diff options
Diffstat (limited to '8884-8.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 8884-8.txt | 22671 |
1 files changed, 22671 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/8884-8.txt b/8884-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..99b90ae --- /dev/null +++ b/8884-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,22671 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, by John Burckhardt +#2 in our series by John Burckhardt + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Travels in Syria and the Holy Land + +Author: John Burckhardt + +Release Date: September, 2005 [EBook #8884] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on August 20, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS IN SYRIA AND THE HOLY LAND *** + + + + +Produced by William Thierens and Ann Westfall + + + + +TRAVELS + +IN + +SYRIA AND THE HOLY LAND; + +BY THE LATE + +JOHN LEWIS BURCKHARDT. + + + +PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION FOR PROMOTING THE DISCOVERY OF THE INTERIOR +PARTS OF AFRICA. + + +[1822] + + + + +PREFACE OF THE EDITOR. + +[p.i]It is hoped that little apology is necessary for the publication of +a volume of Travels in Asia, by a Society, whose sole professed object +is the promotion of discoveries in the African continent. + +The Association having had the good fortune to obtain the services of a +person of Mr. Burckhardt's education and talents, resolved to spare +neither time nor expense in enabling him to acquire the language and +manners of an Arabian Musulman in such a degree of perfection, as should +render the detection of his real character in the interior of Africa +extremely difficult. + +It was thought that a residence at Aleppo would afford him the most +convenient means of study, while his intercourse with the natives of +that city, together with his occasional tours in Syria, would supply him +with a view of Arabian life and manners in every degree, from the +Bedouin camp to the populous city. While thus preparing himself for the +ultimate object of his mission, he was careful to direct his journeys +through those parts of Syria which had been the least frequented by +European travellers, and thus he had the opportunity of making some +important additions to our knowledge of one of those countries of which +the geography is not less interesting by its connection with ancient +history, than it is imperfect, in consequence of the impediments which +modern barbarism has opposed to scientific researches. After consuming +near three years in Syria, Mr. Burckhardt, on his arrival in Egypt, +found himself prevented from pursuing the execution of his instructions, +by [p.ii] a suspension of the usual commercial intercourse with the +interior of Africa, and was thus, during the ensuing five years, placed +under the necessity of employing his time in Egypt and the adjacent +countries in the same manner as he had done in Syria. After the journeys +in Egypt, Nubia, Arabia, and Mount Sinai, which have been briefly +described in the Memoir prefixed to the former volume of his travels, +his death at Cairo, at the moment when he was preparing for immediate +departure to Fezzan, left the Association in possession of a large +collection of manuscripts concerning the countries visited by their +traveller in these preparatory journeys, but of nothing more than oral +information as to those to which he had been particularly sent. As his +journals in Nubia, and in the regions adjacent to the Astaboras, +although relating only to an incidental part of his mission to Africa, +were descriptive of countries coming strictly within the scope of the +African Association, these, together with all his collected information +on the interior of Africa, were selected for earliest publication. The +present volume contains his observations in Syria and Arabia Petraea; to +which has been added his tour in the Peninsula of Mount Sinai, although +the latest of all his travels in date, because it is immediately +connected, by its subject, with his journey through the adjacent +districts of the Holy Land. There still remain manuscripts sufficient to +fill two volumes; one of these will consist of his travels in Arabia, +which were confined to the Hedjaz, or Holy Land of the Musulmans, the +part least accessible to Christians; the fourth volume will contain very +copious remarks on the Arabs on the Desert, and particularly the +Wahabys. + +The two principal maps annexed to the present volume have been +constructed under the continued inspection of the Editor, by Mr. John +Walker, junior, by whom they have been delineated and engraved. + +[p.iii]In the course of this process, it has been found, that our +traveller's bearings by the compass are not always to be relied on. +Those which were obviously incorrect, and useless for geographical +purposes, have been omitted in the Journal; some instances of the same +kind, which did not occur to the Editor until the sheets were printed, +are noticed in the Errata, and if a few still remain, the reader is +intreated not to consider them as proofs of negligence in the formation +of the maps, which have been carefully constructed from Burckhardt's +materials, occasionally assisted and corrected by other extant +authorities. One cannot easily decide, whether the errors in our +traveller's bearings are chiefly to be attributed to the variable nature +of the instrument, or to the circumstances of haste and concealment +under which he was often obliged to take his observations, though it is +sufficiently evident that be fell into the error, not uncommon with +unexperienced travellers, of multiplying bearings to an excessive +degree, instead of verifying a smaller number, and measuring +intermediate angles with a pocket sextant. However his mistakes may have +arisen, the consequence has been, that some parts of the general map +illustrative of his journeys in Syria and the Holy Land have been +constructed less from his bearings than from his distances in time, +combined with those of other travellers, and checked by some known +points on the coast. Hence also a smaller scale has been chosen for that +map than may be formed from the same materials when a few points in the +interior are determined by celestial observations. In the mean time it +is hoped, that the present sketch will be sufficient to enable the +reader to pursue the narrative without much difficulty, especially as +the part of Syria which the traveller examined with more minuteness than +any other, the Haouran, is illustrated by a map upon a larger scale, +which has been composed from two delineations made by him in his two +journeys in that province. + +[p.iv]It appears unnecessary to the Editor to enter into any lengthened +discussion in justification of the ancient names which he has inserted +in the maps; he thinks it sufficient to refer to the copious exposition +of the evidences of Sacred Geography contained in the celebrated work of +Reland. Much is still wanting to complete this most interesting +geographical comparison; and as a great part of the country visited by +Burckhardt has since his time been explored by a gentleman better +qualified to illustrate its antiquities by his learning; who travelled +under more favourable circumstances, and who was particuarly diligent in +collecting those most faithful of all geographical evidences, ancient +inscriptions, it may be left to Mr. W. Bankes, to illustrate more fully +the ancient geography of the Decapolis and adjoining districts, and to +remove some of the difficulties arising from the ambiguity of the +ancient authorities. + +It will be found, perhaps, that our traveller is incorrect in supposing, +that the ruins at Omkeis are those of Gamala, for the situalion of +Omkeis, the strength of its position, and the extent of the ruins, all +favour the opinion that it was Gadara, the chief city of Peraea, the +strongest place in this part of the country, and the situation of which, +on a mountain over against Tiberias and Scythopolis, [Polyb.1.5.c.71. +Joseph.de Bel. Jud.l.4.c.8. Euseb. Onomast. in [Greek text]. The +distance of the ruins at Omkeis from the Hieromax and the hot baths +seems to have been Burckhardt's objection to their being the remains of +Gadara; but this distance is justified by St. Jerom, by Eusebius, and by +a writer of the 5th century. According to the two former authors the hot +baths were not at Gadara, but at a place near it called Aitham, or +Aimath, or Emmatha; and the latter correctly states the distance at five +miles. Reland Palaest. p.302, 775. Perhaps Gamala was at El Hosn; +Gaulanitis, of which Gamala was the chief town, will then correspond +very well with Djolan.] corresponds precisely with that of Omkeis. But +it will probably be admitted, that our traveller has rightly placed +several other cities, such as Scythopolis, Hippus, Abila,[There were two +cities of this name. Abil on the Western borders of the Haouran appears +to have been the Abila of Lysanias, which the Emperors Claudius and Nero +gave together with Batanaea and Trachonitis, to Herodes Agrippa. Joseph. +Ant. Jud. l.19.c.5.--sl.20.c.7.] Gerasa, Amathus; + +[p.v]and he has greatly improved our knowledge of Sacred Geography, by +ascertaining many of the Hebrew sites in the once populous but now +deserted region, formerly known by the names of Edom, Moab, Ammon, and +the country of the Amorites. + +The principal geographical discoveries of our traveller, are the nature +of the country between the Dead Sea and the gulf of Aelana, now Akaba;-- +the extent, conformation, and detailed topography of the Haouran;--the +site of Apameia on the Orontes, one of the most important cities of +Syria under the Macedonian Greeks;--the site of Petra, which, under the +Romans, gave the name of Arabia Petraea to the surrounding territory;-- +and the general structure of the peninsula of Mount Sinai; together with +many new facts in its geography, one of the most important of which is +the extent and form of the AElanitic gulf, hitherto so imperfectly known +as either to be omitted in the maps, or marked with a bifurcation at the +extremity, which is now found not to exist. + +M. Seetzen, in the years 1805 and 1806, had traversed a part of the +Haouran to Mezareib and Draa, had observed the Paneium at the source of +the Jordan at Banias, had visited the ancient sites at Omkeis, Beit-er- +Ras, Abil, Djerash and Amman, and had followed the route afterwards +taken by Burckhardt through Rabbath Moab to Kerek, from whence he passed +round the southern extremity of the Dead Sea to Jerusalem. The public, +however, has never received any more than a very short account of these +journeys, taken from the correspondence of M. Seetzen with M. de Zach, +at Saxe-Gotha.[This correspondence having been communicated to the +Palestine Association, was translated and printed by that Society in the +year 1810, in a quarto of forty-seven pages.] He was quite unsuccessful +in his inquiries for Petra, and having taken the road which leads to +Mount Sinai [p.vi]from Hebron, he had no suspicion of the existence of +the long valley known by the names of El Ghor, and El Araba. + +This prolongation of the valley of the Jordan, which completes a +longitudinal separation of Syria, extending for three hundred miles from +the sources of that river to the eastern branch of the Red Sea, is a +most important feature in the geography of the Holy Land,--indicating +that the Jordan once discharged itself into the Red Sea, and confirming +the truth of that great volcanic convulsion, described in the nineteenth +chapter of Genesis, which interrupted the course of the river, which +converted into a lake the fertile plain occupied by the cities of Adma, +Zeboin, Sodom and Gomorra, and which changed all the valley to the +southward of that district into a sandy desert. + +The part of the valley of the Orontes, below Hamah, in which stood the +Greek cities of Larissa and Apameia, has now for the first time been +examined by a scientific traveller, and the large lake together with the +modern name of Famia, which have so long occupied a place in the maps of +Syria, may henceforth be erased. + +The country of the Nabataei, of which Petra was the chief town, is well +characterized by Diodorus,[Diod. Sic.l.2,c.48.] as containing some +fruitful spots, but as being for the greater part, desert and waterless. +With equal accuracy, the combined information of Eratosthenes, +[Eratosth. ap. Strab. p.767.] Strabo,[Strabo, p.779.] and Pliny, [Plin. +Hist Nat.l.6,c.28.] describes Petra as falling in a line, drawn from the +head of the Arabian gulf (Suez) to Babylon,--as being at the distance of +three or four days from Jericho, and of four or five from Phoenicon, +which was a place now called Moyeleh, on the Nabataean coast, near the +entrance of the AElanitic gulf,--and as situated in a valley of about +two miles in length surrounded with deserts, inclosed within precipices, +and watered by a river. The latitude of 30 degrees 20 minutes +[p.vii]ascribed by Ptolemy to Petra, agrees moreover very accurately +with that which is the result of the geographical information of +Burckhardt. The vestiges of opulence, and the apparent date of the +architecture at Wady Mousa, are equally conformable with the remains of +the history of Petra, found in Strabo,[P.781.] from whom it appears that +previous to the reign of Augustus, or under the latter Ptolemies, a very +large portion of the commerce of Arabia and India passed through Petra +to the Mediterranean: and that ARMIES of camels were required to convey +the merchandise from Leuce Come, on the Red Sea,[Leuce Come, on the +coast of the Nabataei, was the place from whence AElius Gallus set out +on his unsuccessful expedition into Arabia, (Strabo, ibid.) Its exact +situation is unknown.] through Petra to Rhinocolura, now El Arish. But +among the ancient authorities regarding Petra, none are more curious +than those of Josephus, Eusebius, and Jerom, all persons well acquainted +with these countries, and who agree in proving that the sepulchre of +Aaron in Mount Hor, was near Petra.[Euseb. et Hieron. Onomast. in Greek +text]. Joseph. Ant. Jud.l.4.c.4.] For hence, it seems evident, that the +present object of Musulman devotion, under the name of the tomb of +Haroun, stands upon the same spot which has always been regarded as the +burying-place of Aaron; and there remains little doubt, therefore, that +the mountain to the west of Petra, is the Mount Hor of the Scriptures, +Mousa being, perhaps, an Arabic corruption of Mosera, where Aaron is +said to have died. [Deuter.c.x.v.6. In addition to the proofs of the +site of Petra, just stated, it is worthy of remark that the distance of +eighty-three Roman miles from Aila, or AElana, to Petra, in the Table +(called Theodosian or Peutinger,) when compared with the distance on the +map, gives a rate of about 7/10 of a Roman mile to the geographical mile +in direct distance, which is not only a correct rate, but accords very +accurately with that resulting from the other two routes leading from +Aila in the Table, namely, from Aila to Clysma, near the modern Suez, +and from Aila to Jerusalem. Szadeka, which Burckhardt visited to the +south of Wady Mousa, agrees in distance and situation as well as in name +with the Zadagasta of the Table, or Zodocatha of the Notitiae dignitatum +Imperii. See Reland Palaest. p. 230. Most of the other places mentioned +on the three roads of the Table are noticed by Ptolemy or in the +Notitiae. + +And here, the Editor may be permitted to add a few words on a third +Roman route across these deserts, (having travelled the greater part of +it three times,) namely, that from Gaza to Pelusium. In the Itinerary of +Antoninus, the places, and their interjacent distances are stated as +follows, Gaza, 22 M.P. Raphia, 22 M.P. Rhinocolura, 26 M.P. Ostracine, +26 M.P. Casium, 20 M.P. Pentaschoenus, 20 M.P. Pelusium. The Theodosian +Table agrees with the Itinerary, but is defective in some of the names +and distances; Gerrhae, placed by the Table at 8 M.P. eastward of +Pelusium, is confirmed in this situation by Strabo and Ptolemy. Strabo +confirms the Itinerary in regard to Raphia, omits to notice Ostracine, +and in placing Casium at three hundred stades from Pelusium, differs not +much from the 40 M.P. of the Itinerary, or the ten schoenes indicated by +the word Pentaschoenus, midway. + +The name of Rafa is still preserved near a well in the desert, at six +hours march to the southward of Gaza, where among many remains of of +ancient buildings, two erect granite columns are supposed by the natives +to mark the division between Africa and Asia. Polybius remarks +(l.5,c.80), that Raphia was the first town of Syria, coming from +Rhinocolura, which was considered an Egyptian town. Between Raphia and +the easternmost inundations of the Nile, the only two places at which +there is moisture sufficient to produce a degree of vegetation useful to +man, are El Arish and Katieh. The whole tract between these places, +except where it has been encroached upon by moving sands, is a plain +strongly impregnated with salt, terminatig towards the sea in a lagoon +or irruption of the sea anciently called Sirbonis. As the name of +Katieh, and its distance from Tineh or Pelusium, leave no doubt of its +being the ancient Casium, the only remaining question is, whether El +Arish is Rhinocolura, or Ostracine? A commentary of St. Jerom, on the +nineteenth chapter of Isaiah, v.18, suggests the possibility that the +modern name El Arish may be a corruption of the Hebrew Ares, which, as +Jerom observes, means [Greek text], and alludes to Ostracine. Jerom was +well acquainted with this country; but as the translators of Isaiah have +supposed the word not to have been Ares, and as Jerom does not state +that Ares was a name used in his time, the conjecture is not of much +weight. It is impossible to reconcile the want of water so severely felt +at Ostracine (Joseph. de Bel. Jud. l.4, ad fin. Plutarch, in M. Anton. +Gregor. Naz. ep. 46.), with El Arish, where there are occasional +torrents, and seldom any scarcity of well water, either there or at +Messudieh, two hours westward. Ostracine, therefore, was probably near +the [Greek text] of the lagoon Sirbonis, about mid-way between El Arish +and Katieh, on the bank described by Strabo (p. 760), which separates +the Sirbonis from the sea. This maritime position of Ostracine is +confirmed by the march of Titus, (Joseph. ibid.) Leaving the limits of +the Pelusiac territory, he moved across the desert on the first day, not +to the modern Katieh, but to the temple of Jupiter, at Mount Casium, on +the sea shore, at the Cape now called Ras Kasaroun; on the second day to +Ostracine; on the third to Rhinocolura; on the fourth to Raphia; on the +fifth to Gaza. It will be seen by the map that these positions, as now +settled, furnished exactly five convenient marches, the two longest +being naturally through the desert of total privation, which lies +between El Arish and Katieh. As the modern route, instead of following +the sea shore, passes to the southward of the lagoon, the site of +Ostracine has not yet been explored. + +[p.viii]It would seem, from the evidence regarding Petra which may be +collected in ancient history, that neither in the ages prior to the +[p.ix]commercial opulence of the Nabataei, nor after they were deprived +of it, was Wady Mousa the position of their principal town. + +When the Macedonian Greeks first became acquainted with this part of +Syria by means of the expedition which Antigonus sent against the +Nabataei, under the command of his son Demetrius, we are informed by +Diodorus that these Arabs placed their old men, women, and children upon +a certain rock [Greek text], steep, unfortified by walls, admitting only +of one access to the summit, and situated 300 stades beyond the lake +Asphaltitis. [Diod. Sic. l.19.c.95, 98.] As this interval agrees with +that of Kerek from the southern extremity of the Dead Sea, and is not +above half the distance of Wady Mousa from the same point; and as the +other parts of the description are well adapted to Kerek, while they are +inapplicable to Wady Mousa, we can hardly doubt that Kerek was at that +time the fortress of the Nabataei; and that during the first ages of the +intercourse of that people with the Greeks, it was known to the latter +by the name Petra, so often applied by them to barbarian hill-posts. + +When the effects of commerce required a situation better suited than +Kerek to the collected population and increased opulence of the +Nabataei, the appellation of Petra was transferred to the new city at +Wady Mousa, which place had before been known to the [p.x]Greeks by the +name of Arce [Greek text], a corruption perhaps of the Hebrew +Rekem.[Joseph. Antiq. Jud. l.4,c.4.] To Wady Mousa, although of a very +different aspect from Kerek, the name Petra was equally well adapted; +and Kerek then became distinguished among the Greeks by its indigenous +name, in the Greek form of Charax, to which the Romans added that of +Omanorum, or Kerek of Ammon,[Plin. Hist. Nat. l.6,c.28.] to distinguish +it from another Kerek, now called Kerek el Shobak. The former Kerek was +afterwards restored by the Christians to the Jewish division of Moab, to +which, being south of the river Arnon, it strictly belonged, and it was +then called in Greek Charagmoba, under which name we find it mentioned +as one of the cities and episcopal dioceses of the third +Palestine.[Hierocl. Synecd. Notit. Episc. Graec.] + +When the stream of commerce which had enriched the Nabataei had partly +reverted to its old Egyptian channel, and had partly taken the new +course, which created a Palmyra in the midst of a country still more +destitute of the commonest gifts of nature, then Arabia Petraea,[A +comparison of the architecture at Wady Mousa, and at Tedmour, +strengthens the opinion, that Palmyra flourished at a period later than +Petra.] Wady Mousa was gradually depopulated. Its river, however, and +the intricate recesses of its rocky valleys, still attract and give +security to a tribe of Arabs; but the place being defensible only by +considerable numbers, and being situated in a less fertile country than +Kerek, was less adapted to be the chief town of the Nabataei, when they +had returned to their natural state of divided wanderers or small +agricultural communities. The Greek bishopricks of the third Palestine +were obliterated by the Musulman conquest, with the sole exception of +the metropolitan Petra, whose titular bishop still resides at Jerusalem, +and occasionally visits Kerek, as being the only place in his province +which contains [p.xi]a Christian community. Hence Kerek has been +considered the see of the bishoprick of Petra, and hence has arisen the +erroneous opinion often adopted by travellers from the Christians of +Jerusalem, that Kerek is the site of the ancient capital of Arabia +Petraea. + +The Haouran being only once mentioned in the Sacred Writings, [Ezekiel. +c. xlvii v. 16. ] was probably of inconsiderable extent under the Jews, +but enlarged its boundaries under the Greeks and Romans, by whom it was +called Auranitis. It has been still farther increased since that time, +and now includes not only Auranitis, but Ituraea also, or Ittur, of +which Djedour is perhaps a corruption; together with the greater part of +Basan, or Batanaea, and Trachonitis. Burckhardt seems not to have been +aware of the important comment upon Trachonitis afforded by his +description of the singular rocky wilderness of the Ledja, and by the +inscriptions which he copied at Missema, in that district.[See p. 117, +118.] It appears from these inscriptions, that Missema was anciently the +town of the Phaenesii, and the metrocomia or chief place of Trachon, the +descriptions of which district by Strabo and Josephus,[Strabo, 755, 756. +Joseph. Antiq. Jud. l.15,c.13.] are in exact conformity with that which +Burckhardt has given us of the Ledja. + +From Strabo and Ptolemy,[Strabo, ibid. Ptolemy, l.5,c.15.] we learn that +Trachonitis comprehended all the uneven country extending along the +eastern side of the plain of Haouran, from near Damascus to Boszra. It +was in consequence of the predatory incursions of the Arabs from the +secure recesses of the Ledja into the neighbouring plains, that Augustus +transferred the government of Trachonitis from Zenodorus, who was +accused of encouraging them, to Herod, king of Judaea. [Joseph. Antiq. +Jud.l.5,c.10. De Bell. Jud.l.1,c.20.] The two Trachones, into which +Trachonitis was divided, agree with the two natural divisions of the +Ledja and Djebel Haouran. + +[p.xii]Oerman, an ancient ruin at the foot of the Djebel Haouran, to the +east of Boszra, appears from an inscription copied there by Burckhardt, +to be the site of Philippopolis, a town founded by Philip, emperor of +Rome, who was a native of Boszra. + +Another ancient name is found at Hebran, in the same mountains, to the +N.E. of Boszra, where an inscription records the gratitude of the tribe +of AEedeni to a Roman veteran. The Kelb Haouran, or summit of the Djebel +Haouran, appears to be the Mount Alsadamum of Ptolemy.[Ptolem.l.5,c.15.] + +Of the ancient towns just mentioned, Philippopolis alone is noticed in +ancient history; and although the name of Phaeno occurs as a bishoprick +of Palestine, and that the adjective Phaenesius is applied to some mines +at that place [Greek text], it seems evident that these Phaenesii were +different from those of Trachon, and that they occupied a part of +Idumaea, between Petra and the southern extremity of the Dead +Sea.[Reland. Palaest. 1.3, voce Phaeno.] + +Mezareib, a village and castle on the Hadj route, appears to be the site +of Astaroth, the residence of Og, king of Bashan; [Deuter. c.l.v.4. +Josh. c.ix.v.10.] for Eusebius [Euseb. Onomast. in [Greek text].] places +Astaroth at 6 miles from Adraa (or Edrei, now Draa,) between that place +and Abila (now Abil), and at 25 miles from Bostra, a distance very +nearly confirmed by the Theodosian Table, which gives 24 Roman miles +between those two places. It will be seen by the map, that the position +of Mezareib conforms to all these particulars. The unfailing pool of the +clearest water, which now attracts the men and cattle of all the +surrounding country to Mezareib in summer, must have made it a place of +importance in ancient times, and therefore excited the wonder of our +traveller at its having preserved only some very scanty relics of +antiquity. + +Although Mount Sinai, and the deserts lying between that peninsula +[p.xiii]and Judaea, have not, like the latter country, preserved many of +the names of Holy Scripture, the new information of Burckhardt contains +many facts in regard to their geography and natural history, which may +be useful in tracing the progress of the Israelites from Egypt into +Syria. + +The bitter well of Howara, 15 hours southward of Ayoun Mousa, +corresponds as well in situation as in the quality of its water, with +the well of Marah, at which the Israelites arrived after passing through +a desert of three days from the place near Suez where they had crossed +the Red Sea.[Exodus, c.xiv. xv. Numbers. c.xxxiii.] + +The Wady Gharendel, two hours beyond Howara, where are wells among date +trees, seems evidently to be the station named Elim, which was next to +Marah, and at which the Israelites found "twelve wells of water, and +threescore and ten palm trees." [Exodus, c.xv. Numbers, c.xxxiii.] And +it is remarkable, that the Wady el Sheikh, and the upper part of the +Wady Feiran, the only places in the peninsula where manna is gathered +from below the tamarisk trees, accord exactly with that part of the +desert of Sin, in which Moses first gave his followers the sweet +substance gathered in the morning, which was to serve them for bread +during their long wandering;[Exodus, c.xvi.] for the route through Wady +Taybe, Wady Feiran, and Wady el Sheikh, is the only open and easy +passage to Mount Sinai from Wady Gharendel; and it requires the +traveller to pass for some distance along the sea shore after leaving +Gharendel, as we are informed that the Israelites actually did, on +leaving Elim.[Numbers, c.xxxiii.v.10, 11.] + +The upper region of Sinai, which forms an irregular circle of 30 or 40 +miles in diameter, possessing numerous sources of water, a temperate +climate, and a soil capable of supporting animal and vegetable nature, +was the part of the peninsula best adapted to [p.xiv]the residence of +near a year, during which the Israelites were numbered and received +their laws. + +About the beginning of May, in the fourteenth month from the time of +their departure from Egypt, the children of Israel quitted the vicinity +of Mount Horeb, and under the guidance of Hohab, the Midianite, brother- +in-law of Moses, marched to Kadesh, a place on the frontiers of Canaan, +of Edom, and of the desert of Paran or Zin.[Numbers, c.x. et seq. and +c.33. Deuter. c.i.] Not long after their arrival, "at the time of the +'first ripe grapes,'" or about the beginning of August, spies were sent +into every part of the cultivated country, as far north as +Hamah.[Numbers, c.xiii. Deuter. c.i.] The report which they brought back +was no less favourable to the fertility of the land, than it was +discouraging by its description of the warlike spirit and preparation of +the inhabitants, and of the strength of the fortified places; and the +Israelites having in consequence refused to follow their leaders into +Canaan, were punished by that long wandering in the deserts lying +between Egypt, Judaea, and Mount Sinai, of which the sacred historian +has not left us any details, but the tradition of which is still +preserved in the name of El Tyh, annexed to the whole country; both to +the desert plains, and to the mountains lying between them and Mount +Sinai. + +In the course of their residence in the neighbourhood of Kadesh, the +Israelites obtained some advantages over the neighbouring +Canaanites,[Numbers, c.xxi.] but giving up at length all hope of +penetrating by the frontier, which lies between Gaza and the Dead Sea, +they turned to the eastward, with a view of making a circuit through the +countries on the southern and eastern sides of the lake. [Numbers, c.xx, +xxi.] Here however, they found the difficulty still greater; Mount Seir +of Edom, which under the modern names of Djebal, Shera, and Hesma, +[p.xv]forms a ridge of mountains, extending from the southern extremity +of the Dead Sea to the gulf of Akaba, rises abruptly from the valleys El +Ghor and El Araba, and is traversed from west to east by a few narrow +Wadys only, among which the Ghoeyr alone furnishes an entrance that +would not be extremely difficult to a hostile force. This perhaps was +the "high way," by which Moses, aware of the difficulty of forcing a +passage, and endeavouring to obtain his object by negotiation, requested +the Edomites to let him pass, on the condition of his leaving the fields +and vineyards untouched, and of purchasing provisions and water from the +inhabitants.[Numbers, c.xx. Deuter, c.i.] But Edom "refused to give +Israel passage through his border," and "came out against him with much +people, and with a strong hand."[Numbers, c.xx.] The situation of the +Israelites therefore, was very critical. Unable to force their way in +either direction, and having enemies on three sides; (the Edomites in +front, and the Canaanites, and Amalekites on their left flank and rear,) +no alternative remained for them but to follow the valley El Araba +southwards, towards the head of the Red Sea. At Mount Hor, which rises +abruptly from that valley, "by the coast of the land of Edom,"[Numbers, +ibid.] Aaron died, and was buried in the conspicuous situation, which +tradition has preserved as the site of his tomb to the present day. +Israel then "journeyed from Mount Hor, by the way of the Red Sea, to +compass the land of Edom,"[Numbers, c.xxi.] "through the way of the +plain from Elath, and from Eziongeber," until "they turned and passed by +the way of the wilderness of Moab, and arrived at the brook +Zered."[Deuter, c.ii.] It may be supposed that they crossed the ridge to +the southward of Eziongeber, about the place where Burckhardt remarked, +from the opposite coast, that the mountains were lower than to the +northward, and it [p.xvi] was in this part of their wandering that they +suffered from the serpents, of which our traveller observed the traces +of great numbers on the opposite shore of the AElanitic gulf. The +Israelites then issued into the great elevated plains which are +traversed by the Egyptian and Syrian pilgrims, on the way to Mekka, +after they have passed the two Akabas. Having entered these plains, +Moses received the divine command, "You have compassed this mountain +long enough, turn you northward."--"Ye are to pass through the coast +of your brethren the children of Esau, which dwell in Seir, and they +shall be afraid of you." [Deuter, c.ii.] The same people who had +successfully repelled the approach of the Israelites from the strong +western frontier, was alarmed now that they had come round upon the weak +side of the country. But Israel was ordered "not to meddle" with the +children of Esau, but "to pass through their coast" and to "buy meat and +water from them for money," in the same manner as the caravan of Mekka +is now supplied by the people of the same mountains, who meet the +pilgrims on the Hadj route. After traversing the wilderness on the +eastern side of Moab, the Israelites at length entered that country, +crossing the brook Zered in the thirty-eighth year, from their first +arrival at Kadesh Barnea, "when all the generation of the men of war +were wasted out from among the host."[Deuter, c.ii.] After passing +through the centre of Moab, they crossed the Arnon, entered Ammon, and +were at length permitted to begin the overthrow of the possessors of the +promised land, by the destruction of Sihon the Amorite, who dwelt at +Heshbon.[Numbers, c.xxi. Deuter, c.ii.] The preservation of the latter +name, and of those of Diban, Medaba, Aroer, Amman, together with the +other geographical facts derived from the journey of Burckhardt through +the countries beyond the Dead Sea, furnishes a most satisfactory +illustration of the sacred historians. + +[p.xvii]It remains for the Editor only to add, that while correcting the +foreign idiom of his Author, and making numerous alterations in the +structure of the language, he has been as careful as posible not to +injure the originality of the composition, stamped as it is with the +simplicity, good sense, and candour, inseparable from the Author's +character. In the Editor's wish, however, to preserve this originality, +he cannot flatter himself that incorrect expressions may not sometimes +have been left. In regard to the Greek inscriptions, he thinks it +necessary only to remark, that although the propriety of furnishing the +reader with fac-similes of all such interesting relicts of ancient +history cannot in general be doubted, yet in the present instance, the +trouble and expense which it would have occasioned, would hardly have +been compensated by the importance of the monuments themselves, or by +the degree of correctness with which they were copied by the traveller. +They have therefore been printed in a type nearly resembling the Greek +characters which were in use at the date of the inscriptions, and the +Editor has taken the liberty of separating the words, and of supplying +in the small cursive Greek character, the defective parts of the +traveller's copies. + +The Editor takes this opportunity of stating, that in consequence of +some discoveries in African geography, which have been made known since +the publication of Burckhardt's Travels in Nubia, he has made some +alterations in the maps of the second edition of that work. The +observations of Captain Lyon have proved Morzouk to be situated a degree +and a half to the southward of the position formerly assigned to it, and +his enquiries having at the same time confirmed the bearing and distance +between Morzouk and Bornou, as reported by former travellers, a +corresponding change will follow in the latitude of Bornou, as well as +in the [p.xviii]position of the places on the route leading to those two +cities from the countries of the Nile. + +A journey into Nubia, by the Earl of Belmore, and his brother, the Hon. +Capt. Corry, has furnished some latitudes and longitudes, serving to +correct the map of "the course of the Nile, from Assouan to the confines +of Dongola", which the Editor constructed from the journals of +Burckhardt, without the assistance of any celestial observatians. The +error in the map as to the most distant point observed by Lord Belmore +is however so small, that it has not been thought necessary to make any +alteration in that map for the second edition of Burckhardt's Journey in +Nubia; but the whole delineation of this part of the Nile will be +corrected from the recent observations, in a new edition of the +Supplement to the Editor's general Map of Egypt. + +Since the Journey of Lord Belmore, Mr. Waddington and Mr. Hanbury, +taking advantage of an expedition sent into AEthiopia by the Viceroy of +Egypt, have prolonged the examination of the Nile four hundred miles +beyond the extreme point reached by Burckhardt; and some French +gentlemen have continued to follow the army as far as Sennaar. The +presence of a Turkish army in that country will probably furnish greater +facilities for exploring the Bahr el Abiad, or western branch of the +Nile, than have ever before been presented to travellers; there is +reason to hope, that the opportunity will not be neglected, and thus a +survey of this celebrated river from its sources to the Mediterranean, +may, perhaps, at length be made, if not for the first time, for the +first time at least since the extinction of Egyptian science. + +The expedition of the Pasha of Egypt has already produced some important +additions to African geography. By permission of Mr. Waddington, the +Editor has corrected, from that gentleman's delineation, the parts of +the Nile above Mahass, for the second [p.xix] edition of Burckhardt's +Nubia, and from the information transmitted to England by Mr. Salt, he +has been enabled to insert in the same map, the position of the ruins of +an ancient city situated about 20 miles to the north-eastward of Shendy. + +These ruins had already been partially seen by Bruce and Burckhardt, +[Burckhardt passed through the vestiges of what seems to have been a +dependency of this city on the Nile, at seven hours to the north of +Shendy, and two hours to the south of Djebail; the latter name, which is +applied by Burckhardt to a large village on a range of hills, is +evidently the same as the Mount Gibbainy, where Bruce observed the same +ruins, which have now been more completely explored by M. Cailliaud. See +Travels in Nubia, p.275. Bruce's Travels, Vol. iv. p.538, 4to.] and +there can be little doubt that Bruce was right in supposing them to be +the remains of Meroe, the capital of the great peninsula of the same +name, of which the general geography appears to have been known with +considerable accuracy to men of science in the Augustan age, although it +had not been visited by any of the writers whose works have reached us. +For, assuming [To illustrate the following observations, as well as some +of the preceding, a small drawing of the course of the Nile is inserted +in the margin of the map of Syria which accompanies the present volume.] +these ruins to mark the site of the city Meroe, and that the latitude +and longitude of Shendy have been accurately determined by Bruce, whose +instruments were good, and whose competency to the task of observation +is undoubted, it will be found that Ptolemy is very nearly right in +ascribing the latitude of 16.26 to the city Meroe.[Ptolem. l.4,c.8.] +Pliny [Plin. Hist. Nat. l.2,c.73.] is equally correct in stating that +the two points of the ecliptic, in which the sun is in the zenith at +Meroe, are the 18th degree of Taurus, and the 14th degree of Leo. The +5000 stades which Strabo[Strabo, p. 113.] and Pliny [Plin. ibid.] We +learn from another passage in Pliny, (l.6,c.29,) that the persons sent by +Nero to explore the Nile, measured 884 miles, "by the river", from Syene +to Meroe.] assert to be the distance between Meroe and Syene is correct, +at a rate of between 11 and 12 [p.xx]stades to the geographical mile; if +the line be taken in direct distance, as evidently appears to have been +the intention of Strabo, by his thrice stating (upon the authority of +Eratosthenes,) that the distance from Meroe to Alexandria was 10,000 +stades.[Eratosth. ap. strab. p. 62. Strabo, p. 113, 825.] The latitudes +of Ptolemy equally accord in shewing the equidistance of Syene from +Meroe and from Alexandria; the latitude of Syene being stated by him at +23-50,[Ptolem. l.4,c.6.] and that of Alexandria at 31-0. [Ptolem. ibid.] +The description of the island of Meroe as being 3000 stades long, and +1000 broad, in form like a shield, and as formed by the confluence of +the Astasobas, Astapus, and Astaboras,[Eratosth. ap. Strab. p.786. +Strab. p.821. Diodor. Sic. l.l,c.33. Heliodor. AEthiop. l.10,c.5] is +perfectly applicable to the great peninsula watered on the east by the +Tacazze, and on the west by the Bahr el Abiad, after receiving the Bahr +el Azrek. The position of the city Meroe is shewn by Artemidorus, +Ptolemy, and Pliny,[Artemid. ap. Strab. p.771. Ptolem. l.4,c.8. Plin. +Hist. Nat. l.6,c.29.] to have been, like the ruins near Shendy, near the +northern angle of the island, or the confluence of the rivers. The +island between Djebail and Shendy which Bruce calls Kurgos, answers to +that which Pliny describes as the port of Meroe; and finally, the +distance of "15 days to a good walker," which Artemidorus [Artemid. +ibid.] places between Meroe and the sea, giving a rate of about 16 +English miles a-day, in direct distance, is a correct statement of the +actual distance between the ruins near Shendy and Souakin. [It is fair +to remark, that there are two authorities which tend to place the city +of Meroe 30 or 40 miles to the southward of the ruins near Shendy. +Eratosthenes states it to have been at 700 stades, and Pliny at 70 miles +above the confluence. But it is rare indeed to find a coincidence of +many ancient authorities in a question where numbers are concerned, +unless one author has borrowed from another, which is probably the case +in regard to the two just quoted.] + +[p.xxi]It will hardly be contested, that the modern name of Merawe, +which is found attached to a town near the ruins of an ancient city, +discovered by Messrs. Waddington and Hanbury in the country of the +Sheygya, is sufficient to overthrow the strong evidence just stated. It +may rather be inferred, that the Greek Meroe was formed from a word +signifying "city" in the ancient AEthiopic language, which has continued +up to the present time, to be attached to the site of one of the chief +cities on the banks of the Nile,--thus resembling in its origin many +names of places in various countries, which from simple nouns expressive +in the original language of objects or their qualities, such as city, +mountain, river, sacred, white, blue, black, have been converted by +foreigners into proper names. + +The ruins near Merawe seem to those of Napata, the chief town of the +country intermediate between Meroe and Egypt, and which was taken by the +praefect Petronius, in the reign of Augustus, when it was the capital of +Queen Candace;[Ptolem. l.4,c.7. Strabo, p.820. Plin. Hist. +Nat.l.6,c.29.] for Pliny, on the authority of the persons sent by Nero +to EXPLORE the river above Syene, states 524 Roman miles to have been +the interval between Syene and Napata, and 360 miles to have been that +between Napata and Meroe, which distances correspond more nearly than +could have been expected with the real distances between Assouan, +Merawe, and Shendy, taken along the general curve of the river, without +considering the windings in detail.[We must not, however, too +confidently pronounce on REAL distances until we possess a few more +positions fixed by astronomical observations.] + +The island of Argo, from its extent, its important ruins, its fertility, +as well as from the similarity of name, seems to be the Gora, of +Juba,[Ap. Plin. ibid.] or the Gagaudes, which the explorers of Nero +reported to be situated at 133 miles below Napata. + +[p.xxii]In placing Napata at the ruins near Mérawe, it is necessary to +abandon the evidence of Ptolemy, whose latitude of Napata is widely +different from that of Merawe; and as we also find, that he is +considerably in error, in regard to the only point between Syene and +Meroe, hitherto ascertained, namely, the Great Cataract, which he places +37 minutes to the north of Wady Halfa, still less can we rely upon his +authority for the position of the obscurer towns. + +Although the extreme northern point to which the Nile descends below +Berber, before it turns to the south, is not yet accurately determined +in latitude, nor the degree of southern latitude which the river reaches +before it finally takes the northern course, which it continues to the +Mediterranean, we cannot doubt that Eratosthenes had received a +tolerably correct account of its general course from the Egyptians, +notwithstanding his incorrectness in regard to the proportionate length +of the great turnings of the river. + +"The Nile," he says "after having flowed to the north from Meroe for the +space of 2700 stades, turns to the south and southwest for 3700 stades, +entering very far into Lybia, until it arrives in the latitude of Meroe; +then making a new turn, it flows to the north for the space of 5300 +stades, to the great Cataract, whence inclining a little eastward, it +traverses 1200 stades to the small Cataract of Syene, and then 5300 +stades to the sea.[Ap. Strab. p.786. The only mode of reconciling these +numbers to the truth, is to suppose the three first of them to have been +taken with all the windings of the stream, the two last in a direct +line, and even then they cannot be very accurate.] The Nile receives two +rivers, which descending from certain lakes surround the great island of +Meroe. That which flows on the eastern side is called Astaboras, the +other is the Astapus, though some say it is the Astasobas," &c. + +This ambiguity, it is hardly necessary to observe, was caused by the +greater magnitude of the Astasobas, or Bahr el Abiad, or White [p.xxiii] +River, which caused it to give name to the united stream after its +junction with the Astapus, or Bahr el Azrek, or Blue River; and hence +Pliny,[Plin. Hist. Nat. l.5,c.9.] in speaking of Meroe, does not say +that it was formed by the Astapus, but by the Astasobas. In fact, the +Astapus forms the boundary of the island, as it was called, on the S.W. +the Astasobas, or united stream, on the N.W. + +WILLIAM MARTIN LEAKE, Acting Secretary of the African Association. + +ERRATA. [Not included] + + + + +CONTENTS. + +Journal of a Tour from Damascus, in the Countries of the + Libanus and Anti-Libanus ...................................page 1 + +Journal of an Excursion into the Haouran, in the Autumn and + Winter of 1810,.................................................51 + +Journal of a Tour from Aleppo to Damascus, through the Valley + of the Orontes and Mount Libanus, in February and March, + 1812...........................................................121 + +Journal of a Tour from Damascus into the Haouran, and the + Mountains to the E. and S.E. of the Lake of Tiberias, in the + Months of April and May, 1812..................................211 + +Description of a Journey from Damascus through the Mountains + of Arabia Petraea and Desert el Ty, to Cairo, in the Summer + of 1812........................................................311 + +Journal of a Tour in the Peninsula of Mount Sinai, in the Spring + of 1816........................................................457 + + +APPENDIX. + +No. I. An Account of the Ryhanlu Turkmans.......................633 + +No. II. On the Political Division of Syria, and the recent + changes in the Government of Aleppo............................648 + +No. III. The Hadj Route from Damascus to Mekka....................656 + +No. IV. Description of the Route from Boszra in the Haouran, + to Djebel Shammor..............................................662 + +No. V. A Route to the Eastward of the Castle El Hasa.............665 + + + + +TRAVELS +IN +SYRIA, AND THE HOLY LAND. + + +JOURNAL OF A TOUR FROM DAMASCUS + +COUNTRIES OF THE LIBANUS, AND ANTI-LIBANUS. +September 22, 1810.--I Left Damascus at four o'clock P.M. with a small +caravan destined for Tripoli; passed Salehíe, and beyond it a +Kubbe,[Kubbe, a cupola supported by columns or walls; the sepulchre of a +reputed saint.] from whence I had, near sun-set, a most beautiful view +of the city of Damascus and its surrounding country. From the Kubbe, the +road passes along the left side of the valley in which the Barrada runs, +over uneven ground, which for the greater part is barren rock. After a +ride of two hours and a quarter from Salehie, we descended to the +river's side, and passed the Djissr [Djissr--Bridge.] + +WADY BARRADA + +[p.2]Dumar; on the other side of which we encamped. It is a well-built +bridge, with two archies, at twenty minutes distance from the village +Dumar. + +September 23.--We set off before daylight, crossing the mountains, in +one of whose Wadys[Wady--Valley.] the Barrada winds along; we crossed it +repeatedly, and after two hours arrived at the village Eldjdide +[Arabic], built on the declivity of a hill near the source of one of the +numerous rivulets that empty themselves into the Barrada. One hour and +three quarters further, we descended into the Wady Barrada, near two +villages, built on either side of the river, opposite to each other, +called Souk Barrada.[Souk (market) is an appellation often added to +villages, which have periodical markets.] The valley of the Barrada, up +to Djissr Barrada, is full of fruit trees; and where its breadth +permits, Dhourra and wheat are sown. Half an hour further, is Husseine, +a small village in the lower part of the valley. Three-quarters of an +hour, El Souk; here the Wady begins to be very narrow. A quarter of an +hour beyond, turning round a steep rock, the valley presents a very wild +and picturesque aspect. To the left, in the mountain, are six chambers +cut in the rock; said to be the work of Christians, to whom the greater +part of the ancient structures in Syria are ascribed. The river was not +fordable here; and it would have taken me at least two hours to reach, +by a circuitous route, the opposite mountains. A little way higher up is +the Djissr el Souk, at the termination of the Wady; this bridge was +built last year, as appears by an Arabic inscription on the rock near +it. From the bridge the road leads up the side of the mountain, and +enters, after half an hour's ride, upon a plain country. The river has a +pretty cascade, near which are + +ZEBDENI + +[p.3] the remains of a bridge. The above mentioned plain is about three- +quarters of an hour in breadth, and three hours in length; it is called +Ard Zebdeni, or the district of Zebdeni; it is watered by the Barrada, +one of whose sources is in the midst of it; and by the rivulet called +Moiet[Moye--Water.] Zebdeni [Arabic], whose source is in the mountain, +behind the village of the same name. The latter river, which empties +itself into the Barrada, has, besides the source in the Ard Zebdeni, +another of an equal size near Fidji, in a side branch of the Wady +Barrada, half an hour from the village Husseine. The fall of the river +is very rapid. We followed the plain of Zebdeni from one end to the +other: it is limited on one side by the eastern part of the Anti- +Libanus, called here Djebel Zebdeni. Its cultivable ground is waste till +near the village of Beroudj [Arabic], where I saw plantations of +mulberry trees, which seemed to be well taken care of. Half an hour from +Beroudj is the village of Zebdeni [Arabic], and between them the ruined +Khan Benduk (the bastard Khan). Zebdeni is a considerable village; its +inhabitants breed cattle, and the silk-worm, and have some dyeing +houses. I had a letter for the Sheikh of Zebdeni from a Damascene; the +Sheikh ordered me an Argile[Argile--A Persian pipe, in which the smoke +passes through water.] and a cup of coffee, but went to supper with his +household, without inviting me to join them. This being considered an +insult, I left his house and went to sup with the muleteers, with whom I +slept upon an open piece of ground before a ruined bath, in the midst of +the village. The inhabitants of Zebdeni are three-fourths Turks, and the +remainder Greek Catholics; it is a place much frequented by those +passing from Damascus to the mountain. + +September 24.--Left the village before day-light and crossed the Anti- +Libanus, at the foot of which Zebdeni lies. This chain of + +EL KANNE + +[p.4] mountains is, by the inhabitants of the Bekaa and the Belad +[Belad--District, province.] Baalbec, called Djebel[Djebel--Mountain.] +Essharki (or the eastern mountain), in opposition to Djebel el Gharbi, +the western mountain, otherwise called Djebel Libnan (Libanus); but that +part of it which lies nearer to Zebdeni than to the great valley, is +called Djebel Zebdeni. We travelled for the greater part of the morning +upon the mountain. Its rock is primitive calcareous, of a fine grain; +upon the highest part I found a sandy slate: on the summit and on the +eastern side of this part of the Anti-Libanus there are many spots, +affording good pasturage, where a tribe of Turkmans sometimes feed their +cattle. It abounds also in short oak trees [Arabic], of which I saw none +higher than twelve or fifteen feet. Our road lay N.W. Two hours and a +half from Zebdeni we passed a spot with several wells, called Bir[Bir-- +Well.] Anhaur, or Bekai. The western declivity of the mountain, towards +the district of Baalbec, is completely barren, without pasture or trees. +After five hours and three quarters riding we descended into the plain, +near the half-ruined village of El Kanne [Arabic], and passed the river +of El Kanne, whose source is at three hours distance, in the mountain. +It empties itself into the Liettani, in the plain, two hours below +Kanne. I here left the caravan and took a guide to Zahle, where I meant +to stay a few days. Our way lay W.b.N. across the plain; passed the +village El Nahrien Haoush Hale, consisting of miserable mud cottages. +The plain is almost totally uncultivated. Passed the Liettani [Arabic] +at two hours from El Kanne. Half an hour, on the other side of it, is +the village Kerak, at the foot of the Djebel Sannin; it consists of +about one hundred and fifty-houses and has some gardens in the plain, +which are watered by a branch of the Berdoun, or river of Zahle. Kerak +is entirely inhabited by Turks; it belongs to: + +ZAHLE + +[p.5] the dominions of the Emir of the Druses, who some years ago took +it by force from the Emir of Baalbec. On the southern side of the +village is a mosque, and adjoining to it a long building, on the eastern +side of which are the ruins of another mosque, with a Kubbe still +remaining. The long building contains, under a flat roof, the pretended +tomb of Noah [Arabic]; it consists of a tomb-stone above ten feet long, +three broad and two high, plastered all over; the direction of its +length is S.E. and N.W. The Turks visit the grave, and pretend that Noah +is really buried there. At half an hour from Kerak is the town of Zahle +[Arabic], built in an inlet of the mountain, on a steep ascent, +surrounded with Kerums (vineyards). The river Berdoun [Arabic] here +issues from a narrow valley into the plain and waters the gardens of +Zahle. + +September 25th.--Took a walk through the town with Sheikh Hadj Farakh. +There are eight or nine hundred houses, which daily increase, by +fugitives from the oppressions of the Pashas of Damascus and of the +neighbouring petty tyrants. Twenty-five years ago there were only two +hundred houses at Zahle: it is now one of the principal towns in the +territory of the Emir Beshir. It has its markets, which are supplied +from Damascus and Beirout, and are visited by the neighbouring Fellahs, +and the Arabs El Naim, and El Harb, and El Faddel, part of whom pass the +winter months in the Bekaa, and exchange their butter against articles +of dress, and tents, and horse and camel furniture. The inhabitants, who +may amount to five thousand, are all Catholic Greeks, with the exception +only of four or five Turkish families. The Christians have a bishop, +five churches and a monastery, the Turks have no mosque. The town +belongs to the territory of the Druses, and is under the authority of +the Emir Beshir, but a part of it still belongs to the family of Aamara, +whose influence, formerly very + +[p.6] great in the Mountain, has lately been so much circumscribed by +the Emir, that the latter is now absolute master of the town. The Emir +receives the Miri, which is commonly the double of its original +assessment (in Belad Baalbec it is the triple), and besides the Miri, he +makes occasional demands upon the town at large. They had paid him +forty-five purses a few weeks before my arrival. So far the Emir +Beshir's government resembles perfectly that of the Osmanlys in the +eastern part of Syria: but there is one great advantage which the people +enjoy under his command--an almost complete exemption from all personal +exactions, and the impartiality of justice, which is dealt out in the +same manner to the Christian and to the Turk. It is curious, that the +peace of so numerous a body should be maintained without any legal power +whatsoever. There is neither Sheikh nor governor in the town; disputes +are settled by the friends of the respective parties, or if the latter +are obstinate, the decision is referred to the tribunal of the Emir +Beshir, at Deir el Kammar. The inhabitants, though not rich, are, in +general, in independent circumstances; each family occupies one, or at +most two rooms. The houses are built of mud; the roofs are supported by +one or two wooden posts in the midst of the principal room, over which +beams of pine-wood are laid across each other; upon these are branches +of oak trees, and then the earth, which forms the flat terrace of the +house. In winter the deep snow would soon break through these feeble +roofs, did not the inhabitants take care, every morning, to remove the +snow that may have fallen during the night. The people gain their +subsistence, partly by the cultivation of their vineyards and a few +mulberry plantations, or of their fields in the Bekaa, and partly by +their shops, by the commerce in Kourdine sheep, and their manufactures. +Almost every family weaves cotton cloth, which is used as shirts by the +inhabitants and + +[p.7] Arabs, and when dyed blue, as Kombazes, or gowns, by the men. +There are more than twenty dyeing houses in Zahle, in which indigo only +is employed. The Pike [The Pike is a linear measure, equal to two feet +English, when used for goods of home manufacture, and twenty-seven +inches for foreign imported commodities.] of the best of this cotton +cloth, a Pike and a half broad, costs fifty paras, (above 1s. 6d. +English). The cotton is brought from Belad Safad and Nablous. They +likewise fabricate Abbayes, or woollen mantles. There are above one +hundred horsemen in the town. In June 1810, when the Emir Beshir joined +with his corps the army of Soleiman Pasha, to depose Youssef Pasha, he +took from Zahle 400 men, armed with firelocks. + +On the west side of the town, in the bottom of the Wady, lies the +monastery of Mar Elias, inhabited by a prior and twenty monks. It has +extensive grape and mulberry plantations, and on the river side a well +cultivated garden, the products of which are sold to the town's people. +The prior received me with great arrogance, because I did not stoop to +kiss his hands, a mark of respect which the ecclesiastics of this +country are accustomed to receive. The river of Zahle, or Berdoun, forms +the frontier of the Bekaa, which it separates from the territory +belonging to the Emir of Baalbec, called Belad Baalbec; so that whatever +is northward from the bridge of the Berdoun, situated in the valley, a +quarter of an hour below Zahle, belongs to Belad Baalbec; and whatever +is south-ward, to the Bekaa. Since Soleiman Pasha has governed Damascus, +the authority of the Emir Beshir has been in some measure extended over +the Bekaa, but I could not inform myself of the distinct laws by which +it had been regulated. The Pashas of Damascus, and the Emir Beshirs, +have for many years been in continual dispute about their rights over +the villages of the Bekaa. + +ANDJAR + +[p.8] Following up the Berdoun into the Mountain, are the villages of +Atein, Heraike, and another in the vicinity of Zahle. + +September 26.