135.--ONE BAY OF CHOIR, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL.]
+
+
++INTERIOR DESIGN.+ In the Norman churches the pier-arches, triforium,
+and clearstory were practically equal. In the Gothic churches the
+pier-arches generally occupy the lower half of the height, the upper
+half being divided nearly equally between the triforium and clearstory,
+as in Lincoln, Lichfield (nave), Ely (choir). In some cases, however (as
+at Salisbury, Westminster, Winchester, choir of Lichfield), the
+clearstory is magnified at the expense of the triforium (Fig. 135).
+Three peculiarities of design sharply distinguish the English treatment
+of these features from the French. The first is the multiplicity of fine
+mouldings in the pier-arches; the second is the decorative elaboration
+of design in the triforium; the third, the variety in the treatment of
+the clearstory. In general the English interiors are much more ornate
+than the French. Black Purbeck marble is frequently used for the shafts
+clustered around the central core of the pier, giving a striking and
+somewhat singular effect of contrasted color. The rich vaulting, the
+highly decorated triforium, the moulded pier-arches, and at the end of
+the vista the great east window, produce an impression very different
+from the more simple and lofty stateliness of the French cathedrals. The
+great length and lowness of the English interiors combine with this
+decorative richness to give the impression of repose and grace, rather
+than of majesty and power. This tendency reached its highest expression
+in the Perpendicular churches and chapels, in which every surface was
+covered with minute panelling.
+
+
++CARVING.+ In the Early English Period the details were carved with a
+combined delicacy and vigor deserving of the highest praise. In the
+capitals and corbels, crockets and finials, the foliage was crisp and
+fine, curling into convex masses and seeming to spring from the surface
+which it decorated. Mouldings were frequently ornamented with foliage of
+this character in the hollows, and another ornament, the _dog-tooth_ or
+_pyramid_, often served the same purpose, introducing repeated points of
+light into the shadows of the mouldings. These were fine and complex,
+deep hollows alternating with round mouldings (_bowtels_) sometimes made
+pear-shaped in section by a fillet on one side. _Cusping_--the
+decoration of an arch or circle by triangular projections on its inner
+edge--was introduced during this period, and became an important
+decorative resource, especially in tracery design. In the Decorated
+Period the foliage was less crisp; sea-weed and oak-leaves, closely and
+confusedly bunched, were used in the capitals, while crockets were
+larger, double-curved, with leaves swelling into convexities like
+oak-galls. Geometrical and flowing tracery were developed, and the
+mouldings of the tracery-bars, as of other features, lost somewhat in
+vigor and sharpness. The _ball-flower_ or button replaced the
+dog's-tooth, and the hollows were less frequently adorned with foliage.
+
+In the Perpendicular Period nearly all flat surfaces were panelled in
+designs resembling the tracery of the windows. The capitals were less
+important than those of the preceding periods, and the mouldings weaker
+and less effective. The Tudor rose appears as an ornament in square
+panels and on flat surfaces; and moulded battlements, which first
+appeared in Decorated work, now become a frequent crowning motive in
+place of a cornice. There is less originality and variety in the
+ornament, but a great increase in its amount (Fig. 136).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 136.--FAN-VAULTING, HENRY VII.'S CHAPEL,
+  WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
+
+
++PLANS.+ English church plans underwent, during the Gothic Period, but
+little change from the general types established previous to the
+thirteenth century. The Gothic cathedrals and abbeys, like the Norman,
+were very long and narrow, with choirs often nearly as long as the nave,
+and almost invariably with square eastward terminations. There is no
+example of double side aisles and side chapels, and apsidal chapels are
+very rare. Canterbury and Westminster (Fig. 137) are the chief
+exceptions to this, and both show clearly the French influence. Another
+striking peculiarity of the English plans is the frequent occurrence of
+secondary transepts, adding greatly to the external picturesqueness.
+These occur in rudimentary form in Canterbury, and at Durham the Chapel
+of the Nine Altars, added 1242-1290 to the eastern end, forms in reality
+a secondary transept. This feature is most perfectly developed in the
+cathedral of Salisbury (Fig. 128), and appears also at Lincoln,
+Worcester, Wells, and a few other examples. The English cathedral plans
+are also distinguished by the retention or incorporation of many
+conventual features, such as cloisters, libraries, and halls, and by the
+grouping of chapter-houses and Lady-chapels with the main edifice. Thus
+the English cathedral plans and those of the great abbey churches
+present a marked contrast with those of France and the Continent
+generally. While Amiens, the greatest of French cathedrals, is 521 feet
+long, and internally 140 feet high, Ely measures 565 feet in length, and
+less than 75 feet in height. Notre Dame is 148 feet wide; the English
+naves are usually under 80 feet in total width of the three aisles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 137.--EASTERN HALF OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY. PLAN.
+  a, _Henry VII.'s chapel._]
+
+
++PARISH CHURCHES.+ Many of these were of exceptional beauty of
+composition and detail. They display the greatest variety of plan,
+churches with two equal-gabled naves side by side being not uncommon.
+A�considerable proportion of them date from the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries, and are chiefly interesting for their square, single, west
+towers and their carved wooden ceilings (see below). The tower was
+usually built over the central western porch; broad and square, with
+corner buttresses terminating in pinnacles, it was usually finished
+without spires. Crenelated battlements crowned the upper story. When
+spires were added the transition from the square tower to the octagonal
+spire was effected by _broaches_ or portions of a square pyramid
+intersecting the base of the spire, or by corner pinnacles and
+flying-buttresses.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 138.--ROOF OF NAVE, ST. MARY'S,
+  WESTONZOYLAND.]
+
++WOODEN CEILINGS.+ The English treated woodwork with consummate skill.
+They invented and developed a variety of forms of roof-truss in which
+the proper distribution of the strains was combined with a highly
+decorative treatment of the several parts by carving, moulding, and
+arcading. The ceiling surfaces between the trusses were handled
+decoratively, and the oaken open-timber ceilings of many of the English
+churches and civic or academic halls (Christ Church Hall, Oxford;
+Westminster Hall, London) are such noble and beautiful works as quite to
+justify the substitution of wooden for vaulted ceilings (Fig. 138). The
+_hammer-beam_ truss was in its way as highly scientific, and
+�sthetically as satisfactory, as any feature of French Gothic stone
+construction. Without the use of tie-rods to keep the rafters from
+spreading, it brought the strain of the roof upon internal brackets low
+down on the wall, and produced a beautiful effect by the repetition of
+its graceful curves in each truss.
+
+
++CHAPELS AND HALLS.+ Many of these rival the cathedrals in beauty and
+dignity of design. The royal chapels at Windsor and Westminster have
+already been mentioned, as well as King's College Chapel at Cambridge,
+and Christ Church Hall at Oxford. To these college halls should be added
+the chapel of Merton College at Oxford, and the beautiful chapel of St.
+Stephen at Westminster, most unfortunately demolished when the present
+Parliament House was erected. The Lady-chapels of Gloucester and Ely,
+though connected with the cathedrals, are really independent designs of
+late date, and remarkable for the richness of their decoration, their
+great windows, and elaborate ribbed vaulting. Some of the halls in
+medi�val castles and manor-houses are also worthy of note, especially
+for their timber ceilings.
+
+
++MINOR MONUMENTS.+ The student of Gothic architecture should also give
+attention to the choir-screens, tombs, and chantries which embellish
+many of the abbeys and cathedrals. The rood-screen at York is a notable
+example of the first; the tomb of De Gray in the same cathedral, and
+tombs and chantries in Canterbury, Winchester, Westminster Abbey, Ely,
+St. Alban's Abbey, and other churches are deservedly admired. In these
+the English love for ornament, for minute carving, and for the contrast
+of white and colored marble, found unrestrained expression. To these
+should be added the market-crosses of Salisbury and Winchester, and
+Queen Eleanor's Cross at Waltham.
+
+
++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ The medi�val castles of Great Britain belong to
+the domain of military engineering rather than of the history of art,
+though occasionally presenting to view details of considerable
+architectural beauty. The growth of peace and civic order is marked by
+the erection of manor-houses, the residences of wealthy landowners. Some
+of these houses are of imposing size, and show the application to
+domestic requirements, of the late Gothic style which prevailed in the
+period to which most of them belong. The windows are square or
+Tudor-arched, with stone mullions and transoms of the Perpendicular
+style, and the walls terminate in merlons or crenelated parapets,
+recalling the earlier military structures. The palace of the bishop or
+archbishop, adjoining the cathedral, and the residences of the dean,
+canons, and clergy, together with the libraries, schools, and gates of
+the cathedral enclosure, illustrate other phases of secular Gothic work.
+Few of these structures are of striking architectural merit, but they
+possess a picturesque charm which is very attractive.
+
+Not many stone houses of the smaller class remain from the Gothic period
+in England. But there is hardly an old town that does not retain many of
+the half-timbered dwellings of the fifteenth or even fourteenth century,
+some of them in excellent preservation. They are for the most part wider
+and lower than the French houses of the same class, but are built on the
+same principle, and, like them, the woodwork is more or less richly
+carved.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: (A. = abbey church; C. = cathedral; r. = ruined;
+  trans. = transept; each monument is given under the date of the
+  earliest extant Gothic work upon it, with additions of later
+  periods in parentheses.)
+
+  EARLY ENGLISH: Kirkstall A., 1152-82, first pointed arches;
+  Canterbury�C., choir, 1175-84 (nave, 1378-1411; central tower,
+  1500); Lincoln�C., choir, trans., 1192-1200 (vault, 1250; nave and
+  E. end, 1260-80); Lichfield�C., 1200-50 (W. front, 1275;
+  presbytery, 1325); Worcester�C., choir, 1203-18, nave partly
+  Norman (W. end, 1375-95); Chichester�C., 1204-44 (spire rebuilt
+  17th century); Fountains�A., 1205-46; Salisbury�C., 1220-58
+  (cloister, chapter-h., 1263-84; spire, 1331); Elgin�C., 1224-44;
+  Wells�C., 1175-1206 (W. front 1225, choir later, chapter-h.,
+  1292); Rochester�C., 1225-39 (nave Norman); York�C., S. trans.,
+  1225; N. trans., 1260 (nave, chapter-h., 1291-1345; W. window,
+  1338; central tower, 1389-1407; E. window, 1407); Southwell
+  Minster, 1233-94 (nave Norman); Ripon�C., 1233-94 (central tower,
+  1459); Ely�C., choir, 1229-54 (nave Norman; octagon and
+  presbytery, 1323-62); Peterborough�C., W. front, 1237 (nave
+  Norman; retro-choir, late 14th century); Netley�A., 1239 (r.);
+  Durham�C., "Nine Altars" and E. end choir, 1235-90 (nave, choir,
+  Norman; W. window, 1341; central tower finished, 1480);
+  Glasgow�C., (with remarkable Early English crypt), 1242-77;
+  Gloucester�C., nave vaulted, 1239-42 (nave mainly Norman; choir,
+  1337-51; cloisters, 1375-1412; W. end, 1420-37; central tower,
+  1450-57); Westminster�A., 1245-69; St. Mary's A., York, 1272-92
+  (r.).
+
+  DECORATED: Merton College Chapel, Oxford, 1274-1300; Hereford�C.,
+  N. trans., chapter-h., cloisters, vaulting, 1275-92 (nave, choir,
+  Norman); Exeter�C., choir, trans., 1279-91; nave, 1331-50 (E. end
+  remodelled, 1390); Lichfield�C., Lady-chapel, 1310; Ely�C.,
+  Lady-chapel, 1321-49; Melrose�A., 1327-99 (nave, 1500; r.); St.
+  Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, 1349-64 (demolished); Edington
+  church, 1352-61; Carlisle�C., E. end and upper parts, 1352-95
+  (nave in part and S. trans. Norman; tower finished, 1419);
+  Winchester�C., W. end remodelled, 1360-66 (nave and aisles,
+  1394-1410; trans., partly Norman); York�C., Lady-chapel, 1362-72;
+  churches of Patrington and Hull, late 14th century.
+
+  PERPENDICULAR: Holy Cross Church, Canterbury, 1380; St. Mary's,
+  Warwick, 1381-91; Manchester�C., 1422; St. Mary's, Bury St.
+  Edmunds, 1424-33; Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, 1439; King's College
+  Chapel, Cambridge, 1440; vaults, 1508-15; St. Mary's Redcliffe,
+  Bristol, 1442; Roslyn Chapel, Edinburgh, 1446-90; Gloucester�C.,
+  Lady-chapel, 1457-98; St. Mary's, Stratford-on-Avon, 1465-91;
+  Norwich�C., upper part and E. end of choir, 1472-99 (the rest
+  mainly Norman); St. George's Chapel, Windsor, 1481-1508; choir
+  vaulted, 1507-20; Bath�A., 1500-39; Chapel of Henry VII.,
+  Westminster, 1503-20.
+
+  ACADEMIC AND SECULAR BUILDINGS: Winchester Castle Hall, 1222-35;
+  Merton College Chapel, Oxford, 1274-1300; Library Merton College,
+  1354-78; Norborough Hall, 1356; Windsor Castle, upper ward,
+  1359-73; Winchester College, 1387-93; Wardour Castle, 1392;
+  Westminster Hall, rebuilt, 1397-99; St. Mary's Hall, Coventry,
+  1401-14; Warkworth Castle, 1440; St. John's College, All Soul's
+  College, Oxford, 1437; Eton College, 1441-1522; Divinity Schools,
+  Oxford, 1445-54; Magdalen College, Oxford, 1475-80, tower, 1500;
+  Christ Church Hall, Oxford, 1529.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, AND SPAIN.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Corroyer, Reber. Also, Adler,
+  _Mittelalterliche Backstein-Bauwerke des preussischen Staates_.
+  Essenwein (_Hdbuch. d. Arch._), _Die romanische und die gothische
+  Baukunst; der Wohnbau_. Hasak, _Die romanische und die gothische
+  Baukunst; Kirchenbau_; _Einzelheiten des Kirchenbaues_ (both in
+  _Hdbuch. d. Arch._). Hase and others, _Die mittelalterlichen
+  Baudenkm�ler Niedersachsens_. Kallenbach, _Chronologie der
+  deutschen mittelalterlichen Baukunst_. L�bke, _Ecclesiastical Art
+  in Germany during the Middle Ages_. Redtenbacher, _Leitfaden zum
+  Studium der mittelalterlichen Baukunst_. Street, _Gothic
+  Architecture in Spain_. Uhde, _Baudenkm�ler in Spanien_.
+  Ungewitter, _Lehrbuch der gothischen Constructionen_. Villa Amil,
+  _Hispania Artistica y Monumental_.
+
+
++EARLY GOTHIC WORKS.+ The Gothic architecture of Germany is less
+interesting to the general student than that of France and England, not
+only because its development was less systematic and more provincial,
+but also because it produced fewer works of high intrinsic merit. The
+introduction into Germany of the pointed style was tardy, and its
+progress slow. Romanesque architecture had created imposing types of
+ecclesiastical architecture, which the conservative Teutons were slow to
+abandon. The result was a half-century of transition and a mingling of
+Romanesque and Gothic forms. St. Castor, at Coblentz, built as late as
+1208, is wholly Romanesque. Even when the pointed arch and vault had
+finally come into general use, the plan and the constructive system
+still remained predominantly Romanesque. The western apse and short
+sanctuary of the earlier plans were retained. There was no triforium,
+the clearstory was insignificant, and the whole aspect low and massive.
+The Germans avoided, at first, as did the English, the constructive
+audacities and difficulties of the French Gothic, but showed less of
+invention and grace than their English neighbors. When, however, through
+the influence of foreign models, especially of the great French
+cathedrals, and through the employment of foreign architects, the Gothic
+styles were at last thoroughly domesticated, a�spirit of ostentation
+took the place of the earlier conservatism. Technical cleverness,
+exaggerated ingenuity of detail, and constructive _tours de force_
+characterize most of the German Gothic work of the late fourteenth and
+of the fifteenth century. This is exemplified in the slender mullions of
+Ulm, the lofty and complicated spire of Strasburg, and the curious
+traceries of churches and houses in Nuremberg.
+
+
++PERIODS.+ The periods of German medi�val architecture corresponded in
+sequence, though not in date, with the movement elsewhere. The maturing
+of the true Gothic styles was preceded by more than a half-century of
+transition. Chronologically the periods may be broadly stated as
+follows:
+
+THE TRANSITIONAL, 1170-1225.
+
+THE EARLY POINTED, 1225-1275.
+
+THE MIDDLE OR DECORATED, 1275-1350.
+
+THE FLORID, 1350-1530.
+
+These divisions are, however, far less clearly defined than in France
+and England. The development of forms was less logical and
+consequential, and less uniform in the different provinces, than in
+those western lands.
+
+
++CONSTRUCTION.+ As already remarked, a�tenacious hold of Romanesque
+methods is observable in many German Gothic monuments. Broad
+wall-surfaces with small windows and a general massiveness and lowness
+of proportions were long preferred to the more slender and lofty
+forms of true Gothic design. Square vaulting-bays were persistently
+adhered to, covering two aisle-bays. The six-part system was only
+rarely resorted to, as at Schlettstadt, and in St. George at
+Limburg-on-the-Lahn (Fig. 139). The ribbed vault was an imported idea,
+and was never systematically developed. Under the final dominance of
+French models in the second half of the thirteenth century, vaulting in
+oblong bays became more general, powerfully influenced by buildings like
+Freiburg, Cologne, Oppenheim, and Ratisbon cathedrals. In the fourteenth
+century the growing taste for elaboration and rich detail led to the
+introduction of multiplied decorative ribs. These, however, did not come
+into use, as in England, through a logical development of constructive
+methods, but purely as decorative features. The German multiple-ribbed
+vaulting is, therefore, less satisfying than the English, though often
+elegant. Conspicuous examples of its application are found in the
+cathedrals of Freiburg, Ulm, Prague, and Vienna; in St. Barbara at
+Kuttenberg, and many other important churches. But with all the richness
+and complexity of these net-like vaults the Germans developed nothing
+like the fan-vaulting or chapter-house ceilings of England.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 139.--ONE BAY OF CATHEDRAL OF ST. GEORGE,
+  LIMBURG.]
+
+
++SIDE AISLES.+ The most notable structural innovation of the Germans was
+the raising of the side aisles to the same height as the central aisle
+in a number of important churches. They thus created a distinctly new
+type, to which German writers have given the name of _hall-church_. The
+result of this innovation was to transform completely the internal
+perspective of the church, as well as its structural membering. The
+clearstory disappeared; the central aisle no longer dominated the
+interior; the pier-arches and side-walls were greatly increased in
+height, and flying buttresses were no longer required. The whole design
+appeared internally more spacious, but lost greatly in variety and in
+interest. The cathedral of +St. Stephen+ at Vienna is the most imposing
+instance of this treatment, which first appeared in the church of St.
+Elizabeth at Marburg (1235-83; Fig. 140). St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, St.
+Martin's at Landshut (1404), and the cathedral of Munich are others
+among many examples of this type.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 140.--SECTION OF ST. ELIZABETH, MARBURG.]
+
+
++TOWERS AND SPIRES.+ The same fondness for spires which had been
+displayed in the Rhenish Romanesque churches produced in the Gothic
+period a number of strikingly beautiful church steeples, in which
+openwork tracery was substituted for the solid stone pyramids of earlier
+examples. The most remarkable of these spires are those of Freiburg
+(1300), Strasburg, and Cologne cathedrals, of the church at Esslingen,
+St. Martin's at Landshut, and the cathedral of Vienna. In these the
+transition from the simple square tower below to the octagonal belfry
+and spire is generally managed with skill. In the remarkable tower of
+the cathedral at Vienna (1433) the transition is too gradual, so that
+the spire seems to start from the ground and lacks the vigor and accent
+of a simpler square lower portion. The over-elaborate spire of
++Strasburg+ (1429, by Junckher of Cologne; lower parts and fa�ade,
+1277-1365, by _Erwin von Steinbach_ and his sons) reaches a height of
+468 feet; the spires of Cologne, completed in 1883 from the original
+fourteenth-century drawings, long lost but recovered by a happy
+accident, are 500 feet high. The spires of +Ratisbon+ and +Ulm+
+cathedrals have also been recently completed in the original style.
+
+
++DETAILS.+ German window tracery was best where it most closely followed
+French patterns, but it tended always towards the faults of mechanical
+stiffness and of technical display in over-slenderness of shafts and
+mullions. The windows, especially in the "hall-churches," were apt to be
+too narrow for their height. In the fifteenth century ingenuity of
+geometrical combinations took the place of grace of line, and later the
+tracery was often tortured into a stone caricature of rustic-work of
+interlaced and twisted boughs and twigs, represented with all their bark
+and knots (_branch-tracery_). The execution was far superior to the
+design. The carving of foliage in capitals, finials, etc., calls for no
+special mention for its originality or its departure from French types.
+
+
++PLANS.+ In these there was more variety than in any other part of
+Europe except Italy. Some churches, like Naumburg, retained the
+Romanesque system of a second western apse and short choir. The
+Cistercian churches generally had square east ends, while the polygonal
+eastern apse without ambulatory is seen in St. Elizabeth at Marburg, the
+cathedrals of Ratisbon, Ulm and Vienna, and many other churches. The
+introduction of French ideas in the thirteenth century led to the
+adoption in a number of cases of the chevet with a single ambulatory and
+a series of radiating apsidal chapels. +Magdeburg+ cathedral (1208-11)
+was the first erected on this plan, which was later followed at
+Altenburg, Cologne, Freiburg, L�beck, Prague and Zwettl, in St. Francis
+at Salzburg and some other churches. Side chapels to nave or choir
+appear in the cathedrals of L�beck, Munich, Oppenheim, Prague and
+Zwettl. +Cologne+ +Cathedral+, by far the largest and most magnificent
+of all, is completely French in plan, uniting in one design the leading
+characteristics of the most notable French churches (Fig. 141). It has
+complete double aisles in both nave and choir, three-aisled transepts,
+radial chevet-chapels and twin western towers. The ambulatory is,
+however, single, and there are no lateral chapels. A�typical German
+treatment was the eastward termination of the church by polygonal
+chapels, one in the axis of each aisle, the central one projecting
+beyond its neighbors. Where there were five aisles, as at Xanten, the
+effect was particularly fine. The plan of the curious polygonal church
+of +Our Lady+ (Liebfrauenkirche; 1227-43) built on the site of the
+ancient circular baptistery at Treves, would seem to have been produced
+by doubling such an arrangement on either side of the transverse axis
+(Fig. 142).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 141.--COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. PLAN.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 142.--CHURCH OF OUR LADY, TREVES.]
+
++HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.+ The so-called +Golden Portal+ of +Freiburg+ in
+the Erzgebirge is perhaps the first distinctively Gothic work in
+Germany, dating from 1190. From that time on, Gothic details appeared
+with increasing frequency, especially in the Rhine provinces, as shown
+in many transitional structures. +Gelnhausen+ and Aschaffenburg are
+early 13th-century examples; pointed arches and vaults appear in the
+Apostles' and St. Martin's churches at Cologne; and the great church of
++St. Peter and St. Paul+ at Neuweiler in Alsace has an almost purely
+Gothic nave of the same period. The churches of +Bamberg+, +Fritzlar+,
+and +Naumburg+, and in Westphalia those of +M�nster+ and +Osnabr�ck+,
+are important examples of the transition. The French influence,
+especially the Burgundian, appears as early as 1212 in the cathedral of
+Magdeburg, imitating the choir of Soissons, and in the structural design
+of the Liebfrauenkirche at Treves as already mentioned; it reached
+complete ascendancy in Alsace at +Strasburg+ (nave 1240-75), in Baden at
++Freiburg+ (nave 1270) and in Prussia at +Cologne+ (1248-1320).
+Strasburg Cathedral is especially remarkable for its fa�ade, the work of
+Erwin von Steinbach and his sons (1277-1346), designed after French
+models, and its north spire, built in the fifteenth century. Cologne
+Cathedral, begun in 1248 by _Gerhard of Riel_ in imitation of the newly
+completed choir of Amiens, was continued by Master _Arnold_ and his son
+_John_, and the choir was consecrated in 1322. The nave and W. front
+were built during the first half of the 14th century, though the towers
+were not completed till 1883. In spite of its vast size and slow
+construction, it is in style the most uniform of all great Gothic
+cathedrals, as it is the most lofty (excepting the choir of Beauvais)
+and the largest excepting Milan and Seville. Unfortunately its details,
+though pure and correct, are singularly dry and mechanical, while its
+very uniformity deprives it of the picturesque and varied charm which
+results from a mixture of styles recording the labors of successive
+generations. The same criticism may be raised against the late cathedral
+of +Ulm+ (choir, 1377-1449; nave, 1477; Fig. 143). The Cologne influence
+is observable in the widely separated cathedrals of Utrecht in the
+Netherlands, Metz in the W., Minden and +Halberstadt+ (begun 1250;
+mainly built after 1327) in Saxony, and in the S. in the church of +St.
+Catherine+ at Oppenheim. To the E. and S., in the cathedrals of +Prague+
+(Bohemia) by _Matthew of Arras_ (1344-52) and +Ratisbon+ (or Regensburg,
+1275) the French influence predominates, at least in the details and
+construction. The last-named is one of the most dignified and beautiful
+of German Gothic churches--German in plan, French in execution. The
+French influence also manifests itself in the details of many of the
+peculiarly German churches with aisles of equal height (see p.�240).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 143.--PLAN OF ULM CATHEDRAL.]
+
+More peculiarly German are the brick churches of North Germany, where
+stone was almost wholly lacking. In these, flat walls, square towers,
+and decoration by colored tiles and bricks are characteristic, as at
+Brandenburg (St. Godehard and +St. Catherine+, 1346-1400), at
++Prentzlau+, T�ngerm�nde, K�nigsberg, &c. L�beck possesses notable
+monuments of brick architecture in the churches of +St. Mary+ and St.
+Catherine, both much alike in plan and in the flat and barren simplicity
+of their exteriors. +St. Martin's+ at +Landshut+ in the South is also a
+notable brick church.
+
+
++LATE GOTHIC.+ As in France and England, the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries were mainly occupied with the completion of existing churches,
+many of which, up to that time, were still without naves. The works of
+this period show the exaggerated attenuation of detail already alluded
+to, though their richness and elegance sometimes atone for their
+mechanical character. The complicated ribbed vaults of this period are
+among its most striking features (see p.�239). Spire-building was as
+general as was the erection of central square towers in England, during
+the same period. To this time also belong the overloaded traceries and
+minute detail of the +St. Sebald+ and St. Lorenz churches and of several
+secular buildings at Nuremberg, the fa�ade of Chemnitz Cathedral, and
+similar works. The nave and tower of St. Stephen at Vienna (1359-1433),
+the church of Sta. Maria in Gestade in the same city, and the cathedral
+of Kaschau in Hungary, are Austrian masterpieces of late Gothic design.
+
+
++SECULAR BUILDINGS.+ Germany possesses a number of important examples of
+secular Gothic work, chiefly municipal buildings (gates and town halls)
+and castles. The first completely Gothic castle or palace was not built
+until 1280, at +Marienburg+ (Prussia), and was completed a century
+later. It consists of two courts, the earlier of the two forming a
+closed square and containing the chapel and chapter-house of the Order
+of the German knights. The later and larger court is less regular, its
+chief feature being the +Great Hall+ of the Order, in two aisles. All
+the vaulting is of the richest multiple-ribbed type. Other castles are
+at Marienwerder, Heilsberg (1350) in E.�Prussia, Karlstein in Bohemia
+(1347), and the +Albrechtsburg+ at Meissen in Saxony (1471-83).
+
+Among town halls, most of which date from the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries may be mentioned those of Ratisbon (Regensburg), M�nster and
+Hildesheim, Halberstadt, +Brunswick+, L�beck, and Bremen--the last two
+of brick. These, and the city gates, such as the +Spahlenthor+ at Basle
+(Switzerland) and others at L�beck and Wismar, are generally very
+picturesque edifices. Many fine guildhalls were also built during the
+last two centuries of the Gothic style; and dwelling-houses of the same
+period, of quaint and effective design, with stepped or traceried
+gables, lofty roofs, openwork balconies and corner turrets, are to be
+found in many cities. Nuremberg is especially rich in these.
+
+
++THE NETHERLANDS+, as might be expected from their position, underwent
+the influences of both France and Germany. During the thirteenth
+century, largely through the intimate monastic relations between Tournay
+and Noyon, the French influence became paramount in what is now Belgium,
+while Holland remained more strongly German in style. Of the two
+countries Belgium developed by far the most interesting architecture.
+Some of its cathedrals, notably those of Tournay, Antwerp, Brussels,
+Malines (Mechlin), Mons and Louvain, rank high among structures of their
+class, both in scale and in artistic treatment. The Flemish town halls
+and guildhalls merit particular attention for their size and richness,
+exemplifying in a worthy manner the wealth, prosperity, and independence
+of the weavers and merchants of Antwerp, Ypres, Ghent (Gand), Louvain,
+and other cities in the fifteenth century.
+
+
++CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES.+ The earliest purely Gothic edifice in Belgium
+was the choir of +Ste. Gudule+ (1225) at Brussels, followed in 1242 by
+the choir and transepts of +Tournay+, designed with pointed vaults, side
+chapels, and a complete _chevet_. The transept-ends are round, as at
+Noyon. It was surpassed in splendor by the +Cathedral+ of +Antwerp+
+(1352-1422), remarkable for its seven-aisled nave and narrow transepts.
+It covers some 70,000 square feet, but its great size is not as
+effective internally as it should be, owing to the poverty of the
+details and the lack of finely felt proportion in the various parts. The
+late west front (1422-1518) displays the florid taste of the wealthy
+Flemish burgher population of that period, but is so rich and elegant,
+especially its lofty and slender north spire, that its over-decoration
+is pardonable. The cathedral of +St. Rombaut+ at Malines (choir, 1366;
+nave, 1454-64) is a more satisfactory church, though smaller and with
+its western towers incomplete. The cathedral of +Louvain+ belongs to the
+same period (1373-1433). +St. Wandru+ at Mons (1450-1528) and +St.
+Jacques+ at Li�ge (1522-58) are interesting parish churches of the first
+rank, remarkable especially for the use of color in their internal
+decoration, for their late tracery and ribbed vaulting, and for the
+absence of Renaissance details at that late period.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 144.--TOWN HALL, LOUVAIN.]
+
++TOWN HALLS: GUILDHALLS.+ These were really the most characteristic
+Flemish edifices, and are in most cases the most conspicuous monuments
+of their respective cities. The +Cloth Hall+ of +Ypres+ (1304) is the
+earliest and most imposing among them; similar halls were built not much
+later at +Bruges+, +Louvain+, +Malines+ and +Ghent+. The town halls were
+mostly of later date, the earliest being that of +Bruges+ (1377). The
+town halls of +Brussels+ with its imposing and graceful tower, of
++Louvain+ (1448-63; Fig. 144) and of +Ouden�rde+ (early 16th century)
+are conspicuous monuments of this class.
+
+In general, the Gothic architecture of Belgium presents the traits of a
+borrowed style, which did not undergo at the hands of its borrowers any
+radically novel or fundamental development. The structural design is
+usually lacking in vigor and organic significance, but the details are
+often graceful and well designed, especially on the exterior. The
+tendency was often towards over-elaboration, particularly in the later
+works.
+
+The Gothic architecture of +Holland+ and of the +Scandinavian+ countries
+offers so little that is highly artistic or inspiring in character, that
+space cannot well be given in this work, even to an enumeration of its
+chief monuments.
+
+
++SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.+ The beginnings of Gothic architecture in Spain
+followed close on the series of campaigns from 1217 to 1252, which began
+the overthrow of the Moorish dominion. With the resulting spirit of
+exultation and the wealth accruing from booty, came a rapid development
+of architecture, mainly under French influence. Gothic architecture was
+at this date, under St. Louis, producing in France some of its noblest
+works. The great cathedrals of +Toledo+ and +Burgos+, begun between 1220
+and 1230, were the earliest purely Gothic churches in Spain. +San
+Vincente+ at Avila and the +Old Cathedral+ at Salamanca, of somewhat
+earlier date, present a mixture of round- and pointed-arched forms, with
+the Romanesque elements predominant. +Toledo Cathedral+, planned in
+imitation of Notre Dame and Bourges, but exceeding them in width, covers
+75,000 square feet, and thus ranks among the largest of European
+cathedrals. Internally it is well proportioned and well detailed,
+recalling the early French masterworks, but its exterior is less
+commendable.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 145.--FA�ADE OF BURGOS CATHEDRAL.]
+
+In the contemporary cathedral of Burgos the exterior is at least as
+interesting as the interior. The west front, of German design, suggests
+Cologne by its twin openwork spires (Fig. 145); while the crossing is
+embellished with a sumptuous dome and lantern or _cimborio_, added as
+late as 1567. The chapels at the east end, especially that of the
+Condestabile (1487), are ornate to the point of overloading, a�fault to
+which late Spanish Gothic work is peculiarly prone. Other
+thirteenth-century cathedrals are those of +Leon+ (1260), +Valencia+
+(1262), and +Barcelona+ (1298), all exhibiting strongly the French
+influence in the plan, vaulting, and vertical proportions. The models of
+Bourges and Paris with their wide naves, lateral chapels and
+semicircular chevets were followed in the cathedral of Barcelona, in a
+number of fourteenth-century churches both there and elsewhere, and in
+the sixteenth-century cathedral of Segovia. In Sta. Maria del Pi at
+Barcelona, in the collegiate church at Manresa, and in the imposing nave
+of the +Cathedral+ of +Gerona+ (1416, added to choir of 1312, the latter
+by a Southern French architect, Henri de Narbonne), the influence of
+Alby in southern France (see p.�206) is discernible. These are
+one-aisled churches with internal buttresses separating the lateral
+chapels. The nave of Gerona is 73 feet wide, or double the average clear
+width of French or English cathedral naves. The resulting effect is not
+commensurate with the actual dimensions, and shows the inappropriateness
+of Gothic details for compositions so Roman in breadth and simplicity.
+
+
++SEVILLE.+ The largest single edifice in Spain, and the largest church
+built during the Middle Ages in Europe, is the +Cathedral of Seville+,
+begun in 1401 on the site of a Moorish mosque. It covers 124,000 square
+feet, measuring 415 � 298 feet, and is a simple rectangle comprising
+five aisles with lateral chapels. The central aisle is 56 ft. wide and
+145 high; the side aisles and chapels diminish gradually in height, and
+with the uniform piers in six rows produce an imposing effect, in spite
+of the lack of transepts or chevet. The somewhat similar +New Cathedral+
+of Salamanca (1510-1560) shows the last struggles of the Gothic style
+against the incoming tide of the Renaissance.
+
+
++LATER MONUMENTS.+ These all partake of the over-decoration which
+characterized the fifteenth century throughout Europe. In Spain this
+decoration was even less constructive in character, and more purely
+fanciful and arbitrary, than in the northern lands; but this very
+rejection of all constructive pretense gives it a peculiar charm and
+goes far to excuse its extravagance (Fig. 146). Decorative vaulting-ribs
+were made to describe geometric patterns of great elegance. Some of the
+late Gothic vaults by the very exuberance of imagination shown in their
+designs, almost disarm criticism. Instead of suppressing the walls as
+far as possible, and emphasizing all the vertical lines, as was done in
+France and England, the later Gothic architects of Spain delighted in
+broad wall-surfaces and multiplied horizontal lines. Upon these surfaces
+they lavished carving without restraint and without any organic relation
+to the structure of the building. The arcades of cloisters and interior
+courts (_patios_) were formed with arches of fantastic curves resting on
+twisted columns; and internal chapels in the cathedrals were covered
+with minute carving of exquisite workmanship, but wholly irrational
+design. Probably the influence of Moorish decorative art accounts in
+part for these extravagances. The eastern chapels in Burgos cathedral,
+the votive church of +San Juan de los Reyes+ at Toledo and many portals
+of churches, convents and hospitals illustrate these tendencies.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 146.--DETAIL, PORTAL S.�GREGORIO, VALLADOLID.]
+
+
++PORTUGAL+ is an almost unknown land architecturally. It seems to have
+adopted the Gothic styles very late in its history. Two monuments,
+however, are conspicuous, the convent churches of Batalha (1390-1520)
+and +Belem+, both marked by an extreme overloading of carved ornament.
+The +Mausoleum of King Manoel+ in the rear of the church at Batalha is,
+however, a�noble creation, possibly by an English master. It is a
+polygonal domed edifice, some 67 feet in diameter, and well designed,
+though covered with a too profuse and somewhat mechanical decoration of
+panels, pinnacles, and carving.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+: GERMANY (C�= cathedral; A�= abbey; tr. =
+  transepts).--13th century: Transitional churches: Bamberg�C.;
+  Naumburg�C.; Collegiate Church, Fritzlar; St. George,
+  Limburg-on-Lahn; St. Castor, Coblentz; Heisterbach�A.;--all in
+  early years of 13th century. St. Gereon, Cologne, choir 1212-27;
+  Liebfrauenkirche, Treves, 1227-44; St. Elizabeth, Marburg,
+  1235-83; Sts. Peter and Paul, Neuweiler, 1250; Cologne�C., choir
+  1248-1322 (nave 14th century; towers finished 1883); Strasburg�C.,
+  1250-75 (E. end Romanesque; fa�ade 1277-1365; tower 1429-39);
+  Halberstadt�C., nave 1250 (choir 1327; completed 1490);
+  Altenburg�C., choir 1255-65 (finished 1379); Wimpfen-im-Thal
+  church 1259-78; St. Lawrence, Nuremberg, 1260 (choir 1439-77); St.
+  Catherine, Oppenheim, 1262-1317 (choir 1439); Xanten, Collegiate
+  Church, 1263; Freiburg�C., 1270 (W. tower 1300; choir 1354);
+  Toul�C., 1272; Meissen�C., choir 1274 (nave 1312-42); Ratisbon�C.,
+  1275; St. Mary's, L�beck, 1276; Dominican churches at Coblentz,
+  Gebweiler; and in Switzerland at Basle, Berne, and Zurich.--14th
+  century: Wiesenkirche, S�st, 1313; Osnabr�ck�C., 1318 (choir
+  1420); St. Mary's, Prentzlau, 1325; Augsburg�C., 1321-1431;
+  Metz�C., 1330 rebuilt (choir 1486); St. Stephen's C., Vienna, 1340
+  (nave 15th century; tower 1433); Zwette�C., 1343; Prague�C., 1344;
+  church at Thann, 1351 (tower finished 16th century);
+  Liebfrauenkirche, Nuremberg, 1355-61; St. Sebaldus Church,
+  Nuremberg, 1361-77 (nave Romanesque); Minden�C., choir 1361;
+  Ulm�C., 1377 (choir 1449; nave vaulted 1471; finished 16th
+  century); Sta. Barbara, Kuttenberg, 1386 (nave 1483); Erfurt�C.;
+  St. Elizabeth, Kaschau; Schlettstadt�C.--15th century: St.
+  Catherine's, Brandenburg, 1401; Frauenkirche, Esslingen, 1406
+  (finished 1522); Minster at Berne, 1421; Peter-Paulskirche,
+  G�rlitz, 1423-97; St. Mary's, Stendal, 1447; Frauenkirche, Munich,
+  1468-88; St. Martin's, Landshut, 1473.
+
+  SECULAR MONUMENTS. Schloss Marienburg, 1341; Moldau-bridge and
+  tower, Prague, 1344; Karlsteinburg, 1348-57; Albrechtsburg,
+  Meissen, 1471-83; Nassau House, Nuremberg, 1350; Council houses
+  (Rathha�ser) at Brunswick, 1393; Cologne, 1407-15; Basle; Breslau;
+  L�beck; M�nster; Prague; Ulm; City Gates of Basle, Cologne,
+  Ingolstadt, Lucerne.
+
+  THE NETHERLANDS. Brussels�C. (Ste. Gudule), 1226-80; Tournai�C.,
+  choir 1242 (nave finished 1380); Notre Dame, Bruges, 1239-97;
+  Notre Dame, Tongres, 1240; Utrecht�C., 1251; St. Martin, Ypres,
+  1254; Notre Dame, Dinant, 1255; church at Dordrecht; church at
+  Aerschot, 1337; Antwerp�C., 1352-1411 (W. front 1422-1518); St.
+  Rombaut, Malines, 1355-66 (nave 1456-64); St. Wandru, Mons,
+  1450-1528; St. Lawrence, Rotterdam, 1472; other 15th century
+  churches--St. Bavon, Haarlem; St. Catherine, Utrecht; St.
+  Walpurgis, Sutphen; St. Bavon, Ghent (tower 1461); St. Jaques,
+  Antwerp; St. Pierre, Louvain; St. Jacques, Bruges; churches at
+  Arnheim, Breda, Delft; St. Jacques, Li�ge, 1522.--SECULAR:
+  Cloth-hall, Ypres, 1200-1304; cloth-hall, Bruges, 1284; town hall,
+  Bruges, 1377; town hall, Brussels, 1401-55; town hall, Louvain,
+  1448-63; town hall, Ghent, 1481; town hall, Oudenarde, 1527;
+  Standehuis, Delft, 1528; cloth-halls at Louvain, Ghent, Malines.
+
+  SPAIN.--13th century: Burgos C., 1221 (fa�ade 1442-56; chapels
+  1487; cimborio 1567); Toledo�C., 1227-90 (chapels 14th and 15th
+  centuries); Tarragona�C., 1235; Leon�C., 1250 (fa�ade 14th
+  century); Valencia�C., 1262 (N. transept 1350-1404; fa�ade
+  1381-1418); Avila�C., vault and N. portal 1292-1353 (finished 14th
+  century); St. Esteban, Burgos; church at Las Huelgas.--14th
+  century: Barcelona�C., choir 1298-1329 (nave and transepts 1448;
+  fa�ade 16th century); Gerona�C., 1312-46 (nave added 1416); S.�M.
+  del Mar, Barcelona, 1328-83; S.�M. del Pino, Barcelona, same date;
+  Collegiate Church, Manresa, 1328; Oviedo�C., 1388 (tower very
+  late); Pampluna�C., 1397 (mainly 15th century).--15th century:
+  Seville�C., 1403 (finished 16th century; cimborio 1517-67); La
+  Seo, Saragossa (finished 1505); S.�Pablo, Burgos, 1415-35; El
+  Parral, Segovia, 1459; Astorga�C., 1471; San Juan de los Reyes,
+  Toledo, 1476; Carthusian church, Miraflores, 1488; San Juan, and
+  La Merced, Burgos.--16th century: Huesca�C., 1515; Salamanca New
+  Cathedral, 1510-60; Segovia�C., 1522; S.�Juan de la Puerta,
+  Zamorra.
+
+  SECULAR.--Porta Serra�os, Valencia, 1349; Casa Consistorial,
+  Barcelona, 1369-78; Casa de la Disputacion, same city; Casa de las
+  Lonjas, Valencia, 1482.
+
+  PORTUGAL. At Batalha, church and mausoleum of King Manoel,
+  finished 1515; at Belem, monastery, late Gothic.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED; As before, Corroyer, Reber. Also, Cummings,
+  _A�History of Architecture in Italy_. De Fleury, _La Toscane au
+  moyen �ge_. Gruner, _The Terra Cotta Architecture of Northern
+  Italy_. Mothes, _Die Baukunst des Mittelalters in Italien_.
+  Norton, _Historical Studies of Church Building in the Middle
+  Ages_. Osten, _Bauwerke der Lombardei_. Street, _Brick and Marble
+  Architecture of Italy_. Willis, _Remarks on the Architecture of
+  the Middle Ages, especially of Italy_.
+
+
++GENERAL CHARACTER.+ The various Romanesque styles which had grown up in
+Italy before 1200 lacked that unity of principle out of which alone a
+new and homogeneous national style could have been evolved. Each
+province practised its own style and methods of building, long after the
+Romanesque had given place to the Gothic in Western Europe. The Italians
+were better decorators than builders, and cared little for Gothic
+structural principles. Mosaic and carving, sumptuous altars and tombs,
+veneerings and inlays of colored marble, broad flat surfaces to be
+covered with painting and ornament--to secure these they were content to
+build crudely, to tie their insufficiently buttressed vaults with
+unsightly iron tie-rods, and to make their church fa�ades mere
+screen-walls, in form wholly unrelated to the buildings behind them.
+
+When, therefore, under foreign influences pointed arches, tracery,
+clustered shafts, crockets and finials came into use, it was merely as
+an imported fashion. Even when foreign architects (usually Germans) were
+employed, the composition, and in large measure the details, were still
+Italian and provincial. The church of St. Francis at Assisi (1228-53, by
+_Jacobus of Meruan_, a�German, superseded later by an Italian,
+Campello), and the cathedral of Milan (begun 1389, perhaps by _Henry of
+Gmund_), are conspicuous illustrations of this. Rome built basilicas all
+through the Middle Ages. Tuscany continued to prefer flat walls veneered
+with marble to the broken surfaces and deep buttresses of France and
+Germany. Venice developed a Gothic style of fa�ade-design wholly her own
+(see p.�267). Nowhere but in Italy could two such utterly diverse
+structures as the Certosa at Pavia and the cathedral at Milan have been
+erected at the same time.
+
+
++CLIMATE AND TRADITION.+ Two further causes militated against the
+domestication of Gothic art in Italy. The first was the brilliant
+atmosphere, which made the vast traceried windows of Gothic design, and
+its suppression of the wall-surfaces, wholly undesirable. Cool, dim
+interiors, thick walls, small windows and the exclusion of sunlight, all
+necessary to Italian comfort, were incompatible with Gothic ideals and
+methods. The second obstacle was the persistence of classic traditions
+of form, both in construction and decoration. The spaciousness and
+breadth of interior planning which characterized Roman design, and its
+amplitude of scale in every feature, seem never to have lost their hold
+on the Italians. The narrow lofty aisles, multiplied supports and minute
+detail of the Gothic style were repugnant to the classic predilections
+of the Italian builders. The Roman acanthus and Corinthian capital were
+constantly imitated in their Gothic buildings, and the round arch
+continued all through the Middle Ages to be used in conjunction with the
+pointed arch (Figs. 149, 150).
+
+
++EARLY BUILDINGS.+ It is hard to determine how and by whom Gothic forms
+were first introduced into Italy, but it was most probably through the
+agency of the monastic orders. Cistercian churches like that at
+Chiaravalle near Milan (1208-21), and most of those erected by the
+mendicant orders of the Franciscans (founded 1210) and Dominicans
+(1216), were built with ribbed vaults and pointed arches. The example
+set by these orders contributed greatly to the general adoption of the
+foreign style. +S.�Francesco+ at +Assisi+, already mentioned, was the
+first completely Gothic Franciscan church, although +S.�Francesco+ at
++Bologna+, begun a few years later, was finished a little earlier. The
+Dominican church of +SS. Giovanni e Paolo+ and the great Franciscan
+church of +Sta. Maria Gloriosa dei Frari+, both at Venice, were built a
+little later. +Sta. Maria Novella+ at Florence (1278), and +Sta. Maria
+sopra Minerva+ at Rome (1280), both by the brothers _Sisto_ and
+_Ristoro_, and +S.�Anastasia+ at Verona (1261) are the masterpieces of
+the Dominican builders. +S.�Andrea+ at +Vercelli+ in North Italy, begun
+in 1219 under a foreign architect, is an isolated early example of lay
+Gothic work. Though somewhat English in its plan, and (unlike most
+Italian churches) provided with two western spires in the English
+manner, it is in all other respects thoroughly Italian in aspect. The
+church at Asti, begun in 1229, suggests German models by its high side
+walls and narrow windows.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 147.--DUOMO AT FLORENCE. PLAN.
+  a, _Campanile_.]
+
+
++CATHEDRALS.+ The greatest monuments of Italian Gothic design are the
+cathedrals, in which, even more than was the case in France, the highly
+developed civic pride of the municipalities expressed itself. Chief
+among these half civic, half religious monuments are the cathedrals of
++Sienna+ (begun in 1243), +Arezzo+ (1278), +Orvieto+ (1290), +Florence+
+(the +Duomo+, Sta. Maria del Fiore, begun 1294 by Arnolfo di Cambio),
++Lucca+ (S.�Martino, 1350), +Milan+ (1389-1418), and +S.�Petronio+ at
+Bologna (1390). They are all of imposing size; Milan is the largest of
+all Gothic cathedrals except Seville. S.�Petronio was planned to be 600
+feet long, the present structure with its three broad aisles and
+flanking chapels being merely the nave of the intended edifice. The
+Duomo at Florence (Fig. 147) is 500 feet long and covers 82,000 square
+feet, while the octagon at the crossing is 143 feet in diameter. The
+effect of these colossal dimensions is, however, as in a number of these
+large Italian interiors, singularly belittled by the bareness of the
+walls, by the great size of the constituent parts of the composition,
+and by the lack of architectural subdivisions and multiplied detail to
+serve as a scale by which to gauge the scale of the _ensemble_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 148.--NAVE OF DUOMO AT FLORENCE.]
+
+
++INTERIOR TREATMENT.+ It was doubtless intended to cover these large
+unbroken wall-surfaces and the vast expanse of the vaults over naves of
+extraordinary breadth, with paintings and color decoration. This would
+have remedied their present nakedness and lack of interest, but it was
+only in a very few instances carried out. The double church of
+S.�Francesco at Assisi, decorated by Cimabue, Giotto, and other early
+Tuscan painters, the Arena Chapel at Padua, painted by Giotto, the
++Spanish Chapel+ of S.�M. Novella, Florence, and the east end of
+S.�Croce, Florence, are illustrations of the splendor of effect possible
+by this method of decoration. The bareness of effect in other, unpainted
+interiors was emphasized by the plainness of the vaults destitute of
+minor ribs. The transverse ribs were usually broad arches with flat
+soffits, and the vaulting was often sprung from so low a point as to
+leave no room for a triforium. Mere bull's-eyes often served for
+clearstory windows, as in S.�Anastasia at Verona, S.�Petronio at
+Bologna, and the Florentine Duomo. The cathedral of +S.�Martino+ at
+Lucca (Fig. 149) is one of the most complete and elegant of Italian
+Gothic interiors, having a genuine triforium with traceried arches. Even
+here, however, there are round arches without mouldings, flat pilasters,
+broad transverse ribs recalling Roman arches, and insignificant
+bull's-eyes in the clearstory.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 149.--ONE BAY, NAVE OF CATHEDRAL OF
+  SAN MARTINO, LUCCA.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 150.--INTERIOR OF SIENNA CATHEDRAL.]
+
+The failure to produce adequate results of scale in the interiors of the
+larger Italian churches, has been already alluded to. It is strikingly
+exemplified in the Duomo at Florence, the nave of which is 72 feet wide,
+with four pier-arches each over 55 feet in span. The immense vault, in
+square bays, starts from the level of the tops of these arches. The
+interior (Fig. 148) is singularly naked and cold, giving no conception
+of its vast dimensions. The colossal dome is an early work of the
+Renaissance (see p.�276). It is not known how _Fr. Talenti_, who in 1357
+enlarged and vaulted the nave and planned the east end, proposed to
+cover the great octagon. The east end is the most effective part of the
+design both internally and externally, owing to the relatively moderate
+scale of the 15 chapels which surround the apsidal arms of the cross. In
+S.�Petronio at Bologna, begun 1390 by _Master Antonio_, the scale is
+better handled. The nave, 300 feet long, is divided into six bays, each
+embracing two side chapels. It is 46 feet wide and 132 feet high,
+proportions which approximate those of the French cathedrals, and
+produce an impression of size somewhat unusual in Italian churches.
++Orvieto+ has internally little that suggests Gothic architecture; like
+many Franciscan and Dominican churches it is really a timber-roofed
+basilica with a few pointed windows. The mixed Gothic and Romanesque
+interior of +Sienna Cathedral+ (Fig. 150), with its round arches and
+six-sided dome, unsymmetrically placed over the crossing, is one of the
+most impressive creations of Italian medi�val art. Alternate courses of
+black and white marble add richness but not repose to the effect of this
+interior: the same is true of Orvieto, and of some other churches. The
+basement baptistery of +S.�Giovanni+, under the east end of Sienna
+Cathedral, is much more purely Gothic in detail.
+
+In these, and indeed in most Italian interiors, the main interest
+centres less in the excellence of the composition than in the
+accessories of pavements, pulpits, choir-stalls, and sepulchral
+monuments. In these the decorative fancy and skill of the Italians found
+unrestrained exercise, and produced works of surpassing interest and
+merit.
+
+
++EXTERNAL DESIGN.+ The greatest possible disparity generally exists
+between the sides and west fronts of the Italian churches. With few
+exceptions the flanks present nothing like the variety of sky-line and
+of light and shade customary in northern and western lands. The side
+walls are high and flat, plain, or striped with black and white masonry
+(Sienna, Orvieto), or veneered with marble (Duomo at Florence) or
+decorated with surface-ornament of thin pilasters and arcades (Lucca).
+The clearstory is low; the roof low--pitched and hardly visible from
+below. Color, rather than structural richness, is generally sought for:
+Milan Cathedral is almost the only exception, and goes to the other
+extreme, with its seemingly countless buttresses, pinnacles and statues.
+
+The fa�ades, on the other hand, were treated as independent decorative
+compositions, and were in many cases remarkably beautiful works, though
+having little or no organic relation to the main structure. The most
+celebrated are those of +Sienna+ (cathedral begun 1243; fa�ade 1284 by
+_Giovanni Pisano_; Fig. 151) and +Orvieto+ (begun 1290 by _Lorenzo
+Maitani_; fa�ade 1310). Both of these are sumptuous polychromatic
+compositions in marble, designed on somewhat similar lines, with three
+high gables fronting the three aisles, with deeply recessed portals,
+pinnacled turrets flanking nave and aisles, and a central circular
+window. That of Orvieto is furthermore embellished with mosaic pictures,
+and is the more brilliant in color of the two. The medi�val fa�ades of
+the Florentine Gothic churches were never completed; but the elegance of
+the panelling and of the tracery with twisted shafts in the flanks of
+the cathedral, and the florid beauty of its side doorways (late 14th
+century) would doubtless if realized with equal success on the fa�ades,
+have produced strikingly beautiful results. The modern fa�ade of the
+Duomo, by the late _De Fabris_ (1887) is a correct if not highly
+imaginative version of the style so applied. The front of Milan
+cathedral (soon to be replaced by a new fa�ade), shows a mixture of
+Gothic and Renaissance forms. +Ferrara Cathedral+, although internally
+transformed in the last century, retains its fine 13th-century
+three-gabled and arcaded screen front; one of the most Gothic in spirit
+of all Italian fa�ades. The +Cathedral+ of +Genoa+ presents Gothic
+windows and deeply recessed portals in a fa�ade built in black and white
+bands, like Sienna cathedral and many churches in Pistoia and Pisa.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 151.--FA�ADE OF SIENNA CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Externally the most important feature was frequently a cupola or dome
+over the crossing. That of Sienna has already been mentioned; that of
+Milan is a sumptuous many-pinnacled structure terminating in a spire 300
+feet high. The +Certosa+ at Pavia (Fig. 152) and the earlier Carthusian
+church of Chiaravalle have internal cupolas or domes covered externally
+by many-storied structures ending in a tower dominating the whole
+edifice. These two churches, like many others in Lombardy, the �milia
+and Venetia, are built of brick, moulded terra-cotta being effectively
+used for the cornices, string-courses, jambs and ornaments of the
+exterior. The Certosa at Pavia is contemporary with the cathedral of
+Milan, to which it offers a surprising contrast, both in style and
+material. It is wholly built of brick and terra-cotta, and, save for its
+ribbed vaulting, possesses hardly a single Gothic feature or detail. Its
+arches, mouldings, and cloisters suggest both the Romanesque and the
+Renaissance styles by their semi-classic character.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 152.--EXTERIOR OF THE CERTOSA, PAVIA.]
+
+
++PLANS.+ The wide diversity of local styles in Italian architecture
+appears in the plans as strikingly as in the details In general one
+notes a love of spaciousness which expresses itself in a sometimes
+disproportionate breadth, and in the wide spacing of the piers. The
+polygonal chevet with its radial chapels is but rarely seen;
++S.�Lorenzo+ at Naples, Sta. Maria dei Servi and S.�Francesco at Bologna
+are among the most important examples. More frequently the chapels form
+a range along the east side of the transepts, especially in the
+Franciscan churches, which otherwise retain many basilican features.
+A�comparison of the plans of S.�Andrea at Vercelli, the Duomo at
+Florence, the cathedrals of Sienna and Milan, S.�Petronio at Bologna and
+the Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 153), sufficiently illustrates the variety of
+Italian Gothic plan-types.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 153.--PLAN OF CERTOSA AT PAVIA.]
+
+
++ORNAMENT.+ Applied decoration plays a large part in all Italian Gothic
+designs. Inlaid and mosaic patterns and panelled veneering in colored
+marble are essential features of the exterior decoration of most Italian
+churches. Florence offers a fine example of this treatment in the Duomo,
+and in its accompanying +Campanile+ or bell-tower, designed by _Giotto_
+(1335), and completed by _Gaddi_ and _Talenti_. This beautiful tower is
+an epitome of Italian Gothic art. Its inlays, mosaics, and veneering are
+treated with consummate elegance, and combined with incrusted reliefs of
+great beauty. The tracery of this monument and of the side windows of
+the adjoining cathedral is lighter and more graceful than is common in
+Italy. Its beauty consists, however, less in movement of line than in
+richness and elegance of carved and inlaid ornament. In the +Or San
+Michele+--a�combined chapel and granary in Florence dating from
+1330--the tracery is far less light and open. In general, except in
+churches like the Cathedral of Milan, built under German influences, the
+tracery in secular monuments is more successful than in ecclesiastical
+structures. Venice developed the designing of tracery to greater
+perfection in her palaces than any other Italian city (see below).
+
+
++MINOR WORKS.+ Italian Gothic art found freer expression in
+semi-decorative works, like tombs, altars and votive chapels, than in
+more monumental structures. The fourteenth century was particularly rich
+in canopy tombs, mostly in churches, though some were erected in the
+open air, like the celebrated +Tombs of the Scaligers+ in Verona
+(1329-1380). Many of those in churches in and near Rome, and others in
+south Italy, are especially rich in inlay of _opus Alexandrinum_ upon
+their twisted columns and panelled sarcophagi. The family of the
+_Cosmati_ acquired great fame for work of this kind during the
+thirteenth century.
+
+The little marble chapel of +Sta. Maria della Spina+, on the Arno, at
+Pisa, is an instance of the successful decorative use of Gothic forms in
+minor buildings.
+
+
++TOWERS.+ The Italians always preferred the square tower to the spire,
+and in most cases treated it as an independent campanile. Following
+Early Christian and Romanesque traditions, these square towers were
+usually built with plain sides unbroken by buttresses, and terminated in
+a flat roof or a low and inconspicuous cone or pyramid. The Campanile at
+Florence already mentioned is by far the most beautiful of these designs
+(Fig. 154). The campaniles of Sienna, Lucca, and Pistoia are built in
+alternate white and black courses, like the adjoining cathedrals. Verona
+and Mantua have towers with octagonal lanterns. In general, these Gothic
+towers differ from the earlier Romanesque models only in the forms of
+their openings. Though dignified in their simplicity and size, and
+usually well proportioned, they lack the beauty and interest of the
+French, English, and German steeples and towers.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 154.--UPPER PART OF CAMPANILE, FLORENCE.]
+
+
++SECULAR MONUMENTS.+ In their public halls, open _loggias_, and domestic
+architecture the Italians were able to develop the application of Gothic
+forms with greater freedom than in their church-building, because
+unfettered by traditional methods of design. The early and vigorous
+growth of municipal and popular institutions led, as in the Netherlands,
+to the building of two classes of public halls--the town hall proper or
+_Podest�_, and the council hall, variously called _Palazzo Communale_,
+_Pubblico_, or _del Consiglio_. The town halls, as the seat of
+authority, usually have a severe and fortress-like character; the
++Palazzo Vecchio+ at Florence is the most important example (1298, by
+Arnolfo di Cambio; Fig. 155). It is especially remarkable for its tower,
+which, rising 308 feet in the air, overhangs the street nearly 6�feet,
+its front wall resting on the face of the powerfully corbelled cornice
+of the palace. The court and most of the interior were remodelled in the
+sixteenth century. At Sienna is a somewhat similar structure in brick,
+the +Palazzo Pubblico+. At Pistoia the Podest� and the Communal Palace
+stand opposite each other; in both of these the courtyards still retain
+their original aspect. At Perugia, Bologna, and Viterbo are others of
+some importance; while in Lombardy, Bergamo, Como, Cremona, Piacenza and
+other towns possess smaller halls with open arcades below, of a more
+elegant and pleasing aspect. More successful still are the open loggias
+or tribunes erected for the gatherings of public bodies. The +Loggia dei
+Lanzi+ at Florence (1376, by _Benci di Cione_ and _Simone di Talenti_)
+is the largest and most famous of these open vaulted halls, of which
+several exist in Florence and Sienna. Gothic only in their minor
+details, they are Romanesque or semi-classic in their broad round arches
+and strong horizontal lines and cornices (Fig. 156).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 155.--UPPER PART OF PALAZZO VECCHIO,
+  FLORENCE.]
+
+
++PALACES AND HOUSES: VENICE.+ The northern cities, especially Pisa,
+Florence, Sienna, Bologna, and Venice, are rich in medi�val public and
+private palaces and dwellings in brick or marble, in which pointed
+windows and open arcades are used with excellent effect. In Bologna and
+Sienna brick is used, in conjunction with details executed in moulded
+terra-cotta, in a highly artistic and effective way. Viterbo, nearer
+Rome, also possesses many interesting houses with street arcades and
+open stairways or stoops leading to the main entrance.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 156.--LOGGIA DEI LANZI, FLORENCE.]
+
+The security and prosperity of Venice in the Middle Ages, and the ever
+present influence of the sun-loving East, made the massive and
+fortress-like architecture of the inland cities unnecessary. Abundant
+openings, large windows full of tracery of great lightness and elegance,
+projecting balconies and the freest use of marble veneering and
+inlay--a�survival of Byzantine traditions of the 12th century (see
+p.�133)--give to the Venetian houses and palaces an air of gayety and
+elegance found nowhere else. While there are few Gothic churches of
+importance in Venice, the number of medi�val houses and palaces is very
+large. Chief among these is the +Doge's Palace+ (Fig. 157), adjoining
+the church of St. Mark. The two-storied arcades of the west and south
+fronts date from 1354, and originally stood out from the main edifice,
+which was widened in the next century, when the present somewhat heavy
+walls, laid up in red, white and black marble in a species of
+quarry-pattern, were built over the arcades. These arcades are beautiful
+designs, combining massive strength and grace in a manner quite foreign
+to Western Gothic ideas. Lighter and more ornate is the +Ca d'Oro+, on
+the Grand Canal; while the Foscari, Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, and Pisani
+palaces, among many others, are admirable examples of the style. In most
+of these a traceried loggia occupies the central part, flanked by walls
+incrusted with marble and pierced by Gothic windows with carved
+mouldings, borders, and balconies. The Venetian Gothic owes its success
+largely to the absence of structural difficulties to interfere with the
+purely decorative development of Gothic details.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 157.--WEST FRONT VIEW OF DOGE'S PALACE,
+  VENICE.]
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ 13th Century: Cistercian abbeys Fossanova and
+  Casamari, _cir._ 1208; S.�Andrea, Vercelli, 1209; S.�Francesco,
+  Assisi, 1228-53; Church at Asti, 1229; Sienna�C., 1243-59 (cupola
+  1259-64; fa�ade 1284); S.�M. Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice, 1250-80
+  (finished 1388); Sta. Chiara, Assisi, 1250; Sta. Trinit�,
+  Florence, 1250; S.�Antonio, Padua, begun 1256; SS. Giovanni e
+  Paolo, Venice, 1260 (?)-1400; Sta. Anastasia, Verona, 1261;
+  Naples�C., 1272-1314 (fa�ade 1299; portal 1407; much altered
+  later); S.�Lorenzo, Naples, 1275; Campo Santo, Pisa, 1278-83;
+  Arezzo�C., 1278; S.�M. Novella, Florence, 1278; S.�Eustorgio,
+  Milan, 1278; S.�M. sopra Minerva, Rome, 1280; Orvieto�C., 1290
+  (fa�ade 1310; roof 1330); Sta. Croce, Florence, 1294 (fa�ade
+  1863); S.�M. del Fiore, or C., Florence, 1294-1310 (enlarged 1357;
+  E. end 1366; dome 1420-64; fa�ade 1887); S.�Francesco,
+  Bologna.--14th century: Genoa�C., early 14th century;
+  S.�Francesco, Sienna, 1310; San Domenico, Sienna, about same date;
+  S.�Giovanni in Fonte, Sienna, 1317; S.�M. della Spina, Pisa, 1323;
+  Campanile, Florence, 1335; Or San Michele, Florence, 1337;
+  Milan�C., 1386 (cupola 16th century; fa�ade 16th-19th century; new
+  fa�ade building 1895); S.�Petronio, Bologna, 1390; Certosa, Pavia,
+  1396 (choir, transepts, cupola, cloisters, 15th and 16th
+  centuries); Como�C., 1396 (choir and transepts 1513); Lucca�C.
+  (S.�Martino), Romanesque building remodelled late in 14th century;
+  Verona�C.; S.�Fermo, Maggiore; S.�Francesco, Pisa; S.�Lorenzo,
+  Vicenza.--15th century: Perugia�C.; S.�M. delle Grazie, Milan,
+  1470 (cupola and exterior E. part later).
+
+  SECULAR BUILDINGS: Pal. Pubblico, Cremona, 1245; Pal. Podest�
+  (Bargello), Florence, 1255 (enlarged 1333-45); Pal. Pubblico,
+  Sienna, 1289-1305 (many later alterations); Pal. Giureconsulti,
+  Cremona, 1292; Broletto, Monza, 1293; Loggia dei Mercanti,
+  Bologna, 1294; Pal. Vecchio, Florence, 1298; Broletto, Como; Pal.
+  Ducale (Doge's Palace), Venice, 1310-40 (great windows 1404;
+  extended 1423-38; courtyard 15th and 16th centuries); Loggia dei
+  Lanzi, Florence, 1335; Loggia del Bigallo, 1337; Broletto,
+  Bergamo, 14th century; Loggia dei Nobili, Sienna, 1407; Pal.
+  Pubblico, Udine, 1457; Loggia dei Mercanti, Ancona; Pal. del
+  Governo, Bologna; Pal. Pepoli, Bologna; Palaces Conte Bardi,
+  Davanzati, Capponi, all at Florence; at Sienna, Pal. Tolomei,
+  1205; Pal. Saracini, Pal. Buonsignori; at Venice, Pal.
+  Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, Foscari, Pisani, and many others; others
+  in Padua and Vicenza.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+EARLY RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Anderson, _Architecture of the Renaissance in
+  Italy_. Burckhardt, _The Civilization of the Renaissance_;
+  _Geschichte der Renaissance in Italien_; _Der Cicerone_. Cellesi,
+  _Sei Fabbriche di Firenze_. Cicognara, _Le Fabbriche pi� cospicue
+  di Venezia_. Durm, _Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Italien_ (in
+  _Hdbuch. d. Arch._). Fergusson, _History of Modern Architecture_.
+  Geym�ller, _La Renaissance en Toscane_. Montigny et Famin,
+  _Architecture Toscane_. Moore, _Character of Renaissance
+  Architecture_. M�ntz, _La Renaissance en Italie et en France �
+  l'�poque de Charles VIII._ Palustre, _L'Architecture de la
+  Renaissance_. Pater, _Studies in the Renaissance_. Symonds, _The
+  Renaissance of the Fine Arts in Italy_. Tosi and Becchio, _Altars,
+  Tabernacles, and Tombs_.
+
+
++THE CLASSIC REVIVAL.+ The abandonment of Gothic architecture in Italy
+and the substitution in its place of forms derived from classic models
+were occasioned by no sudden or merely local revolution. The Renaissance
+was the result of a profound and universal intellectual movement, whose
+roots may be traced far back into the Middle Ages, and which manifested
+itself first in Italy simply because there the conditions were most
+propitious. It spread through Europe just as rapidly as similar
+conditions appearing in other countries prepared the way for it.
+The essence of this far-reaching movement was the protest of the
+individual reason against the trammels of external and arbitrary
+authority--a�protest which found its earliest organized expression in
+the Humanists. In its assertion of the intellectual and moral rights
+of the individual, the Renaissance laid the foundations of modern
+civilization. The same spirit, in rejecting the authority and teachings
+of the Church in matters of purely secular knowledge, led to the
+questionings of the precursors of modern science and the discoveries of
+the early navigators. But in nothing did the reaction against medi�val
+scholasticism and asceticism display itself more strikingly than in the
+joyful enthusiasm which marked the pursuit of classic studies. The
+long-neglected treasures of classic literature were reopened, almost
+rediscovered, in the fourteenth century by the immortal trio--Dante,
+Petrarch, and Boccaccio. The joy of living, the hitherto forbidden
+delight in beauty and pleasure for their own sakes, the exultant
+awakening to the sense of personal freedom, which came with the bursting
+of medi�val fetters, found in classic art and literature their most
+sympathetic expression. It was in Italy, where feudalism had never fully
+established itself, and where the municipalities and guilds had
+developed, as nowhere else, the sense of civic and personal freedom,
+that these symptoms first manifested themselves. In Italy, and above all
+in the Tuscan cities, they appeared throughout the fourteenth century in
+the growing enthusiasm for all that recalled the antique culture, and in
+the rapid advance of luxury and refinement in both public and private
+life.
+
+
++THE RENAISSANCE OF THE ARTS.+ Classic Roman architecture had never lost
+its influence on the Italian taste. Gothic art, already declining in the
+West, had never been in Italy more than a borrowed garb, clothing
+architectural conceptions classic rather than Gothic in spirit. The
+antique monuments which abounded on every hand were ever present models
+for the artist, and to the Florentines of the early fifteenth century
+the civilization which had created them represented the highest ideal of
+human culture. They longed to revive in their own time the glories of
+ancient Rome, and appropriated with uncritical and undiscriminating
+enthusiasm the good and the bad, the early and the late forms of Roman
+art, Na�vely unconscious of the disparity between their own
+architectural conceptions and those they fancied they imitated, they
+were, unknown to themselves, creating a new style, in which the details
+of Roman art were fitted in novel combinations to new requirements. In
+proportion as the Church lost its hold on the culture of the age, this
+new architecture entered increasingly into the service of private luxury
+and public display. It created, it is true, striking types of church
+design, and made of the dome one of the most imposing of external
+features; but its most characteristic products were palaces, villas,
+council halls, and monuments to the great and the powerful. The personal
+element in design asserted itself as never before in the growth of
+schools and the development of styles. Thenceforward the history of
+Italian architecture becomes the history of the achievements of
+individual artists.
+
+
++EARLY BEGINNINGS.+ Already in the 13th century the pulpits of Niccolo
+Pisano at Sienna and Pisa had revealed that master's direct recourse to
+antique monuments for inspiration and suggestion. In the frescoes of
+Giotto and his followers, and in the architectural details of many
+nominally Gothic buildings, classic forms had appeared with increasing
+frequency during the fourteenth century. This was especially true in
+Florence, which was then the artistic capital of Italy. Never, perhaps,
+since the days of Pericles, had there been another community so
+permeated with the love of beauty in art, and so endowed with the
+capacity to realize it. Nowhere else in Europe at that time was there
+such strenuous life, such intense feeling, or such free course for
+individual genius as in Florence. Her artists, with unexampled
+versatility, addressed themselves with equal success to goldsmiths'
+work, sculpture, architecture and engineering--often to painting and
+poetry as well; and they were quick to catch in their art the spirit of
+the classic revival. The new movement achieved its first architectural
+triumph in the dome of the cathedral of Florence (1420-64); and it was
+Florentine--or at least Tuscan--artists who planted in other centres the
+seeds of the new art that were to spring up in the local and provincial
+schools of Sienna, Milan, Pavia, Bologna, and Venice, of Brescia, Lucca,
+Perugia, and Rimini, and many other North Italian cities. The movement
+asserted itself late in Rome and Naples, as an importation from Northern
+Italy, but it bore abundant fruit in these cities in its later stages.
+
+
++PERIODS.+ The classic styles which grew up out of the Renaissance may
+be divided for convenience into four periods.
+
+THE EARLY RENAISSANCE or FORMATIVE PERIOD, 1420-90; characterized by
+the grace and freedom of the decorative detail, suggested by Roman
+prototypes and applied to compositions of great variety and originality.
+
+THE HIGH RENAISSANCE or FORMALLY CLASSIC PERIOD, 1490-1550. During this
+period classic details were copied with increasing fidelity, the orders
+especially appearing in almost all compositions; decoration meanwhile
+losing somewhat in grace and freedom.
+
+THE EARLY BAROQUE (or BAROCO), 1550-1600; a�period of classic formality
+characterized by the use of colossal orders, engaged columns and rather
+scanty decoration.
+
+THE DECLINE or LATER BAROQUE, marked by poverty of invention in the
+composition and a predominance of vulgar sham and display in the
+decoration. Broken pediments, huge scrolls, florid stucco-work and a
+general disregard of architectural propriety were universal.
+
+During the eighteenth century there was a reaction from these
+extravagances, which showed itself in a return to the servile copying of
+classic models, sometimes not without a certain dignity of composition
+and restraint in the decoration.
+
+By many writers the name Renaissance is confined to the first period.
+This is correct from the etymological point of view; but it is
+impossible to dissociate the first period historically from those which
+followed it, down to the final exhaustion of the artistic movement to
+which it gave birth, in the heavy extravagances of the Rococo.
+
+Another division is made by the Italians, who give the name of the
+_Quattrocento_ to the period which closed with the end of the fifteenth
+century, _Cinquecento_ to the sixteenth century, and _Seicento_ to the
+seventeenth century or Rococo. It has, however, become common to confine
+the use of the term Cinquecento to the first half of the sixteenth
+century.
+
+
++CONSTRUCTION AND DETAIL.+ The architects of the Renaissance occupied
+themselves more with form than with construction, and rarely set
+themselves constructive problems of great difficulty. Although the new
+architecture began with the colossal dome of the cathedral of Florence,
+and culminated in the stupendous church of St. Peter at Rome, it was
+pre-eminently an architecture of palaces and villas, of fa�ades and of
+decorative display. Constructive difficulties were reduced to their
+lowest terms, and the constructive framework was concealed, not
+emphasized, by the decorative apparel of the design. Among the
+masterpieces of the early Renaissance are many buildings of small
+dimensions, such as gates, chapels, tombs and fountains. In these the
+individual fancy had full sway, and produced surprising results by the
+beauty of enriched mouldings, of carved friezes with infant genii,
+wreaths of fruit, griffins, masks and scrolls; by pilasters covered with
+arabesques as delicate in modelling as if wrought in silver; by inlays
+of marble, panels of glazed terra-cotta, marvellously carved doors, fine
+stucco-work in relief, capitals and cornices of wonderful richness and
+variety. The Roman orders appeared only in free imitations, with
+panelled and carved pilasters for the most part instead of columns, and
+capitals of fanciful design, recalling remotely the Corinthian by their
+volutes and leaves (Fig. 158). Instead of the low-pitched classic
+pediments, there appears frequently an arched cornice enclosing a
+sculptured lunette. Doors and windows were enclosed in richly carved
+frames, sometimes arched and sometimes square. Fa�ades were flat and
+unbroken, depending mainly for effect upon the distribution and
+adornment of the openings, and the design of doorways, courtyards and
+cornices. Internally vaults and flat ceilings of wood and plaster were
+about equally common, the barrel vault and dome occurring far more
+frequently than the groined vault. Many of the ceilings of this period
+are of remarkable richness and beauty.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 158.--EARLY RENAISSANCE CAPITAL, PAL. ZORZI,
+  VENICE.]
+
+
++THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN FLORENCE: THE DUOMO.+ In the year 1417 a
+public competition was held for completing the cathedral of Florence by
+a dome over the immense octagon, 143 feet in diameter. _Filippo
+Brunelleschi_, sculptor and architect (1377-1446), who with Donatello
+had journeyed to Rome to study there the masterworks of ancient art,
+after demonstrating the inadequacy of all the solutions proposed by the
+competitors, was finally permitted to undertake the gigantic task
+according to his own plans. These provided for an octagonal dome in two
+shells, connected by eight major and sixteen minor ribs, and crowned by
+a lantern at the top (Fig. 159). This wholly original conception, by
+which for the first time (outside of Moslem art) the dome was made an
+external feature fitly terminating in the light forms and upward
+movement of a lantern, was carried out between the years 1420 and 1464.
+Though in no wise an imitation of Roman forms, it was classic in its
+spirit, in its vastness and its simplicity of line, and was made
+possible solely by Brunelleschi's studies of Roman design and
+construction (Fig. 160).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 159.--SECTION OF DOME OF DUOMO, FLORENCE.]
+
+
++OTHER CHURCHES.+ From Brunelleschi's designs were also erected the
++Pazzi Chapel+ in Sta. Croce, a�charming design of a Greek cross covered
+with a dome at the intersection, and preceded by a vestibule with a
+richly decorated vault; and the two great churches of +S.�Lorenzo+
+(1425) and +S.�Spirito+ (1433-1476, Fig. 161). Both reproduced in a
+measure the plan of the Pisa Cathedral, having a three-aisled nave and
+transepts, with a low dome over the crossing. The side aisles were
+covered with domical vaults and the central aisles with flat wooden or
+plaster ceilings. All the details of columns, arches and mouldings were
+imitated from Roman models, and yet the result was something entirely
+new. Consciously or unconsciously, Brunelleschi was reviving Byzantine
+rather than Roman conceptions in the planning and structural design of
+these domical churches, but the garb in which he clothed them was Roman,
+at least in detail. The +Old Sacristy+ of S.�Lorenzo was another domical
+design of great beauty.
+
+From this time on the new style was in general use for church designs.
+_L. B. Alberti_ (1404-73), who had in Rome mastered classic details more
+thoroughly than Brunelleschi, remodelled the church of +S.�Francesco+ at
++Rimini+ with Roman pilasters and arches, and with engaged orders in the
+fa�ade, which, however, was never completed. His great work was the
+church of +S.�Andrea+ at +Mantua+, a�Latin cross in plan, with a dome at
+the intersection (the present high dome dating however, only from the
+18th century) and a fa�ade to which the conception of a Roman triumphal
+arch was skilfully adapted. His fa�ade of incrusted marbles for the
+church of S.�M. Novella at Florence was a less successful work, though
+its flaring consoles over the side aisles established an unfortunate
+precedent frequently imitated in later churches.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 160.--EXTERIOR OF DOME OF DUOMO, FLORENCE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 161.--INTERIOR OF S. SPIRITO, FLORENCE.]
+
+A great activity in church-building marked the period between 1475 and
+1490. The plans of the churches erected about this time throughout north
+Italy display an interesting variety of arrangements, in nearly all of
+which the dome is combined with the three-aisled cruciform plan, either
+as a central feature at the crossing or as a domical vault over each
+bay. Bologna and Ferrara possess a number of churches of this kind.
+Occasionally the basilican arrangement was followed, with columnar
+arcades separating the aisles. More often, however, the pier-arches were
+of the Roman type, with engaged columns or pilasters between them. The
+interiors, presumably intended to receive painted decorations, were in
+most cases somewhat bare of ornament, pleasing rather by happy
+proportions and effective vaulting or rich flat ceilings, panelled,
+painted and gilded, than by elaborate architectural detail. A�similar
+scantiness of ornament is to be remarked in the exteriors, excepting the
+fa�ades, which were sometimes highly ornate; the doorways, with columns,
+pediments, sculpture and carving, receiving especial attention. High
+external domes did not come into general use until the next period. In
+Milan, Pavia, and some other Lombard cities, the internal cupola over
+the crossing was, however, covered externally by a lofty structure in
+diminishing stages, like that of the Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 152), or
+that erected by Bramante for the church of S.�M. delle Grazie at Milan.
+At Prato, in the church of the +Madonna delle Carceri+ (1495-1516), by
+_Giuliano da S.�Gallo_, the type of the Pazzi chapel reappears in a
+larger scale; the plan is cruciform, with equal or nearly equal arms
+covered by barrel vaults, at whose intersection rises a dome of moderate
+height on pendentives. This charming edifice, with its unfinished
+exterior of white marble, its simple and dignified lines, and internal
+embellishments in della-Robbia ware, is one of the masterpieces of the
+period.
+
+In the designing of chapels and oratories the architects of the early
+Renaissance attained conspicuous success, these edifices presenting
+fewer structural limitations and being more purely decorative in
+character than the larger churches. Such fa�ades as that of
++S.�Bernardino+ at Perugia and of the +Frati di S.�Spirito+ at Bologna
+are among the most delightful products of the decorative fancy of the
+15th century.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 162.--COURTYARD OF RICCARDI PALACE, FLORENCE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 163.--FA�ADE OF STROZZI PALACE, FLORENCE.]
+
++FLORENTINE PALACES.+ While the architects of this period failed to
+develop any new and thoroughly satisfactory ecclesiastical type, they
+attained conspicuous success in palace-architecture. The +Riccardi+
+palace in Florence (1430) marks the first step of the Renaissance in
+this direction. It was built for the great Cosimo di Medici by
+_Michelozzi_ (1397-1473), a�contemporary of Brunelleschi and Alberti,
+and a man of great talent. Its imposing rectangular fa�ade, with widely
+spaced mullioned windows in two stories over a massive basement, is
+crowned with a classic cornice of unusual and perhaps excessive size. In
+spite of the bold and fortress-like character of the rusticated masonry
+of these fa�ades, and the medi�val look they seem to present to modern
+eyes, they marked a revolution in style and established a type
+frequently imitated in later years. The courtyard, in contrast with this
+stern exterior, appears light and cheerful (Fig. 162). Its wall is
+carried on round arches borne by columns with Corinthianesque capitals,
+and the arcade is enriched with sculptured medallions. +The Pitti
+Palace+, by Brunelleschi (1435), embodies the same ideas on a more
+colossal scale, but lacks the grace of an adequate cornice. A�lighter
+and more ornate style appeared in 1460 in the +P.�Rucellai+, by Alberti,
+in which for the first time classical pilasters in superposed stages
+were applied to a street fa�ade. To avoid the dilemma of either
+insufficiently crowning the edifice or making the cornice too heavy for
+the upper range of pilasters, Alberti made use of brackets, occupying
+the width of the upper frieze, and converting the whole upper
+entablature into a cornice. But this compromise was not quite
+successful, and it remained for later architects in Venice, Verona, and
+Rome to work out more satisfactory methods of applying the orders to
+many-storied palace fa�ades. In the great +P.�Strozzi+ (Fig. 163),
+erected in 1490 by _Benedetto da Majano_ and _Cronaca_, the architects
+reverted to the earlier type of the P.�Riccardi, treating it with
+greater refinement and producing one of the noblest palaces of Italy.
+
+
++COURTYARDS; ARCADES.+ These palaces were all built around interior
+courts, whose walls rested on columnar arcades, as in the P.�Riccardi
+(Fig. 162). The origin of these arcades may be found in the arcaded
+cloisters of medi�val monastic churches, which often suggest classic
+models, as in those of St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls and St. John Lateran at
+Rome. Brunelleschi not only introduced columnar arcades into a number of
+cloisters and palace courts, but also used them effectively as exterior
+features in the +Loggia S.�Paolo+ and the Foundling Hospital (+Ospedale
+degli Innocenti+) at Florence. The chief drawback in these light arcades
+was their inability to withstand the thrust of the vaulting over the
+space behind them, and the consequent recourse to iron tie-rods where
+vaulting was used. The Italians, however, seemed to care little about
+this disfigurement.
+
+
++MINOR WORKS.+ The details of the new style were developed quite as
+rapidly in purely decorative works as in monumental buildings. Altars,
+mural monuments, tabernacles, pulpits and _ciboria_ afforded scope for
+the genius of the most distinguished artists. Among those who were
+specially celebrated in works of this kind should be named _Lucca della
+Robbia_ (1400-82) and his successors, _Mino da Fiesole_ (1431-84) and
+_Benedetto da Majano_ (1442-97). Possessed of a wonderful fertility of
+invention, they and their pupils multiplied their works in extraordinary
+number and variety, not only throughout north Italy, but also in Rome
+and Naples. Among the most famous examples of this branch of design may
+be mentioned a pulpit in Sta. Croce by B. da Majano; a�terra-cotta
+fountain in the sacristy of S.�M. Novella, by the della Robbias; the
+Marsupini tomb in Sta. Croce, by _Desiderio da Settignano_ (all in
+Florence); the della Rovere tomb in S.�M. del Popolo, Rome, by Mino da
+Fiesole, and in the Cathedral at Lucca the Noceto tomb and the
+Tempietto, by _Matteo Civitali_. It was in works of this character that
+the Renaissance oftenest made its first appearance in a new centre, as
+was the case in Sienna, Pisa, Lucca, Naples, etc.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 164.--TOMB OF PIETRO DI NOCETO, LUCCA.]
+
+
++NORTH ITALY.+ Between 1450 and 1490 the Renaissance presented in
+Sienna, in a number of important palaces, a�sharp contrast to the
+prevalent Gothic style of that city. The +P.�Piccolomini+--a�somewhat
+crude imitation of the P.�Riccardi in Florence--dates from 1463; the
++P.�del Governo+ was built 1469, and the +Spannocchi Palace+ in 1470. In
+1463 _Ant. Federighi_ built there the +Loggia del Papa+. About the same
+time _Bernardo di Lorenzo_ was building for Pope Pius II. (�neas Sylvius
+Piccolomini) an entirely new city, +Pienza+, with a cathedral,
+archbishop's palace, town hall and Papal residence (the
++P.�Piccolomini+), which are interesting if not strikingly original
+works. Pisa possesses few early Renaissance structures, owing to the
+utter prostration of her fortunes in the 15th century, and the dominance
+of Pisan Gothic traditions. In Lucca, besides a wealth of minor
+monuments (largely the work of Matteo Civitali, 1435-1501) in various
+churches, a�number of palaces date from this period, the most important
+being the +P.�Pretorio+ and P.�Bernardini. To Milan the Renaissance was
+carried by the Florentine masters _Michelozzi_ and _Filarete_, to whom
+are respectively due the +Portinari Chapel+ in S.�Eustorgio (1462) and
+the earlier part of the great +Ospedale Maggiore+ (1457). In the latter,
+an edifice of brick with terra-cotta enrichments, the windows were
+Gothic in outline--an unusual mixture of styles, even in Italy. The
+munificence of the Sforzas, the hereditary tyrants of the province,
+embellished the semi-Gothic +Certosa+ of Pavia with a new marble fa�ade,
+begun 1476 or 1491, which in its fanciful and exuberant decoration, and
+the small scale of its parts, belongs properly to the early Renaissance.
+Exquisitely beautiful in detail, it resembles rather a magnified
+altar-piece than a work of architecture, properly speaking. Bologna and
+Ferrara developed somewhat late in the century a strong local school of
+architecture, remarkable especially for the beauty of its courtyards,
+its graceful street arcades, and its artistic treatment of brick and
+terra-cotta (+P.�Bevilacqua+, +P.�Fava+, at Bologna; +P.�Scrofa+,
++P.�Roverella+, at Ferrara). About the same time palaces with interior
+arcades and details in the new style were erected in Verona, Vicenza,
+Mantua, and other cities.
+
+
++VENICE.+ In this city of merchant princes and a wealthy _bourgeoisie_,
+the architecture of the Renaissance took on a new aspect of splendor and
+display. It was late in appearing, the Gothic style with its tinge of
+Byzantine decorative traditions having here developed into a style well
+suited to the needs of a rich and relatively tranquil community. These
+traditions the architects of the new style appropriated in a measure, as
+in the marble incrustations of the exquisite little church of +S.�M. dei
+Miracoli+ (1480-89), and the fa�ade of the +Scuola di S.�Marco+
+(1485-1533), both by _Pietro Lombardo_. Nowhere else, unless on the
+contemporary fa�ade of the Certosa at Pavia, were marble inlays and
+delicate carving, combined with a framework of thin pilasters, finely
+profiled entablatures and arched pediments, so lavishly bestowed upon
+the street fronts of churches and palaces. The family of the _Lombardi_
+(Martino, his sons Moro and Pietro, and grandsons Antonio and Tullio),
+with _Ant. Bregno_ and _Bart. Buon_, were the leaders in the
+architectural Renaissance of this period, and to them Venice owes her
+choicest masterpieces in the new style. Its first appearance is noted in
+the later portions of the church of +S.�Zaccaria+ (1456-1515), partly
+Gothic internally, with a fa�ade whose semicircular pediment and small
+decorative arcades show a somewhat timid but interesting application of
+classic details. In this church, and still more so in S.�Giobbe
+(1451-93) and the Miracoli above mentioned, the decorative element
+predominates throughout. It is hard to imagine details more graceful in
+design, more effective in the swing of their movement, or more delicate
+in execution than the mouldings, reliefs, wreaths, scrolls, and capitals
+one encounters in these buildings. Yet in structural interest, in scale
+and breadth of planning, these early Renaissance Venetian buildings hold
+a relatively inferior rank.
+
+
++PALACES.+ The great +Court+ of the +Doge's Palace+, begun 1483 by _Ant.
+Rizzio_, belongs only in part to the first period. It shows, however,
+the lack of constructive principle and of largeness of composition just
+mentioned, but its decorative effect and picturesque variety elicit
+almost universal admiration. Like the neighboring fa�ade of St. Mark's,
+it violates nearly every principle of correct composition, and yet in a
+measure atones for this capital defect by its charm of detail. Far more
+satisfactory from the purely architectural point of view is the fa�ade
+of the +P.�Vendramini+ (Vendramin-Calergi), by Pietro Lombardo (1481).
+The simple, stately lines of its composition, the dignity of its broad
+arched and mullioned windows, separated by engaged columns--the earliest
+example in Venice of this feature, and one of the earliest in Italy--its
+well-proportioned basement and upper stories, crowned by an adequate but
+somewhat heavy entablature, make this one of the finest palaces in Italy
+(Fig. 165) It established a type of large-windowed, vigorously modelled
+fa�ades which later architects developed, but hardly surpassed. In the
+smaller contemporary, P.�Dario, another type appears, better suited for
+small buildings, depending for effect mainly upon well-ordered openings
+and incrusted panelling of colored marble.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 165.--VENDRAMINI PALACE, VENICE.]
+
+
++ROME.+ Internal disorders and the long exile of the popes had by the
+end of the fourteenth century reduced Rome to utter insignificance. Not
+until the second half of the fifteenth century did returning prosperity
+and wealth afford the Renaissance its opportunity in the Eternal City.
+Pope Nicholas�V. had, indeed, begun the rebuilding of St. Peter's from
+designs by B. Rossellini, in 1450, but the project lapsed shortly after
+with the death of the pope. The earliest Renaissance building in Rome
+was the +P.�di Venezia+, begun in 1455, together with the adjoining
+porch of S.�Marco. In this palace and the adjoining unfinished
+Palazzetto we find the influence of the old Roman monuments clearly
+manifested in the court arcades, built like those of the Colosseum, with
+superposed stages of massive piers and engaged columns carrying
+entablatures. The proportions are awkward, the details coarse; but the
+spirit of Roman classicism is here seen in the germ. The exterior of
+this palace is, however, still Gothic in spirit. The architects are
+unknown; _Giuliano da Majano_ (1452-90), _Giacomo di Pietrasanta_, and
+_Meo del Caprino_ (1430-1501) are known to have worked upon it, but it
+is not certain in what capacity.
+
+The new style, reaching, and in time overcoming, the conservatism of the
+Church, overthrew the old basilican traditions. In +S.�Agostino+
+(1479-83), by _Pietrasanta_, and +S.�M. del Popolo+, by Pintelli (?),
+piers with pilasters or half-columns and massive arches separate the
+aisles, and the crossing is crowned with a dome. To the same period
+belong the Sistine chapel and parts of the Vatican palace, but the
+interest of these lies rather in their later decorations than in their
+somewhat scanty architectural merit.
+
+The architectural renewal of Rome, thus begun, reached its culmination
+in the following period.
+
+
++OTHER MONUMENTS.+ The complete enumeration of even the most important
+Early Renaissance monuments of Italy is impossible within our limits.
+Two or three only can here be singled out as suggesting types. Among
+town halls of this period the first place belongs to the +P.�del
+Consiglio+ at Verona, by _Fra Giocondo_ (1435-1515). In this beautiful
+edifice the fa�ade consists of a light and graceful arcade supporting a
+wall pierced with four windows, and covered with elaborate frescoed
+arabesques (recently restored). Its unfortunate division by pilasters
+into four bays, with a pier in the centre, is a blemish avoided in the
+contemporary +P.�del Consiglio+ at Padua. The +Ducal Palace+ at Urbino,
+by _Luciano da Laurano_ (1468), is noteworthy for its fine arcaded
+court, and was highly famed in its day. At Brescia +S.�M. dei Miracoli+
+is a remarkable example of a cruciform domical church dating from the
+close of this period, and is especially celebrated for the exuberant
+decoration of its porch and its elaborate detail. Few campaniles were
+built in this period; the best of them are at Venice. Naples possesses
+several interesting Early Renaissance monuments, chief among which are
+the +Porta Capuana+ (1484), by _Giul. da Majano_, the triumphal +Arch of
+Alphonso+ of Arragon, by _Pietro di Martino_, and the +P.�Gravina+, by
+_Gab. d'Agnolo_. Naples is also very rich in minor works of the early
+Renaissance, in which it ranks with Florence, Venice, and Rome.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY--_Continued_.
+
+THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE AND DECLINE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Burckhardt, Cicognara, Fergusson,
+  Palustre. Also, Gauthier, _Les plus beaux edifices de G�nes_.
+  Geym�ller, _Les projets primitifs pour la basilique de St. Pierre
+  de Rome_. Gurlitt, _Geschichte des Barockstiles in Italien_.
+  Letarouilly, _�difices de Rome Moderne_; _Le Vatican_. Palladio,
+  _The Works of A. Palladio_.
+
+
++CHARACTER OF THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE.+ It was inevitable that the
+study and imitation of Roman architecture should lead to an increasingly
+literal rendering of classic details and a closer copying of antique
+compositions. Toward the close of the fifteenth century the symptoms
+began to multiply of the approaching reign of formal classicism.
+Correctness in the reproduction of old Roman forms came in time to be
+esteemed as one of the chief of architectural virtues, and in the
+following period the orders became the principal resource of the
+architect. During the so-called Cinquecento, that is, from the close of
+the fifteenth century to nearly or quite 1550, architecture still
+retained much of the freedom and refinement of the Quattrocento. There
+was meanwhile a notable advance in dignity and amplitude of design,
+especially in the internal distribution of buildings. Externally the
+orders were freely used as subordinate features in the decoration of
+doors and windows, and in court arcades of the Roman type. The
+lantern-crowned dome upon a high drum was developed into one of the
+noblest of architectural forms. Great attention was bestowed upon all
+subordinate features; doors and windows were treated with frames and
+pediments of extreme elegance and refinement; all the cornices and
+mouldings were proportioned and profiled with the utmost care, and the
+balustrade was elaborated into a feature at once useful and highly
+ornate. Interior decoration was even more splendid than before, if
+somewhat less delicate and subtle; relief enrichments in stucco were
+used with admirable effect, and the greatest artists exercised their
+talents in the painting of vaults and ceilings, as in P.�del T� at
+Mantua, by _Giulio Romano_ (1492-1546), and the Sistine Chapel at Rome,
+by Michael Angelo. This period is distinguished by an exceptional number
+of great architects and buildings. It was ushered in by _Bramante
+Lazzari_, of Urbino (1444-1514), and closed during the career of
+_Michael Angelo Buonarotti_ (1475-1564); two names worthy to rank with
+that of Brunelleschi. Inferior only to these in architectural genius
+were _Raphael_ (1483-1520), _Baldassare Peruzzi_ (1481-1536), _Antonio
+da San Gallo the Younger_ (1485-1546), and _G. Barozzi da Vignola_
+(1507-1572), in Rome; _Giacopo Tatti Sansovino_ (1479-1570), in Venice,
+and others almost equally illustrious. This period witnessed the
+erection of an extraordinary series of palaces, villas, and churches,
+the beginning and much of the construction of St. Peter's at Rome, and a
+complete transformation in the aspect of that city.
+
+
++BRAMANTE'S WORKS.+ While precise time limits cannot be set to
+architectural styles, it is not irrational to date this period from the
+maturing of Bramante's genius. While his earlier works in Milan belong
+to the Quattrocento (S.�M. delle Grazie, the sacristy of San Satiro, the
+extension of the Great Hospital), his later designs show the classic
+tendency very clearly. The charming +Tempietto+ in the court of
+S.�Pietro in Montorio at Rome, a�circular temple-like chapel (1502), is
+composed of purely classic elements. In the +P.�Giraud+ (Fig. 166) and
+the great +Cancelleria+ Palace, pilasters appear in the external
+composition, and all the details of doors and windows betray the results
+of classic study, as well as the refined taste of their designer.[24]
+The beautiful courtyard of the Cancelleria combines the Florentine
+system of arches on columns with the Roman system of superposed arcades
+independent of the court wall. In 1506 Bramante began the rebuilding of
+St. Peter's for Julius II. (see p.�294) and the construction of a new
+and imposing papal palace adjoining it on the Vatican hill. Of this
+colossal group of edifices, commonly known as the +Vatican+, he executed
+the greater Belvedere court (afterward divided in two by the Library and
+the Braccio Nuovo), the lesser octagonal court of the Belvedere, and the
+court of San Damaso, with its arcades afterward frescoed by Raphael and
+his school. Besides these, the cloister of S.�M. della Pace, and many
+other works in and out of Rome, reveal the impress of Bramante's genius,
+alike in their admirable plans and in the harmony and beauty of their
+details.
+
+    [Footnote 24: See Appendix C.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 166.--FA�ADE OF THE GIRAUD PALACE, ROME.]
+
+
++FLORENTINE PALACES.+ The P. Riccardi long remained the accepted type of
+palace in Florence. As we have seen, it was imitated in the Strozzi
+palace, as late as 1489, with greater perfection of detail, but with no
+radical change of conception. In the +P.�Gondi+, however, begun in the
+following year by _Giuliano da San Gallo_ (1445-1516), a�more pronounced
+classic spirit appears, especially in the court and the interior design.