--On the night of the 25th to the 26th, was the Aid +Essalib, or feast of the Cross, the approach of which was celebrated by +repeated discharges of musquets and the lighting of numerous fires, +which illuminated all the mountains around the town and the most +conspicuous parts of the town itself. + +I rode to Andjar [Arabic], on the eastern side of the Bekaa, in a +direction south-east by south, two hours and a half good walking from +Zahle. I found several encampments of the Arabs Naim and Faddel in the +plain. In one hour and a quarter, passed the Liettani, near an ancient +arched bridge; it had very little water: not the sixth part of the plain +is cultivated here. The place called Andjar lies near the Anti-Libanus, +and consists of a ruined town-wall, inclosing an oblong square of half +an hour in circumference; the greater part of the wall is in ruins. It +was originally about twelve feet thick, and constructed with small +unhewn stones, loosely cemented and covered by larger square stones, +equally ill cemented. In the enclosed space are the ruins of +habitations, of which the foundations alone remain. In one of these +buildings are seen the remains of two columns of white marble, one foot +and a quarter in diameter. The whole seems to have been constructed in +modern times. Following the Mountain to the southward of these ruins, +for twenty minutes, I came to the place where the Moiet Andjar, or river +of Andjar, has its source in several springs. This river had, when I saw +it, more than triple the volume of water of the Liettani; but though it +joins the latter in the Bekaa, near Djissr Temnin, the united stream +retains the name Liettani. There are remains of ancient well-built walls +round all the springs which constitute the source of the Andjar; one of +the springs, in particular, + +[p.9]which forms a small but very deep basin, has been lined to the +bottom with large stones, and the wall round it has been constructed +with large square stones, which have no traces of ever having been +cemented together. In the wall of a mill, which has been built very near +these springs, I saw a sculptured architrave. These remains appear to be +much more ancient than those of Andjar, and are perhaps coeval with the +buildings at Baalbec. I was told, by the people of the mill, that the +water of the larger spring, in summer time, stops at certain periods and +resumes its issue from under the rock, eight or ten times in a day. +Further up in the mountain, above the spring, is a large cavern where +the people sometimes collect saltpetre; but it is more abundant in a +cavern still higher in the mountain. + +Following the road northward on the chain of the Anti-Libanus, half an +hour from these springs, I met with another copious spring; and a little +higher, a third; one hour further, is a fourth, which I did not visit. +Near the two former are traces of ancient walls. The waters of all these +sources join in Moiet Andjar, and they are all comprised under the +appellation of the Springs of Moiet Andjar [Arabic]. They are partly +covered with rushes, and are much frequented by water fowls, and wild +boars also resort to them in great numbers. + +August 27th.--Being disappointed in my object of proceeding to Baalbec, +I passed the day in the shop of one of the petty merchants of Zahle, and +afterwards supped with him. The sales of the merchants are for the +greater part upon credit; even those to the Arabs for the most trifling +sums. The common interest of money is 30 percent. + +August 28th.--Set out in the afternoon for Baalbec, with a native of +that place, who had been established with his family at Zahle, for +several years. Passed the villages of Kerak, Abla, Temnin, Beit + +BAALBEC + +[p.10]Shaeme, Haoush el Rafka, Tel Hezin, and arrived, after seven +hours, at Baalbec.[The following are the names of villages in Belad +Baalbec, between Baalbec and Zahle. On the Libanus, or on the declivity +near its foot; Kerak, Fursul, Nieha, Nebi Eily, Temnin foka (the upper +Temnin) Bidneil, Smustar, Hadad Tareie, Nebi Ershaedi, Kefferdein Saide, +Budei, Deir Akhmar, Deir Eliaout, Sulife, Btedai. In the plain; Abla, +Temnin tahte (the lower Temnin) Ksarnabe, Beit Shaeme, Gferdebesh, +Haoush el Rafka, Haoush el Nebi, Haoush Esseneid, Telhezin (with a +copious spring), Medjdeloun, Haoush Barada, Haoush Tel Safie, Tel +Wardin, Sergin, Ain, Ouseie, Haoush Mesreie, Bahami, Duris, Yead. On the +Anti-Libanus, or near its foot; Briteil, Tallie, Taibe, Khoreibe, El +Aoueine, Nebi Shit, Marrabun, Mouze, Kanne, Deir el Ghazal, Reia, +Hushmush. All these villages are inhabited by Turks or Metawelis; Abla +and Fursul are the only Christian villages. I subjoin the villages in +the plain to the N. of Baalbec, belonging to the territory of Baalbec. +On the Libanus; Nebba, Essafire, Harbate. On the Plain; Tunin, Shaet, +Ras el Haded, Leboue, El Kaa. Anti-Libanus, and at its foot: Nahle, El +Ain, Nebi Oteman, Fiki, Erzel, Mukra, El Ras.] + +The territory of Baalbec extends, as I have before mentioned, down to +the Bekaa. On the eastern side it comprises the mountain of the Anti- +Libanus, or Djebel Essharki, up to its top; and on the western side, the +Libanus likewise, as far as its summits. In the plain it reaches as far +as El Kaa, twelve hours from Baalbec and fourteen hours from Homs, where +the Anti-Libanus terminates, and where the valley between the two +mountains widens considerably, because the Anti-Libanus there takes a +more eastern direction. This district is abundantly watered by rivulets; +almost every village has its spring, all of which descend into the +valley, where most of them lose themselves, or join the Liettani, whose +source is between Zahle and Baalbec, about two hours from the latter +place, near a hill called Tel Hushben. The earth is extremely fertile, +but is still less cultivated than in the Bekaa. Even so late as twelve +years ago, the plain, and a part of the mountain, to the distance of a +league and a half round the town, were covered with grape plantations; +the oppressions of the governors, + +[p.11]and their satellites have now entirely destroyed them; and the +inhabitants of Baalbec, instead of eating their own grapes, which were +renowned for their superior flavour, are obliged to import them from +Fursul and Zahle. The government of Baalbec has been for many years in +the hands of the family of Harfush, the head family of the Metaweli of +Syria.[The Metaweli are of the sect of Ali, like the Persians; they have +more than 200 houses at Damascus, but they conform there to the rites of +the orthodox Mohammedans.] In later times, two brothers, Djahdjah and +Sultan, have disputed with each other the possession of the government; +more than fifteen individuals of their own family have perished in these +contests, and they have dispossessed each other by turns, according to +the degree of friendship or enmity which the Pashas of Damascus bore to +the one or the other. During the reign of Youssef Pasha, Sultan was +Emir; as soon as Soleiman was in possession of Damascus, Sultan was +obliged to fly, and in August, 1810, his brother Djahdjah returned to +his seat, which he had already once occupied. He pays a certain annual +sum to the Pasha, and extorts double its amount from the peasant. The +Emir Beshir has, since the reign of Soleiman Pasha, likewise acquired a +certain influence over Baalbec, and is now entitled to the yearly sum of +fifteen purses from this district. The Emir Djahdjah resides at Baalbec, +and keeps there about 200 Metaweli horsemen, whom he equips and feeds +out of his own purse. He is well remembered by several Europeans, +especially English travellers, for his rapacity, and inhospitable +behaviour. + +The first object which strikes the traveller arriving from the Bekaa, is +a temple [This temple is not seen in approaching Baalbec from Damascus.] +in the plain, about half an hour's walk from the town, which has +received from the natives the appellation of Kubbet Duris. Volney has +not described this temple. It is an + +[p.12]octagon building supported by eight beautiful granite columns, +which are all standing. They are of an order resembling the Doric; the +capitals project very little over the shaft, which has no base. Over +every two pillars lies one large stone, forming the architrave, over +which the cornice is still visible, very little adorned with sculpture. +The roof has fallen in. On the N.W. side, between two of the columns, is +an insulated niche, of calcareous stone, projecting somewhat beyond the +circumference of the octagon, and rising to about two feet below the +roof. The granite of the columns is particularly beautiful, the +feldspath and quartz being mixed with the hornblende in large masses. +The red feldspath predominates. One of the columns is distinguished from +the rest by its green quartz. We could not find any traces of +inscriptions. + +September 29th.--I took lodgings in a small room belonging to the +catholic priest, who superintends a parish of twenty-five Christian +families. This being near the great temple, I hastened to it in the +morning, before any body was apprised of my arrival. + +The work of Wood, who accompanied Dawkins to Baalbec in 1751, and the +subsequent account of the place given by Volney, who visited Baalbec in +1784, render it unnecessary for me to enter into any description of +these ruins. I shall only observe that Volney is incorrect in describing +the rock of which the buildings are constructed as granite; it is of the +primitive calcareous kind, but harder than the stone of Tedmor. There +are, however, many remains of granite columns in different parts of the +building. + +I observed no Greek inscriptions; there were some few in Latin and in +Arabic; and I copied the following Cufic inscription on the side of a +stair-case, leading down into some subterranean + +[p.13]chambers below the small temple, which the Emir has walled up to +prevent a search for hidden treasures. [Cufic inscription] + +Having seen, a few months before, the ruins of Tedmor, a comparison +between these two renowned remains of antiquity naturally offered itself +to my mind. The entire view of the ruins of Palmyra, when seen at a +certain distance, is infinitely more striking than those of Baalbec, but +there is not any one spot in the ruins of Tedmor so imposing as the +interior view of the temple of Baalbec. The temple of the Sun at Tedmor +is upon a grander scale than that of Baalbec, but it is choked up with +Arab houses, which admit only of a view of the building in detail. The +archilecture of Baalbec is richer than that of Tedmor. + +The walls of the ancient city may still be traced, and include a larger +space than the present town ever occupied, even in its most flourishing +state. Its circuit may be between three and four miles. On the E. and N. +sides the gates of the modern town, formed in the ancient wall, still +remain entire, especially the northern gate; it is a narrow arch, and +comparatively very small. I suppose it to be of Saracen origin. + +[p.14] The women of Baalbec are esteemed the handsomest of the +neighbouring country, and many Damascenes marry Baalbec girls. The air +of Belad Baalbec and the Bekaa, however, is far from being healthy. The +chain of the Libanus interrupts the course of the westerly winds, which +are regular in Syria during the summer months; and the want of these +winds renders the climate extremely hot and oppressive. + +September 30th.--I again visited the ruins this morning. The Emir had +been apprised of my arrival by his secretary, to whom I had a letter of +recommendation. He sent the secretary to ask whether I had any presents +for him; I answered in the negative, but delivered to him a letter, +which the Jew bankers of the Pasha of Damascus had given me for him; +these Jews being men of great influence. He contented himself with +replying that as I had no presents for him, it was not necessary that I +should pay him my respects; but he left me undisturbed in my pursuits, +which was all I wanted. + +Near a well, on the S. side of the town, between the temple and the +mountain, I found upon a stone the following inscription; + + C. CASSIVS ARRIANVS + MONVMENTVM SIBI + -OCO SVO VIVVS + FECIT + +In the afternoon I made a tour in the invirons of Baalbec. At the foot +of the Anti-Libanus, a quarter of an hour's walk from the town, to the +south is a quarry, where the places are still visible from whence +several of the large stones in the south wall of the castle were +extracted; one large block is yet remaining, cut on three sides, ready +to be transported to the building, but it must be done by other hands +than those of the Metaweli. Two other blocks, cut in + +[p.15]like manner, are standing upright at a little distance from each +other; and near them, in the rock, are two small excavated tombs, with +three niches in each, for the dead, in a style of workmanship similar to +what I saw to the north of Aleppo, in the Turkman mountains towards Deir +Samaan. In the hills, to the S.W. of the town, just behind this quarry, +are several tombs, excavated in the rock, like the former, but of larger +dimensions. In following the quarry towards the village of Duris, +numerous natural caverns are met with in the calcareous rocks; I entered +more than a dozen of them, but found no traces of art, except a few +seats or steps rudely cut out. These caverns serve at present as winter +habitations for the Arabs who pasture their cattle in this district. The +principal quarry was a full half hour to the southward of the town. + +The mountains above Baalbec are quite uncultivated and barren, except at +the Ras el Ain, or sources of the river of Baalbec, where a few trees +only remain. This is a delightful place, and is famous amongst the +inhahitants of the adjoining districts for the salubrity of its air and +water. Near the Ain, are the ruins of a church and mosque. + +The ruined town of Baalbec contains about seventy Metaweli families, and +twenty-five of Catholic Christians. Amidst its ruins are two handsome +mosques, and a fine bath. The Emir lives in a spacious building called +the Serai. The inhabitants fabricate white cotton cloth like that of +Zahle; they have some dyeing houses, and had, till within a few years, +some tanneries. The men are the artizans here, and not the women. The +property of the people consists chiefly of cows, of which every house +has ten or fifteen, besides goats and sheep. The goats are of a species +not common in other parts of Syria; they have very long ears, large +horns, and long hair, but not silky like that of the goats of Anatolia. + +[p.16]The breed of Baalbec mules is much esteemed, and I have seen some +of them worth on the spot £30 to £35. sterling. + +October 1st.--After having again visited the ruins, I engaged a man in +the forenoon, to shew me the way to the source of the rivulet called +Djoush [Arabic]. It is in a Wady in the Anti-Libanus, three quarters of +an hour distant from Baalbec. The rivulet was very small, owing to the +remarkable dryness of the season, and was lost in the Wady before it +reached the plain; at other times it flows down to Baalbec and joins the +river, which, after irrigating the gardens and fields round the town, +loses itself in the plain. A little higher in the mountain than the spot +where the water of the Djoush first issues from the spring, is a small +perpendicular hole, through which I descended, not without some danger, +about sixteen feet, into an aqueduct which conveys the water of the +Djoush underground for upwards of one hundred paces. This aqueduct is +six feet high and three feet and a half wide, vaulted above, and covered +with a thick coat of plaister; it is in perfect preservation; the water +in it was about ten inches deep. In following up this aqueduct I came to +a vaulted chamber about ten feet square, built with large hewn stones, +into which the water falls through another walled passage, but which I +did not enter, being afraid that the water falling on all sides might +extinguish the only candle that I had with me. Below this upper passage, +another dark one is visible through the water as it falls down. The +aqueduct continues beyond the hole through which I descended, as far as +the spot where the water issues from under the earth. Above ground, at a +small distance from the spring, and open towards it, is a vaulted room, +built in the rock, now half filled with stones and rubbish. + +Ten or twelve years ago, at the time when the plague visited + +DEIR EL AKHMAR + +[p.17]these countries and the town of Baalbec, all the Christian +families quitted the town, and encamped for six weeks around these +springs. + +From Djoush we crossed the northern mountain of the valley, and came to +Wady Nahle, near the village of Nahle, situated at the foot of the +mountain, and one hour and a half E.b.N. from Baalbec. There is nothing +remarkable in the village, except the ruins of an ancient building, +consisting at present of the foundations only, which are strongly built; +it appeared to me to be of the same epoch as the ruins of Baalbec. The +rivulet named Nahle rises at one hour's distance, in a narrow Wady in +the mountain. The neighbourhood of Baalbec abounds in walnut trees; the +nuts are exported to Zahle and the mountains, at two or two and a half +piastres per thousand. + +In the evening we left Baalbec, and began to cross the plain in the +direction of the highest summit of Mount Libanus. We passed the village +of Yeid on the left, and a little farther on, an encampment of Turkmans. +During the winter, the territory of Baalbec is visited by a tribe of +Turkmans called Suedie, by the Hadidein Akeidat, the Arabs Abid, whose +principal seat is near Hamil, between El Kaa and Homs; and the Arabs +Harb. The Suedie Turkmans remain the whole year in this district, and in +the valleys of the Anti-Libanus. All these tribes pay tribute to the +Emir of Baalbec, at the rate of twelve or fifteen pounds of butter for +each tent, for the summer pasture. At the end of three hours march we +alighted at the village Deir el Akhmar, two hours after sunset. This +village stands just at the foot of the mountain; it was at this time +deserted, its inhabitants having quitted it a few weeks before to escape +the extortions of Djahdjah, and retired to Bshirrai. In one of the +abandoned houses we found a shepherd who tended a flock belonging to the +Emir; he treated us with some milk, and made a large fire, round which +we lay down, and slept till day-break. + +MOUNT LIBANUS + +[p.18]October 2d.--The tobacco of Deir el Akhmar is the finest in Syria. +There is no water in the village, but at twenty minutes from it, towards +the plain, is a copious well. After ascending the mountain for three +hours and a half, we reached the village Ainnete: thus far the mountain +is covered with low oak trees (the round-leaved, and common English +kinds), and has but few steep passages. Nearly one hour from Ainnete +begins a more level country, which divides the Upper from the Lower +Libanus. This part was once well cultivated, but the Metaweli having +driven the people to despair, the village is in consequence deserted and +in ruins. A few fields are still cultivated by the inhabitants of Deir +Eliaout and Btedai, who sow their seed in the autumn, and in the spring +return, build a few huts, and watch the growing crop. The walnut tree +abounds here. + +There are three springs at Ainnete, one of which was dried up; another +falls over the rock in a pretty cascade; they unite in a Wady which runs +parallel with the upper mountain as far as the lake Liemoun, two hours +west of Ainnete; at this time the lake was nearly dry, an extraordinary +circumstance; I saw its bed a little higher up than Ainnete. + +From Ainnete the ascent of the mountain is steep, and the vegetation is +scanty; though it reaches to the summit. A few oaks and shrubs grow +amongst the rocks. The road is practicable for loaded mules, and my +horse ascended without difficulty. The honey of Ainnete, and of the +whole of Libanus, is of a superior quality. + +At the end of two hours and a half from Ainnete we reached the summit, +from whence I enjoyed a magnificent view over the Bekaa, the Anti- +Libanus, and Djebel Essheikh, on one side, and the sea, the sea shore +near Tripoli, and the deep valley of Kadisha on the other. We were not +quite upon the highest summit, which lay half an hour to the right. +Baalbec bore from hence S. by E, + +[p.19]and the summit of Djebel Essheikh S. by W. The whole of the rock +is calcareous, and the surface towards the top is so splintered by the +action of the atmosphere, as to have the appearance of layers of slates. +Midway from Ainnete I found a small petrified shell, and on breaking a +stone which I picked up on the summit, I discovered another similar +petrifaction within it. + +Having descended for two hours, we came to a small cultivated plain. On +this side, as well as on the other, the higher Libanus may be +distinguished from the lower; the former presenting on both sides a +steep barren ascent of two to two hours and a half; the latter a more +level wooded country, for the greater part fit for cultivation this +difference of surface is observable throughout the Libanus, from the +point where I crossed it, for eight hours, in a S. W. direction. The +descent terminates in one of the numerous deep valleys which run towards +the seashore. + +I left my guide on the small plain, and proceeded to the right towards +the Cedars, which are visible from the top of the mountain, standing +half an hour from the direct line of the route to Bshirrai, at the foot +of the steep declivities of the higher division of the mountain. They +stand on uneven ground, and form a small wood. Of the oldest and best +looking trees, I counted eleven or twelve; twenty-five very large ones; +about fifty of middling size; and more than three hundred smaller and +young ones. The oldest trees are distinguished by having the foliage and +small branches at the + +BSHIRRAI. + +[p.20]top only, and by four, five, or even seven trunks springing from +one base; the branches and foliage of the others were lower, but I saw +none whose leaves touched the ground, like those in Kew Gardens. The +trunks of the old trees are covered with the names of travellers and +other persons, who have visited them: I saw a date of the seventeenth +century. The trunks of the oldest trees seem to be quite dead; the wood +is of a gray tint; I took off a piece of one of them; but it was +afterwards stolen, together with several specimens of minerals, which I +sent from Zahle to Damascus. + +At an hour and a quarter from the Cedars, and considerably below them, +on the edge of a rocky descent, lies the village of Bshirrai, on the +right bank of the river Kadisha [Arabic]. + +October 3d.--Bshirrai consists of about one hundred and twenty houses. +Its inhabitants are all Maronites, and have seven churches. At half an +hour from the village is the Carmelite convent of Deir Serkis (St. +Sergius,) inhabited at present by a single monk, a very worthy old man, +a native of Tuscany, who has been a missionary to Egypt, India, and +Persia. + +Nothing can be more striking than a comparison of the fertile but +uncultivated districts of Bekaa and Baalbec, with the rocky mountains, +in the opposite direction, where, notwithstanding that nature seems to +afford nothing for the sustenance of the inhabitants, numerous villages +flourish, and every inch of ground is cultivated. Bshirrai is surrounded +with fruit trees, mulberry plantations, vineyards, fields of Dhourra, +and other corn, though there is scarcely a natural plain twenty feet +square. The inhabitants with great industry build terraces to level the +ground and prevent the earth from being swept down by the winter rains, +and at the same time to retain the water requisite for the irrigation of +their crops. Water is very abundant, as streams from numerous springs +descend + +KANOBIN. + +[p.21]on every side into the Kadisha, whose source is two hours distant +from Bshirrai, in the direction of the mountain from whence I came. + +Bshirrai belongs to the district of Tripoli, but is at present, with the +whole of the mountains, in the hands of the Emir Beshir, or chief of the +Druses. The inhabitants of the village rear the silk-worm, have +excellent plantations of tobacco, and a few manufactories of cotton +stuffs used by the mountaineers as shawls for girdles. Forty years ago +the village was in the hands of the Metaweli, who were driven out by the +Maronites. + +In the morning I went to Kanobin; after walking for two hours and a half +over the upper plain, I descended the precipitous side of a collateral +branch of the valley Kadisha, and continued my way to the convent, which +I reached in two hours and a half. It is built on a steep precipice on +the right of the valley, at half an hour's walk from the river, and +appears as if suspended in the air, being supported by a high wall, +built against the side of the mountain. There is a spring close to it. +The church, which is excavated in the rock, and dedicated to the Virgin, +is decorated with the portraits of a great number of patriarchs. During +the winter, the peasants suspend their silk-worms in bags, to the +portrait of some favourite saint, and implore his influence for a +plenteous harvest of silk; from this custom the convent derives a +considerable income. + +Kanobin is the seat of the patriarch of the Maronites, who is at the +head of twelve Maronite bishops, and here in former times he generally +passed the summer months, retiring in the winter to Mar Hanna; but the +vexations and insults which the patriarchs were exposed to from the +Metaweli, in their excursions to and from Baalbec, induced them for many +years to abandon this residence. The present patriarch is the first who +for a long time has resided in + +HOSRUN. + +[p.22]Kanobin. Though I had no letter of introduction to him, and was in +the dress of a peasant, he invited me to dinner, and I met at his table +his secretary, Bishop Stefano, who has been educated at Rome, and has +some notions of Europe. While I was there, a rude peasant was ordained a +priest. Kanobin had once a considerable library; but it has been +gradually dispersed; and not a vestige of it now remains. The cells of +the monks are, for the most part, in ruins. + +Three hours distant from Kanobin, at the convent Kashheya, which is near +the village Ehden, is a printing office, where prayer-books in the +Syriac language are printed. This language is known and spoken by many +Maronites, and in this district the greater part of them write Arabic in +the Syriac characters. The names of the owners of the silk-worms were +all written in this character in different hands, upon the bags +suspended in the church. + +I returned to Bshirrai by an easier road than that which I had travelled +in the morning; at the end of three quarters of an hour I regained the +upper plain, from whence I proceeded for two hours by a gentle ascent, +through fields and orchards, up to the village. The potatoe succeeds +here very well; a crop was growing in the garden of the Carmelite +convent; it has also been cultivated for some time past in Kesrouan. In +the mountains about Kanobin tigers are said to be frequently met with; I +suppose ounces are meant. + +October 4th.--I departed from Bshirrai with the intention of returning +to Zahle over the higher range of the Libanus. We crossed the Kadisha, +at a short distance from Bishirrai, above the place where it falls over +the precipice: at one hour distant from Bshirrai, and opposite to it, we +passed the village of Hosrun. The same cultivation prevails here as in +the vicinity of Bshirrai; mulberry and + +ARD LAKLOUK. + +walnut [p.23]trees, and vines, are the chief productions. From Hosrun we +continued our way along the foot of the highest barren part of Libanus. +About two hours from its summit, the mountain affords pasturage, and is +capable of cultivation, from the numerous springs which are everywhere +met with. During the greater part of this day's journey I had a fine +view of the sea shore between Tartous and Tripoli, and from thence +downwards towards Jebail. + +At three hours and a half from Hosrun, still following the foot of the +upper chain of the Libanus, we entered the district of Tanurin (Ard +Tanurin), so called from a village situated below in a valley. The spots +in the mountain, proper for cultivation, are sown by the inhabitants of +Tanurin; such as afford pasture only are visited by the Arabs El Haib. I +was astonished at seeing so high in the mountain, numerous camels and +Arab huts. These Arabs pass the winter months on the sea shore about +Tripoli, Jebail, and Tartous. Though like the Bedouins, they have no +fixed habitations, their features are not of the true Bedouin cast, and +their dialect, though different from that of the peasants, is not a pure +Bedouin dialect. They are tributary to the Turkish governors, and at +peace with all the country people; but they have the character of having +a great propensity to thieving. Their property, besides camels, consists +in horses, cows, sheep, and goats. Their chief is Khuder el Aissy +[Arabic]. + +On leaving the district of Tanurin, I entered Ard Laklouk [Arabic], +which I cannot describe better, than by comparing it to one of the +pasturages in the Alps. It is covered with grass, and its numerous +springs, together with the heavy dews which fall during the summer +months, have produced a verdure of a deeper tint than any I saw in the +other parts of Syria which I visited. The Arabs El Haib come up hither +also, and wander about the district for five months in the year; some of +them even remain here the whole + +AKOURA. + +[p.24]year; except that in winter they descend from the pastures, and +pitch their tents round the villages of Tanurin and Akoura, which are +situated in a valley, sheltered on every side by the perpendicular sides +of the Upper Libanus. At Tanurin and Laklouk the winter corn was already +above ground. The people water the fields for three or four days before +they sow the seed. + +Akoura has a bad name amongst the people of this country; its +inhabitants, who are all Greek Catholics, are accused of avarice, and +inhospitality. The mountaineers, when upon a journey, never think of +spending a para, for their eating, drinking, or lodging. On arriving in +the evening at a village, they alight at the house of some acquaintance, +if they have any, which is generally the case, and say to the owner, "I +am your guest," Djay deyfak [Arabic]. The host gives the traveller a +supper, consisting of milk, bread, and Borgul, and if rich and liberal, +feeds his mule or mare also. When the traveller has no acquaintance in +the village, he alights at any house he pleases, ties up his beast, and +smokes his pipe till he receives a welcome from the master of the house, +who makes it a point of honour to receive him as a friend, and to give +him a supper. In the morning he departs with a simple "Good bye." Such +is the general custom in these parts; the inhabitants of Akoura, +however, are noted for refusing to receive travellers, to whom they will +neither give a supper, nor sell them provision for ready money; the +consequence of which conduct is, that the Akourans, when travelling +about, are obliged to conceal their origin, in order to obtain food on +the road. My guide had a friend at Akoura, but he happened to be absent; +we therefore alighted at another house, where we obtained with much +difficulty a little barley for our horses; and we should have gone +supperless to rest, had I not repaired to the Sheikh, and made him +believe I was a Kourdine (my dress being somewhat like that of the +Kourds) in the service of the + +[p.25] Pasha of Damascus, on my way to the Emir Beshir. As I spoke with +confidence, the Sheikh became alarmed, and sent us a few loaves of +bread, and some cheese; on my return, I found my guide in the midst of a +large assembly of people, abusing them for their meanness. + +The property of the inhabitants of this village consists of cows and +other cattle, silkworms, and plantations of olive trees. + +At Akoura Djebel Libnan terminates; and farther down towards Zahle and +the Bekaa, the mountain is called Djebel Sannin [Arabic]. The Libanus is +here more barren and wild than further to the north. The rocks are all +in perfectly horizontal layers, some of which are thirty to forty yards +in thickness, while others are only a few yards. + +October 5th.--We left the inhospitable Akoura before day light, and +reached, after one hour and three quarters, a village called Afka, +situated in the bottom of a valley, near a spring, whose waters join +those of Wady Akoura, and flow down towards Jebail. + +The name Afka is found in the ancient geography of Syria. At Aphaca, +according to Zosimus, was a temple of Venus, where the handsomest girls +of Syria sacrificed to the goddess: it was situated near a small lake, +between Heliopolis and the sea coast. [Zosim. l.i.c.58.] The lake +Liemoun is at three hours distance from Afka. I could not hear of any +remains of antiquity near Afka. All the inhabitants are Metaweli, under +the government of Jebail. Near it, towards Jebail, are the Metaweli +villages of Mghaiere, Meneitere, and Laese. + +From Afka the road leads up a steep Wady. At half an hour from it is the +spring called Ain Bahr; three quarters of an hour beyond it is a high +level country, still on the western side of the summit of the mountain. +This district is called Watty el Bordj + +WATTY EL BORDJ. + +[p.26] [Arabic], from a small ruined tower. It is three or four hours in +length, and two in breadth. In the spring the Arabs Abid, Turkmans, and +Kourdines, here pasture their cattle. These Kourdines bring annually +into Syria from twenty to thirty thousand sheep, from the mountains of +Kourdistan; the greater part of which are consumed by Aleppo, Damascus, +and the mountains, as Syria does not produce a sufficient number for its +inhabitants. The Kourd sheep are larger than those of Syria, but their +flesh is less esteemed. The Kourd sheep-dealers first visit with their +flocks Aleppo, then Hama, Homs, and Baalbec; and what they do not sell +on the road, they bring to pasture at Watty el Bordj, whither the people +of Zahle, Deir el Kammar, and other towns in the mountains repair, and +buy up thousands of them, which they afterwards sell in retail to the +peasants of the mountains. + +They buy them for ready money at twenty to thirty piastres a head, and +sell them two months afterwards at thirty to forty. The mountaineers of +the Druse and Maronite districts breed very few sheep, and very seldom +eat animal food. On the approach of their respective great festivals, +(Christmas with the Maronites, and Ramadan with the Druses) each head of +a family kills one or two sheep; during the rest of the year, he feeds +his people on Borgul, with occasionally some old cow's, or goat's flesh. +It is only in the largest of the mountain towns of the Druses and +Maronites that flesh is brought daily to market. + +There are no springs or water in the Watty el Bordj; but the melting of +the snow in the spring affords drink for men and cattle, and snow water +is often found during the greater part of the summer in some funnel- +shaped holes formed in the ground by the snow. At the time I passed no +water was any where to be found. In many places the snow remains +throughout the year; but this year none was left, not even on the +summits of the mountain, [p.27] except in a few spots on the northern +declivity of the Libanus towards the district of Akkar. Watty el Bordj +affords excellent pasturage; in many spots it is overgrown with trees, +mostly oaks, and the barbery is also very frequent. We started +partridges at every step. Our route lay generally S.W. by S. + +Four hours from Ain Bahr, we entered the mountain, a part of which is +considered to belong to Kesrouan. It is completely stony and rocky, and +I found some calcareous spath. I shall here remark that the whole of the +mountain from Zahle to Belad Akkar is by the country people comprehended +under the general name of Djurd Baalbec, Djurd meaning, in the northern +Arabic dialect, a rocky mountain. + +Crossing this part of the mountain Sannin for two hours, we came to a +spring called Ain Naena, from whence another road leads down north- +eastwards, into the territory of Baalbec. This route is much frequented +by the people of Kesrouan, who bring this way the iron ore of Shouair, +to the Mesbek or smelting furnaces at Nebae el Mauradj, two hours from +hence to the north-east, Shouair, which is at least ten hours distance, +affording no fuel for smelting. The iron ore is carried upon mules and +asses, one day's journey and a half to the Mesbek, where the mountain +abounds in oak. From Aine Naena we gradually descended, and in three +hours reached Zahle. + +October 6th.--At Zahle I found the Catholic bishop, who was absent on +his episcopal tour during my first visit to this place. He is +distinguished from his countrymen by the politeness of his manners, the +liberality of his sentiments, his general information, and his desire of +knowledge, though at a very advanced age. I had letters for him; and he +recommended himself particularly to me by being the friend of Mr. +Browne, the African traveller, who had lived with him a fortnight, and +had visited + +ZAHLE. + +[p.28] Baalbec in his company. His diocese comprises the whole Christian +community in the Bekaa, and the adjoining villages of the mountain. He +is, with five other bishops, under the orders of the Patriarch at +Mekhalis, and there are, besides, seven monasteries under this diocese +in Syria. The Bishop's revenue arises from a yearly personal tax of half +a piastre upon all the male adults in his diocese. He lives in a truly +patriarchal manner, dressing in a simple black gown, and black Abbaye, +and carries in his hand a long oaken stick, as an episcopal staff. He is +adored by his parishioners, though they reproach him with a want of +fervour in his intercourse with other Christian sects; by which they +mean fanatism, which is a striking feature in the character of the +Christians not only of the mountain, but also of the principal Syrian +towns, and of the open country. This bigotry is not directed so much +against the Mohammedans, as against their Christian brethren, whose +creed at all differs from their own. + +It need hardly be mentioned here, that many of those sects which tore +Europe to pieces in the earlier ages of Christianity, still exist in +these countries: Greeks, Catholics, Maronites, Syriacs, Chaldeans, and +Jacobites, all have their respective parishes and churches. Unable to +effect any thing against the religion of their haughty rulers the Turks, +they turn the only weapons they possess, scandal and intrigue, with fury +against each other, and each sect is mad enough to believe that its +church would flourish on the ruins of those of their heretic brethren. +The principal hatred subsists between the Catholics and the Greeks; of +the latter, many thousands have been converted to Catholicism, so that +in the northern parts of Syria all Catholics, the Maronites excepted, +were formerly of the Greek church: this is the case in Aleppo, Damascus, +and in all the intermediate country; communities of original Latin +Christians being found only around Jerusalem and Nablous. The Greeks + +HEUSN NIEHA. + +[p.29] of course see with indignation the proselytism of their brethren, +which is daily gaining ground, and avenge themselves upon the apostates +with the most furious hatred. Nor are the Greek and original Latin +Christians backward in cherishing similar feelings; and scenes most +disgraceful to Christianity are frequently the consequence. In those +parts where no Greeks live, as in the mountains of Libanus, the +different sects of Catholics turn their hatred against each other, and +the Maronites fight with the converted Greek Catholics, or the Latins, +as they do at Aleppo with the followers of the Greek church. This system +of intolerance, at which the Turkish governors smile, because they are +constantly gainers by it, is carried so far that, in many places, the +passing Catholic is obliged to practise the Greek rites, in order to +escape the effects of the fanatism of the inhabitants. On my way from +Zahle to Banias, we stopped one night at Hasbeya and another at Rasheya +el Fukhar; at both of which places my guide went to the Greek church, +and prayed according to its forms; in passing through Zahle, as he +informed me, the Greeks found it equally necessary to conform with the +rites of the Latin Catholics. The intrigues carried on at Jerusalem +between the Greek and Latin monks contribute to increase these diputes, +which would have long ago led to a Christian civil war in these +countries, did not the iron rod of the Turkish government repress their +religious fury. + +The vineyards are estimated at the exact number of vines they contain, +and each vine, if of good quality, is worth one piastre. The Miri or +land tax of every hundred [Arabic] vines is ten paras. For many years +past a double Miri has been levied upon Zahle. + +October 7th.--Remained at Zahle, and enjoyed the instructive +conversation of the Bishop Basilios. + +October 8th.--I went to see the ruined temple called Heusn Nieha, two +hours from Zahle, in the Djebel Sannin, and half an hour + +[p.30] from the village of Fursul. These remains stand in a Wady, +surrounded by barren rocks, having a spring near them to the eastward. +The temple faced the west. A grand flight of steps, twelve paces broad, +with a column three feet and a half in diameter at each end of the lower +step, formed the approach to a spacious pronaos, in which are remains of +columns: here a door six paces in width opens into the cella, the fallen +roof of which now covers the floor, and the side walls to half their +original height only remain. This chamber is thirty-five paces in length +by fifteen in breadth. On each of the side walls stood six pilasters of +a bad Ionic order. At the extremity of the chamber are steps leading to +a platform, where the statue of the deity may, perhaps, have stood: the +whole space is here filled up with fragments of columns and walls. The +square stones used in the construction of the walls are in general about +four or five cubic feet each, but I saw some twelve feet long, four feet +high, and four feet in breadth. On the right side of the entrance door +is a staircase in the wall, leading to the top of the building, and much +resembling in its mode of construction the staircase in the principal +temple of Baalbec. The remains of the capitals of columns betray a very +corrupt taste, being badly sculptured, and without any elegance either +in design or execution; and the temple seems to have been built in the +latest times of paganism, and was perhaps subsequently repaired, and +converted into a church. The stone with which it has been built is more +decayed than that in the ruins at Baalbec, being here more exposed to +the inclemency of the weather. No inscriptions were any where visible. +Around the temple are some ruins of ancient and others of more modern +habitations. + +Above Fursul is a plain called Habis, in which are a number of grottos +excavated in the rock, apparently tombs; but I did not visit them. + +AIN ESSOUIRE + +[p.31] October 9th.--I was disappointed in my intention of proceeding, +and passed the day in calling at several shops in the town, and +conversing with the merchants and Arab traders. + +October 10th.--I set out for Hasbeya, accompanied by the same guide with +whom I had made the mountain tour. We crossed the Bekaa nearly in the +direction of Andjar.[The following are the villages in the Bekaa, and at +the foot of the western mountain, which from Zahle southward takes the +name of Djebel Riehan; namely, Saad-Nayel [Arabic], Talabaya [Arabic], +Djetye [Arabic], Bouarish [Arabic], Mekse [Arabic], Kab Elias [Arabic], +Mezraat [Arabic], Bemherye [Arabic], Aamyk [Arabic], Deir Tenhadish +[Arabic], Keferya [Arabic], Khereyt Kena [Arabic], Beit Far [Arabic], +Ain Zebde [Arabic], Segbin [Arabic], Deire el Djouze [Arabic], Bab Mara +[Arabic], Aitenyt [Arabic], El Kergoue [Arabic], El Medjdel [Arabic], +Belhysz [Arabic], Lala [Arabic], Meshgara [Arabic], Sahhar Wyhbar +[Arabic], Shedite, Nebi Zaour, Baaloul [Arabic], Bedjat [Arabic], Djub +Djenin [Arabic], Tel Danoub [Arabic], El Khyare [Arabic], El Djezyre +[Arabic], El Estabbel [Arabic], El Merdj [Arabic], Tel el Akhdar +[Arabic], Taanayl [Arabic], Ber Elias [Arabic], Deir Zeinoun [Arabic].] +The generality of the inhabitants of the Bekaa are Turks; one fifth, +perhaps, are Catholic Christians. There are no Metaweli. The land is +somewhat better cultivated than that of Belad Baalbec, but still five- +sixths Of the soil is left in pasture for the Arabs. The Fellahs +(peasant cultivators) are ruined by the exorbitant demands of the +proprietors of the soil, who are, for the greater part, noble families +of Damascus, or of the Druse mountains. The usual produce of the harvest +is tenfold, and in fruitful years it is often twenty fold. + +After two hours and three quarters brisk walking of our horses, we +passed Medjdel to our right, near which, on the road, lies a piece of a +large column of acalcareous and flinty breccia. Half an hour beyond +Medjdel, we reached a spring called Ain Essouire. Above it in the hills +which branch out of the Anti-Libanus, or + +HASBEYA + +[p.32] Djurd Essharki, into the Bekaa, is the village Nebi Israi, and to +the left, in the Anti-Libanus, is the Druse village of Souire. A little +farther on we passed Hamara, a village on the Anti-Libanus. At one hour +from Ain Essouire, is Sultan Yakoub, with the tomb of a saint, a place +of holy resort of the Turks. Below it lies the Ain Sultan Yakoub. Half +an hour farther is Nebae el Feludj, a spring. Our road lay S. by W. At +the end of three hours and a half from Ain Essouire, we reached the +village El Embeite, on the top of a hill, opposite to Djebel Essheikh. +The route to this place, from Medjdel, lay through a valley of the Anti- +Libanus, which, farther on, towards El Heimte, loses itself in the +mountains comprised under the name of Djebel Essheikh. The summit of +this mountain, which bears west from Damascus, is probably the highest +in Syria, for snow was still lying upun it. The mountain belongs to the +district of the Emir of the Druses, commanding at Rasheia, a Druse +village at one hour and a half from El Heimte. We slept at El Heimte, in +the house of the Druse Sheikh, and the Khatib, or Turkish priest of the +village, gave us a plentiful supper. The Druses in this district affect +to adhere strictly to the religious precepts of the Turks. The greater +part of the inhabitants of El Heimte are Druses belonging to Rasheia. +Near it are the villages of Biri and Refit. + +October 11th.--We set out at day-break, and at the end of an hour passed +on the left the Druse villages Deneibe and Mimis, and at two hours Sefa +on our right, also a Druse village. Our road lay over an uneven plain, +cultivated only in spots. After three hours and a half, we came to Ain +Efdjur, direction S.W. by W.; from thence in two hours and a half we +reached the Djissr-Moiet-Hasbeya, or bridge of the river of Hasbeya, +whose source is hard by; the road lying the whole way over rocky ground +little susceptible of culture. From the Djissr we turned up a steep Wady +E. b. S. and arrived, in about three quarters of an hour, at Hasbeya, +situated + +[p.33] on the top of a mountain of no great height. I had letters from +the Greek patriarch of Damascus to the Greek bishop of Hasbeya, in whose +house, four years ago, Dr. Seetzen spent a week, having been prevented +from proceeding by violent snow and rain. The bishop happened to be +absent on my arrival, and I therefore took up my lodging in the house of +a poor Greek priest, with whose behaviour towards me I had every reason +to be satisfied. + +October 12th.--The village or town of Hasbeya may contain seven hundred +houses; half of which belong to Druse families; the other half are +inhabited by Christians, principally Greeks, though there are also +Catholics and Maronites here. There are only forty Turkish families, and +twenty Enzairie. The inhabitants make cotton cloth for shirts and gowns, +and have a few dyeing houses. The principal production of their fields +is olives. The chief of the village is an Emir of the Druses, who is +dependent both on the Pasha of Damascus and the Emir Beshir. He lives in +a well-built Serai, which in time of war might serve as a castle. The +following villages belong to the territory of Hasbeya: Ain Sharafe, El +Kefeir, Ain Annia, Shoueia, Ain Tinte, El Kankabe, El Heberie, Rasheyat +el Fukhar, Ferdis, Khereibe, El Merie, Shiba, Banias, Ain Fid, Zoura, +Ain Kamed Banias, Djoubeta, Fershouba, Kefaer Hamam, El Waeshdal, El +Zouye. + +The neighbourhood of Hasbeya is interesting to the mineralogist. I was +told by the priest that a metal was found near it, of which nobody knew +the name, nor made any use. Having procured a labourer, I found after +digging in the Wady a few hundred paces to the E. of the village, +several small pieces of a metallic substance, which I took to be a +native amalgam of mercury. According to the description given me, +cinnabar is also found here, but we could discover no specimen of it +after half an hour's digging. The ground all around, and the spring near +the village, are + +SOUK EL KAHN. + +[p.34] strongly impregnated with iron; the rock is sandstone, of a dark +red colour. The other mineral curiosities are, a number of wells of +bitumen Judaicum, in the Wady at one hour below the village on the west +side, after recrossing the bridge; they are situated upon the declivity +of a chalky hill; the bitumen is found in large veins at about twenty +feet below the surface. The pits are from six to twelve feet in +diameter; the workmen descend by a rope and wheel, and in hewing out the +bitumen, they leave columns of that substance at different intervals, as +a support to the earth above; pieces of several Rotolas in weight +each[The Rotola is about five pounds.] are brought up. There are upwards +of twenty-five of these pits or wells, but the greater part of them are +abandoned and overgrown with shrubs. I saw only one, that appeared to +have been recently worked; they work only during the summer months. The +bitumen is called Hommar, and the wells, Biar el Hommar [Arabic]. The +Emir possesses the monopoly of the bitumen; he alone works the pits, and +sells the produce to the merchants of Damascus, Beirout, and Aleppo. It +was now at thirty-three paras the Rotola, or about two-pence-halfpenny +the pound. + +I left Hasbeya on the same day, and continued to descend the valley on +the side of the river. Half an hour from the bridge, I arrived at Souk +el Khan. In the hills to the right is the village Kankabe. Souk el Khan +is a large ruined Khan, where the inhabitants, to the distance of one +day's journey round, assemble every Tuesday to hold a market. In the +summer they exhibit their merchandize in the open air; but in the winter +they make use of some large rooms, still remaining within the Khan. The +road to Banias leads along the valley, parallel with the course of the +river; but as I had heard of some ruins in the mountain, at a village +called Hereibe, to the east of the route, I turned in that direction, +and reached the + +HEREIBE. + +[p.35] village in two hours after quitting Hasbeya. Between Souk el Khan +and Hereibe lies the village Ferdous. Hereibe is considerably higher +than the river. All this neighbourhood is planted with olive-trees; and +olives, from hence to Damascus, are the most common food of the +inhabitants, who put them into salt, but they do not thereby entirely +remove the bitter taste. At Aleppo and Damascus, olives destined for the +table are immersed for a fortnight in water, in which are dissolved one +proportion of chalk and two proportions of alkali; this takes away all +bitterness, but the fruit is at the same time deprived of a part of its +flavour. + +On the west side of the village of Hereibe stands a ruined temple, quite +insulated; it is twenty paces in length, and thirteen in breadth; the +entrance is towards the west, and it had a vestibule in front with two +columns. On each side of the entrance are two niches one above the +other, the upper one has small pilasters, the lower one is ornamented on +the top by a shell, like the niches in the temple at Baalbec. The door- +way, which has no decoration whatever, opens into a room ten paces +square, in which no columns, sculpture, or Ornaments of any kind are +visible; three of the walls only are standing. At the back of this +chamber is a smaller, four paces and a half in breadth, by ten in +length, in one corner of which is a half-ruined staircase, leading to +the top of the building; in this smaller room are four pilasters in the +four angles; under the large room are two spacious vaults. On the +outside of the temple, at the east corners, are badly wrought pilasters +of the Ionic order. The roof has fallen in, and fills up the interior. +The stone employed is of the same quality as that used at Heusn Nieha +and Baalbec. + +From Hereibe I came to the spring Ain Ferkhan in one hour; and from +thence, in three quarters of an hour, to the village + +BANIAS. + +[p.36]Rasheyat-el-Fukhar, over mountainous ground. The village stands on +a mountain which commands a beautiful view of the lake Houle, its plain, +and the interjacent country. It contains about one hundred houses, +three-fourths of which are inhabited by Turks and the remainder by +Greeks. The inhabitants live by the manufacture of earthen pots, which +they sell to the distance of four or five days journey around, +especially in the Haouran and Djolan; they mould them in very elegant +shapes, and paint them with a red-earth: almost every house has its +pottery, and the ovens in which the pots are baked are common to all. +The Houle bears from Rasheyat-el-Fukhar, between S. by E. and S.E. by S. +Kalaat el Shkif, on the top of the mountain, towards Acre, E. by N. and +Banias, though not visible, S. + +October 13th.--We set out in a rainy morning from Rasheyat-el-Fukhar. I +was told that in the mountain to the E. one hour and a half, were +considerable ruins. The mountains of Hasbeya, or the chain of the Djebel +Essheikh, divide, at five hours N. from the lake, into two branches. The +western, a little farther to the south, takes the name of Djebel Safat, +the eastern joins the Djebel Heish and its continuations, towards +Banias. Between the two lie the lake of the Houle and the Ard el Houle, +the latter from three to four hours in breadth. We descended from +Rasheyat-el-Fukhar into the plain, in which we continued till we reached +Banias, at the end of four hours, thoroughly drenched by a heavy shower +of rain. We alighted at the Menzel or Medhaafe; this is a sort of Khan +found in almost every village through which there is a frequented route. +Strangers sleep in the Medhaafe, and the Sheikh of the village generally +sends them their dinner or supper; for this he does not accept of any +present, at least not of such as common travellers can offer; but it is +custmary to give something to the servant or watchman (Natur) who brings +the meal, and takes care that + +CASTLE OF BANAIS. + +[p.37]nothing is stolen from the strangers' baggage. The district of +Banias is classic ground; it is the ancient Caesarea Philippi; the lake +Houle is the Lacus Samachonitis. + +My money being almost expended, I had no time to lose in gratifying my +curiosity in the invirons of Banias. Immediately after my arrival I took +a man of the village to shew me the way to the ruined castle of Banias, +which bears E. by S. from it. It stands on the top of a mountain, which +forms part of the mountain of Heish, at an hour and a quarter from +Banias; it is now in complete ruins, but was once a very strong +fortress. Its whole circumference is twenty-five minutes. It is +surrounded by a wall ten feet thick, flanked with numerous round towers, +built with equal blocks of stone, each about two feet square. The keep +or citadel seems to have been on the highest summit, on the eastern +side, where the walls are stronger than on the lower, or western side. +The view from hence over the Houle and a part of its lake, the Djebel +Safad, and the barren Heish, is magnificent. On the western side, within +the precincts of the castle, are ruins of many private habitations. At +both the western corners runs a succession of dark strongly built low +apartments, like cells, vaulted, and with small narrow loop holes, as if +for musquetry. On this side also is a well more than twenty feet square, +walled in, with a vaulted roof at least twenty-five feet high; the well +was, even in this dry season, full of water: there are three others in +the castle. There are many apartments and recesses in the castle, which +could only be exactly described by a plan of the whole building. It +seems to have been erected during the period of the crusades, and must +certainly have been a very strong hold to those who possessed it. I saw +no inscriptions, though I was afterwards told that there are several +both in Arabic and in Frank (Greek or Latin). The castle has but one +gate, on the south side. I could discover no traces + +BANIAS. + +[p.38]of a road or paved way leading up the mountain to it. The valley +at its S.E. foot is called Wady Kyb, that on its western side Wady el +Kashabe, and on the other side of the latter, Wady el Asal. In winter +time the shepherds of the Felahs of the Heish, who encamp upon the +mountain, pass the night in the castle with their cattle. + +Banias is situated at the foot of the Heish, in the plain, which in the +immediate vicinity of Banias is not called Ard Houle, but Ard Banias. It +contains about one hundred and fifty houses, inhabited mostly by Turks: +there are also Greeks, Druses, and Enzairie. It belongs to Hasbeya, +whose Emir nominates the Sheikh. On the N.E. side of the village is the +source of the river of Banias, which empties itself into the Jordan at +the distance of an hour and a half, in the plain below. Over the source +is a perpendicular rock, in which several niches have been cut to +receive statues. + +The largest niche is above a spacious cavern, under which the river +rises. This niche is six feet broad and as much in depth, and has a +smaller niche in the bottom of it. Immediately above it, in the + +[p.39] perpendicular face of the rock, is another niche, adorned with +pilasters, supporting a shell ornament like that of Hereibe. + +There are two other niches near these, and twenty paces farther two more +nearly buried in the ground at the foot of the rock. Each of these +niches had an inscription annexed to it, but I could not decipher any +thing except the following characters above one of the niches which are +nearly covered with earth. + +[Greek] + +In the middle niche of the three, which are represented in the +engraving, the base of the statue is still visible.