+Early in the 16th century classic columns and pediments began to be used
+as decorations for doors and windows; the rustication was confined to
+basements and corner-quoins, and niches, loggias, and porches gave
+variety of light and shade to the fa�ades (+P.�Bartolini+, by _Baccio
+d'Agnolo_; +P.�Larderel+, 1515, by _Dosio_; +P.�Guadagni+, by _Cronaca_;
++P.�Pandolfini+, 1518, attributed to Raphael). In the +P.�Serristori+,
+by Baccio d'Agnolo (1510), pilasters were applied to the composition of
+the fa�ade, but this example was not often followed in Florence.
+
+
++ROMAN PALACES.+ These followed a different type. They were usually of
+great size, and built around ample courts with arcades of classic model
+in two or three stories. The broad street fa�ade in three stories with
+an attic or mezzanine was crowned with a rich cornice. The orders were
+sparingly used externally, and effect was sought principally in the
+careful proportioning of the stories, in the form and distribution of
+the square-headed and arched openings, and in the design of mouldings,
+string-courses, cornices, and other details. The _piano nobile_, or
+first story above the basement, was given up to suites of sumptuous
+reception-rooms and halls, with magnificent ceilings and frescoes by the
+great painters of the day, while antique statues and reliefs adorned the
+courts, vestibules, and niches of these princely dwellings. The
++Massimi+ palace, by Peruzzi, is an interesting example of this type.
+The Vatican, Cancelleria, and Giraud palaces have already been
+mentioned; other notable palaces are the Palma (1506) and Sacchetti
+(1540), by A. da San Gallo the Younger; the +Farnesina+, by Peruzzi,
+with celebrated fresco decorations designed by Raphael; and the Lante
+(1520) and Altemps (1530), by Peruzzi. But the noblest creation of this
+period was the
+
+
++FARNESE PALACE+, by many esteemed the finest in Italy. It was begun in
+1530 for Alex. Farnese (Paul III.) by A.�da San Gallo the Younger, with
+Vignola's collaboration. The simple but admirable plan is shown in Fig.
+167, and the courtyard, the most imposing in Italy, in Fig. 168. The
+exterior is monotonous, but the noble cornice by Michael Angelo
+measurably redeems this defect. The fine vaulted columnar entrance
+vestibule, the court and the _salons_, make up an _ensemble_ worthy of
+the great architects who designed it. The loggia toward the river was
+added by _G. della Porta_ in 1580.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 167.--PLAN OF FARNESE PALACE.]
+
+
++VILLAS.+ The Italian villa of this pleasure-loving period afforded full
+scope for the most playful fancies of the architect, decorator, and
+landscape gardener. It comprised usually a dwelling, a�_casino_ or
+amusement-house, and many minor edifices, summer-houses, arcades, etc.,
+disposed in extensive grounds laid out with terraces, cascades, and
+shaded alleys. The style was graceful, sometimes trivial, but almost
+always pleasing, making free use of stucco enrichments, both internally
+and externally, with abundance of gilding and frescoing. The +Villa
+Madama+ (1516), by Raphael, with stucco-decorations by Giulio Romano,
+though incomplete and now dilapidated, is a noted example of the style.
+More complete, the +Villa of Pope Julius+, by Vignola (1550), belongs by
+its purity of style to this period; its fa�ade well exemplifies the
+simplicity, dignity, and fine proportions of this master's work. In
+addition to these Roman villas may be mentioned the +V. Medici+ (1540,
+by _Annibale Lippi_; now the French Academy of Rome); the +Casino del
+Papa+ in the Vatican Gardens, by _Pirro Ligorio_ (1560); the +V. Lante+,
+near Viterbo, and the +V. d'Este+, at Tivoli, as displaying among almost
+countless others the Italian skill in combining architecture and
+gardening.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 168.--ANGLE OF COURT OF FARNESE PALACE, ROME.]
+
+
++CHURCHES AND CHAPELS.+ This period witnessed the building of a few
+churches of the first rank, but it was especially prolific in memorial,
+votive, and sepulchral chapels added to churches already existing, like
+the +Chigi Chapel+ of S.�M. del Popolo, by Raphael. The earlier churches
+of this period generally followed antecedent types, with the dome as the
+central feature dominating a cruciform plan, and simple, unostentatious
+and sometimes uninteresting exteriors. Among them may be mentioned: at
+Pistoia, S.�M. del Letto and +S.�M. dell' Umilt�+, the latter a fine
+domical rotunda by _Ventura Vitoni_ (1509), with an imposing vestibule;
+at Venice, +S.�Salvatore+, by _Tullio Lombardo_ (1530), an admirable
+edifice with alternating domical and barrel-vaulted bays; +S.�Georgio
+dei Grechi+ (1536), by _Sansovino_, and S.�M. Formosa; at Todi, the
++Madonna della Consolazione+ (1510), by _Cola da Caprarola_, a�charming
+design with a high dome and four apses; at Montefiascone, the +Madonna
+delle Grazie+, by _Sammichele_ (1523), besides several churches at
+Bologna, Ferrara, Prato, Sienna, and Rome of almost or quite equal
+interest. In these churches one may trace the development of the dome as
+an external feature, while in +S.�Biagio+, at Montepulciano, the effort
+was made by _Ant. da San Gallo the Elder_ to combine with it the
+contrasting lines of two campaniles, of which, however, but one was
+completed.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 169.--ORIGINAL PLAN OF ST. PETER'S, ROME.]
+
++ST. PETER'S.+ The culmination of Renaissance church architecture was
+reached in +St. Peter's+, at Rome. The original project of Nicholas�V.
+having lapsed with his death, it was the intention of Julius II. to
+erect on the same site a stupendous mausoleum over the monument he had
+ordered of Michael Angelo. The design of Bramante, who began its
+erection in 1506, comprised a Greek cross with apsidal arms, the four
+angles occupied by domical chapels and loggias within a square outline
+(Fig. 169). The too hasty execution of this noble design led to the
+collapse of two of the arches under the dome, and to long delays after
+Bramante's death in 1514. Raphael, Giuliano da San Gallo, Peruzzi, and
+A. da San Gallo the Younger successively supervised the works under the
+popes from Leo�X. to Paul III., and devised a vast number of plans for
+its completion. Most of these involved fundamental alterations of the
+original scheme, and were motived by the abandonment of the proposed
+monument of Julius II.; a�church, and not a mausoleum, being in
+consequence required. In 1546 Michael Angelo was assigned by Paul III.
+to the works, and gave final form to the general design in a simplified
+version of Bramante's plan with more massive supports, a�square east
+front with a portico for the chief entrance, and the unrivalled +Dome+,
+which is its most striking feature. This dome, slightly altered and
+improved in curvature by della Porta after M. Angelo's death in 1564,
+was completed by _D. Fontana_ in 1604. It is the most majestic creation
+of the Renaissance, and one of the greatest architectural conceptions of
+all history. It measures 140 feet in internal diameter, and with its two
+shells rises from a lofty drum, buttressed by coupled Corinthian
+columns, to a height of 405 feet to the top of the lantern. The church,
+as left by Michael Angelo, was harmonious in its proportions, though the
+single order used internally and externally dwarfed by its colossal
+scale the vast dimensions of the edifice. Unfortunately in 1606 _C.
+Maderna_ was employed by Paul�V. to lengthen the nave by two bays,
+destroying the proportions of the whole, and hiding the dome from view
+on a near approach. The present tasteless fa�ade was Maderna's work. The
+splendid atrium or portico added (1629-67), by _Bernini_, as an
+approach, mitigates but does not cure the ugliness and pettiness of this
+front.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 170.--PLAN OF ST. PETER'S, ROME,
+  AS NOW STANDING.
+  The portion below the line A, B, and the side chapels C, D, were
+  added by Maderna. The remainder represents Michael Angelo's plan.]
+
+St. Peter's as thus completed (Fig. 170) is the largest church in
+existence, and in many respects is architecturally worthy of its
+pre-eminence. The central aisle, nearly 600 feet long, with its
+stupendous panelled and gilded vault, 83 feet in span, the vast central
+area and the majestic dome, belong to a conception unsurpassed in
+majestic simplicity and effectiveness. The construction is almost
+excessively massive, but admirably disposed. On the other hand the nave
+is too long, and the details not only lack originality and interest, but
+are also too large and coarse in scale, dwarfing the whole edifice. The
+interior (Fig. 171) is wanting in the sobriety of color that befits so
+stately a design; it suggests rather a pagan temple than a Christian
+basilica. These faults reveal the decline of taste which had already set
+in before Michael Angelo took charge of the work, and which appears even
+in the works of that master.
+
+
++THE PERIOD OF FORMAL CLASSICISM.+ With the middle of the 16th century
+the classic orders began to dominate all architectural design. While
+Vignola, who wrote a treatise upon the orders, employed them with
+unfailing refinement and judgment, his contemporaries showed less
+discernment and taste, making of them an end rather than a means. Too
+often mere classical correctness was substituted for the fundamental
+qualities of original invention ind intrinsic beauty of composition. The
+innovation of colossal orders extending through several stories, while
+it gave to exterior designs a certain grandeur of scale, tended to
+coarseness and even vulgarity of detail. Sculpture and ornament began to
+lose their refinement; and while street-architecture gained in
+monumental scale, and public squares received a more stately adornment
+than ever before, the street-fa�ades individually were too often bare
+and uninteresting in their correct formality. In the interiors of
+churches and large halls there appears a struggle between a cold and
+dignified simplicity and a growing tendency toward pretentious sham. But
+these pernicious tendencies did not fully mature till the latter part of
+the century, and the half-century after 1540 or 1550 was prolific of
+notable works in both ecclesiastical and secular architecture. The names
+of Michael Angelo and Vignola, whose careers began in the preceding
+period; of Palladio and della Porta (1541-1604) in Rome; of Sammichele
+and Sansovino in Verona and Venice, and of Galeazzo Alessi in Genoa,
+stand high in the ranks of architectural merit.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 171.--INTERIOR OF ST. PETER'S, ROME.]
+
+
++CHURCHES.+ The type established by St. Peter's was widely imitated
+throughout Italy. The churches in which a Greek or Latin cross is
+dominated by a high dome rising from a drum and terminating in a
+lantern, and is treated both internally and externally with Roman
+Corinthian pilasters and arches, are almost numberless. Among the best
+churches of this type is the +Ges�+ at Rome, by Vignola (1568), with a
+highly ornate interior of excellent proportions and a less interesting
+exterior, the fa�ade adorned with two stories of orders and great
+flanking volutes over the sides (see p.�277). Two churches at Venice, by
+_Palladio_--+S.�Giorgio Maggiore+ (1560; fa�ade by _Scamozzi_, 1575) and
+the +Redentore+--offer a strong contrast to the Ges�, in their cold and
+almost bare but pure and correct design. An imitation of Bramante's plan
+for St. Peter's appears in +S.�M. di Carignano+, at Genoa, by _Galeazzo
+Alessi_ (1500-72), begun 1552, a�fine structure, though inferior in
+scale and detail to its original. Besides these and other important
+churches there were many large domical chapels of great splendor added
+to earlier churches; of these the +Chapel of Sixtus�V.+ in S.�M.
+Maggiore, at Rome, by _D. Fontana_ (1543-1607), is an excellent example.
+
+
++PALACES: ROME.+ The palaces on the Capitoline Hill, built at different
+dates (1540-1644) from designs by Michael Angelo, illustrate the palace
+architecture of this period, and the imposing effect of a single
+colossal order running through two stories. This treatment, though well
+adapted to produce monumental effects in large squares, was dangerous in
+its bareness and heaviness of scale, and was better suited for buildings
+of vast dimensions than for ordinary street-fa�ades. In other Roman
+palaces of this time the traditions of the preceding period still
+prevailed, as in the +Sapienza+ (University), by della Porta (1575),
+which has a dignified court and a fa�ade of great refinement without
+columns or pilasters. The +Papal palaces+ built by Domenico Fontana on
+the Lateran, Quirinal, and Vatican hills, between 1574 and 1590,
+externally copying the style of the Farnese, show a similar return to
+earlier models, but are less pure and refined in detail than the
+Sapienza. The great pentagonal +Palace of Caprarola+, near Rome, by
+Vignola, is perhaps the most successful and imposing production of the
+Roman classic school.
+
+
++VERONA.+ Outside of Rome, palace-building took on various local and
+provincial phases of style, of which the most important were the closely
+related styles of Verona, Venice, and Vicenza. _Michele Sammichele_
+(1484-1549), who built in Verona the +Bevilacqua+, +Canossa+, +Pompei+,
+and +Verzi+ palaces and the four chief city gates, and in Venice the
++P.�Grimani+, his masterpiece (1550), was a designer of great
+originality and power. He introduced into his military architecture, as
+in the gates of Verona, the use of rusticated orders, which he treated
+with skill and taste. The idea was copied by later architects and
+applied, with doubtful propriety, to palace-fa�ades; though Ammanati's
+garden-fa�ade for the Pitti palace, in Florence (cir. 1560), is an
+impressive and successful design.
+
+
++VENICE.+ Into the development of the maturing classic style _Giacopo
+Tatti Sansovino_ (1477-1570) introduced in his Venetian buildings new
+elements of splendor. Coupled columns between arches themselves
+supported on columns, and a profusion of figure sculpture, gave to his
+palace-fa�ades a hitherto unknown magnificence of effect, as in the
++Library of St. Mark+ (now the Royal Palace, Fig. 172), and the
++Cornaro+ palace (P.�Corner de C� Grande), both dating from about
+1530-40. So strongly did he impress upon Venice these ornate and
+sumptuous variations on classic themes, that later architects adhered,
+in a very debased period, to the main features and spirit of his work.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 172.--LIBRARY OF ST. MARK, VENICE.]
+
+
++VICENZA.+ Of _Palladio's_ churches in Venice we have already spoken;
+his palaces are mainly to be found in his native city, Vicenza. In these
+structures he displayed great fertility of invention and a profound
+familiarity with the classic orders, but the degenerate taste of the
+Baroque period already begins to show itself in his work. There is far
+less of architectural propriety and grace in these pretentious palaces,
+with their colossal orders and their affectation of grandeur, than in
+the designs of Vignola or Sammichele. Wood and plaster, used to mimic
+stone, indicate the approaching reign of sham in all design
+(+P.�Barbarano+, 1570; +Chieregati+, 1560; +Tiene+, +Valmarano+, 1556;
++Villa Capra+). His masterpiece is the two-storied arcade about the
+medi�val +Basilica+, in which the arches are supported on a minor order
+between engaged columns serving as buttresses. This treatment has in
+consequence ever since been known as the _Palladian Motive_.
+
+
++GENOA.+ During the second half of the sixteenth century a remarkable
+series of palaces was erected in Genoa, especially notable for their
+great courts and imposing staircases. These last were given unusual
+prominence owing to differences of level in the courts, arising from the
+slope of their sites on the hillside. Many of these palaces were by
+Galeazzo Alessi (1502-72); others by architects of lesser note; but
+nearly all characterized by their effective planning, fine stairs and
+loggias, and strong and dignified, if sometimes uninteresting, detail
+(+P.�Balbi+, +Brignole+, +Cambiasi+, +Doria-Tursi+ [or Municipio],
++Durazzo+ [or Reale], +Pallavicini+, and +University+).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 173.--INTERIOR OF SAN SEVERO, NAPLES.]
+
+
++THE BAROQUE STYLE.+ A reaction from the cold _classicismo_ of the late
+sixteenth century showed itself in the following period, in the lawless
+and vulgar extravagances of the so-called _Baroque_ style. The wealthy
+Jesuit order was a notorious contributor to the debasement of
+architectural taste. Most of the Jesuit churches and many others not
+belonging to the order, but following its pernicious example, are
+monuments of bad taste and pretentious sham. Broken and contorted
+pediments, huge scrolls, heavy mouldings, ill-applied sculpture in
+exaggerated attitudes, and a general disregard for architectural
+propriety characterized this period, especially in its church
+architecture, to whose style the name _Jesuit_ is often applied. Sham
+marble and heavy and excessive gilding were universal (Fig. 173). _C.
+Maderna_ (1556-1629), _Lorenzo Bernini_ (1589-1680), and _F.�Borromini_
+(1599-1667) were the worst offenders of the period, though Bernini was
+an artist of undoubted ability, as proved by his colonnades or atrium in
+front of St. Peter's. There were, however, architects of purer taste
+whose works even in that debased age were worthy of admiration.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 174.--CHURCH OF S. M. DELLA SALUTE, VENICE.]
+
+
++BAROQUE CHURCHES.+ The Baroque style prevailed in church architecture
+for almost two centuries. The majority of the churches present varieties
+of the cruciform plan crowned by a high dome which is usually the best
+part of the design. Everywhere else the vices of the period appear in
+these churches, especially in their fa�ades and internal decoration.
++S.�M. della Vittoria+, by Maderna, and +Sta. Agnese+, by Borromini,
+both at Rome, are examples of the style. Naples is particularly full of
+Baroque churches (Fig. 173), a�few of which, like the +Ges� Nuovo+
+(1584), are dignified and creditable designs. The domical church of
++S.�M. della Salute+, at Venice (1631), by Longhena, is also a majestic
+edifice in excellent style (Fig. 174), and here and there other churches
+offer exceptions to the prevalent baseness of architecture. Particularly
+objectionable was the wholesale disfigurement of existing monuments by
+ruthless remodelling, as in S.�John Lateran, at Rome, the cathedrals of
+Ferrara and Ravenna, and many others.
+
+
++PALACES.+ These were generally superior to the churches, and not
+infrequently impressive and dignified structures. The two best examples
+in Rome are the +P.�Borghese+, by _Martino Lunghi the Elder_ (1590),
+with a fine court arcade on coupled Doric and Ionic columns, and the
++P.�Barberini+, by Maderna and Borromini, with an elliptical staircase
+by Bernini, one of the few palaces in Italy with projecting lateral
+wings. In Venice, Longhena, in the +Rezzonico+ and +Pesaro+ palaces
+(1650-80), showed his freedom from the mannerisms of the age by
+reproducing successfully the ornate but dignified style of Sansovino
+(see p.�301). At Naples D.�Fontana, whose works overlap the Baroque
+period, produced in the +Royal Palace+ (1600) and the +Royal Museum+
+(1586-1615) designs of considerable dignity, in some respects superior
+to his papal residences in Rome. In suburban villas, like the +Albani+
+and +Borghese+ villas near Rome, the ostentatious style of the Decline
+found free and congenial expression.
+
+
++LATER MONUMENTS.+ In the few eighteenth-century buildings which are
+worthy of mention there is noticeable a reaction from the extravagances
+of the seventeenth century, shown in the dignified correctness of the
+exteriors and the somewhat frigid splendor of the interiors. The most
+notable work of this period is the +Royal Palace+ at +Caserta+, by _Van
+Vitelli_ (1752), an architect of considerable taste and inventiveness,
+considering his time. This great palace, 800 feet square, encloses four
+fine courts, and is especially remarkable for the simple if monotonous
+dignity of the well proportioned exterior and the effective planning of
+its three octagonal vestibules, its ornate chapel and noble staircase.
+Staircases, indeed, were among the most successful features of late
+Italian architecture, as in the +Scala Regia+ of the Vatican, and in the
+Corsini, Braschi, and Barberini palaces at Rome, the Royal Palace at
+Naples, etc.
+
+In church architecture the +east front+ of +S.�John Lateran+ in Rome, by
+_Galilei_ (1734), and the whole +exterior+ of +S.�M. Maggiore+, by
+_Ferd. Fuga_ (1743), are noteworthy designs: the former an especially
+powerful conception, combining a colossal order with two smaller orders
+in superposed _loggie_, but marred by the excessive scale of the statues
+which crown it. The +Fountain+ of +Trevi+, conceived in much the same
+spirit (1735, by _Niccola Salvi_), is a striking piece of decorative
+architecture. The Sacristy of St. Peter's, by _Marchionne_ (1775), also
+deserves mention as a monumental and not uninteresting work. In the
+early years of the present century the +Braccio Nuovo+ of the Vatican,
+by _Stern_, the imposing church of +S.�Francesco di Paola+ at Naples, by
+_Bianchi_, designed in partial imitation of the Pantheon, and the great
++S.�Carlo Theatre+ at Naples, show the same coldly classical spirit, not
+wholly without merit, but lacking in true originality and freedom of
+conception.
+
+
++CAMPANILES.+ The +campaniles+ of the Renaissance and Decline deserve at
+least passing reference, though they are neither numerous nor often of
+conspicuous interest. That of the +Campidoglio+ (Capitol) at Rome, by
+Martino Lunghi, is a good example of the classical type. Venetia
+possesses a number of graceful and lofty bell-towers, generally of brick
+with marble bell-stages, of which the upper part of the +Campanile+ of
++St. Mark+ and the tower of S.�Giorgio Maggiore are the finest examples.
+
+The Decline attained what the early Renaissance aimed at--the revival of
+Roman forms. But it was no longer a Renaissance; it was a decrepit and
+unimaginative art, held in the fetters of a servile imitation, copying
+the letter rather than the spirit of antique design. It was the mistaken
+and abject worship of precedent which started architecture upon its
+downward path and led to the atrocious products of the seventeenth
+century.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+ (mainly in addition to those mentioned in the text).
+  15TH CENTURY--FLORENCE: Foundling Hospital (Innocenti), 1421; Old
+  Sacristy and Cloister S.�Lorenzo; P.�Quaratesi, 1440; cloisters at
+  Sta. Croce and Certosa, all by Brunelleschi; fa�ade S.�M. Novella,
+  by Alberti, 1456; Badia at Fiesole, from designs of Brunelleschi,
+  1462; Court of P.�Vecchio, by Michelozzi, 1464 (altered and
+  enriched, 1565); P.�Guadagni, by Cronaca, 1490; Hall of 500 in
+  P.�Vecchio, by same, 1495.--VENICE: S.�Zaccaria, by Martino
+  Lombardo, 1457-1515; S.�Michele, by Moro Lombardo, 1466; S.�M. del
+  Orto, 1473; S.�Giovanni Crisostomo, by Moro Lombardo, atrium of
+  S.�Giovanni Evangelista, Procurazie Vecchie, all 1481; Scuola di
+  S.�Marco, by Martino Lombardo, 1490; P.�Dario;
+  P.�Corner-Spinelli.--FERRARA: P.�Schifanoja, 1469; P.�Scrofa or
+  Costabili, 1485; S.�M. in Vado, P.�dei Diamanti, P.�Bevilacqua,
+  S.�Francesco, S.�Benedetto, S.�Cristoforo, all 1490-1500.--MILAN:
+  Ospedale Grande (or Maggiore), begun 1457 by Filarete, extended by
+  Bramante, cir. 1480-90 (great court by Richini, 17th century);
+  S.�M. delle Grazie, E. end, Sacristy of S.�Satiro, S.�M. presso
+  S.�Celso, all by Bramante, 1477-1499.--ROME: S.�Pietro in
+  Montorio, 1472; S.�M. del Popolo, 1475?; Sistine Chapel of
+  Vatican, 1475; S.�Agostino, 1483.--SIENNA: Loggia del Papa and
+  P.�Nerucci, 1460; P.�del Governo, 1469-1500; P.�Spannocchi, 1470;
+  Sta. Catarina, 1490, by di Bastiano and Federighi, church later by
+  Peruzzi; Library in cathedral by L. Marina, 1497; Oratory of
+  S.�Bernardino, by Turrapili, 1496.--PIENZA: Cathedral, Bishop's
+  Palace (Vescovado), P.�Pubblico, all cir. 1460, by B. di Lorenzo
+  (or Rosselini?). ELSEWHERE (in chronological order): Arch of
+  Alphonso, Naples, 1443, by P.�di Martino; Oratory S.�Bernardino,
+  Perugia, by di Duccio, 1461; Church over Casa-Santa, Loreto,
+  1465-1526; P.�del Consiglio at Verona, by Fra Giocondo, 1476;
+  Capella Colleoni, Bergamo, 1476; S.�M. in Organo, Verona, 1481;
+  Porta Capuana, Naples, by Giul. da Majano, 1484; Madonna della
+  Croce, Crema, by B. Battagli, 1490-1556; Madonna di Campagna and
+  S.�Sisto, Piacenza, both 1492-1511; P.�Bevilacqua, Bologna, by
+  Nardi, 1492 (?); P.�Gravina, Naples; P.�Fava, Bologna;
+  P.�Pretorio, Lucca; S.�M. dei Miracoli Brescia; all at close of
+  15th century.
+
+  16TH CENTURY--ROME: P.�Sora, 1501; S.�M. della Pace and cloister,
+  1504, both by Bramante (fa�ade of church by P.�da Cortona, 17th
+  century); S.�M. di Loreto, 1507, by A. da San Gallo the Elder;
+  P.�Vidoni, by Raphael; P.�Lante, 1520; Vigna Papa Giulio, 1534, by
+  Peruzzi; P.�dei Conservatori, 1540, and P.�del Senatore, 1563
+  (both on Capitol), by M. Angelo, Vignola, and della Porta; Sistine
+  Chapel in S.�M. Maggiore, 1590; S.�Andrea della Valle, 1591, by
+  Olivieri (fa�ade, 1670, by Rainaldi).--FLORENCE: Medici Chapel of
+  S.�Lorenzo, new sacristy of same, and Laurentian Library, all by
+  M. Angelo, 1529-40; Mercato Nuovo, 1547, by B. Tasso; P.�degli
+  Uffizi, 1560-70, by Vasari; P.�Giugni, 1560-8.--VENICE:
+  P.�Camerlinghi, 1525, by Bergamasco; S.�Francesco della Vigna, by
+  Sansovino, 1539, fa�ade by Palladio, 1568; Zecca or Mint, 1536,
+  and Loggetta of Campanile, 1540, by Sansovino[25], Procurazie
+  Nuove, 1584, by Scamozzi.--VERONA: Capella Pellegrini in
+  S.�Bernardino, 1514; City Gates, by Sammichele, 1530-40 (Porte
+  Nuova, Stuppa, S.�Zeno, S.�Giorgio).--VICENZA: P.�Porto, 1552;
+  Teatro Olimpico, 1580; both by Palladio.--GENOA: P.�Andrea Doria,
+  by Montorsoli, 1529; P.�Ducale, by Pennone, 1550; P.�Lercari,
+  P.�Spinola, P.�Sauli, P.�Marcello Durazzo, all by Gal. Alessi,
+  cir. 1550; Sta. Annunziata, 1587, by della Porta; Loggia dei
+  Banchi, end of 16th century.--ELSEWHERE (in chronological order).
+  P.�Roverella, Ferrara, 1508; P.�del Magnifico, Sienna, 1508, by
+  Cozzarelli; P.�Communale, Brescia, 1508, by Formentone;
+  P.�Albergati, Bologna, 1510; P.�Ducale, Mantua, 1520-40;
+  P.�Giustiniani, Padua, by Falconetto, 1524; Ospedale del Ceppo,
+  Pistoia, 1525; Madonna delle Grazie, Pistoia, by Vitoni, 1535;
+  P.�Buoncampagni-Ludovisi, Bologna, 1545; Cathedral, Padua, 1550,
+  by Righetti and della Valle, after M. Angelo; P.�Bernardini, 1560,
+  and P.�Ducale, 1578, at Lucca, both by Ammanati.
+
+    [Footnote 25: See Appendix B.]
+
+  17TH CENTURY: Chapel of the Princes in S.�Lorenzo, Florence, 1604,
+  by Nigetti; S.�Pietro, Bologna, 1605; S.�Andrea delle Fratte,
+  Rome, 1612; Villa Borghese, Rome, 1616, by Vasanzio; P.�Contarini
+  delle Scrigni, Venice, by Scamozzi; Badia at Florence, rebuilt
+  1625 by Segaloni; S.�Ignazio, Rome, 1626-85; Museum of the
+  Capitol, Rome, 1644-50; Church of Gli Scalzi, Venice, 1649;
+  P.�Pesaro, Venice, by Longhena, 1650; S.�Mois�, Venice, 1668;
+  Brera Palace, Milan; S.�M. Zobenigo, Venice, 1680; Dogana di Mare,
+  Venice, 1686, by Benone; Santi Apostoli, Rome.
+
+  18TH AND EARLY 19TH CENTURY: Gesuati, at Venice, 1715-30;
+  S.�Geremia, Venice, 1753, by Corbellini; P.�Braschi, Rome, by
+  Morelli, 1790; Nuova Fabbrica, Venice, 1810.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, M�ntz, Palustre. Also
+  Berty, _La Renaissance monumentale en France_. Ch�teau, _Histoire
+  et caract�res de l'architecture en France_. Daly, _Motifs
+  historiques d'architecture et de sculpture_. De Laborde, _La
+  Renaissance des arts � la cour de France_. Du Cerceau, _Les plus
+  excellents bastiments de France_. L�bke, _Geschichte der
+  Renaissance in Frankreich_. Mathews, _The Renaissance under the
+  Valois Kings_. Palustre, _La Renaissance en France_. Pattison,
+  _The Renaissance of the Fine Arts in France_. Rouyer et Darcel,
+  _L'Art architectural en France_. Sauvageot, _Choix de palais,
+  ch�teaux, h�tels, et maisons de France_.
+
+
++ORIGIN AND CHARACTER.+ The vitality and richness of the Gothic style in
+France, even in its decline in the fifteenth century, long stood in the
+way of any general introduction of classic forms. When the Renaissance
+appeared, it came as a foreign importation, introduced from Italy by the
+king and the nobility. It underwent a protracted transitional phase,
+during which the national Gothic forms and traditions were picturesquely
+mingled with those of the Renaissance. The campaigns of Charles VIII.
+(1489), Louis XII. (1499), and Francis�I. (1515), in vindication of
+their claims to the thrones of Naples and Milan, brought these monarchs
+and their nobles into contact with the splendid material and artistic
+civilization of Italy, then in the full tide of the maturing
+Renaissance. They returned to France, filled with the ambition to rival
+the splendid palaces and gardens of Italy, taking with them Italian
+artists to teach their arts to the French. But while these Italians
+successfully introduced many classic elements and details into French
+architecture, they wholly failed to dominate the French master-masons
+and _tailleurs de pierre_ in matters of planning and general
+composition. The early Renaissance architecture of France is
+consequently wholly unlike the Italian, from which it derived only minor
+details and a certain largeness and breadth of spirit.
+
+
++PERIODS.+ The French Renaissance and its sequent developments may be
+broadly divided into three periods, with subdivisions coinciding more or
+less closely with various reigns, as follows:
+
+I. THE VALOIS PERIOD, or Renaissance proper, 1483-1589, subdivided into:
+
+_a._ THE TRANSITION, comprising the reigns of Charles VIII. and Louis
+XII. (1483-1515), and the early years of that of Francis�I.;
+characterized by a picturesque mixture of classic details with Gothic
+conceptions.
+
+_b._ THE STYLE OF FRANCIS I., or Early Renaissance, from about 1520 to
+that king's death in 1547; distinguished by a remarkable variety and
+grace of composition and beauty of detail.
+
+_c._ THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE, comprising the reigns of Henry II.
+(1547), Francis II. (1559), Charles IX. (1560), and Henry III.
+(1574-89); marked by the gradual adoption of the classic orders and a
+decline in the delicacy and richness of the ornament.
+
+II. THE BOURBON OR CLASSIC PERIOD (1589-1715):
+
+_a._ STYLE OF HENRY IV., covering his reign and partly that of Louis
+XIII. (1610-45), employing the orders and other classic forms with a
+somewhat heavy, florid style of ornament.
+
+_b._ STYLE OF LOUIS XIV., beginning in the preceding reign and extending
+through that of Louis XIV. (1645-1715); the great age of classic
+architecture in France, corresponding to the Palladian in Italy.
+
+III. THE DECLINE OR ROCOCO PERIOD, corresponding with the reign of Louis
+XV. (1715-74); marked by pompous extravagance and capriciousness.
+
+During this period a reaction set in toward a severer classicism,
+leading to the styles of Louis XVI. and of the Empire, to be treated of
+in a later chapter.
+
+
++THE TRANSITION.+ As early as 1475 the new style made its appearance in
+altars, tombs, and rood-screens wrought by French carvers with the
+collaboration of Italian artificers. The tomb erected by Charles of
+Anjou to his father in Le Mans cathedral (1475, by _Francesco Laurana_),
+the chapel of St. Lazare in the cathedral of Marseilles (1483), and the
+tomb of the children of Charles VIII. in Tours cathedral (1506), by
+_Michel Columbe_, the greatest artist of his time in France, are
+examples. The schools of Rouen and Tours were especially prominent in
+works of this kind, marked by exuberant fancy and great delicacy of
+execution. In church architecture Gothic traditions were long dominant,
+in spite of the great numbers of Italian prelates in France. It was in
+_ch�teaux_, palaces, and dwellings that the new style achieved its most
+notable triumphs.
+
+
++EARLY CH�TEAUX.+ The castle of Charles VIII., at Amboise on the Loire,
+shows little trace of Italian influence. It was under Louis XII. that
+the transformation of French architecture really began. The +Ch�teau de
+Gaillon+ (of which unfortunately only fragments remain in the �cole des
+Beaux-Arts at Paris), built for the Cardinal George of Amboise, between
+1497 and 1509, by _Pierre Fain_, was the masterwork of the Rouen school.
+It presented a curious mixture of styles, with its irregular plan, its
+moat, drawbridge, and round corner-towers, its high roofs, turrets, and
+dormers, which gave it, in spite of many Renaissance details, a�medi�val
+picturesqueness. The +Ch�teau de Blois+ (the east and south wings of the
+present group), begun for Louis XII. about 1500, was the first of a
+remarkable series of royal palaces which are the glory of French
+architecture. It shows the new influences in its horizontal lines and
+flat, unbroken fa�ades of brick and stone, rather than in its
+architectural details (Fig. 175). The +Ducal Palace+ at Nancy and the
++H�tel de Ville+ at Orl�ans, by _Viart_, show a similar commingling of
+the classic and medi�val styles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 175.--BLOIS, COURT FA�ADE OF WING
+  OF LOUIS XII.]
+
+
++STYLE OF FRANCIS I.+ Early in the reign of this monarch, and partly
+under the lead of Italian artists, like il Rosso, Serlio, and
+Primaticcio, classic elements began to dominate the general composition
+and Gothic details rapidly disappeared. A�simple and effective system of
+exterior design was adopted in the castles and palaces of this period.
+Finely moulded belt-courses at the sills and heads of the windows marked
+the different stories, and were crossed by a system of almost equally
+important vertical lines, formed by superposed pilasters flanking the
+windows continuously from basement to roof. The fa�ade was crowned by a
+slight cornice and open balustrade, above which rose a steep and lofty
+roof, diversified by elaborate dormer windows which were adorned with
+gables and pinnacles (Fig. 178). Slender pilasters, treated like long
+panels ornamented with arabesques of great beauty, or with a species of
+baluster shaft like a candelabrum, were preferred to columns, and were
+provided with graceful capitals of the Corinthianesque type. The
+mouldings were minute and richly carved; pediments were replaced by
+steep gables, and mullioned windows with stone crossbars were used in
+preference to the simpler Italian openings. In the earlier monuments
+Gothic details were still used occasionally; and round corner-towers,
+high dormers, and numerous turrets and pinnacles appear even in the
+ch�teaux of later date.
+
+
++CHURCHES.+ Ecclesiastical architecture received but scant attention
+under Francis�I., and, so far as it was practised, still clung
+tenaciously to Gothic principles. Among the few important churches of
+this period may be mentioned +St. Etienne du Mont+, at Paris (1517-38),
+in which classic and Gothic features appear in nearly equal proportions;
+the east end of +St. Pierre+, at Caen, with rich external carving; and
+the great parish church of +St. Eustache+, at Paris (1532, by
+_Lemercier_), in which the plan and construction are purely Gothic,
+while the details throughout belong to the new style, though with little
+appreciation of the spirit and proportions of classic art. New fa�ades
+were also built for a number of already existing churches, among which
++St. Michel+, at Dijon, is conspicuous, with its vast portal arch and
+imposing towers. The Gothic towers of Tours cathedral were completed
+with Renaissance lanterns or belfries, the northern in 1507, the
+southern in 1547.
+
+
++PALACES.+ To the palace at Blois begun by his predecessor, Francis�I.
+added a northern and a western wing, completing the court. The north
+wing is one of the masterpieces of the style, presenting toward the
+court a simple and effective composition, with a rich but slightly
+projecting cornice and a high roof with elaborate dormers. This fa�ade
+is divided into two unequal sections by the open +Staircase Tower+ (Fig.
+176), a�_chef-d'oeuvre_ in boldness of construction as well as in
+delicacy and richness of carving. The outer fa�ade of this wing is a
+less ornate but more vigorous design, crowned by a continuous open
+loggia under the roof. More extensive than Blois was +Fontainebleau+,
+the favorite residence of the king and of many of his successors.
+Following in parts the irregular plan of the convent it replaced, its
+other portions were more symmetrically disposed, while the whole was
+treated externally in a somewhat severe, semi-classic style, singularly
+lacking in ornament. Internally, however, this palace, begun in 1528 by
+_Gilles Le Breton_, was at that time the most splendid in France, the
+gallery of Francis�I. being especially noted. The +Ch�teau+ of +St.
+Germain+, near Paris (1539, by _Pierre Chambiges_), is of a very
+different character. Built largely of brick, with flat balustraded roof
+and deep buttresses carrying three ranges of arches, it is neither
+Gothic nor classic, neither fortress nor palace in aspect, but a wholly
+unique conception.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 176.--STAIRCASE TOWER, BLOIS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 177.--PLAN OF CHAMBORD.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 178.--VIEW OF CHAMBORD.]
+
+The rural ch�teaux and hunting-lodges erected by Francis�I. display the
+greatest diversity of plan and treatment, attesting the inventiveness of
+the French genius, expressing itself in a new-found language, whose
+formal canons it disdained. Chief among them is the +Ch�teau of
+Chambord+ (Figs. 177, 178)--"a Fata Morgana in the midst of a wild,
+woody thicket," to use L�bke's language. This extraordinary edifice,
+resembling in plan a feudal castle with curtain-walls, bastions, moat,
+and donjon, is in its architectural treatment a palace with arcades,
+open-stair towers, a�noble double spiral staircase terminating in a
+graceful lantern, and a roof of the most bewildering complexity of
+towers, chimneys, and dormers (1526, by _Pierre le Nepveu_). The
+hunting-lodges of La Muette and Chalvau, and the so-called +Ch�teau de
+Madrid+--all three demolished during or since the Revolution--deserve
+mention, especially the last. This consisted of two rectangular
+pavilions, connected by a lofty banquet-hall, and adorned externally
+with arcades in Florentine style, and with medallions and reliefs of
+della Robbia ware (1527, by _Gadyer_).
+
+
++THE LOUVRE.+ By far the most important of all the architectural
+enterprises of this reign, in ultimate results, if not in original
+extent, was the beginning of a new palace to replace the old Gothic
+fortified palace of the Louvre. To this task Pierre Lescot was summoned
+in 1542, and the work of erection actually begun in 1546. The new
+palace, in a sumptuous and remarkably dignified classic style, was to
+have covered precisely the area of the demolished fortress. Only the
+southwest half, comprising two sides of the court, was, however,
+undertaken at the outset (Fig. 179). It remained for later monarchs to
+amplify the original scheme, and ultimately to complete, late in the
+present century, the most extensive and beautiful of all the royal
+residences of Europe. (See Figs. 181, 208, 209.)
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 179.--DETAIL OF COURT OF LOUVRE, PARIS.]
+
+Want of space forbids more than a passing reference to the rural castles
+of the nobility, rivalling those of the king. Among them Bury, La
+Rochefoucauld, Bournazel, and especially +Azay-le-Rideau+ (1520) and
++Chenonceaux+ (1515-23), may be mentioned, all displaying that love of
+rural pleasure, that hatred of the city and its confinement, which so
+distinguish the French from the Italian Renaissance.
+
+
++OTHER BUILDINGS.+ The +H�tel-de-Ville+ (town hall), of Paris, begun
+during this reign, from plans by _Domenico di Cortona_ (?), and
+completed under Henry IV., was the most important edifice of a class
+which in later periods numbered many interesting structures. The town
+hall of +Beaugency+ (1527) is one of the best of minor public buildings
+in France, and in its elegant treatment of a simple two-storied fa�ade
+may be classed with the +Maison Fran�ois�I.+, at Paris. This stood
+formerly at Moret, whence it was transported to Paris and re-erected
+about 1830 in somewhat modified form. The large city houses of this
+period are legion; we can mention only the H�tel Carnavalet at Paris;
+the H�tel Bourgtheroude at Rouen; the H�tel d'�coville at Caen; the
+archbishop's palace at Sens, and a number of houses in Orl�ans. The
++Tomb of Louis XII.+, at St. Denis, deserves especial mention for its
+fine proportions and beautiful arabesques.
+
+
++THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE.+ By the middle of the sixteenth century the
+new style had lost much of its earlier charm. The orders, used with
+increasing frequency, were more and more conformed to antique
+precedents. Fa�ades were flatter and simpler, cornices more pronounced,
+arches more Roman in treatment, and a heavier style of carving took the
+place of the delicate arabesques of the preceding age. The reigns of
+Henry II. (1547-59) and Charles IX. (1560-74) were especially
+distinguished by the labors of three celebrated architects: _Pierre
+Lescot_ (1515-78), who continued the work on the southwest angle of the
+Louvre; _Jean Bullant_ (1515-78), to whom are due the right wing of
+Ecouen and the porch of colossal Corinthian columns in the left wing of
+the same, built under Francis�I.; and, finally, _Philibert de l'Orme_
+(1515-70). _Jean Goujon_ (1510-72) also executed during this period most
+of the remarkable architectural sculptures which have made his name one
+of the most illustrious in the annals of French art. Chief among the
+works of de l'Orme was the palace of the +Tuileries+, built under
+Charles IX. for Cath�rine de M�dicis, not far from the Louvre, with
+which it was ultimately connected by a long gallery. Of the vast plan
+conceived for this palace, and comprising a succession of courts and
+wings, only a part of one side was erected (1564-72). This consisted of
+a domical pavilion, flanked by low wings only a story and a half high,
+to which were added two stories under Henry IV., to the great advantage
+of the design. Another masterpiece was the +Ch�teau d'Anet+, built in
+1552 by Henry II. for Diane de Poitiers, of which, unfortunately, only
+fragments survive. This beautiful edifice, while retaining the
+semi-military moat and bastions of feudal tradition, was planned with
+classic symmetry, adorned with superposed orders, court arcades, and
+rectangular corner-pavilions, and provided with a domical cruciform
+chapel, the earliest of its class in France. All the details were
+unusually pure and correct, with just enough of freedom and variety to
+lend a charm wanting in later works of the period. To the reign of Henry
+II. belong also the ch�teaux of Ancy-le-Franc, Verneuil, Chantilly (the
+"petit ch�teau," by Bullant), the banquet-hall over the bridge at
+Chenonceaux (1556), several notable residences at Toulouse, and the tomb
+of Francis�I. at St. Denis. The ch�teaux of +Pailly+ and +Sully+,
+distinguished by the sobriety and monumental quality of their
+composition, in which the orders are important elements, belong to the
+reign of Charles IX., together with the Tuileries, already mentioned.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 180.--THE LUXEMBURG, PARIS.]
+
++THE CLASSIC PERIOD: HENRY IV.+ Under this energetic but capricious
+monarch (1589-1610) and his Florentine queen, Marie de M�dicis,
+architecture entered upon a new period of activity and a new stage of
+development. Without the charm of the early Renaissance or the
+stateliness of the age of Louis XIV., it has a touch of the Baroque,
+attributable partly to the influence of Marie de M�dicis and her Italian
+prelates, and partly to the Italian training of many of the French
+architects. The great work of this period was the extension of the
+Tuileries by _J. B. du Cerceau_, and the completion, by _M�t�zeau_ and
+others, of the long gallery next the Seine, begun under Henry II., with
+the view of connecting the Tuileries with the Louvre. In this part of
+the work colossal orders were used with indifferent effect. Next in
+importance was the addition to Fontainebleau of a great court to the
+eastward, whose relatively quiet and dignified style offers less
+contrast than one might expect to the other wings and courts dating from
+Francis�I. More successful architecturally than either of the above was
+the +Luxemburg+ palace, built for the queen by _Salomon De Brosse_, in
+1616 (Fig. 180). Its plan presents the favorite French arrangement of a
+main building separated from the street by a garden or court, the latter
+surrounded on three sides by low wings containing the dependencies.
+Externally, rusticated orders recall the garden front of the Pitti at
+Florence; but the scale is smaller, and the projecting pavilions and
+high roofs give it a grace and picturesqueness wanting in the Florentine
+model. The +Place Royale+, at Paris, and the ch�teau of Beaumesnil,
+illustrate a type of brick-and-stone architecture much in vogue at this
+time, stone quoins decorating the windows and corners, and the orders
+being generally omitted.
+
+Under Louis XIII. the Tuileries were extended northward and the Louvre
+as built by Lescot was doubled in size by the architect _Lemercier_, the
+Pavillon de l'Horloge being added to form the centre of the enlarged
+court fa�ade.
+
+
++CHURCHES.+ To this reign belong also the most important churches of the
+period. The church of +St. Paul-St. Louis+, at Paris (1627, by
+_Derrand_), displays the worst faults of the time, in the overloaded and
+meaningless decoration of its uninteresting front. Its internal dome is
+the earliest in Paris. Far superior was the chapel of the +Sorbonne+,
+a�well-designed domical church by _Lemercier_, with a sober and
+appropriate exterior treated with superposed orders.
+
+
++PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV.+ This was an age of remarkable literary and
+artistic activity, pompous and pedantic in many of its manifestations,
+but distinguished also by productions of a very high order. Although
+contemporary with the Italian Baroque--Bernini having been the guest of
+Louis XIV.--the architecture of this period was free from the wild
+extravagances of that style. In its often cold and correct dignity it
+resembled rather that of Palladio, making large use of the orders in
+exterior design, and tending rather to monotony than to overloaded
+decoration. In interior design there was more of lightness and caprice.
+Papier-mach� and stucco were freely used in a fanciful style of relief
+ornamentation by scrolls, wreaths, shells, etc., and decorative
+panelling was much employed. The whole was saved from triviality only by
+the controlling lines of the architecture which framed it. But it was
+better suited to cabinet-work or to the prettinesses of the boudoir than
+to monumental interiors. The +Galerie d'Apollon+, built during this
+reign over the Petite Galerie in the Louvre, escapes this reproach,
+however, by the sumptuous dignity of its interior treatment.
+
+
++VERSAILLES.+ This immense edifice, built about an already existing
+villa of Louis XIII., was the work of _Levau_ and _J. H. Mansart_
+(1647-1708). Its erection, with the laying out of its marvellous park,
+almost exhausted the resources of the realm, but with results quite
+incommensurate with the outlay. In spite of its vastness, its exterior
+is commonplace; the orders are used with singular monotony, which is not
+redeemed by the deep breaks and projections of the main front. There is
+no controlling or dominant feature; there is no adequate entrance or
+approach; the grand staircases are badly placed and unworthily treated,
+and the different elements of the plan are combined with singular lack
+of the usual French sense of monumental and rational arrangement. The
+chapel is by far the best single feature in the design.
+
+Far more successful was the completion of the Louvre, in 1688, from the
+designs of _Claude Perrault_, the court physician, whose plans were
+fortunately adopted in preference to those of Bernini. For the east
+front he designed a magnificent Corinthian colonnade nearly 600 feet
+long, with coupled columns upon a plain high basement, and with a
+central pediment and terminal pavilions (Fig. 181). The whole forms one
+of the most imposing fa�ades in existence; but it is a mere decoration,
+having no practical relation to the building behind it. Its height
+required the addition of a third story to match it on the north and
+south sides of the court, which as thus completed quadrupled the
+original area proposed by Lescot. Fortunately the style of Lescot's work
+was retained throughout in the court fa�ades, while externally the
+colonnade was recalled on the south front by a colossal order of
+pilasters. The Louvre as completed by Louis XIV. was a stately and noble
+palace, as remarkable for the surpassing excellence of the sculptures of
+Jean Goujon as for the dignity and beauty of its architecture. Taken in
+connection with the Tuileries, it was unrivalled by any palace in Europe
+except the Vatican.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 181.--COLONNADE OF LOUVRE.]
+
+
++OTHER BUILDINGS.+ To Louis XIV. is also due the vast but uninteresting
++H�tel des Invalides+ or veteran's asylum, at Paris, by J. H. Mansart.
+To the chapel of this institution was added, in 1680-1706, the
+celebrated +Dome+ of the Invalides, a�masterpiece by the same architect.
+In plan it somewhat resembles Bramante's scheme for St. Peter's--a�Greek
+cross with domical chapels in the four angles and a dome over the
+centre. The exterior (Fig. 182), with the lofty gilded dome on a high
+drum adorned with engaged columns, is somewhat high for its breadth, but
+is a harmonious and impressive design; and the interior, if somewhat
+cold, is elegant and well proportioned. The chief innovation in the
+design was the wide separation of the interior stone dome from the lofty
+exterior decorative cupola and lantern of wood, this separation being
+designed to meet the conflicting demands of internal and external
+effect. To the same architect is due the formal monotony of the +Place
+Vend�me+, all the houses surrounding it being treated with a uniform
+architecture of colossal pilasters, at once monumental and
+inappropriate. One of the most pleasing designs of the time is the
++Ch�teau de Maisons+ (1658), by _F. Mansart_, uncle of J. H. Mansart. In
+this the proportions of the central and terminal pavilions, the mass and
+lines of the steep roof _�la Mansarde_, the simple and effective use of
+the orders, and the refinement of all the details impart a grace of
+aspect rare in contemporary works. The same qualities appear also in the
++Val-de-Gr�ce+, by F. Mansart and Lemercier, a�domical church of
+excellent proportions begun under Louis XIII. The want of space forbids
+mention of other buildings of this period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 182.--DOME OF THE INVALIDES.]