[Banias, [Greek +text], or Caesareia Philippi, was the Dan of the Jews. The name Paneas +was derived from the worship of Pan. The niche in the cavern probably +contained a statue of Pan, and the other niches similar dedications to +the same or other deities. The cavern and [Greek text], or sanctuary of +Pan, are described by Josephus, from whom it appears also that the +fountain was considered the source of the Jordan, and at the same time +the outlet of a small lake called Phiala, which was situated 120 stades +from Caesareia towards Trachonitis, or the north-east. The whole +mountain had the name of Paneium. The hewn stones round the spring may +have belonged, perhaps, to the temple of Augustus, built here by Herod. +Joseph. de Bel. Jud. l.i,c.16. Antiq. Jud. l.3,c.10,-l.15,c.10. Euseb. +Hist. Eccl. l.12,c.17. The inscription appears to have been annexed to a +dedication by a priest of Pan, who had prefixed the usual pro salute for +the reigning Emperors. Ed.] + +Upon the top of the rock, to the left of the niches, is a mosque +dedicated to Nebi Khouder, called by the Christians Mar Georgius, which +is a place of devotion for Mohammedan strangers passing this way. Round +the source of the river are a number of hewn stones. The stream flows on +the north side of the village; where is a well built bridge and some +remains of the ancient town, the principal part of which seems, however, +to have been on the opposite side of the river, where the ruins extend +for a + +[p.40]quarter of an hour from the bridge. No walls remain, but great +quantities of stones and architectural fragments are scattered about. I +saw also an entire column, of small dimensions. In the village itself, +on the left side of the river, lies a granite column of a light gray +colour, one foot and a half in diameter. + +October 15th.--It being Ramazan, we remained under a large tree before +the Menzel, smoking and conversing till very late. The researches which +Mr. Seetzen made here four years ago were the principal topic; he +continued his tour from hence towards the lake of Tabaria, and the +eastern borders of the Dead Sea. The Christians believe that he was sent +by the Yellow King (Melek el Aszfar, a title which they give the Emperor +of Russia) to examine the country preparatory to an invasion, to deliver +it from the Turkish yoke. The Turks, on the contrary, believe, that, +like all strangers who enquire after inscriptions, he was in search of +treasure. When questioned on this subject at Baalbec, I answered, "The +treasures of this country are not beneath the earth; they come from God, +and are on the surface of the earth. Work your fields and sow them; and +you will find the greatest treasure in an abundant harvest." "By your +life (a common oath) truth comes from your lips," ([Arabic] is a common +word used in Syria for [Arabic] which signifies "thy mouth."] [Arabic] +Wuhiyatak, el hak fi tummak) was the reply. + +On the south side of the village are the ruins of a strong castle, +which, from its appearance and mode of construction, may be conjectured +to be of the same age as the castle upon the mountain. It is surrounded +by a broad ditch, and had a wall within the ditch. Several of its towers +are still standing. A very solid bridge, which crosses the winter +torrent, Wady el Kyd, leads to the entrance of the castle, over which is +an Arabic inscription; but for want of a ladder, I could make out +nothing of it but the date "600 and ... years (.... [Arabic])," taking +the era of the Hedjra, + +BOSTRA. + +[p.41]it coincides with the epoch of the crusades. There are five or six +granite columns built into the walls of the gateway. + +I went to see the ruins of the ancient city of Bostra, of which the +people spoke much, adding that Mousa (the name assumed by Mr. Seetzen) +had offered thirty piastres to any one who would accompany him to the +place, but that nobody had ventured, through fear of the Arabs. I found +a good natured fellow, who for three piastres undertook to lead me to +the spot. Bostra must not be confounded with Boszra, in the Haouran; +both places are mentioned in the Books of Moses. The way to the ruins +lies for an hour and a half in the road by which I came from Rasheyat- +el-Fukhar, it then ascends for three quarters of an hour a steep +mountain to the right, on the top of which is the city; it is divided +into two parts, the largest being upon the very summit, the smaller at +ten minutes walk lower down, and resembling a suburb to the upper part. +Traces are still visible of a paved way that had connected the two +divisions. There is scarcely any thing in the ruins worth notice; they +consist of the foundations of private habitations, built of moderate +sized square stones. The lower city is about twelve minutes walk in +circumference; a part of the four walls of one building only remains +entire; in the midst of the ruins was a well, at this time dried up. The +circuit of the upper city may be about twenty minutes; in it are the +remains of several buildings. In the highest part is a heap of wrought +stones of larger dimensions than the rest, which seem to indicate that +some public building had once stood on the spot. There are several +fragments of columns of one foot and of one foot and a half in diameter. +In two different places a short column was standing in the centre of a +round paved area of about ten feet in diameter. There is likewise a deep +well, walled in, but now dry. + +The country around these ruins is very capable of cultivation. + +SOURCES OF THE JORDAN + +[p.42]Near the lower city are groups of olive trees. Pieces of feldspath +of various colours are scattered about in great quantities upon the +chalky rock of this mountain. I found in going up a species of locust +with six very long legs, and a slender body of about four inches in +length. My guide told me that this insect was called [This is the +abbreviation of - [Arabic].] [Arabic] Salli al-nabi, i.e. "pray to the +Prophet." + +I descended the mountain in the direction towards the source of the +Jordan, and passed, at the foot of it, the miserable village of Kerwaya. +Behind the mountain of Bostra is another, still higher, called Djebel +Meroura Djoubba. At one hour E. from Kerwaye, in the Houle, is the tomb +of a Turkish Sheikh, with a few houses near it, called Kubbet el Arbai- +in w-el-Ghadjar [Arabic]. + +The greater part of the fertile plain of the Houle is uncultivated; the +Arabs El Faddel, El Naim, and the Turkmans pasture their cattle here. It +is watered by the river of Hasbeya, the Jordan, and the river of Banias, +besides several rivulets which descend from the mountains on its eastern +side. The source of the Jordan, or as it is here called, Dhan [Arabic], +is at an hour and a quarter N.E. from Banias. It is in the plain, near a +hill called Tel-el-Kadi. There are two springs near each other, one +smaller than the other, whose waters unite immediately below. Both +sources are on level ground, amongst rocks of tufwacke. The larger +source immediately forms a river twelve or fifteen yards across, which +rushes rapidly over a stony bed into the lower plain. There are no ruins +of any kind near the springs; but the hill over them seems to have been +built upon, though nothing now is visible. At a quarter of an hour to +the N. of the spring are ruins of ancient habitations, built of the +black tufwacke, the principal rock found in the plain. The few houses at +present inhabited on that spot are called Enkeil. + +BANIAS. + +[p.43]I was told that the ancient name of the river of Banias was Djour, +which added to the name of Dhan, made Jourdan; the more correct +etymology is probably Or Dhan, in Hebrew the river of Dhan. Lower down, +between the Houle and the lake Tabaria, it is called Orden by the +inhabitants; to the southward of the lake of Tabaria it bears the name +of Sherya, till it falls into the Dead Sea. + +October 15th.--My guide returned to Zahle. It was my intention to take a +view of the lake and its eastern borders; but a tumour, which threatened +to prevent both riding and walking, obliged me to proceed immediately to +Damascus. I had reason to congratulate myself on the determination, for +if I had staid a day longer, I should have been compelled to await my +recovery at some village on the road. Add to this, I had only the value +of four shillings left, after paying my guide: this alone, however, +should not have prevented me from proceeding, as I knew that two days +were sufficient to enable me to gratify my curiosity, and a guide would +have thought himself well paid at two shillings a day; as to the other +expenses, travelling in the manner of the country people rendered money +quite unnecessary. + +There are two roads from Banias to Damascus: the one lies through the +villages of Koneitza and Sasa; the other is more northly; I took the +latter, though the former is most frequented, being the route followed +by all the pilgrims from Damascus and Aleppo to Jerusalem; but it is +less secure for a small caravan, owing to the incursions of the Arabs. +The country which I had visited to the westward is perfectly secure to +the stranger: I might have safely travelled it alone unarmed, and +without a guide. The route through the district of the Houle and Banias, +and from thence to Damascus, on the contrary, is very dangerous: the +Arabs as well as the Felahs, are often known to attack unprotected +strangers, and + +DJOUBETA. + +[p.44]a small body of men was stripped at Koneitza during my stay at +Banias. + +As soon as I declared my wish to return to Damascus, I was advised by +several people present to take a guard of armed men with me, but knowing +that this was merely a pretext to extort money without at all ensuring +my safety, I declined the proposal, and said I should wait for a Kaffle. +It fortunately happened that the Sheikh of the village had business at +Damascus, and we were glad of each other's company. We set out in the +afternoon, accompanied by the Sheikh's servant. The direction of the +route is E.b.S. up the mountain of the Heish, behind the castle of +Banias. We passed several huts of Felahs, who live here the whole +summer, and retire in winter to their villages. They make cheese for the +Damascus market. At the end of an hour and a half we came to Ain el +Hazouri, a spring, with the tomb of Sheikh Othman el Hazouri just over +it; to the north of it one hour are the ruins of a city called Hazouri. +The mountain here is overgrown with oaks, but contains good pasturage; I +was told that in the Wady Kastebe, near the castle, there are oak trees +more than sixty feet high. One hour more brought us to the village of +Djoubeta, where we remained during the night at the house of some +friends of the Sheikh of Banias. This village belongs to Hasbeya; it is +inhabited by about fifty Turkish and ten Greek families; they subsist +chiefly by the cultivation of olives, and by the rearing of cattle. I +was well treated at the house where we alighted, and also at that of the +Sheikh of the village, where I went to drink a cup of coffee. It being +Ramadan, we passed the greater part of the night in conversation and +smoking; the company grew merry, and knowing that I was curious about +ruined places, began to enumerate all the villages and ruins in + +MEDJEL. + +[p.45]the neighbourhood, of which I subjoin the names.[The ruins of +Dara, Bokatha, Bassisa, Alouba, Afkerdouva, Hauratha (this was described +as being of great extent, with many walls and arches still remaining,) +Enzouby, Hauarit, Kleile, Emteile, Mesherefe, Zar, Katloube in the Wady +Asal, Kseire, Kafoua, Beit el Berek. The villages of Kfershouba, Maonyre +in the district Kereimat, Ain el Kikan, Mezahlak, Merj el Rahel, Sheba, +Zeneble, Zor or Afid, Merdj Zaa. In the Houle, Amerie, Nebi Djahutha, +Sheheil.] The neighbouring mountains of the Heish abound in tigers +([Arabic] nimoura); their skins are much esteemed by the Arab Sheikhs as +saddle cloths. There are also bears, wolves, and stags; the wild boar is +met with in all the mountains which I visited in my tour. + +October 16th.--The friends of the Sheikh of Banias having dissuaded him +from proceeding, on account of the dangers of the road, his servant and +myself set out early in the morning. In three quarters of an hour we +reached the village of Medjel, inhabited by Druses, with four or five +Christian families. The Druses who inhahit the country near Damascus are +very punctual in observing the rites of the Mohammedan religion, and +fast, or at least pretend to do so, during the Ramadan. In their own +country, some profess Christianity, others Mohammedism. The chief, the +Emir Beshir, keeps a Latin confessor in his house; yet all of them, when +they visit Damascus, go to the mosque. Medjel is situated on a small +plain high up in the mountain; half an hour further on is a spring; and +at one hour and a quarter beyond, is a spacious plain. The mountain here +is in most places capable of cultivation. In one hour more we reached +the top. The oak tree is very frequent here as well as the bear's plum +[Arabic] (Khoukh eddeb), the berries of which afford a very refreshing +nourishment to the traveller. The rock is partly calcareous, and partly +of a porous tufa, but softer than that which I saw in the Houle. At one +hour and a quarter farther is the Beit el Djanne (the House of +Paradise), in a narrow Wady, at a + +REITIMA. + +[p.46]spot where the valley widens a little. On its western side are +several sepulchral caves hewn in the chalky rock. Another quarter of an +hour brought us to the Ain Beit el Djanne, a copious spring, with a mill +near it; and from thence, in half an hour, we reached the plain on the +eastern side of the mountain. Our route now lay N.E. by E.; to the right +was the open country adjoining the Haouran, to the left the chain of the +Heish, at the foot of which we continued to travel for the remainder of +the day. The villages on the eastern declivity of the Heish, between +Beit el Djanne and Kferhauar are, Hyna, Um Esshara, Dourboul, Oerna, and +Kalaat el Djendel. + +At three hours and a half from the point where the Wady Beit el Djanne +terminates in the plain is the village Kferhauar. Before we entered it I +saw to the left of the road a tomb which attracted my attention by its +size. I was told that it was the Kaber Nimroud (the tomb of Nimrod); it +consists of a heap of stones about twenty feet in length, two feet high, +and three feet broad, with a large stone at both extremities, similar to +the tombs in Turkish cemeteries. This is probably the Kalat Nimroud laid +down in maps, to the south of Damascus; at least I never heard of any +Kalaat Nimroud in that direction. + +To the right of our road, one hour and a half from Kferhauar, lay Sasa, +and near it Ghaptata. Half an hour farther from Kferhauar we alighted at +the village Beitima. On a slight eminence near Kferhauar stands a small +tower, and there is another of the same size behind Beitima. The +principal article of culture here is cotton: the crop was just ripe, and +the inhabitants were occupied in collecting it. There are Druses at +Kferhauar as well as at Beitima; at the latter village I passed an +uncomfortable rainy night, in the court-yard of a Felah's house. + +October 17th.--We continued to follow the Djebel Heish (which + +DJOUN. + +[p.47]however takes a more northern direction than the Damascus road +for four hours, when we came to Katana, a considerable village, with +good houses, and spacious gardens; the river, whose source is close to +the village, empties itself into the Merj of Damascus. + +Three hours from Katana, passing over the district called Ard el Lauan, +we came to Kfersousa. Beyond Katana begins the Djebel el Djoushe, which +continues as far as the Djebel Salehie, near Damascus, uniting, on its +western side, the lower ridge of mountains of the Djebel Essheikh. +Kfersousa lies just within the limits of the gardens of the Merdj of +Damascus. In one hour beyond it I re-entered Damascus, greatly fatigued, +having suffered great pain. + +After returning to Damascus from my tour in the Haouran, I was desirous +to see the ruins of Rahle and Bourkoush, in the Djebel Essheikh, which I +had heard mentioned by several people of Rasheya during my stay at +Shohba. On the 12th of December, I took a man with me, and rode to +Katana, by a route different from that through the Ard el Lauan, by +which I travelled from Katana to Damascus in October. It passes in a +more southerly direction through the villages of Deir raye [Arabic], one +hour beyond Bonabet Ullah; and another hour Djedeide; one hour and a +quarter from Djedeide is Artous [Arabic], in which are many Druse +families; in an hour from Artous we reached Katana. This is a very +pleasant road, through well cultivated fields and groves. I here saw +nurseries of apricot trees, which are transplanted into the gardens at +Damascus. To the south of Artous three quarters of an hour, is the +village of Kankab, situated upon a hill; below it is the village of +Djoun, opposite to which, + +RAHLE + +[p.48]and near the village Sahnaya, lies the Megarat Mar Polous, or St. +Paul's cavern, where the Apostle is related to have hidden himself from +the pursuit of his enemies at Damascus. The monks of Terra Santa, who +have a convent at Damascus, had formerly a chapel at Sahnaya, where one +of their fraternity resided; but the Roman Catholic Christians of the +village having become followers of the Greek church, the former +abandoned their establishment. To the N.E. of Djedeide, and half an hour +from it, is the village Maddharnie. + +Katana is one of the chief villages in the neighbourhood of Damascus; it +contains about one hundred and eighty Turkish families, and four or five +of Christians. The Sheikh, to whom the village belongs, is of a very +rich Damascus family, a descendant of a Santon, whose tomb is shewn in +the mosque of the village. Adjoining to the tomb is a hole in the rocky +ground, over which an apartment has been built for the reception of +maniacs; they are put down into the hole, and a stone is placed over its +mouth; here they remain for three or four days, after which, as the +Turks pretend, they regain their senses. The Christians say that the +Santon was a Patriarch of Damascus, who left his flock, and turned +hermit, and that he gained great reputation amongst the Turks, because +whenever he prostrated himself before the Deity, his sheep imitated his +example. Katana has a bath, and near it the Sheikh has a good house. The +villagers cultivate mulberry trees to feed their silk worms, and some +cotton, besides corn. The day after my arrival I engaged two men to shew +me the way to the ruins. We began to cross the lower branches of the +Djebel Essheikh, at the foot of which Katana is situated, and after an +hour and a quarter came to Bir Karme, likewise called El Redhouan, a +spring in a narrow valley. We rode over mountainous ground in the road +to Rasheya, passed another well of + +CASTLE OF BOURKUSH. + +[p.49]spring water, and at the end of four hours reached Rahle, a +miserable Druse village, half an hour to the right of the road from +Katana to Rasheia. The ruins are to the north of the village, in the +narrow valley of Rahle, and consist principally of a ruined temple, +built of large square stones, of the same calcareous rock used in the +buildings of Baalbec: little else remains than the foundations, which +are twenty paces in breadth, and thirty in length; within the area of +the temple are the foundations of a circular building. Many fragments of +columns are lying about, and a few extremely well formed capitals of the +Ionic order. Upon two larger stones lying near the gate, which probably +formed the architrave, is the figure of a bird with expanded wings, not +inferior in execution to the bird over the architrave of the great +temple at Baalbec; its head is broken off; in its claws is something of +the annexed form, bearing no resemblance to the usual figure of the +thunderbolt. On the exterior, wall, on the south side of the temple, is +a large head, apparently of a female, three feet and a half high, and +two feet and a half broad, sculptured upon one of the large square +stones which form the wall: its features are perfectly regular, and are +enclosed by locks of hair, terminating in thin tresses under the chin. +This head seems never to have belonged to a whole length figure, as the +stone on which it is sculptured touches the ground. Near the ruins is a +deep well. A few hundred paces to the south, upon an eminence, are the +ruins of another edifice, of which there remain the foundations of the +walls, and a great quantity of broken columns of small size. Around +these edifices are the remains of numerous private habitations; a short +column is found standing in most of them, in the centre of the +foundations of the building. In the neighbouring rocks about a dozen +small cells are excavated, in some of which are cavities for bodies. I +found no inscriptions. + +KATANA. + +[p.50]S.W. from Rahle, one hour and a half, are the ruins of the castle +of Bourkush [Arabic]. We passed the spring called Ain Ward (the rose +spring), near a plain in the midst of the mountains called Merdj +Bourkush. The ruins stand upon a mountain, which appeared to me to be +one of the highest of the lower chain of the Djebel Essherk. At the foot +of the steep ascent leading up to the castle, on the N.W. side, is a +copious spring, and another to the W. midway in the ascent. These ruins +consist of the outer walls of the castle, built with large stones, some +of which are eight feet long, and five broad. A part only of the walls +are standing. In the interior are several apartments which have more the +appearance of dungeons than of habitations. The rock, upon which the +whole structure is erected, has been levelled so as to form an area +within, round which ran a wall; a part of this wall is formed by the +solid rock, upwards of eight feet high, and as many broad, the rock +having been cut down on both sides. + +To the E. of this castle are the ruins of a temple built much in the +same style as that of Rahle, but of somewhat smaller dimensions, and +constructed of smaller stones. The architrave of the door is supported +by two Corinthian pilasters. A few Druse families reside at Bourkush, +who cultivate the plain below. On the S.E. side of the ascent to the +castle are small caverns cut in the rock. From this point Katana bore +S.E. + +We returned from Bourkush to Katana by Ain Embery, a rivulet whose +source is hard by in the Wady, with some ruined habitations near it. The +distance from Bourkush to Katana is two hours and a half brisk walking +of a horse. The summit of the mountain was covered with snow. I heard of +several other ruins, but had no time to visit them. There are several +villages of Enzairie in the mountain. On the third day from my departure +I returned to Damascus. + +[p.51]JOURNAL + +OF AN + +EXCURSION INTO THE HAOURAN + +IN THE AUTUMN AND WINTER OF 1810. + +November 8th.--On returning from the preceding tour, I was detained at +Damascus for more than a fortnight by indisposition. As soon as I had +recovered my health I began to prepare for a journey into the plain of +the Haouran, and the mountains of the Druses of the Haouran, a country +which, as well from the reports of natives, as from what I heard that +Mr. Seetzen had said of it, on his return from visiting a part of it +four years ago, I had reason to think was in many respects highly +interesting. I requested of the Pasha the favour of a Bouyourdi, or +general passport to his officers in the Haouran, which he readily +granted, and on receiving it I found that I was recommended in very +strong terms. Knowing that there were many Christians, chiefly of the +Greek church, I thought it might be equally useful to procure from the +Greek Patriarch of Damascus, with whom I was well acquainted, a letter +to his flock in the Haouran. On communicating my wishes, he caused a +circular letter to be written to all the priest, which I found of +greater + +DEPARTURE FROM DAMASCUS. + +[p.52]weight among the Greeks than the Bouyourdi was among the Turks. + +Being thus furnished with what I considered most necessary, I assumed +the dress of the Haouran people, with a Keffie, and a large sheep-skin +over my shoulders: in my saddle bag I put one spare shirt, one pound of +coffee beans, two pounds of tobacco, and a day's provender of barley for +my horse. I then joined a few Felahs of Ezra, of one of whom I hired an +ass, though I had nothing to load it with but my small saddle-bag; but I +knew this to be the best method of recommending myself to the protection +of my fellow travellers; as the owner of the ass necessarily becomes the +companion and protector of him who hires it. Had I offered to pay him +before setting out merely for his company on the way, he would have +asked triple the sum I gave him, without my deriving the smallest +advantage from this increase, while he would have considered my conduct +as extraordinary and suspicious. In my girdle I had eighty piastres, +(about £4. sterling) and a few more in my pocket, together with a watch, +a compass, a journal book, a pencil, a knife, and a tobacco purse. The +coffee I knew would be very acceptable in the houses where I might +alight; and throughout the journey I was enabled to treat all the +company present with coffee. + +My companions intending to leave Damascus very early the next morning, I +quitted my lodgings in the evening, and went with them to sleep in a +small Khan in the suburb of Damascus, at which the Haouaerne, or people +of Haouran, generally alight. + +November 9th.--We departed through this gate of the Meidhan, three hours +before sun-rise, and took the road by which the Hadj annually commences +its laborious journey; this gate is called Bab Ullah, the Gate of God, +but might, with more propriety be named Bab-el-Maut, the Gate of Death; +for scarcely a third ever + +KESSOUE. + +[p.53]returns of those whom a devout adherence to their religion, or the +hope of gain impel to this journey. The approach to Damascus on this +side is very grand: being formed by a road above one hundred and fifty +paces broad, which is bordered on each side by a grove of olive trees, +and continues in a straight line for upwards of an hour. A quarter of an +hour from Bab Ullah, to the left, stands a mosque with a Kiosk, called +Kubbet el Hadj, where the Pasha who conducts the Hadj passes the first +night of his journey, which is invariably the fifteenth of the month +Shauwal. On the other side of the road, and opposite to it, lies the +village El Kadem (the foot), where Mohammed is said to have stopped, +without entering Damascus, when coming from Mekka. Half an hour farther +is a bridge over a small rivulet: to the left are the villages Zebeine +and Zebeinat; to the right the village Deir raye. In another half hour +we came to a slight ascent, called Mefakhar; at its foot is a bridge +over the rivulet El Berde; to the right is the village El Sherafie: to +the left, parallel with the road, extends a stony district called War- +ed-djamous [Arabic] the Buffaloes War, War being an appellation given to +all stony soils whether upon plains or mountains. Here the ground is +very uneven; in traversing it we passed the Megharat el Haramie [Arabic] +or Thief's Cavern, the nightly refuge of disorderly persons. On the +other side of the War is a descent called Ard Shoket el Haik, which +leads into the plain, and in half an hour to the village El Kessoue; +distant from Damascus three hours and a quarter in a S.S.E. direction. +El Kessoue is a considerable village, situated on the river Aawadj +[Arabic], or the crooked, which flows from the neighbourhood of Hasbeya, +and waters the plain of Djolan; in front of the village a well paved +bridge crosses the river, on each side of which, to the W. and E. +appears a chain of low mountains; those to the east are called Djebel +Manai [Arabic], and contain large caverns; the + +GHABARIB. + +[p.54]summits of the two chains nearest the village are called by a +collective name Mettall el Kessoue [Arabic]. I stopped for half an hour +at Kessoue, at a coffee house by the road side. The village has a small +castle, or fortified building, over the bridge. + +From Kessoue a slight ascent leads up to a vast plain, called Ard +Khiara, from a village named Khiara. In three quarters of an hour from +Kessoue we reached Khan Danoun, a ruined building. Here, or at Kessoue, +the pilgrim caravan passes the second night. Near Khan Danoun, a rivulet +flows to the left. This Khan, which is now in ruins, was built in the +usual style of all the large Khans in this country: consisting of an +open square, surrounded with arcades, beneath which are small apartments +for the accommodation of travellers; the beasts occupy the open square +in the centre. From Khan Danoun the road continues over the plain, where +few cultivated spots appear, for two hours and a quarter; we then +reached a Tel, or high hill, the highest summit of the Djebel Khiara, a +low mountain chain which commences here, and runs in a direction +parallel with the Djebel Manai for about twenty miles. The mountains +Khiara and Manai are sometimes comprised under the name of Djebel +Kessoue, and so I find them laid down in D'Anville's map. The summit of +Djebel Khiara is called Soubbet Faraoun. From thence begins a stony +district, which extends to the village Ghabarib [Arabic], one hour and a +quarter from the Soubbet. Upon a hill to the W. of the road, stands a +small building crowned with a cupola, to which the Turks resort, from a +persuasion that the prayers there offered up are peculiarly acceptable +to the deity. This building is called Meziar Eliasha [Arabic], or the +Meziar of Elisha. The Hadj route has been paved in several places for +the distance of a hundred yards or more, in order to facilitate the +passage of the pilgrims in years when the Hadj takes place during the +rainy season. + +SZANAMEIN. + +[p.55]Ghabarib has a ruined castle, and on the side of the road is a +Birket or reservoir, with a copious spring. These cisterns are met with +at every station on the Hadj route as far as Mekka; some of them are +filled by rain water; others by small streams, which if they were not +thus collected into one body would be absorbed in the earth, and could +not possibly afford water for the thousands of camels which pass, nor +for the filling of the water-skins. + +At one hour beyond Ghabarib is the village Didy, to the left of the +road: one hour from Didy, Es-szanamein [Arabic], the Two Idols; the +bearing of the road from Kessoue is S.b.E.[The variation of the compass +is not computed in any of the bearings of this journal.] Szanamein is a +considerable village, with several ancientbuildings and towers; but as +my companions were unwilling to stop, I could not examine them closely. +I expected to revisit them on my return to Damascus, but I subsequently +preferred taking the route of the Loehf. I was informed afterwards that +many Greek inscriptions are to be found at Szanamein. + +From Szanamein the Hadj route continues in the same direction as before +to Tafar and Mezerib; we left it and took a route more easterly. That +which we had hitherto travelled being the high road from the Haouran to +Damascus, is perfectly secure, and we met with numerous parties of +peasants going to and from the city; + +but we had scarcely passed Szanamein when we were apprised by some +Felahs that a troop of Arabs Serdie had been for several days past +plundering the passengers and villages in the neighbourhood. Afraid of +being surprised, my companions halted and sewed their purses up in a +camel's pack saddle; I followed their example. I was informed that these +flying parties of Arabs very rarely drive away the cattle of the Haouran +people, but are satisfied with stripping them of cash, or any new piece +of dress + +EZRA. + +[p.56]which they may have purchased at Damascus, always however giving +them a piece of old clothing of the same kind in return. The country +from Szanamein to one hour's distance along our road is stony, and is +thence called War Szanamein. After passing it, we met some other Haouran +people, whose reports concerning the Arabs so terrified my companions, +that they resolved to give up their intention of reaching Ezra the same +day, and proceeded to seek shelter in a neighbouring village, there to +wait for fresh news. We turned off a little to our left, and alighted at +a village called Tebne [Arabic], distant one hour and a half from +Szanamein. We left our beasts in the court-yard of our host's house, and +went to sup with the Sheikh, a Druse, at whose house strangers are +freely admitted to partake of a plate of Burgoul. Tebne stands upon a +low hill, on the limits of the stony district called the Ledja, of which +I shall have occasion to speak hereafter. The village has no water but +what it derives from its cisterns, which were at this time nearly dry. +It consists wholly of ancient habitations, built of stone, of a kind +which I shall describe in speaking of Ezra. + +November 10th.--We quitted Tebne early in the morning, and passing the +villages Medjidel [Arabic], Mehadjer [Arabic], Shekara [Arabic], and +Keratha [Arabic], all on the left of the route, arrived, at the end of +three hours and a quarter, at Ezra [Arabic]. Here commences the plain of +the Haouran, which is interrupted by numerous insulated hills, on the +declivities, or at the foot of which, most of the villages of the +Haouran are seated. From Tebne the soil begins to be better cultivated, +yet many parts of it are overgrown with weeds. On a hill opposite +Manhadje, on the west side of the road, stands a Turkish Meziar, called +Mekdad. In approaching Ezra we met a troop of about eighty of the +Pasha's cavalry; they had, the preceding night, surprised the above- +mentioned + +[p.57]party of Arabs Serdie in the village of Walgha, and had killed +Aerar, their chief, and six others, whose heads they were carrying with +them in a sack. They had also taken thirty-one mares, of which the +greater number were of the best Arabian breeds. Afraid of being pursued +by the friends of the slain they were hastening back to Damascus, where, +as I afterwards heard, the Pasha presented them with the captured mares, +and distributed eight purses, or about £200. amongst them. + +On reaching Ezra I went to the house of the Greek priest of the village, +whom I had already seen at the Patriarch's at Damascus, and with whom I +had partly concerted my tour in the Haouran. He had been the conductor +of M. Seetzen, and seemed to be very ready to attend me also, for a +trifling daily allowance, which he stipulated. Ezra is one of the +principal villages of the Haouran; it contains about one hundred and +fifty Turkish and Druse families, and about fifty of Greek Christians. +It lies within the precincts of the Ledja, at half an hour from the +arable ground: it has no spring water, but numerous cisterns. Its +inhabitants make cotton stuffs, and a great number of millstones, the +blocks for forming which, are brought from the interior of the Ledja; +the stones are exported from hence, as well as from other villages in +the Loehf, over the greater part of Syria, as far as Aleppo and +Jerusalem. They vary in price, according to their size, from fifteen to +sixty piastres, and are preferred to all others on account of the +hardness of the stone, which is the black tufa rock spread over the +whole of the Haouran, and the only species met with in this country. + +Ezra was once a flourishing city; its ruins are between three and four +miles in circumference. The present inhabitants continue to live in the +ancient buildings, which, in consequence of the strength and solidity of +their walls, are for the greater part in complete preservation + +[p.58]They are built of stone, as are all the houses of the villages in +the Haouran and Djebel Haouran from Ghabarib to Boszra, as well as of +those in the desert beyond the latter. In general each dwelling has a +small entrance leading into a court-yard, round which are the +apartments; of these the doors are usually very low. The interior of the +rooms is constructed of large square stones; across the centre is a +single arch, generally between two and three feet in breadth, which +supports the roof; this arch springs from very low pilasters on each +side of the room, and in some instances rises immediately from the +floor: upon the arch is laid the roof, consisting of stone slabs one +foot broad, two inches thick, and about half the length of the room, one +end resting upon short projecting stones in the walls, and the other +upon the top of the arch. The slabs are in general laid close to each +other; but in some houses I observed that the roof was formed of two +layers, the one next the arch having small intervals between each slab, +and a second layer of similar dimensions was laid close together at +right angles with the first. The rooms are seldom higher than nine or +ten feet, and have no other opening than a low door, with sometimes a +small window over it. In many places I saw two or three of these arched +chambers one above the other, forming so many stories. This substantial +mode of building prevails also in most of the ancient public edifices +remaining in the Haouran, except that in the latter the arch, instead of +springing from the walls or floor, rests upon two short columns. During +the whole of my tour, I saw but one or two arches, whose curve was +lofty; the generality of them, including those in the public buildings, +are oppressively low. To complete the durability of these structures, +most of the doors were anciently of stone, and of these many are still +remaining; sometimes they are of one piece and sometimes they are +folding doors; they turn upon hinges worked out of the stone, and are +about four [p.59]inches thick, and seldom higher than about four feet, +though I met with some upwards of nine feet in height. + +I remained at Ezra, in the priest's house, this and the following day, +occupied in examining the antiquities of the village. The most +considerable ruins stand to the S.E. of the present habitations; but few +of the buildings on that side have resisted the destructive hand of +time. The walls, however, of most of them yet remain, and there are the +remains of a range of houses which, to judge from their size and +solidity, seem to have been palaces. The Ezra people have given them the +appellation of Seraye Malek el Aszfar, or the Palace of the Yellow King, +a term given over all Syria, as I have observed in another place, to the +Emperor of Russia. The aspect of these ruins, and of the surrounding +rocky country of the Ledja, is far from being pleasing: the Ledja +presents a level tract covered with heaps of black stones, and small +irregular shaped rocks, without a single agreeable object for the eye to +repose upon. On the west and north sides of the village are several +public edifices, temples, churches, &c. The church of St. Elias +[Arabic], in which the Greeks celebrate divine service, is a round +building, of which the roof is fallen in, and only the outer wall +standing. On its S. side is a vestibule supported by three arches, the +entrance to which is through a short arched dark passage. Over the +entrance is the following inscription: + +[Greek] + +Over a small side gate I observed the following words: + +[Greek] + +[p.60] On the arch of the entrance alley, + +[Greek] + +On the outer wall, on the north side of the rotunda; + +[Greek] + +On the south side of the village stands an edifice, dedicated to St. +Georgius, or El Khouder [Arabic], as the Mohammedans, and sometimes the +Christians, call that Saint. It is a square building of about eighty- +five feet the side, with a semicircular projection on the E. side; the +roof is vaulted, and is supported by eight square columns, which stand +in a circle in the centre of the square, and are united to one another +by arches. They are about two feet thick, and sixteen high, with a +single groove on each side. Between the columns and the nearest part of +the wall is a space of twelve feet. The niche on the east side contains +the altar. The vaulted roof is of modern construction. The building had +two entrances; of which the southern is entirely walled up; the western +also is closed at the top, leaving a space below for a stone door of six +feet high, over which is a broad stone with the following inscription +upon it: + +[Greek] + +[p.61] [Greek] [A.D. 410. This was the third year of the Emperor +Theodosius the younger, in whose reign the final decrees were issued +against the Pagan worship. It appears from the inscription that the +building upon which it is written was an ancient temple, converted into +a church of St. George. Editor.] + +Before the temple is a small paved yard, now used as the exclusive +burial ground of the Greek priests of Ezra. + +In the midst of the present inhabited part of the village stand the +ruins of another large edifice; it was formerly applied to Christian +worship, and subsequently converted into a mosque: but it has long since +been abandoned. It consists of a quadrangle, with two vaulted colonnades +at the northern and southern ends, each consisting of a double row of +five columns. In the middle of the area stood a parallel double range of +columns of a larger size, forming a colonnade across the middle of the +building; the columns are of the Doric order, and about sixteen feet +high. The side arcades are still standing to half their height; those of +the middle area are lying about in fragments; the E. and W. walls of the +building are also in ruins. Over the entrance gate are three inscribed +tablets, only one of which, built upside down in the wall, is legible; +it is as follows: + +[Greek] + +Over an inner gate I saw an inscription, much defaced, which seemed to +be in Syrian characters. + +Adjoining this building stands a square tower, about fifty feet high; +its base is somewhat broader than its top. I frequently saw + +[p.62]similar structures in the Druse villages; and in Szannamein are +two of the same form as the above: they all have windows near the +summit; in some, there is one window on each side, in others there are +two, as in this at Ezra. They have generally several stories of vaulted +chambers, with a staircase to ascend into them. + +To the E. of the village is the gateway of another public building, the +interior of which has been converted into private dwellings; this +building is in a better style than those above described, and has some +trifling sculptured ornaments on its gate. On the wall on the right side +of the gate is this inscription. + +[Greek] + +There are many private habitations, principally at the S. end of the +town, with inscriptions over the doors; most of which are illegible. The +following I found in different parts of the village, on stones lying on +the ground, or built into the walls of houses. + +Over the entrance of a sepulchral apartment, + +[Greek] + +[p.63]I observed a great difference in the characters in which all the +above inscriptions were engraved. That of S. Georgius is the best +written. + +In the evening I went to water my horse with the priest's cattle at the +spring of Geratha, one hour distant from Ezra, N. by E. I met there a +number of shepherds with theyr flocks; the rule is, that the first who +arrives at the well, waters his cattle before the others; several were +therefore obliged to wait till after sunset. There are always some stone +basins round the wells, out of which the camels drink, the water being +drawn up by leathern buckets, and poured into them: disputes frequent1y +happen on these occasions. The well has a broad staircase leading down +to it; just by it lies a stone with an inscription, of which I could +make out only the following letters + +[Greek] + +This well is called Rauad. + +November 12th.--I left Ezra with the Greek priest, to visit the villages +towards the mountain of the Haouran. I had agreed to pay him by the day, +but I soon had reason to repent of this arrangement. In order to +protract my journey, and augment the number of days, + +KERATHA. + +[p.64]he loaded his horse with all his church furniture, and at almost +every village where we alighted he fitted up a room, and said mass; I +was, in consequence, seldom able to leave my night's quarters before +mid-day, and as the days were now short our day's journey was not more +than four or five hours. His description of me to the natives varied +with circumstances; sometimes I was a Greek lay brother, sent to him by +the Patriarch, a deception which could not be detected by my dress, as +the priesthood is not distinguished by any particular dress, unless it +be the blue turban, which they generally wear; sometimes he described me +as a physician who was in search of herbs; and occasionally he owned +that my real object was to examine the country. Our road lay S.E. upon +the borders of the stony district called Ledja; and at the end of two +hours we passed the village of Bousser [Arabic] on our left, which is +principally inhabited by Druses; it lies in the War, and contains the +Turkish place of pilgrimage, called Meziar Eliashaa. Near it, to the S. +is the small village Kherbet Hariri. In one hour we passed Baara, a +village under the control of the Sheikh of Ezra; and at half an hour +farther to our right, the village Eddour [Arabic]. The Wady Kanouat, a +torrent which takes its rise in the mountain, passes Baara, where it +turns several mills in the winter season; towards the end of May it is +generally dried up. At one hour from Baara is the Ain Keratha, or +Geratha, according to Bedouin and Haouran pronunciation [Arabic]. At the +foot of a hill in the War are several wells; this hill is covered with +the ruins of the ancient city of Keratha, of which the foundations only +remain: there had been such a scarcity of water this year, that the +people of Bousser were obliged to fetch it from these wells. A quarter +of an hour E. of them is the village Nedjran [Arabic], in the Ledja, in +which are several ancient buildings inhabited by Druses. In the Ledja, +in the neighbourhood of Keratha, + +MEDJEL. + +[p.65]are many spots of arable ground. Upon a low hill, in our route, at +an hour and a quarter from the Ain or well, is Deir el Khouat [Arabic], +i.e. the Brothers' Monastery, a heap of ruins. From thence we travelled +to the south-eastward for three quarters of an hour, to the village +Sedjen [Arabic], where we alighted, at the house of the only Christian +family remaining among the Druses of the place. Sedjen is built, like +all these ancient towns, entirely of the black stone peculiar to these +mountains. + +November 13th.--We left Sedjen about noon; and in half an hour came to +the spring Mezra [Arabic], the water of which is conducted near to +Sedjen by an ancient canal, which empties itself in the summer time into +a large pond; in the winter the stream is joined by a number of small +torrents, which descend from the Djebel Haouran between Kanouat and +Soueida; it empties itself farther to the west into the Wady Kanouat. +Above the spring is a ruined castle, and near it several other large +buildings, of which the walls only are standing; the castle was most +probably built to protect the water. There is a tradition that Tamerlane +filled up the well; and a similar story is repeated in many parts of the +Haouran: it is said that he threw quick-silver into the springs, which +prevented the water from rising to the surface; and that the water +collecting under ground from several sources near Mezerib, at length +burst forth, and formed the copious spring at that place, called Bushe. +From Mezra to Medjel we travelled E.N.E. one hour. It rained the whole +day. On arriving at Medjel I alighted to copy some inscriptions, when +the Druse Sheikh immediately sent for me, to know what I was about. It +is a general opinion with these people that inscriptions indicate hidden +treasure; and that by reading or copying them a knowledge is obtained +where the treasure lies. I often combated this opinion with success, by +simply asking them, + +[p.66]whether, if they chose to hide their money under ground, they +would be so imprudent as to inform strangers where it lay? The opinion, +however, is too strongly rooted in the minds of many of the country +people, to yield to argument; and this was the case with the Sheikh of +Medjel. Having asked me very rudely what business I had, I presented to +him the Pasha's Bouyourdi; but of twenty people present no one could +read it; and when I had read it to them, they refused to believe that it +was genuine. While coffee was roasting I left the room, finished copying +some inscriptions, and rode off in a torrent of rain. On the left side +of a vaulted gate-way leading into a room in which are three receptacles +for the dead is this inscription: + +[Greek]. + +And opposite to it, on the right side of the gate-way, in large +characters, + +[Greek] + +Over the eastern church, or mosque gate, + +[Greek] + +KAFER EL LOEHHA. + +[p.67]On the northern church gate, + +[Greek]. + +On two stones built into the wall of a house on the side of the road, +beyond the village, + +[Greek] + + +There are two other buildings in the town, which I suppose to have been +sepulchral. In one of them is a long inscription, but the rain had made +it illegible. We rode on for three quarters of an hour farther to the +village Kafer el Loehha [Arabic], situated in the Wady Kanouat, on the +borders of the Ledja. I here passed a comfortable evening, in the +company of some Druses, who conversed freely with me, on their relations +with their own Sheikhs, and with the surrounding Arabs. + +November 14th.--The principal building of Kafer el Loehha is + +RIMA EL LOEHF. + +[p.68]a church, whose roof is supported by three arches, which, like +those in the private dwellings, spring from the floor of the building. +Upon a stone lying near it I read [Greek]. Not far from the church, on +its west side, is another large edifice, with a rotunda, and a paved +terrace before it. Over the gateway, which is half buried, is the +following inscription: + +[Greek] + +From Kafer el Loehha we rode N. forty minutes, to a village called Rima +el Loehf, [Arabic] inhabited by only three or four Druse families. At +the entrance of the village stands a building eight feet square and +about twenty feet high, with a flat roof, and three receptacles for the +dead; it has no windows; at its four corners are pilasters. Over the +door is this inscription: + +[Greek] + +The walls of this apartment are hollow, as appears by several + +DOUBBA. + +[p.69] holes which have been made in them, in search of hidden treasure. +Beneath it is a subterraneous apartment, in which is a double row of +receptacles for the dead, three in each row, one above the other; each +receptacle is two feet high, and five feet and a half long. The door is +so low as hardly to allow a person to creep in. + +I copied the following from a stone in an adjoining wall: + +[Greek] + +This village has two Birkets, or reservoirs for water, which are filled +in winter time by a branch of the Wady Kanouat; they were completely +dried up this summer, a circumstance which rarely happens. Near both the +Birkets are remains of strong walls. Upon an insulated hill three +quarters of an hour S.E. from Rima, is Deir el Leben [Aarabic], i.e. +Monastery of Milk; Rima is on the limits of the Ledja; Deir in the plain +between it and the mountain Haouran. The Deir consists of the ruins of a +square building seventy paces long, with small cells, each of which has +a door; it contained also several larger apartments, of which the arches +only remain. The roof of the whole building has fallen in. Over the door +of one of the cells I read the following inscription: + +[Greek] [Hence it appears that Rima has preserved its ancient name. Ed.] + +Half an hour E. of Deir el Leben lies a ruined, uninhabited village upon +a Tel, called Doubba [Arabic] it has a Birket and a + +SHOHBA. + +[p.70]spring. To the N.E. of it is the inhabited Druse village Bereike +[Arabic]. We advanced half an hour E. to the village Mourdouk [Arabic] +on the declivity of the Djebel Haouran; it has a spring, from whence the +Druses of Rima and Bereike obtain their daily supply of water. From the +spring we proceeded to the eastward on the side of the mountain. At our +feet extended the Ledja from between N.E.b.N. where it terminates, near +Tel Beidhan, to N.W. by N. its furthest western point, on the Haouran +side. Between the mountain and the Ledja is an intermediate plain of +about one hour in breadth, and for the greater part uncultivated. Before +us lay three insulated hills, called Tel Shiehhan, Tel Esszoub, which is +the highest, and Tel Shohba; they are distant from each other half an +hour, the second in the middle. One hour and a half to the S.E. of Tel +Shohba is one of the projecting summits of the mountain called Tel Abou +Tomeir. + +From Mourdouk our road lay for an hour and a half over stony ground, to +Shohba [Arabic] the seat of the principal Druse Sheikhs, and containing +also some Turkish and Christian families. It lies near the foot of Tel +Shohba, between the latter and the mountain; it was formerly one of the +chief cities in these districts, as is attested by its remaining town +walls, and the loftiness of its public edifices. The walls may be traced +all round the city, and are perfect in many places; there are eight +gates, with a paved causeway leading from each into the town. Each gate +is formed of two arches, with a post in the centre. The eastern gate +seems to have been the principal one, and the street into which it opens +leads in a straight line through the town; like the other streets facing +the gates, it is paved with oblong flat stones, laid obliquely across it +with great regularity. Following this street through a heap of ruined +habitations on each side of it, where are many fragments of columns, I +came to a place where four massy cubical structures + +[p.71]formed a sort of square, through which the street runs; they are +built with square stones, are twelve feet long by nine high, and, as +appears by one of them, which is partly broken down, are quite solid, +the centre being filled up with stones. Farther on to the right, upon a +terrace, stand five Corinthian columns, two feet and a quarter in +diameter, all quite entire. After passing these columns I came to the +principal building in this part of the town; it is in the form of a +crescent, fronting towards the east, without any exterior ornaments, but +with several niches in the front. I did not venture to enter it, as I +had a bad opinion of its present possessor, the chief of Shohba, who +some years ago compelled M. Seetzen to turn back from hence towards +Soueida. I remained unknown to the Druses during my stay at Shohba. +Before the above mentioned building is a deep and large reservoir, lined +with small stones. To the right of it stands another large edifice of a +square shape, built of massy stones, with a spacious gate; its interior +consists of a double range of vaults, one above the other, of which the +lower one is choaked up as high as the capitals of the columns which +support the arches. I found the following inscription upon an arch in +the upper story: + +[Greek]. + +Beyond and to the left of this last mentioned building, in the same +street, is a vaulted passage with several niches on both sides of it, +and dark apartments, destined probably for the reception of the bodies +of the governors of the city. Farther on are the remaining walls of a +large building. Upon two stones, close to each other, and projecting +from the wall, I read the following inscriptions: + +[p.72] On the first, + +[Greek]. + +On the second, + +[Greek]. + +To the west of the five Corinthian columns stands a small building, +which has been converted into a mosque; it contains two columns about +ten inches in diameter, and eight feet in height, of the same kind of +fine grained gray granite, of which I had seen several columns at Banias +in the Syrian mountains. + +To the south of the crescent formed building, and its adjoining edifice, +stands the principal curiosity of Shohba, a theatre, in good +preservation. It is built on a sloping site, and the semicircle is +enclosed by a wall nearly ten feet in thickness, in which are nine +vaulted entrances into the interior. Between the wall and the seats runs +a double row of vaulted chambers one over the other. Of these the upper +chambers are boxes, opening towards the seats, and communicating behind +with a passage which separates them from the outer wall. The lower +chambers open into each other, those at the extremities of the semi- +circle excepted, which have openings towards the area of the theatre. +The entrance into the area is by three gates, one larger, with a smaller +on either side; + +[p.73] on each side of the two latter are niches for statues. The +diameter of the area, near the entrance, is thirty paces; the circle +round the upper row of seats is sixty-four paces; there are ten rows of +seats. Outside the principal entrance is a wall, running parallel with +it, close to which are several small apartments. + +To the S.E. of Shohba are the remains of an aqueduct, which conveyed +water into the town from a spring in the neighbouring mountain, now +filled up. About six arches are left, some of which are at least forty +feet in height. At the termination of this aqueduct, near the town, is a +spacious building divided into several apartments, of which that nearest +to the aqueduct is enclosed by a wall twelve feet thick, and about +twenty-five feet high; with a vaulted roof, which has fallen in. It has +two high vaulted entrances opposite to each other, with niches on each +side. In the walls are several channels from the roof to the floor, down +which the water from the aqueduct probably flowed. On one side of this +room is an entrance into a circular chamber fourteen feet in diameter; +and on the other is a similar apartment but of smaller dimensions, also +with channels in its walls; adjoining to this is a room without any +other opening than a very small door; its roof, which is still entire, +is formed of small stones cemented together with mortar; all the walls +are built of large square stones. The building seems evidently to have +been a bath. + +On a stone built in the wall over the door of a private dwelling in the +town, I copied the following: + +[Greek]. + +[p.74] + +SHAKKA. + +[Greek] [Legionis Decimæ Flavianae Fortis. Ed.] + +To the margin of the third line the following letters are annexed: + +[Greek]. + +The inhabitants of Shohba fabricate cotton cloth for shirts and gowns. +They grow cotton, but it is not reckoned of good quality. There are only +three Christian families in the village. There are three large Birkets +or wells, in two of which there was still some water. There is no spring +near. Most of the doors of the houses, are formed of a single slab of +stone, with stone hinges. + +November 15th.--Our way lay over the fertile and cultivated plain at the +foot of the Jebel Haouran, in a north-easterly direction. At a quarter +of an hour from the town we passed the Wady Nimri w-el Heif [Arabic], a +torrent coming from the mountain to the S.E. In the winter it furnishes +water to a great part of the Ledja, where it is collected in cisterns. +There is a great number of ruined mills higher up the Wady. Three or +four hours distant, we saw a high hill in the Djebel, called Um Zebeib +[Arabic]. Three quarters of an hour from Shohba we passed the village +Asalie [Arabic], inhabited by a few families; near it is a small Birket. +In one hour and three quarters we came to the village Shakka [Arabic]; +on its eastern side stands an insulated building, consisting of a tower +with two wings: it contains throughout a double row of arches and the +tower has two stories, each of which forms a single chamber, without any +opening but the door. Upon the capital of a column is: + +[Greek]. + +[p.75]Adjoining the village, on the eastern side, are the ruins of a +handsome edifice; it consists of an apartment fourteen paces square +opening into an arcade, which leads into another apartment similar to +the first. In the first, whose roof has fallen down, there are pedestals +for statues all round the walls. On one side are three dark apartments, +of which that in the centre is the largest; on the opposite side is a +niche. The entrance is towards the east. To the south of these ruins +stood another building, of which the front wall only is standing; upon a +stone, lying on the ground before the wall, and which was probably the +architrave of the door, I found the following inscription: + +[Greek]. + +Opposite to these ruins I copied the following from a stone built in the +wall of one of the private dwellings: + +[Greek] + +and this from a stone in the court-yard of a peasant's house: + +[Greek]. + +[p.76]On the north side of the village are the ruins also of what was +once an elegant structure; but nothing now remains except a part of the +front, and some arches in the interior. It is thirty paces in length, +with a flight of steps, of the whole length of the building, leading up +to it. The entrance is through a large door whose sides and architrave +are richly sculptured. On each side is a smaller door, between which and +the great door are two niches supported by Ionic pilasters, the whole +finely worked. Within are three aisles or rows of arches, of which the +central is much the largest; they rest upon short thick columns of the +worst taste. + +At some distance to the north of the village stands a small insulated +tower; over its entrance are three inscriptions, of which I copied the +two following; the third I was unable to read, as the sun was setting +before I had finished the others: + +1. [Greek]. + +[p.77] + +2. [Greek] + +EL HAIT + +There are several similar towers in the village, but without +inscriptions. + +The inhabitants of Shakka grow cotton; they are all Druses, except a +single Greek family. To the S.E. of the village is the spring Aebenni +[Arabic] with the ruined village Tefkha, about three quarters of an hour +distant from Shakka. E.b.N. from Shakka one hour lies Djeneine +[Arabic], the last inhabited village on this side towards the desert. Its +inhabitants are the shepherds of the people of El Hait. Half an hour to +the north of Djeneine is Tel-Maaz [Arabic], a hill on which is a ruined +village. This is the N.E. limit of the mountain, which here turns off +towards the S. behind Djeneine. At three quarters of an hour from +Shakka, N.N.W. is El Hait, inhabited entirely by Catholic Christians. +Here we slept. I copied the following inscriptions at El Hait: + +From a stone in one of the streets of the village: + +[Greek] + +From a stone over the door of a private dwelling: + +[Greek]. + +TEL SHOHBA. + +[p.78]Upon a stone in the wall of another house, I found the figure of a +quadruped rudely sculptured in relief. + +On the wall of a solid building are the two following inscriptions: + +[Greek] + +On the wall of another building: + +[Greek] + + +East of El Hait three quarters of an hour lies the village Heitt +[Arabic]. + +November 16th.