+
+
++THE DECLINE.+ Under Louis XV. the pedantry of the classic period gave
+place to a protracted struggle between license and the severest
+classical correctness. The exterior designs of this time were often even
+more uninteresting and bare than under Louis XIV.; while, on the other
+hand, interior decoration tended to the extreme of extravagance and
+disregard of constructive propriety. Contorted lines and crowded
+scrolls, shells, and palm-leaves adorned the mantelpieces, cornices, and
+ceilings, to the almost complete suppression of straight lines.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 183.--FA�ADE OF ST. SULPICE, PARIS.]
+
+While these tendencies prevailed in many directions, a�counter-current
+of severe classicism manifested itself in the designs of a number of
+important public buildings, in which it was sought to copy the grandeur
+of the old Roman colonnades and arcades. The important church of +St.
+Sulpice+ at Paris (Fig. 183) is an excellent example of this. Its
+interior, dating from the preceding century, is well designed, but in no
+wise a remarkable composition, following Italian models. The fa�ade,
+added in 1755 by _Servandoni_, is, on the other hand, one of the most
+striking architectural objects in the city. It is a correct and well
+proportioned classic composition in two stories--an Ionic arcade over a
+Doric colonnade, surmounted by two lateral turrets. Other monuments of
+this classic revival will be noticed in Chapter XXV.
+
+
++PUBLIC SQUARES.+ Much attention was given to the embellishment of open
+spaces in the cities, for which the classic style was admirably suited.
+The most important work of this kind was that on the north side of the
+Place de la Concorde, Paris. This splendid square, perhaps, on the
+whole, the finest in Europe (though many of its best features belong to
+a later date), was at this time adorned with the two monumental
+colonnades by _Gabriel_. These colonnades, which form the decorative
+fronts for blocks of houses, deserve praise for the beauty of their
+proportions, as well as for the excellent treatment of the arcade on
+which they rest, and of the pavilions at the ends.
+
+
++IN GENERAL.+ French Renaissance architecture is marked by good
+proportions and harmonious and appropriate detail. Its most interesting
+phase was unquestionably that of Francis�I., so far, at least, as
+concerns exterior design. It steadily progressed, however, in its
+mastery of planning; and in its use of projecting pavilions crowned by
+dominant masses of roof, it succeeded in preserving, even in severely
+classic designs, a�picturesqueness and variety otherwise impossible.
+Roofs, dormers, chimneys, and staircases it treated with especial
+success; and in these matters, as well as in monumental dispositions of
+plan, the French have largely retained their pre-eminence to our own
+day.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ (Mainly supplementary to text. Ch. = ch�teau; P.�=
+  palace; C. = cathedral; Chu. = church; H. = h�tel; T.H. = town
+  hall.)
+
+  TRANSITION: Blois, E. wing, 1499; Ch. Meillant; Ch. Chaumont; T.H.
+  Amboise, 1502-05.
+
+  FRANCIS I.: Ch. Nantouillet, 1517-25; Ch. Blois, W. wing
+  (afterward demolished) and N. wing, 1520-30; H. Lallemant,
+  Bourges, 1520; Ch. Villers-Cotterets, 1520-59; P.�of Archbishop,
+  Sens, 1521-35; P.�Fontainebleau (Cour Ovale, Cour d'Adieux,
+  Gallery Francis�I., 1527-34; Peristyle, Chapel St. Saturnin,
+  1540-47, by _Gilles le Breton_; Cour du Cheval Blanc, 1527-31, by
+  _P.�Chambiges_); H. Bernuy, Toulouse, 1528-39; P.�Granvelle,
+  Besan�on, 1532-40; T.H. Niort, T.H. Loches, 1532-43: H. de Ligeris
+  (Carnavalet), Paris, 1544, by _P.�Lescot_; churches of Gisors,
+  nave and fa�ade, 1530; La Dalbade, Toulouse, portal, 1530; St.
+  Symphorien Tours, 1531; Chu. Tilli�res, 1534-46.
+
+  ADVANCED RENAISSANCE: Fontaine des Innocents, Paris, 1547-50, by
+  _P.�Lescot_ and _J. Goujon_; tomb Francis�I., at St. Denis, 1555,
+  by _Ph. de l'Orme_; H. Catelan, Toulouse, 1555; tomb Henry II., at
+  St. Denis, 1560; portal S.�Michel, Dijon, 1564; Ch. Sully, 1567;
+  T.H. Arras, 1573; P.�Fontainebleau (Cour du Cheval Blanc
+  remodelled, 1564-66, by _P.�Girard_; Cour de la Fontaine, same
+  date); T.H. Besan�on, 1582; Ch. Charleval, 1585, by, _J. B. du
+  Cerceau_.
+
+  STYLE OF HENRY IV.: P. Fontainebleau (Galerie des Cerfs, Chapel of
+  the Trinity, Baptistery, etc.); P.�Tuileries (Pav. de Flore, by
+  _du Cerceau_, 1590-1610; long gallery continued); H�tel Vog��, at
+  Dijon, 1607; Place Dauphine, Paris, 1608; P.�de Justice, Paris,
+  Great Hall, by _S. de Brosse_, 1618; H. Sully, Paris, 1624-39;
+  P.�Royal, Paris, by _J. Lemercier_, for Cardinal Richelieu,
+  1627-39; P.�Louvre doubled in size, by the same; P.�Tuileries (N.
+  wing, and Pav. Marsan, long gallery completed); H. Lambert, Paris;
+  T.H. Reims, 1627; Ch. Blois, W. wing for Gaston d'Orl�ans, by _F.
+  Mansart_, 1635; fa�ade St. �tienne du Mont, Paris, 1610; of St.
+  Gervais, Paris, 1616-21, by _S. de Brosse_.
+
+  STYLE OF LOUIS XIV.: T.H. Lyons, 1646; P.�Louvre, E. colonnade and
+  court completed, 1660-70; Tuileries altered by Le Vau, 1664;
+  observatory at Paris, 1667-72; arch of St. Denis, Paris, 1672, by
+  _Blondel_; Arch of St. Martin, 1674, by _Bullet_; Banque de
+  France, H. de Luyne, H. Soubise, all in Paris; Ch. Chantilly; Ch.
+  de Tanlay; P.�St. Cloud; Place des Victoires, 1685; Chu. St.
+  Sulpice, Paris, by _Le Vau_ (fa�ade, 1755); Chu. St. Roch, Paris,
+  1653, by _Lemercier_ and _de Cotte_; Notre Dame des Victoires,
+  Paris, 1656, by _Le Muet_ and _Bruant_.
+
+  THE DECLINE: P. Bourbon, 1722; T.H. Rouen; Halle aux Bl�s
+  (recently demolished), 1748; �cole Militaire, 1752-58, by
+  _Gabriel_; P.�Louvre, court completed, 1754, by the same;
+  Madeleine begun, 1764; H. des Monnaies (Mint), by _Antoine_; �cole
+  de M�decine, 1774, by _Gondouin_; P.�Royal, Great Court, 1784, by
+  _Louis_; Th��tre Fran�ais, 1784 (all the above at Paris); Grand
+  Th��tre, Bordeaux, 1785-1800, by _Louis_; Pr�fecture at Bordeaux,
+  by the same; Ch. de Compiegne, 1770, by _Gabriel_; P.�Versailles,
+  theatre by the same; H. Montmorency, Soubise, de Varennes, and the
+  Petit Luxembourg, all at Paris, by _de Cotte_; public squares at
+  Nancy, Bordeaux, Valenciennes, Rennes, Reims.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Palustre. Also, Belcher
+  and Macartney, _Later Renaissance Architecture in England_.
+  Billings, _Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland_.
+  Blomfield, _A�Short History of Renaissance Architecture in
+  England_. Britton, _Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain_.
+  Ewerbeck, _Die Renaissance in Belgien und Holland_. Galland,
+  _Geschichte der Hollandischen Baukunst im Zeitalter der
+  Renaissance_. Gotch and Brown, _Architecture of the Renaissance in
+  England_. Loftie, _Inigo Jones and Wren_. Nash, _Mansions of
+  England_. Papworth, _Renaissance and Italian Styles of
+  Architecture in Great Britain_. Richardson, _Architectural Remains
+  of the Reigns of Elizabeth and James�I._ Schayes, _Histoire de
+  l'architecture en Belgique_.
+
+
++THE TRANSITION.+ The architectural activity of the sixteenth century in
+England was chiefly devoted to the erection of vast country mansions for
+the nobility and wealthy _bourgeoisie_. In these seignorial residences a
+degenerate form of the Gothic, known as the Tudor style, was employed
+during the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII., and they still retained
+much of the feudal aspect of the Middle Ages. This style, with its
+broad, square windows and ample halls, was well suited to domestic
+architecture, as well as to collegiate buildings, of which a
+considerable number were erected at this time. Among the more important
+palaces and manor-houses of this period are the earlier parts of Hampton
+Court, Haddon and Hengreave Halls, and the now ruined castles of Raglan
+and Wolterton.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 184.--BURGHLEY HOUSE.]
+
++ELIZABETHAN STYLE.+ Under Elizabeth (1558-1603) the progress of classic
+culture and the employment of Dutch and Italian artists led to a gradual
+introduction of Renaissance forms, which, as in France, were at first
+mingled with others of Gothic origin. Among the foreign artists in
+England were the versatile Holbein, Trevigi and Torregiano from Italy,
+and Theodore Have, Bernard Jansen, and Gerard Chrismas from Holland. The
+pointed arch disappeared, and the orders began to be used as subordinate
+features in the decoration of doors, windows, chimneys, and mantels.
+Open-work balustrades replaced externally the heavy Tudor battlements,
+and a peculiar style of carving in flat relief-patterns, resembling
+_appliqu�_ designs cut out with the jigsaw and attached by nails or
+rivets, was applied with little judgment to all possible features.
+Ceilings were commonly finished in plaster, with elaborate interlacing
+patterns in low relief; and this, with the increasing use of interior
+woodwork, gave to the mansions of this time a more homelike but less
+monumental aspect internally. English architects, like Smithson and
+Thorpe, now began to win the patronage at first monopolized by
+foreigners. In +Wollaton Hall+ (1580), by Smithson, the orders were used
+for the main composition with mullioned windows, much after the fashion
+of +Longleat House+, completed a year earlier by his master, John of
+Padua. During the following period, however (1590-1610), there was a
+reaction toward the Tudor practice, and the orders were again relegated
+to subordinate uses. Of their more monumental employment, the +Gate of
+Honor+ of Caius College, Cambridge, is one of the earliest examples.
+Hardwicke and Charlton Halls, and Burghley, Hatfield, and Holland Houses
+(Fig. 184), are noteworthy monuments of the style.
+
+
++JACOBEAN STYLE.+ During the reign of James�I. (1603-25), details of
+classic origin came into more general use, but caricatured almost beyond
+recognition. The orders, though much employed, were treated without
+correctness or grace, and the ornament was unmeaning and heavy. It is
+not worth while to dwell further upon this style, which produced no
+important public buildings, and soon gave way to a more rigid
+classicism.
+
+
++CLASSIC PERIOD.+ If the classic style was late in its appearance in
+England, its final sway was complete and long-lasting. It was _Inigo
+Jones_ (1572-1652) who first introduced the correct and monumental style
+of the Italian masters of classic design. For Palladio, indeed, he seems
+to have entertained a sort of veneration, and the villa which he
+designed at Chiswick was a reduced copy of Palladio's Villa Capra, near
+Vicenza. This and other works of his show a failure to appreciate the
+unsuitability of Italian conceptions to the climate and tastes of Great
+Britain; his efforts to popularize Palladian architecture, without the
+resources which Palladio controlled in the way of decorative sculpture
+and painting, were consequently not always happy in their results. His
+greatest work was the design for a new +Palace at Whitehall+, London. Of
+this colossal scheme, which, if completed, would have ranked as the
+grandest palace of the time, only the +Banqueting Hall+ (now used as a
+museum) was ever built (Fig. 185). It is an effective composition in two
+stories, rusticated throughout and adorned with columns and pilasters,
+and contains a fine vaulted hall in three aisles. The plan of the
+palace, which was to have measured 1,152 � 720 feet, was excellent,
+largely conceived and carefully studied in its details, but it was
+wholly beyond the resources of the kingdom. The garden-front of
++Somerset House+ (1632; demolished) had the same qualities of simplicity
+and dignity, recalling the works of Sammichele. Wilton House, Coleshill,
+the Villa at Chiswick, and St. Paul's, Covent Garden, are the best known
+of his works, showing him to have been a designer of ability, but hardly
+of the consummate genius which his admirers attribute to him.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 185.--BANQUETING HALL, WHITEHALL.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 186.--PLAN OF ST. PAUL'S, LONDON.]
+
++ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL.+ The greatest of Jones's successors was _Sir
+Christopher Wren_ (1632-1723), principally known as the architect of
++St. Paul's Cathedral+, London, built to replace the earlier Gothic
+cathedral destroyed in the great fire of 1666. It was begun in 1675, and
+its designer had the rare good fortune to witness its completion in
+1710. The plan, as finally adopted, retained the general proportions of
+an English Gothic church, measuring 480 feet in length, with transepts
+250 feet long, and a grand rotunda 108 feet in diameter at the crossing
+(Fig. 186). The style was strictly Italian, treated with sobriety and
+dignity, if somewhat lacking in variety and inspiration. Externally two
+stories of the Corinthian order appear, the upper story being merely a
+screen to hide the clearstory and its buttresses. This is an
+architectural deception, not atoned for by any special beauty of detail.
+The dominant feature of the design is the dome over the central area. It
+consists of an inner shell, reaching a height of 216 feet, above which
+rises the exterior dome of wood, surmounted by a stone lantern, the
+summit of which is 360 feet from the pavement (Fig. 187). This exterior
+dome, springing from a high drum surrounded by a magnificent peristyle,
+gives to the otherwise commonplace exterior of the cathedral a signal
+majesty of effect. Next to the dome the most successful part of the
+design is the west front, with its two-storied porch and flanking
+bell-turrets. Internally the excessive relative length, especially that
+of the choir, detracts from the effect of the dome, and the poverty of
+detail gives the whole a somewhat bare aspect. It is intended to relieve
+this ultimately by a systematic use of mosaic decoration, especially in
+the dome. The central area itself, in spite of the awkward treatment of
+the four smaller arches of the eight which support the dome, is a noble
+design, occupying the whole width of the three aisles, like the Octagon
+at Ely, and producing a striking effect of amplitude and grandeur. The
+dome above it is constructively interesting from the employment of a
+cone of brick masonry to support the stone lantern which rises above the
+exterior wooden shell. The lower part of the cone forms the drum of the
+inner dome, its contraction upward being intended to produce a
+perspective illusion of increased height.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 187.--EXTERIOR OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL.]
+
+St. Paul's ranks among the five or six greatest domical buildings of
+Europe, and is the most imposing modern edifice in England.
+
+
++WREN'S OTHER WORKS.+ Wren was conspicuously successful in the designing
+of parish churches in London. +St. Stephen's+, Walbrook, is the most
+admired of these, with a dome resting on eight columns. Wren may be
+called the inventor of the English Renaissance type of steeple, in which
+a conical or pyramidal spire is harmoniously added to a belfry on a
+square tower with classic details. The steeple of +Bow Church+,
+Cheapside, is the most successful example of the type. In secular
+architecture Wren's most important works were the plan for rebuilding
+London after the Great Fire; the new courtyard of Hampton Court, a�quiet
+and dignified composition in brick and stone; the pavilions and
+colonnade of +Greenwich Hospital+; the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford, and
+the Trinity College Library at Cambridge. Without profound originality,
+these works testify to the sound good taste and intelligence of their
+designer.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 188.--PLAN OF BLENHEIM.]
+
++THE 18TH CENTURY.+ The Anglo-Italian style as used by Jones and Wren
+continued in use through the eighteenth century, during the first half
+of which a number of important country-seats and some churches were
+erected. _Van Brugh_ (1666-1726), _Hawksmoor_ (1666-1736), and _Gibbs_
+(1683-1751) were then the leading architects. Van Brugh was especially
+skilful in his dispositions of plan and mass, and produced in the
+designs of Blenheim and Castle Howard effects of grandeur and variety of
+perspective hardly equalled by any of his contemporaries in France or
+Italy. +Blenheim+, with its monumental plan and the sweeping curves of
+its front (Fig. 188), has an unusually palatial aspect, though the
+striving for picturesqueness is carried too far. Castle Howard is
+simpler, depending largely for effect on a somewhat inappropriate dome.
+To Hawksmoor, his pupil, are due +St. Mary's, Woolnoth+ (1715), at
+London, in which by a bold rustication of the whole exterior and by
+windows set in large recessed arches he was enabled to dispense wholly
+with the orders; St. George's, Bloomsbury; the new quadrangle of All
+Souls at Oxford, and some minor works. The two most noted designs of
+James Gibbs are +St. Martin's-in-the-Fields+, at London (1726), and the
++Radcliffe Library+, at Oxford (1747). In the former the use of a
+Corinthian portico--a�practically uncalled-for but decorative
+appendage--and of a steeple mounted on the roof, with no visible lines
+of support from the ground, are open to criticism. But the excellence of
+the proportions, and the dignity and appropriateness of the composition,
+both internally and externally, go far to redeem these defects (Fig.
+189). The Radcliffe Library is a circular domical hall surrounded by a
+lower circuit of alcoves and rooms, the whole treated with
+straightforward simplicity and excellent proportions. Colin Campbell,
+Flitcroft, Kent and Wood, contemporaries of Gibbs, may be dismissed with
+passing mention.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 189.--ST. MARTIN'S-IN-THE-FIELDS, LONDON.]
+
+_Sir William Chambers_ (1726-96) was the greatest of the later
+18th-century architects. His fame rests chiefly on his _Treatise on
+Civil Architecture_, and the extension and remodelling of +Somerset
+House+, in which he retained the general _ordonnance_ of Inigo Jones's
+design, adapting it to a frontage of some 600 feet. _Robert Adams_, the
+designer of Keddlestone Hall, _Robert Taylor_ (1714-88), the architect
+of the Bank of England, and _George Dance_, who designed the Mansion
+House and Newgate Prison, at London--the latter a vigorous and
+appropriate composition without the orders--close the list of noted
+architects of the eighteenth century. It was a period singularly wanting
+in artistic creativeness and spontaneity; its productions were nearly
+all dull and respectable, or at best dignified, but without charm.
+
+
++BELGIUM.+ As in all other countries where the late Gothic style had
+been highly developed, Belgium was slow to accept the principles of the
+Renaissance in art. Long after the dawn of the sixteenth century the
+Flemish architects continued to employ their highly florid Gothic alike
+for churches and town-halls, with which they chiefly had to do. The
+earliest Renaissance buildings date from 1530-40, among them being the
+H�tel du Saumon, at Malines, at Bruges the Ancien Greffe, by _Jean
+Wallot_, and at Li�ge the +Archbishop's Palace+, by _Borset_. The last
+named, in the singular and capricious form of the arches and
+baluster-like columns of its court, reveals the taste of the age for
+what was _outr�_ and odd; a�taste partly due, no doubt, to Spanish
+influences, as Belgium was in reality from 1506 to 1712 a Spanish
+province, and there was more or less interchange of artists between the
+two countries. The +H�tel de Ville+, at Antwerp, by _Cornelius de
+Vriendt_ or _Floris_ (1518-75), erected in 1565, is the most important
+monument of the Renaissance in Belgium. Its fa�ade, 305 feet long and
+102 feet high, in four stories, is an impressive creation in spite of
+its somewhat monotonous fenestration and the inartistic repetition in
+the third story of the composition and proportions of the second. The
+basement story forms an open arcade, and an open colonnade or loggia
+runs along under the roof, thus imparting to the composition a
+considerable play of light and shade, enhanced by the picturesque
+central pavilion which rises to a height of six stories in diminishing
+stages. The style is almost Palladian in its severity, but in general
+the Flemish architects disdained the restrictions of classic canons,
+preferring a more florid and fanciful effect than could be obtained by
+mere combinations of Roman columns, arches, and entablatures. De
+Vriendt's other works were mostly designs for altars, tabernacles and
+the like; among them the rood screen in Tournay Cathedral. His influence
+may be traced in the H�tel de Ville at Flushing (1594).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 190.--RENAISSANCE HOUSES, BRUSSELS.]
+
+The ecclesiastical architecture of the Flemish Renaissance is almost as
+destitute of important monuments as is the secular. +Ste. Anne+, at
+Bruges, fairly illustrates the type, which is characterized in general
+by heaviness of detail and a cold and bare aspect internally. The
+Renaissance in Belgium is best exemplified, after all, by minor works
+and ordinary dwellings, many of which have considerable artistic grace,
+though they are quaint rather than monumental (Fig. 190). Stepped
+gables, high dormers, and volutes flanking each diminishing stage of the
+design, give a certain piquancy to the street architecture of the
+period.
+
+
++HOLLAND.+ Except in the domain of realistic painting, the Dutch have
+never manifested pre-eminent artistic endowments, and the Renaissance
+produced in Holland few monuments of consequence. It began there, as in
+many other places, with minor works in the churches, due largely to
+Flemish or Italian artists. About the middle of the 16th century two
+native architects, _Sebastian van Noye_ and _William van Noort_, first
+popularized the use of carved pilasters and of gables or steep pediments
+adorned with carved scallop-shells, in remote imitation of the style of
+Francis�I. The principal monuments of the age were town-halls, and,
+after the war of independence in which the yoke of Spain was finally
+broken (1566-79), local administrative buildings--mints, exchanges and
+the like. The +Town Hall+ of +The Hague+ (1565), with its stepped gable
+or great dormer, its consoles, statues, and octagonal turrets, may be
+said to have inaugurated the style generally followed after the war.
+Owing to the lack of stone, brick was almost universally employed, and
+stone imported by sea was only used in edifices of exceptional cost and
+importance. Of these the +Town Hall+ at Amsterdam holds the first place.
+Its fa�ade is of about the same dimensions as the one at Antwerp, but
+compares unfavorably with it in its monotony and want of interest. The
++Leyden Town Hall+, by the Fleming, _Lieven de Key_ (1597), the Bourse
+or Exchange and the Hanse House at Amsterdam, by _Hendrik de Keyser_,
+are also worthy of mention, though many lesser buildings, built of brick
+combined with enamelled terra-cotta and stone, possess quite as much
+artistic merit.
+
+
++DENMARK.+ In Denmark the monuments of the Renaissance may almost be
+said to be confined to the reign of Christian IV. (1588-1648), and do
+not include a single church of any importance. The royal castles of the
++Rosenborg+ at Copenhagen (1610) and the +Fredericksborg+ (1580-1624),
+the latter by a Dutch architect, are interesting and picturesque in
+mass, with their fanciful gables, mullioned windows and numerous
+turrets, but can hardly lay claim to beauty of detail or purity of
+style. The Exchange at Copenhagen, built of brick and stone in the same
+general style (1619-40), is still less interesting both in mass and
+detail.
+
+The only other important Scandinavian monument deserving of special
+mention in so brief a sketch as this is the +Royal Palace+ at
++Stockholm+, Sweden (1698-1753), due to a foreign architect, _Nicodemus
+de Tessin_. It is of imposing dimensions, and although simple in
+external treatment, it merits praise for the excellent disposition of
+its plan, its noble court, imposing entrances, and the general dignity
+and appropriateness of its architecture.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS+ (in addition to those mentioned in text). ENGLAND,
+  TUDOR STYLE: Several palaces by Henry VIII., no longer extant;
+  Westwood, later rebuilt; Gosfield Hall; Harlaxton.--ELIZABETHAN:
+  Buckhurst, 1565; Kirby House, 1570, both by Thorpe; Caius College,
+  1570-75, by Theodore Have; "The Schools," Oxford, by Thomas Holt,
+  1600; Beaupr� Castle, 1600.--JACOBEAN: Tombs of Mary of Scotland
+  and of Elizabeth in Westminster Abbey; Audsley Inn; Bolsover
+  Castle, 1613; Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, 1628.--CLASSIC or
+  ANGLO-ITALIAN: St. John's College, Oxford; Queen's House,
+  Greenwich; Coleshill; all by Inigo Jones, 1620-51; Amesbury, by
+  Webb; Combe Abbey; Buckingham and Montague Houses; The Monument,
+  London, 1670, by Wren; Temple Bar, by the same; Winchester Palace,
+  1683; Chelsea College; Towers of Westminster Abbey, 1696; St.
+  Clement Dane's; St. James's, Westminster; St. Peter's, Cornhill,
+  and many others, all by Wren.--18TH CENTURY: Seaton Delaval and
+  Grimsthorpe, by Van Brugh; Wanstead House, by Colin Campbell;
+  Treasury Buildings, by Kent.
+
+  The most important Renaissance buildings of BELGIUM and HOLLAND
+  have been mentioned in the text.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Palustre Also, von
+  Bezold, _Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Deutschland, Holland,
+  Belgien und D�nemark_ (in _Hdbuch. d. Arch._). Caveda (tr.
+  Kugler), _Geschichte der Baukunst in Spanien_. Fritsch, _Denkm�ler
+  der deutschen Renaissance_ (plates). Jungh�ndel, _Die Baukunst
+  Spaniens_. Lambert und Stahl, _Motive der deutschen Architektur_.
+  L�bke, _Geschichte der Renaissance in Deutschland_. Prentice,
+  _Renaissance Architecture and Ornament in Spain_. Uhde,
+  _Baudenkm�ler in Spanien_. Verdier et Cattois, _Architecture
+  civile et domestique_. Villa Amil, _Hispania Artistica y
+  Monumental_.
+
+
++AUSTRIA+; +BOHEMIA+. The earliest appearance of the Renaissance in the
+architecture of the German states was in the eastern provinces. Before
+the close of the fifteenth century Florentine and Milanese architects
+were employed in Austria, Bohemia, and the Tyrol, where there are a
+number of palaces and chapels in an unmixed Italian style. The portal of
+the castle of Mahrisch-Tr�bau dates from 1492; while to the early years
+of the 16th century belong a cruciform chapel at Gran, the remodelling
+of the castle at Cracow, and the chapel of the Jagellons in the same
+city--the earliest domical structure of the German Renaissance, though
+of Italian design. The +Schloss Porzia+ (1510), at Spital in Carinthia,
+is a fine quadrangular palace, surrounding a court with arcades on three
+sides, in which the open stairs form a picturesque interruption with
+their rampant arches. But for the massiveness of the details it might be
+a Florentine palace. In addition to this, the famous +Arsenal+ at
+Wiener-Neustadt (1524), the portal of the Imperial Palace (1552), and
+the +Castle Schalaburg+ on the Danube (1530-1601), are attributed to
+Italian architects, to whom must also be ascribed a number of important
+works at Prague. Chief among these the +Belvedere+ (1536, by _Paolo
+della Stella_), a�rectangular building surrounded by a graceful open
+arcade, above which it rises with a second story crowned by a curved
+roof; the Waldstein Palace (1621-29), by _Giov. Marini_, with its
+imposing loggia; +Schloss Stern+, built on the plan of a six-pointed
+star (1459-1565) and embellished by Italian artists with stucco
+ornaments and frescoes; and parts of the palace on the Hradschin, by
+_Scamozzi_, attest the supremacy of Italian art in Bohemia. The same is
+true of Styria, Carinthia, and the Tyrol; _e.g._ +Schloss Ambras+ at
+Innsbr�ck (1570).
+
+
++GERMANY: PERIODS.+ The earliest manifestation of the Renaissance in
+what is now the German Empire, appeared in the works of painters like
+D�rer and Burkmair, and in occasional buildings previous to 1525. The
+real transformation of German architecture, however, hardly began until
+after the Peace of Augsburg, in 1555. From that time on its progress was
+rapid, its achievements being almost wholly in the domain of secular
+architecture--princely and ducal castles, town halls or _Rathh�user_,
+and houses of wealthy burghers or corporations. It is somewhat singular
+that the German emperors should not have undertaken the construction of
+a new imperial residence on a worthy scale, the palaces of Munich and
+Berlin being aggregations of buildings of various dates about a nucleus
+of medi�val origin, and with no single portion to compare with the
+stately ch�teaux of the French kings. Church architecture was neglected,
+owing to the Reformation, which turned to its own uses the existing
+churches, while the Roman Catholics were too impoverished to replace the
+edifices they had lost.
+
+The periods of the German Renaissance are less well marked than those of
+the French; but its successive developments follow the same general
+progression, divided into three stages:
+
+I. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1525-1600, in which the orders were
+infrequently used, mainly for porches and for gable decoration. The
+conceptions and spirit of most monuments were still strongly tinged with
+Gothic feeling.
+
+II. THE LATE RENAISSANCE, 1600-1675, characterized by a dry, heavy
+treatment, in which too often neither the fanciful gayety of the
+previous period nor the simple and monumental dignity of classic design
+appears. Broken curves, large scrolls, obelisks, and a style of flat
+relief carving resembling the Elizabethan are common. Occasional
+monuments exhibit a more correct and classic treatment after Italian
+models.
+
+III. THE DECLINE OR BAROQUE PERIOD, 1675-1800, employing the orders in a
+style of composition oscillating between the extremes of bareness and of
+Rococo over-decoration. The ornament partakes of the character of the
+Louis XV. and Italian Jesuit styles, being most successful in interior
+decoration, but externally running to the extreme of unrestrained fancy.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 191.--SCHLOSS H�MELSCHENBURG.]
+
++CHARACTERISTICS.+ In none of these periods do we meet with the sober,
+monumental treatment of the Florentine or Roman schools. A�love of
+picturesque variety in masses and sky-lines, inherited from medi�val
+times, appears in the high roofs, stepped gables and lofty dormers which
+are universal. The roofs often comprise several stories, and are lighted
+by lofty gables at either end, and by dormers carried up from the side
+walls through two or three stories. Gables and dormers alike are built
+in diminishing stages, each step adorned with a console or scroll, and
+the whole treated with pilasters or colonnettes and entablatures
+breaking over each support (Fig. 191). These roofs, dormers, and gables
+contribute the most noticeable element to the general effect of most
+German Renaissance buildings, and are commonly the best-designed
+features in them. The orders are scantily used and usually treated with
+utter disregard of classic canons, being generally far too massive and
+overloaded with ornament. Oriels, bay-windows, and turrets, starting
+from corbels or colonnettes, or rarely from the ground, diversify the
+fa�ade, and spires of curious bulbous patterns give added piquancy to
+the picturesque sky-line. The plans seldom had the monumental symmetry
+and largeness of Italian and French models; courtyards were often
+irregular in shape and diversified with balconies and spiral
+staircase-turrets. The national leaning was always toward the quaint and
+fantastic, as well in the decoration as in the composition. Grotesques,
+caryatids, _ga�nes_ (half-figures terminating below in sheath-like
+supports), fanciful rustication, and many other details give a touch of
+the Baroque even to works of early date. The same principles were
+applied with better success to interior decoration, especially in the
+large halls of the castles and town-halls, and many of their ceilings
+were sumptuous and well-considered designs, deeply panelled, painted and
+gilded in wood or plaster.
+
+
++CASTLES.+ The _Schloss_ or _Burg_ of the German prince or duke retained
+throughout the Renaissance many medi�val characteristics in plan and
+aspect. A�large proportion of these noble residences were built upon
+foundations of demolished feudal castles, reproducing in a new dress the
+ancient round towers and vaulted guard-rooms and halls, as in the
+Hartenfels at Torgau, the Heldburg (both in Saxony), and the castle of
+Trausnitz, in Bavaria, among many others. The +Castle+ at +Torgau+
+(1540) is one of the most imposing of its class, with massive round and
+square towers showing externally, and court fa�ades full of picturesque
+irregularities. In the great +Castle+ at +Dresden+ the plan is more
+symmetrical, and the Renaissance appears more distinctly in the details
+of the Georgenfl�gel (1530-50), though at that early date the classic
+orders were almost ignored. The portal of the Heldburg, however, built
+in 1562, is a composition quite in the contemporary French vein, with
+superposed orders and a crowning pediment over a massive basement.
+
+Another important series of castles or palaces are of more regular
+design, in which the feudal traditions tend to disappear. The majority
+belong to the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. They
+are built around large rectangular courts with arcades in two or three
+stories on one or more sides, but rarely surrounding it entirely. In
+these the segmental arch is more common than the semicircular, and
+springs usually from short and stumpy Ionic or Corinthian columns. The
+rooms and halls are arranged _en suite_, without corridors, and a large
+and lofty banquet hall forms the dominant feature of the series. The
+earliest of these regularly planned palaces are of Italian design. Chief
+among them is the +Residenz+ at +Landshut+ (1536-43), with a thoroughly
+Roman plan, by pupils of Giulio Romano, and exterior and court fa�ades
+of great dignity treated with the orders. More German in its details,
+but equally interesting, is the +F�rstenhof+ at +Wismar+, in brick and
+terra-cotta, by _Valentino di Lira_ and _Van Aken_ (1553); while in the
++Piastenschloss+ at Brieg (1547-72), by Italian architects, the
+treatment in parts suggests the richest works of the style of Francis�I.
+In other castles the segmental arch and stumpy columns or piers show the
+German taste, as in the +Plassenburg+, by _Kaspar Vischer_ (1554-64),
+the castle at Plagnitz, and the +Old Castle+ at +Stuttgart+, all dating
+from about 1550-55. +Heidelberg Castle+, in spite of its medi�val aspect
+from the river and its irregular plan, ranks as the highest achievement
+of the German Renaissance in palace design. The most interesting parts
+among its various wings built at different dates--the earlier portions
+still Gothic in design--are the +Otto Heinrichsbau+ (1554) and the
++Friedrichsbau+ (1601). The first of these appears somewhat simpler in
+its lines than the second, by reason of having lost its original
+dormer-gables. The orders, freely treated, are superposed in three
+stories, and twin windows, niches, statues, _ga�nes_, medallions and
+profuse carving produce an effect of great gayety and richness. The
+Friedrichsbau (Fig. 192), less quiet in its lines, and with high
+scroll-gabled and stepped dormers, is on the other hand more soberly
+decorated and more characteristically German. The Schloss H�melschenburg
+(Fig. 191) is designed in somewhat the same spirit, but with even
+greater simplicity of detail.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 192.--THE FRIEDRICHSBAU, HEIDELBERG.]
+
++TOWN HALLS.+ These constitute the most interesting class of Renaissance
+buildings in Germany, presenting a considerable variety of types, but
+nearly all built in solid blocks without courts, and adorned with towers
+or spires. A�high roof crowns the building, broken by one or more high
+gables or many-storied dormers. The majority of these town halls present
+fa�ades much diversified by projecting wings, as at Lemgo and Paderborn,
+or by oriels and turrets, as at +Altenburg+ (1562-64); and the towers
+which dominate the whole terminate usually in bell-shaped cupolas, or in
+more capricious forms with successive swellings and contractions, as at
+Dantzic (1587). A�few, however, are designed with monumental simplicity
+of mass; of these that at +Bremen+ (1612) is perhaps the finest, with
+its beautiful exterior arcade on strong Doric columns. The town hall of
+Nuremberg is one of the few with a court, and presents a fa�ade of
+almost Roman simplicity (1613-19); that at +Augsburg+ (1615) is equally
+classic and more pleasing; while at Schweinfurt, Rothenburg (1572),
+M�lhausen, etc., are others worthy of mention.
+
+
++CHURCHES.+ +St. Michael's+, at Munich, is almost the only important
+church of the first period in Germany (1582), but it is worthy to rank
+with many of the most notable contemporary Italian churches. A�wide nave
+covered by a majestic barrel vault, is flanked by side chapels,
+separated from each other by massive piers and forming a series of
+gallery bays above. There are short transepts and a choir, all in
+excellent proportion and treated with details which, if somewhat heavy,
+are appropriate and reasonably correct. The +Marienkirche+ at
+Wolfenb�ttel (1608) is a fair sample of the parish churches of the
+second period. In the exterior of this church pointed arches and
+semi-Gothic tracery are curiously associated with heavy rococo carving.
+The simple rectangular mass, square tower, and portal with massive
+orders and carving are characteristic features. Many of the
+church-towers are well proportioned and graceful structures in spite of
+the fantastic outlines of their spires. One of the best and purest in
+style is that of the University Church at W�rzburg (1587-1600).
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 193.--ZWINGER PALACE, DRESDEN.]
+
++HOUSES.+ Many of the German houses of the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries would merit extended notice in a larger work, as among the
+most interesting lesser monuments of the Renaissance. Nuremberg and
+Hildesheim are particularly rich in such houses, built either for
+private citizens or for guilds and corporations. Not a few of the
+half-timbered houses of the time are genuine works of art, though
+interest chiefly centres in the more monumental dwellings of stone. In
+this domestic architecture the picturesque quality of German design
+appears to better advantage than in more monumental edifices, and their
+broadly stepped gables, corbelled oriels, florid portals and want of
+formal symmetry imparting a peculiar and undeniable charm. The
+Kaiserhaus and Wedekindsches Haus at Hildesheim; +F�rstenhaus+ at
+Leipzig; Peller, Hirschvogel, and Funk houses at Nuremberg; the Salt
+House at Frankfurt, and Ritter House at Heidelberg, are a few of the
+most noted among these examples of domestic architecture.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 194.--CHURCH OF ST. MARY (MARIENKIRCHE),
+  DRESDEN.]
+
++LATER MONUMENTS.+ The +Zwinger Palace+ at Dresden (Fig. 193), is the
+most elaborate and wayward example of the German palace architecture of
+the third period. Its details are of the most exaggerated rococo type,
+like confectioner's work done in stone; and yet the building has an air
+of princely splendor which partly atones for its details. Besides this
+palace, Dresden possesses in the domical +Marienkirche+ (Fig. 194)
+a�very meritorious example of late design. The proportions are good, and
+the detail, if not interesting, is at least inoffensive, while the whole
+is a�dignified and rational piece of work. At Vienna are a number of
+palaces of the third period, more interesting for their beautiful
+grounds and parks than for intrinsic architectural merit. As in Italy,
+this was the period of stucco, and although in Vienna this cheap and
+perishable material was cleverly handled, and the ornament produced was
+often quaint and effective, the results lack the permanence and dignity
+of true building in stone or brick, and may be dismissed without further
+mention.
+
+In minor works the Germans were far less prolific than the Italians or
+Spaniards. Few of their tombs were of the first importance, though one,
+the +Sebald Shrine+, in Nuremberg, by _Peter Vischer_ (1506-19), is a
+splendid work in bronze, in the transitional style; a�richly decorated
+canopy on slender metal colonnettes covering and enclosing the
+sarcophagus of the saint. There are a large number of fountains in the
+squares of German and Swiss cities which display a high order of design,
+and are among the most characteristic minor products of German art.
+
+
++SPAIN.+ The flamboyant Gothic style sufficed for a while to meet the
+requirements of the arrogant and luxurious period which in Spain
+followed the overthrow of the Moors and the discovery of America. But it
+was inevitable that the Renaissance should in time make its influence
+felt in the arts of the Iberian peninsula, largely through the
+employment of Flemish artists. In jewelry and silverwork, arts which
+received a great impulse from the importation of the precious metals
+from the New World, the forms of the Renaissance found special
+acceptance, so that the new style received the name of the _Plateresque_
+(from _platero_, silversmith). This was a not inept name for the
+minutely detailed and sumptuous decoration of the early Renaissance,
+which lasted from 1500 to the accession of Philip II. in 1556. It was
+characterized by surface-decoration spreading over broad areas,
+especially around doors and windows, florid escutcheons and Gothic
+details mingling with delicately chiselled arabesques. Decorative
+pilasters with broken entablatures and carved baluster-shafts were
+employed with little reference to constructive lines, but with great
+refinement of detail, in spite of the exuberant profusion of the
+ornament.
+
+To this style, after the artistic inaction of Philip II.'s reign,
+succeeded the coldly classic style practised by _Berruguete_ and
+_Herrera_, and called the _Griego-Romano_. In spite of the attempt to
+produce works of classical purity, the buildings of this period are for
+the most part singularly devoid of originality and interest. This style
+lasted until the middle of the seventeenth century, and in the case of
+certain works and artists, until its close. It was followed, at least in
+ecclesiastical architecture, by the so-called _Churrigueresque_, a�name
+derived from an otherwise insignificant architect, _Churriguera_, who
+like Maderna and Borromini in Italy, discarded all the proprieties of
+architecture, and rejoiced in the wildest extravagances of an untrained
+fancy and debased taste.
+
+
++EARLY MONUMENTS.+ The earliest ecclesiastical works of the Renaissance
+period, like the cathedrals of Salamanca, Toledo, and Segovia, were
+almost purely Gothic in style. Not until 1525 did the new forms begin to
+dominate in cathedral design. The cathedral at +Jaen+, by _Valdelvira_
+(1525), an imposing structure with three aisles and side chapels, was
+treated internally with the Corinthian order throughout. The Cathedral
+of +Granada+ (1529, by _Diego de Siloe_) is especially interesting for
+its great domical sanctuary 70 feet in diameter, and for the largeness
+and dignity of its conception and details. The cathedral of Malaga, the
+church of San Domingo at Salamanca, and the monastery of San Girolamo in
+the same city are either wholly or in part Plateresque, and provided
+with portals of especial richness of decoration. Indeed, the portal of
+S.�Domingo practically forms the whole fa�ade.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 195.--DOOR OF THE UNIVERSITY, SALAMANCA.]
+
+In secular architecture the +Hospital+ of +Santa Cruz+ at Toledo, by
+_Enrique de Egaz_ (1504-16), is one of the earliest examples of the
+style. Here, as also in the +University+ at +Salamanca+ (Fig. 195), the
+portal is the most notable feature, suggesting both Italian and French
+models in its details. The great +College+ at +Alcala de He�ares+ is
+another important early monument of the Renaissance (1500-17, by _Pedro
+Gumiel_). In most designs the preference was for long fa�ades of
+moderate height, with a basement showing few openings, and a _bel �tage_
+lighted by large windows widely spaced. Ornament was chiefly
+concentrated about the doors and windows, except for the roof
+balustrades, which were often exceedingly elaborate. Occasionally a
+decorative motive is spread over the whole fa�ade, as in the +Casa de
+las Conchas+ at Salamanca, adorned with cockle-shells carved at
+intervals all over the front--a�bold and effective device; or the
+Infantada palace with its spangling of carved diamonds. The courtyard or
+_patio_ was an indispensable feature of these buildings, as in all hot
+countries, and was surrounded by arcades frequently of the most fanciful
+design overloaded with minute ornament, as in the +Infantado+ at
+Guadalajara, the +Casa de Zaporta+, formerly at Saragossa (now removed
+to Paris; Fig. 196), and the Lupiana monastery. The patios in the
++Archbishop's Palace+ at Alcala de He�ares and the +Collegio de los
+Irlandeses+ at Salamanca are of simpler design; that of the +Casa de
+Pilatos+ at Seville is almost purely Moorish. Salamanca abounds in
+buildings of this period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 196.--CASA DE ZAPORTA: COURTYARD.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 197.--PALACE OF CHARLES V., GRANADA.]
+
++THE GRIEGO-ROMANO.+ The more classic treatment of architectural designs
+by the use of the orders was introduced by _Alonzo Berruguete_
+(1480-1560?), who studied in Italy after 1503. The Archbishop's Palace
+and the Doric +Gate+ of +San Martino+, both at Toledo, were his work, as
+well as the first palace at Madrid. The Palladio of Spain was, however,
+by _Juan de Herrera_ (died 1597), the architect of +Valladolid
+Cathedral+, built under Philip�V. This vast edifice follows the general
+lines of the earlier cathedrals of Jaen and Granada, but in a style of
+classical correctness almost severe in aspect, but well suited to the
+grand scale of the church. The masterpiece of this period was the
+monastery of the +Escurial+, begun by _Juan Battista_ of Toledo, in
+1563, but not completed until nearly one hundred and fifty years later.
+Its final architectural aspect was largely due to Herrera. It is a vast
+rectangle of 740 � 580 feet, comprising a complex of courts, halls, and
+cells, dominated by the huge mass of the chapel. This last is an
+imposing domical church covering 70,000 square feet, treated throughout
+with the Doric order, and showing externally a lofty dome and campaniles
+with domical lanterns, which serve to diversify the otherwise monotonous
+mass of the monastery. What the Escurial lacks in grace or splendor is
+at least in a measure redeemed by its majestic scale and varied
+sky-lines. The +Palace of Charles�V.+ (Fig. 197), adjoining the Alhambra
+at Granada, though begun as early as 1527 by _Machuca_, was mainly due
+to Berruguete, and is an excellent example of the Spanish Palladian
+style. With its circular court, admirable proportions and well-studied
+details, this often maligned edifice deserves to be ranked among the
+most successful examples of the style. During this period the cathedral
+of Seville received many alterations, and the upper part of the
+adjoining Moorish tower of the +Giralda+, burned in 1395, was rebuilt by
+_Fernando Ruiz_ in the prevalent style, and with considerable elegance
+and appropriateness of design.
+
+Of the +Palace+ at +Madrid+, rebuilt by Philip�V. after the burning of
+the earlier palace in 1734, and mainly the work of an Italian, _Ivara_;
+the Aranjuez palace (1739, by _Francisco Herrera_), and the Palace at
++San Ildefonso+, it need only be said that their chief merit lies in
+their size and the absence of those glaring violations of good taste
+which generally characterized the successors of Churriguera. In
+ecclesiastical design these violations of taste were particularly
+abundant and excessive, especially in the fa�ades and in the
+sanctuary--huge aggregations of misplaced and vulgar detail, with hardly
+an unbroken pediment, column, or arch in the whole. Some extreme
+examples of this abominable style are to be found in the
+Spanish-American churches of the 17th and 18th centuries, as at
+Chihuahua (Mexico), Tucson (Arizona), and other places. The least
+offensive features of the churches of this period were the towers,
+usually in pairs at the west end, some of them showing excellent
+proportions and good composition in spite of their execrable details.
+
+Minor architectural works, such as the rood screens in the churches of
+Astorga and Medina de Rio Seco, and many tombs at Granada, Avila,
+Alcala, etc., give evidence of superior skill in decorative design,
+where constructive considerations did not limit the exercise of the
+imagination.
+
+
++PORTUGAL.+ The Renaissance appears to have produced few notable works
+in Portugal. Among the chief of these are the +Tower+, the church, and
+the +Cloister+, at Belem. These display a riotous profusion of minute
+carved ornament, with a free commingling of late Gothic details,
+wearisome in the end in spite of the beauty of its execution (1500-40?).
+The church of +Santa Cruz+ at Coimbra, and that of +Luz+, near Lisbon,
+are among the most noted of the religious monuments of the Renaissance,
+while in secular architecture the royal palace at +Mafra+ is worthy of
+mention.
+
+
+  +MONUMENTS.+ (Mainly supplementary to preceding text.) AUSTRIA,
+  BOHEMIA, etc.: At Prague, Schloss Stern, 1459-1565; Schwarzenburg
+  Palace, 1544; Waldstein Palace, 1629; Salvator Chapel, Vienna,
+  1515; Schloss Schalaburg, near M�lk, 1530-1601; Standehaus, Gratz,
+  1625. At Vienna: Imperial palace, various dates; Schwarzenburg and
+  Lichtenstein palaces, 18th century.
+
+  GERMANY, FIRST PERIOD: Schloss Baden, 1510-29 and part 1569-82;
+  Schloss Merseburg, 1514, with late 16th-century portals;
+  Fuggerhaus at Augsburg, 1516; castles of Neuenstein, 1530-64;
+  Celle, 1532-46 (and enlarged, 1665-70); Dessau, 1533; Leignitz,
+  portal, 1533; Plagnitz, 1550; Schloss Gottesau, 1553-88; castle of
+  G�strow, 1555-65; of Oels, 1559-1616; of Bernburg, 1565; of
+  Heiligenburg, 1569-87; M�nzhof at Munich, 1575; Lusthaus
+  (demolished) at Stuttgart, 1575; Wilhelmsburg Castle at
+  Schmalkald, 1584-90; castle of H�melschenburg, 1588-1612.--SECOND
+  PERIOD: Zunfthaus at Basle, 1578, in advanced style; so also
+  Juleum at Helmst�dt, 1593-1612; gymnasium at Brunswick, 1592-1613;
+  Spiesshof at Basle, 1600; castle at Berlin, 1600-1616, demolished
+  in great part; castle Bevern, 1603; Dantzic, Zeughaus, 1605;
+  Wallfahrtskirche at Dettelbach, 1613; castle Aschaffenburg,
+  1605-13; Schloss Weikersheim, 1600-83.--THIRD PERIOD: Zeughaus at
+  Berlin, 1695; palace at Berlin by Schl�ter, 1699-1706; Catholic
+  church, Dresden. (For Classic Revival, see next chapter.)--TOWN
+  HALLS: At Heilbronn, 1535; G�rlitz, 1537; Posen, 1550; M�lhausen,
+  1552; Cologne, porch with Corinthian columns and Gothic arches,
+  1569; L�beck (Rathhaushalle), 1570; Schweinfurt, 1570; Gotha,
+  1574; Emden, 1574-76; Lemgo, 1589; Neisse, 1604; Nordhausen, 1610;
+  Paderborn, 1612-16; Gernsbach, 1617.