--We returned from Hait, directing our route towards Tel +Shiehhan. In one hour we passed the village of Ammera. + +From Ammera our way lay direct towards Tel Shiehhan. The village Um +Ezzeitoun lay in the plain below, one hour distant, in the borders of +the Ledja. Upon the top of Tel Shiehhan is a Meziar. Tel Szomeit +[Arabic], a hill in the Ledja, was seen to the N.W. about three hours +distant; Tel Aahere [Arabic], also in the Ledja, to the west, about four +hours distant. The Tel Shiehhan is completely barren up to its top: near +its eastern foot we passed the Wady Nimri w-el Heif, close to a mill +which works in the winter + +SOUEIDA. + +[p.79]time. From hence we passed between the Tel Shiehhan and Tel Es- +Szoub; the ground is here covered with heaps of porous tufa and pumice +stone. The western side of the Tel Shohba seems to have been the crater +of a volcano, as well from the nature of the minerals which lie +collected on that side of the hill, as from the form of a part of the +hill itself, resembling a crater, while the neighbouring mountains have +rounded tops, without any sharp angles. + +We repassed Ain Mourdouk, and continued our way on the sloping side of +the mountain to Saleim, a village one hour from the spring; it has been +abandoned by its former inhabitants, and is now occupied only by a few +poor Druses, who take refuge in such deserted places to avoid the +oppressive taxes; and thus sometimes escape the Miri for one year. They +here grow a little tobacco. In the village is a deep Birket. At the +entrance of Saleim are the ruins of a handsome oblong building, with a +rich entablature: its area is almost entirely filled up by its own +ruins. Just by is a range of subterraneous vaults. The Wady Kanouat +passes near the village. The day was now far gone, and as my priest was +afraid of travelling by night, we quickened our pace, in order to reach +Soueida before dark. From Saleim the road lies through a wood of stunted +oaks, which continues till within one hour of Soueida. We had rode three +quarters of an hour when I was shewn, E. from our road, up in the +mountain, half an hour distant, the ruins of Aatin [Arabic], with a Wady +of the same name descending into the plain below. In the plain, to the +westward, upon a hillock one hour distant, was the village Rima el +Khalkhal, or Rima el Hezam [Arabic] (Hezam means girdle, and Khalkhal, +the silver or glass rings which the children wear round their ankles.) +Our road from Saleim lay S. by E. over a stony uncultivated ground, till +within one hour of Soueida, where the wood of oaks terminates, and the +fields begins, which extend up + +[p.80]the slope of the mountain for half an hour to the left of the +road. From Saleim to Soueida is a distance of two hours and three +quarters. + +Soueida is situated upon high ground, on a declivity of the Djebel +Haouran; the Kelb Haouran, or highest summit of the mountain, bearing +S.E. from it. It is considered as the first Druse village, and is the +residence of the chief Sheikh. To the north, and close to it, descends +the deep Wady Essoueida, coming from the mountain, where several other +Wadys unite with it; it is crossed by a strong well built bridge, and it +turns five or six mills near the village. Here, as in all their +villages, the Druses grow a great deal of cotton, and the cultivation of +tobacco is general all over the mountain. Soueida has no springs, but +there are in and near it several Birkets, one of which, in the village, +is more than three hundred paces in circuit, and at least thirty feet +deep: a staircase leads down to the bottom, and it is entirely lined +with squared stones. To the S. of the village is another of still larger +circumference, but not so deep, also lined with stone, called Birket el +Hadj, from the circumstance of its having, till within the last century, +been a watering place for the Hadj, which used to pass here. + +To the west of Soueida, on the other side of the Wady, stands a ruined +building, which the country people call Doubeise: it is a perfect square +of thirteen paces, with walls two feet thick, and ornamented on each +side with six Doric pilasters, sixteen spans high, and reaching to +within two feet of the roof, which has fallen down, and fills up the +interior. No door or opening of any kind is visible. On the wall between +the pilasters are some ornaments in bas-relief. + +On the N. wall is the following inscription, in handsome characters; + +[p.81] [Greek]. + +Soueida was formerly one of the largest cities of the Haouran; the +circuit of its ruins is at least four miles: amongst them is a street +running in a straight line, in which the houses on both sides are still +standing; I was twelve minutes in walking from one end to other. Like +the streets of modern cities in the East, this is so very narrow as to +allow space only for one person or beast to pass. On both sides is a +narrow pavement. The great variety seen in the the mode of construction +of the houses seems to prove that the town has been inhabited by people +of different nations. In several places, on both sides of the street, +are small arched open rooms, which I supposed to have been shops. The +street commences in the upper part of the town, at a large arched gate +built across it; descending from thence I came to an elegant building, +in the shape of a crescent, the whole of whose front forms a kind of +niche, within which are three smaller niches; round the flat roof is +written in large characters: + +[Greek]. + +On a stone lying upon the roof [Greek]. Continuing along the street I +entered, on the left, an edifice with four rows of arches, built with +very low pillars in the ugly style already described. + +Upon a stone, built upside down in one of the interior walls, was this; + +[Greek]. + +[p.82] [Greek] [The fourteenth Legion was surnamed Gemina. See several +inscriptions in Gruter. Ed.] + +At the lower end of the street is a tower about thirty feet high, and +eighteen square. + +Turning from the beginning of the street, to the south, I met with a +large building in ruins, with many broken pillars; it seems to have been +a church; and it is joined to another building which has the appearance +of having once been a monastery. In the paved area to the S. of it lies +a water trough, formed of a single stone, two feet and a half in +breadth, and seven feet in length, ornamented with four busts in relief, +whose heads have been knocked off. + +In a stony field about three hundred yards S. of the Sheikh's house, I +found engraved upon a rock: + +[Greek]. + +KANOUAT. + +[p.83]Round a pedestal, which now serves to support one of the columns +in the front of the Sheikh's house, is the following: [Greek]. On the +side of the pedestal is a figure of a bird with expanded wings, about +one foot high, and below it is a man's hand grasping at something. + +Near the Sheikh's house stands a colonnade of Corinthian columns, which +surrounded a building, now entirely in ruins, but which appears to have +been destined for sepulchres, as there are some small arched doors, +quite choaked up, leading to subterraneous apartments. + +November 17th.--We rode to the ruined city called Kanouat [Arabic], two +hours to the N.E. of Soueida; the road lying through a forest of stunted +oaks and Zarour trees, with a few cultivated fields among them. Kanouat +is situated upon a declivity, on the banks of the deep Wady Kanouat, +which flows through the midst of the town, and whose steep banks are +supported by walls in several places. To the S.W. of the town is a +copious spring. On approaching Kanouat from the side of Soueida, the +first object that struck my attention was a number of high columns, upon +a terrace, at some distance from the town; they enclosed an oblong +square fifteen paces in breadth, by twenty-nine in length. There were +originally six columns on one side, and seven on the other, including +the corner columns in both numbers; at present six only remain, and the +bases of two others; they are formed of six pieces of stone, and measure +from the top of the pedestal to the base of the capital twenty-six feet; +the height of the pedestal is five feet; the circumference of the column +six feet. The capitals are elegant, and well finished. On the northern +side was an + +[p.84]inner row of columns of somewhat smaller dimensions than the outer +row; of these one only is standing. Within the square of columns is a +row of subterraneous apartments. These ruins stand upon a terrace ten +feet high, on the N. side of which is a broad flight of steps. The +pedestals of all the columns had inscriptions upon them; but nothing can +now be clearly distinguished except [Greek] upon one of them. + +Two divisions of the town may be distinguished, the upper, or principal, +and the lower. The whole ground upon which the ruined habitations stand +is overgrown with oak trees, which hide the ruins. In the lower town, +over the door of an edifice which has some arches in its interior, and +which has been converted in modern times into a Greek church, is an +inscription, in which the words [Greek] only, were distinguishable. + +A street leads up to this building, paved with oblong flat stones placed +obliquely across the road in the same manner which I have described at +Shohba. Here are several other buildings with pillars and arches: the +principal of them has four small columns in front of the entrance and an +anti-room leading to an inner apartment, which is supported by five +arches. The door of the anti-room is of one stone, as usual in this +country, but it is distinguished by its sculptured ornaments. A stone in +this building, lying on the ground, is thus inscribed: [xxxxx]. + +[p.85]The principal building of Kanouat is in the upper part of the +town, on the banks of the Wady. The street leading up to it lies along +the deep bed of the Wady, and is paved throughout; on the side opposite +to the precipice are several small vaulted apartments with doors. The +entrance of the building is on the east side, through a wide door +covered with a profusion of sculptured ornaments. In front of this door +is a vestibule supported by five columns, whose capitals are of the +annexed form. This vestibule joins, towards the north, several other +apartments; their roofs, some of which were supported by pillars, have +now all fallen down. The abovementioned wide door opens into the +principal apartment of the edifice, which is twenty-two paces in breadth +by twenty-five in length. From each side of the entrance, through the +middle of the room, runs a row of seven pillars, like those described +above; at the further end, this colonnade is terminated by two +Corinthian columns. All the sixteen columns are twenty spans high, with +pedestals two feet and a half high. In the wall on the left side of this +saloon are three niches, supported by short pillars. To the west is +another vestibule, which was supported by five Corinthian columns, but +four of them only are now standing. This vestibule communicates through +an arched gate with an area, on the W. side of which are two Corinthian +pillars with projecting bases for statues. On the S. side of the area is +a large door, with a smaller one on each side. That in the centre is +covered with sculptured vines and grapes, and over the entrance is the +figure of the cross in the midst of a bunch of grapes. I observed +similar ornaments on the great gate at Shakka, and I have often seen +them since, over the entrances of public edifices. In the interior of +the area, on the E. side, is a niche sixteen feet deep, arched at the +bottom, with small vaulted rooms on both its sides, in which there is no +other opening than the low door. + +KANOUAT. + +[p.86]On the S. and W. sides, the building is enclosed by a large paved +area. + +At a short distance from thence is another building, whose entrance is +through a portico consisting of four columns in front and of two others +behind, between two wings; on the inner sides of which are two niches +above each other. The columns are about thirty-five feet high, and three +feet and a half in diameter. Part of the walls only of the building are +standing. In the wall opposite the entrance are two niches, one above +the other. Not far from this building, toward its western side, I found, +lying upon the ground, the trunk of a female statue of very inelegant +form and coarse execution; my companion the priest spat upon it, when I +told him that such idols were anciently objects of adoration; by its +side lay a well executed female foot. I may here mention for the +information of future travellers in these parts, that on my return to +Soueida, I was told that there was a place near the source of spring +water, where a great number of figures of men, women, beasts, and men +riding naked on horses, &c. were lying upon the ground. + +Besides the buildings just mentioned, there are several towers with two +stories upon arches, standing insulated in different parts of the town; +in one of them I observed a peculiarity in the structure of its walls, +which I had already seen at Hait, and which I afterwards met with in +several other places; the stones are cut so as to dovetail, and fit very +closely. + +The circuit of this ancient city may be about two miles and a half or +three miles. From the spring there is a beautiful view into the plain of +the Haouran, bounded on the opposite side by the mountain of the Heish, +now covered with snow. There were only + +EZZEHOUE. + +[p.87]two Druse families at Kanouat, who were occupied in cultivating a +few tobacco fields. I returned to Soueida by the same road which I had +come. + +November 18th.--After having made the tour of the city, I took coffee at +the house of the Sheikh, whose brother and sons received me very +politely, and I visited some sick people in the village,--for I was +continually pressed, wherever I went, to write receipts for the sick,--I +then left Soueida, with the intention of sleeping the following night in +some Arab tent in the mountain, where I wished to see some ruined +villages. The priest's fear of catching cold prevented me from +proceeding according to my wishes. Passing the Birket el Hadj, we +arrived in an hour and a quarter at a miserable village called Erraha +[Arabic]; twenty minutes farther we passed the Wady el Thaleth [Arabic], +so called from three Wadys which, higher up, in the mountain unite into +one. Here were pointed out to me, at half an hour to the N.E. on the +side of the Wady in the mountain, the spring called Ain Kerashe, and at +half an hour's distance, in the plain, the Druse village Resas. In a +quarter of an hour from Thaleth, we reached Kherbet Rishe, a ruined +village, and in one hour more Ezzehhoue [Arabic], where my companion +insisted upon taking shelter from the rain. + +November 19th.--A rivulet passes Ezzehhoue, called Ain Ettouahein +[Arabic]; i.e. the Source of the Mills, which comes down from Ain Mousa, +the spring near Kuffer, and flows towards Aaere. Ezzehhoue is a Druse +village, with a single Christian family. I was not well received by the +Druse Sheikh, a boy of sixteen years, although he invited me to +breakfast with him; but I was well treated by the poor Christian family. +When I left the village there was a rumor amongst the Druses, that I +should not be permitted to depart, or if I was, that I should be waylaid +on the road, but neither happened. The people of the village make coffee +mortars out of + +AAERE. + +[p.88]the trunks of oak trees, which they sell at twenty and twenty-five +piastres each, and export them over the whole of the Haouran. At three +quarters of an hour from Ezzehhoue, to the left of our route, is the Tel +Ettouahein, an insulated hill in the plain, into which the road descends +at a short distance from the village. Near the hill passes the Wady +Ezzehhoue, a winter torrent which descends from the mountain. Two hours +from Ezzehhoue is Aaere [Arabic], a village standing upon a Tel in the +plain. + +Aaere is the seat of the second chief of the Druses in the Haouran: he +is one of the most amiable men I have met with in the East, and what is +still more extraordinary, he is extremely desirous to acquire knowledge. +In the conversations I had with him during my repeated visits at Aaere, +he was always most anxious to obtain information concerning European +manners and institutions. He begged me one day to write down for him the +Greek, English, and German alphabets, with the corresponding sound in +Arabic beneath each letter; and on the following day he shewed me the +copy he had taken of them. His kindness towards me was the more +remarkable, as he could not expect the smallest return for it. He +admired my lead pencils, of which I had two, but refused to accept one +of them, on my offering it to him. These Druses, as well as those of +Kesrouan, firmly believe that there are a number of Druses in England; a +belief originating in the declaration of the Christians in these +countries, that the English are neither Greeks, nor Catholics, and +therefore not Christians. + +Upon a stone in the village I copied the following; + +[xxxxx]. + +November 20th.--Being desirous of visiting the parts of the Haouran +bordering upon the desert, of crossing the Djebel Haouran, or +mountainous part of the district, and of exploring several ruined + +HEBRAN. + +[p.89]cities which I had heard of in the desert, I engaged, with the +Sheikh's permission, two Druses and a Christian, to act as guides. As +there was considerable risque of meeting with some hostile tribe of +Arabs on the road, I gave my purse to the Greek priest, who promised to +wait for my return; he did not keep his word, however, for he quitted +Aaere, taking my money with him, no doubt in the view of compelling me +to follow him to his village, from whence he might again have a chance +of obtaining a daily allowance, by accompanying me, though he well knew +that it was my intention to return to Damascus by a more western route; +nor was this all, he took twenty piastres out of my purse to buy straw +for his camels. On his repeatedly confessing to me, afterwards, his +secret wishes that some Frank nation would invade and take possession of +the country, I told him that he would by no means be a gainer by such an +event, as a trick such as that he had played me would expose him to be +turned out of his living and thrown into a prison. "You must imprison +all the people of the country then," was his reply; and he spoke the +truth. I have often reflected that if the English penal laws were +suddenly promulgated in this country, there is scarcely any man in +business, or who, has money-dealings with others, who would not be found +liable to transportation before the end of the first six months. + +Our road lay over the plain, E.N.E. for three quarters of an hour; we +then began to mount by a slight ascent. In an hour and a quarter we came +to two hills, with the ruins of a village called Medjmar [Arabic], on +the right of the road. At a quarter of an hour from thence is the +village Afine [Arabic], in which are about twenty-five Druse families; +it has a fine spring. Here the ascent becomes more steep. At one hour +from Afine, E.b.S. upon the summit of the lower mountain, stands Hebran +[Arabic]. Here is a spring and a ruined church, with the foundations + +KUFFER. + +[p.90]of another building near it. Withinside the gate is the following +inscription: + +[Greek]. + +On the eastern outer wall: + +[Greek]. + +In a ruined building, with arches, in the lower town; + +[xxxxx]. + +Upon a stone over a door, in a private house: + +[Greek]. + +The mountain upon which Hebran stands is stony, but has places fit for +pasturage. The plain to the S. is called Amman, in which is a spring. +That to the E. is called Zauarat, and that to the S.W. Merdj el Daulet; +all these plains are level grounds, with several hillocks, and are +surrounded by mountains. + +There are a few families at Hebran. + +Proceeding from Hebran towards the Kelb (dog), or, as the Arabs here +call it, Kelab Haouran, in one houre we came to Kuffer [Arabic], once a +considerable town. It is built in the usual style of this country, +entirely of stone; most of the houses are still entire; the doors are +uniformly of stone, and even the gates of the town, between nine and ten +feet high, are of a single piece of stone. On each side + +[p.91]of the streets is a foot pavement two feet and a half broad, and +raised one foot above the level of the street itself, which is seldom +more than one yard in width. The town is three quarters of an hour in +circumference, and being built upon a declivity, a person may walk over +it upon the flat roofs of the houses; in the court-yards of the houses +are many mulberry trees. Amongst several arched edifices is one of +somewhat larger dimensions, with a steeple, resembling that at Ezra; in +the paved court-yard lies an urn of stone. In later times this building +had been a mosque, as is indicated by several Arabic inscriptions. In +the wall within the arched colonnade is a niche elegantly adorned with +sculptured oak-leaves. + +We dined in the church, upon the Kattas [Arabic] which my guides had +killed. These birds, which resemble pigeons, are in immense numbers +here; but I found none of them in the eastern parts of the Djebel +Haouran. + +To the N.E. of Kutfer is the copious spring already mentioned, called +Ain Mousa, the stream from which, we had passed at Ezzehhoue. There is a +small building over it, on which are these letters: + +[Greek]. + +We arrived, after sunset, in one hour from Kuffer, at an encampment of +Arabs Rawafie, immediately at the foot of the Kelab; and there took up +our quarters for the night. The tent of our host was very neat, being +formed with alternate white and black Shoukes, or cloth made of goat's +hair. I here found the Meharem to the right of the man's apartment. We +were treated as usual with coffee and Feita. I had been rather feverish +during the whole day, and in the evening the symptoms increased, but, +cold as the night was, and more especially on the approach of morning + +Wady Awairid. + +[p.92]when the fire which is kept up till midnight gradually dies out, I +found myself completely recovered the next day. This encampment +consisted of ten or twelve tents, in the midst of the forest which +surrounds the Kelab. + +November 21st.--The Kelab is a cone rising from the lower ridge of the +mountains; it is barren on the S. and E. sides, but covered on the N. +and W. with the trees common to these mountains. I was told that in +clear weather the sea is visible from its top, the ascent to which, from +the encampment, was said to be one hour. The morning was beautiful but +very cold, the whole mountain being covered with hoar frost. We set off +at sun-rise, and rode through the forest one hour, when we breakfasted +at an encampment of Arabs Shennebele, in the midst of the wood. From +thence I took two Arabs, who volunteered their services, to guide me +over the mountains into the eastern plain. We soon reached the +termination of the forest, and in half an hour passed the Merdj el +Kenttare [Arabic], a fine meadow (where the young grass had already made +its appearance), in the midst of the rocky mountain, which has no wood +here. A rivulet called El Keine [Arabic], whose source is a little +higher up in the mountain, flows through the meadow. Three quarters of +an hour farther, and to the right of the road, upon a hill distant half +an hour, are the ruins of the village El Djefne; to the left, at the +same distance, is Tel Akrabe. We passed many excellent pasturing places, +where the Arabs of the mountain feed their cattle in the spring; but the +mountain is otherwise quite barren. Half an hour farther, descending the +mountain, we passed Wady Awairid [Arabic], whose torrent, in winter, +flows as far as Rohba, a district so called, where is a ruined city of +the same name, on the eastern limits of the Szaffa.[The Szaffa [Arabic] +is a stony district, much resembling the Ledja, with this difference, +that the rocks with which it is covered are considerably larger, +although the whole may be said to be even ground. It is two or three +days in circumference, and is the place of refuge of the Arabs who fly +from the Pasha's troops, or from their enemies in the desert. The Szaffa +has no springs; the rain water is collected in cisterns. The only +entrance is through a narrow pass, called Bab el Szaffa, a cleft, +between high perpendicular rocks, not more than two yards in breadth, +which one ever dared to enter as an enemy. If a tribe of Arabs intend to +remain a whole year in the Szaffa, they sow wheat and barley on the +spots fit for cultivation on its precincts. On its E. limits are the +ruined villages of Boreisie, Oedesie, and El Koneyse. On its western +side this district is called El Harra, a term applied by the Arabs to +all tracts which are covered with small stones, being derived from Harr, +i.e. heat (reflected from the ground.)] Our route lay to the north-east; +we + +ZAELE. + +[p.93]descended by the banks of the Wady into the plain, and at a short +distance from where the Wady enters it, arrived at Zaele [Arabic] in two +hours and three quarters from the Arab encampment where we had +breakfasted. + +Zaele owes its origin to the copious spring which rises there, and which +renders it, in summer time, a much frequented watering place of the +Arabs. The ruined city which stands near the spring is half an hour in +circuit; it is built like all those of the mountain, but I observed that +the stone doors were particularly low, scarcely permitting one even to +creep in. A cupola once stood over the spring, and its basin was paved. +I found the following inscription upon a stone lying there: + +[Greek]. + +And another above the spring, upon a terrace adjoining the ruins of a +church: + +[Greek]. + +The spring of Zaele flows to the S.E. and loses itself in the plain. + +[p.94]One hour and a half to the eastward of Zaele stands Tel Shaaf +[Arabic], with a ruined city. E. four hours, Melleh [Arabic], a ruined +city in the plain; and upon a Tel near it, Deir el Nuzrany. The plain, +for two hours from Zaele, is called El Haoui. Towards the E. and S.E. of +Zaele are the following ruined places: Boussan [Arabic], at the foot of +the mountain; Khadera [Arabic]; Aans [Arabic], Om Ezzeneine [Arabic]; +Kherbet Bousrek [Arabic]; Habake [Arabic]. + +The great desert extends to the N.E.E., and S.E. of Zaele; to the +distance of three days journey eastward, there is still a good arable +soil, intersected by numerous Tels, and covered with the ruins of so +many cities and villages, that, as I was informed, in whatever direction +it is crossed, the traveller is sure to pass, in every day, five or six +of these ruined places. They are all built of the same black rock of +which the Djebel consists. The name of the desert changes in every +district; and the whole is sometimes called Telloul, from its Tels or +hillocks. Springs are no where met with in it, but water is easily found +on digging to the depth of three or four feet. At the point where this +desert terminates, begins the sandy desert called El Hammad [Arabic], +which extends on one side to the banks of the Euphrates, and on the +other to the N. of Wady Serethan, as far as the Djof. + +I wished to proceed to Melleh, but my Druse companions were not to be +prevailed upon, through fear of the Arabs Sheraka, a tribe of the Arabs +Djelaes, who were said to be in that neighbourhood. We herefore +recrossed the mountain from Zaele, and passed its south-eastern corner, +on which there are no trees, but many spots of excellent pasture. In two +hours from Zaele we came to a spring called Ras el Beder [Arabic], i.e. +the Moon's Head, whose waters flow down into the plain as far as Boszra. +From the spring we redescended, and reached Zahouet el Khudher [Arabic], +a ruined city, standing in a Wady, at a short distance from the + +ZAHOUET EL KHUDHER. + +[p.95]plain. One hour from these ruins a rivulet called Moiet Maaz +[Arabic] passes through the valley, whose source is to the N.W. up in +the mountain, one hour distant, near a ruined place called Maaz. This is +a very romantic, secluded spot; immediately behind the town the valley +closes, and a row of willows, skirting both banks of the rivulet in its +descent, agreeably surprise the traveller, who rarely meets in these +districts with trees raised by the labour of man; but it is probable +that these willows will not long withstand the destroying hands of the +Arabs: fifteen years ago there was a larger plantation here, which was +cut down for fire wood; and every summer many of the trees share the +same fate. + +Zahouet el Khudher was formerly visited by the Christians of the +Haouran, for the purpose of offering up their prayers to the Khudher, or +St. George, to whom a church in the bottom of the valley is dedicated. +The Turks also pay great veneration to this Saint, so much so that a few +goats-hair mats, worth five or six piastres, which are left on the floor +of the sanctuary of the church, are safe from the robbers. My Druse +guides carried them to a house in the town, to sleep upon; but returned +them carefully on the following morning. The Arabs give the name of Abd +Maaz to St. George. The church has a ruined cupola. On the outer door is +this inscription: + +[Greek]. + +On an arch in the vestibule + +[xxxxx]. + +ARD AASZAF. + +[p.96] Within the church: + +[Greek]. + + +Upon elevated ground on the W. side of the Wady stands the small ruined +town of Zahouet, with a castle on the summit of the hill. I could find +no legible inscriptions there. + +We had reached Zahouet after sunset; and the dread of Arabs, who very +frequently visit this place, made us seek for a night's shelter in the +upper part of the town, where we found a comfortable room, and lighted a +still more comfortable fire. We had tasted nothing since our breakfast; +and my guides, in the full confidence of meeting with plenty of Kattas +and partridges on our road, had laid in a very small provision of bread +on setting out, but had brought a sack of flour mixed with salt, after +the Arab fashion. Unluckily, we had killed only two partridges during +the day, and seen no Kattas; we therefore had but a scanty supper. +Towards midnight we were alarmed by the sound of persons breaking up +wood to make a fire, and we kept upon our guard till near sun-rise, when +we proceeded, and saw upon the wet ground the traces of men and dogs, +who had passed the night in the church, probably as much in fear of +strangers as we were ourselves. + +November 22d.--I took a view of the town, after which we descended into +the plain, called here Ard Aaszaf [Arabic], from a Tel named Aazaf, at +half an hour from the Khudher. The abundant rains had already covered +the plain with rich verdure. Our way lay S. At the end of an hour and a +quarter we saw to our left, one mile distant from the road, a ruined +castle upon a Tel called Keres [Arabic]; close to our road was a low +Birket. To the + +AYOUN. + +[p.97]right, three or four miles off, upon another Tel, stands the +ruined castle El Koueires [Arabic]. From Keres to Ayoun [Arabic], two +hours distant from Zahouet el Khudher, the ground is covered with walls, +which probably once enclosed orchards and well cultivated fields. At +Ayoun are about four hundred houses without any inhabitants. On its west +side are two walled-in springs, from whence the name is derived. It +stands at the eastern foot of the Szfeikh [Arabic] a hill so called, one +hour and a half in length. I saw in the town four public edifices, with +arches in their interior; one of them is distinguished by the height and +fine curve of the arches, as well as by the complete state of the whole +building. Its stone roof has lost its original black colour, and now +presents a variety of hues, which on my entering surprised me much, as I +at first supposed it to be painted. The door is ornamented with grapes +and vine leaves. There is another large building, in which are three +doors, only three feet high; over one of them are these letters: +[xxxxx]. + +Over an arch in its interior is this: + +[Greek]. + +From Ayoun ruined walls of the same kind as those we met with in +approaching Ayoun extend as far as Oerman [Arabic], distant one hour and +a half, in the open plain. Oerman is an ancient city, somewhat larger +than Ayoun. In it are three towers, or steeples, built in the usual +mode, which I have described at Kuffer. On the walls of a miserable +building adjoining the S. side of the town are the following six +inscribed tablets, built into the wall; the second is inverted, a proof +that they have been placed in this situation by modern barbarians as +ornaments: + +OERMAN. + +[p.98] + +1. [Greek]. + +2. [Greek]. + +3. [Greek]. + +4. [Greek]. + +5. [Greek]. + +[p.99] [Greek]. + +Between the first and second inscriptions is a niche in the wall, about +four feet high; resembling the annexed figure: [xxxxx]. + +Over a door in the western part of the town is the following: + +[Greek]. + +Oerman has a spring; but my guides, afraid of prolonging our stay in +these desert parts, denied its existence when I enquired for it. I was +informed afterwards that a large stone, on which is an inscription, lies +near it. There are also several Birkets. + +From Oerman we proceeded one hour and a quarter, to the town and castle +called Szalkhat [Arabic]: the intermediate country is full of ruined +walls. The soil of the desert, as well here + +SZALKHAT. + +[p.100]as between Zahouet and Oerman, is black; and, notwithstanding the +abundant rains, the ground was intersected in every direction by large +fissures caused by the summer heat. The castle of Szalkhat is situated +upon a hill at the southern foot of the Szfeikh. The town, which +occupies the south and west foot of the castle hill, is now uninhabited; +but fifteen years since a few Druse and Christian families were +established here, as well as at Oerman: the latter retired to Khabeb, +where I afterwards saw them, and where they are still called Szalkhalie. +The town contains upwards of eight hundred houses, but presents nothing +worthy of observation except a large mosque, with a handsome Madene or +Minaret; the mosque was built in the year 620 of the Hedjra, or A.D. +1224, as appears from an inscription upon it; the Minaret is only two +hundred years old. But even the mosque seems to have been nothing more +than a repaired temple or church, as there are several well wrought +niches in its outer walls: and the interior is vaulted, with arches +supported by low pillars similar to those which have been before +described. Several stones are lying about, with Greek inscriptions; but +all so much defaced as to be no longer legible. Within the mosque lies a +large stone with a fleur-de-lis cut upon it. In the court-yards of the +houses of the town are a great number of fig and pomegranate trees; the +former were covered with ripe fruit, and as we had tasted nothing this +day but dry flour, we made a hearty dinner of the figs. There is no +spring either in the castle or town of Szalkhat, but every house has a +deep cistern lined with stone; there is also a large Birket. + +The castle stands upon the very summit of the hill, and forms a complete +circle; it is a very commanding position, and of the first importance as +a defence of the Haouran against the Arabs. It is surrounded by a deep +ditch, which separates the top of the hill + +[p.101]from the part immediately below it. I walked round the outside of +the ditch in twelve minutes. The upper hill, except in places where the +rock is firm, is paved with large flat stones, similar to those of the +castle of Aleppo: a number of these stones, as well as parts of the +wall, have fallen down, and in many places have filled up the ditch to +half its depth. I estimated the height of the paved upper hill to be +sixty yards. A high arched bridge leads over the ditch into the castle. +The wall of the castle is of moderate thickness, flanked all round by +towers and turrets pierced with numerous loop holes, and is constructed +of small square stones, like some of the eastern walls of Damascus. Most +of the interior apartments of the castle are in complete ruins; in +several of them are deep wells. On entering I observed over the gate a +well sculptured eagle with expanded wings; hard by, on the left of the +entrance, are two capitals of columns, placed one upon the other, each +adorned with four busts in relief projecting from a cluster of palm +leaves. The heads of the busts are wanting; the sculpture is +indifferent. A covered way leads from the inside of the gateway into the +interior; of this I took a very cursory view, as the day was near +closing, and my companions pressed me very much to depart, that we might +reach a village three hours distant; there being no water here for my +horse, I the more readily complied with their wishes. Over the entrance +of a tower in the interior I read these two lines: + +[Arabic]. + +"In the name of God, the merciful and the munificent. During the reign +of the equitable king Saad-eddin Abou-takmar, the Emir--- ordered the +building of this castle;" which makes it probable that it was erected +for the defence + +ABD MAAZ. + +[p.102]of the country against the Crusaders. In one of the apartments I +found, just appearing above the earth, the upper part of a door built of +calcareous stone, a material which I have not met with in any part of +the Haouran: over it is the following inscription, in well engraved +characters: + +[Greek]. + +Upon the architrave of the door, on both sides of the inscription, are +masques in bas-relief. + +In an apartment where I saw several small entrances to sepulchres, and +where there are several columns lying about, is this: + +[Greek]. + +And, on a stone in the wall of the same apartment: + +[Greek]. + +The hill upon which the castle stands consists of alternate layers of +the common black tufwacke of the country, and of a very porous deep red, +and often rose-cloured, pumice-stone: in some caverns formed in the +latter, salt-petre collects in great quantities. I met with the same +substance at Shohba. + +S.W. of Szalkhat one hour and a half, stands the high Tel Abd Maaz, with +a ruined city of the same name; there still remain large plantations of +vines and figs, the fruit of which is + +KEREYE. + +[p.103]collected by the Arabs in autumn. Near Abd Maaz is another ruin +called Deffen. S. one hour is Tel Mashkouk [Arabic], towards which are +the ruins Tehhoule [Arabic], Kfer ezzeit [Arabic], and Khererribe +[Arabic]. + +We left Szalkhat towards sunset, on a rainy evening, in order to reach +Kereye, a village three good hours distant. In one hour we passed the +ruined village Meneidhere [Arabic], with a copious spring near it. Our +route lay through a stony plain, and the night now becoming very dark, +with incessant rain, my guides lost their way, and we continued for +three hours uncertain whether we should not be obliged to take up our +night's quarters in the open plain. At length, however, we came to the +bed of a Wady called Hameka, which we ascended for a short distance, and +in half an hour after crossing it reached Kereye, about ten at night; +here we found a comfortable Fellah's house, and a copious dish of +Bourgul. + +November 23d.--Kereye is a city containing about five hundred houses, of +which four only were at this time inhabited. It has several ancient +towers, and public buildings; of the latter the principal has a portico +consisting of a triple row of six columns in each, supporting a flat +roof; seven steps, extending the whole breadth of the portico, lead from +the first row up to the third; the capitals of the columns are of the +annexed form; their base is like the capital inverted. Behind the +colonnade is a Birket surrounded with a strong wall. Upon a stone lying +upon the upper step, in the midst of which is an excavation, is this +inscription: + +[Greek]. + +HOUSHHOUSH. + +[p.104]To the S. and E. of Kereye are the ruins called Ai-in [Arabic], +Barade [Arabic], Nimri [Arabic], Bakke [Arabic], Hout [Arabic], Souhab +[Arabic], Rumman [Arabic], Szemad [Arabic], and Rafka [Arabic]. Kelab +Haouran bears from Kereye N.&.E. Kereye is three hours distance from +Boszra [Arabic], the principal town in the Haouran, remarkable for the +antiquity of its castle, and the ancient ruins and inscriptions to be +found there. I wished very much to visit it, and might have done so in +perfect safety, and without expense; but I knew that there was a +garrison of between three and four hundred Moggrebyns in the town; a +class of men which, from the circumstance of their passing from one +service to another, I was particularly desirous of avoiding. It was very +probable that I might afterwards meet with some of the individuals of +this garrison in Egypt, where they would not have failed to recognize my +person, in consequence of the remarkable circumstance of my visit to +Boszra; but as I did not think proper to state these reasons to my +guides, who of course expected me to examine the greatest curiosity in +the Haouran, I told them that I had had a dream, which made it advisable +for me not to visit this place. They greatly applauded my prudent +determination, accustomed as they had been to look upon me as a person +who had a secret to insure his safety, when travelling about in such +dangerous places. We therefore left Kereye in the morning, and +proceeding N.E. reached in three quarters of an hour Houshhoush +[Arabic], after having crossed the Wady Djaar [Arabic], which descends +from the mountain. Houshhoush is a heap of ruins, upon a Tel in the +plain, and is famed over all the Haouran for the immense treasures said +to be buried there. Whenever I was asked by the Fellahs where I had +been, they never failed to enquire particularly whether I had seen +Houshhoush. The small ancient village contains nothing remarkable except +a church, supported by a single arch which rests on pillars much higher +than those generally seen in this country. At the + +SHMERRIN. + +[p.105]foot of the hill are several wells. We found here a great number +of mushrooms; we had met with some at Szalkhat; my guides taught me to +eat them raw, with a morsel of bread. The quantity of Kattas here was +beyond description; the whole plain seemed sometimes to rise; and far +off in the air they were seen like large moving clouds. + +W. of Houshhoush half an hour, in the plain, are Tel Zakak and Deir +Aboud; the latter is a building sixty feet square, of which the walls +only are standing; they are built with small stones, and have a single +low door. From this place W.S.W. three quarters of an hour is Tahoun el +Abiad [Arabic] i.e. the White Mill, the ruins of a mill on the banks of +the Wady Ras el Beder, which I noticed in speaking of Zahouet el Khuder. +S.W. from Tahoun, three quarters of an hour, is the ruined village Kourd +[Arabic], and W. from it one hour, the village Tellafe [Arabic]. Our way +from Deir Aboud lay W.S.W.; at one hour and a half from it is the +considerable ruined village Keires [Arabic], on the Wady Zedi, the +largest of all the Wadys which descend from the mountain into the plain. +The soil of this uncultivated district is of a red colour, and appears +to be very fertile. From hence I proceeded towards Boszra, which I +observed at the distance of half an hour, from the high ground above +Keires. The castle of Boszra bore W.S.W. that of Szalkhat E.S.S., and +the Kelab Haouran N.E.; I was near enough to distinguish the castle, and +the mosque which is called by the Mohammedans El Mebrek, from the lying +down of the Caliph Othman's camel. + +Turning from hence, in a N.W. direction, we came to the ruined village +Shmerrin [Arabic], about three quarters of an hour from Keires. Over a +door in the village I read: + +[xxxxx]. + +Near the village stands an insulated tower, with an Arabic inscription, + +AAERE. + +[p.106]but so high that I could not copy it; above it in large +characters is [Greek] [of Felix. Ed]. The Wady Zedi passes close to this +village, where a bridge of three arches is built over it; I was told +that in winter the waters often rise over the bridge. Farther to the +west this Wady joins that of Ghazale. + +From Shmerrin we travelled to the northward; about an hour and a half to +our left was the village Kharaba. We were now upon the Hadj route +formerly pursued by the pilgrims from Damascus through the Ledja to +Soueida and Boszra. The road is still marked by stones scattered over +it, the remains, probably, of its pavement. + +Thee quarters of an hour from Shmerrin, close to the right of the road, +stands Deir Esszebeir [Arabic], a ruined village with a building like a +monastery. At sunset we reached Aaere, two hours and a quarter from +Shmerrin. + +November 24th and 25th.--I remained at Aaere these two days, during +which the Sheikh continued his friendly behaviour towards me. It was my +wish to make an excursion towards the western parts of the plain of the +Haouran, in order to visit Draa, and the ruins of Om Edjemal and Om +Ezzeroub, distant one day's journey from Draa, which, judging from all +the information I had received, seemed to be well worth seeing. I +offered to any person, or company of men, who would undertake to guide +me to the spot, thirty piastres, a large sum in these parts, but nobody +was to be found. The fact was that the road from Aaere to Draa, as well +as that from thence to Om Edjemal, was infested by a party of Arabs +Serdie, the brother of whose chief had recently been killed by the +Pasha's troops; and besides these, it was known that numerous parties of +Arabs Sheraka made incursions in the same direction I + +THAALE. + +[p.107]was therefore obliged to give up my project, but with the +intention of executing it at a future period. + +November 28th.--I left Aaere in the company of a Druse; at parting the +Sheikh made me promise that I would again visit his village. The +direction of our route was to the N.W. In an hour and a quarter, over a +plain, in most parts cultivated, we reached El Kenneker [Arabic], a +solid building upon a hill, with a few habitations round it; all the +villages in this part are inhabited; we saw the traces of the Wahabi in +a burnt field. E. from hence one hour is Deir Ettereife [Arabic]. N.E. +half an hour, the village Hadid [Arabic]; half an hour farther passed +Ousserha [Arabic], a village with a copious spring. One hour and a half +E. we saw Walgha [Arabic]. Just before we reached Ousserha we passed the +Wady El Thaleth, which I have mentioned between Soueida and Zahouet. +Continuing on the side of the Wady for three quarters of an hour, we +came to Thaale [Arabic], where there is a Birket: here we stopped to +breakfast. It is inhabited by Mohammedans only. + +In a building now used as a mosque, within which are four arches, and +three short pillars in the vestibule, I copied the two following +inscriptions placed opposite each other. + +[Greek][A.D. 683, the twenty-third year of the Emperor Heraclius.]. + +On a long wall of a building entirely in ruins: + +[Greek]. + +From Thaale one hour S.W. is Tel Sheikh Houssein, with the village Deir +Ibn Kheleif; to the W. of which is El Kerak. We + +NAHITA. + +[p.108]proceeded from Thaale in a W. direction, half an hour, to Daara +[Arabic], a village with a Birket. On the wall of the mosque I read as +follows: + +[Greek]. + +One hour to the W. of the village is Rakham. Travelling from Daara N.W. +we reached in one hour and a quarter the village Melihat Ali, to the S. +of which, half an hour, stands Melihat el Ghazale. In one hour and a +quarter from Melihat Ali we reached Nahita [Arabic], where we slept. On +the S. side of the village, near a well, now filled up, stands a small +square tower, built with large stones; there is a long inscription over +its entrance, but illegible. + +November 27th.--In a ruined arched building I copied the following: + +[Greek]. + +and over a door as follows: + +[Greek]. + +This village has a large Birket, and contains a ruined tower, with +vaulted buildings adjoining. + +We proceeded one hour to Melihat el Hariri, so named from + +KHABEB. + + +[p.109]its Sheikh being generally of the family of Hariri; the proper +name of the village is Melihat el Atash. I there copied the following, +over a door: + +[Greek]. + +From thence, in one hour and a quarter, I reached Ezra, and alighted at +the house of the priest. I again endeavoured to visit Draa, but no body +would undertake to act as my guide except a peasant, in whose company I +did not think that I should be sufficiently secure; for it had been a +constant rule with me, during this tour, not to expose myself to any +hazard, well knowing that this was not the place, where duty and honour +obliged me to do so; on the contrary, I felt that I should not be +justified in risking my life, in this quarter, destined as I am to +other, and it is hoped, more important pursuits. + +November 28th.--I left Ezra this morning with the priest, to visit some +villages in the northern Loehf, and if possible to enter the Ledja. We +rode one hour to Keratha, close to which is a spring. From Keratha, in +an hour and a quarter, we came to Mehadje, whence I saw Tel Shiehhan +bearing E.S.E. To the east of the road from Ezra to Mehadje on the Ledja +are the ruins of Sour and Aazim. From Mehadje we entered the Ledja, and +continued in it, at half an hour's distance from the cultivated plain, +in the direction N.E., till we reached Khabeb [Arabic] at the end of two +hours. Between Tebne and Khabeb lies the village Bossir. From Khabeb the +Kelab Haouran bears S.S.E. This is a considerable village, inhabited for +the greater part by Catholic Christians, who, as I have mentioned above, +emigrated from Szalkhat. The Sheikh is a Druse. I met here a poor Arab, +a native of the country three days journey from Mekka; he told me that +the + +DHAMI. + +[p.110]Wahabi had killed four of his brothers; that he fled from home, +and established himself at Dael, a village in the Haouran, which was +ransacked last summer by the same enemies, when he lost the whole of his +property. This man corroborated what I have repeatedly been told, that a +single person may travel over the Wahabi dominions with perfect safety. + +November 29th.--I here took two Druses to conduct me into the interior +of the Ledja. The Arabs who inhabit that district pay some deference to +the Druses, but none whatever to the Turks or Christians of the +neighbouring villages. In one hour we passed the two ruined cities +Zebair [Arabic] and Zebir [Arabic], close to each other. At the end of +two hours and a quarter, our road lying in the direction of the Kelab +Haouran, we came to the ruined village Djedel [Arabic]. Thus far the +Ledja is a level country with a stony soil covered with heaps of rocks, +amongst which are a number of small patches of meadow, which afford +excellent pasture for the cattle of the Arabs who inhabit these parts. +From Djedel the ground becomes uneven, the pasturing places less +frequent, the rocks higher, and the road more difficult. I had intended +to proceed to Aahere, where there is a fine spring; but evening coming +on we stopped near Dhami [Arabic], three hours and three quarters from +Khabeb, and two hours distant from Aahere. It appears strange that a +city should have been built by any people in a spot where there is +neither water nor arable ground, and nothing but a little grass amidst +the stones. Dhami may contain three hundred houses, most of which are +still in good preservation. There is a large building whose gate is +ornamented with sculptured vine leaves and grapes, like those at +Kanouat. + +Every house appears to have had its cistern; there are many also in the +immediate vicinity of the town: they are formed by excavations in the +rock, the surface of which is supported by props + +DEIR DHAMI. + +[p.111]of loose stones. Some of them are arched and have narrow canals +to conduct the water into them from the higher grounds. S.E. of Dhami +half an hour is Deir Dhami [Arabic], another ruined place, smaller than +the former, and situated in a most dreary part of the Ledja, near which +we found, after a good deal of search, an encampment of Arabs Medledj, +where we passed the night. + +November 30th.--These Arabs being of a doubtful character, and rendered +independent by the very difficult access of their rocky abode, we did +not think it prudent to tell them that I had come to look at their +country; they were told, therefore, that I was a manufacturer of +gunpowder, in search of saltpetre, for at Dhami, and in most of the +ruined villages in the Ledja, the earth which is dug up in the court- +yards of the houses, as well as in the immediate vicinity of them, +contains saltpetre, or as it is called in Arabic, Melh Baroud, i.e. +gunpowder salt. + +The Ledja, which is from two to three days journey in length, by one in +breadth, is inhabited by several tribes of Arabs; viz. Selman [Arabic], +Medledj [Arabic], Szolout [Arabic], Dhouhere [Arabic], and Siale +[Arabic]; of these the Szolout may have about one hundred tents, the +Medledj one hundred and twenty, and the others fifty or sixty. They +breed a vast number of goats, which easily find pasturage amongst the +rocks; a few of them also keep sheep and cows, and cultivate the soil in +some parts of the Ledja, where they sow wheat and barley. They possess +few horses; the Medledj have about twenty, and the Szolout and Dhouhere +each a dozen. But I shall have occasion to speak of these Arabs again in +describing the people of the country. + +The tent in which we slept was remarkably large, although it could not +easily be perceived amidst the labyrinth of rocks where it was pitched; +yet our host was kept awake the whole night by + +THE LEDJA. + +[p.112]the fear of robbers, and the dogs barked incessantly. He told me +next morning that the Szolout had lately been very successful in their +nightly depredations upon the Medledj. Our host having no barley, gave +my horse a part of some wheat which he had just brought from the plain, +to bake into bread for his family. + +December lst.--We departed at sunrise, the night having been so cold +that none of us was able to sleep. We found our way with great +difficulty out of the labyrinth of rocks which form the inner Ledja, and +through which the Arabs alone have the clue. Some of the rocks are +twenty feet high, and the country is full of hills and Wadys. In the +outer Ledja trees are less frequent than here, where they grow in great +numbers among the rocks; the most common are the oak, the Malloula, and +the Bouttan; the latter is the bitter almond, from the fruit of which an +oil is extracted used by the people of the country to anoint their +temples and forehead as a cure for colds; its branches are in great +demand for pipe tubes. There are no springs in any part of this stony +district, but water collects, in winter time, in great quantities in the +Wadys, and in the cisterns and Birkets which are every where met with; +in some of these it is kept the whole summer; when they are dried up the +Arabs approach the borders of the Ledja, called the Loehf, to water +their cattle at the springs in that district. The camel is met with +throughout the Ledja, and walks with a firm step over the rocky surface. +In summer he feeds on the flowers or dry grass of the pasturing places. +In the interior parts of the Ledja the rocks are in many places cleft +asunder, so that the whole hill appears shivered and in the act of +falling down: the layers are generally horizontal, from six to eight +feet, or more, in thickness, sometimes covering the hills, and inclining +to their curve, as appears from the fissures, which often traverse the +rock from top to bottom. In + +[p.113] many places are ruined walls; from whence it may be conjectured +that a stratum of soil of sufficient depth for cultivation had in +ancient times covered the rock. + +We had lost our road, when we met with a travelling encampment of +Medledj, who guided us into a more open place, where their companions +were pitching their tents. We breakfasted with them, and I was present +during an interesting conversation between one of my Druse companions +and an Arab. The wife of the latter, it appeared, had been carried off +by another Arab, who fearing the vengeance of the injured husband, had +gone to the Druse Sheikh of Khabeb, and having secured his Dakhil +[Arabic], or protection, returned to the woman in the Ledja. The Sheikh +sent word to the husband, cautioning him against taking any violent +measures against his enemy. The husband, whom we here met with, wished +to persuade the Druses that the Dakhil of the Sheikh was unjust, and +that the adulterer ought to be left to his punishment. The Druse not +agreeing with him, he swore that nothing should prevent him from +shedding the blood of the man who had bereft him of his own blood; but I +was persuaded that he would not venture to carry his threat into effect; +for should he kill his enemy, the Druses would not fail to be revenged +upon the slayer or his family. + +The outer Ledja is to be distinguished from the inner, on this side as +well as on that by which we entered it, the former being much less +rocky, and more fit for pasturage than the latter. On the borders of the +inner Ledja we passed several places where the mill-stones are made, +which I have mentioned in a former part of my journal. The stones are +cut horizontally out of the rocks, leaving holes of four or five feet in +depth, and as many in circumference; fifty or sixty of these excavations +are often met with in the circumference of a mile. The stones are +carried to be finished at Ezra, Mehadje, Aeib, Khabeb, and Shaara. + +SHAARA. + +[p.114] In one hour and a half from the borders of the Ledja, we came to +Kastal Kereim, a ruined village, with a Birket; half an hour from it, +Kereim, a Druse village. Between Kereim and Khabeb in the Loehf, is Aeib +[Arabic], a Druse village, in which is a powder manufactory; there is +another at Khabeb. Half an hour from Kereim is Kalaat Szamma [Arabic], a +ruined village, with several towers. One hour and a half, Shaara, a +village inhabited by about one hundred Druse and Christian families. We +travelled this day about eight hours and a half. Shaara was once a +considerable city; it is built on both sides of a Wady, half an hour +from the cultivated plain, and is surrounded by a most dreary barren +War. It has several large solidly built structures, now in ruins, and +amongst others a tower that must have been about forty-five feet high. +In the upper town is an ancient edifice with arches, converted into a +mosque: over its door is this inscription: + +[Greek]. + +There is a salt-petre manufactory in the town; the earth in which the +salt-petre is found, is collected in great quantities in the ruined +houses, and thrown into large wooden vessels perforated with small holes +on one side near the bottom. Water is then poured in, which drains +through the holes, into a lower vessel, from whence it is taken, and +poured into large copper kettles; after boiling for twenty-four hours, +it is left in the open air; the sides of the kettles then become covered +with crystals, which are afterwards washed to free them from all +impurities. One hundred Rotolas of saline earth give from one to one and +a half Rotola of salt-petre. I was told by the Sheikh of the village, +who is the manufacturer + +MISSEMA. + +[p.115]on his own account, that he sends yearly to Damascus as much as +one hundred Kantars. Here is also a gunpowder manufactory. + +December 2d.--The Greek priest, who had not ventured to accompany me +into the Ledja, I found again at Shaara. I wished to see some parts of +the northern Loehf, and particularly the ruins of Missema, of which I +heard much from the country people. I therefore engaged a man at Shaara, +to conduct me to the place, and from thence to Damascus. We set out in +the morning, proceeded along the limits of the War, in an easterly +direction, and in three quarters of an hour came to the sources of water +called Sheraya [Arabic]; they are five or six in number, are situated +just on the borders of the War, and extend as far as Missema, watering +all the plain before them. Here, in the spring, the people of Shaara +grow vegetables and water melons, and in summer the Arabs of the Ledja +sometimes sow the neighbouring fields with wheat; but the frequent +passage of the Bedouins renders the collection of the harvest somewhat +precarious. Missemi, or Missema, is situated in the Ledja, at one hour +and a half from Shaara; it is a ruined town of three miles in circuit. +Over the door of a low vaulted building I read the following inscription +in well executed characters: + +[Greek]. [Helvius] + +The principal ruin in the town is a temple, in tolerable preservation; +it is one of the most elegant buildings which I have seen in the +Haouran. The approach to it is over a broad paved area, which has once +been surrounded by a row of short pillars; a flight of six steps, the +whole length of the façade, + +[p.116] leads up to the portico, which consists of seven Doric columns, +but of which three only are now standing. The entrance to the temple is +through a large door in the centre, on each side of which is a smaller +door; over the latter are niches. There are no sculptured ornaments on +any part of the great door: the temple is sixteen paces square within. +Four Corinthian columns standing in a square in the centre of the +chamber support the roof. About two feet and a half under their capitals +is a ring; their pedestals are three feet and a half high. Opposite the +entrance is a large semicircular niche, the top of which is elegantly +sculptured so as to resemble a shell. On either side of the niche is a +pilaster, standing opposite to one of the columns. At the door are two +pilasters similarly placed, and two others upon each of the side walls. +Projecting from the bottom of each of these side walls, are four +pedestals for busts or statues. The roof is formed of several arches, +which, like the walls, are constructed with large stones. On either side +of the interior niche is a small dark room. The door of the temple faces +the south, and is almost completely walled up with small stones. Over +the pedestals of two of the remaining columns of the portico are the +following inscriptions: + +[Greek]. + +Over the great door: + +[Greek] + +MISSEMA. + +[p.117] [Greek]. + +In larger characters immediately under the former. + +[Greek] [Legionis tertiae Gallicae. Ed.]. + +On one of the jambs of the door; + +[Greek]. + +Upon a broken stone in the portico: [Greek]. + +[p.118] [Greek]. + +On the pedestal of a statue in the temple: + +[Greek]. + +On another pedestal: + +[Greek][Tribunum ([Greek]) Legionis Flaviae firmae. This was the 16th +legion, as appears from the two following inscriptions. The 16th has the +same title in an inscription in Gruter (p. 427). Ed.]. + +Under the niche to the left of the great door: + +[Greek]. + +Under that to the right: + +[Greek]. + +There are several other public buildings at Missema; but in no way +remarkable for their architecture. I had been told that in one of these +buildings was a large stone covered with small Greek characters. I +sought for it in vain. Missema has no inhabitants; we met with only a +few workmen, digging the saline earth: there are no springs here, but a +number of cisterns. E. of Missema are no inhabited villages, but the +Loehf contains several in ruins. + +MERDJAN. + +[p.119]From Missema our way lay N.N.W. over the desert plain, towards +Djebel Kessoue. This route is much frequented in the summer time by the +Aeneze, who pass this way to and from the Haouran. The plain is +intersected in every direction by paths formed by camels, called Daroub +el aarb [Arabic]. At the end of two hours we saw to the left, in the +mountains, the ruined village Om el Kezour; and one hour eastward from +thence, in the plain, an insulated pillar called Amoud Esszoubh +[Arabic], i.e. the Column of the Morning, on which, as I was afterwards +told, are several inscriptions. Our road now turned N. and we reached, +after sunset, in three hours and a quarter from Missema, the ruined +village Merdjan, where we found some men who had come to sow a few acres +of ground, and partook of a frugal supper with them. + +December 3d.--The small village of Merdjan is picturesquely situated on +a gentle declivity near the foot of the mountain, and is surrounded by +orchards, and poplar trees, which have escaped the rapacious hands of +the Arabs: hard by flows a rivulet, which irrigates the adjacent +grounds. We left Merdjan early in the morning. Twenty minutes north is +Ain Toby [Arabic], or the spring of the gazelle, consisting of several +wells, round one of which are the remains of a well built wall. At one +hour and a half is Soghba [Arabic], a few houses surrounded by a wall; +three quarters of an hour from thence is Deir Ali [Arabic], a village at +the western foot of Djebel Mane; before we came to the village we +crossed the Moiet Deir Ali, a rivulet whose source is in the +neighbourhood. Half an hour from Deir Ali is Meshdie [Arabic], a small +village, in the valley between Djebel Mane and Djebel Khiara, which is +about three hours in breadth. The ground is here for the greater part +cultivated. Our route was N.N.W. from Deir Ali, from whence, in two +hours, we reached El Kessoue, and towards sunset we entered Damascus. + +[p.121] + +JOURNAL + +OF A + +TOUR FROM ALEPPO TO DAMASCUS, + +THROUGH THE VALLEY OF THE ORONTES AND MOUNT LIBANUS, + +IN FEBRUARY AND MARCH, 1812. + +February 14th.--I LEFT Aleppo at mid-day; and in half an hour came to +the miserable village Sheikh Anszary [Arabic], where I took leave of my +Worthy friends Messieurs Barker and Van Masseyk, the English and Dutch +Consuls, two men who do honour to their respective countries. I passed +the two large cisterns called Djob Mehawad [Arabic], and Djob Emballat +[Arabic], and reached, at the end of two hours and a half, the Khan +called Touman [Arabic], near a village of the same name, situated on the +Koeyk, or river of Aleppo. The Khan is in a bad state; Pashas no longer +think of repairing public edifices. + +February 15th--After a march of ten hours and a half, I arrived at +Sermein, having had some difficulty in crossing the muddy plain. The +neighbourhood of Sermein is remarkable for great numbers of cisterns and +wells hewn in the rock: in the town every house has a similar cistern; +those in the plain serve to water the peasants' cattle in the summer, +for there are no springs in these parts. On the S.E. side of Sermein is +a large subterraneous vault, cut in the solid rock, divided into several +apartments, and + +EDLIP. + +[p.122]supported in various places by round pillars with coarsely +wrought capitals; near this are several other excavations, all inhabited +by the poor peasants. Sermein belongs to the family of Khodsy Effendy of +Aleppo. + +February 16th.--Half an hour to the left, near our road, is an insulated +hill, with the tomb of a saint, called Kubbet Denneit [Arabic]; the +plain is here well cultivated, but nothing is sown at present between +Khan Touman and Sermein. To the right of the road, on a similar hill, +stands Mezar Kubbet Menebya [Arabic]; and one hour to the right, also +upon a Tel, Mezar Tar [Arabic]. Half an hour S.E. from Denneit is the +village Gemanas. + +In two hours and a half from Sermein we reached the town of Edlip +[Arabic], the approach to which is very picturesque; it lies round the +foot of a hill, which divides it into two parts; there is a smaller hill +on the N. side: the town is surrounded by olive plantations, and the +whole landscape put my companion, an English traveller, in mind of +Athens and its vicinity. Here again are many wells cut in the rocky soil +round the town. This place is called Little Edlip [Arabic]. Of Great +Edlip [Arabic], the name only remains: it stood at half an hour's +distance from the present town, which is of modern date, or about the +middle of the seventeenth century. I reckoned the number of its houses +at about one thousand. The inhabitants are for the most part Turks; +there are only eighty Greek Christian families, and three of Armenian +Greeks. They have a church, and three priests, and are under the +immediate jurisdiction of the Greek Patriarch of Damascus. + +The principal trade of Edlip is in soap; there are some manufactories of +cotton stuffs, and a few dyeing-houses. The Bazars are well built, some +of them of stone. In the town are several Khans, two of which are +destined for the reception of strangers; + +[p.123]but the best edifice is the soap manufactory (El Meszbane), a +large building. Edlip has no gardens, because there is no water but from +wells and cisterns; there are a few orchards of pomegranate and fig +trees, and some vine plantations. The place is supplied with vegetables +from Rieha, and from Aere, a village two hours distant, lying between +Darkoush and Djissr Shogher. There is a single spring in the town of +brackish water, which is never used but in seasons of great drought; a +man who had cleansed the bottom of the deep well in which the spring +issues, told me that he found two openings in the rock, near each other, +from the one of which flows sweet water, while that from the other is +brackish. I made the tour of the town in thirty-seven minutes; the rocky +ground is full of caverns, wells, and pits. + +Edlip is held by the family of Kuperly Zaade of Constantinople; but a +part of its revenue is a Wakf to the Harameyn, that is to say, it +contributes to defray the expenses of the two holy cities Mekka and +Medina. The town pays annually to the above family, twenty purses for +themselves, and fifteen for the holy cities; the latter sum was formerly +sent to Mekka every year with the pilgrim caravan; but it is now paid +into the hands of the Kuperlys. The town of Djissr Shogher [Arabic], +distant six hours from Edlip, on the road to Ladikia, belongs to the +same family, and is likewise a Wakf attached to the holy cities; it pays +fifteen purses to the Kuperlys, and seven to the Harameyn. The revenue +arising from thirteen or fourteen villages in the neighbourhood of +Djissr Shogher has been assigned to the support of several hospitals +which the Kuperlys have built in that town, where a number of poor +people are fed daily gratis. Neither Edlip nor Shogher pays any land-tax +or Miri, in consequence of their being attached to Mekka; but there is a +custom-house at Edlip, where duties are levied on all kinds of +provisions, as rice, coffee, oil, raisins, tobacco, &c. + +[p.124]the proceeds of which amount to nearly one hundred purses; +besides a house tax, which yields twenty purses. The duties levied on +provisions at Djissr Shogher amount to twenty purses. + +The government of Edlip is in the hands of a Mutsellim, named by the +Porte; the real power had been for many years in the rich family of +Ayash [Arabic], till the present chief of that family, Mahmoud Ibn +Ayash, a man famous for his hospitality and upright character, had the +misfortune to lose all his influence. In 1810 his house became involved +in a deadly quarrel with that of Djahya, in consequence of a game of +Jerid, which took a serious turn, and in which much blood was shed. +Djahya left Edlip, and went to Rieha and Djissr Shogher, where he +succeeded in engaging in his interest Seyd Aga and Topal Aly, the rebel +chiefs of those towns, who only wanted a pretext to fall upon Edlip; +they accordingly stirred up the inhabitants against Mahmoud, who was +obliged to fly to Aleppo, and having sent the Mutsellim, Moury Aga, back +to Constantinople, they put Abou Shah, the brother-in-law of Topal Aly, +in his place, and brought Djahya back to Edlip. After some months the +two rebels came to a compromise with Mahmoud, who returned to Edlip, and +Djahya, in turn, fled to Aleppo; Mahmoud's power, however, was now at an +end: the two chiefs are at present masters of the town, and share its +spoils; but its wealth has much decreased since these events took place. +In eighteen months it has paid upwards of six hundred purses; and on the +day before our arrival a new contribution of two hundred had spread +despair among the inhabitants. A Kadhi is sent here early from +Constantinople. Sermein bears from hence S.E. by E. There are no +dependent villages in the territory of Edlip. + +February 17th.--We left Edlip after mid-day. Our road lay through a wood +of olive trees, in a fertile uneven plain of red argillaceous soil. In +one hour we reached Sheikh Hassan, the tomb of + +RIEHA. + +[p.125]a saint; in an hour and a quarter the insulated hill Tel Stommak +[Arabic], with the village Stommak on its west side. The direction from +Edlip S. by W.: this hill seems to be an artificial mound of earth. The +Wood of olive trees here terminates. In two hours and forty minutes we +arrived at Rieha [Arabic], which we did not enter, through fear of the +rebel Seyd Aga, who occupies it. It contains about four or five hundred +houses, is a much frequented market, and has two large soap +manufactories. Rieha is situated on the northern declivity of the Djebel +Erbayn [Arabic], or the Mountain of the Forty; and belongs to the +government of Aleppo; but since the expulsion of Mohammed Pasha, Seyd +Aga has been in the possession of it, and governs also the whole +mountain of Rieha, of which Djebel Erbayn forms a part. This man is a +chief of that kind of cavalry which the Turks call Dehlys. He has about +three hundred of them in his service, together with about one hundred +Arnaouts; common interests have closely connected him with Topal Aly, +the chief of the Dehlys at Djissr Shogher, who has about six hundred +under his command, and with Milly Ismayl, another chief, who commands at +Kalaat el Medyk. Unless the Porte finds means to disunite these three +rebels, there is little probability of its reducing them. They at +present tyrannize over the whole country from Edlip to Hamah. + +About two hours to the S.E. of Rieha lies the village of Marszaf +[Arabic], and S. of the latter about one hour, the ruined town Benin. We +ascended the mountain from Rieha, turned round its eastern corner, and +in one hour from Rieha, reached the village of Kefr Lata [Arabic]. We +were hospitably received at the house of the Sheikh of Kefr Lata, +although his women only were at home. A wondering story-teller amused us +in the evening with chanting the Bedouin history of the Beni Helal. Kefr +Lata belongs to Ibn Szeyaf, one of the first families of Aleppo. + +February 18th.--Kefr Lata is situated upon the mountain of + +KEFR LATA. + +[p.126]Rieha, on the S. side of a narrow valley watered by a rivulet; it +contains forty or fifty houses, all well built of square stones, which +have been taken from the buildings of a town of the lower empire, which +occupied the same site. The remains deserve notice, on account of the +vast quantity of stone coffins and sepulchres. The mountain is a barren +calcareous rock, of no great hardness. In some places are a few spots of +arable ground, where the inhabitants of the village grow barley and +Dhourra. On the side of the rivulet are some fruit trees. We were +occupied the whole morning in visiting the neighbourhood of the village, +which must have been anciently the burying place of all the great +families of this district; the number of tombs being too considerable +for so small a town as Kefr Lata appears to have been; no such +sepulchres, or at least very few, are met with among the ruins of the +large cities which we saw afterwards in the same mountain. Beginning on +the west side of the village, I counted sixteen coffins and seven caves; +the coffins are all excavated in the rock; the largest are nine feet +long, and three feet and a half in breadth; the smaller seven feet long, +and three feet broad; their depth is generally about five feet. In the +greater part of them there is on one side a curved recess, cut in the +rock, about four feet in length, and two feet in breadth. All these +coffins had originally stone lids of a single block of stone, exactly +covering the aperture of the coffin. Only a small proportion of these +now remain entire, but there are some quite uninjured. I saw only two or +three in which a sculptured frieze or cornice was carried along the +whole length of the cover; the generality have only a few ornaments on +the two ends; they are all of the annexed shape. + +The apertures of the coffins are invariably even with the surface of the +ground, and the lids only are seen from without, as if lying upon the +surface. + +[p.127]The sepulchral caves vary in their sizes and construction; the +entrance is generally through a low door, sometimes ornamented by short +pilasters, into a vaulted room cut in the rock, the size of which varies +from six to fifteen feet in length, and from four to ten feet in +breadth; the height of the vault is about six feet; but sometimes the +cave terminates in a flat roof. They all contain coffins, or receptacles +for the dead; in the smaller chambers there is a coffin in each of the +three sides: the larger contain four or six coffins, two opposite the +entrance, and one on each side, or two on each of the three sides: the +coffins in general are very rudely formed. Some of the natural caverns +contain also artificial receptacles for the dead, similar to those +already described; I have seen many of these caverns in different parts +of Syria. The south side of the village being less rocky, there are +neither caves nor coffins on that side. On the east side I counted +twenty-one coffins, and five sepulchral caves; of the former, fourteen +are within a very small space; the greater part of them are single, but +in same places they have been formed in pairs, upon the same level, and +almost touching each other. + +Crossing to the N. side of the valley of Kefr Lata, I met with a long +wall built with large blocks of stone; to the north of it is an oblong +square, thirty-seven paces in length, and twenty-seven in breadth, cut +out of the rock; in its walls are several niches. In the middle of it is +a large coffin, with the remains of a wall which had enclosed it. To the +E. of this is a similar square, but of smaller dimensions. I counted in +this neighbourhood twenty coffins and four sepulchral caves, besides +several open niches very neatly wrought in the side of the mountain, +containing recesses for the dead. + +Returning towards the village I passed the source of the rivulet which +waters the valley. Over it stands an ancient building, which consists of +a vaulted roof supported by four short columns, in a very bad heavy +style; it is about thirieen feet in height. A + +DJEBEL ERBAYN. + +[p.128] few letters of a Greek in scription are visible on the lower +part of the roof: + +[Greek]. + +We left the village about mid-day, and crossed the mountain in a +northerly direction, by the short foot way to Rieha; in half an hour we +reached the point of the mountain directly over Rieha. It is this part +of the Djebel Rieha which is properly called Djebel Erbayn. In the last +century a summer residence was built here just above the town; but it is +now abandoned, although a most beautiful spot, surrounded by fruit trees +of all sorts, with a copious spring, and presenting a magnificent view +over the plains of Aleppo and Edlip. A spring, which here issues from +under the rock, collects in front of the building into a large basin, +from whence it flows down to Rieha. I here took the following bearings; +Edlip N. by E.; Sermein N.E.b.N.; Mount St. Simon N.N.E.; Khan Touman +E.N.E.; Djebel el Ala N.; Djebel Akra W.N.W. About one hour N.E. of +Rieha lies the village Haleya. + +From Djebel Erbayn we continued our road in a S.S.W. direction, on the +declivity of the mountain of Rieha. In half an hour + +EL BARA. + +[p.129] we passed a copious spring, enclosed by a square building, +called El Monboaa [Arabic]. In the plain to the right we saw the village +Kefrzebou [Arabic], and half an hour to the west of it another, called +Ourim [Arabic]. We met with several sepulchral caves on our road. +Wherever, in these parts, the soil admits of culture, wheat and barley +are sown among the rocks. If such spots are distant from a village, the +cultivators pitch a few tents for the purpose of watching the seed and +crop; such encampments are called Mezraa [Arabic]. In an hour and ten +minutes we reached Nahle; two hours and forty minutes the village +Meghara [Arabic], with many remains of ancient buildings. Here I saw a +neat sepulchral cave with a vaulted portico supported by two pillars. In +three hours we reached the village Merayan [Arabic]; the direction of +our route sometimes S.W. sometimes S.S.W. Just by Merayan is a large +coffin, cut in the rocky ground, like those of Kefr Lata; and near it a +spring, with ancient walls. In three hours and twenty minutes we came to +Ahsin [Arabic], half an hour to the west of which is the village Eblim +[Arabic]. The principal produce of all these villages is grapes, which +are carried to the Aleppo market, and there sold, in ordinary years, at +about nine shillings per quintal; or else they are boiled to form the +sweet glutinous extract called Debs, which is a substitute for sugar all +over the East. At the end of four hours and a half we reached the +village El Bara [Arabic], where we finished our day's journey; but we +met with a very cold reception, although I had taken the precaution of +obtaining a letter of recommendation to the Sheikh of the village from +the proprietor of it, Taleb Effendi, of the family Tcheleby Effendi Toha +Zade, the first house of Aleppo. + +Half an hour N.W. of Bara lies the village Belyoum. A high hill, +contiguous to the Djebel Rieha, called Neby Ayoub [Arabic], bears N.W. +from El Bara, distant about an hour and three + +[p.130]quarters. On its summit is a Turkish chapel sacred to the memory +of the prophet Ayoub (Job). Two hours distant from El Bara, S. by W. +lies the village Kefr Nebyl. + +February 20th.--The mountain of Rieha, of which El Bara forms a part, is +full of the ruins of cities, which flourished in the times of the lower +empire;[The following are the names of other villages and ruined towns, +situated upon the mountain of Rieha from the information of a man or El +Bara: viz. Medjellye [Arabic], Betersa [Arabic], Baouza [Arabic], Has +[Arabic], El Rebeya [Arabic], Serdjelle [Arabic], El Djerada [Arabic], +Moarrat Houl [Arabic], Moarrat Menhas [Arabic], Beshelle [Arabic], +Babouza [Arabic], El Deir [Arabic], El Roweyha [Arabic], with extensive +ruins; Zer Szabber [Arabic], Zer Louza [Arabic], Moar Bellyt [Arabic], +Moar Szaf [Arabic], Serdjeb Mantef [Arabic], Nahle [Arabic], El Rama +[Arabic], Kefr Rouma [Arabic], Shennan [Arabic], Ferkya [Arabic], +Belshou [Arabic], Ahsarein [Arabic], Moarrat Maater [Arabic], Djebale +[Arabic], Kefrneba [Arabic], Beskala [Arabic], Moarrata [Arabic], +Djousef [Arabic], El Fetteyry [Arabic], El Ahmeyry [Arabic], Erneba +[Arabic], El Arous [Arabic], Kon Szafra [Arabic], El Mezra [Arabic], +Aweyt [Arabic], Kefr Shelaye [Arabic], Szakhrein [Arabic], Benames +[Arabic], Kefr Djennab [Arabic], Szankoul [Arabic].] those of El Bara +are the most considerable of the whole, and as I had often heard the +people of the country mention them, I thought it worth while to take +this circuitous road to Hamah. + +The ruins are about ten minutes walk to the west of the village. +Directing our researches to that side we met with a sepulchral cave in +the immediate vicinity of the town; a broad staircase leads down to the +entrance of it, over which I copied this inscription: + +[Greek]. + +The following figure, in relief, was over it. We saw the same figure, +with variations, over the gates of several buildings in these ruins; the +episcopal staff is found in all + +[p.131]of them. The best executed one that I saw was of this form. On +the outside of the town are several sepulchral caves, and a few coffins. + +The town walls on the E. side are yet standing; they are very neatly +built with small stones, with a square pillar at every six or seven +paces, about nine feet high. The ruins extend for about half an hour +from south to north, and consist of a number of public buildings, +churches, and private habitations, the walls and roofs of some of which +are still standing. I found no inscriptions here. The stone with which +the buildings are constructed is a soft calcareous rock, that speedily +decays wherever it is exposed to the air; it is of the same description +as that found in the buildings of the towns about the mountain of St. +Simon, and in the ruins of St. Simon, where not a single legible +inscription remains, though, as at Bara, traces of them are seen in many +places. We surveyed the town in all directions, but saw no building +worth noticing, except three tombs, which are plain square structures +surmounted with pyramids. The pyramidal summit of one of them has +fallen. The interior of these tombs is a square of six paces; on the +side opposite the door is a stone coffin; and two others in each of the +other two walls; the pyramidal roof is well constructed, being hollow to +the top, with rounded angles, and without any interior support. On the +outside the pyramid is covered with thin slabs, on each of which is a +kind of knob, which gives the whole a very singular appearance. The +height of the whole building may be about twenty-four feet. In one of +the tombs is a window, the other is quite dark. Two of them stand near +together; a third is in a different part of the town. The sides of one +of the coffins is carved with a cross in the middle. + +[p.132]The mode of construction in all the private habitations is +similar to that which I noticed in the ancient towns of the Haouran, and +which, in fact, is still in use in most of the Arab villages in Syria, +with this difference, that the latter build with timber and mud instead +of stone. + +On the N. side of El Bara stands a castle, built in the Saracen or +Crusade style, with a spring near it, called Bir Alloun [Arabic], the +only one in the neighbourhood of the ancient town, and which apparently +was insufficient to the inhabitants, as we found many cisterns cut very +deep in the rock. Turning from the spring towards the present village, +we passed the tomb of a Turkish saint, called Kubbet Ibn Imaum Abou +Beker, where the son of Abou Beker is reported to have been killed: near +it is a cave, with eight receptacles for the dead. I saw there some +rocks of the same basaltic tufwacke which I met with in the Djebel el +Hasz and in ome of the districts of Haouran. + +The greater part of the villages of Djebel Rieha belong to the Dehly +Bashi, at Rieha. Feteyry belongs to the district of Marra; its +inhabitants have often been punished for their rebellious conduct, and +their predatory incursions into the neighbouring districts; their +spirit, however, is unbroken, and they still follow the same practices. +The frontiers of the Pashaliks of Damascus and Aleppo run across the +mountain of Rieha, which commences above Rieha, and extends to Kalaat el +Medyk, varying in breadth from two to five hours: it is a low but very +rocky chain, little fit for culture, except in the valleys; but it +abounds in game, especially wild boars; and ounces have sometimes been +killed in it. + +We left the inhospitable Bara at mid-day, with two armed men, to escort +us over the mountain into the valley of the Orontes. In half an hour we +passed a ruined stone bridge across a narrow Wady; it rests upon piers, +which are formed of immense blocks + +EL GHAB. + +[p.133]of stone piled upon one another. In one hour and twenty minutes +we came to Kon Szafra, in a fertile valley on the top of the mountain, +where a few families live in wretched huts amidst the ruins of an +ancient town. N.W. about three quarters of an hour is the village of +Mezraa. In an hour and forty minutes we reached the ruined town Djerada, +and at the end of two hours and a half, Kefr Aweyt, a small village; +Kefr, in the vulgar dialect, means ruins. Here the mountain is much less +rocky, and more fit for culture. Our road lay S.W. b. S. The village of +Feteyry, lies about one hour and a half south of Aweyt. After travelling +three hours we came in sight of the Orontes, and then began to descend. +The mountain on this side is rather steep, and its side is overgrown +with herbs which afford an excellent pasturage. The plant asphodel +(Siris [Arabic]) is very common; the inhabitants of Syria, by +pulverising its dried roots, and mixing the powder with water, make a +good glue, which is superior to that made with flour, as it is not +attacked by worms. In the summer the inhabitants of the valley pasture +their cattle in these mountains, as do likewise a few tribes of Arabs; +among these are the Akeydat, of whom we passed a small encampment. + +The part of Djebel Rieha which, beginning at Kon Szafra, extends to the +valley of the Orontes, on the one side towards Kalaat el Medyk, on the +other towards Djissr Shogher, bears the appellation of Djebel Shaehsabou +[Arabic]. The continuation of the same mountain towards Rieha, besides +its general name of Djebel Rieha, is likewise called Djebel Zaouy +[Arabic]. In four hours and a quarter we reached the plain below, near +an insulated hill, called Tel Aankye [Arabic], which seems to be +artificial. + +The valley bordered on the E. side by Djebel Shaehsabou, and on the W. +side by the mountains of the Anzeyry, is called El Ghab [Arabic]. It +extends almost due north from three hours S. of + +HOWASH. + +[p.134]Kalaat el Medyk to near Djissr Shogher: its breadth is about two +hours, but becomes narrower towards the north; it is watered by the +Aaszy [Arabic], or Orontes, which flows near the foot of the western +mountain, where it forms numerous marshes. The inhabitants of El Ghab +are a mongrel race of Arabs and Fellahs, and are called Arab el Ghab. +They live in winter time in a few villages dispersed over the valley, of +which they cultivate only the land adjacent to their villages; on the +approach of hot weather they retire with their cattle to the eastern +mountains, in search of pasture, and in order to escape the immense +swarms of flies and gnats [Arabic], which infest the Ghab in that +season. In the winter the Aaszy inundates a part of the low grounds +through which it flows, and leaves many small lakes and ponds; the +valley is watered also by numerous springs and by rivulets, which +descend from the mountains, especially from those on the east. To the N. +of Tel Aankye, on the E. side towards Djissr Shogher, which is eight +hours distant from Aankye, are the springs Ayn Bet Lyakhom [Arabic], Ayn +Keleydyn [Arabic], Shaouryt [Arabic], Kastal Hadj Assaf [Arabic], Djob +Soleyman [Arabic], Djob el Nassouh [Arabic], Djob Tel el Tyn [Arabic]. + +Having passed to the left of Aankye, where is a small village, we +continued our road up the valley due south; we passed near the spring +Ayn el Aankye; in a quarter of an hour farther Ayn el Kherbe, and at the +same distance farther south, the copious spring Ayn el Howash [Arabic], +from whence we turned to the right into the plain, and at the end of +four hours and three quarters from El Bara, reached the village Howash, +where we alighted at the Sheikh's house. + +February 21st--Howash is the principal village of the Ghab; it is +situated on the borders of a small lake, formed by the rivulet of Ayn el +Howash. The surrounding country was at this time for + +[p.135]the greater part inundated, and the Arabs passed in small boats +from one village to another; in summer the inundation subsides, but the +lakes remain, and to the quantity of stagnant water thus formed is owing +the pest of flies and gnats abovementioned. There are about one hundred +and forty huts at Howash, the walls of which are built of mud; the roofs +are composed of the reeds which grow on the banks of the Orontes; the +huts in which these people live in the mountain during the summer are +formed also of reeds, which are tied together in bundles, and thus +transported to the mountain, where they are put up so as to form a line +of huts, in which the families within are separated from each other only +by a thin partition of reeds. + +The Arabs of Howash cultivate Dhourra and wheat, and, like all the Arabs +of the Ghab, rear large herds of buffaloes, which are of a small kind, +and much less spirited than those I saw in the plains of Tarsous. It is +a common saying and belief among the Turks, that all the animal kingdom +was converted by their Prophet to the true faith, except the wild boar +and buffalo, which remained unbelievers; it is on this account that both +these animals are often called Christians. We are not surprised that the +boar should be so denominated; but as the flesh of the buffalo, as well +as its Leben or sour milk, is much esteemed by the Turks, it is +difficult to account for the disgrace into which that animal has fallen +among them; the only reason I could learn for it, is that the buffalo, +like the hog, has a habit of rolling in the mud, and of plunging into +the muddy ponds in the summer time, up to the very nose, which alone +remains visible above the surface. + +The territory of Djissr Shogher extends as far as Howash; from thence, +southward, begins the district of Kalaat el Medyk. The Sheikh of Howash, +called Mohammed el Omar, is noted in the adjoining districts for his +hospitality; but within bthese few years he + +AYN UKTOL. + +[p.136]has been reduced from great wealth to poverty by the extortions +of Topal Aly of Djissr Shogher, and of Milly Ismayl of Kalaat el Medyk; +the troops which are continually passing from one place to another are +consuming the last remains of his property. The night we slept at his +house, there were at least fifty people at supper, of whom about thirty +were poor Arabs of his village; the others were all strangers. + +We left Howash early in the morning, and rode along the eastern +mountains, in this beautiful valley, which I can compare only to the +valley of the Bekaa between the two Libani; the Ghab, however, has this +great advantage over the Bekaa, that it is copiously watered by a large +river and many rivulets, while the latter, in summer time, has little or +no water. At half an hour from Howash we met with several fragments of +shafts of columns, on the side of an ancient paved causeway. We followed +this causeway for upwards of an hour, although in some places no remains +of it were visible; at the distance of a quarter of an hour (at the rate +of about three miles and a half an hour), from the first heap of +fragments of columns, we met with a similar heap; then at an equal +interval a third, and again a fourth; not more than four columns seemed +to have stood together in any of these places. We conjectured that this +had been a Roman road, and the columns its milliaria. The causeway was +traced here and there farther to the south, but without any appearance +of stations; it probably followed the whole length of the valley from +Apamea to Djissr Shogher. One hour and a quarter from Howash is Ayn +Houyeth [Arabic], a copious spring. The Roman road is here about sixteen +feet in breadth. To the right, in the plain, is the village of Houyeth, +and near it another village, called Ain Uktol [Arabic]. On our right was +a perpendicular rock, upon which were patches of rich verdure. Two hours +and a quarter is Ayn el Taka [Arabic], a large spring, issuing + +LAKE EL TAKA. + +[p.137]from near the foot of the mountain, and forming a small lake +which communicates with the Orontes. Here are the remains of some +ancient walls. The temperature of this spring, as well as of those which +we passed on the way from Aankye, is like that of water which has been +heated by the sun in the midst of summer: it is probably owing to this +temperature, that we observed such vast numbers of fish in the lake, and +that they resort here in the winter from the Orontes; it is principally +the species called by the Arabs the Black Fish, on account of its ash- +coloured flesh; its length varies from five to eight feet. The fishery +is at present in the hands of the governor of Kalaat el Medyk, who +carries it on, on his own account; the period is from November till the +beginning of January. The fishermen, who are inhabitants of the village +Sherya [Arabic], situated on the borders of the lake, at half an hour's +distance from Ayn el Taka, enjoy a partial exemption from the Miri, or +land-tax; they fish with harpoons during the night, in small boats, +which carry five or six men; and so numerous are the fish, that by +throwing the harpoons at random, they fill their boats in the course of +the night. The quantity taken might be doubled, if there were a ready +market for them. The Kantar, of five hundred and eighty pounds weight, +is sold at about four pounds sterling. The fish are salted on the spot, +and carried all over Syria, and to Cyprus, for the use of the Christians +during their long and rigid fasts. The income derived from this fishery +by the governor of Kalaat el Medyk amounts to about one hundred and +twenty purses, or three thousand pounds sterling. Besides the black +fish, carp are also taken with nets, and carried to Hamah and Homs, +where the Turks are very fond of them. The depth of the lake is about +ten feet; its breadth is quite irregular, being seldom more than half an +hour; its length is about one hour and a half. + +One hour from Ayn el Taka, and the lake El Taka, we arrived at + + +KALAAT EL MEDYK. + +[p.138]the foot of the hill upon which stands Kalaat el Medyk [Arabic], +or the castle of Medyk. It probably occupies the site of Apamea: for +there can be little doubt that travellers have been wrong in placing +that city at Hamah, the ancient Epiphania, or at some ruins situated at +four hours distance from Hamah. Notwithstanding our desire to enter the +castle, we could not venture to do so. The governor, Milly Ismayl, a man +eighty-five years of age, and whose name has been well known in Syria +for the last twenty years, was last year, when governor of Hamah, +ordered by the Pasha of Damascus to march with his corps of Dehlys +towards Ladakie, to join the Tripoli army, then fighting against the +Anzeyrys, who inhabit the mountains between Ladakie and Antioch; in +passing by Kalaat el Medyk, on his way to Djissr Shogher, he found the +castle without a garrison, and took possession of it, thereby declaring +himself a rebel. Orders have in consequence been given to strike off his +head. Although his strong fortress enables him to defy these orders, his +dread of being surprised induces him to try every means in his power to +obtain his pardon from the Porte, and he has even sent considerable sums +of money to Constantinople. [Damascus. April 28, 1812.--In the latter +end of March, Milly Ismayl went to Hamah on some private business, and +during his absence with his troops Topal Aly quietly seized upon the +castle. The former now lives in retirement at Hamah, while the power and +reputation of Topal have been thus considerably increased in the +northern parts of Syria.] Under these circumstances my companion and +myself were afraid that he might lay hold of us, in order to make our +deliverance subservient to his purposes; we therefore passed by the foot +of the hill, while we sent in our attendants to buy some provisions. The +castle is built upon an almost insulated hill, communicating on its +eastern side only with the mountain called Djebel + +VALLEY OF THE ORONTES. + +[p.139]Oerimy [Arabic], the southernmost point of Djebel Shaehsabou, +which turns off here towards the east, and continues for about three +hours in an easterly direction. To the south of Oerimy the undulations +of the mountain continue for about three hours, and terminate in the +plain of Terimsy, of which I shall speak presently. The castle of Medyk +is built of small stones, with several turrets, and is evidently of +modern construction. On the E. side, close to the gate, are ruined +habitations; and to the S. on the declivity of the hill, is a mosque +enclosed by a wall, which forms a kind of out-work to the castle. Within +the castle wall are thirty or forty houses, inhabited by Turks and Greek +Christians. I was told that the only relic of antiquity is a wall in the +governor's palace, built with large blocks of stone. At the western foot +of the hill is a warm sulphureous spring, the water from which forms a +pond; on the edge of the pond I found a fragment of a fine fluted Doric +column. Near the spring is a large Khan for the accommodation of +travellers. On the N. side of the hill are several columns scattered +about. + +As we wished to follow the valley of the Orontes as far as possible, we +continued in the direction S. by W. along the plain, instead of taking +the straight road towards Hamah. Half an hour from Kalaat el Medyk is +Ayn Djoufar [Arabic], a rivulet flowing down the eastern hills through +Wady Djoufar; it runs towards the castle, and empties itself into the +pond at the castle spring. Up in the hills, in the direction of Wady +Djoufar, are the villages of Keframbouda [Arabic], Kournas [Arabic], +Sheikh Hadid [Arabic], and Djournye [Arabic], a little beyond Ayn +Djoufar we passed the spring Ayn Abou Attouf [Arabic]. In three quarters +of an hour, another rivulet called Ayn el Sheikh Djouban [Arabic], whose +source is up in the hills. The valley El Ghab continues here of the same +breadth as below. In the plain, about three quarters of + +SEKEYLEBYE. + +[p.140]an hour from Kalaat el Medyk, is a broad ditch, about fifteen +feet deep, and forty in breadth, which may be traced for an hour and a +half, towards the Orontes; near it is the village El Khandak (or the +Ditch.) This ditch is not paved, and may formerly have served for the +irrigation of the plain. + +After proceeding for two hours from the castle, our two guides refused +to go any farther, insisting that it would be impossible to continue +longer in the valley; to say the truth, it was in many parts covered +with water, or deep mud, for the rains had been incessant during several +months, and the road we had already come, from the castle, was with +difficulty passable; we were therefore obliged to yield, and turning to +our left a little way up the hill, rested at the village of Sekeylebye +[Arabic], situated on one of the low hills, near a rivulet called Wady +Sekeylebye. I may here observe that the springs coming from the eastern +mountains of the Ghab never dry up, and scarcely even diminish during +the height of summer. + +From a point over the village, which belongs to Hamah, I took the +following bearings: Tel Zeyn Abdein, near Hamah, S.E. Djebel Erbayn, +between Hamah and Homs, S.S.E. The gap which separates the Anti-Libanus +from the northern chain, to the W. of Homs and Hamah, S.by E. The +highest point of Djebel Szoleyb, to the W. of Hamah and Homs, S. Tel +Aasheyrne, in the plain, S. by W., Djebel Maszyad S.W. The eastern +termination of Djebel Shaehsabou N.E. by E. To the S. and E. of +Sekeylebye open the great plains which extend to the desert. To the S. +distant one hour, near the borders of the hills which enclose the valley +of the Ghab on this side, lies the Anzeyry village of Sherrar [Arabic], +a quarter of an hour from whence is an insulated hill called Tel +Amouryn. Two hours southward of Sekeylebye is Tel Aasheyrne, and half an +hour farther, Tel el Shehryh. In the valley, + +[p.141]about one hour and a half S.W. of Sekeylebye, lies the village El +Haourat [Arabic], with a ford over the Orontes, where there is a great +carp [Arabic] fishery. On the other side of the river is the insulated +hillock Tel el Kottra [Arabic]. The highest point of the mountain of the +Anzeyrys, on the W. side of the Orontes, appears to be opposite to +Kalaat el Medyk; it is called Kubbet Neby Metta [Arabic], and has a +chapel upon it, dedicated to the saint Metta, who is held in great +veneration by the Anzeyrys. The principal villages in this mountain, +belonging to the Anzeyrys, who live there upon the produce of their +excellent tobacco plantations, are the following: to the W. of Howash, +El Shattha [Arabic], to the S. of it, Merdadj [Arabic], farther S. Aanab +[Arabic]. To the W. of Kalaat el Medyk, Ayn el Keroum [Arabic], a +village whose inhabitants are rebels. To the W. of Ayn Djoban, Fakrou +[Arabic]; above Tel el Kottra, Kalaat el Kebeys [Arabic]. The mountain +belongs to the government of Ladakie, but is immediately under the +Anzeyry chief, El Fakker [Arabic], who resides in the castle of +Szaffytta. + +The inhabitants of the Ghab hold the Anzeyrys in contempt for their +religion, and fear them, because they often descend from the mountains +in the night, cross the Aaszy, and steal, or carry off by force, the +cattle of the valley. [A peasant of Sekeylebye enumerated to me the +following villages belonging to the government of Hamah, and situated to +the N. and W. of that town. Beginning east-wards of his own village, he +first mentioned El Sohhrye, then Setouhh, El Deyr, Kfer Djebein, Um +Kaszr, Kassabye, Um el Aamed, Kferambouda, Kornas, El Djeleyme, El +Mogheyer, El Habyt, Kefer Sedjen, Maar Zeyt, Maart Maater, Kefr Ayn, +Kadhyb el Ban, Tel Aas, Kefr Zeyty, El Lattame [Arabic], the principal +village of the district of Hamah, Khan Shiehoun, Maryk, Howeyr, Tel +Berran, Wady Edjfar, Wady Daurat, Maszyn Latmein, Tel Faes, Besseleya, +Meskyn, Tayebe, Um Tennoura, El Hammamye, El Seyh, Seidjar, Khattab, +Meharabe, Helfeya, Bellata, Kefr Behon, Zauran, Mardys, Maar Shour, El +Djadjye, Zeyn Abdein, El Oesher. East and south-east of Hamah are the +ruined villages: Kefr Houn, Ekfer Tab, Um Sedjra, Altouny, Kefr Eydoun, +Sahyan, Marhatal, Heish, Moaka, Wady el Fathh, [Arabic], Kefr Baesein, +El Tahh, El Djofer Djerdjenaes, El Ghatfa, Mart Arab, Aar [Arabic], +Seker, Turky, Etleyl el Szauan, El Temaanaa, El Taamy, El Sheteyb, El +Beleyl, Um Harteyn, El Zekeyat, El Hamra, Kfer Dadein, Maar Zelem, +Naszab, Tel Faes, El Medjdel, Howeyr, Aatshan el Gebeybat, Sydy Aaly, +Djaafar, Berdj el Abyadh, Berdj el Assuad, Kalaat el Ans, Stabelt Antar, +Deh lubby.] + +LAKE EL TERIMSY. + +[p.142]We passed the night in a half ruined house, without being able to +get any refreshments, although the village belonged to a particular +friend of mine at Hamah; indeed these peasants have scarcely any thing +left to keep themselves from starving. + +February 22d--Early this morning we set off in the direction of Hamah, +and after a march of an hour and a half over the plain, reached Tel +Szabba [Arabic], an insulated hillock in the plain; half an hour from it +lies a lake called Behirat Terimsy [Arabic], or, simply El Terimsy. Its +extent is from S.W. to N.E. about five to six miles long by two or three +in breadth; its waters are scarcely any where deeper than five feet; but +the depth of mud at the bottom is so great as to render it fatal for any +one to enter the lake, at least so I was informed by several peasants +who joined us. The water of the lake diminishes considerably in the +summer time, but very seldom dries up entirely; the only instance upon +record was during the great drought in 1810, when it is asserted that +springs were discovered in the bed of the lake. I am not quite certain +whether it communicates on the western side with the Orontes; our guides +were not unanimous in their answers; the river, however, must at least +pass very close to the lake. On the southern borders of the lake are the +Tels or mounds of earth, called Telloul el Fedjera [Arabic]; on the E. +side is the Tel Waoyat [Arabic]. The soil in the vicinity of the lake is +a soft clay; and I had great + +SEIDJAR. + +[p.143]difficulty in extricating my mare from the swamp as I approached +to reconnoitre the lake, which our company had left to the right of the +road. In the spring the earth hardens and is then covered with most +luxuriant pasturage. In March the peasants and Arabs of all the +neighbouring districts and villages, as well as the inhabitants of +Hamah, send their horses and mules here to graze under the care of +herdsmen, who regularly pitch their tents near the Waoyat, and each of +whom receives a piastre a head from the owners. The cattle remain here +till April. The best pasture seems to be on the S. and E. sides, the +banks of the lake being there lower than on the opposite sides. It was +here, perhaps, that the Seleucidae fed their herds of elephants. + +Two hours and a half from Sekeylebye, to the left of the road, is a +ruined mosque, called El Djelame; two hours and a half, Tel el Mellah, a +hillock in the plain. Our road continued through fertile but +uncultivated fields. E. of Tel Mellah about two hours is Tel Szeyad. Af +ter three hours and a half slow march we reached the Orontes, near a +spot where a large wheel, of the same construction as those at Hamah, +raises the water from the river, and empties it into a stone canal, by +means of which the neighbouring fields are irrigated. At the end of four +hours we came to a bridge over the river, on the other side of which the +castle of Seidjar is [Arabic] situated. If I recollect rightly, the +bridge rests upon thirteen arches; it is well built, but of modern +construction. It is placed at the point where the Aaszy issues from +between rugged mountains. On the summit of the range on the left bank +stands the castle. To the S.E. of the castle, on the right bank of the +river, is the tomb of a Sheikh called Aba Aabeyda el Djerrah [Arabic], +and to the S.E. of the latter, the Turkish chapel El Khudher. The +windings of the river in the narrow rocky valley, where no space +intervenes between the water and the base of the mountains, resemble + +KALAAT SEIDJAR. + +[p.144]those of the Wye in Monmouthshire. At the bridge of Seidjar, it +is nearly as large as the Wye at Chepstow. Just by the bridge is a Khan +of ancient construction; probably of the period of the crusades. A paved +way leads up to the castle, which is at present inhabited by a few +hundred families of peasants. It appears from the style of construction +that the castle as it now stands, is of the time of the latter Califes; +the walls, towers, and turrets, which surround it on the N., W. and S. +sides, are evidently Saracen; but it should seem, from the many remains +of Grecian architecture found in the castle, that a Greek town formerly +stood here. Fragments of columns and elegant Corinthian and Doric +capitals lie dispersed about it: amongst them is a coffin of fine +marble, nine feet long, but I could find no remains of any ancient +building. On the east side the river runs at the foot of a deep +precipice. In the south wall a strong well built tower is still in +perfect preservation; near it is a deep well, and a subterraneous +passage, which, we were informed, leads down to the river side. We +searched in vain for Greek inscriptions; on the above mentioned tower is +a fine Arabic inscription, but too high to be copied by such short- +sighted people as we both happened to be. On the gate of the castle, +which leads through an arched passage into the interior, I copied the +following, in which many foreign words are mixed with the Arabic: + +[Arabic]. + +Part of the declivity of the hill upon which the castle is built is +paved with flat stones, like the castle hills of Aleppo, El Hossn, + +PLAIN OF HAMAH. + +[p.145]and Szalkhat. In the plain to the S. and S.W. of the castle are +the remains of ancient buildings, which indicate the site of a town; +several fragments of columns, wrought stones, and a great deal of +rubbish, are lying about. We dug up an altar about four feet and a half +high, and one foot and an half square; on one of its four sides was this +inscription: + +[Greek]. + +To the S.W. of the bridge is the tomb of a saint named Sheikh Mahmoud, +which is to the W. of a small village called Haourein [Arabic]. The rock +of the hills, in the neighbourhood of Seidjar, is calcareous, of +considerable hardness, and of a reddish yellow colour; on the S. side of +the castle the rock seems to have been cut perpendicularly down almost +as low as the river, either for the purpose of adding to the defence of +the fortress on this side, or to facilitate the drawing up of water from +the river. + +We now crossed the low hills to the south of Seidjar, and entered the +plain of Hamah, which is very little cultivated here. We proceeded in a +south-easterly direction. In one hour and a half from Seidjar we passed +a number of wells cut close to each other in the rocky ground. At one +hour and three quarters is a small bridge over a torrent called El +Saroudj [Arabic], which empties itself into the Orontes. In two hours we +saw to our left, about half an hour distant, the village Hedjam, on the +right bank of the river; in two hours and three quarters, a small +village + +HAMAH. + +[p.146]called El Shyhy [Arabic], was to our right; at three hours, we +passed the village El Djadjye [Arabic], distant from the left of the +road a quarter of an hour; and near it the village El Kasa. The fertile +soil now begins to be well cultivated. In four hours we reached Hamah, +where we alighted, at the house of Selym Keblan, one of the Mutsellim's +secretaries, the most gentlemanly Levantine I had yet known. + +Hamah is situated on both sides of the Orontes; a part of it is built on +the declivity of a hill, and a part in the plain; the quarters in the +plain are called Hadher [Arabic] and El Djissr; those higher up El +Aleyat [Arabic], and El Medine. Medine is the abode of the Christians. +The town is of considerable extent, and must contain at least thirty +thousand inhabitants, of whom the Greek families, according to the +Bishop's information, are about three hundred. In the middle of the city +is a square mound of earth, upon which the castle formerly stood; the +materials, as well as the stones with which it is probable that the hill +was faced, have been carried away and used in the erection of modern +buildings. There are four bridges over the Orontes + +in the town. The river supplies the upper town with water by means of +buckets fixed to high wheels (Naoura) [Arabic], which empty themselves +into stone canals, supported by lofty arches on a level with the upper +parts of the town. There are about a dozen of the wheels; the largest of +them, called Naoura el Mohammedye, is at least seventy feet in diameter. +The town, for the greater part, is well built, although the walls of the +dwellings, a few palaces excepted, are of mud; but their interior makes +amends for the roughness of their external appearance. The Mutsellim +resides in a seraglio, on the banks of the river. I enquired in vain for +a piece of marble, with figures in relief, which La Roque saw; but in +the corner of a house in the Bazar is a stone with a number + +[p.147]of small figures and signs, which appears to be a kind of +hieroglyphical writing, though it does not resemble that of Egypt. I +counted thirteen mosques in the town, the largest of which has a very +ancient Minaret. + +The principal trade of Hamah is with the Arabs, who buy here their tent +furniture and clothes. The Abbas, or woollen mantles made here, are much +esteemed. Hamah forms a part of the province of Damascus, and is usually +the station of three or four hundred horsemen, kept here by the Pasha to +check the Arabs, who inundate the country in spring and summer. Few rich +merchants are found in the town; but it is the residence of many opulent +Turkish gentlemen, who find in it all the luxuries of the large towns, +at the same time that they are in some measure removed from the +extortions of the government. Naszyf Pasha, of the family of Adein, who +has an annual income of about £8000. sterling, has built a very handsome +house here. He is well known for his travels in Europe, and Barbary, and +for his brave defence of Cairo, after the defeat of the Grand Vizir by +General Kleber near Heliopolis. Being curious to see him, I waited upon +him, notwithstanding the rule I had prescribed to myself of mixing as +little as possible with Turkish grandees, and presented him a letter of +recommendation. We conversed for about half an hour; he was very civil +for a Pasha, and made many enquiries concerning Prince Augustus (the +Duke of Sussex), whom he had known in Italy. + +The government of Hamah comprises about one hundred and twenty inhabited +villages, and seventy or eighty which have been abandoned. The western +part of its territory is the granary of northern Syria, though the +harvest never yields more than ten for one, chiefly in consequence of +the immense numbers of mice, + +[p.148]which sometimes wholly destroy the crops. I did not see any of +these animals. + +From a point on the cliff above the Orontes, called El Sherafe, the +traveller enjoys a beautiful view over the town. At one hour and a half +from it lies the Djebel Zeyn Aabdein [Arabic] in the direction N. by E.; +this mountain has two prominent summits, called the Horns of Zeyn +Aabdein [Arabic]; its continuation southward is called Djebel Keysoun, +the highest point of which bears E. 1/2 N.; still farther south it +protrudes in a point in the neighbourhood of Salamie, which bears S.E. +and is called Djebel el Aala, upon which stands the castle called Kalaat +Shemmasye [Arabic]. To the S. of Hamah, two hours distant, lies an +insulated chalky mountain, two or three hours in length, from west to +east, called Djebel Erbayn; its highest point bearing from Hamah S. 1/2 +E. The Orontes flows on its E. side. + +The Aaszy irrigates a great number of gardens belonging to Hamah, which +in winter time are generally inundated. Whereever the gardens lie higher +than the river, wheels like those already mentioned are met with in the +narrow valley, for the purpose of raising up water to them. In summer +the water of the river is quite clear. + +February 27th.--We remained five days in the hospitable house of Selym, +where a large company of Turks and Arabs assembled every evening; and it +was with difficulty that we could prevail upon him to let us depart. The +distance between Hamah and Tripoli, by the direct road, is four days, or +three days by performing on the first a thirteen hours journey from +Hamah to Hossn; but we wished to visit the castle of Maszyad, the seat +of the Ismaylys, which is laid down upon most of the maps of Syria, but +has rarely been visited by any travellers. We set out about mid-day, and +travelling in a S.W. + +SHYGHATA. + +[p.149]direction came in an hour and a half to the Christian village +Kefrbehoun Arabic]; and in two hours, to a hillock in the plain called +Tel Afyoun [Arabic], i.e. the opium-hill, with an ancient well. The +number of these insulated mounds of earth in the eastern plain of Syria +is very remarkable; their shape is sometimes so regular, that there can +be no doubt of their being artificial; in several places there are two +standing close together. It is a general remark that wherever there is +such a mound, a village is found near it, and a spring, or at least an +ancient well. At two hours and a half from Hamah is El Dobbe, a small +village near the road: here the ground begins to be uneven, covered with +rocks, and little fit for cultivation. At three hours and three quarters +is Tel Mowah [Arabic] upon elevated ground, with the ruins of a +considerable village; from hence Tel Afyoun bears W. 1/2 S., Hamah +E.N.E., Homs S.S.E. In four hours and a half we came to considerable +heaps of large hewn stones, and ruined habitations, called El Feiryouny +[Arabic], where a few families of Kurdines had pitched their tents. On +the side of the road is a large and very neatly cut ancient well. The +face of the country is hilly with a rocky soil, here and there +cultivated. At the end of five hours and a half we reached Byszyn +[Arabic], a village inhabited by Anzeyrys, where we slept. + +February 28th.