+
+  SPAIN, 16TH CENTURY: Monastery San Marcos at Leon; palace of the
+  Infanta, Saragossa; Carcel del Corte at Baez; Cath. of Malaga, W.
+  front, 1538, by de Silo�; Tavera Hospital, Toledo, 1541, by de
+  Bustamente; Alcazar at Toledo, 1548; Lonja (Town Hall) at
+  Saragossa, 1551; Casa de la Sal, Casa Monterey, and Collegio de
+  los Irlandeses, all at Salamanca; Town Hall, Casa de los Taveras
+  and upper part of Giralda, all at Seville.--17TH CENTURY:
+  Cathedral del Pilar, Saragossa, 1677; Tower del Seo, 1685.--18TH
+  CENTURY: palace at Madrid, 1735; at Aranjuez, 1739; cathedral of
+  Santiago, 1738; Lonja at Barcelona, 1772.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson. Also Chateau, _Histoire
+  et caract�res de l'architecture en France_; and L�bke, _Geschichte
+  der Architektur_. (For the most part, however, recourse must be
+  had to the general histories of architecture, and to monographs on
+  special cities or buildings.)
+
+
++THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.+ By the end of the seventeenth century the
+Renaissance, properly speaking, had run its course in Europe. The
+increasing servility of its imitation of antique models had exhausted
+its elasticity and originality. Taste rapidly declined before the growth
+of the industrial and commercial spirit in the eighteenth century. The
+ferment of democracy and the disquiet of far-reaching political changes
+had begun to preoccupy the minds of men to the detriment of the arts. By
+the middle of the eighteenth century, however, the extravagances of the
+Rococo, Jesuit, and Louis XV. styles had begun to pall upon the popular
+taste. The creative spirit was dead, and nothing seemed more promising
+as a corrective for these extravagances than a return to classic models.
+But the demand was for a literal copying of the arcades and porticos of
+Rome, to serve as frontispieces for buildings in which modern
+requirements should be accommodated to these antique exteriors, instead
+of controlling the design. The result was a manifest gain in the
+splendor of the streets and squares adorned by these highly decorative
+frontispieces, but at the expense of convenience and propriety in the
+buildings themselves. While this academic spirit too often sacrificed
+logic and originality to an arbitrary symmetry and to the supposed
+canons of Roman design, it also, on the other hand, led to a stateliness
+and dignity in the planning, especially in the designing of vestibules,
+stairs, and halls, which render many of the public buildings it produced
+well worthy of study. The architecture of the Roman Revival was pompous
+and artificial, but seldom trivial, and its somewhat affected grandeur
+was a welcome relief from the dull extravagance of the styles it
+replaced.
+
+
++THE GREEK REVIVAL.+ The Roman revival was, however, displaced in
+England and Germany by the Greek Revival, which set in near the close of
+the eighteenth century. This was the result of a newly awakened interest
+in the long-neglected monuments of Attic art which the discoveries of
+Stuart and Revett--sent out in 1732 by the London Society of
+Dilettanti--had once more made known to the world. It led to a veritable
+_furore_ in England for Greek Doric and Ionic columns, which were
+applied indiscriminately to every class of buildings, with utter
+disregard of propriety. The British taste was at this time at its lowest
+ebb, and failed to perceive the poverty of Greek architecture when
+deprived of its proper adornments of carving and sculpture, which were
+singularly lacking in the British examples. Nevertheless the Greek style
+in England had a long run of popular favor, yielding only during the
+reign of the present sovereign to the so-called Victorian Gothic,
+a�revival of medi�val forms. In Germany the Greek Revival was
+characterized by a more cultivated taste and a more rational application
+of its forms, which were often freely modified to suit modern needs. In
+France, where the Roman Revival under Louis XV. had produced fairly
+satisfactory results, and where the influence of the Royal School of
+Fine Arts (_�cole des Beaux-Arts_) tended to perpetuate the principles
+of Roman design, the Greek Revival found no footing. The Greek forms
+were seen to be too severe and intractable for present requirements.
+About 1830, however, a�modified style of design, known since as the
+_N�o-Grec_, was introduced by the exertions of a small coterie of
+talented architects; and though its own life was short, it profoundly
+influenced French art in the direction of freedom and refinement for a
+long time afterward. In Italy there was hardly anything in the nature of
+a true revival of either Roman or Greek forms. The few important works
+of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were conceived in
+the spirit of the late Renaissance, and took from the prevalent revival
+of classicism elsewhere merely a greater correctness of detail, not any
+radical change of form or spirit.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 198.--BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON.]
+
++ENGLAND.+ There was, strictly speaking, no Roman revival in Great
+Britain. The modified Palladian style of Wren and Gibbs and their
+successors continued until superseded by the Greek revival. The first
+fruit of the new movement seems to have been the +Bank of England+ at
+London, by _Sir John Soane_ (1788). In this edifice the Greco-Roman
+order of the round temple at Tivoli was closely copied, and applied to a
+long fa�ade, too low for its length and with no sufficient stylobate,
+but fairly effective with its recessed colonnade and unpierced walls.
+The +British Museum+, by _Robert Smirke_ (Fig. 198), was a more
+ambitious essay in a more purely Greek style. Its colossal Ionic
+colonnade was, however, a�mere frontispiece, applied to a badly planned
+and commonplace building, from which it cut off needed light. The more
+modest but appropriate columnar fa�ade to the +Fitzwilliam Museum+ at
+Cambridge, by _Bassevi_, was a more successful attempt in the same
+direction, better proportioned and avoiding the incongruity of modern
+windows in several stories. These have always been the stumbling-block
+of the revived Greek style. The difficulties they raise are avoided,
+however, in buildings presenting but two stories, the order being
+applied to the upper story, upon a high stylobate serving as a basement.
+The +High School+ and the Royal Institution at Edinburgh, and the
+University at London, by _Wilkins_, are for this reason, if for no
+other, superior to the British Museum and other many-storied Anglo-Greek
+edifices. In spite of all difficulties, however, the English extended
+the applications of the style with doubtful success not only to all
+manner of public buildings, but also to country residences. Carlton
+House, Bowden Park, and Grange House are instances of this
+misapplication of Greek forms. Neither did it prove more tractable for
+ecclesiastical purposes. +St. Pancras's+ Church at London, and several
+churches by _Thomson_ (1817-75), in Glasgow, though interesting as
+experiments in such adaptation, are not to be commended for imitation.
+The most successful of all British Greek designs is perhaps +St.
+George's Hall+ at Liverpool (Fig. 199), whose imposing peristyle and
+porches are sufficiently Greek in spirit and detail to class it among
+the works of the Greek Revival. But its great hall and its interior
+composition are really Roman and not Greek, emphasizing the teaching of
+experience that Greek architecture does not lend itself to the
+exigencies of modern civilization to nearly the same extent as the
+Roman.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 199.--ST. GEORGE'S HALL, LIVERPOOL.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 200.--THE OLD MUSEUM, BERLIN.]
+
++GERMANY.+ During the eighteenth century the classic revival in Germany,
+which at first followed Roman precedents (as in the columns carved with
+spirally ascending reliefs in front of the church of +St. Charles
+Borromeo+, at Vienna), was directed into the channel of Greek imitation
+by the literary works of Winckelmann, Lessing, Goethe, and others, as
+well as by the interest aroused by the discoveries of Stuart and Revett.
+The +Brandenburg Gate+ at Berlin (1784, by Langhans) was an early
+example of this Hellenism in architecture, and one of its most
+successful applications to civic purposes. Without precisely copying any
+Greek structure, it was evidently inspired from the Athenian Propyl�a,
+and nothing in its purpose is foreign to the style employed. The
+greatest activity in the style came later, however, and was greatly
+stimulated by the achievements of _Fr. Schinkel_ (1771-1841), one of the
+greatest of modern German architects. While in the domical church of St.
+Nicholas at Potsdam, he employed Roman forms in a modernized Roman
+conception, and followed in one or two other buildings the principles of
+the Renaissance, his predilections were for Greek architecture. His
+masterpiece was the +Museum+ at Berlin, with an imposing portico of 18
+Ionic columns (Fig. 200). This building with its fine rotunda was
+excellently planned, and forms, in conjunction with the +New Museum+ by
+_Stuhler_ (1843-55), a�noble palace of art, to whose monumental
+requirements and artistic purpose the Greek colonnades and pediments
+were not inappropriate. Schinkel's greatest successor was _Leo von
+Klenze_ (1784-1864), whose more textual reproductions of Greek models
+won him great favor and wide employment. The +Walhalla+ near Ratisbon is
+a modernized Parthenon, internally vaulted with glass; elegant
+externally, but too obvious a plagiarism to be greatly admired. The
++Ruhmeshalle+ at Munich, a�double +L+ partly enclosing a colossal
+statue of Bavaria, and devoted to the commemoration of Bavaria's great
+men, is copied from no Greek building, though purely Greek in design and
+correct to the smallest detail. In the +Glyptothek+ (Sculpture Gallery),
+in the same city, the one distinctively Greek feature introduced by
+Klenze, an Ionic portico, is also the one inappropriate note in the
+design. The +Propyl�a+ at Munich, by the same (Fig. 201), and the +Court
+Theatre+ at Berlin, by Schinkel, are other important examples of the
+style. The latter is externally one of the most beautiful theatres in
+Europe, though less ornate than many. Schinkel's genius was here
+remarkably successful in adapting Greek details to the exigent
+difficulties of theatre design, and there is no suggestion of copying
+any known Greek building.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 201.--THE PROPYL�A, MUNICH.]
+
+In Vienna the one notable monument of the Classic Revival is the
++Reichsrathsgeb�ude+ or Parliament House, by _Th. Hansen_ (1843), an
+imposing two-storied composition with a lofty central colonnade and
+lower side-wings, harmonious in general proportions and pleasingly
+varied in outline and mass.
+
+In general, the Greek Revival in Germany presents the aspect of a
+sincere striving after beauty, on the part of a limited number of
+artists of great talent, misled by the idea that the forms of a dead
+civilization could be galvanized into new life in the service of modern
+needs. The result was disappointing, in spite of the excellent planning,
+admirable construction and carefully studied detail of these buildings,
+and the movement here as elsewhere was foredoomed to failure.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 202.--PLAN OF PANTH�ON, PARIS.]
+
++FRANCE.+ In France the Classic Revival, as we have seen, had made its
+appearance during the reign of Louis XV. in a number of important
+monuments which expressed the protest of their authors against the
+caprice of the Rococo style then in vogue. The colonnades of the
+Garde-Meuble, the fa�ade of St. Sulpice, and the coldly beautiful
++Panth�on+ (Figs. 202, 203) testified to the conviction in the most
+cultured minds of the time that Roman grandeur was to be attained only
+by copying the forms of Roman architecture with the closest possible
+approach to correctness. In the Panth�on, the greatest ecclesiastical
+monument of its time in France (otherwise known as the church of Ste.
+Gen�vi�ve), the spirit of correct classicism dominates the interior as
+well as the exterior. It is a Greek cross, measuring 362 � 267 feet,
+with a dome 265 feet high, and internally 69 feet in diameter. The four
+arms have domical vaulting and narrow aisles separated by Corinthian
+columns. The whole interior is a cold but extremely elegant composition.
+The most notable features of the exterior are its imposing portico of
+colossal Corinthian columns and the fine peristyle which surrounds the
+drum of the dome, giving it great dignity and richness of effect.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 203.--EXTERIOR OF PANTH�ON, PARIS.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 204.--ARC DE L'�TOILE, PARIS.]
+
+The dome, which is of stone throughout, has three shells, the
+intermediate shell serving to support the heavy stone lantern. The
+architect was _Soufflot_ (1713-81). The +Grand Th��tre+, at Bordeaux
+(1773, by _Victor Louis_), one of the largest and finest theatres in
+Europe, was another product of this movement, its stately colonnade
+forming one of the chief ornaments of the city. Under Louis XVI. there
+was a temporary reaction from this somewhat pompous affectation of
+antique grandeur; but there were few important buildings erected during
+that unhappy reign, and the reaction showed itself mainly in a more
+delicate and graceful style of interior decoration. It was reserved for
+the Empire to set the seal of official approval on the Roman Revival.
+The Arch of Triumph of the Carrousel, behind the Tuileries, by _Percier
+and Fontaine_, the magnificent Arc de l'�toile, at the summit of the
+Avenue of the Champs Elys�es, by _Chalgrin_; the wing begun by Napoleon
+to connect the Tuileries with the Louvre on the land side, and the
+church of the Madeleine, by _Vignon_, erected as a temple to the heroes
+of the Grande Arm�e, were all designed, in accordance with the expressed
+will of the Emperor himself, in a style as Roman as the requirements of
+each case would permit. All these monuments, begun between 1806 and
+1809, were completed after the Restoration. The +Arch+ of the
++Carrousel+ is a close copy of Roman models; that of the +�toile+ (Fig.
+204) was a much more original design, of colossal dimensions. Its
+admirable proportions, simple composition and striking sculptures give
+it a place among the noblest creations of its class. The +Madeleine+
+(Fig. 205), externally a Roman Corinthian temple of the largest size,
+presents internally an almost Byzantine conception with the three
+pendentive domes that vault its vast nave, but all the details are
+Roman. However suitable for a pantheon or mausoleum, it seems strangely
+inappropriate as a design for a Christian church. To these monuments
+should be added the +Bourse+ or Exchange, by _Brongniart_, heavy in
+spite of its Corinthian peristyle, and the river front of the +Corps
+L�gislatif+ or Palais Bourbon, by _Poyet_, the only extant example of a
+dodecastyle portico with a pediment. All of these designs are
+characterized by great elegance of detail and excellence of execution,
+and however inappropriate in style to modern uses, they add immensely to
+the splendor of the French capital. Unquestionably no feature can take
+the place of a Greek or Roman colonnade as an embellishment for broad
+avenues and open squares, or as the termination of an architectural
+vista.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 205.--THE MADELEINE, PARIS.]
+
+The Greek revival took little hold of the Parisian imagination. Its
+forms were too cold, too precise and fixed, too intractable to modern
+requirements to appeal to the French taste. It counts but one notable
+monument, the church of +St. Vincent de Paul+, by _Hittorff_, who sought
+to apply to this design the principles of Greek external polychromy; but
+the frescoes and ornaments failed to withstand the Parisian climate, and
+were finally erased. The N�o-Grec movement already referred to,
+initiated by Duc, Duban, and Labrouste about 1830, aimed only to
+introduce into modern design the spirit and refinement, the purity and
+delicacy of Greek art, not its forms (Fig. 206). Its chief monuments
+were the remodelling, by _Duc_, of the +Palais de Justice+, of which the
+new west fa�ade is the most striking single feature; the beautiful
++Library of the �cole des Beaux-Arts+, by _Duban_; the library of +Ste.
+Gen�vi�ve+, by _Labrouste_, in which a long fa�ade is treated without a
+pilaster or column, simple arches over a massive basement forming the
+dominant motive, while in the interior a system of iron construction
+with glazed domes controls the design; and the commemorative +Colonne
+Juillet+, by Duc, the most elegant and appropriate of all modern
+memorial columns. All these buildings, begun between 1830 and 1850 and
+completed at various dates, are distinguished by a remarkable purity and
+freedom of conception and detail, quite unfettered by the artificial
+trammels of the official academic style then prevalent.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 206.--DOORWAY, �COLE DES BEAUX-ARTS, PARIS.]
+
+
++THE CLASSIC REVIVAL ELSEWHERE.+ The other countries of Europe have
+little to show in the way of imitations of classic monuments or
+reproductions of Roman colonnades. In Italy the church of +S.�Francesco
+di Paola+, at Naples, in quasi-imitation of the Pantheon at Rome, with
+wing-colonnades, and the +Superga+, at Turin (1706, by _Ivara_); the
+fa�ade of the San Carlo Theatre, at Naples, and the Braccio Nuovo of the
+Vatican (1817, by _Stern_) are the monuments which come the nearest to
+the spirit and style of the Roman Revival. Yet in each of these there is
+a large element of originality and freedom of treatment which renders
+doubtful their classification as examples of that movement.
+
+A reflection of the Munich school is seen in the modern public buildings
+of Athens, designed in some cases by German architects, and in others by
+native Greeks. The University, the Museum buildings, the Academy of Art
+and Science, and other edifices exemplify fairly successful efforts to
+adapt the severe details of classic Greek art to modern windowed
+structures. They suffer somewhat from the too liberal use of stucco in
+place of marble, and from the conscious affectation of an extinct style.
+But they are for the most part pleasing and monumental designs, adding
+greatly to the beauty of the modern city.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 207.--ST. ISAAC'S CATHEDRAL, ST. PETERSBURG.]
+
+In Russia, during and after the reign of Peter the Great (1689-1725),
+there appeared a curious mixture of styles. A�style analogous to the
+Jesuit in Italy and the Churrigueresque in Spain was generally
+prevalent, but it was in many cases modified by Muscovite traditions
+into nondescript forms like those of the +Kremlin+, at Moscow, or the
+less extravagant Citadel Church and Smolnoy Monastery at St. Petersburg.
+Along with this heavy and barbarous style, which prevails generally in
+the numerous palaces of the capital, finished in stucco with atrocious
+details, a�more severe and classical spirit is met with. The church of
+the +Greek Rite+ at St. Petersburg combines a Roman domical interior
+with an exterior of the Greek Doric order. The Church of +Our Lady of
+Kazan+ has a semicircular colonnade projecting from its transept,
+copying as nearly as may be the colonnades in front of St. Peter's. But
+the greatest classic monument in Russia is the +Cathedral of St. Isaac+
+(Fig. 207), at St. Petersburg, a�vast rectangular edifice with four
+Roman Corinthian pedimental colonnades projecting from its faces, and a
+dome with a peristyle crowning the whole. Despite many defects of
+detail, and the use of cast iron for the dome, which pretends to be of
+marble, this is one of the most impressive churches of its size in
+Europe. Internally it displays the costliest materials in extraordinary
+profusion, while externally its noble colonnades go far to redeem its
+bare attic and the material of its dome. The +Palace of the Grand Duke
+Michael+, which reproduces, with improvements, Gabriel's colonnades of
+the Garde Meuble at Paris on its garden front, is a nobly planned and
+commendable design, agreeably contrasting with the debased architecture
+of many of the public buildings of the city. The Admiralty with its
+Doric pilasters, and the +New Museum+, by von Klenze of Munich, in a
+skilfully modified Greek style, with effective loggias, are the only
+other monuments of the classic revival in Russia which can find mention
+in a brief sketch like this. Both are notable and in many respects
+admirable buildings, in part redeeming the vulgarity which is
+unfortunately so prevalent in the architecture of St. Petersburg.
+
+The +MONUMENTS+ of the Classic Revival have been referred to in the
+foregoing text at sufficient length to preclude the necessity of further
+enumeration here.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Chateau, Fergusson. Also Barqui,
+  _L'Architecture moderne en France_.--_Berlin und seine Bauten_
+  (and a series of similar works on the modern buildings of other
+  German cities). Daly, _Architecture priv�e du XIXe si�cle_.
+  Garnier, _Le nouvel Op�ra_. Gourlier, _Choix d'�difices publics_.
+  Licht, _Architektur Deutschlands_. L�bke, _Denkm�ler der Kunst_.
+  L�tzow und Tischler, _Wiener Neubauten_. Narjoux, _Monuments
+  �lev�s par la ville de Paris, 1850-1880_. R�ckwardt, _Fa�aden und
+  Details modernen Bauten_.--_Sammelmappe hervorragenden
+  Concurrenz-Entwurfen._ S�dille, _L'Architecture moderne_.
+  Selfridge, _Modern French Architecture_. Statham, _Modern
+  Architecture_. Villars, _England, Scotland, and Ireland_ (tr.
+  Henry Frith). Consult also _Transactions of the Royal Institute of
+  British Architects_, and the leading architectural journals of
+  recent years.
+
+
++MODERN CONDITIONS.+ The nineteenth century has been pre-eminently an
+age of industrial progress. Its most striking advances have been along
+mechanical, scientific, and commercial lines. As a result of this
+material progress the general conditions of mankind in civilized
+countries have undoubtedly been greatly bettered. Popular education and
+the printing-press have also raised the intellectual level of society,
+making learning the privilege of even the poorest. Intellectual,
+scientific, and commercial pursuits have thus largely absorbed those
+energies which in other ages found exercise in the creation of artistic
+forms and objects. The critical and sceptical spirit, the spirit of
+utilitarianism and realism, has checked the free and general development
+of the creative imagination, at least in the plastic arts. While in
+poetry and music there have been great and noble achievements, the
+plastic arts, including architecture, have only of late years attained a
+position at all worthy of the intellectual advancement of the times.
+
+Nevertheless the artistic spirit has never been wholly crushed out by
+the untoward pressure of realism and commercialism. Unfortunately it has
+repeatedly been directed in wrong channels. Modern arch�ology and the
+publication of the forms of historic art by books and photographs have
+too exclusively fastened attention upon the details of extinct styles as
+a source of inspiration in design. The whole range of historic art is
+brought within our survey, and while this has on the one hand tended
+toward the confusion and multiplication of styles in modern work, it has
+on the other led to a slavish adherence to historic precedent or a
+literal copying of historic forms. Modern architecture has thus
+oscillated between the extremes of arch�ological servitude and of an
+unreasoning eclecticism. In the hands of men of inferior training the
+results have been deplorable travesties of all styles, or meaningless
+aggregations of ill-assorted forms.
+
+An important factor in this demoralization of architectural design has
+been the development of new constructive methods, especially in the use
+of iron and steel. It has been impossible for modern designers, in their
+treatment of style, to keep pace with the rapid changes in the
+structural use of metal in architecture. The roofs of vast span, largely
+composed of glass, which modern methods of trussing have made possible
+for railway stations, armories, and exhibition buildings; the immense
+unencumbered spaces which may be covered by them; the introduction and
+development, especially in the United States, of the post-and-girder
+system of construction for high buildings, in which the external walls
+are a mere screen or filling-in; these have revolutionized architecture
+so rapidly and completely that architects are still struggling and
+groping to find the solution of many of the problems of style, scale,
+and composition which they have brought forward.
+
+Within the last thirty years, however, architecture has, despite these
+new conditions, made notable advances. The artistic emulation of
+repeated international exhibitions, the multiplication of museums and
+schools of art, the general advance in intelligence and enlightenment,
+have all contributed to this artistic progress. There appears to be more
+of the artistic and intellectual quality in the average architecture of
+the present time, on both sides of the Atlantic, than at any previous
+period in this century. The futility of the arch�ological revival of
+extinct styles is generally recognized. New conditions are gradually
+procuring the solution of the very problems they raise. Historic
+precedent sits more lightly on the architect than formerly, and the
+essential unity of principle underlying all good design is coming to be
+better understood.[26]
+
+    [Footnote 26: See Appendix D.]
+
+
++FRANCE.+ It is in France, Germany (including Austria), and England that
+the architectural progress of this period in Europe has been most
+marked. We have already noticed the results of the classic revivals in
+these three countries. Speaking broadly, it may be said that in France
+the influence of the _�cole des Beaux-Arts_, while it has tended to give
+greater unity and consistency to the national architecture, and has
+exerted a powerful influence in behalf of refinement of taste and
+correctness of style, has also stood in the way of a free development of
+new ideas. French architecture has throughout adhered to the principles
+of the Renaissance, though the style has during this century been
+modified by various influences. The first of these was the N�o-Grec
+movement, alluded to in the last chapter, which broke the grip of Roman
+tradition in matters of detail and gave greater elasticity to the
+national style. Next should be mentioned the Gothic movement represented
+by Viollet-le-Duc, Lassus, Ballu, and their followers. Beginning about
+1845, it produced comparatively few notable buildings, but gave a great
+impulse to the study of medi�val arch�ology and the restoration of
+medi�val monuments. The churches of Ste. Clothilde and of St. Jean de
+Belleville, at Paris, and the reconstruction of the Ch�teau de
+Pierrefonds, were among its direct results. Indirectly it led to a freer
+and more rational treatment of constructive forms and materials than had
+prevailed with the academic designers. The church of +St. Augustin+, by
+_Baltard_, at Paris, illustrates this in its use of iron and brick for
+the dome and vaulting, and the +College Chaptal+, by _E. Train_, in its
+decorative treatment of brick and tile externally. The general adoption
+of iron for roof-trusses and for the construction of markets and similar
+buildings tended further in the same direction, the +Halles Centrales+
+at Paris, by _Baltard_, being a notable example.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 208.--PLAN OF LOUVRE AND TUILERIES, PARIS.
+  A, A, _the Old Louvre, so called_; B, B, _the New Louvre._]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 209.--PAVILION OF RICHELIEU, LOUVRE.]
+
++THE SECOND EMPIRE.+ The reign of Napoleon III. (1852-70) was a period
+of exceptional activity, especially in Paris. The greatest monument of
+his reign was the completion of the +Louvre+ and +Tuileries+, under
+_Visconti_ and _Lefuel_, including the remodelling of the pavilions de
+Flore and de Marsan. The new portions constitute the most notable
+example of modern French architecture, and the manner in which the two
+palaces were united deserves high praise. In spite of certain defects,
+this work is marked by a combination of dignity, richness, and
+refinement, such as are rarely found in palace architecture (Figs. 208,
+209). The +New Opera+ (1863-75), by _Garnier_ (d. �1898), stands next to
+the Louvre in importance as a national monument. It is by far the most
+sumptuous building for amusement in existence, but in purity of detail
+and in the balance and restraint of its design it is inferior to the
+work of Visconti and Lefuel (Fig. 210). To this reign belong the Palais
+de l'Industrie, by _Viel_, built for the exhibition of 1855, and several
+great railway stations (Gare du Nord, by Hitorff, Gare de l'Est, Gare
+d'Orl�ans, etc.), in which the modern French version of the Renaissance
+was applied with considerable skill to buildings largely constructed of
+iron and glass. Town halls and theatres were erected in great numbers,
+and in decorative works like fountains and monuments the French were
+particularly successful. The fountains of +St. Michel+, Cuvier, and
+Moli�re, at Paris, and of +Longchamps+, at Marseilles (Fig. 211),
+illustrate the fertility of resource and elegance of detailed treatment
+of the French in this department. Mention should also here be made of
+the extensive enterprises carried out by Napoleon III., in rectifying
+and embellishing the street-plan of Paris by new avenues and squares on
+a vast scale, adding greatly to the monumental splendor of the city.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 210.--GRAND STAIRCASE OF THE OPERA, PARIS.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 211.--FOUNTAIN OF LONGCHAMPS, MARSEILLES.]
+
++THE REPUBLIC.+ Since the disasters of 1870 a number of important
+structures have been erected, and French architecture has shown a
+remarkable vitality and flexibility under new conditions. Its
+productions have in general been marked by a refined taste and a
+conspicuous absence of eccentricity and excess; but it has for the most
+part trodden in well-worn paths. The most notable recent monuments are,
+in church architecture, the +Sacr�-Coeur+, at Montmartre, by _Abadie_,
+a�votive church inspired from the Franco-Byzantine style of Aquitania;
+in civil architecture the new +H�tel de Ville+, at Paris, by _Ballu_ and
+_D�perthes_, recalling the original structure destroyed by the Commune,
+but in reality an original creation of great merit; in scholastic
+architecture the new �cole de M�decine, and the new +Sorbonne+, by
+_N�not_, and in other branches of the art the metal-and-glass exhibition
+buildings of 1878, 1889, and 1900. In the last of these the striving for
+originality and the effort to discard traditional forms reached the
+extreme, although accompanied by much very clever detail and a masterly
+use of color-decoration. To these should be added many noteworthy
+theatres, town-halls, court-houses, and _pr�fectures_ in provincial
+cities, and commemorative columns and monuments almost without number.
+In street architecture there is now much more variety and originality
+than formerly, especially in private houses, and the reaction against
+the orders and against traditional methods of design has of late been
+growing stronger. The chief excellence of modern French architecture
+lies in its rational planning, monumental spirit, and refinement of
+detail (Fig. 212).
+
+
++GERMANY AND AUSTRIA.+ German architecture has been more affected during
+the past fifty years by the arch�ological spirit than has the French.
+A�pronounced medi�val revival partly accompanied, partly followed the
+Greek revival in Germany, and produced a number of churches and a few
+secular buildings in the basilican, Romanesque, and Gothic styles.These
+are less interesting than those in the Greek style, because medi�val
+forms are even more foreign to modern needs than the classic, being
+compatible only with systems of design and construction which are no
+longer practicable. At Munich the Auekirche, by _Ohlmuller_, in an
+attenuated Gothic style; the Byzantine Ludwigskirche, and _Ziebland's_
+Basilica following Early Christian models; the Basilica by _H�bsch _, at
+Bulach, and the Votive Church at Vienna (1856) by H.�Von Ferstel
+(1828-1883) are notable neo-medi�val monuments. The last-named church
+may be classed with Ste. Clothilde at Paris (see p.�371), and St.
+Patrick's Cathedral at New York, all three being of approximately the
+same size and general style, recalling St. Ouen at Rouen. They are
+correct and elaborate, but more or less cold and artificial.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 212.--MUS�E GALLI�RA, PARIS.]
+
+More successful are many of the German theatres and concert halls, in
+which Renaissance and classic forms have been freely used. In several of
+these the attempt has been made to express by the external form the
+curvilinear plan of the auditorium, as in the +Dresden Theatre+, by
+_Semper_ (1841; Fig. 213), the theatre at Carlsruhe, by H�bsch, and the
+double winter-summer +Victoria Theatre+, at Berlin, by _Titz_. But the
+practical and �sthetic difficulties involved in this treatment have
+caused its general abandonment. The +Opera House+ at Vienna, by
+_Siccardsburg_ and _Van der Null_ (1861-69), is rectangular in its
+masses, and but for a certain triviality of detail would rank among the
+most successful buildings of its kind. The new +Burgtheater+ in the same
+city is a more elaborately ornate structure in Renaissance style,
+somewhat florid and overdone.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 213.--THEATRE AT DRESDEN.]
+
+Modern German architecture is at its best in academic and residential
+buildings. The +Bauschule+, at Berlin, by Schinkel, in which brick is
+used in a rational and dignified design without the orders; the
+Polytechnic School, at Z�rich, by Semper; university buildings, and
+especially buildings for technical instruction, at Carlsruhe, Stuttgart,
+Strasburg, Vienna, and other cities, show a monumental treatment of the
+exterior and of the general distribution, combined with a careful study
+of practical requirements. In administrative buildings the Germans have
+hardly been as successful; and the new +Parliament House+, at Berlin, by
+_Wallot_, in spite of its splendor and costliness, is heavy and
+unsatisfactory in detail. The larger cities, especially Berlin, contain
+many excellent examples of house architecture, mostly in the Renaissance
+style, sufficiently monumental in design, though usually, like most
+German work, inclined to heaviness of detail. The too free use of stucco
+in imitation of stone is also open to criticism.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 214.--BLOCK OF DWELLINGS (MARIE-THERESIENHOF),
+  VIENNA.]
+
++VIENNA.+ During the last thirty years Vienna has undergone a
+transformation which has made it the rival of Paris as a stately
+capital. The remodelling of the central portion, the creation of a
+series of magnificent boulevards and squares, and the grouping of the
+chief state and municipal buildings about these upon a monumental scheme
+of arrangement, have given the city an unusual aspect of splendor. Among
+the most important monuments in this group are the +Parliament House+,
+by Hansen (see p.�360), and the +Town Hall+, by _Schmidt_. This latter
+is a Neo-Gothic edifice of great size and pretentiousness, but strangely
+thin and meagre in detail, and quite out of harmony with its
+surroundings. The university and museums are massive piles in
+Renaissance style; and it is the Renaissance rather than the classic or
+Gothic revival which prevails throughout the new city. The great blocks
+of residences and apartments (Fig. 214) which line its streets are
+highly ornate in their architecture, but for the most part done in
+stucco, which fails after all to give the aspect of solidity and
+durability which it seeks to counterfeit.
+
+The city of +Buda-Pesth+ has also in recent years undergone a phenomenal
+transformation of a similar nature to that effected in Vienna, but it
+possesses fewer monuments of conspicuous architectural interest. The
++Synagogue+ is the most noted of these, a�rich and pleasing edifice of
+brick in a modified Hispano-Moresque style.
+
+
++GREAT BRITAIN.+ During the closing years of the Anglo-Greek
+style a coterie of enthusiastic students of British medi�val
+monuments--arch�ologists rather than architects--initiated a movement
+for the revival of the national Gothic architecture. The first fruits
+of this movement, led by Pugin, Brandon, Rickman, and others (about
+1830-40), were seen in countless pseudo-Gothic structures in which
+the pointed arches, buttresses, and clustered shafts of medi�val
+architecture were imitated or parodied according to the designer's
+ability, with frequent misapprehension of their proper use or
+significance. This unintelligent misapplication of Gothic forms was,
+however, confined to the earlier stages of the movement. With increasing
+light and experience came a more correct and consistent use of the
+medi�val styles, dominated by the same spirit of arch�ological
+correctness which had produced the _classicismo_ of the Late Renaissance
+in Italy. This spirit, stimulated by extensive enterprises in the
+restoration of the great medi�val monuments of the United Kingdom, was
+fatal to any free and original development of the style along new lines.
+But it rescued church architecture from the utter meanness and
+debasement into which it had fallen, and established a standard of taste
+which reacted on all other branches of design.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 215.--HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, WESTMINSTER,
+  LONDON.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 216.--ASSIZE COURTS, MANCHESTER. DETAIL.]
+
++THE VICTORIAN GOTHIC.+ Between 1850 and 1870 the striving after
+arch�ological correctness gave place to the more rational effort to
+adapt Gothic principles to modern requirements, instead of merely
+copying extinct styles. This effort, prosecuted by a number of
+architects of great intelligence, culture, and earnestness (Sir Gilbert
+Scott, George Edmund Street, William Burges, and others), resulted in a
+number of extremely interesting buildings. Chief among these in size and
+cost stand the +Parliament Houses+ at Westminster, by _Sir Charles
+Barry_ (begun 1839), in the Perpendicular style. This immense structure
+(Fig. 215), imposing in its simple masses and refined in its carefully
+studied detail, is the most successful monument of the Victorian Gothic
+style. It suffers, however, from the want of proper relation of scale
+between its decorative elements and the vast proportions of the edifice,
+which belittle its component elements. It cannot, on the whole, be
+claimed as a successful vindication of the claims of the promoters of
+the style as to the adaptability of Gothic forms to structures planned
+and built after the modern fashion. The +Assize Courts+ at Manchester
+(Fig. 216), the +New Museum+ at Oxford, the gorgeous +Albert Memorial+
+at London, by _Scott_, and the +New Law Courts+ at London, by _Street_,
+are all conspicuous illustrations of the same truth. They are
+conscientious, carefully studied designs in good taste, and yet wholly
+unsuited in style to their purpose. They are like labored and scholarly
+verse in a foreign tongue, correct in form and language, but lacking the
+naturalness and charm of true and unfettered inspiration. A�later essay
+of the same sort in a slightly different field is the +Natural History
+Museum+ at South Kensington, by _Waterhouse_ (1879), an imposing
+building in a modified Romanesque style (Fig. 217).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 217.--NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, LONDON.]
+
+
++OTHER WORKS.+ The Victorian Gothic style responded to no deep and
+general movement of the popular taste, and, like the Anglo-Greek style,
+was doomed to failure from the inherent incongruity between modern needs
+and medi�val forms. Within the last twenty years there has been a quite
+general return to Renaissance principles, and the result is seen in a
+large number of town-halls, exchanges, museums, and colleges, in which
+Renaissance forms, with and without the orders, have been treated with
+increasing freedom and skilful adaptation to the materials and special
+requirements of each case. The Albert Memorial Hall (1863, by General
+Scott) may be taken as an early instance of this movement, and the
++Imperial Institute+ (Colonial offices), by Collcutt, and Oxford Town
+Hall, by Aston Webb, as among its latest manifestations. In domestic
+architecture the so-called Queen Anne style has been much in vogue, as
+practised by Norman Shaw, Ernest George, and others. It is really a
+modern style, originating in the imitation of the modified Palladian
+style as used in the brick architecture of Queen Anne's time, but freely
+and often artistically altered to meet modern tastes and needs.
+
+In its emancipation from the mistaken principles of arch�ological
+revivals, and in its evidences of improved taste and awakened
+originality, contemporary British architecture shows promise of good
+things to come. It is still inferior to the French in the monumental
+quality, in technical resource and refinement of decorative detail.
+
+
++ELSEWHERE IN EUROPE.+ In other European countries recent architecture
+shows in general increasing freedom and improved good taste, but both
+its opportunities and its performance have been nowhere else as
+conspicuous as in France, Germany, and England. The costly Bourse and
+the vast but overloaded Palais de Justice at Brussels, by _Polaert_, are
+neither of them conspicuous for refined and cultivated taste. A�few
+buildings of note in Switzerland, Russia, and Greece might find mention
+in a more extended review of architecture, but cannot here even be
+enumerated. In Italy, especially at Rome, Milan, Naples, and Turin,
+there has been a great activity in building since 1870, but with the
+exception of the +Monument to Victor Emmanuel+ and the National Museum
+at Rome, monumental arcades and passages at Milan and Naples, and _Campi
+Santi_ or monumental cemeteries at Bologna, Genoa, and one or two other
+places, there has been almost nothing of real importance built in Italy
+of late years.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Statham. Also, Chandler,
+  _The Colonial Architecture of Maryland, Pennsylvania, and
+  Virginia_. Cleaveland and Campbell, _American Landmarks_. Corner
+  and Soderholz, _Colonial Architecture in New England_. Crane and
+  Soderholz, _Examples of Colonial Architecture in Charleston and
+  Savannah_. Drake, _Historic Fields and Mansions of Middlesex_.
+  Everett, _Historic Churches of America_. King, _Handbook of
+  Boston_; _Handbook of New York_. Little, _Early New England
+  Interiors_. Schuyler, _American Architecture_. Van Rensselaer, _H.
+  H. Richardson and His Works_. Wallis, _Old Colonial Architecture
+  and Furniture_.
+
+
++GENERAL REMARKS.+ The colonial architecture of modern times presents a
+peculiar phenomenon. The colonizing nation, carrying into its new
+_habitat_ the tastes and practices of a long-established civilization,
+modifies these only with the utmost reluctance, under the absolute
+compulsion of new conditions. When the new home is virgin soil,
+destitute of cultivation, government, or civilized inhabitants, the
+accompaniments and activities of civilization introduced by the
+colonists manifest themselves at first in curious contrast to the
+primitive surroundings. The struggle between organized life and chaos,
+the laborious subjugation of nature to the requirements of our complex
+modern life, for a considerable period absorb the energies of the
+colonists. The amenities of culture, the higher intellectual life, the
+refinements of art can, during this period, receive little attention.
+Meanwhile a new national character is being formed; the people are
+undergoing the moral training upon which their subsequent achievements
+must depend. With the conquest of brute nature, however, and the gradual
+emergence of a more cultivated class, with the growth of commerce and
+wealth and the consequent increase of leisure, the humanities find more
+place in the colonial life. The fine arts appear in scattered centres
+determined by peculiarly favorable conditions. For a long time they
+retain the impress, and seek to reproduce the forms, of the art of the
+mother country. But new conditions impose a new development. Maturing
+commerce with other lands brings in foreign influences, to which the
+still unformed colonial art is peculiarly susceptible. Only with
+political and commercial independence, fully developed internal
+resources, and a high national culture do the arts finally attain, as it
+were, their majority, and enter upon a truly national growth.
+
+These facts are abundantly illustrated by the architectural history of
+the United States. The only one among the British colonies to attain
+political independence, it is the only one among them whose architecture
+has as yet entered upon an independent course of development, and this
+only within the last twenty-five or thirty years. Nor has even this
+development produced as yet a distinctive local style. It has, however,
+originated new constructive methods, new types of buildings, and a
+distinctively American treatment of the composition and the masses; the
+decorative details being still, for the most part, derived from historic
+precedents. The architecture of the other British colonies has retained
+its provincial character, though producing from time to time individual
+works of merit. In South America and Mexico the only buildings of
+importance are Spanish, French, or German in style, according to the
+nationality of the architects employed. The following sketch of American
+architecture refers, therefore, exclusively to its development in the
+United States.
+
+
++FORMATIVE PERIOD.+ Buildings in stone were not undertaken by the early
+English colonists. The more important structures in the Southern and
+Dutch colonies were of brick imported from Europe. Wood was, however,
+the material most commonly employed, especially in New England, and its
+use determined in large measure the form and style of the colonial
+architecture. There was little or no striving for architectural elegance
+until well into the eighteenth century, when Wren's influence asserted
+itself in a modest way in the Middle and Southern colonies. The very
+simple and unpretentious town-hall at Williamsburg, Va., and St.
+Michael's, Charleston, are attributed to him; but the most that can be
+said for these, as for the brick churches and manors of Virginia
+previous to 1725, is that they are simple in design and pleasing in
+proportion, without special architectural elegance. The same is true of
+the wooden houses and churches of New England of the period, except that
+they are even simpler in design.
+
+From 1725 to 1775 increased population and wealth along the coast
+brought about a great advance in architecture, especially in churches
+and in the dwellings of the wealthy. During this period was developed
+the _Colonial style_, based on that of the reigns of Anne and the first
+two Georges in England, and in church architecture on the models set by
+Wren and Gibbs. All the details were, however, freely modified by the
+general employment of wood. The scarcity of architects trained in Old
+World traditions contributed to this departure from classic precision of
+form. The style, especially in interior design, reflected the cultured
+taste of the colonial aristocracy in its refined treatment of the
+woodwork. But there was little or no architecture of a truly monumental
+character. Edifices of stone were singularly few, and administrative
+buildings were small and modest, owing to insufficient grants from the
+Crown, as well as to the poverty of the colonies.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 218.--CHRIST CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA.]
+
+The churches of this period include a number of interesting designs,
+especially pleasing in the forms of their steeples. The "+Old South+" at
+Boston (now a museum), Trinity at Newport, and +St. Paul's+ at New
+York--one of the few built of stone (1764)--are good examples of the
+style. +Christ Church+ at Philadelphia (1727-35, by Dr. Kearsley) is
+another example, historically as well as architecturally interesting
+(Fig. 218); and there are scores of other churches almost equally
+noteworthy, scattered through New England, Maryland, Virginia, and the
+Middle States.
+
+
++DWELLINGS.+ These reflect better than the churches the varying tastes
+of the different colonies. Maryland and Virginia abound in fine brick
+manor-houses, set amid extensive grounds walled in and entered through
+iron gates of artistic design. The interior finish of these houses was
+often elaborate in conception and admirably executed. Westover (1737),
+Carter's Grove (1737) in Virginia, and the Harwood and Hammond Houses at
+Annapolis, Md. (1770), are examples. The majority of the New England
+houses were of wood, more compact in plan, more varied and picturesque
+in design than those of the South, but wanting somewhat of their
+stateliness. The interior finish of wainscot, cornices, stairs, and
+mantelpieces shows, however, the same general style, in a skilful and
+artistic adaptation of classic forms to the slender proportions of wood
+construction. Externally the orders appear in porches and in colossal
+pilasters, with well designed entablatures, and windows of Italian
+model. The influence of the Adams and Sheraton furniture is doubtless to
+be seen in these quaint and often charming versions of classic motives.
+The Hancock House, Boston (of stone, demolished); the Sherburne House,
+Portsmouth (1730); Craigie House, Cambridge (1757, Fig. 219); and
+Rumford House, North Woburn (Mass.), are typical examples.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 219.--CRAIGIE (LONGFELLOW) HOUSE, CAMBRIDGE.]
+
+In the Middle States architectural activity was chiefly centred in
+Philadelphia and New York, and one or two other towns, where a number of
+manor-houses, still extant, attest the wealth and taste of the time. It
+is noticeable that the veranda or piazza was confined to the Southern
+States, but that the climate seems to have had little influence on the
+forms of roofs. These were gambrelled, hipped, gabled, or flat, alike in
+the North and South, according to individual taste.
+
+
++PUBLIC BUILDINGS.+ Of public and monumental architecture this period
+has little to show. Large cities did not exist; New York, Boston, and
+Philadelphia were hardly more than overgrown villages. The public
+buildings--court-houses and town-halls--were modest and inexpensive
+structures. The Old State House and Faneuil Hall at Boston, the Town
+Hall at Newport (R.I.), and Independence Hall at Philadelphia, the best
+known of those now extant, are not striking architecturally. Monumental
+design was beyond the opportunities and means of the colonies. It was in
+their churches, all of moderate size, and in their dwellings that the
+colonial builders achieved their greatest successes; and these works are
+quaint, charming, and refined, rather than impressive or imposing.
+
+To the latter part of the colonial period belong a number of interesting
+buildings which remain as monuments of Spanish rule in California,
+Florida, and the Southwest. The old Fort S.�Marco, now Fort Marion
+(1656-1756), and the Catholic cathedral (1793; after the fire of 1887
+rebuilt in its original form with the original fa�ade uninjured), both
+at St. Augustine, Fla.; the picturesque buildings of the California
+missions (mainly 1769-1800), the majority of them now in ruins;
+scattered Spanish churches in California, Arizona, and New Mexico, and a
+few unimportant secular buildings, display among their modern and
+American settings a picturesque and interesting Spanish aspect and
+character, though from the point of view of architectural detail they
+represent merely a crude phase of the Churrigueresque style.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 220.--NATIONAL CAPITOL, WASHINGTON.]
+
++EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD.+ Between the Revolution and the War of 1812,
+under the new conditions of independence and self-government,
+architecture took on a more monumental character. Buildings for the
+State and National administrations were erected with the rapidly
+increasing resources of the country. Stone was more generally used;
+colonnades, domes, and cupolas or bell-towers, were adopted as
+indispensable features of civic architecture. In church-building the
+Wren-Gibbs type continued to prevail, but with greater correctness of
+classic forms. The gambrel roof tended to disappear from the houses of
+this period, and there was some decline in the refinement and delicacy
+of the details of architecture. The influence of the Louis XVI. style is
+traceable in many cases, as in the New York City Hall (1803-12, by
+_McComb_ and _Mangin_), one of the very best designs of the time, and in
+the delicate stucco-work and interior finish of many houses, The
+original +Capitol+ at Washington--the central portion of the present
+edifice--by _Thornton_, _Hallet_, and _B. H. Latrobe_ (1793-1830; Fig.
+220), the +State House+ at Boston (1795, by _Bulfinch_), and the
+University of Virginia, at Charlotteville, by _Thomas Jefferson_ (1817;
+recently destroyed in part by fire), are the most interesting examples
+of the classic tendencies of this period. Their freedom from the rococo
+vulgarities generally prevalent at the time in Europe is noticeable.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 221.--CUSTOM HOUSE, NEW YORK.]
+
++THE CLASSIC REVIVAL.+ The influence of the classic revivals of Europe
+began to appear before the close of this period, and reached its
+culmination about 1830-40. It left its impress most strongly on our
+Federal architecture, although it invaded domestic architecture,
+producing countless imitations, in brick and wooden houses, of Grecian
+colonnades and porticos. One of its first-fruits was the White House, or
+Executive Mansion, at Washington, by _Hoban_ (1792), recalling the large
+English country houses of the time. The +Treasury+ and +Patent Office+
+buildings at Washington, the Philadelphia Mint, the +Sub-treasury+ and
++Custom House+ at New York (the latter erected originally for a bank;
+Fig. 221), and the +Boston Custom House+ are among the important Federal
+buildings of this period. Several State capitols were also erected under
+the same influence; and the Marine Exchange and +Girard College+ at
+Philadelphia should also be mentioned as conspicuous examples of the
+pseudo-Greek style. The last-named building is a Corinthian dormitory,
+its tiers of small windows contrasting strangely with its white marble
+columns. These classic buildings were solidly and carefully constructed,
+but lacked the grace, cheerfulness, and appropriateness of earlier
+buildings. The Capitol at Washington was during this period greatly
+enlarged by terminal wings with fine Corinthian porticos, of Roman
+rather than Greek design. The +Dome+, by _Walters_, was not added until
+1858-73; it is a successful and harmonious composition, nobly completing
+the building. Unfortunately, it is an afterthought, built of iron
+painted to simulate marble, the substructure being inadequate to support
+a dome of masonry. The Italian or Roman style which it exemplified, in
+time superseded the less tractable Greek style.
+
+
++THE WAR PERIOD.+ The period from 1850 to 1876 was one of intense
+political activity and rapid industrial progress. The former culminated
+in the terrible upheaval of the civil war; the latter in the completion
+of the Pacific Railroad (1869) and a remarkable development of the
+mining resources and manufactures of the country. It was a period of
+feverish commercial activity, but of artistic stagnation, and witnessed
+the erection of but few buildings of architectural importance. A�number
+of State capitols, city halls and churches, of considerable size and
+cost but of inferior design, attest the decline of public taste and
+architectural skill during these years. The huge Municipal Building at
+Philadelphia and the still unfinished Capitol at Albany are full of
+errors of planning and detail which twenty-five years of elaboration
+have failed to correct. Next to the dome of the Capitol at Washington,
+completed during this period, of which it is the most signal
+architectural achievement, its most notable monument was the +St.