--One hour and a half from Byszyn is the village of +Shyghata [Arabic] The road ascends, through a rocky country, overgrown +with shrubs and low trees. At two hours and a half is a ruined bridge +over the winter torrent El Saroudj, which we had passed in the plain +below, between Seidjar and Hamah; it was now so much swelled by the +heavy rains, that we were trying in vain to cross it in different +places, when a shepherd came to our assistance, and shewed us a ford. +Considerable as the stream was, it is dried up in summer. We proceeded +from the bridge in a W.N.W. direction, and, after a march of an hour and +three quarters, during [p.150]which we crossed several torrents, we +reached the castle of Maszyad [Arabic], or, as it is written in the +books of the Miri, Meszyaf [Arabic]. The approach to the castle on two +sides is across a large moor; to the N. of it are the highest points of +the mountain of Maszyad, at the foot of which it stands, upon a high and +almost perpendicular rock, commanding the wild moor in every direction, +and presenting a gloomy romantic landscape. On the W. side is a valley, +where the inhabitants cultivate wheat and barley. The town of Maszyad is +built between the castle and the mountain, on the declivity of the +mountain; it is upwards of half an hour in circumference, but the houses +are in ruins, and there is not a single well built dwelling in the town, +although stone is the only material used. The town is surrounded by a +modern wall, and has three stone gates, of more ancient construction; on +one of them I saw the following inscription: + +[Arabic]. + +The last line, as I was told by a man of Tripoli, contains the names of +some of the deities of the Ismaylys. The mosque is now in ruins. There +are several Arabic inscriptions in different parts of the town, which +are all of the time of El Melek el Dhaher [Arabic]. The castle is +surrounded by a wall of moderate thickness; and contains a few private +habitations. Near the entrance, which is arched, stands a Corinthian +capital, of indifferent workmanship, the only remain of Grecian +architecture that I saw here. Within this gate is an arched passage, +through which the road ascends to the inner and highest parts of the +castle. Upon the vault I read the following inscription in large +characters:--[Arabic] + +MASZYAD. + +[p.151]"The deed (or fabric) of the Mamlouk Kosta." On the top of the +rock are some apartments belonging to the castle; which appear to have +had several floors. From a Kyosk, which the present governor has built +here, there is a beautiful view down into the western valley. Maszyad is +remarkable from being the chief seat of the religious sect called +Ismayly [Arabic]. Enquiries have often been made concerning the +religious doctrines of this sect, as well as those of the Anzeyrys and +Druses. Not only European travellers, and Europeans resident in Syria, +but many natives of influence, have endeavoured to penetrate the +mysteries of these idolaters, without success, and several causes +combine to make it probable, that their doctrines will long remain +unknown. The principal reason is, that few individuals among them become +acquainted with the most important and secret tenets of their faith; the +generality contenting themselves with the observance of some exterior +practices, while the arcana are possessed by the select few. It will be +asked, perhaps, whether their religious books would not unveil the +mystery? It is true that all the different sects possess books, which +they regard as sacred, but they are intelligible only to the initiated. +A sacred book of the Anzeyrys fell into the hands of a chief of the army +of Youssef Pasha, which plundered the castles of that sect in 1808; it +came afterwards into the possession of my friend Selym of Hamah, who had +destined it as a present to me; but he was prevailed upon to part with +it to a travelling physician, and the book is now in the possession of +M. Rousseau, the French consul at Aleppo, who has had it translated into +French, and means to publish it; but it will probably throw little light +upon the question. Another difficulty arises from the extreme caution of +the Ismaylys upon this subject whenever they are obliged to visit any +part of the country under the Turkish government, they assume the +character of Mussulmans; being + +[p.152]well aware that if they should be detected in the practice of any +rite contrary to the Turkish religion, their hypocrisy, in affecting to +follow the latter, would no longer be toleraled; and their being once +clearly known to be pagans, which they are only suspected to be at +present, would expose them to the heaviest exactions, and might even be +followed by their total expulsion or extirpation. Christians and Jews +are tolerated because Mohammed and his immediate successors granted them +protection, and because the Turks acknowledge Christ and the prophets; +but there is no instance whatever of pagans being tolerated. + +The Ismaylys are generally reported to adore the pudendum muliebre, and +to mix on certain days of the year in promiscuous debauchery. When they +go to Hamah they pray in the mosque, which they never do at Kalaat +Maszyad. This castle has been from ancient times their chief seat. One +of them asserted that his religion descended from Ismayl, the son of +Abraham, and that the Ismaylys had been possessed of the castle since +the time of El Melek el Dhaher, as acknowledged by the Firmahns of the +Porte. A few years since they were driven out of it by the Anzeyrys, in +consequence of a most daring act of treachery. The Anzeyrys and Ismaylys +have always been at enmity, the consequence, perhaps, of some religious +differences. In 1807, a tribe of the former having quarrelled with their +chief, quitted their abode in their mountains, and applied to the Emir +of Maszyad for an asylum. The latter, glad of an opportunity to divide +the strength of his enemies, readily granted the request, and about +three hundred, with their Sheikh Mahmoud, settled at Maszyad, the Emir +carrying his hospitality so far as to order several families to quit the +place, for the purpose of affording room for the new settlers. For +several months all was tranquil, till one day, when the greater part of +the people were at work in the fields, the Anzeyrys, at a given signal, + +[p.153]killed the Emir and his son in the castle, and then fell upon the +Ismaylys who had remained in their houses, sparing no one they could +find, and plundering at the same time the whole town. On the following +day the Anzeyrys were joined by great numbers of their countrymen, which +proved that their pretended emigration had been a deep-laid plot; and +the circumstance of its being kept secret for three months by so great a +number of them, serves to shew the character of the people. About three +hundred Ismaylys perished on this occasion; the families who had escaped +in the sack of the town, fled to Hamah, Homs, and Tripoli, and their +treacherous enemies successfully attacked three other Ismayly castles in +the mountain. The Ismaylys then implored the protection of Youssef +Pasha, at that time governor of Damascus, who marched with four or five +thousand men against the Anzeyrys, retook the castles which had belonged +to the Ismaylys, but kept the whole of the plunder of the Anzeyrys to +himself. This castle of Maszyad, with a garrison of forty men, resisted +his whole army for three months. + +In 1810, after Youssef Pasha had been exiled by the Porte, the Ismaylys +who had fled to Hamah, Homs, and Tripoli returned, and Maszyad is now +inhabited by about two hundred and fifty Ismayly families, and by thirty +of Christians. The chief, who resides in the castle, is styled Emir; his +name is Zogheby [Arabic], of the family of Soleiman; he informed me that +his family had been possessors of the Emirship from remote times, and +that they are recognised as such by express Firmahns from the Porte; +Zogherby is a nephew of Mustafa, the Emir who was slain by the Anzeyrys. +Some of his relations command in the Ismayly castles of El Kadmous, El +Kohf, El Aleyka, and El Merkah, in the mountains towards Ladakie. After +what has lately taken place, it + +[p.154]extreme: they are, apparently, at peace, but many secret murders +are committed: "Do you suppose," said a handsome young man to me, while +his eyes flashed with anger, "that these whiskers shall turn gray before +I shall have taken my revenge for a slaughtered wife and two infant +children?" But the Ismaylys are weak; I do not think that they can +muster eight hundred fire-locks, while the Anzeyrys are triple that +number. + +The principal produce of the neighbourhood of Maszyad is silk. They have +large plantations of mulberry trees, which are watered by numerous +rivulets descending on all sides from the mountain into the valley; and +as few of them dry up in summer, this must be a delightful residence +during the hot season. There are three or four Ismayly villages in the +neighbourhood of Maszyad. + +From the castle the ruins called Deir Szoleib bear W. distant about two +hours and a half. I was told that there are large buildings at that +place constructed with immense blocks of stone, and bearing infidel +inscriptions; but the natives of these countries are unable to +distinguish sculptured ornaments from letters in unknown languages, and +travellers are often deceived by reports of long inscriptions, which +prove to be nothing more than a few decorations of architecture. + +February 29th.--Having been disappointed in our hopes of finding any +thing remarkable at Kalaat el Maszyad, we directed our course to +Tripoli. We began to fear that the incessant rains would make the +torrents impassable, particularly the Saroudj, which we crossed +yesterday. The Emir gave us one of his men to guide and protect us +through his territories. After travelling for an hour and a half across +the moor, along the side of the upper ridge of the mountains of Maszyad, +we arrived at the village Soeida, near to which is the Mezar Sheikh +Mohammed, with some plantations of mulberry trees. E. of it half an hour +is + +NYSZAF. + +[p.155]Kherbet Maynye, a ruined village, with some ancient buildings; +and in the mountain above it, the ruined castles Reszafa [Arabic], and +Kalaat el Kaher [Arabic]. There are several other ruined castles in this +district, which appear to have been all built about the twelfth century. +At two hours and a half is Beyadhein [Arabic] a village inhabited by +Turkmans; to the E. of it, about half an hour, is a Tel in the plain, +with an arched building upon it called Kubbet el Aadera, or the dome of +the Virgin Mary, reported to be the work of the Empress Helena. On the +summit of a mountain S. of the village, one hour, is the ruined castle +Barein [Arabic]. Near Beyadhein we crossed the torrent Saroudj a second +time; its different branches inundated the whole plain. Two hours and a +half is the village Kortouman [Arabic], inhabited by Turkmans, from +whence Maszyad bears N. by W. Here we passed another torrent, near a +mill, and in a storm of heavy rain and thunder reached Nyszaf, three +hours and three quarters from Maszyad, the road from Kortouman lying S. +by W. for the greater part in the plain. + +Nyszaf is a considerable village, with large plantations of mulberry +trees. It is inhabited by Turks and Anzeyrys. The mountain to the +eastward, on the declivity of which it is built, is peopled by Turkmans, +the greater part of whom do not speak Arabic. We dried our clothes at a +fire in the Sheikh's house, and took some refreshment; we then ascended +the mountain to the S. of the village, and my guides, who were afraid of +the road through the upper part of the mountain, refusing to proceed, we +halted for the night at Shennyn [Arabic], an Anzeyry village halfway up +the mountain. The declivity of the mountain is covered with vineyards, +growing upon narrow terraces, constructed to prevent the rain from +washing away the soil. From the grapes is extracted the Debs, which they +sell at Hamah; three quintals of grapes are + +SHENNYN. + +[p.156]necessary to make one quintal of Debs, which was sold last year +at the rate of £1. per quintal. + +As our hosts appeared to be good natured people, I entered, after +supper, into conversation with them, with a view to obtain some +information upon their religious tenets; but they were extremely +reserved upon this head. I had heard that the Anzeyrys maintained from +time to time some communication with the East Indies, and that there was +a temple there belonging to their sect, to which they occasionally sent +messengers. In the course of our conversation I said that I knew there +were some Anzeyrys in the East Indies; they were greatly amazed at this, +and enquired how I had obtained my information: and their countenances +seemed to indicate that there was some truth in my assertion. They are +divided into different sects, of which nothing is known except the +names, viz. Kelbye, Shamsye, and Mokladjye. Some are said to adore the +sun and the stars, and others the pudendum muliebre. The Mokledjye wear +in their girdle a small iron hook, which they use when making water; it +is also said that they prostrate themselves every morning before their +naked mothers, saying [Arabic], and it is asserted that they have a +promiscuous intercourse with their females in a dark apartment every +Friday night; but these are mere reports. It is a fact, however, that +they entertain the curious belief that the soul ought to quit the dying +person's body by the mouth. And they are extremely cautious against any +accident which they imagine may prevent it from taking that road. For +this reason, whenever the government of Ladakie or Tripoli condemns an +Anzeyry to death, his relations offer considerable sums, that he may be +empaled instead of hanged. I can vouch for the truth of this belief, +which proves at least that they have some idea of a future state. It +appears that + +WADY ROWYD. + +[p.157]there are Anzeyrys in Anatolia and at Constantinople. Some years +since a great man of this sect died in the mountain of Antioch, and the +water with which his corpse had been washed was carefully put into +bottles and sent to Constantinople and Asia Minor. + +March lst.--The weather having cleared up a little, we set out early, +and in an hour and a half reached the top of the mountain, from whence +we enjoyed a beautiful view to the east over the whole plain, and to the +W. and S. towards Hossn and the Libanus. Hamah bore E.N.E. and Kalaat +Maszyad N. by E. The castle of Hossn bore S.S.W. This part of the +mountain is called Merdj el Dolb [Arabic] or Dhaheret Hadsour [Arabic]. +On the top there is fine pasturage, with several springs. To the left, +half an hour, is the high point called Dhaheret Koszeir, where is a +ruined castle; this summit appears to be the highest point of the chain. +The summit, on the western declivity, is the copious spring called Near +Ayn Kydrih [Arabic]. In two hours we came to the village Hadsour, on the +western side of the mountain, with the Mezar Sheikh Naszer. The country +to the west of the summit belongs to the government of the district of +Hossn. We now descended into the romantic valley Rowyd [Arabic], full of +mulberry and other fruit trees, with a torrent rolling in the bottom of +it. At the end of two hours and three quarters is the village +Doueyrellin [Arabic], on the E. side of the Wady; on its W. side, in a +higher situation, stands the village El Keyme; and one hour farther, to +the S. of the latter, on the same side, is the village El Daghle +[Arabic]. We crossed the Wady at the foot of the mountain, and continued +along its right bank, on the slope of the mountain, through orchards and +fields, till we arrived at the foot of the mountain upon which Kalaat el +Hossn is built. Our horses being rather fatigued, we sent them on to +Deir Djordjos, (the convent of St. George), where we intended + +LALAAT EL HOSSN. + +[p.158]to sleep, and walked up to the castle, which is distant six hours +and a half from Shennyn. It is built upon the top of an insulated hill, +which communicates on its western side only, with the chain of mountains +we had passed. Below the walls of the castle, on the east side, is the +town of Hossn, consisting of about one hundred and fifty houses. The +castle is one of the finest buildings of the middle age I ever saw. It +is evidently of European construction; the lions, which are carved over +the gate, were the armorial bearings of the Counts of Thoulouse, whose +name is often mentioned in the history of the crusades. It is surrounded +by a deep paved ditch, on the outside of which runs a wall flanked with +bastions and towers. The walls of the castle itself are very regularly +constructed, and are ornamented in many places with high gothic arches, +projecting several feet from the wall. The inner castle, which is +seventy paces in breadth, and one hundred and twenty in length, is +defended by bastions. A broad staircase, under a lofty arched passage, +leads up from the gate into the castle, and was accessible to horsemen. +In the interior we particularly admired a large saloon, of the best +Gothic architecture, with arches intersecting each on the roof. In the +middle of a court-yard we noticed a round pavement of stones elevated +about a foot and a half above the ground, and eighteen paces in +diameter; we could not account for its use; it is now called El Sofra, +or the table. There are many smaller apartments in the castle, and +several gothic chambers, most of which are in perfect preservation; +outside the castle an aqueduct is still standing, into which the rain +water from the neighbouring hills was conducted by various channels, and +conveyed by the aqueduct into the castle ditch, which must have served +as a reservoir for the use of the garrison, while it added at the same +time to the strength of the fortress. Figures of lions are seen in +various places on the outer wall, as well as Arabic inscriptions, + +MAR DJORDJOS. + +[p.159]which were too high to be legible from below. In other places, +amidst half effaced inscriptions, the name of El Melek el Dhaher is +distinguished. I saw no Greek inscriptions, nor any remains of Grecian +architecture. The following is upon a stone at the entrance of one of +the peasants' huts, of which there are about fifty within the castle and +on the parapets: + +[Latin]. + +There are roses sculptured over the entrance of several apartments. + +If Syria should ever again become the theatre of European warfare, this +castle would be an important position; in its neighbourhood the Libanus +terminates and the mountains of northern Syria begin; it therefore +commands the communication from the eastern plains to the sea shore. El +Hossn is the chief place of a district belonging to the government of +Hamah; the Miri is rented of the Pasha of Damascus, by the Greek family +of El Deib, who are the leading persons here. There is an Aga in the +castle, with a few men for its defence. Having examined Hossn, we +descended to the convent of Mar Djordjos (St. George), which lies half +an hour to the N.W. and there passed the night. In the Wady towards the +convent chestnut trees grow wild; I believe they are found in no other +part of Syria. The Arabs call them Abou Feroue [Arabic], i.e. +"possessing a fur." + +March 2d.--The Greek convent of St. George is famous throughout Syria, +for the miracles which the saint is said to perform there. It is +inhabited by a prior and three monks, who live in a state of + +SZAFFYTTA. + +[p.160]affluence; the income of the convent being very considerable, +passengers of all descriptions are fed gratis, and as it stands in the +great road from Hamah to Tripoli, guests are never wanting. The common +entertainment is Bourgul, with bread and olives; to Christians of +respectability wine is added. The convent has large vine and olive +plantations in its neighbourhood; it collects alms all over Syria, +Anatolia, and the Greek islands, and by a Firmahn of the Porte, is +declared to be free from all duties to the Pasha. Youssef Pasha of +Damascus, however, made them pay forty thousand piastres, on the +pretence that they had built a Khan for poor passengers without his +permission. The prior, who is chosen by the brotherhood of the convent, +is elected for life, and is under the immediate direction of the +Patriarch of Damascus. Caravans generally stop at the Khan, while +respectable travellers sleep in the convent itself. A spring near the +convent is said to flow only at intervals of two or three days. The +prior told me that the convent was built at the same time with the +castle of Hossn. + +We left Mar Djordjos in a heavy rain, descended into the Wady Mar +Djordjos, and after two hours slight descent reached the plain near a +spring called Neba el Khalife [Arabic], round which are some ancient +walls. A vast plain now opened before us, bordered on the west by the +sea, which, however, was not yet distinguishable; on the N. by the +mountains of Tartous, on the E. by the Anzeyrys mountains, and on the +south by the Djebel Shara [Arabic], which is the lower northern +continuation of the Djebel Libnan and Djebel Akkar. To the right, +distant about three hours, we saw the castle of Szaffytta [Arabic], the +principal seat of the Anzeyry, where their chief El Fakker resides. It +is situated on the declivity of the Anzeyry mountains; near it stands an +ancient tower, called Berdj Mar Mykhael, or St. Michael's Tower. About +seven hours from Szaffytta, towards Kalaat Maszyadt, + +[p.161]are the ruins of a temple now called Hassn Soleiman, which, +according to all reports, is very deserving of the traveller's notice; +as indeed are all the mountains of Szaffytta, and the whole Anzeyry +territory, where are the castles of Merkab, Khowabe, Kadmous, El Aleyka, +El Kohf, Berdj Tokhle, Yahmour, Berdj Miar, Areyme, and several others. +It would take ten days to visit these places. + +We continued along the foot of the hills which form the Djebel Shara; +they are inhabited by Turkmans and Kurdines. We passed several torrents, +and had great difficulty in getting through the swampy soil. After a +march of five hours and a half, we came to a rivulet, which had swollen +so much from the rain of last night and this day that we could not +venture to pass it. We found several peasants who were as anxious to +cross it as ourselves, but who could not get their mules over. As the +rain had ceased, we waited on the banks for the decrease of the waters, +which is usually as rapid as their rise, but it soon appeared that the +rain still continued to fall in the mountains, for the stream, instead +of decreasing, became much larger. In this difficulty we had to choose +between returning to the convent and sleeping in the open air on the +banks of the rivulet; we preferred the latter, and passed an +uncomfortable night on the wet ground. By daylight the waters had so far +decreased, that we passed over without any accident. + +March 3rd.--On the opposile side we met with another and larger branch +of the same stream, and at the end of an hour and a quarter reached the +Nahr el Kebir (the ancient Eleutherus), near a ruined bridge. This is a +large torrent, dangerous at this period of the year from its rapidity. +The Hamah caravans have been known to remain encamped on its banks for +weeks together, without being able to cross it. On the opposite side +stands a Khan, called Ayash, with the tomb of the saint, Sheikh Ayash +[Arabic], + +TEL ARKA. + +[p.162]which is usually the third day's station of the caravans from +Hamah to Tripoli. Having crossed the river we followed the northern +swellings of the mountain Akkar in a S.W. direction, having the plain +all the way on our right. In one hour and a quarter from the Khan, we +passed at half an hour's distance to the S. an insulated hillock in the +plain, on which are some ruined buildings called Kella [Arabic], and to +the east of it half an hour, another hillock called Tel Aarous [Arabic]; +and at the same distance S.E. of the latter, the village Haytha +[Arabic]. + +At two hours and a quarter from the Khan Ayash we passed the torrent +Khereybe, coming down the Wady of that name, on our left, and the castle +and village Khereybe, at a quarter of an hour from the road. Two hours +and three quarters, is the village Halbe, on the declivity of the +mountain. Three hours and a half, an old mosque upon the mountain above +the road, with a village called El Djamaa ([Arabic] the mosque). Near to +it, and where the mountains runs out in a point towards the north, is a +hill called Tel Arka, which appears by its regularly flattened conical +form and smooth sides to be artificial. I was told that on its top are +some ruins of habitations, and walls. Upon an elevation on its E. and S. +sides, which commands a beautiful view over the plain, the sea, and the +Anzeyry mountains, are large and extensive heaps of rubbish, traces of +ancient dwellings, blocks of hewn stone, remains of walls, and fragments +of granite columns; of the latter I counted eight, six of which were of +gray, and the other two of fine red granite. Here then must have stood +the ancient town of Arca, where Alexander Severus was born: the hill was +probably the citadel, or a temple may have stood on its top. On the west +side of the hill runs the deep valley Wady Akka, with a torrent of the +same name, which we passed, over a bridge near a mill. From thence the +direction of our road continued W.S.W. From an elevated spot, at four + +TRIPOLI. + +[p.163]hours and a half, Sheikh Ayash bore N.E. b. N. In five hours we +reached the sea-shore; the sea here forms a bay extending from the point +of Tartous as far as Tripoli. We now turned round the mountains on our +left, along the sea-beach, and passed several tents of Turkmans. Five +hours and a half, at a short distance to the left, is an ancient tower +on the slope of the mountain, called Abou Hannein [Arabic]. Five hours +and three quarters is Khan el Bered, with a bridge over the Nahr el +Bered, or cold river. At six hours and a half is the village Menny, to +the left, at the foot of the mountain, the road lying through a low +plain half an hour in breadth, between the mountain called Torboul and +the sea; that part only which is nearest to the mountain is cultivated. +In nine hours we arrived at Tripoli, and alighted at the house of the +English agent Mr. Catziflis. + +This city, which is called Tarabolos by the Arabs, and Tripoli by the +Greeks and Italians, is built on the declivity of the lowest hills of +the Libanus, and is divided by the Nahr Kadisha [Kadisha, in the Syrian +language, means the holy [Arabic], the proper name of the river is Nahr +Abou Ali.] into two parts, of which the southern is the most +considerable. On the N. side of the river, upon the summit of the hill, +stands the tomb of Sheikh Abou Naszer, and opposite to it, on the S. +side, the castle, built in the time of the crusades; this castle has +often been in a ruined state, but it has lately been put into complete +repair by Berber Aga. Many parts of Tripoli bear marks of the ages of +the crusades; amongst these are several high arcades of gothic +architecture, under which the streets run. In general the town is well +built, and is much embellished by the gardens, which are not only +attached to the houses in the town, but cover likewise the whole +triangular plain lying between it and the sea. Tripoli stands in + +[p.164]one of the most favoured spots in all Syria; as the maritime +plain and neighbouring mountains place every variety of climate within a +short distance of the inhabitants. The Wady Kadisha, higher up than +Tripoli, is one of the most picturesque valleys I ever saw. At half an +hour from the town is an aqueduct across the Wady, built upon arches; +the natives call it Kontaret el Brins [Arabic], a corruption, perhaps, +of Prince. It conveys the water used for drinking, into the town, by +means of a canal along the left bank of the Kadisha. A few yards above +the aqueduct is a bridge across the stream. + +I estimate the inhabitants of Tripoli at about fifteen thousand; of +these one-third are Greek Christians, over whom a bishop presides. I was +told that the Greeks are authorized, by the Firmahns of the Porte, to +prevent any schismatic Greek from entering the town. This may not be the +fact;--it is however certain, that whenever a schismatic is discovered +here, he is immediately thrown into prison, put in irons, and otherwise +very ill-treated. Such a statement can be credited by those only who are +acquainted with the fanatism of the eastern Christians. There is no +public building in the town deserving of notice. The Serai was destroyed +during the rebellion of Berber. The Khan of the soap manufacturers is a +large well built edifice, with a water basin in the middle of it. + +Ten minutes above the town, in the Wady Kadisha, is a convent of +Derwishes, most picturesquely situated above the river, but at present +uninhabited. At half an hour's walk below the town, at the extreme angle +of the triangular plain, is El Myna, or the port of Tripoli, which is +itself a small town; the interjacent plain was formerly covered with +marshes, which greatly injured the air; but the greater part of them +have been drained, and converted into gardens. The remains of a wall may +still be traced [p.165]across the triangular plain; from which it +appears that the western point was the site of the ancient city; +wherever the ground is dug in that direction the foundations of houses +and walls are found; indeed it is with stones thus procured that the +houses in the Myna are built. + +From the Myna northward to the mouth of the Kadisha runs a chain of six +towers, at about ten minutes walk from each other, evidently intended +for the defence of the harbour; around the towers, on the shore, and in +the sea, lie a great number of columns of gray granile; there are at +least eighty of them, of about a foot and a quarter in diameter, lying +in the sea; many others have been built into the walls of the towers as +ornaments. To each of the towers the natives have given a name. The most +northern is called Berdj Ras el Nahr, from its being near the Kadisha; +those to the south are Berdj el Dekye, Berdj el Sebaa [Arabic], or the +lion's tower;[The natives say, that on the shield carved above The +gateway of this tower two lions were formerly visible.--These were the +arms of Count Raymond de Thoulouse. I saw at Tripoli a leaden seal of +the Count, with a tower, meant probably for the Berdj el Sebaa, on the +reverse.] Berdj el Kanatter [Arabic]; Berdj el Deyoun [Arabic], and +Berdj el Mogharabe [Arabic]. + +The harbour of Tripoli is formed by a line of low rocks, stretching from +the point of the Myna about two miles into the sea, towards the north; +they are called by the natives Feitoun [Arabic]. On the north the point +of Tartous in some measure breaks the impetuosity of the sea; but when +the northern winds blow with violence, vessels are often driven on +shore. In a N.N.W. direction from the harbour extends a line of small +islands, the farthest of which is about ten miles distant from the main +land. They are named as follow: El Bakar [Arabic], which is nearest to +the harbour, Billan [Arabic], about half a mile in circumference, with +remains of [p.166]ancient habitations, and several deep wells; there are +several smaller rocks, comprised under the general name of El Mekattya +[Arabic], whose respective appellations are, [Arabic]--next is Sennenye +[Arabic], Nakhle, or El Eraneb [Arabic], with several palm trees, +formerly inhabited by a great number of rabbits; El Ramkein [Arabic], +and Shayshet el Kadhi [Arabic]. + +The inhabitants of the Myna are chiefly Greek sailors or ship-wrights; I +found here half a dozen small country ships building or repairing. There +is also a good Khan. On the southern side of the triangular plain is a +sandy beach, where the sand in some places has formed itself by +concretion into rocks, in several of which are large cisterns. In the +bottom of the bay formed by the plain and by the continuation of the +shore to the south, is a spring of sweet water, and near it large +hillocks of sand, driven up from the shore by the westerly winds. The +sea abounds in fish and shell fish; the following are the names of the +best, in French and Arabic; they were given to me by a French merchant, +who has long resided in Tripoli; Dorade [Arabic], Rouget [Arabic], Loupe +[Arabic], Severelle [Arabic], Leeche [Arabic], Mulaye [Arabic], Maire +noir [Arabic], Maire blanc [Arabic], Vieille [Arabic]; these are caught +with small baskets into which bait is put; the orifice being so made +that if the fish enters, he cannot get out again. It is said that no +other fish are ever found in the baskets. The names of some others fit +for the table are Pajot ([Arabic or Arabic]). [Arabic]. [Arabic], and +[Arabic]. + +Half an hour north of Tripoli, on the road we came by, is the tomb of +Sheikh El Bedawy, with a copious spring near it, enclosed by a wall; it +contains a great quantity of fish, which are considered sacred by the +Turks of Tripoli, and are fed daily by the guardians of the tomb, and by +the Tripolitans; no person dares kill any of them; they are, as the +Turks express it, a Wakf to the tomb. The same kind of fish is found in +the Kadisha. + +[p.167]The commerce of Tripoli has decreased lately, in proportion with +that of the entire commerce of Syria. There are no longer any Frank +establishments, and the few Franks who still remain are in the greatest +misery. A French consul, however, resides here, M. Guys, an able +antiquary, and who was very liberal in his literary communications to +us. He has a very interesting collection of Syrian medals. Mr. +Catziflis, who is a Greek, is a very respectable man, and rendered +considerable services to the English army during the war in Egypt. He is +extremely attentive and hospitable to English travellers. + +The principal commerce of Tripoli is in silk produced upon the mountain, +of which it exports yearly about 800 quintals or cwt., at about £80. +sterling per quintal. Formerly the French merchants used to take silk in +return for their goods, as it was difficult to obtain money in the +Levantine trade; it is true that they sold it to a disadvantage in +France; yet not so great as they would have done had they insisted on +being reimbursed ready money, upon which they must have paid the +discount. The silk was bought up at Marseilles by the merchants of +Barbary, who thus procured it at a lower rate than they could do at +Tripoli. This intercourse however has ceased in consequence of the ruin +of French trade, and the Moggrebyns now visit Tripoli themselves, in +search of this article, bringing with them colonial produce, indigo, and +tin, which they buy at Malta. The sale of West India coffee has of late +increased greatly in Syria; the Turks have universally adopted the use +of it, because it is not more than half the price of Mokha coffee; a +considerable market is thus opened to the West India planters, which is +not likely to be interrupted, until the Hadj is regularly re- +established, the principal traffic of which was in coffee. + +The next chief article of exportation is sponges; they are procured on +the sea shore; but the best are found at a little depth in + +[p.168]the sea. The demand for them during the last two years has been +very trifling; but I was told that fifty bales of twelve thousand +sponges each might be yearly furnished; their price is from twenty-five +to forty piastres per thousand. Soap is exported to Tarsous, for +Anatolia and the Greek islands, as well as alkali for its manufacture, +which is procured in the eastern desert. It is a curious fact, that soap +should also be imported into Tripoli from Candia; the reason is that the +Cretan soap contains very little alkali; here one-fourth of its weight +of alkali is added to it, and in this state it is sold to advantage. The +other exports are about one hundred or one hundred and twenty quintals +of galls from the Anzeyry mountains: of yellow wax, from Libanus, about +one hundred and twenty quintals, at about one hundred and fifty piastres +per quintal; of Rubia tinctorum [Arabic], which grows in the plains of +Homs and Hamah, about fourteen hundred quintals, at from twenty to +twenty-four piastres per quintal; of scammony, very little; of tobacco, +a few quintals, which are sent to Egypt. + +The territory of Tripoli extends over the greater part of Mount Libanus. +The Pashalik is divided into the following districts, or Mekatta +[Arabic], as they are called: viz. El Zawye [Arabic], or the lower part +of Mount Libanus to the right of the Kadisha,--Djebbet Bshirrai +[Arabic], which lies round the village of that name near the Cedars.--El +Kella [Arabic],--El Koura [Arabic], or the lower part of Mount Libanus +to the left of the Kadisha.--El Kattaa [Arabic], or the mountains +towards Batroun;--Batroun [Arabic],--Djebail [Arabic],--El Fetouh, over +Djebail, as far as Kesrouan.--Akkar [Arabic], the northern declivity of +Mount Libanus, a district governed at present by Aly Beg, a man famous +for his generosity, liberality, and knowledge of Arabian literature.--El +Shara [Arabic], also under the government of Aly Beg.--El Dhannye +[Arabic].--The mountains to the N. and N.W. of Bshirrai.--El Hermel +[Arabic], towards Baalbec, on the + +[p.169] eastern declivity of the Libanus; Szaffeita [Arabic], and +Tartous [Arabic]. The greater part of the mountaineers are Christians; +in Bshirrai they are all Christians; in Akkar, Shara, and Koura, three- +fourths are Christians. The Metawelis have possessions at Djebail, +Dhannye, and Hermel. About eighty years since the latter peopled the +whole district of Bshirrai, El Zawye, Dhannye, and part of Akkar; but +the Turk and Christian inhabitants, exasperated by their vexatious +conduct, called in the Druses, and with their assistance drove out the +Metawelis. Since that period, the Druses have been masters of the whole +mountain, as well as of a part of the plain. The Emir Beshir pays to the +Pasha of Tripoli, for the Miri of the mountain, one hundred and thirty +purses, and collects for himself upwards of six hundred purses. The +duties levied upon the peasants in this district are generally +calculated by the number of Rotolas of silk which the peasant is +estimated to get yearly from his worms; the taxes on the mulberry trees +are calculated in proportion to those on the silk. The peasant who rears +silk-worms is reckoned to pay about twenty or twenty-five per cent. on +his income, while he who lives by the produce of his fields pays more +than fifty per cent. + +I obtained the following information respecting the modern history of +the Pashas of Tripoli. + +Fettah Pasha, of three tails, was driven out of Tripoli by the +inhabitants, about 1768, after having governed a few years. He was +succeeded by Abd-er-rahman Pasha, but the rebels still maintained their +ascendancy in the town. He had formerly been Kapydji for the Djerde or +caravan, which departs annually from Tripoli to meet the Mekka caravan +on its return. He made Mustafa, the chief of the rebels, his Touenkdji, +and submitted to his orders, till he found an opportunity of putting him +to death at Ladakie, whither he had gone to collect the Miri. The town +was at the + +[p.170]same time surprised, the castle taken, and all the ring-leaders +killed. Abd-er-rahman Pasha governed for about two years. + +Youssef Pasha, the son of Othman Pasha of Damascus, of the family of +Adm, governed for eight or ten years, and was succeeded by his brother, + +Abdullah Pasha, who remained in the government upwards of five years, +and was afterwards named Pasha of Damascus. He is at present Pasha of +Orfa. + +Hassan Pasha, of the family of Adm, remained two years in office. + +Hosseyn Pasha was sent with the Djerde, to kill Djezzar, who was on his +way back from Mekka; but Djezzar poisoned him, before he could execute +his design. + +Derwish Pasha governed two years. One of the chiefs of his troops, +Hassan Youssef, usurped the greater part of the authority until he was +killed by the Pasha's orders. + +Soleiman Pasha, now Pasha of Acre, governed at Tripoli about 1792, while +Djezzar was at Damascus. + +Khalyl Pasha, son of Abdullah Pasha, was driven out by the rebellious +inhabitants, during the invasion of Syria by the French. One of the +ring-leaders, Mustara Dolby, took possession of the castle, and reigned +for two years. He was succeeded by Ibrahim Sultan, who was driven away +by Mustafa Aga Berber, a man of talents and of great energy of +character. He refused to pay the Miri into the hands of Youssef Pasha of +Damascus, who had also been invested with the Pashalik of Tripoli, and +having fortified the castle, he boldly awaited with a few trusty +adherents the arrival of Youssef, who approached the town with an army +of five or six thousand men. All the inhabitants fled to the mountain, +except the French consul, a secret enemy of Berber. The army of Youssef +no sooner entered the city, than they began + +[p.171]plundering it; and in the course of a few months they completely +sacked it, leaving nothing but bare walls; every piece of iron was +carried off, and even the marble pavements were torn up and sold. The +son of the French consul gained considerable sums by buying up a part of +the plunder. The castle was now besieged, and some French artillerymen +having been brought from Cyprus, a breach was soon made, but though +defended by only one hundred and fifty men, none had the courage to +advance to the assault. After a siege of five months Soleiman Pasba of +Acre interceded for Berber, and Youssef Pasha, glad of a pretext for +retreating, granted the garrison every kind of military honours; the +remaining provisions in the castle were sold to the Pasha for ready +money, and in February, 1809, Berber, accompanied by the officers of +Soleiman Pasha, left the castle and retired to Acre. He was again named +governor of Tripoli, when Soleiman Pasha of Acre and Damascus was, in +1810, invested with the Pashalik of Tripoli. + +Seid Soleiman, Pasha of Damascus, received the same charge in 1812. + +During our stay at Tripoli, Berber was in the neigbbourhood of Ladakie, +making war against some rebel Anzeyrys; the castle of Tripoli was +intrusted to the command of an Aga of Arnaouts, without being under the +orders of Berber. It is very probable that Berber may yet become a +conspicuous character in Syrian affairs, being a man of great spirit, +firmness, and justice. The town of Tripoli was never in a better state +than when under his command. + +March 12th.--Having spent ten days at Tripoli very pleasantly, I took +leave of my companion, who went to Ladakie and Antioch, and set out with +a guide towards Damascus, with the intention of visiting the Kesrouan, +and paying my respects to the chief of the + + +DEIR KEIFTEIN. + +[p.172] mountain, the Emir Beshir, at Deir el Kammar. On the way I +wished to visit some ruins in the Koura, which I had heard of at +Tripoli. I therefore turned out of the great road, which follows the sea +shore as far as Beirout. We set out in the evening, ascended the castle +hill to the S. of the town, and arrived after an hour and a half at Deir +Keiftein [Arabic], where I slept. The road lay through a wood of olive +trees, on the left bank of the Kadisha; over the lowest declivities of +the Libanus. It is a part of the district El Koura, the principal +produce of which is oil. The Zawye, on the other side of the Kadisha, +also produces oil, and at the same time more grain than the Koura. Every +olive tree here is worth from fifteen to twenty piastres. The soil in +which the trees grow is regularly ploughed, but nothing is sown between +the trees, as it is found that any other vegetation diminishes the +quantity of olives. The ground round the stem is covered to the height +of two or three feet with earth, to prevent the sun from hurting the +roots, and to give it the full benefit of the rains. We met with a few +tents of Arabs Zereykat and El Hayb, who were pasturing their sheep upon +the wild herbs by the road side. + +At half an hour's distance to the right runs the Djebel Kella [Arabic] +in a north-easterly direction towards the sea; this mountain is under +the immediate government of Tripoli, the Emir Beshir, to whom the whole +Libanus belongs, not having been yet able to gain possession of it. The +following are the principal villages of the Kella: Deyr Sakoub, Diddy, +Fya, Kelhat, Betouratydj, Ras Meskha, Bersa, Nakhle, Beterran, Besh, +Mysyn, Afs Dyk. + +Keiftein is a small Greek convent, with a prior and two monks only; a +small village of the same name stands near it. In the burying ground of +the convent is a fine marble sarcophagus, under which an English consul +of Tripoli lies buried. A long English nscription, with a Latin +translation, records the virtues of John + +DEIR DEMITRY. + +[p.173] Carew, Esq. of Pembrokeshire, who was fifty years consul at +Tripoli, and died the 5th of May, 1747, seventy-seven years of age. + +March 13th.--Our road lay through the olive plantations called El Bekeya +[Arabic], between the Upper Libanus and the Djebel Kella. Half an hour +to the right of the road, upon the latter mountain, is the village +Nakhle, below it, Betouratydj, farther up the hill Fya, then, more to +the south, Bedobba, and lastly, Afs Dyk; these villages stand very near +together, although the Kella is very rocky, and little fit for culture; +the peasants, however, turn every inch of ground to advantage. Half an +hour from Keiftein is the village Ferkahel [Arabic], on the side of the +river; we saw here a few old date trees, of which there are also some at +Nakhle. The inhabitants of the Koura are for the greater part of the +Greek church; in Zawye all the Christians are Maronites. At one hour +from Keiftein is the village Beserma [Arabic]. One hour and three +quarters, continuing in the valley between the Libanus and the Kella, is +the village Kfer Akka; we here turned up the Libanus. Half an hour from +the Kfer Akka, on the side of the mountain, is a considerable village +called Kesba, with the convent of Hantoura [Arabic]. At the same +distance S. of Akka, is the village Kfer Zeroun [Arabic]. Two hours and +a quarter from Keiftein, on the declivity of the mountain, is the +convent of St. Demetrius, or Deir Demitry. I here left my mare, and +walked up the mountain to see the ruins of which I had been informed at +Tripoli. In twenty minutes I reached the remains of an ancient town, +standing on a piece of level ground, but with few houses remaining. +These ruins are called by the people of the country Naous or Namous, +which name is supposed to be derived from the word [Arabic], i.e. a +burying-place; but I think its derivation from the Greek [Greek] more +probable. On the S. side stand the ruins of two temples, which are worth +the + +NAOUS. + +[p.174]traveller's attention. The smaller one is very much like the +temple of Hossn el Forsul, near Zahle, which I had seen on my way to +Baalbec; it is an oblong building of about the same size; and is built +with large square stones. The entrance is to the east. The door remains, +together with the southern wall and a part of the northern. The west +wall and the roof are fallen. In the south wall are two niches. Before +the entrance was a portico of four columns, with a flight of steps +leading up to it. The bases of the columns and fragments of the shafts, +which are three feet in diameter, still remain. At about forty paces +from the temple is a gate, corresponding to the door of the temple; a +broad staircase leads up from it to the temple. The two door-posts of +this outer gate are still standing, each formed of a single stone about +thirteen feet high, rudely adorned with sculpture. At about one hundred +and fifty yards from this building is the other, of much larger +dimensions; it stands in an area of fifty paces in breadth, and sixty in +length, surrounded by a wall, of which the foundation, and some other +parts, still remain. The entrance to this area is through a beautiful +gate, still entire; it is fourteen feet high and ten feet wide, the two +posts, and the soffit are each formed of a single stone; the posts are +elegantly sculptured. At the west end of this area, and elevated four or +five feet above its level, stood the temple, opposite to the great gate; +it presents nothing now but a heap of ruins, among which it is +impossible to trace the original distribution of the building. The +ground is covered with columns, capitals, and friezes; I saw a fragment +of a column, consisting of one piece of stone nine feet in length, and +three feet and a half in diameter. The columns are Corinthian, but not +of the best workmanship. Near the S.W. angle of the temple are the +foundations of a small insulated building. + +BESHIZA. + +[p.175]In order to level the surface of the area, and to support the +northern wall, a terrace was anciently raised, which is ten feet high in +the north-west corner. The wall of the area is built with large blocks +of well cut stone, some of which are upwards of twelve feet in length. +It appears however to have undergone repairs, as several parts of the +wall are evidently of modern construction; it has perhaps been used as a +strong-hold by the Arabs. The stone of the building is calcareous, but +not so hard as the rock of Baalbec. I saw no kind of inscriptions. The +Naous commands a most beautiful view over the Koura and the sea. Tripoli +bears N. + +I descended to the convent of Mar Demitry, in which there is at present +but one monk; and turning from thence in a S.W. direction, reached in +half an hour the wild torrent of Nahr Beshiza [Arabic]; which dries up +in summer time, but in winter sometimes swells rapidly to a considerable +size. When Youssef Pasha besieged Tripoli, intelligence was received at +a village near it, that a party of his troops intended to plunder the +village; the inhabitants in consequence fled with their most valuable +moveables the same evening, and retired up the Wady Beshiza, where they +passed the night. It had unfortunately rained in the mountains above, +and during the night the torrent suddenly swelled, and carried away +eight or ten families, who had encamped in its bed; about fifteen +persons perished. On the right bank, near the stream, lies the village +Beshiza, and at ten minutes from it to the S.E. the ruins of a small +temple bearing the name at present of Kenyset el Awamyd [Arabic], or the +church of the columns. The principal building is ten paces in length on +the inside, and eight paces in breadth. The S. and W. walls are +standing, but the E. has fallen down; the S. wall has been thrown out of +the perpendicular by an earthquake. The entrance is from the west, or +rather from the N.W. for the temple does not face the four cardinal + +AMYOUN. + +[p.176]points; the northern wall, instead of completing the quadrangle, +consists of two curves about twelve feet in depth, and both vaulted like +niches, as high as the roof, which has fallen in. In the S. wall are +several projecting bases for statues. The door and its soffit, which is +formed of a single stone, are ornamented with beautiful sculptures, +which are not inferior to those of Baalbec. Before the entrance was a +portico of four Ionic columns, of which three are standing; they are +about eighteen feet high, and of a single stone. Opposite to each of the +exterior columns of this portico is a pilaster in the wall of the +temple. There are also two other pilasters in the opposite or eastern +wall. Between the two middle columns of the portico is a gate six feet +high, formed of two posts, with a stone laid across them; this is +probably of modern date, as the exterior of the northern wall also +appears to be; instead of forming two semicircles, as within, it is +polygonal. Between the door and the pilaster, to the northward of it, is +a niche. The entablature of the portico is perfect. In the midst of the +building stands a large old oak tree, whose branches overshadow the +temple, and supply the place of the roof, rendering the ruin a highly +picturesque object. I saw no inscriptions. + +Half an hour to the west of Beshiza lies the village of Deir Bashtar +[Arabic]. From the temple we turned N.-eastward, and at the end of half +an hour passed the village Amyoun [Arabic], the chief place in the +district of El Koura, and the residence of Assaf Ibn Asar, the governor +of that province; he is a Greek Christian, and a collector of the Miri, +which he pays into the hands of the Emir Beshir. Many Christian families +are governors of provinces and Sheikhs of villages in the mountains: in +collecting the + +[p.177]Miri, and making the repartitions of the extraordinary demands +made by the Emir, they always gain considerable sums; but whenever a +Sheikh has filled his purse, he is sure to fall a victim to the avidity +of the chief governor. These Sheikhs affect all the pomp of the Turks; +surpass them in family pride, and equal them in avarice, low intrigue, +and fanatism. The governor of the province of Zawye is also a Christian, +of the family of Dhaher. + +Instead of descending towards the sea shore, which is the usual route to +Batroun, I preferred continuing in the mountain. At an hour and a +quarter from Amyoun, after having twice passed the Beshiza, or, as it is +also called, the Nahr Aszfour, which runs in a very narrow Wady +descending from the district of Laklouk, we reached the village of +Keftoun, where is a convent. Above it lies the village of Betaboura, and +in its neighbourhood Dar Shemsin and Kferhata. West of Amyoun is the +village of Kfer Hasir [Arabic]. The industry with which these +mountaineers cultivate, upon the narrow terraces formed on the steep +declivity of the mountain, their vines and mulberry trees, with a few +acres of corn, is really admirable. At two hours the village of Kelbata +was on our right; a little farther, to the right, Ras Enhash. [Arabic]; +below on the sea shore, at the extremity of a point of land, is a large +village called Amfy [Arabic], and near it the convent Deir Natour. It is +with great difficulty that a horse can travel through these mountains; +the roads are abominable, and the inhabitants always keep them so, in +order to render the invasion of their country more difficult. The +direction of Batroun, from the point where the road begins to descend, +is S.W.b.W. + +We descended the mountain called Akabe el Meszabeha, near the Wady +Djaous, which lower down takes the name of Nahr Meszabeha. Two hours and +a half from Amyoun, on the descent, is a fine spring, with a vaulted +covering over it, called Ayn el Khowadja [Arabic]. At the end of three +hours we reached + +BATROUN. + +[p.178] a narrow valley watered by the last mentioned river, and bounded +on the right hand by Djebel Nourye, which advances towards the sea, and +on the left by another mountain; upon the former stands the village +Hammad, and on the point of it, over the sea, the convent of Mar Elias. +At three hours and a quarter, and where the valley is scarcely ten +minutes in breadth, a castle of modern construction stands upon an +insulated rock; it is called Kalaat Meszabeha [Arabic], its walls are +very slight, but the rock upon which it stands is so steep, that no +beast of burthen can ascend it. This castle was once in possession of +the Metaweli, who frequently attacked the passengers in the valley. Near +it is a bridge over the Wady. At three hours and three quarters, where +the valley opens towards the sea, is the village Kobba [Arabic], at the +foot of the Djebel Nourye, with an ancient tower near it. At the end of +four hours and a quarter we reached Batroun [Arabic], where I slept, in +one of the small Khans which are built by the sea side. + +Batroun, the ancient Bostrys, contains at present three or four hundred +houses. Its inhabitants are, for the greater part, Maronites; the rest +are Greeks and Turks. The town and its territory belong to the Emir +Beshir; but it is under the immediate government of two of his +relations, Emir Kadan and Emir Melhem. The principal man in the town is +the Christian Sheikh, of the family of Khodher. The produce of Batroun +consists chiefly in tobacco. There is no harbour, merely an inlet +capable of admitting a couple of coasting boats. The whole coast from +Tripoli to Beirout appears to be formed of sand, accumulated by the +prevailing westerly winds, and hardened into rocks. An artificial +shelter seems to have been anciently formed by excavating the rocks, and +forming a part of them into a wall of moderate thickness for the length +of one hundred paces, and to the height of twelve feet. It was probably +behind this wall that the boats of Bostrys anciently found shelter + +DJEBAIL. + +[p.179]from the westerly gales. I saw but one boat between the rocks of +Batroun. + +March 14th.--Our road lay along the rocky coast. In three quarters of an +hour we came to a bridge, called Djissr Medfoun [Arabic], which crosses +a winter torrent. The territory of Batroun extends to this bridge; its +northern limits begin at the village of Hammad, upon the Djebel Nourye, +which terminates the district of Koura; beyond the bridge of Medfoun is +the village Aabeidat [Arabic] to the left. The mountain reaches quite +down to the sea shore. The direction of our road was S.b.W. At two +hours, upon a hill to the left of the road, called Berdj Reihani +[Arabic], stands a ruined arched building; on the road below it are +three columns of sand stone. Up in the mountain are the Greek villages +of Manszef [Arabic], Berbar [Arabic], Gharsous [Arabic], and Korne +[Arabic]. In three hours and a quarter we passed a Wady, without water, +called Halloue [Arabic]. At every three or four miles on this road small +Khans are met with, where refreshments of bread, cheese, and brandy are +sold. Close to the sea shore are many deep wells, with springs of fresh +water at their bottom. Three hours and a half is Djebail [Arabic], the +ancient Byblus. Above it, in the mountain, is the convent Deir el Benat, +with the village Aamsheit [Arabic]. I passed on the outside of Djebail +without stopping. The town is enclosed by a wall, some parts of which +appear to be of the time of the crusades. Upon a stone in the wall I saw +a rose, with a smaller one on each side. There is a small castle here, +in which the Emir Beshir keeps about forty men. A few years ago Djebail +was the residence of the Christian Abd el Ahad; he and his brother +Djordjos Bas were the head men of the Emir Beshir, and in fact were more +potent than their master. Djordjos Bas resided at Deir el Kammar. The +district of Djebail was under the command of Abd el Ahad, who built a + +[p.180]very good house here; but the two brothers shared the fate of all +Christians who attempt to rise above their sphere; they were both put to +death in the same hour by the Emir's orders; indeed there is scarcely an +instance in the modern history of Syria, of a Christian or Jew having +long enjoyed the power or riches which he may have acquired: these +persons are always taken off in the moment of their greatest apparent +glory. Abd el Hak, at Antioch; Hanna Kubbe, at Ladakie; Karaly, at +Aleppo; are all examples of this remark. But, as in the most trifling, +so in the most serious concerns, the Levantine enjoys the present +moment, without ever reflecting on future consequences. The house of +Hayne, the Jew Seraf, or banker, at Damascus and Acre, whose family may +be said to be the real governors of Syria, and whose property, at the +most moderate calculation, amounts to three hundred thousand pounds +sterling, are daily exposed to the same fate. The head of the family, a +man of great talents, has lost his nose, his ears, and one of his eyes, +in the service of Djezzar, yet his ambition is still unabated, and he +prefers a most precarious existence, with power, in Syria, to the ease +and security he might enjoy by emigrating to Europe. The Christian +Sheikh Abou Nar commands at Djebail, his brother is governor or Sheikh +of Bshirrai. + +Many fragments of fine granite columns are lying about in the +neighbourhood of Djebail. On the S. side of the town is a small Wady +with a spring called Ayn el Yasemein [Arabic]. The shore is covered with +deep sand. A quarter of an hour from Djebail is a bridge over a deep and +narrow Wady; it is called Djissr el Tel [Arabic]; upon a slight +elevation, on its S. side, are the ruins of a church, called Kenyset +Seidet Martein [Arabic]. Up in the mountains are two convents and +several Maronite villages, with the names of which my Greek guide was +unacquainted. In half an hour we came to a pleasant grove of oaks +skirting the + +MEINET BERDJA. + +[p.181]road; and in three quarters of an hour to the Wady Feidar +[Arabic], with a bridge across it; this river does not dry up in summer +time. A little farther to the right of the road is an ancient watch- +tower upon a rock over the sea; the natives call it Berdj um Heish +[Arabic] from an echo which is heard here; if the name Um Heish be +called aloud, the echo is the last syllable "Eish," which, in the vulgar +dialect, means "what?" ([Arabic] for [Arabic]). Many names of places in +these countries have trivial origins of this kind. At two hours and a +half we crossed by a bridge the large stream of Nahr Ibrahim, the +ancient Adonis. Above us in the mountain is the village El Djissr. The +whole lower ridge of mount Libanus, from Wady Medfoun to beyond Nahr +Ibrahim, composes the district of El Fetouh [Arabic], which is at +present under the control of Emir Kasim, son of the Emir Beshir, who +resides at Ghadsir in Kesrouan; he commands also in Koura. At two hours +and a half, and to the left of the road, which runs at a short distance +from the sea, is the convent of Mar Domeitt [Arabic], with the village +of El Bouar [Arabic]. The soil is here cultivated in every part with the +greatest care. In three hours and a quarter we came to a deep well cut +in the rock, with a spring at the bottom, called Ayn Mahous [Arabic]. At +three hours and a half is a small harbour called Meinet Berdja [Arabic], +with a few houses round it. Boats from Cyprus land here, loaded +principally with wheat and salt. To the right of the road, between +Meinet Berdja and the sea, extends a narrow plain, called Watta Sillan +[Arabic]; its southern part terminates in a promontory, which forms the +northern point of the Bay of Kesrouan. Near the promontory stands an +ancient tower, called Berdj el Kosszeir [Arabic]. In four hours and a +quarter we reached Djissr Maammiltein [Arabic], an ancient bridge, +falling into ruins, over a Wady of the same name. The banks of this Wady +form + +ENTRANCE INTO KESROUAN. + +[p.182] the boundary of separation between the Pahaliks of Saida and +Tripoli, and divide the district of Fetouh from that of Kesrouan. + +The country of Kesrouan, which I now entered, presents a most +interesting aspect; on the one hand are steep and lofty mountains, full +of villages and convents, built on their rocky sides; and on the other a +fine bay, and a plain of about a mile in breadth, extending from the +mountains to the sea. There is hardly any place in Syria less fit for +culture than the Kesrouan, yet it has become the most populous part of +the country. The satisfaction of inhabiting the neighbourhood of places +of sanctity, of hearing church bells, which are found in no other part +of Syria, and of being able to give a loose to religious feelings and to +rival the Mussulmans in fanatisim, are the chief attractions that have +peopled Kesrouan with Catholic Christians, for the present state of this +country offers no political advantages whatever; on the contrary, the +extortions of the Druses have reduced the peasant to the most miserable +state of poverty, more miserable even than that in the eastern plains of +Syria; nothing, therefore, but religious freedom induces the Christians +to submit to these extortions; added perhaps to the pleasure which the +Catholics derive from persecuting their brethren of the Greek church, +for the few Greeks who are settled here are not better treated by the +Maronites, than a Damascene Christian might expect to be by a Turk. The +plain between the mountain and the sea is a sandy soil; it is sown with +wheat and barley, and is irrigated by water drawn from wells by means of +wheels. At five hours and a quarter is Ghafer Djouni [Arabic], a market +place, with a number of shops, built on the sea side, where there is a +landing place for small boats. + +The Beirout road continues from hence along the sea coast, but I wished +to visit some convents in Kesrouan, and therefore + +ANTOURA. + +[p.183]turned up the mountain to the left. At the end of five hours and +three quarters I came to a wood of firs, which trees are very common in +these parts; to the right is the village Haret el Bottne [Arabic]. Six +hours and three quarters Zouk Mykayl [Arabic], the principal village in +Kesrouan, where resides the Sheikh Beshera, of the family of Khazen, who +is at present the governor of the province. The inhabitants of Zouk +consist, for the greater part, of the shopkeepers and artizans who +furnish Kesrouan with articles of dress or of luxury. I observed in +particular many makers of boots and shoes. Seven hours, is Deir Beshara; +a convent of nuns. At the end of seven hours and a quarter, I arrived at +Antoura, a village in a lofty situation, with a convent, which formerly +belonged to the Jesuits, but which is now inhabited by a Lazarist, the +Abbate Gandolfi, who is the Pope's delegate, for the affairs of the +eastern church. I had letters for him, and met with a most friendly +reception: his intimate acquaintance with the affairs of the mountain, +and of the Druses, which his residence of upwards of twelve years, and a +sound understanding, have enabled him to acquire, renders his +conversation very instructive to the inquisitive traveller. + +March 15th--I left Antoura in the evening, to visit some convents in a +higher part of the mountains of Kesrouan. Passed Wady Kheredj [Arabic], +and at three quarters of an hour from Antoura, the ruined convent of +Bekerke [Arabic], once the residence of the famous Hindye, whose history +Volney has given. Now that passions have cooled, and that the greater +part of the persons concerned are dead, it is the general opinion that +Hindye's only crime was her ambition to pass for a saint. The abominable +acts of debauchery and cruelty of which she was accused, are probably +imaginary: but it is certain that she rigorously punished the nuns of +her convent who hesitated to believe in her sanctity, or who doubted the +visits of Jesus Christ, of which she boasted. Hindye died about + +HARISSA--GHOSTA. + +[p.184]ten years since in retirement, in the convent of Seidet el Hakle. +At one hour and a half from Antoura, on the top of the mountain, is the +convent of Harissa, belonging to the Franciscans of Terra Santa, and +inhabited at present by a single Piedmontese monk. On the breaking out +of the war between England and the Porte, Mr. Barker, the Consul at +Aleppo, received from the Emir Beshir an offer of this convent as a +place of refuge in his territory. Mr. Barker resided here for two years +and a half, and his prudent and liberal conduct have done great credit +to the English name in the mountain. The French consuls on the coast +applied several times to the Emir Beshir, by express orders from the +French government, to have Mr. Barker and his family removed; but the +Emir twice tore their letters in pieces and returned them by the +messenger as his only answer. Harissa [Arabic] is a well built, large +convent, capable of receiving upwards of twenty monks. Near it is a +miserable village of the same name. The view from the terrace of the +convent over the bay of Kesrouan, and the country as far as Djebail, on +one side, and down to Beirout on the other, is extremely beautiful. The +convent is situated in the midst of Kesrouan, over the village Sahel +Alma. + +March 16.--I slept at Harissa, and left it early in the morning, to +visit Ayn Warka. The roads in these mountains are bad beyond +description, indeed I never before saw any inhabited country so entirely +mountainous as the Kesrouan: there are no levels on the tops of the +mountain; but the traveller no sooner arrives on the summit, than he +immediately begins the descent; each hill is insulated, so that to reach +a place not more than ten minutes distant in a straight line, one is +obliged to travel three or four miles, by descending into the valley and +ascending again the other side. From Harissa I went north half an hour +to the village Ghosta [Arabic], near which are two convents called +Kereim and Baklous. Kereim + +AYN WARKA. + +[p.185]is a rich Armenian monastery, in which are twenty monks. The silk +of this place is esteemed the best in Kesrouan. A little farther down is +the village El Basha. One hour and a quarter Ayn Warka [Arabic], another +Maronite convent. I wished to see this place, because I had heard that a +school had lately been established here, and that the convent contained +a good library of Syrian books; but I was not so fortunate as to see the +library; the bishop, although he received me well, found a pretext for +not opening the room in which the books are kept, fearing, probably, +that if his treasures should be known, the convent might some day be +deprived of them. I however saw a beautiful dictionary in large folio of +the Syriac language, written in the Syriac character, which, I suppose, +to be the only copy in Syria. Its author was Djorjios el Kerem Seddany, +who composed it in the year 1619. Kerem Seddany is the name of a village +near Bshirrai. This dictionary may be worth in Syria eight hundred or a +thousand piastres; but the convent would certainly not sell it for less +than two thousand, besides a present to the bishop. + +The school of Ayn Warka was established fifteen years since by Youssef, +the predecessor of the present bishop. It is destined to educate sixteen +poor Maronite children, for the clerical profession; they remain here +for six or eight years, during which they are fed and clothed at the +expense of the convent, and are educated according to the literary taste +of the country; that is to say, in addition to their religious duties, +they are taught grammar, logic, and philosophy. The principal books of +instruction are the Belough el Arab, [Arabic], and the Behth el Mettalae +[Arabic], both composed by the bishop Djermanous [Arabic]. At present +there is only one schoolmaster, but another is shortly expected, + +BEZOMMAR. + +[p.186]to teach philosophy. The boys have particular hours assigned to +the different branches of their studies. I found them sitting or lying +about in the court-yard, each reading a book, and the master, in a +common peasant's dress, in the midst of them. Besides the Arabic +language they are taught to speak, write, and read the Syriac. The +principal Syriac authors, whose books are in the library, are Ibn el +Ebre [Arabic], or as the Latins call him, Berebreo, Obeyd Yeshoua +[Arabic], and Ibn el Aassal [Arabic], their works are chiefly on +divinity. The bishop is building a dormitory for the boys, in which each +of them is to have his separate room; he has also begun to take in +pupils from all parts of Syria, whose parents pay for their board and +education. The convent has considerable landed property, and its income +is increased by alms from the Catholic Syrians. The boys, on leaving the +convent, are obliged to take orders. + +From Ayn Warka I ascended to the convent of Bezommar [Arabic], one hour +and a quarter distant. It belongs to the Armenian Catholics, and is the +seat of the Armenian patriarch, or spiritual head of all the Armenians +in the East who have embraced the Catholic faith. Bezommar is built upon +the highest summit of the mountain of Kesrouan, which is a lower branch +of the southern Libanus. It is the finest and the richest convent in +Kesrouan, and is at present inhabited by the old patriarch Youssef, four +bishops, twelve monks, and seventeen priests. The patriarch himself +built the convent, at an expense of upwards of fifteen thousand pounds +sterling. Its income is considerable, and is derived partly from its +great landed possessions, and partly from the benefactions of persons at +Constantinople, in Asia Minor, and in Syria. The venerable patriarch +received me in his bed, from which, I fear, he will never rise again. +The Armenian priests + +STATE OF KESROUAN. + +[p.187]of this convent are social and obliging, with little of the pride +and hypocrisy of the Maronites. Several of them had studied at Rome. The +convent educates an indefinite number of poor boys; at present there are +eighteen, who are destined to take orders; they are clothed and fed +gratis. Boys are sent here from all parts of the Levant. I enquired +after Armenian manuscripts, but was told that the convent possessed only +Armenian books, printed at Venice. + +I left Bezommar to return to Antoura. Half an hour below Bezommar is the +convent Essharfe [Arabic], belonging to the true Syrian church. The rock +in this part is a quartzose sand-stone, of a red and gray colour. To the +left, still lower down, is the considerable village Deir Aoun [Arabic], +and above it the Maronite convent Mar Shalleitta [Arabic]. I again +passed Mar Harissa on my descent to Antoura, which is two hours and a +half distant from it. + +March 17th.--The district of Kesrouan, which is about three hours and a +half in length, from N. to S. and from two to three hours in breadth +across the mountains, is exclusively inhabited by Christians: neither +Turks nor Druses reside in it. The Sheikh Beshara collects the Miri, and +a son of the Emir Beshir resides at Ghazir, to protect the country, and +take care of his father's private property in the district. The +principal and almost sole produce is silk; mulberry trees are +consequently the chief growth of the soil; wheat and barley are sown, +but not in sufficient quantity for the consumption of the people. The +quantity of silk produced annually amounts to about sixty Kantars, or +three hundred and thirty English quintals. A man's wealth is estimated +by the number of Rotolas of silk which he makes, and the annual taxes +paid to government are calculated and distributed in proportion to them. +The Miri or land-tax is taken upon the mule loads + +[p.188]of mulberry leaves, eight or ten trees, in common years, yielding +one load; and as the income of the proprietors depends entirely upon the +growth of these leaves, they suffer less from a bad crop, because their +taxes are proportionally low. The extraordinary extortions of the +government, however, are excessive: the Emir often exacts five or six +Miris in the year, and one levy of money is no sooner paid, than orders +are received for a fresh one of twenty or thirty purses upon the +province. The village Sheikh fixes the contributions to be paid by each +village, taking care to appropriate a part of them to himself. Last year +many peasants were obliged to sell a part of their furniture, to defray +the taxes; it may easily be conceived therefore in what misery they +live: they eat scarcely any thing but the worst bread, and oil, or soups +made of the wild herbs, of which tyranny cannot deprive them. +Notwithstanding the wretchedness in which they are left by the +government, they have still to satisfy the greediness of their priests, +but these contributions they pay with cheerfulness. Many of the convents +indeed are too rich to require their assistance, but those which are +poor, together with all the parish priests and church officers, live +upon the people. Such is the condition of this Christian commonwealth, +which instead of deserving the envy of other Christians, living under +the Turkish yoke, is in a more wretched state than any other part of +Syria; but the predominance of their church consoles them under every +affliction, and were the Druse governor to deprive them of the last +para, they would still remain in the vicinity of their convent. + +Contributions are never levied on the convents, though the landed +property belonging to them pays duties like that of the peasant; their +income from abroad is free from taxes. Loans are sometimes required of +the convents; but they are regularly reimbursed in the time of the next +harvest. The priests are the most + +NAHR EL KELB. + +[p.189]happy part of the population of Kesrouan; they are under no +anxiety for their own support; they are looked upon by the people +assuperior beings, and their repose is interrupted only by the intrigues +of the convents, and by the mutual hostilities of the bishops. + +The principal villages in Kesrouan, beginning from the north, are +Ghadsir [Arabic], Djedeide [Arabic], Aar Amoun [Arabic], Shenanayr +[Arabic], Sahel Alma [Arabic], Haret Szakher [Arabic], Ghozta [Arabic], +Deir Aoun [Arabic], Ghadir [Arabic], Zouk Mikayl [Arabic], Djouni +[Arabic], Zouk Meszbah [Arabic], Zouk el Kherab [Arabic], and Kornet el +Khamra [Arabic]. + +March 18th--I left my amiable host, the Abate Gandolfi, and proceeded on +my road to Deir el Kammar, the residence of the Emir Beshir. One hour +from Antoura is Deir Lowyz [Arabic]. Between it and the village Zouk +Mikayl lies the village Zouk Meszbah, with Deir Mar Elias. South of Deir +Lowyz half an hour is the village Zouk el Kharab; half an hour E. of the +latter, Deir Tanneis [Arabic], and about the same distance S.E. the +village Kornet el Khamra. From Deir Lowyz I again descended into the +plain on the sea shore. The narrow plain which I mentioned as beginning +at Djissr Maammiltein, continues only as far as Djouni, where the +country rises, and continues hilly, across the southern promontoy of the +bay of Kesrouan, on the farther side of which the narrow plain again +begins, and continues as far as the banks of the Nahr el Kelb. I reached +this river in half an hour from Antoura, at the point of its junction +with the sea, about ten minutes above which it is crossed by a fine +stone bridge. From the bridge the road continues along the foot of the +steep rocks, except where they overhang the sea, and there it has been +cut through the rock for about a mile. This was a work, however, of no +great labour, and hardly deserved the + +EL MELLAHA. + +[p.190]following magnificent inscription, which is engraved upon the +rock, just over the sea, where the road turns southward: + +IMP CAES M AVRELIVS ANTONINV S . PIVS . FELIX . AVGVSTVS PART . MAX . +BRIT . MAX . GERM . MAXIMVS PONTIFEX . MAXIMVS MONTIBVS INMINENTIBVS +LICO FLVMINI CAESIS VIAM DELATAVIT PER . . . . . . . . . . . . . +ANTONINIANAM SVAM + +The last line but one has been purposely erazed. Below the frame in +which the above is engraved, is this figure. + +Higher up in the road are several other places in the rock, where +inscriptions have been cut, but the following one only is legible: + +INVICTIM ANTONIN FELIX AUG MV . . IS NISIM[In the year 1697 Maundrell +read this inscription as follows: Invicte Imp. Antonine P. Felix Aug. +multis annis impera. Ed.] + +According to the opinion of M. Guys, the French consul at Tripoli, which +seems well founded, the Emperor mentioned in the above inscriptions is +not Antoninus Pius, but Caracalla; as the epithet Britannus cannot be +applied to the former, but very well to the latter. Opposite to the +bridge is an Arabic inscription, but for the greater part illegible. + +The road continues for about half an hour through the rock over the sea, +above which it is no where higher than fifty feet. At the southern +extremity is a square basin hewn in the rock close by the sea, called El +Mellaha, in which the salt water is sometimes collected for the purpose +of obtaining salt by evaporation. On the summit of the mountain, to the +left of the rocky road, lies the Deir Youssef el Berdj [Arabic]; half an + + +PLAIN OF BEIROUT. + +[p.191]hour south of it, in the mountain, is the village Dhobbye +[Arabic], and behind the latter the village Soleima [Arabic], with a +convent of the Terra Santa. The road from El Mellaha continues for an +hour and a half on the sandy beach; about three quarters of an hour from +the basin we passed the rivulet Nahr Antoun Elias, so called from a +village and convent of that name, to the left of the road. Near the +latter lies the village of Abou Romman [Arabic], in the narrow plain +between the mountain and the sea, and a little farther south, El +Zeleykat [Arabic]. The district of Kesrouan [Arabic], extends, to the +south, as far as a small Khan, which stands a little beyond the Mellaha; +farther south commences the Druse country of Shouf [Arabic]. At the +termination of the sandy beach are seen ruins of Saracen buildings, with +a few houses called Aamaret Selhoub [Arabic]. + +We now left the sea shore to our right, and rode across the riangular +point of land on the western extremity of which the town of Beirout is +situated. This point projects into the sea about four miles beyond the +line of the coast, and there is about the same distance in following +that line across the base of the triangle. The road we took was through +the fine cultivated plain called El Boudjerye [Arabic], in a direction +S. by W. Two hours and three quarters from El Mellaha is the village +Hadded [Arabic]. Before we came to it, we crossed the Nahr Beirout, at a +place where I saw, for the first time, a grove of date trees. Beyond the +river the country is called Ard el Beradjene, from a tower by the sea +side called Berdj el Beradjene [Arabic]; the surrounding country is all +planted with olive trees. In three hours and a quarter we crossed the +Wady Ghadiry [Arabic], on the other side of which lies the village Kefr +Shyna [Arabic]. Upon the hills about three quarters of an hour S.E. of +the place where the Ghadiry falls into the sea, stands the convent Mar +Hanna el Shoeyfat. At the end of three hours and + +KEFRNOUTA. + +[p.192]a half, the road begins to ascend: the Emir Beshir has had a new +road made the greater part of the way up to Deir el Kammar, to +facilitate the communication between his residence and the provinces of +Kesrouan and Djebail. At the end of four hours is a fine spring, with a +basin shaded by some large oak trees; it is called Ayn Besaba [Arabic]. +At four hours and a half, the road still ascending, is the village Ayn +Aanab [Arabic], remarkable for a number of palm trees growing here at a +considerable elevation above the sea. The mountain is full of springs, +some of which form pretty cascades. On the front of a small building +which has been erected over the spring in the village, I observed on +both sides two figures cut upon the wall, with open mouths, and having +round their necks a chain by which they are fastened to the ground. +Whether they are meant for lions or calves I could not satisfy myself, +nor could I learn whether they have any relation to the religious +mysteries of the Druses. + +The country from Kefr Shyna is wholly inhabited by Druses. The village +of Aanab is the hereditary seat of the family of Ibn Hamdan, who are the +chiefs of the Druses in the Haouran. At five hours and a half is the +village Ayn Aanoub [Arabic]; a little above it the road descends into +the deep valley in which the Nahr el Kadhi flows. The mountain is here +overgrown with fine firs. Six hours and a half, is a bridge (Djissr el +Khadhi) under which the Nahr flows in a rocky bed. The Franks on the +coast commonly give to the Nahr Kadhi the name of Damour, an appellation +not unknown to the natives. On the other side of the bridge the road +immediately ascends to the village Kefrnouta, on the N. side of the +river, where it turns round the side of the mountain to Deir el Kammar, +distant seven hours and a quarter from El Mellaha. I rode through El +Kammar, without stopping, and proceeded to the village of Beteddein, +where the Emir Beshir is building a new palace. + + +BETEDDEIN. + +[p.193]The town of Deir el Kammar is situated on the declivity of the +mountain, at the head of a narrow valley descending towards the sea. It +is inhabited by about nine hundred Maronite, three hundred Druse, and +fifteen or twenty Turkish families, who cultivate mulberry and vine +plantations, and manufacture all the articles of dress of the +mountaineers. They are particularly skilful in working the rich Abbas or +gowns of silk, interwoven with gold and silver, which are worn by the +great Sheikhs of the Druses, and which are sold as high as eight hundred +piastres a piece. The Emir Beshir has a serai here. The place seems to +be tolerably well built, and has large Bazars. The tombs of the +Christians deserve notice. Every family has a stone building, about +forty feet square, in which they place their dead, the entrance being +always walled up after each deposit: this mode of interment is peculiar +to Deir el Kammar, and arose probably from the difficulty of excavating +graves in the rocky soil on which it is built. The tombs of the richer +Christian families have a small Kubbe on their summit. The name of this +town, signifying the Monastery of the Moon, originates in a convent +which formerly stood here, dedicated to the Virgin, who is generally +represented in Syria with the moon beneath her feet. Half an hour from +Deir el Kammar, on the other side of the valley, lies Beteddein +[Arabic], which in Syriac, means the two teats, and has received its +name from the similarity of two neighbouring hills, upon one of which +the village is built. Almost all the villages in this neighbourhood have +Syriac names. + +March 19th.--The Emir Beshir, to whom I had letters of recommendation, +from Mr. Barker at Aleppo, received me very politely, and insisted upon +my living at his house. His new palace is a very costly edifice; but at +the present rate of its progress five more years will be required to +finish it. The building consists of a large quadrangle, one on side of +which are the + +[p.194]Emir's apartments and his harem, with a private court-yard; two +other sides contain small apartments for his people, and the fourth is +open towards the valley, and Deir el Kammar, commanding a distant view +of the sea. In the neighbouring mountain is a spring, the waters from +which have been conducted into the quadrangle; but the Emir wishes to +have a more abundant supply of water, and intends to bring a branch of +the Nahr el Kadhi thither; for this purpose the water must be diverted +from the main stream at a distance of three hours, and the expense of +the canal is calculated at three thousand pounds sterling. + +The Emir Beshir is at present master of the whole mountain from Belad +Akkar down to near Akka (Acre), including the valley of Bekaa, and part +of the Anti-Libanus and Djebel Essheikh. The Bekaa, together with a +present of one hundred purses, was given to him in 1810, by Soleiman +Pasha of Acre, for his assistance against Youssef Pasha of Damascus. He +pays for the possession of the whole country, five hundred and thirty +purses, of which one hundred and thirty go to Tripoli and four hundred +to Saida or Acre; this is exclusive of the extraordinary demands of the +Pashas, which amount to at least three hundred purses more. These sums +are paid in lieu of the Miri, which the Emir collects himself, without +accounting for it. The power of the Emir, however, is a mere shadow, the +real government being in the hands of the Druse chief, Sheikh +Beshir.[Beshir is a proper name borne by many people in the mountain. +The accent is on the last syllable: the sound would be expressed in +English by Besheer.] I shall here briefly explain the political state of +the mountain. + +It is now about one hundred and twenty years since the government of the +mountain has been always entrusted by the Pashas of Acre and Tripoli to +an individual of the family of Shehab [Arabic], to which the Emir Beshir +belongs. This family derives its origin + +[p.195]from Mekka, where its name is known, in the history of Mohammed +and the first Califes; they are Mussulmans, and some of them pretend +even to be Sherifs. About the time of the crusades, for I have been +unable to ascertain the exact period, the Shehabs left the Hedjaz, and +settled in a village of the Haouran, to which they gave their family +name;[A branch of the family is said to inhabit some mountains in +Mesopotamia, under the command of Emir Kasem.] it is still known by the +appellation of Shohba; and is remarkable for its antiquities, of which I +have given some account, in my journal of a tour in the Haouran. The +family being noble, or of Emir origin, were considered proper persons to +be governors of the mountain; for it was, and still is thought necessary +that the government should not be in the hands of a Druse. The Druses +being always divided into parties, a governor chosen from among them +would have involved the country in the quarrels of his own party, and he +would have been always endeavouring to exterminate his adversaries; +whereas a Turk, by carefully managing both parties, maintains a balance +between them, though he is never able to overpower them completely; he +can oppose the Christian inhabitants to the Druses, who are in much +smaller numbers than the former, and thus he is enabled to keep the +country in a state of tranquillity and in subjection to the Pashas. This +policy has long been successful, notwithstanding the turbulent spirit of +the mountaineers, the continual party feuds, and the ambitious projects +of many chiefs, as well of the Druses as of the reigning house; the +Pashas were careful also not to permit any one to become too powerful; +the princes of the reigning family were continually changed; and party +spirit was revived in the mountain whenever the interests of the Porte +required it. About eighty years ago the country was divided into the two +great parties of Keisy [Arabic], whose banner was red, and Yemeny +[Arabic], whose banner was white, and the whole Christian population + +[p.196]ranged itself on the one side or the other. The Keisy gained at +length the entire ascendancy, after which none but secret adherents of +the Yemeny remained, and the name itself was forgotten. Then arose the +three sects of Djonbelat, Yezbeky, and Neked. These still exist; thirty +years ago the two first were equal, but the Djonbelat have now got the +upper hand, and have succeeded in disuniting the Yezbeky and Neked. + +The Djonbelat [Arabic] draw their origin from the Druse mountain of +Djebel Aala, between Ladakie and Aleppo: they are an old and noble +family, and, in the seventeenth century, one of their ancestors was +Pasha of Aleppo; it forms at present the richest and most numerous +family, and the strongest party in the mountain. + +The Yezbeky [Arabic], or as they are also called, El Aemad [Arabic], are +few in number, but are reputed men of great courage and enterprize. +Their principal residence is in the district of El Barouk, between Deir +el Kammar and Zahle. + +The Neked, whose principal Sheikh is at present named Soleiman, inhabit, +for the greater part, Deir el Kammar; seven of their principal chiefs +were put to death thirteen years ago in the serai of the Emir Beshir, +and a few only of their children escaped the massacre; these have now +attained to years of manhood, and remain at Deir el Kammar, watched by +the Djonbelaty and the Aemad, who are united against them. + +The Djonbelat now carry every thing with a high hand; their chief, El +Sheikh Beshir is the richest and the shrewdest man in the mountain; +besides his personal property, which is very considerable, no affair of +consequence is concluded without his interest being courted, and dearly +paid for. His annual income amounts to about two thousand purses, or +fifty thousand pounds sterling. The whole province of Shouf is under his +command, and he is in partnership + +[p.197] with almost all the Druses who possess landed property there. +The greater part of the district of Djesn [Arabic] is his own property, +and he permits no one to obtain possesions in that quarter, while he +increases his own estates yearly, and thus continually augments his +power. The Emir Beshir can do nothing important without the consent of +the Sheikh Beshir, with whom he is obliged to share all the +contributions which he extorts from the mountaineers. It is from this +cause that while some parts of the mountain are very heavily taxed, in +others little is paid. The Druses form the richest portion of the +population, but they supply little to the public contributions, being +protected by the Sheikh Beshir. It will be asked, perhaps, why the +Sheikh does not set aside the Emir Beshir and take the ostensible power +into his own hands? Many persons believe that he entertains some such +design, while others, better informed perhaps, assert that the Sheikh +will never make the attempt, because he knows that the mountaineers +would never submit to a Druse chief. The Druses are certainly in a +better condition at present than they would be under the absolute sway +of the Sheikh, who would soon begin to oppress instead of protecting +them, as he now does; and the Christians, who are a warlike people, +detest the name of Druse too much ever to yield quietly to a chief of +that community. It is, probably, in the view of attaching the Christians +more closely to him, and to oppose them in some measure to the Druses, +that the Emir Beshir, with his whole family, has secretly embraced the +christian religion. The Shehab, as I have already mentioned, were +formerly members of the true Mussulman faith, and they never have had +among them any followers of the doctrines of the Druses. They still +affect publicly to observe the Mohammedan rites, they profess to fast +during the Ramadhan, and the Pashas still treat them as Turks; but it is +no longer matter of doubt, that the greater part of the Shehab, with + +[p.198] the Emir Beshir at their head, have really embraced that branch +only of the family which governs at Rasheya and Hasbeya continue in the +religion of their ancestors. + +Although the Christians of the mountain have thus become more attached +to their prince, their condition, on the whole, is not bettered, as the +Emir scarcely dares do justice to a Christian against a Druse; still, +however, the Christians rejoice in having a prince of their own faith, +and whose counsellors and household are with few exceptions of the same +religion. There are not more than forty or fifty persons about him who +are not Christians. One of the prince's daughters lately married a Druse +of an Emir family, who was not permitted to celebrate the nuptials till +he had been instructed in the doctrines of Christianity, had been +baptized, and had received the sacrament. How far the Shehab may be +sincere in their professions, I am unable to decide; it is probable that +if their interests should require it, they would again embrace the +religion of their ancestors. + +In order to strengthen his authority the Emir Beshir has formed a close +alliance with Soleiman Pasha of Acre, thus abandoning the policy of his +predecessors, who were generally the determined enemies of the Turkish +governors; this alliance is very expensive to the Prince, though it +serves in some degree to counterbalance the influence of the Sheikh +Beshir. The Emir and the Sheikh are apparently on the best terms; the +latter visits the Emir almost every week, attended by a small retinue of +horsemen, and is always received with the greatest apparent cordiality. +I saw him at Beteddein during my stay there. His usual residence is at +the village of Mokhtar [Arabic], three hours distant from Beteddein, +where he has built a good house, and keeps an establishment of about two +hundred men. His confidential attendants, and even the porters of his +harem, are Christians; but his bosom friend + +[p.199] is Sheikh el Nedjem [Arabic], a fanatical Druse, and one of the +most respected of their Akals. The Sheikh Beshir has the reputation of +being generous, and of faithfully defending those who have put +themselves under his protection. The Emir Beshir, on the contrary, is +said to be avaricious; but this may be a necessary consequence of the +smallness of his income. He is an amiable man, and if any Levantine can +be called the friend of an European nation, he certainly is the friend +of the English. He dwells on no topic with so much satisfaction as upon +that of his alliance with Sir Sidney Smith, during that officer's +command upon this coast. His income amounts, at most, to four hundred +purses, or about £10.000. sterling, after deducting from the revenue of +the mountain the sums paid to the Pashas, to the Sheikh Beshir, and to +the numerous branches of his family. His favourite expenditure seems to +be in building. He keeps about fifty horses, of which a dozen are of +prime quality; his only amusement is sporting with the hawk and the +pointer. He lives on very bad terms with his family, who complain of his +neglecting them; for the greater part of them are poor, and will become +still poorer, till they are reduced to the state of Fellahs, because it +is the custom with the sons, as soon as they attain the age of fifteen +or sixteen, to demand the share of the family property, which is thus +divided among them, the father retaining but one share for himself. +Several princes of the family are thus reduced to an income of about one +hundred and fifty pounds a year. It has constantly been the secret +endeavour of the Emir Beshir to make himself directly dependent upon the +Porte, and to throw off his allegiance to the Pasha; but he has never +been able to succeed. The conduct of Djezzar Pasha was the cause of this +policy. Djezzar, for reasons which have already been explained, was +continually changing the governors of the mountain, and each new +governor was obliged to promise him large sums for his investiture. Of +these sums few + +[p.200]were paid at the time of Djezzar's death, and bills to the amount +of sixteen thousand purses were found in his treasury, secured upon the +revenue of the mountain. At the intercession of Soleiman Pasha,who +succeeded Djezzar at Akka, and of Gharib Effendi, the Porte's +commissioner (now Pasha of Aleppo), this sum was reduced to four +thousand purses, of which the Emir Beshir is now obliged to pay off a +part annually. + +By opposing the Druse parties to each other, and taking advantage of the +Christian population, a man of genius and energy of the Shehab family +might perhaps succeed in making himself the independent master of the +mountain. Such an event would render this the most important government +in Syria, and no military force the Turks could send would be able to +overthrow it. But at present the Shehab appear to have no man of +enterprise among them. + +The Shehab marry only among themselves, or with two Druse families, the +Merad [Arabic], and Kaszbeya [Arabic]. These and the Reslan [Arabic], +are the only Emir families, or descendants of the Prophet, among the +Druses. These Emirs inhabit the province called El Meten. Emir Manzour, +the chief of the Merads, is a man of influence, with a private annual +income of about one hundred and twenty purses. + +I shall now subjoin such few notes on the Druses as I was able to +collect during my short stay in the mountain; I believe them to be +authentic, because I was very careful in selecting my authourities. + +With respect to the true religion of the Druses, none but a learned +Druse can satisfy the enquirer's curiosity. What I have already said of +the Anzeyrys is equally applicable to the Druses; their religious +opinions will remain for ever a secret, unless revealed by a Druse. +Their customs, however, may be described; and, as far as they can tend +to elucidate the mystery, the veil may be + +[p.201] drawn aside by the researches of the traveller. It seems to be a +maxim with them to adopt the religious practices of the country in which +they reside, and to profess the creed of the strongest. Hence they all +profess Islamism in Syria; and even those who have been baptised on +account of their alliance with the Shehab family, still practise the +exterior forms of the Mohammedan faith. There is no truth in the +assertion that the Druses go one day to the mosque, and the next to the +church. They all profess Islamism, and whenever they mix with +Mohammedans they perform the rites prescribed by their religion. In +private, however, they break the fast of Ramadhan, curse Mohammed, +indulge in wine, and eat food forbidden by the Koran. They bear an +inveterate hatred to all religions except their own, but more +particularly to that of the Franks, chiefly in consequence of a +tradition current among them that the Europeans will one day overthrow +their commonwealth: this hatred has been increased since the invasion of +the French, and the most unpardonable insult which one Druse can offer +to another, is to say to him "May God put a hat on you!" Allah yelebesak +borneita [Arabic]. + +Nothing is more sacred with a Druse than his public reputation: he will +overlook an insult if known only to him who has offered it; and will put +up with blows where his interest is concerned, provided nobody is a +witness; but the slightest abuse given in public he revenges with the +greatest fury. This is the most remarkable feature of the national +character: in public a Druse may appear honourable; but he is easily +tempted to a contrary behaviour when he has reason to think that his +conduct will remain undiscovered. The ties of blood and friendship have +no power amongst them; the son no sooner attains the years of maturity +than he begins to plot against his father. Examples are not wanting of +their assailing the chastity of their mothers, and towards their sisters +such + +[p.202] conduct is so frequent, that a father never allows a full grown +son to remain alone with any of the females of his family. Their own +religion allows them to take their sisters in marriage; but they are +restrained from indulging in this connexion, on account of its +repugnance to the Mohammedan laws. A Druse seldom has more than one +wife, but he divorces her under the slightest pretext; and it is a +custom among them, that if a wife asks her husband's permission to go +out, and he says to her "Go;" without adding "and come back," she is +thereby divorced; nor can her husband recover her, even though it should +be their mutual wish, till she is married again according to the Turkish +forms, and divorced from her second husband. It is known that the +Druses, like all Levantines, are very jealous of their wives; adultery, +however, is rarely punished with death; if a wife is detected in it, she +is divorced; but the husband is afraid to kill her seducer, because his +death would be revenged, for the Druses are inexorable with respect to +the law of retaliation of blood; they know too that if the affair were +to become public, the governor would ruin both parties by his +extortions. Unnatural propensities are very common amongst them. + +The Akal are those who are supposed to know the doctrines of the Druse +religion; they superintend divine worship in the chapels or, as they are +called, Khaloue [Arabic], and they instruct the children in a kind of +catechism. They are obliged to abstain from swearing, and all abusive +language, and dare not wear any article of gold or silk in their dress. +Many of them make it a rule never to eat of any food, nor to receive any +money, which they suspect to have been improperly acquired. For this +reason, whenever they have to receive considerable sums of money, they +take care that it shall be first exchanged for other coin. The Sheikh El +Nedjem, who generally accompanies the Sheikh Beshir, in his visits to +the Emir, never tastes + +[p.203] food in the palace of the latter, nor even smokes a pipe there, +always asserting that whatever the Emir possesses has been unlawfully +obtained. There are different degrees of Akal, and women are also +admitted into the order, a privilege which many avail themselves of, +from parsimony, as they are thus exempted from wearing the expensive +head-dress and rich silks fashionable among them. + +A father cannot entirely disinherit his son, in that case his will would +be set aside; but he may leave him a single mulberry tree for his +portion. There is a Druse Kadhi at Deir el Kammar, who judges according +to the Turkish laws, and the customs of the Druses; his office is +hereditary in a Druse family; but he is held in little repute, as all +causes of importance are carried before the Emir or the Sheikh Beshir. + +The Druses do not circumcise their children; circumcision is practised +only in the mountain by those members of the Shehab family who continue +to be Mohammedans. + +The best feature in the Druse character is that peculiar law of +hospitality, which forbids them ever to betray a guest. I made +particular enquiries on this subject, and I am satisfied that no +consideration of interest or dread of power will induce a Druse to give +up a person who has once placed himself under his protection. Persons +from all parts of Syria are in the constant practice of taking refuge in +the mountain, where they are in perfect security from the moment they +enter upon the Emir's territory; should the prince ever be tempted by +large offers to consent to give up a refugee, the whole country would +rise, to prevent such a stain upon their national reputation. The mighty +Djezzar, who had invested his own creatures with the government of the +mountain, never could force them to give up a single individual of all +those who fled thither from his tyranny. Whenever he became + +[p.204] very urgent in his demands, the Emir informed the fugitive of +his danger, and advised him to conceal himself for a time in some more +distant part of his territory; an answer was then returned to Djezzar +that the object of his resentment had fled. The asylum which is thus +afforded by the mountain is one of the greatest advantages that the +inhabitants of Syria enjoy over those in the other parts of the Turkish +dominions. + +The Druses are extremely fond of raw meat; whenever a sheep is killed, +the raw liver, heart, &c. are considered dainties; the Christians follow +their example, but with the addition of a glass of brandy with every +slice of meat. In many parts of Syria I have seen the common people eat +raw meat in their favourite dish the Kobbes; the women, especially, +indulge in this luxury. + +Mr. Barker told me that during his two years residence at Harissa and in +the mountain, he never heard any kind of music. The Christians are too +devout to occupy themselves with such worldly pleasures, and the Druses +have no sort of musical instruments. + +The Druses have a few historical books which mention their nation; Ibn +Shebat, for instance, as I was told, gives in his history of the +Califes, that of the Druses also, and of the family of Shehab. Emir +Haidar, a relation of the Emir Beshir, has lately begun to compile a +history of the Shehabs, which already forms a thick quarto volume. + +I believe that the greatest amount of the military forces of the Druses +is between ten and fifteen thousand firelocks; the Christians of the +mountain may, perhaps, be double that number; but I conceive that the +most potent Pasha or Emir would never be able to collect more than +twenty thousand men from the mountain. + +The districts inhabited by Druses in the Pashalik of Saida are the +following. El Tefahh, of which one half belongs to the + +[p.205] Pasha. El Shomar [Arabic], belonging for the greater part to the +Pasha. El Djessein, one half of which belongs to the Porte. Kesrouan. El +Metten. El Gharb el Fokany. El Gharb el Tahtany; in which the principal +family is that of Beit Telhouk [Arabic]. El Djord [Arabic], the +principal family there is Beit Abd el Melek. El Shehhar [Arabic]; the +principal family Meby el Dein [Arabic]. El Menaszef, under Sheikh +Soleiman of the family of Abou Neked [Arabic]. El Shouf [Arabic], the +residence of the Sheikh Beshir. El Aarkoub [Arabic], or Ard Barouk +[Arabic], belonging to the family of Aemad; and El Kharroub [Arabic], +belonging to the Djonbelat. + +In 1811, the Druses of Djebel Ala, between Ladakie and Antioch, were +driven from their habitations by Topal Aly, the governor of Djissr +Shogher, whose troops committed the most horrible cruelties. Upwards of +fifteen hundred families fled to their countrymen in the Libanus, where +they were received with great hospitality; upwards of two hundred purses +were collected for their relief, and the Djonbelat assigned to them +convenient dwellings in different parts of the mountain. Some of them +retired into the Haouran. + +March 21st.--It was with difficulty that I got away from Beteddein. The +Emir seemed to take great pleasure in conversing with me, as we spoke in +Arabic, which made him much freer than he would have been, had he had to +converse through the medium of an interpreter. He wished me to stay a +few days longer, and to go out a hunting with him; but I was anxious to +reach Damascus, and feared that the rain and snow would make the road +over the mountain impassable; in this I was not mistaken, having +afterwards found that if I had tarried a single day longer I should have +been obliged to return along the great road by the way of Beirout. The +Emir sent one of his horsemen to accompany me, + +WADY DHOBBYE. + +[p.206] and we set out about mid-day. Half an hour from Beteddein is the +village Ain el Maszer [Arabic], with a spring and many large walnut +trees. To the left, on the right bank of the Nahr el Kadhi, higher in +the mountain, are the villages Medjelmoush [Arabic] and Reshmeyia +[Arabic]. At one hour is the village Kefrnebra [Arabic], belonging to +the Yezdeky, under the command of Abou Salma, one of their principal +Sheikhs. The road lies along the mountain, gradually ascending. At one +hour and a quarter are the two villages Upper and Lower Beteloun +[Arabic] One hour and three quarters, the village Barouk [Arabic], and +near it the village Ferideis [Arabic]; these are the chief residence of +the Yezdeky, and the principal villages in the district of Barouk. They +are situated on the wild banks of the torrent Barouk, whose source is +about one hour and a half distant. The Sheikh Beshir has conducted a +branch of it to his new palace at Mokhtar; the torrent falls into the +sea near Saida. From Barouk the road ascends the steep side of the +higher region of the mountain called Djebel Barouk; we were an hour and +a half in ascending; the summit was covered with snow, and a thick fog +rested upon it: and had it not been for the footsteps of a man who had +passed a few hours before us we should not have been able to find our +way. We several times sunk up to our waists in the snow, and on reaching +the top we lost the footsteps, when discovering a small rivulet running +beneath the snow, I took it as our guide, and although the Druse was in +despair, and insisted on returning, I pushed on, and after many falls +reached the plain of the Bekaa, at the end of two hours from the summit; +I suppose the straight road to be not more than an hour and quarter. The +rivulet by which we descended is called Wady Dhobbye [Arabic]. We had no +sooner entered the plain than it began to snow again, and it continued +to rain and snow for several days. Small caravans + +DJOB DJENNEIN. + +[p.207] from Deir el Kammar to Damascus pass the mountain even in +winter; but to prevent the sharp hoofs of the mules from sinking deep +into the snow, the muleteers are accustomed in the difficult places to +spread carpets before them as they pass. + +We reached the plain near a small village, inhabited only during the +seed time. From thence the village of Djob Djennein bore S. by E. and +the village of Andjar, in the upper part of the Bekaa, which I visited +in the year 1810, from Zahle, E.N.E. From the foot of the mountain we +were one hour in reaching the bridge over the Liettani, which has been +lately repaired by the Emir Beshir, who has also built a Khan near it, +for the accommodation of travellers. At twenty minutes from the bridge +lies the village Djob Djennein [Arabic], one of the principal villages +of the Bekaa; it is situated on the declivity of the Anti-Libanus, where +that mountain begins to form part of the Djebel Essheikh. The Anti- +Libanus here advances a little into the valley, which from thence takes +a more western course. + +The Emir Beshir has seven or eight villages about Djob Djennein, which +together with the latter are his own property; but the whole Bekaa, +since Soleiman succeeded to the Pashalik of Damascus in 1810, is also +under his command. The villages to the north of Djob Djennein will be +found enumerated in another place;[See page 31.] those to the south of +it, and farther down in the valley, are Balloula [Arabic], El Medjdel +[Arabic], Hammara [Arabic], Sultan Yakoub, [Arabic] El Beiry [Arabic], El +Refeidh [Arabic], Kherbet Kanafat [Arabic], Ain Arab [Arabic], and Leila +[Arabic]. Having one of the Emir Beshir's men with me, I was treated +like a great man in the house of the Sheikh of Djob Djennein; this I may +be allowed to mention, as it is the only instance of my receiving such +honours during my travels in Syria. + +KHAN DOUMAS. + +[p.208] March 22nd.--Caravans reckon two days journey between Djob +Djennein and Damascus; but as I was tolerably well mounted, and my guide +was on a good mare of the Emir Beshir's, I resolved on reaching it in +one day; we therefore pursued our route at a brisk walk and sometimes at +a trot. We crossed the plain obliquely, having the projection of the +Anti-Libanus, which ends at Djob Djennein, on our right. At thirty-five +minutes from Djob Djennein, to the right, is the village Kamel el Louz +[Arabic], where are many ancient caves in the rocky mountain which rises +behind it. In three quarters of an hour we reached the foot of the Anti- +Libanus. On the summit of the mountain on our left, I observed a +singular rock called Shekeik el Donia [Arabic], or Hadjar el Konttara +[Arabic]; my guide told me that the time would certainly arrive when +some Frank nation would invade this country, and that on reaching this +rock they would be completely routed. After a short ascent the road lies +through a narrow plain, and then up another Wady, in the midst of which +is the village of Ayty [Arabic], two hours distant from Djob Djennein; +it belongs to Sheikh Hassan, the brother of Sheikh Beshir, a very rich +Druse, who is as avaricious as the latter is generous; he has however +built a Khan here for the accommodation of travellers. There is a fine +spring in the village; the inhabitants manufacture coarse earthen ware +[Arabic], with which they supply Damascus. + +At the end of two hours and three quarters we reached the summit of the +Anti-Libanus, where the heavy rains had already melted the greater part +of the snow; here are some stunted oaks, and numerous springs. In three +hours and a quarter we descended into a fine plain watered by the Wady +Halloue [Arabic], which we followed into a narrow valley, and on issuing +from it passed a ruined Khan, with a spring, called Khan Doumas +[Arabic], which is five hours and a quarter from Djob Djennein. We left +the + +PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. + +[p.209] village Doumas, which is half an hour from the Khan on our +right, and at the end of six hours reached a high uneven plain, situated +between the Anti Libanus and the chain of hills which commence near +Katana; the plain is called Szakhret el Sham [Arabic]. Seven hours and a +half, the ruined Khan Meylesoun [Arabic]. Eight hours and a half brought +us to the termination of the Szakhret, from which we descended into the +Ghouta, or plain of Damascus. At nine hours, the village Mezze [Arabic], +among the gardens of Damascus; and at the end of nine hours and three +quarters we entered the city, which is generally reckoned fourteen hours +journey from Djob Djennein. + +Note. + +Between Kesrouan and Zahle, I am informed that in the mountain, about +six hours from the latter, are the ruins of an ancient city called +Fakkra or Mezza. Large blocks of stone, some remains of temples, and +several Greek inscriptions are seen there. + +Between Akoura and Baalbec is a road cut in the rock, with several long +Greek inscriptions, and near the source of the rivulet of Afka, near +Akoura, are the ruins of an ancient building, which I unfortunately did +not see during my passage through that village in 1810, although I +enquired for them. + +[p. 211] + +JOURNAL + +OF A + +TOUR FROM DAMASCUS INTO THE HAOURAN, + +AND THE MOUNTAINS TO THE E. AND S.E. OF THE LAKE OF TIBERIAS. + +IN THE MONTHS OF APRIL AND MAY, 1812. + +In returning to Damascus, it was my intention to obtain some further +knowledge of the Haouran, and to extend my journey over the mountains to +the south of Damascus, where I wished to explore the ruins of Djerash +(Gerasa) and of Amman (Philadelphia) in the ancient Decapolis, which M. +Seetzen had discovered in his journey from Damascus to Jerusalem. An +unexpected change in the government of Damascus obliged me to protract +my stay in that city for nearly a month. The news had just been received +of the dismissal of Soleiman Pasha, and it was necessary for me, before +I set off, to ascertain whether the country would yield quietly to the +command of the new Pasha; for, if rebel parties started up, and +submission became doubtful, the traveller would run great hazards, would +be unable to derive any advantage from the protection of the government, +and would be obliged to force his way by the means of endless presents +to the provincial chiefs. + +As soon as I was satisfied of the tranquil state of the Pashalik, I set +out for the Haouran. I took with me a Damascene, who had been seventeen +times to Mekka, who was well acquainted with the + +DEIR ALI. + +[p.212]Bedouins, inured to fatigue, and not indisposed to favour my +pursuits; I had indeed reason to be contented with my choice of this +man, though he was of little further use to me than to take care of my +horse, and to assist in intimidating the Arabs, by some additional fire- +arms. + +We left Damascus on the morning of the 21st of April, 1812; and as my +first steps were directed towards those parts of the Ledja which I had +not visited during my first tour, we took the road of El Kessoue, Deir +Ali, and El Merdjan, to the description of which in my former journal I +may here add the following particulars: The N.E. part of Djebel Kessoue +is called Djebel Aadelye [Arabic]. From Kessoue our road bore S.S.E. In +one hour and a quarter from that place we passed the small village +called Haush el Madjedye [Arabic]; Haush being an appellation applied to +small villages enclosed by a wall, or rather to those whose houses join, +so as to present by their junction a defence against the Arab robbers. +The entrance to the Haush is generally through a strong wooden gate, +which is carefully secured every evening. + +At an hour and three quarters from Kessoue is Deir Ali, to the north of +which, upon the summit of Djebel Kessoue, is situated the Mezar el +Khaledye [Arabic]; Deir Ali is a village inhabited by Druses, who keep +the Arabs in great awe, by the reputation for courage which they have +acquired upon many occasions. It seems rather extraordinary that the +Druses, the known enemies of the Mohammedan faith, should be allowed to +inhabit the country so near to the gate of the holy city, as Damascus is +called; for not only Deir Ali, but three or four villages, as Artous, +Esshera, Fye, and others, at only three hours distant from Damascus, are +for the greater part peopled by them. Numbers of them are even settled +in the town; the quarters called Bab Mesalla and El Hakle, in the +Meidhan, or suburbs of the city, contain + +MERDJAN. + +[p.213]more than one hundred Druse families, who are there called +Teyamene [Arabic]. In another quarter, called El Khereb, live three or +four hundred Metaweli families, or Shiytes, of the sect of Aly; of this +sect is the present Mutsellim, Aly Aga. The religious creeds of all +these people are publicly known; but the fanatism of the Damascenes, +however violent, is easily made subservient to their fears or interests; +every religious and moral duty being forgotten when the prospect of gain +or the apprehension of danger presents itself. + +At three hours and a quarter from Kessoue is the village El Merdjan. +When I passed this place in 1810, I found a single Christian family in +it; I now found eight or ten families, most of them Druses, who had +emigrated hither from Shaara, a well peopled village in 1810, but now +deserted. They had brought the fertile soil round El Merdjan into +cultivation, and had this year sown eight Ghararas of wheat and barley, +or about one hundred and twenty cwt. English.