+Patrick's Cathedral+ at New York, by _Renwick_; a�Gothic church which,
+if somewhat cold and mechanical in detail, is a�stately and
+well-considered design. Its west front and spires (completed 1886) are
+particularly successful. Trinity Church (1843, by _Upjohn_) and Grace
+Church (1840, by Renwick), though of earlier date, should be classed
+with this cathedral as worthy examples of modern Gothic design. Indeed,
+the churches designed in this style by a few thoroughly trained
+architects during this period are the most creditable and worthy among
+its lesser productions. In general an undiscriminating eclecticism of
+style prevailed, unregulated by sober taste or technical training. The
+Federal buildings by _Mullett_ were monuments of perverted design in a
+heavy and inartistic rendering of French Renaissance motives. The New
+York Post Office and the State, Army and Navy Department building at
+Washington are examples of this style.
+
+
++THE ARTISTIC AWAKENING.+ Between 1870 and 1880 a remarkable series of
+events exercised a powerful influence on the artistic life of the United
+States. Two terrible conflagrations in Chicago (1871) and Boston (1872)
+gave unexampled opportunities for architectural improvement and greatly
+stimulated the public interest in the art. The feverish and abnormal
+industrial activity which followed the war and the rapid growth of the
+parvenu spirit were checked by the disastrous "panic" of 1873. With the
+completion of the Pacific railways and the settlement of new communities
+in the West, industrial prosperity, when it returned, was established on
+a firmer basis. An extraordinary expansion of travel to Europe began to
+disseminate the seeds of artistic culture throughout the country. The
+successful establishment of schools of architecture in Boston (1866) and
+other cities, and the opening or enlargement of art museums in New York,
+Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Detroit, Milwaukee, and elsewhere,
+stimulated the artistic awakening which now manifested itself. In
+architecture the personal influence of two men, trained in the Paris
+�cole des Beaux-Arts, was especially felt--of _R. M. Hunt_ (1827-95)
+through his words and deeds quite as much as through his works; and of
+_H. H. Richardson_ (1828-86) predominantly through his works. These two
+men, with others of less fame but of high ideals and thorough culture,
+did much to elevate architecture as an art in the public esteem. To all
+these influences new force was added by the Centennial Exhibition at
+Philadelphia (1876). Here for the first time the American people were
+brought into contact, in their own land, with the products of European
+and Oriental art. It was to them an artistic revelation, whose results
+were prompt and far-reaching. Beginning first in the domain of
+industrial and decorative art, its stimulating influence rapidly
+extended to painting and architecture, and with permanent consequences.
+American students began to throng the centres of Old World art, while
+the setting of higher standards of artistic excellence at home, and the
+development of important art-industries, were other fruits of this
+artistic awakening. The recent Columbian Exhibition at Chicago (1893),
+its latest and most important manifestation, has added a new impulse to
+the movement, especially in architecture.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 222.--TRINITY CHURCH, BOSTON.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 223.--LIBRARY AT WOBURN, MASS.]
+
++STYLE IN RECENT ARCHITECTURE.+ The rapid increase in the number of
+American architects trained in Paris or under the indirect influence of
+the �cole des Beaux-Arts has been an important factor in recent
+architectural progress. Yet it has by no means imposed the French
+academic formul� upon American architecture. The conditions, materials,
+and constructive processes here prevailing, and above all the
+eclecticism of the public taste, have prevented this. The French
+influence is perceived rather in a growing appreciation of monumental
+design in the planning, composition, and setting of buildings, than in
+any direct imitation of French models. The Gothic revival which
+prevailed more or less widely from 1840 to 1875, as already noticed, and
+of which the +State Capitol+ at Hartford (Conn.; 1875-78), and the +Fine
+Arts Museum+ at Boston, were among the last important products, was
+generally confined to church architecture, for which Gothic forms are
+still largely employed, as in the Protestant +Cathedral+ of +All Saints+
+now building at Albany (N.Y.), by an English architect. For the most
+part the works of the last twenty years show a more or less judicious
+eclecticism, the choice of style being determined partly by the person
+and training of the designer, partly by the nature of the building. The
+powerfully conceived works of Richardson, in a free version of the
+French Romanesque, for a time exercised a wide influence, especially
+among the younger architects. +Trinity Church+, Boston (Fig. 222), his
+earliest important work; many public libraries and business buildings,
+and finally the impressive +County Buildings+ at Pittsburgh (Pa.), all
+treated in this style, are admirable rather for the strong individuality
+of their designer, displayed in their vigorous composition, than on
+account of the historic style he employed (Fig. 223). Yet it appeared in
+his hands so flexible and effective that it was widely imitated. But if
+easy to use, it is most difficult to use well; its forms are too massive
+for ordinary purposes, and in the hands of inferior designers it was so
+often travestied that it has now lost its wide popularity. While a
+number of able architects have continued to use it effectively in
+ecclesiastical, civic, and even commercial architecture, it is being
+generally superseded by various forms of the Renaissance. Here also a
+wide eclecticism prevails, the works of the same architect often varying
+from the gayest Francis�I. designs in domestic architecture, or free
+adaptations of Quattrocento details for theatres and street
+architecture, to the most formal classicism in colossal
+exhibition-buildings, museums, libraries, and the like. Meanwhile there
+are many more or less successful ventures in other historic styles
+applied to public and private edifices. Underlying this apparent
+confusion, almost anarchy in the use of historic styles, the careful
+observer may detect certain tendencies crystallizing into definite form.
+New materials and methods of construction, increased attention to
+detail, a�growing sense of monumental requirements, even the development
+of the elevator as a substitute for the grand staircase, are leaving
+their mark on the planning, the proportions, and the artistic
+composition of American buildings, irrespective of the styles used. The
+art is with us in a state of transition, and open to criticism in many
+respects; but it appears to be full of life and promise for the future.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 224.--"TIMES" BUILDING, NEW YORK.]
+
++COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS.+ This class of edifices has in our great cities
+developed wholly new types, which have taken shape under four imperative
+influences. These are the demand for fire-proof construction, the demand
+for well-lighted offices, the introduction of elevators, and the
+concentration of business into limited areas, within which land has
+become inordinately costly. These causes have led to the erection of
+buildings of excessive height (Fig. 224); the more recent among them
+constructed with a framework of iron or steel columns and beams, the
+visible walls being a mere filling-in. To render a building of twenty
+stories attractive to the eye, especially when built on an irregular
+site, is a difficult problem, of which a wholly satisfactory solution
+has yet to be found. There have been, however, some notable achievements
+in this line, in most of which the principle has been clearly recognized
+that a lofty building should have a well-marked basement or pedestal and
+a somewhat ornate crowning portion or capital, the intervening stories
+serving as a die or shaft and being treated with comparative simplicity.
+The difficulties of scale and of handling one hundred and fifty to three
+hundred windows of uniform style have been surmounted with conspicuous
+skill (+American Surety Building+ and Broadway Chambers, New York; Ames
+Building, Boston; Carnegie Building, Pittsburgh; Union Trust, St.
+Louis). In some cases, especially in Chicago and the Middle West, the
+metallic framework is suggested by slender piers between the windows,
+rising uninterrupted from the basement to the top story. In others,
+especially in New York and the East, the walls are treated as in
+ordinary masonry buildings. The Chicago school is marked by a more
+utilitarian and unconventional treatment, with results which are often
+extremely bold and effective, but rarely as pleasing to the eye as those
+attained by the more conservative Eastern school. In the details of
+American office-buildings every variety of style is to be met with; but
+the Romanesque and the Renaissance, freely modified, predominate. The
+tendency towards two or three well-marked types in the external
+composition of these buildings, as above suggested, promises, however,
+the evolution of a style in which the historic origin of the details
+will be a secondary matter. Certain Chicago architects have developed an
+original treatment of architectural forms by exaggerating some of the
+structural lines, by suppressing the mouldings and more familiar
+historic forms, and by the free use of flat surface ornament. The
+Schiller, Auditorium, and Fisher Buildings, all at Chicago, Guaranty
+Building, Buffalo, and Majestic Building, Detroit, are examples of this
+personal style, which illustrates the untrammelled freedom of the art in
+a land without traditions.[27]
+
+    [Footnote 27: See Appendix, D and E.]
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 225.--COUNTRY HOUSE, MASSACHUSETTS.]
+
++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ It is in this field that the most
+characteristic and original phases of American architecture are to be
+met with, particularly in rural and suburban residences. In these the
+peculiar requirements of our varying climates and of American domestic
+life have been studied and in large measure met with great frankness and
+artistic appreciation. The broad staircase-hall, serving often as a sort
+of family sitting-room, the piazza, and a picturesque massing of steep
+roofs, have been the controlling factors in the evolution of two or
+three general types which appear in infinite variations. The material
+most used is wood, but this has had less influence in the determination
+of form than might have been expected. The artlessness of the planning,
+which is arranged to afford the maximum of convenience rather than to
+conform to any traditional type, has been the element of greatest
+artistic success. It has resulted in exteriors which are the natural
+outgrowth of the interior arrangements, frankly expressed, without
+affectation of style (Fig. 225). The resulting picturesqueness has,
+however, in many cases been treated as an end instead of an incidental
+result, and the affectation of picturesqueness has in such designs
+become as detrimental as any affectation of style. In the internal
+treatment of American houses there has also been a notable artistic
+advance, harmony of color and domestic comfort and luxury being sought
+after rather than monumental effects. A�number of large city and country
+houses designed on a palatial scale have, however, given opportunity for
+a more elaborate architecture; notably the Vanderbilt, Villard, and
+Huntington residences at New York, the great country-seat of +Biltmore+,
+near Asheville (N.C.), in the Francis�I. style (by R.�M. Hunt), and many
+others.
+
+
++OTHER BUILDINGS.+ American architects have generally been less
+successful in public, administrative, and ecclesiastical architecture
+than in commercial and domestic work. The preference for small parish
+churches, treated as audience-rooms rather than as places of worship,
+has interfered with the development of noble types of church-buildings.
+Yet there are signs of improvement; and the new +Cathedral+ of +St. John
+the Divine+ at New York, in a modified Romanesque style, promises to be
+a worthy and monumental building. In semi-public architecture, such as
+hotels, theatres, clubs, and libraries, there are many notable examples
+of successful design. The +Ponce de Leon Hotel+ at St. Augustine,
+a�sumptuous and imposing pile in a free version of the Spanish
+Plateresco; the Auditorium Theatre at Chicago, the Madison Square Garden
+and the Casino at New York, may be cited as excellent in general
+conception and well carried out in detail, externally and internally.
+The Century and Metropolitan Clubs at New York, the +Boston Public
+Library+, the Carnegie Library at Pittsburgh, the +Congressional
+Library+ at Washington, and the recently completed Minnesota +State
+Capitol+ at St. Paul, exemplify in varying degrees of excellence the
+increasing capacity of American architects for monumental design. This
+was further shown in the buildings of the +Columbian Exposition+ at
+Chicago in 1893. These, in spite of many faults of detail, constituted
+an aggregate of architectural splendor such as had never before been
+seen or been possible on this side the Atlantic. They further brought
+architecture into closer union with the allied arts and formed an object
+lesson in the value of appropriate landscape gardening as a setting to
+monumental structures.
+
+It should be said, in conclusion, that with the advances of recent years
+in artistic design in the United States there has been at least as great
+improvement in scientific construction. The sham and flimsiness of the
+Civil War period are passing away, and solid and durable building is
+becoming more general throughout the country, but especially in the
+Northeast and in some of the great Western cities, notably in Chicago.
+In this onward movement the Federal buildings--post-offices,
+custom-houses, and other governmental edifices--have not, till lately,
+taken high rank. Although solidly and carefully constructed, those built
+during the period 1875-1895 were generally inferior to the best work
+produced by private enterprise, or by State and municipal governments.
+This was in large part due to enactments devolving upon the supervising
+architect at Washington the planning of all Federal buildings, as well
+as a burden of supervisory and clerical duties incompatible with the
+highest artistic results. Since 1898, however, a�more enlightened policy
+has prevailed, and a number of notable designs for Federal buildings
+have been secured by carefully-conducted competitions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+INDIA, CHINA, AND JAPAN.
+
+
+  BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Cole, _Monographs of Ancient Monuments of
+  India_. Conder, _Notes on Japanese Architecture_ (in Transactions
+  of R.I.B.A., for 1886). Cunningham, _Arch�ological Survey of
+  India_. Fergusson, _Indian and Eastern Architecture_; _Picturesque
+  Illustrations of Indian Architecture_. Le Bon, _Les Monuments de
+  l'Inde_. Morse, _Japanese Houses_. Stirling, _Asiatic Researches_.
+  Consult also the _Journal_ and the _Transactions_ of the Royal
+  Asiatic Society.
+
+
++INTRODUCTORY NOTE.+ The architecture of the non-Moslem countries and
+races of Asia has been reserved for this closing chapter, in order not
+to interrupt the continuity of the history of European styles, with
+which it has no affinity and scarcely even a point of contact. Among
+them all, India alone has produced monuments of great architectural
+importance. The buildings of China and Japan, although interesting for
+their style, methods, and detail, and so deserving at least of brief
+mention, are for the most part of moderate size and of perishable
+materials. Outside of these three countries there is little to interest
+the general student of architecture.
+
+
++INDIA: PERIODS.+ It is difficult to classify the non-Mohammedan styles
+of India, owing to their frequently overlapping, both geographically and
+artistically; while the lack of precise dates in Indian literature makes
+the chronology of many of the monuments more or less doubtful. The
+divisions given below are a modification of those first established by
+Fergusson, and are primarily based on the three great religions, with
+geographical subdivisions, as follows:
+
+THE BUDDHIST STYLE, from the reign of Asoka, _cir._ 250 B.C., to the 7th
+century A.D. Its monuments occupy mainly a broad band running northeast
+and southwest, between the Indian Desert and the Dekkan. Offshoots of
+the style are found as far north as Gandhara, and as far south as
+Ceylon.
+
+THE JAINA STYLE, akin to the preceding if not derived from it, covering
+the same territory as well as southern India; from 1000 A.D. to the
+present time.
+
+THE BRAHMAN or HINDU STYLES, extending over the whole peninsula. They
+are sub-divided geographically into the NORTHERN BRAHMAN, the CHALUKYAN
+in the Dekkan, and the DRAVIDIAN in the south; this last style being
+coterminous with the populations speaking the Tamil and cognate
+languages. The monuments of these styles are mainly subsequent to the
+10th century, though a few date as far back as the 7th.
+
+The great majority of Indian monuments are religious--temples, shrines,
+and monasteries. Secular buildings do not appear until after the Moslem
+conquests, and most of them are quite modern.
+
+
++GENERAL CHARACTER.+ All these styles possess certain traits in common.
+While stone and brick are both used, sandstone predominating, the
+details are in large measure derived from wooden prototypes. Structural
+lines are not followed in the exterior treatment, purely decorative
+considerations prevailing. Ornament is equally lavished on all parts of
+the building, and is bewildering in its amount and complexity. Realistic
+and grotesque sculpture is freely used, forming multiplied horizontal
+bands of extraordinary richness and minuteness of execution. Spacious
+and lofty interiors are rarely attempted, but wonderful effects are
+produced by seemingly endless repetition of columns in halls, and
+corridors, and by external emphasis of important parts of the plan by
+lofty tower-like piles of masonry.
+
+The source of the various Indian styles, the origin of the forms used,
+the history of their development, are all wrapped in obscurity. All the
+monuments show a fully developed style and great command of technical
+resources from the outset. When, where, and how these were attained is
+as yet an unsolved mystery. In all its phases previous to the Moslem
+conquest Indian architecture appears like an indigenous art, borrowing
+little from foreign styles, and having no affinities with the arts of
+Occidental nations.
+
+
++BUDDHIST STYLE.+ Although Buddhism originated in the sixth century
+B.C., the earliest architectural remains of the style date from its wide
+promulgation in India under Asoka (272-236 B.C.). Buddhist monuments
+comprise three chief classes of structures: the _stupas_ or _topes_,
+which are mounds more or less domical in shape, enclosing relic-shrines
+of Buddha, or built to mark some sacred spot; _chaityas_, or temple
+halls, cut in the rock; and _viharas_, or monasteries. The style of the
+detail varies considerably in these three classes, but is in general
+simpler and more massive than in the other styles of India.
+
+
++TOPES.+ These are found in groups, of which the most important are at
+or near Bhilsa in central India, at Manikyala in the northwest, at
+Amravati in the south, and in Ceylon at Ruanwalli and Tuparamaya. The
+best known among them is the +Sanchi Tope+, near Bhilsa, 120 feet in
+diameter and 56 feet high. It is surrounded by a richly carved stone
+rail or fence, with gateways of elaborate workmanship, having three
+sculptured lintels crossing the carved uprights. The tope at Manikyala
+is larger, and dates from the 7th century. It is exceeded in size by
+many in Ceylon, that at Abayagiri measuring 360 feet in diameter. Few of
+the topes retain the _tee_, or model of a shrine, which, like a lantern,
+once crowned each of them.
+
+Besides the topes there are a few stupas of tower-like form, square in
+plan, of which the most famous is that at +Buddh Gaya+, near the sacred
+Bodhi tree, where Buddha attained divine light in 588 B.C.
+
+
++CHAITYA HALLS.+ The Buddhist speos-temples--so far as known the only
+extant halls of worship of that religion, except one at Sanchi--are
+mostly in the Bombay Presidency, at Ellora, Karli, Ajunta, Nassick, and
+Bhaja. The earliest, that at Karli, dates from 78 B.C., the latest (at
+Ellora), _cir._ 600 A.D. They consist uniformly of a broad nave ending
+in an apse, and covered by a roof like a barrel vault, and two narrow
+side aisles. In the apse is the _dagoba_ or relic-shrine, shaped like a
+miniature tope. The front of the cave was originally adorned with an
+open-work screen or frame of wood, while the face of the rock about the
+opening was carved into the semblance of a sumptuous structural fa�ade.
+Among the finest of these caverns is that at +Karli+, whose massive
+columns and impressive scale recall Egyptian models, though the
+resemblance is superficial and has no historic significance. More
+suggestive is the affinity of many of the columns which stand before
+these caves to Persian prototypes (see Fig. 21). It is not improbable
+that both Persian and classic forms were introduced into India through
+the Bactrian kingdom 250 years B.C. Otherwise we must seek for the
+origin of nearly all Buddhist forms in a pre-existing wooden
+architecture, now wholly perished, though its traditions may survive in
+the wooden screens in the fronts of the caves. While some of these
+caverns are extremely simple, as at Bhaja, others, especially at
++Nassick+ and +Ajunta+, are of great splendor and complexity.
+
+
++VIHARAS.+ Except at Gandhara in the Punjab, the structural monasteries
+of the Buddhists were probably all of wood and have long ago perished.
+The Gandhara monasteries of Jamalgiri and Takht-i-Bahi present in plan
+three or four courts surrounded by cells. The centre of one court is in
+both cases occupied by a platform for an altar or shrine. Among the
+ruins there have been found a number of capitals whose strong
+resemblance to the Corinthian type is now generally attributed to
+Byzantine rather than Bactrian influences. These viharas may therefore
+be assigned to the 6th or 7th century A.D.
+
+The rock-cut viharas are found in the neighborhood of the chaityas
+already described. Architecturally, they are far more elaborate than the
+chaityas. Those at Salsette, Ajunta, and Bagh are particularly
+interesting, with pillared halls or courts, cells, corridors, and
+shrines. The hall of the +Great Vihara+ at +Bagh+ is 96 feet square,
+with 36 columns. Adjoining it is the school-room, and the whole is
+fronted by a sumptuous rock-cut colonnade 200 feet long. These caves
+were mostly hewn between the 5th and 7th centuries, at which time
+sculpture was more prevalent in Buddhist works than previously, and some
+of them are richly adorned with figures.
+
+
++JAINA STYLE.+ The religion and the architecture of the Jainas so
+closely resemble those of the Buddhists, that recent authorities are
+disposed to treat the Jaina style as a mere variation or continuation of
+the Buddhist. Chronologically they are separated by an interval of some
+three centuries, _cir._ 650-950 A.D., which have left us almost no
+monuments of either style. The Jaina is moreover easily distinguished
+from the Buddhist architecture by the great number and elaborateness of
+its structural monuments. The multiplication of statues of Tirthankhar
+in the cells about the temple courts, the exuberance of sculpture, the
+use of domes built in horizontal courses, and the imitation in stone of
+wooden braces or struts are among its distinguishing features.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 226.--PORCH OF TEMPLE ON MOUNT ABU.]
+
++JAINA TEMPLES.+ The earliest examples are on +Mount Abu+ in the Indian
+Desert. Built by Vimalah Sah in 1032, the chief of these consists of a
+court measuring 140 � 90 feet, surrounded by cells and a double
+colonnade. In the centre rises the shrine of the god, containing his
+statue, and terminating in a lofty tower or _sikhra_. An imposing
+columnar porch, cruciform in plan, precedes this cell (Fig. 226). The
+intersection of the arms is covered by a dome supported on eight columns
+with stone brackets or struts. The dome and columns are covered with
+profuse carving and sculptured figures, and the total effect is one of
+remarkable dignity and splendor. The temple of +Sadri+ is much more
+extensive, twenty minor domes and one of larger size forming cruciform
+porches on all four sides of the central _sikhra_. The cells about the
+court are each covered by a small _sikhra_, and these, with the
+twenty-one domes (four of which are built in three stories), all grouped
+about the central tower and adorned with an astonishing variety of
+detail, constitute a monument of the first importance. It was built by
+Khumbo Rana, about 1450. At +Girnar+ are several 12th-century temples
+with enclosed instead of open vestibules. One of these, that of
++Neminatha+, retains intact its court enclosure and cells, which in most
+other cases have perished. The temple at +Somnath+ resembles it, but is
+larger; the dome of its porch, 33 feet in diameter, is the largest Jaina
+dome in India. Other notable temples are at Gwalior, Khajuraho, and
+Parasnatha.
+
+In all the Jaina temples the salient feature is the sikhra or _vimana_.
+This is a tower of approximately square plan, tapering by a graceful
+curve toward a peculiar terminal ornament shaped like a flattened melon.
+Its whole surface is variegated by horizontal bands and vertical breaks,
+covered with sculpture and carving. Next in importance are the domes,
+built wholly in horizontal courses and resting on stone lintels carried
+by bracketed columns. These same traits appear in relatively modern
+examples, as at Delhi.
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 227.--TOWER OF VICTORY, CHITTORE.]
+
++TOWERS.+ A similar predilection for minutely broken surfaces marks the
+towers which sometimes adjoin the temples, as at Chittore (tower of +Sri
+Allat+, 13th century), or were erected as trophies of victory, like that
+of +Khumbo Rana+ in the same town (Fig. 227). The combination of
+horizontal and vertical lines, the distribution of the openings, and the
+rich ornamentation of these towers are very interesting, though lacking
+somewhat in structural propriety of design.
+
+
++HINDU STYLES: NORTHERN BRAHMAN.+ The origin of this style is as yet an
+unsolved problem. Its monuments were mainly built between 600 and 1200
+A.D., the oldest being in Orissa, at Bhuwanesevar, Kanaruk, and Puri. In
+northern India the temples are about equally divided between the two
+forms of Brahmanism--the worship of Vishnu or _Vaishnavism_, and that of
+Siva or _Shaivism_--and do not differ materially in style. As in the
+Jaina style, the _vimana_ is their most striking feature, and this is in
+most cases adorned with numerous reduced copies of its own form grouped
+in successive stages against its sides and angles. This curious system
+of design appears in nearly all the great temples, both of Vishnu and
+Siva. The Jaina melon ornament is universal, surmounted generally by an
+urn-shaped finial.
+
+In plan the vimana shrine is preceded by two or three chambers, square
+or polygonal, some with and some without columns. The foremost of these
+is covered by a roof formed like a stepped pyramid set cornerwise. The
+fine porch of the ruined temple at +Bindrabun+ is cruciform in plan and
+forms the chief part of the building, the shrine at the further end
+being relatively small and its tower unfinished or ruined. In some
+modern examples the antechamber is replaced by an open porch with a
+Saracenic dome, as at Benares; in others the old type is completely
+abandoned, as in the temple at +Kantonnuggur+ (1704-22). This is a
+square hall built of terra-cotta, with four three-arched porches and
+nine towers, more Saracenic than Brahman in general aspect.
+
+The +Kandarya Mahadeo+, at Khajuraho, is the most noted example of the
+northern Brahman style, and one of the most splendid structures extant.
+A�strong and lofty basement supports an extraordinary mass of roofs,
+covering the six open porches and the antechamber and hypostyle hall,
+which precede the shrine, and rising in successive pyramidal masses
+until the vimana is reached which covers the shrine. This is 116 feet
+high, but seems much loftier, by reason of the small scale of its
+constituent parts and the marvellously minute decoration which covers
+the whole structure. The vigor of its masses and the grand stairways
+which lead up to it give it a dignity unusual for its size, 60 � 109
+feet in plan (_cir._ 1000 A.D.).
+
+At Puri, in Orissa, the +Temple+ of +Jugganat+, with its double
+enclosure and numerous subordinate shrines, the Teli-ka-Mandir at
+Gwalior, and temples at +Udaipur+ near Bhilsa, at +Mukteswara+ in
+Orissa, at Chittore, Benares, and Barolli, are important examples. The
+few tombs erected subsequent to the Moslem conquest, combining Jaina
+bracket columns with Saracenic domes, and picturesquely situated palaces
+at Chittore (1450), Oudeypore (1580), and Gwalior, should also be
+mentioned.
+
+
++CHALUKYAN STYLE.+ Throughout a central zone crossing the peninsula from
+sea to sea about the Dekkan, and extending south to Mysore on the west,
+the Brahmans developed a distinct style during the later centuries of
+the Chalukyan dynasty. Its monuments are mainly comprised between 1050
+and the Mohammedan conquest in 1310. The most notable examples of the
+style are found along the southwest coast, at Hullabid, Baillur, and
+Somnathpur.
+
+
++TEMPLES.+ Chalukyan architecture is exclusively religious and its
+temples are easily recognized. The plans comprise the same elements as
+those of the Jainas, but the Chalukyan shrine is always star-shaped
+externally in plan, and the vimana takes the form of a stepped pyramid
+instead of a curved outline. The Jaina dome is, moreover, wholly
+wanting. All the details are of extraordinary richness and beauty, and
+the breaking up of the surfaces by rectangular projections is skilfully
+managed so as to produce an effect of great apparent size with very
+moderate dimensions. All the known examples stand on raised platforms,
+adding materially to their dignity. Some are double temples, as at
+Hullabid (Fig. 228); others are triple in plan. A�noticeable feature of
+the style is the deeply cut stratification of the lower part of the
+temples, each band or stratum bearing a distinct frieze of animals,
+figures or ornament, carved with masterly skill. Pierced stone slabs
+filling the window openings are also not uncommon.
+
+The richest exemplars of the style are the temples at +Baillur+ and
+Somnathpur, and at Hullab�d the +Kait Iswara+ and the incomplete +Double
+Temple+. The Kurti Stambha, or gate at Worangul, and the Great Temple at
++Hamoncondah+ should also be mentioned.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 228.--TEMPLE AT HULLAB�D. DETAIL.]
+
+
++DRAVIDIAN STYLE.+ The Brahman monuments of southern India exhibit a
+style almost as strongly marked as the Chalukyan. This appears less in
+their details than in their general plan and conception. The Dravidian
+temples are not single structures, but aggregations of buildings of
+varied size and form, covering extensive areas enclosed by walls and
+entered through gates made imposing by lofty pylons called _gopuras_. As
+if to emphasize these superficial resemblances to Egyptian models, the
+sanctuary is often low and insignificant. It is preceded by much more
+imposing porches (_mantapas_) and hypostyle halls or _choultries_, the
+latter being sometimes of extraordinary extent, though seldom lofty. The
+choultrie, sometimes called the Hall of 1,000 Columns, is in some cases
+replaced by pillared corridors of great length and splendor, as at
++Ramisseram+ and +Madura.+ The plans are in most cases wholly irregular,
+and the architecture, so far from resembling the Egyptian in its scale
+and massiveness, is marked by the utmost minuteness of ornament and
+tenuity of detail, suggesting wood and stucco rather than stone. The
++Great Hall+ at Chillambaram is but 10 to 12 feet high, and the
+corridors at Ramisseram, 700 feet long, are but 30 feet high. The effect
+of _ensemble_ of the Dravidian temples is disappointing. They lack the
+emphasis of dominant masses and the dignity of symmetrical and logical
+arrangement. The very loftiness of the gopuras makes the buildings of
+the group within seem low by contrast. In nearly every temple, however,
+some one feature attracts merited admiration by its splendor, extent, or
+beauty. Such are the +Choultrie+, built by Tirumalla Nayak at Madura
+(1623-45), measuring 333 � 105 feet; the corridors already mentioned at
+Ramisseram and in the +Great Temple+ at Madura; the gopuras at
++Tarputry+ and Vellore, and the +Mantapa+ of +Parvati+ at Chillambaram
+(1595-1685). Very noticeable are the compound columns of this style,
+consisting of square piers with slender shafts coupled to them and
+supporting brackets, as at Chillambaram, Peroor, and Vellore; the richly
+banded square piers, the grotesques of rampant horses and monsters, and
+the endless labor bestowed upon minute carving and ornament in
+superposed bands.
+
+
++OTHER MONUMENTS.+ Other important temples are at Tiruvalur, Seringham,
+Tinevelly, and Conjeveram, all alike in general scheme of design, with
+enclosures varying from 300 to 1,000 feet in length and width. At
++Tanjore+ is a magnificent temple with two courts, in the larger of
+which stands a _pagoda_ or shrine with a pyramidal vimana, unusual in
+Dravidian temples, and beside it the smaller +Shrine+ of +Soubramanya+
+(Fig. 229), a�structure of unusual beauty of detail. In both, the
+vertical lower story with its pilasters and windows is curiously
+suggestive of Renaissance design. The pagoda dates from the 14th, the
+smaller temple from the 15th century.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 229.--SHRINE OF SOUBRAMANYA, TANJORE.]
+
+
++ROCK-CUT RATHS.+ All the above temples were built subsequently to the
+12th century. The rock-cut shrines date in some cases as far back as the
+7th century; they are called _kylas_ and _raths_, and are not caves, but
+isolated edifices, imitating structural designs, but hewn bodily from
+the rock. Those at Mahavellipore are of diminutive size; but at
++Purudkul+ there is an extensive temple with shrine, choultrie, and
+gopura surrounded by a court enclosure measuring 250 � 150 feet (9th
+century). More famous still is the elaborate +Kylas+ at +Ellora+, of
+about the same size as the above, but more complex and complete in its
+details.
+
+
++PALACES.+ At Madura, Tanjore, and Vijayanagar are Dravidian palaces,
+built after the Mohammedan conquest and in a mixed style. The domical
+octagonal throne-room and the +Great Hall+ at Madura (17th century), the
+most famous edifices of the kind, were evidently inspired from Gothic
+models, but how this came about is not known. The Great Hall with its
+pointed arched barrel vault of 67 feet span, its cusped arches, round
+piers, vaulting shafts, and triforium, appears strangely foreign to its
+surroundings.
+
+
++CAMBODIA.+ The subject of Indian architecture cannot be dismissed
+without at least brief mention of the immense temple of +Nakhon Wat+ in
+Cambodia. This stupendous creation covers an area of a full square mile,
+with its concentric courts, its encircling moat or lake, its causeways,
+porches, and shrines, dominated by a central structure 200 feet square
+with nine pagoda-like towers. The corridors around the inner court have
+square piers of almost classic Roman type. The rich carving, the perfect
+masonry, and the admirable composition of the whole leading up to the
+central mass, indicate architectural ability of a high order.
+
+
++CHINESE ARCHITECTURE.+ No purely Mongolian nation appears ever to have
+erected buildings of first-rate importance. It cannot be denied,
+however, that the Chinese are possessed of considerable decorative skill
+and mechanical ingenuity; and these qualities are the most prominent
+elements in their buildings. Great size and splendor, massiveness and
+originality of construction, they do not possess. Built in large measure
+of wood, cleverly framed and decorated with a certain richness of color
+and ornament, with a large element of the grotesque in the decoration,
+the Chinese temples, pagodas, and palaces are interesting rather than
+impressive. There is not a single architectural monument of imposing
+size or of great antiquity, so far as we know. The celebrated +Porcelain
+Tower+ of Nankin is no longer extant, having been destroyed in the
+T�ping rebellion in 1850. It was a nine-storied polygonal pagoda 236
+feet high, revetted with porcelain tiles, and was built in 1412. The
+largest of Chinese temples, that of the +Great Dragon+ at Pekin, is a
+circular structure of moderate size, though its enclosure is nearly a
+mile square. Pagodas with diminishing stories, elaborately carved
+entrance gates and successive terraces are mainly relied upon for
+effect. They show little structural art, but much clever ornament. Like
+the monasteries and the vast _lamaseries_ of Thibet, they belong to the
+Buddhist religion.
+
+Aside from the ingenious framing and bracketing of the carpentry, the
+most striking peculiarity of Chinese buildings is their broad-spreading
+tiled roofs. These invariably slope downward in a curve, and the tiling,
+with its hip-ridges, crestings, and finials in terra-cotta or metal,
+adds materially to the picturesqueness of the general effect. Color and
+gilding are freely used, and in some cases--as in a summer pavilion at
+Pekin--porcelain tiling covers the walls, with brilliant effect. The
+chief wonder is that this resource of the architectural decorator has
+not been further developed in China, where porcelain and earthenware are
+otherwise treated with such remarkable skill.
+
+
++JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE.+ Apparently associated in race with the Chinese
+and Koreans, the Japanese are far more artistic in temperament than
+either of their neighbors. The refinement and originality of their
+decorative art have given it a wide reputation. Unfortunately the
+prevalence of earthquakes has combined with the influence of the
+traditional habits of the people to prevent the maturing of a truly
+monumental architecture. Except for the terraces, gates, and enclosures
+of their palaces and temples, wood is the predominant building material.
+It is used substantially as in China, the framing, dovetailing,
+bracketing, broad eaves and tiled roofs of Japan closely resembling
+those of China. The chief difference is in the greater refinement and
+delicacy of the Japanese details and the more monumental disposition of
+the temple terraces, the beauty of which is greatly enhanced by skillful
+landscape gardening. The gateways recall somewhat those of the Sanchi
+Tope in India (p.�403), but are commonly of wood. Owing to the danger
+from earthquakes, lofty towers and pagodas are rarely seen.
+
+The domestic architecture of Japan, though interesting for its
+arrangements, and for its sensible and artistic use of the most flimsy
+materials, is too trivial in scale, detail, and construction to receive
+more than passing reference. Even the great palace at Tokio,[28]
+covering an immense area, is almost entirely composed of one-storied
+buildings of wood, with little of splendor or architectural dignity.
+
+    [Footnote 28: See Transactions R.I.B.A., 52d year, 1886, article
+    by R. J. Conder, pp. 185-214.]
+
+  +MONUMENTS+ (additional to those in text). BUDDHIST: Topes at
+  Sanchi, Sonari, Satdara, Andher, in Central India; at Sarnath,
+  near Benares; at Jelalabad and Salsette; in Ceylon at
+  Anuradhapura, Tuparamaya, Lankaramaya.--Grotto temples (chaityas),
+  mainly in Bombay and Bengal Presidencies; at Behar, especially the
+  Lomash Rishi, and Cuttack; at Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajunta, and Ellora
+  (Wiswakarma Cave); in Salsette, the Kenheri Cave.--Viharas:
+  Structural at Nalanda and Sarnath, demolished; rock-cut in Bengal,
+  at Cuttack, Udayagiri (the Ganesa); in the west, many at Ajunta,
+  also at Bagh, Bedsa, Bhaja, Nassick (the Nahapana, Vadnya Sri,
+  etc.), Salsette, Ellora (the Dekrivaria, etc.). In Nep�l, stupas
+  of Swayanbunath and Bouddhama.
+
+  JAINA: Temples at Aiwulli, Kanaruc (Black Pagoda), and Purudkul;
+  groups of temples at Palitana, Gimar, Mount Abu, Somnath,
+  Parisnath; the Sas Bahu at Gwalior, 1093; Parswanatha and Ganthai
+  (650) at Khajuraho; temple at Gyraspore, 7th century; modern
+  temples at Ahmedabad (Huttising), Delhi, and Sonaghur; in the
+  south at Moodbidri, Sravana Belgula; towers at Chittore.
+
+  NORTHERN BRAHMAN: Temples, Parasumareswara (500 A.D.), Mukteswara,
+  and Great Temple (600-650), all at Bhuwaneswar, among many others;
+  of Papanatha at Purudkul; grotto temples at Dhumnar, Ellora, and
+  Poonah; temples at Chandravati, Udaipur, and Amritsur (the last
+  modern); tombs of Singram Sing and others at Oudeypore; of Rajah
+  Baktawar at Ulwar, and others at Goverdhun; gh�ts or landings at
+  Benares and elsewhere.
+
+  CHALUKYAN: Temples at Buchropully and Hamoncondah, 1163; ruins at
+  Kalyani; grottoes of Hazar Khutri.
+
+  DRAVIDIAN: Rock-cut temples (raths) at Mahavellipore; Tiger Cave
+  at Saluvan Kuppan; temples at Pittadkul (Purudkul), Tiruvalur,
+  Combaconum, Vellore, Peroor, Vijayanagar; pavilions at Tanjore and
+  Vijayanagar.
+
+  There are also many temples in the Kashmir Valley difficult of
+  assignment to any of the above styles and religions.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+A. +PRIMITIVE GREEK ARCHITECTURE.+--The researches of Schliemann
+commented by Schuchardt, of D�rpfeld, Stamakis, Tsoundas, Perrot, and
+others, in Troy, Mycen�, and Tiryns, and the more recent discoveries of
+Evans at Gnossus, in Crete, have greatly extended our knowledge of the
+prehistoric art of Greece and the Mediterranean basin, and established
+many points of contact on the one hand with ancient Egyptian and
+Phoenician art, and on the other, with the art of historic Greece. They
+have proved the existence of an active and flourishing commerce between
+Egypt and the Mediterranean shores and Aegean islands more than 2000
+B.C., and of a flourishing material civilization in those islands and on
+the mainland of Greece, borrowing much, but not everything, from Egypt.
+While the origin of the Doric order in the structural methods of the
+pre-Homeric architecture of Tiryns and Mycen�, as set forth by D�rpfeld
+and by Perrot and Chipiez, can hardly be regarded as proved in all
+details, since much of the argument advanced for this derivation rests
+on more or less conjectural restorations of the existing remains, it
+seems to be fairly well established that the Doric order, and historic
+Greek architecture in general, trace their genesis in large measure back
+in direct line to this prehistoric art. The remarkable feature of this
+early architecture is the apparently complete absence of temples.
+Fortifications, houses, palaces, and tombs make up the ruins thus far
+discovered, and seem to indicate clearly the derivation of the
+temple-type of later Greek art from the primitive house, consisting of a
+hall or _megaron_ with four columns about the central hearth (whence no
+doubt, the atrium and peristyle of Roman houses, through their Greek
+intermediary prototypes) and a porch or _aithousa_, with or without
+columns _in antis_, opening directly into the _megaron_, or indirectly
+through an ante-room called the _prodomos_. Here we have the prototypes
+of the Greek temple _in antis_, with its _naos_ having interior columns,
+whether roofed over or hyp�thral (see pp. 54, 55). It is probable also
+that the evidently liberal use of timber for many of the structural
+details led in time to many of the forms later developed in stone in the
+entablature of the Doric order. But it is hard to discover, as D�rpfeld
+would have it, in the slender Mycen�an columns with their inverted
+taper, the prototype of the massive Doric column with its upward taper.
+The Mycen�an column was evidently derived from wooden models; the sturdy
+Doric column--the earliest being the most massive--seems plainly derived
+from stone or rubble piers (see p.�50), and thus to have come from a
+different source from the Mycen�an forms.
+
+The _gynec�um_, or women's apartments, the men's apartments, and the
+bath were in these ancient palaces grouped in varying relations about
+the _megaron_: their plan, purpose, and arrangement are clearly revealed
+in the ruins of Tiryns, where they are more complete and perfect than
+either at Troy or Mycen�.
+
+
+B. +CAMPANILES IN ITALY.+--Reference is made on page 264 to the towers
+or campaniles of the Italian Gothic style and period, and six of these
+are specifically mentioned; and on page 305 mention is also made of
+those of the Renaissance in Italy. The number and importance of the
+Italian campaniles and the interest attaching to their origin and
+design, warrant a more extended notice than has been assigned them in
+the pages cited.
+
+The oldest of these bell-towers appear to be those adjoining the two
+churches of San Apollinare in and near Ravenna (see p.�114), and date
+presumably from the sixth century. They are plain circular towers with
+few and small openings, except in the uppermost story, where larger
+arched openings permit the issue of the sound of the bells. This type,
+which might have been developed into a very interesting form of tower,
+does not seem to have been imitated. It was at Rome, and not till the
+ninth or tenth century, that the campanile became a recognized feature
+of church architecture. It was invariably treated as a structure
+distinct from the church, and was built of brick upon a square plan,
+rising with little or no architectural adornment to a height usually of
+a hundred feet or more, and furnished with but a few small openings
+below the belfry stage, where a pair of coupled arched windows separated
+by a simple column opened from each face of the tower. Above these
+windows a pyramidal roof of low pitch terminated the tower. In spite of
+their simplicity of design these Roman bell-towers often possess a
+noticeable grace of proportions, and furnish the prototype of many of
+the more elaborate campaniles erected during the Middle Ages in other
+central and north Italian cities. The towers of Sta. Maria in Cosmedin,
+Sta. Maria in Trastevere, and S.�Giorgio in Velabro are examples of this
+type. Most of the Roman examples date from the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries.
+
+In other cities, the campanile was treated with some variety of form and
+decoration, as well as of material. In Lombardy and Venetia the square
+red-brick shaft of the tower is often adorned with long, narrow pilaster
+strips, as at Piacenza (p.�158, Fig. 91) and Venice, and an arcaded
+cornice not infrequently crowns the structure. The openings at the top
+may be three or four in number on each face, and even the plan is
+sometimes octagonal or circular. The brick octagonal campanile of
++S.�Gottardo+ at Milan is one of the finest Lombard church towers. At
+Verona the brick tower on the Piazza dell' Erbe and that of S.�Zeno are
+conspicuous; but every important town of northern Italy possesses one or
+more examples of these structures dating from the eleventh, twelfth, or
+thirteenth century.
+
+Undoubtedly the three most noted bell-towers in Italy are those of
+Venice, Pisa, and Florence. The great +Campanile+ of +St. Mark+ at
+Venice, first begun in 874, carried higher in the twelfth and fourteenth
+centuries, and finally completed in the sixteenth century with the
+marble belvedere and wooden spire so familiar in pictures of Venice, was
+formerly the highest of all church campaniles in Italy, measuring
+approximately 325 feet to the summit. But this superb historic monument,
+weakened by causes not yet at this writing fully understood, fell in
+sudden ruin on the 14th of July, 1902, to the great loss not only of
+Venice, but of the world of art, though fortunately without injuring the
+neighboring buildings on the Piazza and Piazzetta of St. Mark. Since
+then the campanile of S.�Stefano, in the same city, has been demolished
+to forestall another like disaster. The +Leaning Tower+ of Pisa (see
+p.�160, Fig. 92) dates from 1174, and is unique in its plan and its
+exterior treatment with superposed arcades. Begun apparently as a
+leaning tower, it seems to have increased this lean to a dangerous
+point, by the settling of its foundations during construction, as its
+upper stages were made to deviate slightly towards the vertical from the
+inclination of the lower portion. It has always served rather as a
+watch-tower and belvedere than as a bell-tower. The +Campanile+
+adjoining the Duomo at +Florence+ is described on p.�263 and illustrated
+in Fig. 154, and does not require further notice here. The
+black-and-white banded towers of Sienna, Lucca, and Pistoia, and the
+octagonal lanterns crowning those of Verona and Mantua, also referred to
+in the text on p.�264, need here only be mentioned again as illustrating
+the variety of treatment of these Italian towers.
+
+The Renaissance architects developed new types of campanile, and in such
+variety that they can only be briefly referred to. Some, like a brick
+tower at Perugia, are simple square towers with pilasters; more often
+engaged columns and entablatures mark the several stories, and the upper
+portion is treated either with an octagonal lantern or with diminishing
+stages, and sometimes with a spire. Of the latter class the best example
+is that of S.�Biagio, at Montepulciano,--one of the two designed to
+flank the fa�ade of Ant. da S.�Gallo's beautiful church of that name.
+One or two good late examples are to be found at Naples. Of the more
+massive square type there are examples in the towers of S.�Michele,
+Venice; of the cathedral at Ferrara, Sta. Chiara at Naples, and Sta.
+Maria dell' Anima--one of the earliest--at Rome. The most complete and
+perfect of these square belfries of the Renaissance is that of the
++Campidoglio+ at Rome, by Martino Lunghi, dating from the end of the
+sixteenth century, which groups so admirably with the palaces of the
+Capitol.
+
+
+C. +BRAMANTE'S WORKS.+--A more or less animated controversy has arisen
+regarding the authenticity of many of the works attributed to Bramante,
+and the tendency has of late been to deny him any part whatever in
+several of the most important of these works. The first of these to be
+given a changed assignment was the church of the Consolazione at Todi
+(p.�293), now believed to be by Cola di Caprarola; and it is now denied
+by many investigators that either the Cancelleria or the Giraud palace
+(p.�290) is his work, or any one of two or three smaller houses in Rome
+showing a somewhat similar architectural treatment. The evidence adduced
+in support of this denial is rather speculative and critical than
+documentary, but is not without weight. The date 1495 carved on a
+doorway of the Cancelleria palace is thought to forbid its attribution
+to Bramante, who is not known to have come to Rome till 1503; and there
+is a lack of positive evidence of his authorship of the Giraud palace
+and the other houses which seem to be by the same hand as the
+Cancelleria. To the advocates of this view there is not enough
+resemblance in style between this group of buildings and his
+acknowledged work either in Milan or in the Vatican to warrant their
+being attributed to him.
+
+It must, however, be remarked, that this notable group of works, stamped
+with the marks and even the mannerisms of a strong personality, reveal
+in their unknown author gifts amounting to genius, and heretofore deemed
+not unworthy of Bramante. It is almost inconceivable that they should
+have been designed by a mere beginner previously utterly unknown and
+forgotten soon after. It is incumbent upon those who deny the
+attribution to Bramante to find another name, if possible, on which to
+fasten the credit of these works. Accordingly, they have been variously
+attributed to Alberti (who died in 1472) or his followers; to Bernardo
+di Lorenzo, and to other later fifteenth-century artists. The difficulty
+here is to discover any name that fits the conditions even as well as
+Bramante's; for the supposed author must have been in Rome between 1495
+and 1505, and his other works must be at least as much like these as
+were Bramante's. No name has thus far been found satisfactory to careful
+critics; and the alternative theory, that there existed in Rome, before
+Bramante's coming, a�group of architects unknown to later fame, working
+in a common style and capable of such a masterpiece as the Cancelleria,
+does not harmonize with the generally accepted facts of Renaissance art
+history. Moreover, the comparison of these works with Bramante's
+Milanese work on the one hand and his great Court of the Belvedere in
+the Vatican on the other, yields, to some critics, conclusions quite
+opposed to those of the advocates of another authorship than Bramante's.
+
+The controversy must be considered for the present as still open. There
+are manifest difficulties with either of the two opposed views, and
+these can hardly be eliminated, except by the discovery of documents not
+now known to exist, whose testimony will be recognized as unimpeachable.
+
+
+D. +L'ART NOUVEAU.+--Since 1896, and particularly since the Paris
+Exposition of 1900, a�movement has manifested itself in France and
+Belgium, and spread to Germany and Austria and even measurably to
+England, looking towards a more personal and original style of
+decorative and architectural design, in which the traditions and
+historic styles of the past shall be ignored. This movement has received
+from its adherents and the public the name of "L'Art Nouveau," or,
+according to some, "L'Art Moderne"; but this name must not be held to
+connote either a really new style or a fundamentally new principle in
+art. Indeed, it may be questioned whether any clearly-defined body of
+principles whatever underlies the movement, or would be acknowledged
+equally by all its adherents. It appears to be a reaction against a too
+slavish adherence to traditional forms and methods of design (see pp.
+370, 375), a�striving to ignore or forget the past rather than a
+reaching out after any well-understood, positive end; as such, it
+possesses the negative strength of protest rather than the affirmative
+strength of a vital principle. Its lack of cohesion is seen in the
+division of its adherents into groups, some looking to nature for
+inspiration, while others decry this as a mistaken quest; some seeking
+to emphasize structural lines, and others to ignore them altogether.
+All, however, are united in the avoidance of commonplace forms and
+historic styles, and this preoccupation has developed an amazing amount
+of originality and individualism of style, frequently reaching the
+extreme of eccentricity. The results have therefore been, as might be
+expected, extremely varied in merit, ranging from the most refined and
+reserved in style to the most harshly bizarre and extravagant. As a
+rule, they have been most successful in small and semi-decorative
+objects--jewelry, silverware, vases, and small furniture; and one most
+desirable feature of the movement has been the stimulus it has given
+(especially in France and England), to the organization and activity of
+"arts-and-crafts" societies which occupy themselves with the
+encouragement of the decorative and industrial arts and the diffusion of
+an improved taste. In the field of the larger objects of design, in
+which the dominance of traditional form and of structural considerations
+is proportionally more imperious, the struggle to evade these
+restrictions becomes more difficult, and results usually in more obvious
+and disagreeable eccentricities, which the greater size and permanence
+of the object tend further to exaggerate. The least successful
+achievements of the movement have accordingly been in architecture. The
+buildings designed by its most fervent disciples (_e.g._ the Pavillon
+Bleu at the Exposition of 1900, the Castel B�ranger, Paris, by _H.
+Guimard_, the houses of the artist colony at Darmstadt, and others) are
+for the most part characterized by extreme stiffness, eccentricity, or
+ugliness. The requirements of construction and of human habitation
+cannot easily be met without sometimes using the forms which past
+experience has developed for the same ends; and the negation of
+precedent is not the surest path to beauty or even reasonableness of
+design. It is interesting to notice that in the intermediate field of
+furniture-design some of the best French productions recall the style of
+Louis XV., modified by Japanese ideas and spirit. This singular but not
+unpleasing combination is less surprising when we reflect that the style
+of Louis XV. was itself a protest against the formalism of the heavy
+classic architecture of preceding reigns, and achieved its highest
+successes in the domain of furniture and interior decoration.
+
+It may be fair to credit the new movement with one positive
+characteristic in its prevalent regard for line, especially for the
+effect of long and swaying lines, whether in the contours or
+ornamentation of an object. This is especially noticeable in the Belgian
+work, and in that of the Viennese "Secessionists," who have, however,
+carried eccentricity to a further point of extravagance than any others.
+
+Whether "L'Art Nouveau" will ever produce permanent results time alone
+can show. Its present vogue is probably evanescent and it cannot claim
+to have produced a style; but it seems likely to exert on European
+architecture an influence, direct and indirect, not unlike that of the
+N�o-Grec movement of 1830 in France (p.�364), but even more lasting and
+beneficial. It has already begun to break the hold of rigid classical
+tradition in design; and recent buildings, especially in Germany and
+Austria, like the works of the brilliant _Otto Wagner_ in Vienna, show a
+pleasing freedom of personal touch without undue striving after
+eccentric novelty. Doubtless in French and other European architecture
+the same result will in time manifest itself.
+
+The search for novelty and the desire to dispense wholly with historic
+forms of design which are the chief marks of the Art Nouveau, were
+emphatically displayed in many of the remarkable buildings of the Paris
++Exhibition of 1900+, in which a striking fertility and facility of
+design in the decorative details made more conspicuous the failure to
+improve upon the established precedents of architectural style in the
+matters of proportion, scale, general composition, and contour. As usual
+the metallic construction of these buildings was almost without
+exception admirable, and the decorative details, taken by themselves,
+extremely clever and often beautiful, but the combined result was not
+satisfactory.
+
+In the United States the movement has not found a firm foothold because
+there has been no dominant, enslaving tradition to protest against. Not
+a few of the ideas, not a little of the spirit of the movement may be
+recognized in the work of individual architects and decorative artists
+in the United States, executed years before the movement took
+recognizable form in Europe: and American decorative design has
+generally been, at least since 1880 or 1885, sufficiently free,
+individual and personal, to render unnecessary and impossible any
+concerted movement of artistic revolt against slavery to precedent.
+
+
+E. +RECENT AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE.+--Architectural activity in the United
+States continues to share in the general prosperity which has marked the
+years since 1898, and this activity has by no means been confined to
+industrial and commercial architecture. Indeed, while the erection of
+"sky scrapers" or excessively lofty office-buildings has continued to be
+a feature of this activity in the great commercial centres, the most
+notable architectural enterprises of recent years have been in the field
+of educational buildings, both in the East and West. In 1898 a great
+international competition resulted in the selection of the design of Mr.
+_E. B�nard_ of Paris for a magnificent group of buildings for the
++University of California+ on a scale of unexampled grandeur, and the
+erection of this colossal project has been begun. An almost equally
+ambitious project, by a firm of Philadelphia architects, has been
+adopted for the Washington University at St. Louis; and many other
+universities and colleges have either added extensively to their
+existing buildings or planned an entire rebuilding on new designs. Among
+these the national military and naval academies at +West Point+ and
++Annapolis+ take the first rank in the extent and splendor of the
+projected improvements. Museums and libraries have also been erected or
+begun in various cities, and the +New York Public Library+, now
+building, will rank in cost and beauty with those already erected in
+Boston and Washington.
+
+In other departments mention should be made of recent Federal buildings
+(custom-houses, post-offices, and court-houses) erected under the
+provisions of the Tarsney act from designs secured by competition among
+the leading architects of the country; among those the +New York Custom
+House+ is the most important, but other buildings, at Washington,
+Indianapolis, and elsewhere, are also conspicuous, and many of them
+worthy of high praise. The tendency to award the designing of important
+public buildings, such as State capitols, county court houses, city
+halls, libraries, and hospitals, by competition instead of by personal
+and political favor, has resulted in a marked improvement in the quality
+of American public architecture.
+
+
+F. +THE ERECHTHEUM: RECENT INVESTIGATIONS.+--During the past two years,
+extensive repairs and partial restorations of the Erechtheum at Athens,
+undertaken by the Greek Arch�ological Society, have afforded
+opportunities for a new and thoroughgoing study of the existing portions
+of the building and of the surrounding ruins. In these investigations a
+prominent part has been borne by Mr. Gorham P.�Stevens, representing the
+Arch�ological Institute of America, to whom must be credited, among
+other things, the demonstration of the existence, in the east wall of
+the original structure, of two windows previously unknown. Other
+peculiarities of design and construction were also discovered, which add
+greatly to the interest of the building. These investigations are
+reported in the _American Journal of Arch�ology_, Second Series;
+_Journal of the Arch�ological Institute of America_, Vol.�X., No.�1, _et
+seq._ The illustrations, Figures 35 and 36, are, by Mr. Stevens'
+courtesy, based upon, though not reproductions of, his original
+drawings.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY
+
+OF TERMS NOT DEFINED IN THE TEXT.
+
+
+ALCAZAR (Span., from Arabic _Al Kasr_), a�palace or castle, especially
+of a governing official.
+
+ARCHIVOLT, a band or group of mouldings decorating the wall-face of an
+arch; or a transverse arch projecting slightly from the surface of a
+barrel or groined vault.
+
+ASTYLAR, without columns.
+
+
+BALNEA, a Roman bathing establishment, less extensive than the _therm�_.
+
+BEL ETAGE, the principal story of a building, containing the reception
+rooms and saloons; usually the second story (first above the ground
+story).
+
+BROKEN ENTABLATURE, an entablature which projects forward over each
+column or pilaster, returning back to the wall and running along with
+diminished projection between the columns, as in the Arch of Constantine
+(Fig. 63).
+
+
+CANTONED PIERS, piers adorned with columns or pilasters at the corners
+or on the outer faces.
+
+CARTOUCHE (Fr.), an ornament shaped like a shield or oval. In Egyptian
+hieroglyphics, the oval encircling the name of a king.
+
+CAVETTO, a concave, quarter-round moulding.
+
+CHEVRON, a V-shaped ornament.
+
+CHRYSELEPHANTINE, of ivory and gold; used of statues in which the nude
+portions are of ivory and the draperies of gold.
+
+CONSOLE, a large scroll-shaped bracket or ornament, having its broadest
+curve at the bottom.
+
+CORINTHIANESQUE, resembling the Corinthian; used of capitals having
+corner-volutes and acanthus leaves, but combined otherwise than in the
+classic Corinthian type.
+
+
+EMPAISTIC, made of, or overlaid with, sheet-metal beaten or hammered
+into decorative patterns.
+
+EXEDR�, curved seats of stone; niches or recesses, sometimes of
+considerable size, provided with seats for the public.
+
+
+FENESTRATION, the whole system or arrangement of windows and openings in
+an architectural composition.
+
+FOUR-PART. A four-part vault is a groined vault formed by the
+intersection of two barrel vaults. Its diagonal edges or _groins_ divide
+it into four sections, triangular in plan, each called a _compartment_.
+
+
+GIGANTOMACHIA, a group or composition representing the mythical combat
+between the gods and the giants.
+
+
+HALF-TIMBERED, constructed with a timber framework showing externally,
+and filled in with masonry or brickwork.
+
+
+IMAUM, im�m, a Mohammedan priest.
+
+
+KAABAH, the sacred shrine at Meccah, a�nearly cubical structure hung
+with black cloth.
+
+KARAFAH, a region in Cairo containing the so-called tombs of the
+Khalifs.
+
+
+LACONICUM, the sweat-room in a Roman bath; usually of domical design in
+the larger therm�.
+
+
+MEZZANINE, a low, intermediate story.
+
+MUEDDIN, a Mohammedan mosque-official who calls to prayer.
+
+
+NARTHEX, a porch or vestibule running across the front of a basilica or
+church.
+
+NEO-GOTHIC, NEO-MEDI�VAL, in a style which seeks to revive and adapt or
+apply to modern uses the forms of the Middle Ages.
+
+
+OCULUS, a circular opening, especially in the crown of a dome.
+
+OGEE ARCH, one composed of two juxtaposed S-shaped or wavy curves,
+meeting in a point at the top.
+
+
+PAL�STRA, an establishment among the ancient Greeks for physical
+training.
+
+PAVILION (Fr. _pavillon_), ordinarily a light open structure of ornate
+design. As applied to architectural composition, a�projecting section of
+a fa�ade, usually rectangular in plan, and having its own distinct mass
+of roof.
+
+
+QUARRY ORNAMENT, any ornament covering a surface with two series of
+reticulated lines enclosing approximately quadrangular spaces or meshes.
+
+QUATREFOIL, with four leaves or _foils_; composed of four arcs of
+circles meeting in cusps pointing inward.
+
+QUOINS, slightly projecting blocks of stone, alternately long and short,
+decorating or strengthening a corner or angle of a fa�ade.
+
+
+REVETMENT, a veneering or sheathing.
+
+RUSTICATION, treatment of the masonry with blocks having roughly broken
+faces, or with deeply grooved or bevelled joints.
+
+
+SOFFIT, the under-side of an architrave, beam, arch, or corona.
+
+SPANDRIL, the triangular wall-space between two contiguous arches.
+
+SQUINCH, a bit of conical vaulting filling in the angles of a square so
+as to provide an octagonal or circular base for a dome or lantern.
+
+STOA, an open colonnade for public resort.
+
+
+TEPIDARIUM, the hot-water hall or chamber of a Roman bath.
+
+TYMPANUM, the flat space comprised between the horizontal and raking
+cornices of a pediment, or between a lintel and the arch over�it.
+
+
+VOUSSOIR, any one of the radial stones composing an arch.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF ARCHITECTS.
+
+The _surname_ is in all cases followed by a comma.
+
+  Abadie, 373
+  Adams, Robert 234
+  Agnolo, Baccio d' 291
+  Agnolo, Gabriele d' 287
+  Alberti, Leo Battista 277, 280
+  Alessi, Galeazzo 299, 302
+  Ammanati, Bartolomeo 300
+  Anselm, Prior 219
+  Anthemius of Tralles, 127
+  Antonio, Master 259
+  Arnold, Master 243
+  Arnolfo di Cambio, 162, 265
+
+  Baccio D' Agnolo, 291
+  Ballu, 371, 373
+  Baltard, Victor 371
+  Barry, Sir Charles 380
+  Bassevi, 356
+  Battista, Juan 351
+  Benci di Cione, 266
+  Benedetto da Majano, 280, 281
+  Bernardo di Lorenzo, 282
+  Bernini, Lorenzo 295, 303, 319
+  Berruguete, Alonzo 348, 350
+  Bianchi, 305
+  Bondone, Giotto di 258, 263, 272
+  Boromini, Francesco 303, 304
+  Borset, 334
+  Bramante Lazzari, 289, 290, 294, 295, 321
+  Brandon, Richard 378
+  Bregno, Antonio 284
+  Brongniart, 363
+  Brunelleschi, Filippo 275, 276, 280, 281, 289
+  Bullant, Jean 316, 317
+  Bulfinch, Charles 390
+  Buon, Bartolomeo 284
+  Buonarotti, Michael Angelo 289, 292, 294, 295, 296, 299
+  Burges, William 380
+
+  Callicrates, 63
+  Cambio, Arnolfo di 162, 265
+  Campbell, Colin 333
+  Campello, 255
+  Caprarola, Cola da 293
+  Caprino, Meo del 286
+  Chalgrin, 362
+  Chambers, Sir William 333
+  Chambiges, Pierre 313
+  Chrismas, Gerard 327
+  Christodoulos, 150
+  Churriguera, 348, 352
+  Cimabue, 258
+  Civitale, Matteo 281, 283
+  Columbe, Michel 310
+  Cortona, Domenico di 316
+  Cossutius, 68
+  Cronaca, 280, 291
+
+  Dance, George 334
+  De Brosse, Salomon 318, 319
+  De Fabris, 261
+  De Key, Lieven 336
+  De Keyser, Hendrik 336
+  Della Porta, Giacomo 292, 299, 300
+  Della Robbia, Luca 281
+  De l'Orme, Philibert 316, 317
+  D�perthes, 373
+  Derrand, Fran�ois 319
+  Desiderio da Settignano, 281
+  De Tessin, Nicodemus 337
+  De Vriendt (or Floris), Cornelius 334, 335
+  Diego de Silo�, 348
+  Domenico di Cortona, 316
+  Donatello, 275
+  Dosio, Giovanni Antonio 291
+  Duban, F�lix 364
+  Duc, 364, 365
+  Du Cerceau, Jean Batiste 318
+
+  Edington, 226
+  Emerson, William 382
+  Enrique de Egaz, 349
+  Erwin von Steinbach, 241
+
+  Fain, Pierre 310
+  Federighi, Antonio 282
+  Ferstel, H. von 375
+  Fiesole, Mino da 281
+  Filarete, Antonio 283
+  Flitcroft, 333
+  Floris (De Vriendt), Cornelius 334, 335
+  Fontaine, 362
+  Fontana, Domenico 295, 299, 300, 304
+  Fra Giocondo, 286
+  Fra Ristoro, 256
+  Fra Sisto, 256
+  Fuga, Ferdinando 305
+
+  Gabriel, Jacques Ange 324, 367
+  Gabriele d'Agnolo, 287
+  Gaddi, Taddeo 263
+  Gadyer, Pierre 315
+  Galilei, Alessandro 305
+  Garnier, Charles 372
+  Gerhardt von Riel, 243
+  Giacomo di Pietrasanta, 286
+  Gibbs, James 332, 333, 356, 385
+  Giocondo, Fra 286
+  Giotto di Bondone, 258, 263, 272
+  Giuliano da Majano, 286, 287
+  Giulio Romano, 289, 292
+  Goujon, Jean 316, 321
+  Gumiel, Pedro 349
+
+  Hallet, Stephen (�tienne) 389
+  Hansen, Theophil 360
+  Have, Theodore 327
+  Hawksmoor, 332
+  Hendrik de Keyser, 336
+  Henri de Narbonne, 249
+  Henry of Gm�nd, 255
+  Herrera, Francisco 352
+  Herrera, Juan d' 348, 350, 351
+  Hitorff, J. J. 364, 372
+  Hoban, Thomas 390
+  Holbein, Hans 327
+  H�bsch, Heinrich 375, 376
+  Hunt, Richard M. 393
+
+  Ictinus, 62, 63, 65
+  Isodorus of Miletus, 127
+  Ivara, Ferdinando 352, 365
+
+  Jacobus of Meruan, 255
+  Jansen, Bernard 327
+  Jefferson, Thomas 390
+  John, Master 243
+  John of Padua, 328
+  Jones, Inigo 328, 332, 333
+  Juan Battista, 351
+  Junckher of Cologne, 241
+
+  Kearsley, Dr. 386
+  Kent, 333
+  Klenze, Leo von 359, 360, 367
+
+  Labrouste, Henri 364
+  Lassus, J. B. A. 371
+  Latrobe, Benjamin H. 389
+  Laurana, Francesco 310
+  Laurana, Luciano 287
+  Le Breton, Gilles 313
+  Lefuel, Hector 372
+  Lemercier, Jacques 312, 319, 322
+  Le Nepveu, Pierre 314
+  Lescot, Pierre 316, 321
+  Le Vau (or Levau) 320
+  Lieven de Key, 336
+  Ligorio, Pirro 293
+  Lippi, Annibale 293
+  Lira, Valentino di 343
+  Lombardi, Antonio 284
+  Lombardi, Martino 284
+  Lombardi, Moro 284
+  Lombardi, Pietro 284
+  Lombardi, Tullio 284, 293
+  Longhena, Baldassare 304
+  Lorenzo, Bernardo di 282
+  Louis, Victor 362
+  Luca della Robbia, 281
+  Lunghi, Martino (the elder) 304, 305
+
+  Machuca, 351
+  Maderna, Carlo 295, 303
+  Majano, Benedetto da 280, 281
+  Majano, Giuliano da 286, 287
+  Mansart, Fran�ois 322
+  Mansart, Jules Hardouin 320, 321, 322
+  Marchionne, 305
+  Marini, Giovanni 339
+  Martino, Pietro di 287
+  Matthew of Arras, 243
+  Meo del Caprino, 286
+  Meruan, Jacobus of 255
+  M�t�zeau, 318
+  Michelozzi, Michelozzo 279, 283
+  Mino da Fiesole, 281
+  Mnesicles, 65
+  Mullet, A. B. 392
+
+  Narbonne, Henri de 249
+  N�not, Henri P. 374
+
+  Ohlm�ller, 375
+
+  Palladio, Andrea 299, 301, 319, 328, 350
+  Percier, Charles 362
+  Perrault, Claude 320
+  Peruzzi, Baldassare 289, 291, 292, 294
+  Phidias, 62
+  Philibert de l'Orme, 316, 317
+  Pietrasanta, Giacomo di 286
+  Pintelli, Baccio 286
+  Pisano, Giovanni 260
+  Pisano, Niccolo 272
+  Polaert, 382
+  Poyet, 363
+  Pugin, A. Welby 378
+  Pythius, 71
+
+  Raphael Sanzio, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293
+  Renwick, James 391, 392
+  Revett, Nicholas 355, 358
+  Richardson, Henry H. 393, 394
+  Rickman, Thomas 378
+  Riel, Gerhardt von 243
+  Ristoro, Fra 256
+  Rizzio, Antonio 284
+  Romano, Giulio 289, 292
+  Rossellini, Bernardo 286
+  Ruiz, Fernando 352
+
+  Salvi, Niccola 305
+  Sammichele, Michele 293, 299, 300, 329
+  San Gallo, Antonio da (the Elder) 294
+  San Gallo, Antonio da (the Younger) 289, 291, 294
+  San Gallo, Giuliano da 278, 291, 292, 294
+  Sansovino, Giacopo Tatti 289, 293, 299, 300, 304
+  Satyrus, 71
+  Scamozzi, Vincenzo 299, 339
+  Schinkel, Friedrich 358, 360, 376
+  Schmidt, F. 378
+  Scott (General) 382
+  Scott, Sir Gilbert 380
+  Semper, Ottfried 376
+  Sens, William of 219
+  Servandoni, 323
+  Settignano, Desiderio da 281
+  Shaw, Norman 382
+  Siccardsburg, 376
+  Smirke, Robert 356
+  Smithson, Robert 328
+  Soane, Sir John 356
+  Soufflot, J. J. 362
+  Steinbach, Erwin von 241
+  Stella, Paolo della 339
+  Stern, Raphael 305, 365
+  Street, George Edmund 380
+  Stuart, James 355, 358
+  Stuhler, 359
+
+  Talenti, Francesco Di 259, 263
+  Talenti, Simone di 266
+  Taylor, Robert 334
+  Tessin, Nicodemus de 337
+  Thomson, Alexander 357
+  Thornton, 389
+  Thorpe, John 328
+  Titz, 376
+  Torregiano, 327
+  Trevigi, 327
+
+  Upjohn, Richard 392
+
+  Val Del Vira, 348
+  Valentino di Lira, 343
+  Van Aken, 343
+  Van Brugh, Sir John 332
+  Van Noort, William 336
+  Van Noye, Sebastian 336
+  Van Vitelli, 304
+  Vasari, Giorgio 162
+  Viart, Charles 311
+  Viel, 372
+  Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da 289, 292, 296, 299, 300, 301
+  Vignon, Pierre 362
+  Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene Emmanuel 370, 371
+  Vischer, Kaspar 343
+  Vischer, Peter 347
+  Visconti, Louis T. J. 371, 372
+  Vitoni, Ventura 293
+  Vitruvius, 56, 71, 77
+  Von der Null, 376
+
+  Wallot, Paul 377
+  Wallot, Jean 333
+  Walter, Thomas Ustick 391
+  Waterhouse, Alfred 381
+  Webb, Aston 382
+  Wilkins, 357
+  William of Sens, 219
+  William of Wykeham, 222, 226
+  Wood, 333
+  Wren, Sir Christopher 329, 331, 332, 356, 385
+
+  Ziebland, 375
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+The buildings are arranged according to location. Those which appear
+only in the lists of monuments at the ends of chapters are omitted.
+_Numerals in parentheses refer to illustrations._
+
+  ABAYAGIRI.
+    Tope, 403
+  ABBEVILLE. St.
+    Wulfrand, 209, 213
+  ABU-SEIR.
+    Stepped pyramid, 9
+  ABYDOS.
+    Columns, 12.
+    Temple, 19, 21.
+    Tombs, 11 (+5+)
+  ADDEH.
+    Grotto-temple, 22
+  �MILIA.
+    Churches in, 157, 262
+  AGRA, 149.
+    Pearl Mosque, 148.
+    Taj Mahal, 148 (+86+)
+  AGRIGENTUM.
+    Temple of Zeus, 56, 61 (+33+)
+  AHMEDABAD, 148
+  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.
+    Minster (palatine Chapel), 172.
+    Palace of Charlemagne, 176
+  AIZANOI.
+    Temple of Zeus, 67.
+    Theatre, 70
+  AJMIR, 148
+  AJUNTA.
+    Brahman Chaityas, 404;
+    viharas, 405
+  ALBANO.
+    Tomb, 89
+  ALBANY.
+    All Saints' Cathedral, 394.
+    Capitol, 391
+  ALBY Cathedral, 185, 205, 206, 212, 249 (+123+)
+  ALCALA DE HE�ARES, 352.
+    Archepiscopal Palace, 350.
+    College, 349
+  ALCANTARA.
+    Bridge, 108
+  ALEN�ON Cathedral, 209, 213
+  ALEXANDRIA TROAS.
+    Pal�stra, 71.
+  ALLAHABAD.
+    Akbar's Palace, 148
+  ALTENBURG Cathedral, 242.
+    Town hall, 344
+  AMADA.
+    Columns, 12
+  AMBOISE Castle, 310
+  AMIENS Cathedral, 189, 197, 201, 203, 205, 206, 219, 232 (+122+);
+    west front of, 207, 208, 212, 227
+  AMRAVATI.
+    Topes, 403
+  AMSTERDAM.
+    Bourse (Exchange) Hanse House, Town hall, 336
+  ANCY LE FRANC.
+    Ch�teau, 317
+  ANET.
+    Ch�teau, 317
+  ANGERS.
+    Cathedral S. Maurice, 200.
+    Hospital, 214
+  ANGORA (Ancyra), 118
+  ANGOUL�ME Cathedral, 164
+  ANI, 134
+  ANNAPOLIS.
+    Harwood and Hammond Houses, 386
+  ANTIOCH, 115
+  ANTIPHELLUS.
+    Theatre, 70.
+    Tombs, 72
+  ANTWERP
+    Cathedral, 190, 246, 247.
+    Town Hall, 334, 336
+  AQUITANIA.
+    Churches of, 164, 167, 168, 179, 373
+  ARANJUEZ.
+    Palace, 352
+  AREZZO Cathedral, 257.
+    Sta. Maria della Pieve, 159
+  ARGOS.
+    Gates, 45
+  ARIZONA.
+    Spanish churches in, 388
+  ARLES.
+    St. Trophime, 165
+  ASCHAFFENBURG.
+    Church, 243
+  ASHEVILLE.
+    Biltmore House, 399
+  ASIA MINOR, 53, 55, 58, 62, 66, 122
+  ASPENDUS.
+    Theatre, 70
+  ASSISI.
+    Church of St. Francis (S.�Francesco), 255, 256, 258
+  ASSOS, 55.
+    Public cquare, 69.
+    Temple, 61
+  ASTI.
+    Church, 256
+  ASTORGA.
+    Rood-screen, 352
+  ATHENS.
+    Academy, 365.
+    Acropolis, 65, 69.
+    Agora Gate, 68.
+    Cathedral, 134.
+    Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, 66 (+30+, +38+).
+    Erechtheum, 64 (+35+, +36+).
+    Museum, 365.
+    Odeion of Regilla (of Herodes Atticus), 68, 69,�70.
+    Parthenon, 56, 58, 63, 64, 131, 359 (Frontispiece, +31+ d, +34+).
+    Propyl�a, 58, 65, 69, 358 (+37+).
+    Stoa of Attalus, 67.
+    Temple of Nike Apteros, 64, 65.
+    Temple of Olympian Zeus, 68 (+39+).
+    Theatre of Dionysus, 69, 70.
+    Theseum (Temple of Theseus or Heracles), 62.
+    Tower of Winds (Clepsydra of Cyrrhestes), 53,�67.
+    University, 365
+  ATTICA, 50, 55
+  AUGSBURG.
+    Town hall, 344
+  AUSTRIA, 330
+  AUTUN Cathedral, 166, 167
+  AUVERGNE.
+    Churches, 204
+  AUXERRE Cathedral, 197, 201
+  AVIGNON.
+    Notre Dame Des Doms, 165
+  AVILA.
+    S. Vincente, 180, 247;
+    Tombs in, 352
+  AZAY-LE-RIDEAU.
+    Ch�teau, 316
+
+  BAALBEC (Heliopolis), 83.
+    Circular Temple, 94.
+    Temple of Sun, 92
+  BAB-EL-MOLOUK, 14
+  BAGDAD.
+    Tombs, etc., 145, 146
+  BAGH.
+    Viharas, Great Vihara, 405
+  BAILLUR.
+    Temples, 409, 410
+  BAMBERG.
+    Church, 243
+  BARCELONA.
+    Cathedral, 189, 249.
+    Sta. Maria del Pi, 249
+  BAROLLI.
+    Hindu Temple, 409
+  BASLE.
+    Spahlenthor, 246
+  BASS� (Phigal�a).
+    Temple of Apollo Epicurius, 65
+  BATALHA.
+    Church, mausoleum, 251
+  BAVARIA, 342
+  BAYEUX Cathedral, 197, 205
+  BAYONNE Cathedral, 197
+  BEAUGENCY.
+    Town hall, 316
+  BEAUMESNIL.
+    Ch�teau, 319
+  BEAUNE.
+    Hospital, 214
+  BEAUVAIS Cathedral, 189, 197, 211, 219;
+    chapels, 205;
+    size, 206, 211, 212, 243
+  BEIT-EL-WALI.
+    Rock-cut Temple, 22
+  BELEM.
+    Church, 251, 352.
+    Cloister, tower, 352
+  BELGIUM, 334.
+  BENARES.
+    Hindu Temples, 408, 409
+  BENI HASSAN.
+    Columns, 11, 24, 50.
+    Speos Artemidos, 22.
+    Tombs, 11 (+6+, +7+)
+  BERGAMO.
+    Town Hall, 266
+  BERLIN.
+    Bauschule, 376.
+    Brandenburg Gate, 358.
+    Old Museum, 359 (+200+).
+    New Museum, 359.
+    Parliament House, 377.
+    Theatres, 360, 376
+  BETHLEHEM.
+    Church of the Nativity, 115
+  BHAJA.
+    Chaityas, 404
+  BHILSA.
+    Topes, 403
+  BHUWANESWAR.
+    Hindu temples, 408
+  BIDAR, 146
+  BIJAPUR.
+    Tomb of Mahmud, 148, 153 (+85+).
+    Jumma Musjid, 148.
+    Mogul architecture, 149
+  BILTMORE House, 399
+  BINDRABUN.
+    Ruined temple, 408
+  BIRS NIMROUD.
+    Stepped pyramid, 31
+  BLENHEIM House, 332 (+188+)
+  BLOIS.
+    Ch�teau of, 216, 310, 313 (+175+, +176+)
+  BOHEMIA, 338
+  BOLOGNA, 157.
+    Brick houses, 266.
+    Campo Santo, 382.
+    Frati di S. Spirito, 279.
+    Local style, 283.
+    Pal. Bevilacqua, Pal. Fava, 283.
+    Palazzo Communale (town Hall), 266.
+    Renaissance churches in, 277, 293.
+    S. Francesco, 256, 263.
+    S. Petronio, 257, 258, 259, 263.
+    Sta. Maria dei Servi, 263
+  BONN.
+    Minster, 174.
+    Baptistery, 175
+  BORDEAUX.
+    Cathedral, spires, 209.
+    Grand Th�atre, 362
+  BOSTON.
+    Ames Building, 397.
+    Custom House, 390.
+    Faneuil Hall, 388.
+    Fine Arts Museum, 394.
+    Hancock House, 387.
+    Old State House, 388.
+    Old South Church, 386.
+    Public Library, 399.
+    State House, 390.
+    Trinity Church, 394 (+222+)
+  BOURGES Cathedral, 189, 197, 199, 202, 249;
+    chapels, 205;
+    size, 206;
+    portals, 208.
+    House of Jacques Coeur, 215 (+127+)
+  BOURNAZEL.
+    Ch�teau, 315
+  BOWDEN PARK, 357
+  BOZRAH Cathedral, 117 (+70+)
+  BRANDENBURG.
+    St. Catherine, St. Godehard, 244
+  BREMEN.
+    Town hall, 246, 344
+  BRESCIA.
+    Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, 287
+  BRIEG.
+    Piastenschloss, 343
+  BRISTOL Cathedral, piers, 178
+  BRUGES.
+    Ancien Greffe, 334.
+    Cloth hall, 247.
+    Ste. Anne, 334.
+    Town hall, 247
+  BRUNSWICK.
+    Burg Dankwargerode, 176.
+    Town hall, 246
+  BRUSA, 150
+  BRUSSELS.
+    Bourse, 382.
+    Cathedral (ste. Gudule), 246.
+    Pal. de Justice, 382.
+    Renaissance Houses, 335 (+190+).
+    Town Hall, 247
+  BUBASTIS.
+    Temple, 13
+  BUDA-PESTH.
+    Synagogue, 378
+  BUDDH GAYA.
+    Tope or stupa, 404
+  BUFFALO.
+    Guaranty Building, 397
+  BULACH.
+    Basilica, 375
+  BURGUNDY.
+    Cathedrals in, 197
+  BURGHLEY House, 328 (+184+)
+  BURY.
+    Ch�teau, 315
+  BURGOS Cathedral, 248, 249, 251 (+145+)
+  BYZANTIUM, 92; See Constantinople
+
+  CAEN.
+    Churches, 167, 178;
+      St. �tienne (Abbaye aux Hommes) and Ste. Trinit�
+          (Abbaye aux Dames), 168;
+      St. Pierre, 312.
+    H�tel D'�coville, 316
+  CAHORS Cathedral, 164
+  CAIRO.
+    Karafah (Tombs of Khal�fs), 137, 138, 139.
+    Mohammedan monuments (list), 136, 153.
+    Mosque of Amrou, 136;
+      of Ibn Touloun, 136;
+      of Barkouk, 137;
+      of Kalaoun, 137;
+      of Sultan Hassan, 137, 138 (+80+);
+      of El Muayyad, 137;
+      of Ka�d Bey, 137 (+81+)
+  CALIFORNIA.
+    Spanish missions and churches, 388
+  CAMBODIA.
+    Temple of Nakhon Wat, 413
+  CAMBRAY Cathedral, 197
+  CAMBRIDGE.
+    Caius College, Gate of Honor, 328.
+    Fitzwilliam Museum, 356.
+    King's College Chapel, 223, 227, 234.
+    Trinity College Library, 332
+  CAMBRIDGE (Mass.).
+    Craigie (Longfellow) House, 387 (+219+)
+  CANTERBURY Cathedral, 219;
+    central tower of, 228;
+    chapels, 231;
+    transepts, 232;
+    minor works in, 234
+  CAPRAROLA.
+    Palace of, 300
+  CAPUA.
+    Amphitheatre, 103
+  CARIA, 71; see Halicamassus
+  CARINTHIA, 338, 339
+  CARLTON House, 357
+  CARTER'S GROVE, 386
+  CASERTA.
+    Royal Palace, 304
+  CASTLE HOWARD, 332
+  C�RISY-LA-FOR�T.
+    Church, 178
+  CEYLON.
+    Topes, 403
+  CHAISE-DIEU.
+    Cloister, 213
+  CH�LONS (Ch�lons-sur-Marne) Cathedral, 205
+  CHALVAU.
+    Ch�teau, 314
+  CHAMBORD.
+    Ch�teau, 314 (+177+, +178+)
+  CHANTILLY. "Petit Ch�teau," 317
+  CHARLESTON.
+    St. Michael's, 385
+  CHARLOTTEVILLE.
+    University of Virginia, 390
+  CHARLTON Hall, 328
+  CHARLTON-ON-OXMORE. Plate tracery (+110+)
+  CHARTRES
+    Cathedral, 197, 201, 203;
+      chapels of, 205;
+      size of, 206;
+      W. front, 207;
+      transept porches, 208;
+      spires, 209;
+      capital from (+126+ C).
+    hospital, 214
+  CHEMNITZ Cathedral, 245
+  CHENONCEAUX.
+    Ch�teau, 316, 317
+  CHIARAVALLE.
+    Certosa, 255
+  CHICAGO.
+    Auditorium Theatre, 399.
+    Columbian Exposition, 393, 399.
+    Masonic Building, 396.
+    Fisher Building, Schiller Building, 397
+  CHICHESTER Cathedral, spire, 229
+  CHIHUAHUA.
+    Church, 352
+  CHILLAMBARAM.
+    Dravidian Temple, Mantapa of Parvati, 411
+  CHISWICK.
+    Villa, 328, 329
+  CHITTORE.
+    Hindu temples, 409.
+    Palace, 409.
+    Towers, 407, 408 (+227+)
+  CLERMONT (Clermont-Ferrand)
+    Cathedral, 197;
+      chapels of, 205, 212.
+    Notre-Dame-du-Port, 165, 204 (+96+, +97+)
+  CLUNY.
+    Abbey Church, 166.
+    Houses at, 214.
+    H�tel de (at Paris), 216
+  COBLENTZ.
+    Church of St. Castor, 237
+  COIMBRA.
+    Sta. Cruz, 352
+  COLESHILL.
+    House, 329
+  COLOGNE.
+    Apostles' Church, 174, 243 (+101+).
+    Cathedral, 189, 192, 205, 243, 249;
+      vaulting of, 239;
+      spires, 240, 241;
+      plan, 189, 205, 242 (+141+).
+    Church of St. Mary-in-the-Capitol, 174.
+    Great St. Martin's, 174, 243.
+    Romanesque Houses, Etc., 176
+  COMO.
+    Town hall (broletto), 266
+  COMPOSTELLA.
+    St. Iago, 180
+  CONJEVERAM.
+    Dravidian temple, 411
+  CONSTANTINE.
+    Amphitheatre, 92
+  CONSTANTINOPLE, 120.
+    Byzantine monuments (list), 134.
+    Church of Hagia Sophia (Santa Sophia, Divine Wisdom),
+      111, 123, 124, 127-131, 132, 133, 150, 151
+      (+72+, +75+, +76+, +77+).
+    Church of the Apostles, 132.
+    Early Christian monuments (list), 119.
+    Fountains, Fountain of Ahmet III., 152, 153.
+    Mosque of Ahmet II. (Ahmediyeh), 151 (+88+);
+      of Mehmet II., 150, 151 (+87+);
+      of Osman III. (Nouri Osman), 151;
+      of Soliman (Suleimaniyeh), 151 (+89+);
+      of Yeni Djami, 151.
+    Palaces, 153.
+    St. Bacchus, 127.
+    St. John Studius (Emir Akhor mosque), 118.
+    St. Sergius, 117, 127 (+74+).
+    Tchinli Kiosque (Imperial Museum), 153;
+      sarcophagi in, 66.
+    Tombs, 152.
+    Turkish mosques, 150
+  COPENHAGEN.
+    Exchange, Fredericksborg, 336
+  CORDOVA, 141;
+    Great Mosque, 142, 143 (+83+)
+  CORINTH.
+    Temple of Zeus, 60
+  COUTANCES Cathedral, 197;
+    chapels of, 205;
+    spires, 209
+  CRACOW Castle, 338.
+    Chapel of Jagellons,  338
+  CREMONA.
+    Town hall, 266
+  CTESIPHON.
+    T�k-kesra, 145
+
+  DAMASCUS, Mosque of El-wal�d, 136
+  DANTZIC.
+    Town hall, 344
+  DASHOUR.
+    Pyramid, 9
+  DEIR-EL-BAHARI.
+    Tomb-temple of Hatasu, 15, 21
+  DEIR-EL-MEDINEH.
+    Temple of Hathor, 19
+  DELHI.
+    Jaina Temples, 407.
+    Jumma Musjid, 148.
+    Mogul Architecture of, 149.
+    Palace of Shah Jehan, 148.
+    Pathan arches, Etc., 148
+  DELOS.
+    Gates, 45;
+    Portico of Philip, 67
+  DENDERAH.
+    Temple of Hathor, 17.
+    Group of Temples, 22, 24.
+    Hathoric columns, 24
+  DETROIT.
+    Majestic Building, 397
+  DIEPPE.
+    Church of St. Jacques, 213
+  DIJON.
+    St. Michel, 312
+  DOL Cathedral, east end, 205
+  DRESDEN.
+    Castle, Georgenfl�gel, 342.
+    Church of St. Mary (Marienkirche) 346 (+194+).
+    Theatre, 376 (+213+).
+    Zwinger Palace, 346 (+193+)
+  DR�GELTE.
+    Circular church, 175
+  DURHAM Cathedral, 177, 178, 220, 221 (+102+);
+    central tower of, 228;
+    Chapel of Nine Altars, 232
+
+  EARL'S BARTON.
+    Tower, 176
+  ECOUEN.
+    Ch�teau, 316
+  EDFOU.
+    Great Temple, 16, 17, 22 (+9+, +10+, +14+).
+    Peripteral Temple, 22
+  EDINBURGH.
+    High School, Royal Institution, 357
+  EGYPT.
+    Early Christian buildings in, 118
+  ELEPHANTINE.
+    Temple of Amenophis III., 22
+  EL KAB. Temple of Amenophis III.; 18
+  ELEUSIS.
+    Propyl�a, 69
+  ELLORA.
+    Chaityas, 404.
+    Dravidian Kylas, 413
+  ELNE.
+    Cloister, 170, 213
+  ELY Cathedral, 220;
+    choir vault, 222;
+    octagon, 224, 330;
+    clearstory, 225;
+    towers, 228;
+    interior, 229;
+    size, 232;
+    Lady Chapel, 234
+  EPHESUS. Temple of Artemis (Artemisium),�66;
+    Ionic Order, 53.
+    Pal�stra, 71
+  ERECH, 31
+  ESCURIAL.
+    Monastery, 351
+  ESNEH.
+    Hathoric columns, 25.
+    Temple, 23.
+  ESSEN.
+    Nun's choir, 172
+  ESSLINGEN.
+    Church spire, 240
+  ETCHMIADZIN.
+    Byzantine monuments, 134
+  EVREUX Cathedral, 197
+  EXETER Cathedral, 221 (+129+)
+  EZRA.
+    Church of St. George, 117
+
+  FERAIG.
+    Rock-cut Temple, 22
+  FERRARA Cathedral, 261, 304.
+    Churches, 277, 293.
+    Palaces Scrofa, Roverella, 283
+  FIROUZABAD.
+    Sassanian Buildings, 144
+  FLORENCE.
+    Baptistery, 162.
+    Bartolini, Guadagni, Larderel, Pandolfini, Serristori palaces, 291.
+    Campanile, 263, 264 (+147+ a).
+    Cathedral (Duomo, Santa Maria del Fiore), 257, 258, 263;
+      fa�ade, 261;
+      marble incrustation, 263;
+      dome, 273-275 (+147+, +148+, +159+, +160+).
+    Church
+      of San Miniato, 115, 161, 162;
+      of Or San Michele, 264.
+    Gondi Palace, 291.
+    Loggia dei Lanzi, 266.
+    Loggia di San Paolo, 281.
+    Minor works, 287.
+    Ospedale degli Innocenti, 281.
+    Palazzo Vecchio, 265.
+    Pitti Palace, 280, 300, 319.
+    Riccardi Palace, 279, 280, 281, 290 (+162+).
+    Rucellai Palace, 280, 282.
+    Santa Croce, 258;
+    Pazzi Chapel of, 276;
+      pulpit in, 281;
+    Marsupini tomb, 281.
+    San Lorenzo, 276.
+    San Spirito, 276 (+161+),
+    Santa Maria Novella, 256, 258;
+      fa�ade, 277;
+      fountain in sacristy of, 281.
+    Strozzi Palace, 280, 290 (+163+)
+  FLUSHING.
+    Town hall (H�tel de Ville), 335
+  FONTAINEBLEAU.
+    Palace, 313, 318
+  FONTEVRAULT.
+    Abbey, 164
+  FONTFROIDE.
+    Cloister, 213
+  FRANCE.
+    Romanesque monuments (list), 170, 171;
+    Gothic monuments (list), 216, 217;
+    Renaissance monuments (list), 324, 325
+  FRANKFORT.
+    Salt House, 346
+  FREIBURG Cathedral, 239, 242, 243;
+    Spire, 240
+  FREIBERG IM ERZGEBIRGE.
+    Golden portal, 242
+  FRITZLAR.
+    Church, 243
+  FULDA.
+    Monastery, 172, 173, 175
+  FURNESS.
+    Abbey, pointed arches, 219
+  FUTTEHPORE SIKHRI.
+    Mosque of Akbar, 148
+
+  GANDHARA.
+    Monasteries, 404
+  GAILLON.
+    Ch�teau, 310
+  GELNHAUSEN.
+    Abbey Church, 243. Castle ruins, 176
+  GENOA.
+    Campo Santo, 382.
+    Cathedral, west front, 261.
+    PALACES:--Balbi, Brignole, Cambiasi, Doria-tursi (municipio),
+      Durazzo (reale), Pallavicini, University, 302.
+    Sta. Maria Di Carignano, 299
+  GERMANY.
+    Medi�val, 172.
+    Romanesque monuments (list), 180.
+    Gothic monuments (list), 252.
+    Renaissance monuments (list), 353
+  GERNRODE.
+    Romanesque church, 173
+  GERONA Cathedral, 185, 249, 250
+  GHENT (Gand).
+    Cloth hall, 247
+  GHERF HOSSEIN.
+    Rock-cut temple, 22
+  GHERTASHI (Kardassy).
+    Temple, 23
+  GHIZEH.
+    Pyramids, 4;
+    Pyramid of Cheops, 7 (+1+, +2+);
+    of Chephren, 8;
+    of Mycerinus, 8.
+    Sphinx, Sphinx temple, 10 (+3+, +4+)
+  GIRNAR.
+    Jaina temples, 407.
+    Temple of Neminatha, 407
+  GLASGOW.
+    Churches in Greek style, 357
+  GLOUCESTER Cathedral, 178, 220, 222;
+    cloisters, 222;
+    east window, 227;
+    central tower, 228;
+    Lady Chapel, 234
+  GOSLAR.
+    Palace of Henry III., 176
+  GOURNAH.
+    Columns, 24.
+    Temple, 21
+  GRAN.
+    Cruciform Chapel, 338
+  GRANADA, 141.
+    Alhambra, 142, 143, 144, 351 (+84+).
+    Cathedral, 348, 350;
+      minor works in, 352.
+    Palace of Charles V., 352 (+197+)
+  GRANGE House, 357
+  GREAT BRITAIN.
+    Gothic monuments (list), 235, 236.
+    Norman monuments (list), 181.
+    Renaissance monuments (list), 337
+  GUADALAJARA.
+    Infantado, 350
+  GUJERAT, 146
+  GWALIOR.
+    Jaina Temples, 407.
+    Palace, 409.
+    Teli-ka-mandir, 409
+
+  HADDON Hall, 326
+  HAGUE, THE.
+    Town hall, 336
+  H�MELSCHENBURG Castle, 343 (+191+)
+  HALBERSTADT Cathedral, 244.
+    Town hall, 245
+  HALICARNASSUS.
+    Mausoleum, 4, 53, 71, 72 (+41+)
+  HAMONCONDAH.
+    Temple, 410
+  HAMPTON Court, 326, 332
+  HARTFORD.
+    State Capitol, 393
+  HAURAN.
+    Roman works in, 92;
+    domestic buildings, 118
+  HARDWICKE Hall, 328
+  HATFIELD House, 328
+  HECKLINGEN.
+    Romanesque church, 173
+  HEIDELBERG Castle, 343 (+192+).
+    Ritter House, 346
+  HEILSBERG Castle, 245
+  HELDBURG Castle, 342
+  HENGREAVE Hall, 326
+  HERCULANUM, 86.
+    Amphitheatre, 92.
+    Houses, 107.
+    Theatre, (+61+)
+  HEREFORD Cathedral, 220
+  HIERAPOLIS.
+    Early Christian buildings in, 118
+  HILDESHEIM.
+    Kaiserhaus, 346.
+    Renaissance houses, 345.
+    St. Godehard, 173.
+    Town hall, 245.
+    Wedekindsches Haus, 346
+  HOLLAND House, 328
+  HOWARD Castle, 332
+  HULLAB�D.
+    Temples, 409;
+    double temple, 410 (+228+);
+    Ka�t Iswara, 410
+
+  IFFLEY.
+    Church, 179 (+104+)
+  INDIA, 146-149.
+    Moslem monuments (list), 154.
+    Non-moslem monuments (list), 415
+  INNSBR�CK, Schloss Ambras, 339
+  IPSAMBOUL.
+    (Abou Simbel). Grotto temples, 21, 22 (+13+)
+  IRELAND.
+    Celtic Towers, 176
+  ISPAHAN.
+    Meidan (Meidan-Shah), Mesjid-Shah, Bazaar, Medress, 146
+  ISSOIRE.
+    Church of St. Paul, 165, 204
+  ITALY.
+    Early Christian monuments (list), 119;
+    Romanesque monuments (list), 170;
+    Gothic monuments (list), 268-269;
+    Renaissance monuments (list), 306-307
+
+  JAEN Cathedral, 348, 350
+  JAMALGIRI.
+    Monastery, 405
+  JERUSALEM.
+    Church of the Ascension, 115.
+    Early Christian churches, 111.
+    Herod's temple, 41, 83.
+    Mosque of Omar (Dome of the Rock, Kubbet-es-sakhrah), 116, 136.
+    Octagonal church on temple site, 115, 116.
+    Tombs of the Kings, Etc., 39.
+    Tomb of Absalom, of Hezekiah, Golden Gate, Solomon's temple,�40.
+    Wall of Lamentations, 41.
+    Zerubbabel's temple, 41
+  JAUNPORE, 146
+
+  KALABSH�.
+    Columns, 12.
+    Temple, 23
+  KALB LOUZEH.
+    Church, 117 (+69+)
+  KALBURGAH, 146
+  KANARUK.
+    Hindu temples, 408
+  KANTONNUGGUR.
+    Hindu temple, 408
+  KARDASSY (Ghertashi).
+    Temple, 23
+  KARLI.
+    Chaityas, 404
+  KARLSTEIN Castle, 245
+  KARNAK, 50.
+    Great Temple (of Amen Ra) and Hypostyle Hall,
+        xxiii., 17, 18, 19, 24, 36 (+11+, +12+).
+    Ancient temple, 13.
+    Temple of Khonsu, 16, 20
+  KASCHAU Cathedral, 245
+  KASR.
+    Mound, 31
+  KEDDLESTONE Hall, 334
+  KELAT SEMAN. Church of St. Simeon
+    Stylites, 117
+  KHAJURAHO.
+    Jaina temples, 407.
+    Kandarya Mahadeo, 408
+  KHORSABAD.
+    Palace of Sargon, 31, 32 (+18+).
+    City Gate, 32, 33, (+19+)
+  KIRKSTALL Abbey, pointed arches, 219
+  K�NIGSBERG.
+    Church At, 244
+  KOYUNJIK.
+    Palaces of Sennacherib and Assur-bani-pal, 31
+  KUTTENBERG.
+    Church of St. Barbara, 239, 240
+
+  LAACH.
+    Abbey of, 174
+  LABYRINTH (of Moeris or Fayoum in Egypt), 26
+  LA MUETTE.
+    Ch�teau, 314
+  LANDSHUT.
+    Residenz, 342.
+    St. Martin's, 240, 244
+  LANGRES Cathedral, 167
+  LAON Cathedral, 197, 205, 206, 210;
+    porches, 208
+  LA ROCHEFOUCAULD.
+    Ch�teau, 315
+  LAVAL Cathedral (La Trinit�), 201
+  LE MANS Cathedral, 197, 200, 205, 206 (+118+);
+    tomb in, 310
+  LEON.
+    Cathedral, 189, 249.
+    Panteon of S. Isidore, 179, 180
+  LE PUY (Puy-en-V�lay).
+    Church, 204;
+    cloister of same, 213
+  LEIPZIG.
+    F�rstenhaus, 346
+  LEMGO.
+    Town hall, 344
+  LEYDEN.
+    Town hall, 336
+  LICHFIELD Cathedral, 225, 229 (+135+);
+    west front, 228 (+134+);
+    spire, 229
+  LI�GE.
+    Archbishop's Palace, 334.
+    Church of St. Jacques, 247
+  LIMBURG-ON-THE-HARDT.
+    Church, 193
+  LIMBURG-ON-LAHN.
+    Abbey Church, 174.
+    Cathedral of St. George, 239 (+139+)
+  LIMOGES Cathedral, 197, 205, 212
+  LINCOLN Cathedral, 219, 225, 229, 232;
+    west front, 227;
+    central tower, 228;
+    chapter-house, 223
+  LISBON, 352
+  LISIEUX Cathedral, 197
+  LIVERPOOL.
+    St. George's Hall, 358 (+199+)
+  LOIRE VALLEY.
+    Churches of, 165
+  LOMBARDY.
+    Romanesque Monuments In, 157
+  LONDON.
+    Albert Memorial, 380.
+    Albert Memorial Hall, 382.
+    Bank of England, 334, 356.
+    British Museum, 356 (+198+);
+    Elgin marbles in, 57;
+      mausoleum fragments in, 71.
+    Cathedral (St. Paul's), 329-331 (+186+, +187+).
+    Chapel Royal (Banqueting Hall, Whitehall), 329 (+185+).
+    CHURCHES:--
+      Bow Church, 332;
+      St. George's, Bloomsbury, 333;
+      St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, 333 (+189+);
+      St. Mary's, Woolnoth, 332;
+      St. Pancras's, 357;
+      St. Paul's Cathedral, 329-331 (+186+, +187+);
+      St. Paul's, Covent Garden, 329;
+      St. Stephen's, Walbrook, 331;
+      St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, 234;
+      Temple Church, pointed arches in, 219;
+      Westminster Abbey, 220 (+137+);
+        Henry VII.'s chapel in same, 192, 223, 227, 229, 234 (+136+).
+    Greenwich Hospital, 332.
+    Mansion House, 334.
+    Natural History Museum, South Kensington, 381 (+216+).
+    New Law Courts, 380.
+    Newgate Prison, 334.
+    Parliament Houses, 234, 380 (+215+).
+    Somerset House, 329, 333.
+    South Kensington Museum, new building, 382.
+    University, 357.
+    Westminster Abbey, see above.
+    Westminster Hall, 233.
+    Whitehall Palace, 329;
+      Banqueting Hall (Chapel Royal) in same, 329 (+185+)
+  LONGLEAT House, 328
+  LOUVAIN
+    Cathedral, 246, 247.
+    Cloth hall, 247.
+    Town hall, 248 (+144+)
+  L�BECK.
+    City Gates, 246.
+    St. Mary's, 242, 244.
+    St. Catharine's, 244.
+    Town hall, 246
+  LUCCA.
+    Campanile, 264.
+    Cathedral (S. Martino), 161, 257, 258, 260 (+149+);
+      tempietto in same, 281;
+      tomb of P. di Noceto in same, 281 (+164+).
+    S.�Frediano, S. Michele, 161.
+    Minor works, 282, 283.
+    Palazzo Pretorio, Pal. Bernardini, 283
+  LUPIANA Monastery, 350
+  LUXOR, 50.
+    Temple, 19, 20.
+    Osirid Piers, 24
+  LUZ.
+    Church at, 352
+  LYCIA.
+    Tombs, 37, 39, 52
+
+  MADRID.
+    First Palace, 350.
+   New Palace, 352
+  MADRID, Ch�teau de (at Boulogne), 314
+  MADURA.
+    Choultrie of Tirumalla Nayak, 411.
+    Great Temple, corridors, 411.
+    Palace, 413
+  MAFRA.
+    Palace, 353
+  MAGDEBURG Cathedral, 189, 242, 243
+  MAHRISCH TR�BAU.
+    Castle portal, 338
+  MAISONS.
+    Ch�teau, 322
+  MALAGA.
+    Alcazar, 142, 143.
+    Cathedral, 348
+  MALINES (Mechlin).
+    Cathedral of St. Rombaut, 246, 247.
+    Cloth hall, 247.
+    H�tel du Saumon, 324
+  MANCHESTER.
+    Assize Courts, 380 (+216+)
+  MANIKYALA.
+    Tope, 403
+  MANRESA.
+    Collegiate Church, 249
+  MANTIN�A.
+    Theatre, 69
+  MANTUA.
+    Campanile, 264.
+    Church of S. Andrea, 279.
+    Early Renaissance palaces, 283.
+    Palazzo del T�, 289
+  MARBURG.
+    St. Elizabeth, 240, 242 (+140+)
+  MARIENBURG Castle, Great Hall, 245
+  MARIENWERDER.
+    Castle, 245
+  MARSEILLES.
+    Chapel of St. Lazare, 310.
+    Fountain of Longchamps, 372 (+211+)
+  MASHITA.
+    Palace of Chosroes, 145
+  MASSACHUSETTS. Country house in (+225+)
+  MAULBRONN.
+    Monastery, 176
+  MAYENCE Cathedral, 174
+  MEAUX Cathedral, 212
+  MECCA.
+    Kaabah, 136
+  MEDINA DE RIO SECO.
+    Rood-screen, 352
+  MEDINET ABOU.
+    Osirid piers, 24 (+15+).
+    Pavilion of Rameses III., 26.
+    Peripteral temple, 22.
+    Tomb-temple of Rameses III., 15, 21
+  MEISSEN.
+    Albrechtsburg, 245
+  MERO�.
+    Pyramids, 9
+  METZ Cathedral, 244
+  MEYDOUM.
+    Stepped Pyramid, 9
+  MILAN, 157.
+    Arcade, 382.
+    Cathedral, 243, 255, 257, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264.
+    Domical churches, 278.
+    Ospedale Maggiore, 283.
+    S. Ambrogio, 158, 159 (+90+).
+    S. Eustorgio, Portinari Chapel in, 283.
+    S. Satiro, sacristy of, 289.
+    Sta. Maria delle Grazie, 278, 289
+  MILETUS.
+    Temple of Apollo Didym�us, 53, 66 (+28+, +29+)
+  MINDEN Cathedral, 244
+  MOERIS.
+    Labyrinth of, 26
+  MOISSAC.
+    Cloister, 170, 213
+  MONREALE.
+    Churches, cathedral, 162
+  MONS.
+    Cathedral, St. Wandru, 246, 247
+  MONTEPULCIANO.
+    Church of S. Biagio, 294
+  MONTMAJOUR.
+    Cloister, 170, 213
+  MONT ST. MICHEL.
+    Abbey, 167, 168, 213, 214;
+      cloister of same, 213
+  MORET.
+    House of Francis I., 316
+  MOSCOW.
+    The Kremlin, 366
+  MOSUL, 33
+  MOUNT ABU.
+    Jaina temples, Temple of Vimalah Sah, 405, 406 (+226+)
+  MOUNT ATHOS.
+    Monastery, 134
+  MUGHEIR.
+    Temple of Sin Or Hurki, 30
+  MUJELIBEH.
+    Mound, 31
+  MUKTESWARA.
+    Hindu temples, 409
+  M�LHAUSEN.
+    Town Hall, 344
+  MUNICH, 366.
+    Auekirche, 375.
+    Basilica, 375.
+    Cathedral, 240, 242.
+    Glyptothek, 359.
+    Ludwigskirche, 375.
+    Propyl�a, 360 (+201+).
+    Ruhmeshalle, 359.
+    St. Michael's, 344.
+  M�NSTER.
+    Church at, 243.
+    Town hall, 245
+  M�NZENBERG.
+    Castle ruins, 176
+  MYCEN�.
+    Fortifications, 44 (+23+).
+    Lion Gate, 44 (+22+).
+    Tholos of Atreus, 45, 46, 148 (+24+, +25+).
+    Tombs, 4
+  MYLASSA.
+    Tomb, 72
+  MYRA.
+    Theatre, 69.
+    Tombs, 72
+
+  NAKHON WAT, Temple of, 413
+  NAKSH-I-ROUSTAM (persepolis), 36.
+    Tomb of Darius, 37
+  NANCY.
+    Ducal Palace, 216, 311
+  NANKIN.
+    Porcelain Tower, 414
+  NAPLES.
+    Arcade, 382.
+    Arch of Alphonso, 287.
+    Church
+      of Ges� Nuovo, 304;
+      of S. Francesco di Paola, 305, 365;
+      of S. Lorenzo, 263;
+      of S. Severo (+173+).
+    Minor works, 281, 282.
+    Pal. Gravina, Porta Capuana, 287.
+    Royal Museum, 304.
+    Royal Palace, 304, 305.
+    Theatre of S. Carlo, 305, 365
+  NARBONNE Cathedral, 197, 205, 211
+  NASSICK.
+    Chaityas, 404
+  NAUKRATIS, 44
+  NAUMBURG.
+    Church At, 243
+  NETHERLANDS, 146.
+    Gothic monuments (list), 252-253
+  NEUWEILER.
+    Church of St. Peter And St. Paul, 243
+  NEVERS.
+    St. �tienne, 165
+  NEW MEXICO.
+    Spanish churches, 388
+  NEWPORT.
+    Town hall, 388.
+    Trinity Church, 386
+  NEW YORK.
+    American Surety Building, Broadway Chambers, 397.
+    Casino, 399.
+    Cathedral
+      of St. John the Divine, 399;
+      of St. Patrick, 375, 391.
+    Century Club, 399.
+    City Hall, 389.
+    Custom House, 390 (+221+).
+    Grace Church, 392.
+    Huntington house, 399.
+    Madison Square Garden, Metropolitan Club, 399.
+    St. Paul's, 386.
+    Sub-Treasury, 390.
+    Times Building, (+224+).
+    Trinity Church, 392.
+    Vanderbilt and Villard houses, 399
+  N�MES.
+    Amphitheatre, 92.
+    Maison Carr�e, 93, 94
+  NIMROUD.
+    Palaces of Assur-nazir-pal and Shalmaneser, 31, 32
+  NINEVEH, 31
+  NIPPUR (Niffer).
+    Ruins of, 29, 31
+  NORMANDY.
+    Romanesque churches in, 167, 177;
+    cathedrals in, 197, 213
+  NORTH GERMANY.
+    Brick churches in, 244
+  NORTH WOBURN.
+    Rumford House, 387
+  NORWICH Cathedral, 177, 178, 220
+  NOYON Cathedral, 197, 200, 203, 205, 246
+  NUBIA.
+    Early Christian buildings, 118
+  NUREMBERG, 238.
+    Churches of St. Sebald, St. Lorenz, 245.
+    Funk, Hirschvogel, and Keller houses, 346.
+    Renaissance houses, 345.
+    Town hall, 344.
+    Shrine of St. Sebald, 347
+
+  OLYMPIA.
+    Altis, Echo Hall, 69.
+    Heraion, 50, 62.
+    Temples, 55;
+      sculptures from, 57.
+    Temple of Zeus, 62
+  OPPENHEIM.
+    St. Catharine's, 239, 242, 244
+  OUDEYPORE.
+    Hindu temples, palace, 409
+  ORANGE.
+    Theatre, 101
+  ORCHOMENOS.
+    Ceiling, 47
+  ORL�ANS.
+    Houses, 316.
+    Town hall (h�tel de ville), 311
+  ORVIETO Cathedral, 257, 259, 261;
+    fa�ade of same, 260
+  OSNABR�CK.
+    Church at, 243
+  OTTMARSHEIM.
+    Church at, 172
+  OUDEN�RDE.
+    Town hall, 247
+  OURSCAMP.
+    Hospital, 214
+  OXFORD.
+    All Souls' College, 333.
+    Cathedral (Christ Church), 220, 222.
+    Christ Church Hall, 233, 234.
+    Merton College Chapel, 234.
+    Radcliffe Library, 333.
+    Sheldonian Theatre, 332
+
+  PADERBORN.
+    Town hall, 344
+  PADUA.
+    Arena chapel, 258.
+    Palazzo del Consiglio, 287
+  P�STUM.
+    Basilica, 69.
+    Temples, 61
+  PAILLY.
+    Ch�teau, 317
+  PALERMO.
+    Churches of Eremitani, La Martorana, 162
+  PALMYRA, 83.
+    Temple of the Sun, 92.
+    Ceiling panels (+50+ a)
+  PARASNATHA.
+    Jaina temples, 407
+  PARIS.
+    Arch of Triumph of the Carrousel, 362, 363;
+      of l'�toile, 362, 363 (+204+).
+    Bourse (Exchange), 363.
+    Cathedral (Notre Dame), 189, 197-202, 249 (+116+, +117+, +124+);
+      rose windows, 203, 212;
+      chapels, 205;
+      size, 206, 232;
+      west front, 207, 227 (+124+);
+      capital from (+126+ b);
+      early carving (+114+).
+    CHURCHES:--
+      Chapel and Dome of the Invalides, 321 (+182+);
+      Madeleine, 362, 363 (+205+);
+      Panth�on, 361, 362 (+202+, +203+);
+      Sacr�-Coeur at Montmartre, 373;
+      Sainte Chapelle, 185, 203, 224 (+106+, +121+);
+        capital from same (+126+ a);
+      Sorbonne, 319;
+      St. Augustin, 371;
+      Ste. Clothilde, 371, 375;
+      St. �tienne-du-Mont, St. Eustache, 312;
+      St. Jean de Belleville, 371;
+      St. Merri, St. S�v�rin, 213;
+      St. Paul-St. Louis, 319;
+      St. Sulpice, 323, 361 (+183+);
+      St. Vincent-de-Paul, 364;
+      Val-de-Gr�ce, 322.
+    Coll�ge Chaptal, 371.
+    Colonnades of the Garde-Meuble, 361, 367.
+    Column of July (Colonne Juillet), 365.
+    Corps L�gislatif (Palais Bourbon), 363.
+    �cole des Beaux-Arts, 355, 370, 392, 393;
+      library of same, 364;
+      door (+206+).
+    �cole de M�decine, new buildings, 374.
+    Exhibition buildings, 374.
+    FOUNTAINS:--of Cuvier, Moli�re, St. Michel, 372.
+    Halles Centrales, 371.
+    H�tel-de-Ville (town hall), 316;
+      new building, 373.
+    H�TELS:--
+      Carnavalet (de Ligeris), 316;
+      de Cluny, 216;
+      des Invalides, 321.
+    House of Francis�I. (Maison Fran�ois I.), 316.
+    Library of the Beaux-Arts, 364;
+      of Ste. Gen�vi�ve, 365.
+    Louvre (see palaces). Museum (Mus�e) Galli�ra (+212+).
+    Opera House (Nouvel Op�ra), 372 (+210+).
+    PALACES:--
+      Palais Bourbon (Corps L�gislatif), 363;
+      Palais de l'Industrie, 364;
+      Pal. de Justice, 364;
+      Louvre and Tuileries, 215, 315-319, 321, 362, 371, 372
+          (+179+, +208+, +209+);
+      Luxemburg Palace, 318 (+180+).
+    PLACES (Squares):--
+      de la Concorde, 324;
+      Royale, 319;
+      Vend�me, 322.
+    Railway stations (du Nord, de l'Est, d'Orl�ans), 372.
+    Sorbonne, new academic buildings, 374.
+  PAULINZELLE.
+    Romanesque church, 173
+  PAVIA, 157.
+    Certosa, 255, 262, 263, 278, 283, 284 (+152+, +153+).
+    Church of S. Michele, 159.
+    Domical churches, 278
+  PEKIN.
+    Summer pavilion, Temple of Great Dragon, 414
+  PERGAMON (Pergamus). Altar of Eumenes II.,�67.
+    Christian buildings, 118
+  PERIGUEUX.
+    St. Front, 164 (+94+, +95+)
+  PEROOR.
+    Temple, 411
+  PERSEPOLIS, 145.
+    Columns, 37, 38 (+21+).
+    Hall of Xerxes, 36, 37.
+    Palaces, 35, 69
+  PERSIA.
+    Moslem architecture, 145, 146 (list 154).
+    Sassanian buildings, 144, 145
+  PERUGIA.
+    Oratory of San Bernardino, 279.
+    Town hall (Pal. Communale), 266.
+    Roman Gates, 88
+  PETERBOROUGH Cathedral, 178, 220;
+    retro-choir, 222;
+    west front, 227
+  PHIGAL�A (Bass�).
+    Gate, 45.
+    Sculptures from, 57.
+    Temple of Apollo Epicurius, 65
+  PHILADELPHIA.
+    Christ Church, 386 (+218+).
+    Girard College, 390, 391.
+    Independence Hall, 388.
+    Marine Exchange, Mint, 390.
+    Municipal Building, 391
+  PHIL�.
+    Great Temple, 22.
+    Peripteral temple, 22
+  PIACENZA, 157.
+    Campanile, 159 (+91+).
+    Cathedral (+91+).
+    Town hall, 266
+  PIASTENSCHLOSS at Brieg, 343
+  PIENZA.
+    Palazzo Piccolomini, etc., 282
+  PIERREFONDS.
+    Ch�teau, 371
+  PISA.
+    Churches in, 115, 261;
+    minor works in, 282;
+    early Renaissance in, 282-283.
+    Baptistery, 160 (+92+).
+    Cathedral (Duomo), 159, 160, 276 (+92+, +93+).
+    Leaning Tower, 160 (+92+).
+    Sta. Maria della Spina, 264
+  PISTOIA.
+    Campanile, 264.
+    Churches, 161, 261.
+    Podest�, Palazzo Communale, 266.
+    Sta. Maria dell' Umilt�, 293
+  PITTSBURGH.
+    Carnegie Building, 397.
+    Carnegie Library, 399.
+    County Buildings, 394
+  PLAGNITZ.
+    Castle, 343
+  PLASSENBURG.
+    Castle, 343
+  POITIERS Cathedral, 197, 201, 205
+  POLA.
+    Amphitheatre, 92, 102
+  POMPEII.
+    Amphitheatre, 92.
+    Baths, 86.
+    Houses, 72, 107, 108;
+    House of Pansa (+65+).
+    Theatre, 101.
+    Tombs, 105
+  PONT DU GARD.
+    Bridge, 108
+  PORTSMOUTH. Sherburne House, 387
+  PORTUGAL, 352.
+    Gothic monuments (list), 253
+  POTSDAM.
+    St. Nicholas Church, 359
+  PRAGUE.
+    Belvedere, 339.
+    Cathedral, 239, 242, 244.
+    Palace on Hradschin, Schloss Stern, Waldstein palace, 339
+  PRATO.
+    Churches in, 161, 293.
+    Madonna delle Carceri, 278
+  PRENTZLAU.
+    Church, 244
+  PRIENE.
+    Ionic order, 53;
+    Propyl�a, 69
+  PROVENCE, 164.
+  PROVINS.
+    Houses at, 214
+  PURI.
+    Temples, 408.
+    Temple of Juggan�t, 409
+  PURUDKUL.
+    Rock-cut raths, 413
+
+  RAMESSEUM (Thebes).
+    Tomb-temple of Rameses II., 15, 21, 24 (+8+)
+  RAMISSERAM.
+    Temple, corridors, 411
+  RATISBON (Regensburg) Cathedral, 239, 241, 244.
+    Town hall, 245.
+    Walhalla, 359
+  RAVENNA, 114.
+    Baptistery of St. John, 119.
+    Byzantine monuments (list), 134.
+    Cathedral, 304.
+    Early Christian monuments (list), 119.
+    S.�Apollinare Nuovo, S. Apollinare in Classe, 114.
+    S. Vitale, 117, 122, 127, 172 (+73+)
+  REGGIO.
+    Amphitheatre, 92
+  REIMS Cathedral, 189, 197, 201, 202, 203, 205;
+    size, 206;
+    west front, 207, 213, 227;
+    towers, 209;
+    portals, 208, 210
+  RIMINI.
+    S. Francesco, 277
+  ROCHESTER Cathedral, 220
+  RODEZ Cathedral, 197, 212
+  ROME.
+    Ancient monuments, (list) 108, 109.
+    Amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus, 102.
+    ARCHES:--
+      in general, 77, 103;
+      of Constantine, 80, 103 (+63+);
+      of Septimius Severus, 103;
+      of Titus, 92, 103;
+      of Trajan, 97, 103.
+    BASILICAS:--
+      in general, 97, 98;
+      Basilica �milia, 98;
+      of Constantine, xxiii, 80, 82, 98, 99 (+50+ b, +58+, +59+);
+      Julian Basilica, 98;
+      Sempronian, 98;
+      Ulpian, 97, 98 (+57+).
+      (For Early Christian Basilicas, see Churches.)
+    BATHS (Therm�):--
+      in general, 71, 92,�99;
+      of Agrippa, 91, 100;
+      of Caracalla, 87, 92 (+60+);
+      of Diocletian, 92, 100, 101;
+      of Titus, 86, 91, 100, 105.
+    Campanile of Campidoglio (Capitol), 305.
+    Capitol, 91;
+      palaces on, 299.
+    CHURCHES:--
+      in general, 293;
+      Church of Ges�, 299;
+      Sistine Chapel of Vatican, 286, 289;
+      Sta. Agnese
+        (basilica), 112
+        (modern church), 303;
+      S. Agostino, 286;
+      S. Clemente, 114;
+      Sta. Costanza, 111 (+66+);
+      St. John Lateran, 113, 251, 304, 305;
+        cloister of same, 281;
+      S. Lorenzo, 112;
+      S.�Lorenzo in Miranda, 93;
+      Sta. Maria degli Angeli, 101;
+      Sta. Maria Maggiore, 113, 305;
+        Chapel of Sixtus V. in same, 299;
+      Sta. Maria del Popolo, 286, 287;
+        Chigi Chapel in same, 293;
+      Sta. Maria della Vittoria, 303;
+      Sta. Maria sopra Minerva, 256;
+      St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls, 113, 281 (+67+, +68+);
+      St. Peter's, original basilica, 113;
+      existing church of, 274, 286, 289, 290, 294-296, 299, 321
+          (+169+, +170+, +171+);
+        colonnade of same, 295, 303, 367;
+        sacristy of same, 305;
+      S. Pietro in Montorio, Tempietto in court of, 209.
+    CIRCUSES:--
+      Maximus, 103;
+      of Caligula and Nero, 103, 113.
+    Cloaca Maxima, 81, 90.
+    Colosseum (Flavian amphitheatre) 91, 92, 102 (+45+, +62+).
+    COLUMNS:--103;
+      of Marcus Aurelius, 104;
+      of Trajan, 97, 104.
+    Early Christian monuments, 111; (list), 118, 119.
+    FORA:--
+      in general, 97;
+      of Augustus, 91, 97;
+      of Julius, Nerva, Vespasian, 97;
+      Forum Romanum (Magnum), 97, 98;
+      Forum of Trajan, 97, 98 (+57+).
+    Fountain of Trevi, 305.
+    HOUSES:--
+      in general, 105, 106, 108;
+      of Vestals (Atrium Vest�), 94, 106;
+      of Livia, 107.
+    Lateran, carved ornament from Museum of (+49+);
+      palace of, 300.
+    Mausoleum of Augustus, of Hadrian, 104.
+    Minor Works in Rome, 287.
+    Monument to Victor Emmanuel, 382.
+    National Museum, 382.
+    PALACES (Ancient):--
+      of C�sars on Palatine Hill, 86, 91, 105;
+      of Nero (Golden House), 91, 92, 100, 105;
+      Septizonium, 105.
+    PALACES (Renaissance):--
+      Altemps, 292;
+      Barberini, 304, 305;
+      Borghese, 304;
+      Braschi, 305;
+      of Capitol, 299;
+      Cancelleria, 290, 291;
+      Corsini, 305;
+      Farnese, 292 (+167+, +168+);
+      Farnesina, 291;
+      Giraud, 290, 291 (+166+);
+      Lante, 292;
+      Massimi, Palma, 291;
+      Quirinal, 300;
+      Sacchetti, 291;
+      Vatican, Belvedere, greater and lesser court,
+          Court of S.�Damaso, Loggie, 209, 291;
+      Braccio Nuovo, 305, 365;
+      Casino del Papa in gardens, 293;
+      papal residence, 300;
+      Scala Reggia, 305;
+      palazzo di Venezia, 286.
+    Pantheon of Agrippa, 82, 91, 94-96, 100, 118, 122, 127, 365
+      (+54+, +55+, +56+).
+    Pons �lius (Ponte S. Angelo), 108.
+    Porta Maggiore, 108.
+    Portico of Octavia, 91.
+    TEMPLES:--
+      Of Castor and Pollux (Dioscuri), 84, 91, 94 (+44+);
+      of Concord, 94;
+      of Faustina, 93;
+      of Fortuna Virilis, 89, 90, 93;
+      of Hercules or Vesta, 90;
+      of Julius, 94;
+      of Jupiter Capitolinus, 68, 89, 91;
+      of Jupiter Stator, so called (see Temple of Castor and Pollux);
+      of Jupiter Tonans, 91;
+      of Mars Ultor, 91;
+      of Minerva Medica, 127;
+      of Peace, 98;
+      of Trajan, 97;
+      of Venus and Rome, 94 (+53+);
+      of Vesta, in Forum, 94;
+      of Vesta, so called, or Hercules, 90.
+    THEATRES:--
+      Of Marcellus, 91, 101 (+42+);
+      of Mummius, of Pompey, 101.
+    TOMBS:--86, 104;
+      of Caius Cestius, of Cecilia Metella, 104;
+      of Helena, 118
+  ROSENBORG Castle, 336
+  ROSHEIM.
+    Church fa�ade, 175
+  ROTHENBURG.
+    Town hall, 344
+  ROUEN, 310.
+    Cathedral, 192, 197, 201, 202, 205;
+      size of, 206;
+      west front, 207;
+      rose windows, 212.
+    H�tel Bourgtheroude, 316.
+    Palais de Justice, 214.
+    St. Maclou, 209.
+    St. Ouen, 212, 213, 375;
+      rose window from (+112+)
+  ROUHEIHA.
+    Early Christian church, 117
+  ROYAL DOMAIN, 166, 167, 197
+  RUANWALLI.
+    Topes, 403
+  RUSSIA, 367.
+    Byzantine monuments (list), 134
+
+  SADRI.
+    Temple, 406
+  SAKKARAH.
+    Pyramid, 9
+  SALAMANCA.
+    Casa de las Conchas, 349.
+    Cathedral (old), 180, 248;
+      (new), 250, 348.
+    Monastery of S. Girolamo, 348.
+    S. Domingo, 348.
+    University, 349;
+      portal of (+195+)
+  SALISBURY
+    Cathedral, 219, 223, 225, 229, 232 (+128+);
+      west front, 228;
+      spire, 228, 229.
+    Market cross, 234
+  SALONICA. Church of St. George, 118.
+    Other monuments (list), 134
+  SALSETTE.
+    Viharas, 405
+  SALZBURG.
+    Church of St. Francis, 242
+  SAMOS.
+    Gate, 45
+  SANCHI.
+    Brahman temple, 404.
+    Tope, 403
+  SAN ILDEFONSO.
+    Royal Palace, 352
+  SABAGOSSA.
+    Casa de Zaporta, 350 (+196+)
+  SAXONY, 173
+  SCHALABURG.
+    Castle, 339
+  SCHLETTSTADT Cathedral, 239
+  SCHLOSS H�MELSCHENBURG, 343 (+191+)
+  SCHLOSS PORZIA at Spital, 338
+  SCHLOSS STERN at Prague, 339
+  SCHWARZ-RHEINDORF.
+    Church, 174
+  SCHWEINF�RTH.
+    Town hall, 344
+  SCINDE, 146
+  SECUNDRA.
+    Tomb of Akbar, 148
+  SEDINGA.
+    Hathoric columns, 24
+  S�EZ Cathedral, 197
+  SEGOVIA Cathedral, 190, 249, 348.
+    Church of S. Millan, of Templars, 180
+  SELINUS.
+    Temples, 49;
+    northern temple, 60;
+    Temple of Zeus, 61
+  SEMNEH.
+    Pavilion, 26
+  SENLIS Cathedral, 197, 200, 209
+  SENS.
+    Archbishop's palace, 317.
+    Cathedral, 203, 219
+  SERBISTAN.
+    Sassanian buildings, 144
+  SEVILLE.
+    Alcazar, 142, 143.
+    Casa de Pilato (House of Pilate), 142, 350.
+    Cathedral, 244, 250, 257, 351.
+    Giralda, 142, 143, 352
+  SHEEPREE.
+    Pathan arches, 148
+  SIENNA.
+    Brick houses, 266.
+    Campanile, 264.
+    Cathedral (Duomo), 257, 259, 263 (+150+);
+     west front, 260 (+151+).
+    Loggia del Papa, 282.
+    Minor works, 282.
+    PALACES:--
+      Del Governo, Piccolomini, Spannocchi, 282;
+      Palazzo Pubblico, 266.
+    Renaissance churches, 293.
+    S. Giovanni in Fonte, 260
+  SILSILEH.
+    Grotto temple, 22
+  SOISSONS Cathedral, 197, 200, 203, 205, 243
+  SOMNATH.
+    Jaina temple, 407
+  SOMNATHPUR.
+    Chalukyan temples, 409, 410
+  SOUTHWELL Minster, carving from, (+115+)
+  SPAIN, 347.
+    Gothic monuments (list), 253.
+    Romanesque churches, 179-180
+  SPALATO.
+    Palace of Diocletian, 92, 106, 113 (+64+)
+  SPITAL.
+    Schloss Porzia, 338
+  SPIRES (Speyer) Cathedral, 174 (+100+)
+  ST. ALBAN'S Abbey, tombs, etc., in, 234
+  ST. AUGUSTINE.
+    Fort Marion (S. Marco), 388.
+    Ponce de Leon Hotel, 399.
+    Roman Catholic cathedral, 388.
+  ST. BENO�T-SUR-LOIRE.
+    Antechurch, 177
+  ST. DENIS.
+    Abbey, 197, 198, 200, 202, 203 (+120+);
+      tomb of Louis XII. in, 316;
+      of Francis I., 317
+  ST. GERMAIN-EN-LAYE.
+    Ch�teau, 313;
+      Royal chapel in, 204
+  ST. GILLES.
+    Church, 165
+  ST. LOUIS.
+    Union Trust Bdg., 397
+  ST. PAUL.
+    State Capitol, 400
+  ST. PETERSBURG, 366, 367.
+    Admiralty, 367.
+    Cathedral of St. Isaac, 367 (+207+).
+    CHURCHES:--
+      of the Citadel, of the Greek Rite, 366;
+      of Our Lady of Kazan, 367.
+    New Museum, Palace of Grand Duke Michael, 367.
+    Smolnoy Monastery, 366.
+  ST. R�MY.
+    Tombs, 105
+  STABI�, 92
+  STOCKHOLM.
+    Palace, 337
+  STRASBURG
+    Cathedral, 243;
+      spire of, 238, 240, 241, 243.
+    University Buildings, 376
+  STUTTGART.
+    Old Castle, 343.
+    Technical School, 376
+  STYRIA, 339
+  SULLY.
+    Ch�teau, 317
+  SULTANIYEH.
+    Tomb, 145
+  SUNIUM.
+    Propyl�a, 69
+  SUSA, 145.
+    Palaces, 35
+  SYRACUSE.
+    Theatre, 70
+  SYRIA, 122;
+    early Christian churches in, 115, 116, 117; (list), 119
+
+  TABRIZ.
+    Ruined Mosque, 145
+  TAFKHAH.
+    Early Christian Church, 117
+  TAKHT-I-BAHI.
+    Monastery, 405
+  T�NGERM�NDE.
+    Church, 244
+  TANJORE.
+    Great temple, 412.
+    Palace, 413.
+    Shrine of Soubramanya, 412 (+229+)
+  TARPUTRY.
+    Gopura, 411
+  TEHERAN, 146
+  TEL-EL-AMARNA, 27
+  TEWKESBURY Abbey, 222 (+130+)
+  THEBES.
+    Amenopheum, 15.
+    Ramesseum, 15 (+8+)
+  THORICUS.
+    Gate, 45;
+    Stoa Diple, 69
+  TINNEVELLY.
+    Dravidian temples, 411
+  TIRUVALUR.
+    Dravidian temples, 411
+  TIRYNS, 44
+  TIVOLI.
+    Circular temple, 90, 356 (+52+).
+    VILLAS:--
+      D'Este, 293;
+      of Hadrian, 87, 106
+  TOKIO.
+    Great Palace, 415
+  TOLEDO.
+    Archbishop's Palace, 360.
+    Cathedral, 189, 248, 348.
+    Gate of S. Martino, 350.
+    Hospital of Sta. Cruz, 349.
+    S. Juan de los Reyes, 251
+  TONNERRE.
+    Hospital, 214
+  TORGAU.
+    Hartenfels Castle, 342
+  TORO.
+    Collegiate church, 180
+  TOULOUSE Cathedral, 212.
+    Church of St. Sernin, 204.
+    Houses, 317
+  TOURNAY Cathedral, 190, 197, 205, 209;
+    rood-screen in, 335
+  TOURS, 310.
+    Cathedral, 197, 205, 209;
+      towers of, 312;
+      tomb of children of Charles VIII. in, 310, 342
+  TRAUSNITZ Castle, 342
+  TREVES (Trier).
+    Cathedral, 174.
+    Frauenkirche (Liebfrauenkirche, Church of Our Lady),
+      189, 242, 243 (+142+)
+  TROYES
+    Cathedral, 197, 201, 205;
+      size, 206;
+      west portals, 209.
+    St. Urbain, 212
+  TUCSON.
+    Church, 352
+  TUPARAMAYA.
+    Topes, 403
+  TURIN.
+    Church of La Superga, 365
+  TURKEY, 149.
+    Monuments (list), 154
+  TUSCULUM.
+    Amphitheatre, 92
+  TYROL, 338, 339
+
+  UDAIPUR (near Bhilsa).
+    Hindu temples, 409
+  ULM Cathedral, 238, 239, 241, 243;
+    spire, 241
+  UR, 30
+  URBINO.
+    Ducal palace, 287
+  UTRECHT Cathedral, 244
+
+  VALENCIA Cathedral, 249
+  VALLADOLID.
+    Cathedral, 350.
+    S. Gregorio, portal (+146+)
+  VELLORE.
+    Gopura, 411
+  VEND�ME Cathedral, portal, 209
+  VENETIA, 157, 262, 305
+  VENICE, 300.
+    Campaniles of St. Mark, of S. Giorgio Maggiore, 305.
+    CHURCHES:--
+      Frari (S. M. Gloriosa dei Frari), 256;
+      Redentore, 299;
+      S. Giobbe, 284;
+      S. Giorgio dei Grechi, 293;
+      S. Giorgio Maggiore, 299, 305;
+      SS. Giovanni e Paolo, 256;
+      Sta. Maria Formosa, 293;
+      S. M. dei Miracoli, 283;
+      S. M. della Salute, 304, (+174+);
+      St. Mark's, 132, 164 (+78+, +79+);
+        Library of same (Royal Palace), 301 (+172+);
+      S. Salvatore, 293;
+      S. Zaccaria, 284.
+    Doge's Palace, 267, 284 (+157+).
+    Minor works, 287.
+    PALACES:--267, 283, 284;
+      C� d'Oro, Cavalli, Contarini-Fasan, 268;
+      Cornaro (Corner de C� Grande) 301;
+      Dario, 285;
+      Ducale (Doge's Palace), 267, 284 (+157+);
+      Foscari, 268;
+      Grimani, 300;
+      Pesaro, 304;
+      Pisani, 268;
+      Rezzonico, 304;
+      Vendramini (Vendramin-Calergi), 284, 285 (+165+);
+      Zorzi, capital, 275 (+158+)
+  VERCELLI.
+    S. Andrea, 256, 263
+  VERNEUIL.
+    Ch�teau, 317
+  VERONA, 157.
+    Amphitheatre, 92, 102.
+    Campanile, 264.
+    Church
+      of Sta. Anastasia, 256, 258;
+      of S. Zeno, 159, 175.
+    PALACES:--283;
+      Bevilacqua, Canossa, 300;
+      del Consiglio, 286;
+      Pompeii, Verzi, 300.
+      Tombs of Scaligers, 264
+  VERSAILLES Palace, 320
+  V�Z�LAY.
+    Abbey, 166, 198, 203
+  VICENZA, 300, 301.
+    Basilica, 301.
+    PALACES:--283;
+      Barbarano, Chieregati, Tiene, Valmarano, 301;
+      Villa Capra, 301, 328
+  VIENNA, 347.
+    Arsenal at Wiener Neustadt, 338.
+    Burgtheater, 376.
+    Cathedral (St. Stephen), 239, 240, 241;
+      spire of, 240, 241.
+    Church of St. Charles Borromeo, 358.
+    Imperial Palace, portal, 339.
+    Museums, 378.
+    Opera House, 376.
+    Parliament House, or Reichsrathsgeb�ude, 360, 378.
+    Residence-block (Maria-Theresienhof), 378 (+214+).
+    Sta. Maria in Gestade, 245.
+    Town hall, University, 378.
+    Votiv Kirche, 375
+  VIJAYANAGAR.
+    Palace, 413
+  VINCENNES.
+    Royal chapel, 204
+  VITERBO.
+    Houses, 267.
+    Town hall (Palazzo Communale), 266.
+    Villa Lante, 293
+  VOLTERRA (Volaterr�).
+    Gate, 88
+
+  WALTHAM.
+    Abbey, 178.
+    Eleanor's Cross, 234
+  WARFIELD.
+    St. Michael's, window (+111+)
+  WARKAH (Erech).
+    Palace terraces, 31
+  WARTBURG Castle, 176
+  WASHINGTON.
+    Capitol, 389, 391 (+220+).
+    Congressional Library, 399.
+    Patent Office, 390.
+    State, Army, and Navy Building, 392.
+    White House, 390
+  WELLS Cathedral, 222, 225, 232;
+    west front, 228;
+    chapter house of, 223 (+131+)
+  WESTMINSTER. See LONDON
+  WESTONZOYLAND. Ceiling of St. Mary's (+138+)
+  WESTOVER House, 386
+  WIENER-NEUSTADT. See VIENNA
+  WILLIAMSBURG.
+    Town hall, 385
+  WILTON House, 329
+  WINCHESTER Cathedral, 178, 220, 222, 226, 229 (+103+);
+    tombs, etc., in, 234
+  WINDSOR.
+    St. George's Chapel, 223, 227, 234
+  WISMAR.
+    Castle (F�rstenhof), 343.
+    City Gates, 246
+  WOBURN. Public Library (+223+)
+  WOLLATON Hall, 328
+  WOLFENB�TTEL.
+    Marienkirche, 345
+  WOLTERTON Castle, 326
+  WORANGUL.
+    Kurti Stambha, 410
+  WORCESTER Cathedral, 232
+  WORMS.
+    Minster (cathedral), 174 (+99+)
+  W�RZBURG.
+    University Church, 345
+
+  XANTEN.
+    Church, 242
+  XANTHUS.
+    Nereid monument, 71
+
+  YORK Cathedral, 192, 225, 226;
+    west front, 227;
+    tower, 228;
+    minor works in, 234
+  YPRES.
+    Cloth hall, 247
+
+  ZURICH.
+    Polytechnic School, 376
+  ZWETTL Cathedral, 242
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+College Histories of Art.
+
+A HISTORY OF PAINTING.
+
+BY
+
+JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.
+
+Professor of the History of Art in Rutgers College, and Author of
+"Principles of Art," "Art for Art's Sake," etc.
+
+With Frontispiece and 110 Illustrations in the text, reproduced in
+half-tone from the most celebrated paintings. Crown 8vo, 307 pages,
+$1.50.
+
+
+"... The initial volume of a promising series ... seems a model of pith,
+lucidity, and practical convenience; and that it is sound and accurate
+the author's name is a sufficient guarantee. Essential historical and
+biographical facts, together with brief critical estimates and
+characterizations of leading schools and painters, are given in a few
+well-chosen words; and for students who wish to pursue the subject in
+detail, a�list of selected authorities at the head of each chapter
+points the way. Serviceable lists are also provided of principal extant
+works, together with the places where they are to be found. The text is
+liberally sprinkled with illustrations in half-tone."--DIAL, CHICAGO.
+
+"Prof. Van Dyke has performed his task with great thoroughness and good
+success.... He seems to us singularly happy in his characterization of
+various artists, and amazingly just in proportion. We have hardly found
+an instance in which the relative importance accorded a given artist
+seemed to us manifestly wrong, and hardly one in which the special
+characteristics of a style were not adequately presented."--NATION, N.Y.
+
+"... Gives a good general view of the subject, avoiding as a rule all
+elaborate theories and disputed points, and aiming to distinguish the
+various historical schools from one another by their differences of
+subject and technique ... we do not know of anybody who has, on the
+whole, accomplished the task with as much success as has Mr. Van Dyke.
+The book is modern in spirit and thoroughly up-to-date in point of
+information."--ART AMATEUR.
+
+"Professor Van Dyke has made a radical departure in one respect, in
+purposely omitting the biographical details with which text-books on art
+are usually encumbered, and substituting short critical estimates of
+artists and of their rank among the painters of their time. This feature
+of the work is highly to be commended, as it affords means for
+comparative study that cannot fail to be beneficial.... Altogether
+Professor Van Dyke's text-book is worthy of general adoption, and as a
+volume of ready reference for the family library it will have a distinct
+usefulness. It is compact, comprehensive, and admirably
+arranged."--BEACON, BOSTON.
+
+
+LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO.,
+
+91 & 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+A History of Sculpture.
+
+BY
+
+ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D.
+
+AND
+
+ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., Ph.D.
+
+Professors of Arch�ology and the History of Art in Princeton University.
+
++With Frontispiece and 113 Illustrations in half-tone in the text,
+Bibliographies, Addresses for Photographs and Casts, etc. Crown 8vo, 313
+pages, $1.50.+
+
+
+HENRY W. KENT, _Curator of the Seater Museum, Watkins, N.Y._
+
+"Like the other works in this series of yours, it is simply invaluable,
+filling a long-felt want. The bibliographies and lists will be keenly
+appreciated by all who work with a class of students."
+
+CHARLES H. MOORE, _Harvard University_.
+
+"The illustrations are especially good, avoiding the excessively black
+background which produce harsh contrasts and injure the outlines of so
+many half-tone prints."
+
+J. M. HOPPIN, _Yale University_.
+
+"These names are sufficient guarantee for the excellence of the book and
+its fitness for the object it was designed for. I�was especially
+interested in the chapter on _Renaissance Sculpture in Italy_."
+
+CRITIC, _New York_.
+
+"This history is a model of condensation.... Each period is treated in
+full, with descriptions of its general characteristics and its
+individual developments under various conditions, physical, political,
+religious and the like.... A�general history of sculpture has never
+before been written in English--never in any language in convenient
+textbook form. This publication, then, should meet with an enthusiastic
+reception among students and amateurs of art, not so much, however,
+because it is the only book of its kind, as for its intrinsic merit and
+attractive form."
+
+OUTLOOK, _New York_.
+
+"A concise survey of the history of sculpture is something needed
+everywhere.... A�good feature of this book--and one which should be
+imitated--is the list indicating where casts and photographs may best be
+obtained. Of course such a volume is amply indexed."
+
+NOTRE DAME SCHOLASTIC, _Notre Dame, Ind._
+
+"The work is orderly, the style lucid and easy. The illustrations,
+numbering over a hundred, are sharply cut and well selected. Besides a
+general bibliography, there is placed at the end of each period of style
+a special list to which the student may refer, should he wish to pursue
+more fully any particular school."
+
+
+LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., Publishers,
+
+91 & 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+ERRORS AND INCONSISTENCIES:
+
+Missing or invisible punctuation has been silently supplied, as have
+missing umlauts and line-end hyphens; errors of this type were assumed
+to be mechanical, introduced either in printing or scanning. Conversely,
+"Bauschule" (Berlin) was consistently misprinted as "Bausch�le".
+
+Hyphenization of some words was inconsistent: zigzag and zig-zag,
+semicircular and semi-circular, staircase and stair-case. The plural of
+"portico" is regularly "porticos", rarely "porticoes". Both occurrences
+of "mantelpiece" are at line-break; the hyphen was omitted based on
+usage in the 8th edition.
+
+Alphabetization in the Index is as printed.
+
+In the line "a species of rudimentary arch of [A]-shape (Fig.�2)", the
+symbol shown here as [A] was printed as something like a Greek lambda.
+
+Names:
+
+  The architect Robert Adam is consistently called "Adams"; the error
+    was corrected in the 8th edition. The name form "Michael Angelo"
+    is standard for the time.
+  Columbia College changed its name to Columbia University in 1896,
+    presumably after the book's original preface (dated January 20,
+    1896) was written.
+  The French palace is variously Luxembourg and Luxemburg.
+
+Spelling of place names was unchanged except when there was an
+unambiguous error. For details, see below.
+
+  Chapter VII:
+    the choragus Lysicrates  [choraegus]
+  Chapter VIII:
+    (long miscalled the temple of Jupiter Stator)  [Jupitor]
+  Chapter IX:
+    Adams, _Ruins of the Palace of Spalato_.  [Spalatro]
+  --, Monuments:
+    [FORA] Trajan (by Apollodorus of Damascus, 117 A.D.)
+      [_closing ) missing_]
+  Chapter XII:
+    the time of Haroun Ar Rashid (786)  [_spelling unchanged_]
+  Chapter XIII, Monuments:
+    [FRANCE, 11th century] Mont St. Michel, 1020 (the latter altered
+    in 12th and 16th centuries)  [_closing ) missing_]
+  Chapter XIV:
+    Northern Italy, with which the Hohenstauffen emperors
+      [_spelling unchanged_]
+  Chapter XVII:
+    Such vaults are called _lierne_ or _star_ vaults.
+      [_Figure caption has "net or lierne"_]
+    [Monuments] All Soul's College  [_apostrophe in original_]
+  Chapter XX:
+    _Cinquecento_ to the sixteenth century  [cenury]
+  Chapter XXI:
+    but following its pernicious example  [pernicous]
+  --, Monuments:
+    Chapel of S.�Lorenzo, new sacristy of same  [sacristry]
+    P.�Giugni, 1560-8.
+      [_text has "P. Giugni, -1560." Correction was taken from
+      8th edition_]
+  Chapter XXIII:
+    St. Paul's ranks among the five or six greatest  [five of six]
+  Chapter XXVI:
+    Sammelmappe hervorragenden Concurrenz-Entwurfen.
+      [Sammel mappe]
+
+  Appendix B:
+    the brick tower on the Piazza dell' Erbe  [dell 'Erbe]
+  Appendix D:
+    the chief marks of the Art Nouveau  [Noveau]
+
+  Glossary:
+    QUATREFOIL, with four leaves or _foils_  [QUARTREFOIL]
+
+  Index:
+    BERLIN
+      Old Museum, 359 (+200+).
+      New Museum, 359.
+      [_alphabetized as shown; body text has "Museum" and "New Museum"_]
+    DURHAM Cathedral, 177, 178, 220, 221 (+102+)  [+116+]
+    PARIS. ... Cathedral ... early carving (+114+)  [+122+]
+    TAFKHAH. Early Christian Church  [Christain]
+    WORMS. Minster (cathedral), 174 (+99+)  [+112+]
+
+
+A few words in Chapters VI and VII were printed with "ae" instead of the
+expected "�". They have been regularized for this e-text.
+
+  From Olympia, �gina, and Phigaleia  [Aegina]
+  Selinus, Agrigentum, P�stum  [Paestum]
+  Castor and Pollux, Demeter, �sculapius  [Aesculapius]
+
+
+PLACE NAMES:
+
+The form "Herculanum" (for Herculanum) was used consistently. The
+English city is Peterboro' (with apostrophe) in its first few
+appearances, and then changes to Peterborough for the remainder of
+the book. The Italian city was conventionally spelled "Sienna" (with
+two n's) in English.
+
+Many names, especially non-European ones, differ significantly from
+their modern form. Some of the following are conjectural.
+
+Near East:
+
+  Ipsamboul: Abu Simbel
+  Bozrah: probably modern Bouseira, Jordan (not "Bosrah", modern Basra)
+
+Greater India (including modern Pakistan and Bangladesh)
+
+  Tope: the form "stupa" is more common
+  Indian desert: Thar desert
+
+  Baillur: Belur
+  Chillambaram: probably Chidambaram; the author's sources seem to
+    have had trouble with "l" in South Indian names
+  Conjeveram: Kanchipuram
+  Futtehpore Sikhri: Fatehpur Sikri
+  Hullabid: Halebid
+  Jaunpore: Janpur
+  Jugganat: the name of the deity is Jagannath; the English name-form
+    led to the word "juggernaut"
+  Kantonnuggur: Kantanagar
+  Oudeypore: the author seems not to have realized that this is the same
+    place as Udaipur, cited with that spelling in the same paragraph
+  Scinde: Sind
+  Shepree: could not be identified.
+    The author's source is probably James Ferguson, who describes it
+    as "near Gualior" (Gwalior)
+  Tanjore: Thanjavur
+  Worangul: Varangal
+
+Cambodia:
+
+  Nakhon Wat: better known as Angkor Wat
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Text-Book of the History of
+Architecture, by Alfred D. F. Hamlin
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 26319-8.txt or 26319-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/3/1/26319/
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