[The Gharara of Damascus is +eighty Muds, at three and a half Rotola per Mud, or twenty pounds.] The +taxes paid by the village amounted to a thousand piastres, or fifty +pounds sterling, besides the tribute extorted by the Bedouins. The +vicinity of the village is watered by several springs. I was obliged to +remain at Merdjan the next day, because my mare fell ill, and was unable +to proceed. As I did not like to return to Damascus, I bought a mare of +the Sheikh of the village, a Christian of Mount Libanus, who knew me, +and who took a bill upon Damascus in payment. This mare I afterwards +bartered for a Bedouin horse. + +April 23d.--I left Merdjan to examine the eastern limits of the Ledja. +We passed the Aamoud Eszoubh [Arabic], or Column of the Morning, an +insulated pillar standing in the plain; it is formed + +BERAK. + +[p.214]of the black stone of the Ledja, about twenty-five or thirty feet +high, of the Ionic order, and with a high pedestal. I had been told that +there were some inscriptions upon it, but I did not find any. The column +is half an hour distant from Merdjan, to the eastward of south. Round +the column are fragments of three or four others, which appear to have +formed a small temple. The remains of a subterraneous aqueduct, +extending from the village towards the spot where the column stands, are +yet visible. In one hour from thence we passed a ruined village called +Beidhan [Arabic], with a saltpetre manufactory. Two hours from Merdjan +is Berak [Arabic], bearing from it S.E.b.E. Our road lay over a low +plain between the Djebel Kessoue and the Ledja, in which the Bedouins of +the latter were pasturing their cattle. Berak is a ruined town, situated +on the N.E. corner of the Ledja; there is no large building of any +consequence here; but there are many private habitations. Here are two +saltpetre manufactories, in which the saltpetre is procured by boiling +the earth dug up among the ruins of the town; saline earth is also dug +up in the neighbouring plain; in finding the productive spots, they are +guided by the appearance of the ground in the morning before sunrise, +and wherever it then appears most wet with dew the soil beneath is found +impregnated with salt. The two manufactures produce about three Kantars, +or fifteen or sixteen quintals per month of saltpetre, which is sold at +about fifteen shillings per quintal. The boilers of these manufactories +are heated by brush-wood brought from the desert, as there is little +wood in the Ledja, about Berak. The whole of the Loehf, or limits of the +Ledja, is productive of saltpetre, which is sold at Damascus and Acre; I +saw it sold near the lake of Tiberias for double the price which it +costs in the Loehf. In the interior of a house among the ruins of Berak, +I saw the following inscription: + +[p.215] + +[Greek] ["The tenth of Peritius of the eighth year." Peritius was one of +the Macedonian months, the use of which was introduced into Syria by the +Seleucidae. It answered to the latter part of December and beginning of +January. Ed.]. + +On the outside wall of a house, in another part of the town, was the +following: + +[Greek] [[GREEK] Apellaeus was another Macedonian month, and answered to +half October and half November. This inscription is within a tablet of +the usual form. Ed]. + +Berak, like most of the ancient towns of the Ledja, has a large stone +reservoir of water. Between these ruins and Missema lies the ruined city +Om Essoud [Arabic], in the Loehf. + +Djebel Kessoue runs out in a S.E. direction as far as the N.E. limits of +the Ledja, and consists of the same kind of rock as that district. The +other branch of it, or Djebel Khiara, extends towards Shaara. One hour +S.W. from Berak, in the Ledja, are the ruins of a tower called Kaszr +Seleitein [Arabic], with a ruined village near it. An Arab enumerated to +me the following names of ruined cities and villages in the Ledja, which +may be added to those mentioned in my former journal: Emseyke [Arabic], +El Wyr + +EL KHELKHELE. + +[p.216] [Arabic], Djedl [Arabic], Essemeyer [Arabic], Szour [Arabic], +Aasem Ezzeitoun [Arabic], Hamer [Arabic], Djerrein [Arabic], Dedjmere +[Arabic], El Aareis [Arabic] El Kastall [Arabic], Bord [Arabic], Kabbara +[Arabic], El Tof [Arabic], Etteibe [Arabic], Behadel [Arabic], El Djadj +[Arabic], Szomeith [Arabic], El Kharthe [Arabic], Harran [Arabic], +Djeddye [Arabic], Serakhed [Arabic], Deir [Arabic], Dami [Arabic], +Aahere [Arabic], Om el Aalek [Arabic], Moben el Beit [Arabic], Deir +Lesmar [Arabic]. + +I engaged a man at Berak to conduct me along the Loehf, or limits of the +Ledja; this eastern part is called El Lowa, from the Wady Lowa [Arabic], +a winter torrent which descends from Djebel Haouran, and flows along the +borders of the Ledja, filling in its course the reservoirs of all the +ancient towns situated there; it empties itself into the Bahret el +Merdj, or marshy ground at seven or eight hours east of Damascus, where +the rivers of Damascus also are lost. Our road was S.S.E. In one hour +from Berak we passed the Lowa, near a ruined bridge, where the Wady +takes a more eastern direction. Some water remained in pools in +different places in the Wady, the rains having been very copious during +the winter season. In an hour and a half we passed Essowara [Arabic], a +ruined town on our right; we travelled along the fertile plain that +skirts the rocky surface of the Ledja, which at two hours took a more +southern direction. On our right was El Hazzem [Arabic], a ruined town; +and a little farther, Meharetein [Arabic], also in ruins. All these +towns are on the borders of the Ledja. Their inhabitants formerly +cultivated the fields watered by the Lowa, of which the stone enclosures +are still visible in some places. At three hours is El Khelkhele +[Arabic], a ruined town, where we slept, in the house of the owner of a +saltpetre manufactory. + +The Wady Lowa in some places approaches close to the Ledja, and in +others advances for a mile into the plain; its banks were covered with +the most luxuriant herbage, of which little use is + +SOWARAT EL DSAKEIR. + +[p.217]made; the Arabs of the Ledja being afraid to pass beyond its +limits, from the almost continual state of warfare in which they live +with the powerful tribe of Aeneze, and the government of Damascus; while +the Aeneze, on the other hand, are shy of approaching too near the +Ledja, from fear of the nightly robberies, and of the fire-arms of the +Arabs who inhabit it. The labourers in the saltpetre manufactories are +Druses, whose reputation for individual courage, and national spirit, +keeps the Arabs at a respectful distance. + +April 24th.--Khelkhele, like all the ancient towns in the Haouran, is +built entirely with stone. I did not observe any public edifice of +importance in the towns of the Lowa; there are some towers of moderate +height, which seem to have been the steeples of churches; and a few +houses are distinguished from the rest by higher arches in the +apartments, and a few rude carvings over their doors. From Khelkhele, +S.E. about two hours distant, is a high Tel in the plain; it is called +Khaledie [Arabic], and has the ruins of a town on its top; nearly +joining to it are the most northern projections of Djebel Haouran, which +are distinguished on this side by a chain of low hillocks. To the E. of +Khelkhele, about four hours, stands the Tel el Aszfar [Arabic], farther +E. the ruined village of Djoh Ezzerobe [Arabic], and still further E. +about nine or ten hours, from Khelkhele, the ruined village El Kasem +[Arabic], near which is a small rivulet. In the direction of Tel el +Khaledie, and to the S.E. of it, are the ruined villages of Bezeine +[Arabic], and Bezeinat [Arabic]. + +The direction of our route from Khelkhele was sometimes S.E. sometimes +S. following the windings of the Ledja and the Lowa. At half an hour is +the ruined village Dsakeir [Arabic], in the Ledja, which here turns to +the E. in the direction of Tel Shiehhan. On its S.E. corner stands the +ruined town Sowarat el Dsakeir [Arabic], + +OM EZZEITOUN. + +[p.218] where we found a party of Arabs Szolout encamped, with whom we +breakfasted. In one hour and a quarter we passed Redheimy [Arabic], +where the ground was covered with remains of ancient enclosures. One +hour and a half, El Hadher [Arabic]; one hour and three quarters, El +Laheda [Arabic]; two hours, Omten [Arabic]; two hours and a half, +Meraszrasz [Arabic]; three hours, Om Haretein [Arabic]; three hours and +a half, Essammera [Arabic]. All the above villages and towns are in +ruins, and prove the once-flourishing state of the Ledja. In four hours +we reached Om Ezzeitoun [Arabic], a village inhabited by Druses. The +advantages of a Wady like the Lowa are incalculable in these countries, +where we always find that cultivation follows the direction of the +winter torrents, as it follows the Nile in Egypt. There are not many +Wadys in this country which inundate the land; but the inhabitants make +the best use of the water to irrigate their fields after the great rains +have ceased. Springs are scarce, and it is from the Wadys that the +reservoirs are filled which supply both men and cattle with water, till +the return of the rainy season. It is from the numerous Wadys which rise +in the Djebel Haouran that the population of the Haouran derives its +means of existence, and the success of its agriculture. + +Om Ezzeitoun is inhabited by thirty or forty families. It appears, by +the extent of its ruins, to have been formerly a town of some note. I +here copied several inscriptions. + +Upon a broken stone in the wall of a public building over the great +reservoir of the town, was the following: + +[Greek] + +[p.219] [Greek]. + +The only ancient building of any consequence is a small temple, of which +an arch of the interior, and the gate, only remain; on each side of the +latter are niches, between which and the gate are these inscriptions: + +[Greek]. + +The two last syllables are on the frame within which the inscription is +engraved. + +[Greek]. + +Upon a stone lying on the ground near the temple is the following: + +[p.220] [Greek].[[Greek]. Ed.] + +Upon a long narrow stone in the wall of a court-yard near the temple: + +[Greek]. + +I had intended to sleep at Om Ezzeitoun, but I found the Druses very +ill-disposed towards me. It was generally reported that I had discovered +a treasure in 1810 at Shohba, near this place, and it was supposed that +I had now returned to carry off what I had then left behind. I had to +combat against this story at almost every place, but I was nowhere so +rudely received as at this village, where I escaped ill treatment only +by assuming a very imposing air, and threatening with many oaths, that +if I lost a single hair of my beard, the Pasha would levy an avania of +many purses on the village. I had with me an old passport from Soleiman +Pasha, who, though no longer governor of Damascus, had been charged pro +tempore with the government till the arrival of the new Pasha, who was +expected from Constantinople. Soleiman had retired to his former +government at Acre, but his Mutsellim at Damascus very kindly granted me +strong letters of recommendation to all the authorities of the country, +which were of great use to me in the course of my journey. + +I left Om Ezzeitoun late in the evening, to proceed toward the mountain +of Haouran. Our road lay on the N. side of Tel Shiehhan, + +BEREIT. + +[p.221]close to which runs the Ledja; and the Wady Lowa descends the +mountain on the west side of it. We proceeded in the direction of +Soueida, and in an hour and a quarter from the village stopped, after +sunset, at an encampment of the Djebel Haouran Arabs. My companion, and +a guide whom I had engaged at Om Ezzeitoun, persuaded me to appear +before the Arabs as a soldier belonging to the government, in order to +get a good supper, of which we were in great want, that of the preceding +night, at the saltpetre works, having consisted of only a handful of dry +biscuit. We were served with a dish of rice boiled in sour milk, and +were much amused by the sports and songs of the young girls of the +tribe, which they continued in the moonlight till near midnight. One of +the young men had just returned to the encampment, who had been taken +prisoner by the Aeneze during a nightly predatory expedition. He showed +us the marks of his fetters, and enlarged upon the mode of treating the +Rabiat, or prisoner, among the Aeneze. A friend had paid thirty camels +for his liberation. In spring the Arabs of the Djebel Haouran and the +Ledja take advantage of the approach of the Aeneze, to plunder daily +among their enemies; they are better acquainted with the ground than the +latter, a part of whose horses and cattle are every spring carried off +by these daring mountaineers. + +April 25th.--At half an hour from the encampment is the hill called Tel +Dobbe [Arabic], consisting of a heap of ruins, with a spring. To the +N.E. of it, a quarter of an hour, is the ruined village of Bereit, which +was inhabited in 1810, but is now abandoned. The Haouran peasants wander +from one village to another; in all of them they find commodious +habitations in the ancient houses; a camel transports their family and +baggage; and as they are not tied to any particular spot by private +landed property, or plantations, and find every where large tracts to +cultivate, + +AATYL. + +[p.222]they feel no repugnance at quitting the place of their birth. In +one hour we passed Seleim, which in 1810 was inhabited by a few poor +Druses, but is now abandoned. Here are the ruins of a temple, built with +much smaller stones than any I had observed in the construction of +buildings of a similar size in the Haouran. On the four outer corners +were Corinthian pilasters. At one hour and a quarter, road S. we entered +the wood of oak-trees, which is continued along the western declivity of +the Djebel. One hour and a half, in the wood, we passed the Wady Dyab +[Arabic], coming from the mountain. One hour and three quarters, passed +Wady Kefr el Laha [Arabic]. At the end of two hours we reached Aatyl +[Arabic], a small Druse village in the midst of the wood. Here are the +remains of two handsome temples; that which is on the N. side, is in +complete ruins; it consisted of a square building, with a high arch +across its roof; two niches were on each side of the gate, and in front +of it a portico of columns, the number of which it is impossible to +determine, the ground being covered by a heap of fragments of columns, +architraves, and large square stones. This temple is called El Kaszr. +From a small stone in its precincts I copied the following letters: + +[Greek]. + +On the outside wall of the temple is the following inscription in +remarkably fine characters. + +[Greek]. + +On the S.E. side of Aatyl stands the other temple, which is of small +dimensions but of elegant construction. It has a portico of two + +[p.223]columns and two pilasters, each of which has a projecting base +for a statue, elevated from the ground about one-third of the height of +the column, like the pillars of the great colonnade at Palmyra. The +columns are Corinthian, but not of the best time of that order. The +interior of the temple consists of an apartment with several arches +without any ornaments; but the gate is covered with sculpture. The two +pilasters forming the portico have inscriptions on their bases. On the +one is this: + +[Greek]. + +Near the other pilaster is an inscription upon two broken stones, lying +near each other; these stones appear to have been formerly joined, and +to have formed part of the base of the pilaster, and the inscription +seems to have been a copy of the former. Upon the one I read: + +[Greek]. + +and upon the other: + +[Greek] + +[p.224] [Greek]. + +Near the temple I saw a bas-relief about ten inches square, representing +a female bust, with hair in ringlets, falling upon the shoulders; it was +lying on the ground; but it was not of such workmanship as to tempt me +to take it with me. Upon the wall of one of the largest houses in the +village was a long inscription; but too high for me to read. + +N.E. of Aatyl, about one hour, up in the mountain, is a ruined tower +called Berdj Mabroum [Arabic]. + +The tobacco of Aatyl is preferred to that of any other part of the +Haouran. I here saw a public woman, a Kahirene, who seemed to be kept at +the expense of the whole village; I was surprised at this, for manners +in the Haouran are generally almost as pure as among the Bedouins: +public women are not suffered, and adultery is punished by the death of +the woman, while the man is ruined by the heavy penalties exacted by the +government in expiation of his guilt. Last year a married Turkish woman +at Mohadje, a village in the Loehf, was caught in the embraces of a +young Christian; her three brothers hastened to the spot, dragged her to +the market place, and there in the presence of the whole community, cut +her in pieces with their swords, loading her at the same time with the +most horrible imprecations. The lover was fined ten purses. + +From Aatyl I pursued my way one hour and a quarter S.S.E. to Soueida, at +a short distance from which are the remains of an ancient road. As I had +examined the antiquities of this village in 1810, and did not wish to be +seen here a second time, I passed on without stopping, in the direction +of Aaere, which is two hours and a half distant in a south-westerly +direction. In the plain, and at a quarter of an hour to the west of +Soueida, is the ruined convent + +AAERE. + +[p.225] Deir Senan [Arabic]. There is only a small Kurdine village in +the road between Soueida and Aaere. + +April 26th.--I remained this day at Aaere, in the house of the Druse +chief the Sheikh Shybely Ibn Hamdan, where I alighted. The Sheikh +appeared to be greatly pleased at my reappearance. Since my former +visit, I had cultivated his friendship by letters and presents, which I +had sent to him from Aleppo, and by which he was so much gratified, that +he would have loaded me with presents in return, had I not thought +proper to decline every thing of that kind, contenting myself with some +very strong letters of recommendation from him to the authorities in +those places which I intended to visit. Shybely is the kindest and most +generous Turk I have known in Syria: and his reputation for these +qualities has become so general, that peasants from all parts of the +Haouran settle in his village. The whole of the Christian community of +Soueida, with the Greek priest at their head, had lately arrived, so +that Aaere has now become one of the most populous villages in this +district. The high estimation in which the Sheikh is held arises from +his great hospitality, and the justice and mildness with which he treats +the peasants, upwards of forty of whom he feeds daily, besides +strangers, who are continually passing here in their way to the Bedouin +encampments; the coffee pot is always boiling in the Menzoul or +stranger's room. He may now, in fact, be called the Druse chief of the +Haouran, though that title belongs in strictness to his father-in-law, +Hossein Ibn Hamdan, the Sheikh of Soueida. In the mosque of Aaere, a low +vaulted building, I copied the following inscription from a stone in the +wall: + +[Greek]. + +BOSZRA. + +[p.226]April 27th.--I now thought that I might visit Boszra, which I had +found it prudent to avoid in my former tour. Shybely gave me one of his +men as a guide, and we followed the road which I have already described, +as far as Shmerrin. At a quarter of an hour beyond Shmerrin, we passed +the Wady Rakeik [Arabic]. + +Boszra [Arabic], is situated in the open plain, two hours distant from +Aaere and is at present the last inhabited place in the south-east +extremity of the Haouran; it was formerly the capital of Arabia +Provincia, and is now, including its ruins, the largest town in the +Haouran. It is of an oval shape, its greatest length being from E. to +W.; its circumference is three quarters of an hour. It was anciently +enclosed by a thick wall, which gave it the reputation of a place of +great strength. Many parts of this wall, especially on the W. side, +still remain; it was constructed with stones of a moderate size, +strongly cemented together. The principal buildings in Boszra were on +the E. side, and in a direction from thence towards the middle of the +town. The S. and S.E. quarters are covered with ruins of private +dwellings, the walls of many of which are still standing, but most of +the roofs have fallen in. The style of building seems to have been +similar to that observed in all the other ancient towns of the Haouran. +On the W. side are springs of fresh water, of which I counted five +beyond the precincts of the town, and six within the walls; their waters +unite with a rivulet whose source is on the N.W. side, within the town, +and which loses itself in the southern plain at several hours distance: +it is called by the Arabs El Djeheir [Arabic]. + +The Nahr el Ghazel, which in most maps, and even by D'Anville, is laid +down in the immediate vicinity of Boszra, is unknown to the natives; but +I was afterwards informed that there is a Wady Ghazel in the direction +of Amman (Philadelphia), in the Djebel Belka, which descends from the +mountain, + +[p.227]and flows into the eastern plains, to the S. of Kalaat el Belka. + +The principal ruins of Boszra are the following: a square building, +which within is circular, and has many arches and niches in the wall: on +either side of the door within are two larger niches, and opposite to +the door on the east side of the circle is the sanctuary, formed of low +arches supported by Corinthian pillars, without pedestals. Several +beautiful sculptured friezes are inserted in the wall, but I was unable +to discover from whence they had been taken; in front of the door stand +four columns. The diameter of the rotunda is four paces; its roof has +fallen in, but the walls are entire, without any ornaments. It appears +to have been a Greek church. Over the gate is a long inscription, but it +was illegible to my sight. + +At a short distance to the west of this edifice is an oblong square +building, called by the natives Deir Boheiry [Arabic], or the Monastery +of the priest Boheiry. On the top of the walls is a row of windows; on +the north side is a high vaulted niche; the roof has fallen in; I +observed no ornaments about it. On the side of its low gate is the +following inscription in bad characters: + +AEL AVREL THEONI LEG AVGG PR PR COS DESIG OPTIONES [xx] LEG III +KVRENAICAE VENERIANAE GALLIANAE RARISI--MO ET PER OMNIA IUSTISSIMO SOCIO + +Between these two buildings stands the gate of an ancient house, +communicating with the ruins of an edifice, the only remains of which is +a large semi-circular vault, with neat decorations and four small niches +in its interior; before it lie a heap of stones and broken columns. Over +the gate of the house is the following inscription: + +[p.228] [Greek]. + +The natives have given to this house the name of Dar Boheiry, or the +house of Boheiry. This Boheiry is a personage well known to the +biographers of Mohammed, and many strange stories are related of him, by +the Mohammedans, in honour of their Prophet, or by the eastern +Christians, in derision of the Impostor. He is said to have been a rich +Greek priest, settled at Boszra, and to have predicted the prophetic +vocation of Mohammed, whom he saw when a boy passing with a caravan from +Mekka to Damascus. Abou el Feradj, one of the earliest Arabic +historians, relates this anecdote. According to the traditions of the +Christians, he was a confidential counsellor of Mohammed, in the +compilation of the Koran. + +To the west of the abovementioned buildings stands the great mosque of +Boszra, which is certainly coeval with the first aera of Mohammedanism, +and is commonly ascribed to Omar el Khattab [Arabic]. Part of its roof +has fallen in. On two sides of the square building runs a double row of +columns, transported hither from the ruins of some Christian temple in +the town. Those which are formed of the common Haouran stone are badly +wrought in the coarse heavy style of the lower empire; but among them +are sixteen fine variegated marble columns, distinguished both by the +beauty of the material, and of the execution: fourteen are Corinthian, +and two Ionic; they are each about sixteen or eighteen feet in height, +of a single block, and well polished. Upon two of them standing opposite +to each other are the two following inscriptions: + +1. [Greek] + +[p.229] [Greek]. + +2. [Greek]. + +The walls of the mosque are covered with a coat of fine plaster, upon +which were many Cufic inscriptions in bas-relief, running all round the +wall, which was embellished also by numerous elegant Arabesque +ornaments; a few traces of these, as well as of the inscriptions, still +remain. The interior court-yard of the mosque is covered with the ruins +of the roof, and with fragments of columns, among which I observed a +broken shaft of an octagonal pillar, two feet in diameter; there are +also several stones with Cufic inscriptions upon them. + +Passing from the great mosque, southwards, we came to the principal ruin +of Boszra, the remains of a temple, situated on the side of a long +street, which runs across the whole town, and terminates at the western +gate. Of this temple nothing remains but the back wall, with two +pilasters, and a column, joined by its entablature to the main wall; +they are all of the Corinthian order, and both capitals and architraves +are richly adorned with sculpture. In the wall of the temple are three +rows of niches, one over the other. Behind this is another wall, half +ruined. In front of the temple, but + +[p.230]standing in an oblique direction towards it, are four large +Corinthian Columns, equalling in beauty of execution the finest of those +at Baalbec or Palmyra (those in the temple of the Sun at the latter +place excepted): they are quite perfect, are six spans in diameter, and +somewhat more than forty-five feet in height; they are composed of many +pieces of different sizes, the smallest being towards the top, and they +do not appear to have been united by an entablature. They are not at +equal distances, the space between the two middle ones being greater +than the two other intervals. About thirty paces distant stands another +column, of smaller dimensions, and of more elaborate but less elegant +execution. I endeavoured in vain to trace the plan of the edifice to +which these columns belonged, for they correspond in no way with the +neighbouring temple; it appeared that the main building had been +destroyed, and its site built upon; nothing whatever of it remaining but +these columns, the immediate vicinity of which is covered with the ruins +of private houses. These four large columns, and those of Kanouat, are +the finest remains of antiquity in the Haouran. Upon the base of the +pilaster in the back wall of the temple is the following inscription, in +handsome characters: + +[Greek]. + +Upon a broken stone in a modern wall near this temple I read: + +[Greek]. + +[p.231] Upon another broken stone not far from the former is this +inscription, now almost effaced, and which I made out with difficulty: + +[Greek]. + +The ruin of the temple just described is in the upper part of the town, +which slopes gently towards the west; not far from it, in descending the +principal street, is a triumphal arch, almost entire, but presenting +nothing very striking in its appearance, from the circumstance of the +approach to it being choked with private houses, as is the case with all +the public buildings in Boszra, except the church first mentioned. The +arch consists of a high central arch, with two lower side arches; +between these are Corinthian pilasters, with projecting bases for +statues. On the inside of the arch were several large niches, now choked +up by heaps of broken stones. On one of the pilasters is this +inscription: + +VLIO IVLIA . . . . . NAR PRAEF LEG. p ARTHICAE . . . . . . PPIANAE DVCI +DEVOTI S . MO . TREBICIVS CAVOINUS PRAEF ALAE NOV. EFIRME CATAPRACTO +PHILIPPIAN . PRAEPOSITO OPTIMO + +Upon a stone in the wall over the gate of a private house on the west +side of the temple, was the following, upside down: + +[p.232] [Greek]. + +Over the gate of another house, in the same neighbourhood: + +[Greek]. + +Among the ruins in the N.W. part of the town is an insulated mosque, and +another stands near the above mentioned Deir Boheiry; in its court-yard +is a stone covered with a long and beautiful Cufic inscription, which is +well worth transporting to Europe; the characters being very small it +would have required a whole day to copy it; it begins as follows: + +[Arabic]. + +Not far from the great mosque is another triumphal arch, of smaller +dimensions than the former, but remarkable for the thickness of its +walls: it forms the entrance to an arched passage, through which one of +the principal streets passed: two Doric columns are standing before it. + +In the eastern quarter of the town is a large Birket or reservoir, +almost perfect, one hundred and ninety paces in length, one hundred and +fifty three in breadth, and enclosed by a wall seven feet in thickness, +built of large square stones; its depth maybe about twenty feet. A +staircase leads down to the water, as the basin is never completely +filled. This reservoir is a work of the Saracens; made for watering the +pilgrim caravan to Mekka, which as late as the seventeenth century +passed by Boszra. A branch of the Wady Zeid [See p. 105.]empties itself +in winter into the Birket. On the south side it is flanked by a row of +houses, by some public edifices, and a + +[p.233]mosque; and on the west side by an ancient cemetery; the other +sides are open. + +Upon a broken stone, in the middle of the town, is the following +inscription, in characters similar to those which I met with at Hebron, +Kanouat, and Aaere. + +[xxxxx]. + +I now quitted the precincts of the town, and just beyond the walls, on +the S. side came to a large castle of Saracen origin, probably of the +time of the Crusades: it is one of the best built castles in Syria, and +is surrounded by a deep ditch. Its walls are very thick, and in the +interior are alleys, dark vaults, subterraneous passages, &c. of the +most solid construction. What distinguishes it from other Syrian +castles, is that on the top of it there is a gallery of short pillars, +on three sides, and on the fourth side are several niches in the wall, +without any decorations; many of the pillars are still standing. The +castle was garrisoned, at the time of my visit, by six Moggrebyns only. +There is a well in the interior. I copied the following from a small +altar-shaped stone lying on the ground within the castle: + +[Greek]. [Legionis tertiae Cyrenaicae. Ed.] + +The castle of Boszra is a most important post to protect the harvests of +the Haouran against the hungry Bedouins; but it is much neglected by the +Pashas of Damascus, and this year the + +[p.234]crops of the inhabitants of Boszra have been almost entirely +consumed by the horses of the Aeneze, who were encamped on the E. side +of the Djebel Haouran. + +From a broken stone in the modern wall of a court-yard near the castle I +copied the following letters: + +[Greek]. + +In proceeding from the castle westwards, I arrived, in a quarter of an +hour, at the western gate of the town, where the long street terminates. +The gate is a fine arch, with niches on each side, in perfect +preservation: the people of Boszra call it Bab el Haoua [Arabic], or the +Wind gate, probably because the prevailing or summer breezes blow from +that point. A broad paved causeway, of which some traces yet remain, led +into the town; vestiges of the ancient pavement are also seen in many of +the streets, with a paved footway on each side; but the streets are all +narrow, just permitting a loaded camel to pass. + +Near the Bab el Haoua are the springs above mentioned, called Ayoun el +Merdj; with some remains of walls near them. The late Youssef Pasha of +Damascus built here a small watch-tower, or barrack, for thirty men, to +keep the hostile Arabs at a distance from the water. The town walls are +almost perfect in this part, and the whole ground is covered with ruins, +although there is no appearance of any large public building. Upon an +altar near one of the springs was the following inscription: + +ANTONIAE FORTVNATAE ANTONIVS. V . . CES CONIVGI PIISIMAE + +[p.235] Near it is another altar, with a defaced inscription. + +In going northward from the springs, I passed the rivulet Djeheir, whose +source is at a short distance, within the precincts of the town. It +issues from a stone basin, and was conducted anciently in a canal. Over +it seems to have stood a small temple, to judge by the remains of +several columns that are lying about. The source is full of small fish. +Youssef Pasha built a barrack here also; but it was destroyed by the +Wahabi who made an incursion into the Haouran in 1810, headed by their +chief Ibn Saoud, who encamped for two days near this spot, without being +able to take the castle, though garrisoned by only seven Moggrebyns. The +banks of the Djeheir are a favourite encampment of the Bedouins, and +especially of the Aeneze. + +Beyond the town walls, and at some distance to the north of the Djeheir, +stands the famous mosque El Mebrak; and near it is the cemetery of the +town. Ibn Affan, who first collected the scattered leaves of the Koran +into a book, relates that when Othman, in coming from the Hedjaz, +approached the neighbourhood of Boszra with his army, he orderd his +people to build a mosque on the spot where the camel which bore the +Koran should lie down; such was the origin of the mosque El Mebrak. +[Mebrak [Arabic] means the spot where a camel couches down, or a +halting-place.] It is of no great size; its interior was embellished, +like that of the great mosque, with Cufic inscriptions, of which a few +specimens yet remain over the Mehrab, or niche towards which the face of +the Imam is turned in praying. The dome or Kubbe which covered its +summit has been recently destroyed by the Wahabi. + +The above description comprises all the principal antiquities of Boszra. +A great number of pillars lie dispersed in all directions in the town; +but I observed no remains of granite. Its immediate + +[p.236]invirons are also covered with ruins, principally on the W. and +N.W. sides, where the suburbs may have formerly stood. + +Of the vineyards, for which Boszra was celebrated, even in the days of +Moses, and which are commemorated by the Greek medals of [Greek], not a +vestige remains. There is scarcely a tree in the neighbourhood of the +town, and the twelve or fifteen families who now inhabit it cultivate +nothing but wheat, barley, horse-beans, and a little Dhourra. A number +of fine rose trees grow wild among the ruins of the town, and were just +beginning to open their buds. + +April 28th.--I was greatly annoyed during my stay at Boszra, by the +curiosity of the Aeneze, who were continually passing through the place. +It had been my wish to visit the ruined city of Om El Djemal [Arabic], +which is eight hours distant from Boszra, to the S.; but the demands of +the Arabs for conducting me thither were so exorbitant, exceeding even +the sum which I had thought necessary to bring with me from Damascus to +defray the expenses of my whole journey, that I was obliged to return to +Aaere towards mid-day, after having offered thirty piastres for a guide, +which no one would accept. None but Aeneze could have served me, and +with them there was no reasoning; they believed that I was going in +search of treasure, and that I should willingly give any sum to reach +the spot where it was hid. + +April 29th.--I took leave of my worthy friend Shybely, who would not let +us depart alone, but engaged a Bedouin to accompany us towards the +western parts of the Haouran; this man was a Bedouin of Sayd, or Upper +Egypt, of the tribe of Khelafye, who inhabit to the west of Girge; he +had entered the service of the Mamelouks, and had been with one of them +to Mekka, from whence he returned to Damascus, where he entered into the +Pasha's cavalry; here he had the misfortune to kill one of his comrades, +which + +EL HEREYEK. + +[p.237]obliging him to fly, he repaired to the Aeneze, with whom he +found security and protection. + +Half an hour from Aaere we passed Wady Ghothe [Arabic], with the village +of Ghothe to our left; route N.W.b.N. One hour and a half, the village +Om Waled [Arabic], one hour and three quarters, the village El Esleha +[Arabic], inhabited principally by Christians. Two hours and a quarter, +passed Wady Soueida. Two hours and a half the village Thale [Arabic], to +the west of which, one hour, is Tel Hossein, with the village Kheraba. +At three hours and a quarter is the village El Daara [Arabic], with Wady +Daara; here we dined at an encampment of Arabs of Djebel Haouran, who +are in the habit of descending into the plain to pasture their cattle, +as soon as the country is evacuated by the Aeneze. At four hours and +three quarters is Melieha el Aattash [Arabic], in a direction N.W. from +Daara; from thence our route lay W. by N. Not more than one-third of the +plain was cultivated, though the peasants had sown more grain this year, +than they had done for many years back. S. of Melieha half an hour lies +the village Rakham [Arabic]. Five hours and a half the village El Herak +[Arabic]. Five hours and three quarters, the village El Hereyek +[Arabic]. In all these villages are several reservoirs of water, for the +supply of the inhabitants during summer, and which are filled either by +the winter torrents descending from the Djebel Haouran, or by rain +water, which is conducted into them from every side by narrow channels: +they are all of ancient date, and built entirely with the black Haouran +stone; but I saw in none of the villages any edifice of magnitude. Near +Hereyek we fell in with the encampment of the Damascus beggars, who make +an excursion every spring to the Haouran, to collect alms from the +peasants and Arabs; these contributions are principally in butter and +wool, + +NAEME. + +[p.238]which they sell on their return to Damascus. They had about a +dozen tents, and as many asses, and I saw a good mare tied before the +tent of the Sheikh, who is a man of consequence among the thieves and +vagabonds of Damascus. His name is El Shuhadein [Arabic]: he invited us +to drink a cup of coffee, and take some refreshment; but my companions, +who knew him, advised me to keep clear of him. At six hours and a +quarter, we passed at a short distance to our left, the village Olma +[Arabic], our route being N.W. About one hour S.W. of Olma lies the +village El Kerek. Eight hours and twenty-five minutes, the village Naeme +[Arabic]. Most of these villages stand upon, or near, low hillocks or +Tels, the only objects which break the monotony of the plain. + +It was at Naeme that I saw, for the first time, a swarm of locusts; they +so completely covered the surface of the ground, that my horse killed +numbers of them at every step, whilst I had the greatest difficulty in +keeping from my face those which rose up and flew about. This species is +called in Syria, Djerad Nedjdyat [Arabic] or Djerad Teyar [Arabic], i.e. +the flying locusts, being thus distinguished from the other species, +called Djerad Dsahhaf [Arabic], or devouring locusts. The former have a +yellow body; a gray breast, and wings of a dirty white, with gray spots. +The latter, I was told, have a whitish gray body, and white wings. The +Nedjdyat are much less dreaded than the others, because they feed only +upon the leaves of trees and vegetables, sparing the wheat and barley. +The Dsahhaf, on the contrary, devour whatever vegetation they meet with, +and are the terror of the husbandmen; the Nedjdyat attack only the +produce of the gardener, or the wild herbs of the desert. I was told, +however, that the offspring of the Nedjdyat produced in Syria partake of +the voracity of the Dsahhaf, and like them prey upon the crops of grain. + + +SHEMSKEIN. + +[p.239]Those which I saw in the Haouran, and afterwards in the gardens +of Damascus, fly in separate bodies, and do not spread over a whole +district. The young of this species are quite black until a certain age. + +The Bedouins eat locusts, which are collected in great quantities in the +beginning of April, when the sexes cohabit, and they are easily caught; +after having been roasted a little upon the iron plate [Arabic], on +which bread is baked, they are dried in the sun, and then put into large +sacks, with the mixture of a little salt. They are never served up as a +dish, but every one takes a handful of them when hungry. The peasants of +Syria do not eat locusts, nor have I myself ever had an opportunity of +tasting them: there are a few poor Fellahs in the Haouran, however, who +sometimes pressed by hunger, make a meal of them; but they break off the +head and take out the entrails before they dry them in the sun. The +Bedouins swallow them entire. The natural enemy of the locust is the +bird Semermar [Arabic]; which is of the size of a swallow, and devours +vast numbers of them; it is even said that the locusts take flight at +the cry of the bird. But if the whole feathered tribe of the districts +visited by locusts were to unite their efforts, it would avail little, +so immense are the numbers of these dreadful insects. + +At eight hours and three quarters from Aaere, and at a short distance to +the right, is the village Obta [Arabic]; our route N.W. by N. Nine hours +and a quarter, we saw, at one hour to the left, the village El Kherbe +[Arabic]. Nine hours and three quarters, Shemskein [Arabic], one of the +principal villages in the Haouran. As we had rode at a very brisk pace, +the above distance of nine hours and three quarters may be computed at +nearly twelve hours of the common travelling. Shemskein, a village +containing upwards of one hundred families, is situated on the Hadj +road, on the side of Wady + +[p.240]Hareir [Arabic], over which a solid bridge has been built on one +side of the village: this Wady comes from the north-east at four or six +hours distance, and flows south-west. It is one of the largest torrents +of Haouran, and was at this moment full of water, while most of the +other Wadys were nearly dried up. The Sheikh of Shemskein has the title +of Sheikh el Haouran, and holds the first rank among the village Sheikhs +of the country. In the time of Hadj he collects from the Haouran and +Djolan about fifteen hundred camels, and accompanies them to Mekka. His +income is considerable, as the peasants of the different villages of the +Haouran, when engaged in disputes with neighbouring villagers, or with +their Sheikhs, generally apply in the first instance to his tribunal. + +We alighted at the Sheikh's house, in the court-yard of which we found +almost the whole population of the village assembled: there had been a +nuptial feast in the village, and the Nowars or gypsies, were playing +music. These Nowar [Arabic], who are called Korbatt [Arabic] at Aleppo, +are dispersed over the whole of Syria; they are divided into two +principal bodies, viz. the Damascenes, whose district extends as far as +Hassia, on the Aleppo road; and the Aleppines, who occupy the country to +the north of that line. They never dare go beyond the limits which they +have allotted to each other by mutual consent; both bodies have an Aga, +who pays to the Grand Signior about five hundred piastres per annum, and +collects the tribute from his subjects, which in the Damascus territory +amounts annually to twenty piastres a head for every full grown male. + +April 30th.--As I wished to visit from Shemskein the Mezareib, and to +ascend from thence the mountains of Adjeloun, I set out in the company +of an old acquaintance of Aleppo, a Janissary, who had entered into the +service of the Pasha of Damascus, and was now stationed at Mezareib. +Following the Hadj road, in a S.S.E. direction, in an hour and a quarter +from Shemskein we crossed the + +EL MEZAREIB. + +[p.241]Wady Aar [Arabic], coming from the east. Half an hour to the left +of the road is Daal [Arabic], a considerable village; and between Daal +and Mezareib, but more to the eastward, lies the village of Draa +[Arabic], the ancient Edrei. Two hours, Tefas [Arabic], with a well +built mosque. + +At the end of three hours, we arrived at El Mezareib [Arabic], El +Mezareib is the first castle on the Hadj road from Damascus, and was +built by the great Sultan Selym, three hundred and eight years ago. It +is the usual residence of the Aga of the Haouran; but that office is now +vacant, the late Aga having been deposed, and no one has yet been +appointed to succeed him. The garrison of the castle consisted of a +dozen Moggrebyns, whose chief, a young black, was extremely civil to me. +The castle is of a square form, each side being, as well as I can +recollect, about one hundred and twenty paces in length. The entrance is +through an iron gate, which is regularly shut after sunset. The interior +presents nothing but an empty yard enclosed by the castle wall, within +which are ranges of warehouses, where the provisions for the Hadj are +deposited; their flat roofs form a platform behind the parapet of the +castle wall, where sixteen or eighteen mud huts have been built on the +top of the warehouses, as habitations for the peasants who cultivate the +neighbouring grounds. On the east side two miserable guns are planted. +Within the castle is a small mosque. There are no houses, beyond its +precincts. Close by it, on the N. and E. sides, are a great number of +springs, whose waters collect, at a short distance, into a large pond or +lake, of nearly half an hour in circumference, in the midst of which is +an island. On an elevated spot at the extremity of a promontory, +advancing into the lake, stands a chapel, around which are many ruins of +ancient buildings. The water of the lake is as clear as crystal, neither +weeds + +[p.242]nor grass growing in it; its depth in the middle is much more +than the heighth of a man; the bottom is sand, and gravel of the black +Haouran stone. It abounds with fish, particularly carp, and a species +called Emshatt [Arabic]. In summer time, after the harvests of the +Haouran have been gathered in, when the Aeneze approach the more +populous parts of the country, the borders of the lake are crowded every +evening with thousands of camels, belonging to these Arabs, who prefer +filling their water skins here, as they say that the water keeps better +than any other. The water of the springs is slightly tepid, and nearly +of the same temperature as that of the springs near Kalaat el Medyk, in +the valley of the Orontes. According to the Arabs the springs emit a +copious steam in the winter mornings. An ancient mill stands near one of +them, with a few broken stones around it; but it does not appear that +any village or city of note stood here, though the quantity of water +seems inviting to settlers. The springs as well as the lake are known by +the name of El Budje [Arabic]. + +The pilgrim caravan to Mekka collects at the Mezareib, where the Pasha, +or Emir el Hadj, remains encamped for ten days, in order to collect the +stragglers, and to pay to the different Arab tribes the accustomed +tribute for the passage of the caravan through the desert. The +warehouses of the castle are annually well stocked with wheat, barley, +biscuit, rice, tobacco, tent and horse equipage, camel saddles, ropes, +ammunition, &c. each of which has its particular warehouse. These stores +are exclusively for the Pasha's suite, and for the army which +accompanies the Hadj; and are chiefly consumed on their return. It is +only in cases of great abundance, and by particular favour, that the +Pasha permits any articles to be sold to the pilgrims. At every station, +as far as Medina, is a castle, but generally smaller than this, filled +with similar stores. + +[p.243]The Haouran alone is required to deliver every year into the +store houses of the Mezareib, two thousand Gharara of barley, or about +twenty or twenty-five thousand cwt. English. The town of Damascus has +been fed for the last three months with the biscuit stored in the +Mezareib for the Hadj. + +As far as the Pasha was concerned, the affairs of the great Caravan were +generally well managed; but there still reigned a great want of economy, +and the expenses of the Hadjis increased every year. Of late years, the +hire of a single camel from Damascus to Mekka has been seven hundred and +fifty piastres; as much, and often more, was to be paid on coming back; +and the expenses on the road, and at Mekka, amounted at least to one +thousand piastres, so that in the most humble way, the journey could not +be performed at less than two thousand five hundred piastres, or £125. +sterling. A camel with a litter cost fifteen hundred in going, and as +much in coming back. Of the whole caravan not above one-tenth part were +real pilgrims, the rest consisted of soldiers, the servants of soldiers, +people attached to the Pasha's suite, merchants, pedlars, camel-drivers, +coffee and pipe waiters, a swarm of Bedouins, together with several +tents of public women from Damascus, who were so far encouraged, that, +whenever they were unable to obtain from their lovers the daily food for +their horses or mules, they obtained a supply from the Pasha's stores. + +The greater part of the pilgrims usually contract for the journey with +one of the great undertakers, or Mekouam [Arabic], as they are called; +this agreement is only for a beast of transport and for water; as to +eating, the pilgrims generally mess together at their own expense, in +bodies of about half a dozen. The Mekouam, on agreeing to furnish a +beast of burthen, are bound to replace whatever may die on the road, and +are therefore obliged to carry with them at least one unloaded camel for +every loaded one. It is a general + +[p.244]practice with the Mekouam to obtain as large sums as possible on +account from the pilgrims who engage with them for the journey; they +generally agree among each other upon the sum to be demanded, as well as +the moment at which it is to be called for: so that if the pilgrims +resist the imposition, the Hadj sometimes remains encamped on the same +spot for several days, the Mekouam all refusing to proceed, and feeing +the Pasha for his connivance at their injustice. On their return to +Damascus, if they have already extorted from the pilgrims in the course +of the journey more than the amount of their contract, as often happens, +they generally declare themselves to be bankrupts, and then the value of +a few camels is all that remains to pay their debts to the pilgrims. + +Those pilgrims who do not engage with the Mekouam, as is generally the +case with those who come from Armenia and the borders of the Black sea, +perform the journey somewhat cheaper upon their own beasts; but they are +ill-treated on the road by the Mekouam, are obliged to march the last in +the caravan, to encamp on the worst ground, to fill their water skins +the last, and are often even avanized by the Pasha. It is difficult to +conceive the wretched condition of the greater part of the Hadjis, and +the bad conduct of the troops and Arabs. Thieving and robbery have +become general among them, and it is more the want of sleep from fear of +being plundered, which causes the death of so many pilgrims, than the +fatigues of the journey. The Pasha's troops, particularly those called +Howara, which bring up the rear of the caravan, are frequently known to +kill the stragglers during the night, in order to strip them of their +property. The Pasha, it is true, often punishes such delinquents, and +scarcely a day passes without some one being empaled alive; the caravan +moves on, and the malefactor is left to be devoured by the birds of +prey. The Bedouins are particularly dexterous in pilfering; at night +they sometimes assume the + +[p.245]dress of the Pasha's infantry, and thus introduce themselves +unnoticed amongst the camels of the rich Hadjis, when they throw the +sleeping owner from his mule or camel, and in the confusion occasioned +by the cries of the fallen rider, drive off the beast. + +The caravan marches daily from Asser, or about three hours after mid- +day, during the whole of the night, and till the followingmorning, when +the tents are pitched. It never stops but during prayers. The Arabs of +Sokhne, Tedmor, and Haouran, together with the Bedouins who let out +their camels, precede or follow the caravan at the distance of one day's +march. They transport the provisions for the Pasha's troops, of which +they steal, and publicly sell at least two-thirds. They march during the +day, and encamp in the evening. Their caravan is called El Selma +[Arabic]. It passes the great caravan once every two or three days, and +then encamps till the latter comes up, when they supply the Pasha's +suite with provisions. The cheapest mode of performing the pilgrimage is +to agree for a camel with one of those Arabs; but the fatigue is much +greater in following the Selma. + +The last year in which the Hadj quitted Damascus, the pilgrims reached +the gates of Medina, but they were not permitted to enter the town, nor +to proceed to Mekka; and after an unsuccessful negotiation of seven +days, they were obliged to return to Damascus. About two hundred Persian +Hadjis only, who were with the caravan, were allowed to pass on paying a +large sum of money. Ibn Saoud, the Wahabi chief, had one interview with +Abdullah Pasha, accompanied by the whole of his retinue, at Djebel +Arafat, near Mekka; they exchanged presents, and parted as friends. + +Of the seven different pilgrim caravans which unite at Mekka, two only +bear the Mahmal, the Egyptian and Syrian; the latter is the first in +rank. + +We left Mezareib towards the evening, and were obliged to proceed + +EL TORRA. + +[p. 246]alone along the Hadj route, the fear of the Aeneze rendering +every one unwilling to accompany us. In a quarter of an hour we came to +a bridge over the Wady Mezareib, called Djissr Kherreyan [Arabic]; to +the left, near the road, is the ruined village Kherbet el Ghazale +[Arabic], where the Hadj sometimes encamps. It often happens that the +caravan does not encamp upon the usual spots, owing to a wish either to +accelerate or to prolong the journey. Past the Akabe, near the head of +the Red Sea, beyond which the bones of dead camels are the only guides +of the pilgrim through the waste of sand, the caravan often loses its +way, and overshoots the day's station; in such cases the water-skins are +sometimes exhausted, and many pilgrims perish through fatigue and +thirst. + +At one hour from the Mezareib, following the river that issues from the +small lake, are several mills: from thence, south-west, begins the +district called Ollad Erbed [Arabic]. Half an hour to the right, at some +distance from the road, is the village Tel el Shehab [Arabic]; forty +minutes, Wady Om El Dhan [Arabic], coming from the eastward, with a +bridge over it, built by Djezzar Pasha. In winter this generally proves +a very difficult passage to the Hadj, on account of the swampy ground, +and the peasants of the adjacent villages are, in consequence, obliged +to cover the road with a thick layer of straw. At one hour to the right +of the road is the village El Torra [Arabic], on the top of a low chain +of hills, forming a circle, through the centre of which lies the road. +Here, as in so many other parts of the Haouran, I saw the most luxuriant +wild herbage, through which my horse with difficulty made his way. +Artificial meadows can hardly be finer than these desert fields: and it +is this which renders the Haouran so favourite an abode of the Bedouins. +The peasants of Syria are ignorant of the advantages of feeding their +cattle with hay; they suffer the superfluous grass to wither away, and +in summer and winter feed them on cut straw. In one + +REMTHA. + +[p. 247]hour and a quarter we passed Wady Torra; our road lying S.S.E. +One hour and three quarters, we came to Wady Shelale [Arabic], a torrent +descending from the southern hills, and flowing in a deep bed, along +which the road continues for some time. In two hours and three quarters +quick walking, we came to Remtha [Arabic], a station of the Hadj; which +encamps near two Birkets or reservoirs formed in the bed of the Wady by +means of three high walls built across it. A large tribe of Aeneze were +watering their cattle as we passed. The surrounding country is hilly: +the village is built upon the summits of several hills, and contains +about one hundred families. In its neighbourhood are a number of wells +of fresh water. We met with a very indifferent reception at the Sheikh's +house, for the inhabitants of the villages on the Hadj route exceed all +others in fanatism: an old man was particularly severe in his +animadversions on Kafers treading the sacred earth which leads to the +Kaabe, and the youngsters echoed his insulting language. I found means, +however, to show the old man a penknife which I carried in my pocket, +and made him a present of it, before he could ask it of me; we then +became as great friends as we had been enemies, and his behaviour +induced a like change in the others towards me. A penknife worth two +shillings overcomes the fanatism of a peasant; increase the present and +it will have equal effect upon a townsman; make it a considerable sum, +and the Mufti himself will wave all religious scruples. Remtha is the +last inhabited village on this side of the Haoun: the greater part of +its houses are built against the caverns, with which this calcareous +country abounds; so that the rock forms the back of the house, while the +other sides are enclosed by a semicircular mud wall whose extremities +touch the rock. + +May 1st.--From Remtha I wished to cross the mountains directly to +Djerash, which, I had reason to believe, was not more than seven + +WADY WARRAN. + +[p.248]or eight hours distant. It was with difficulty that I found a +guide, because I refused to be answerable for the value of the man's +horse and gun, in case we should be plundered by Arab robbers. A sum of +twelve piastres, however, at last tempted one of the Fellahs, and we +rode off late in the morning, our road lying toward the southern +mountains, in a direction S. by W. Remtha is on the boundary line of the +Haouran; which to the south-eastward runs by Om el Djemal and Szamma, +two ruined towns. The district bordering upon the Haouran in this part +is called Ezzoueit [Arabic], and stretches across the mountain nearly as +far as Djerash. To the E. of Remtha runs a chain of low hills, called +Ezzemle [Arabic], extending towards the S.E. nearly to Kalaat Mefrek, a +ruined castle situated on the eastern extremity of Djebel Zoueit. At one +hour and a quarter, brisk walking of our horses, we saw to the right, or +west, about one hour distant, the ruins of a town called Eszereikh +[Arabic], at the foot of Djebel Beni Obeyd. From thence the village of +Hossn bore W. by S. The Kalaat el Mefrek, or, as the Arabs call it, El +Ferka, lay in a S.E. direction, distant about three hours. About one +hour and a half distant, in a S.W. direction, is the ruined village of +Remeith [Arabic], with several large columns lying on the ground. At two +hours and a half from Remtha we passed a Tel, with the ruined village +Dehama [Arabic], on its top; near the foot-way lay several broken shafts +of columns. At three hours, on reaching the Wady Warran [Arabic], our +route began to ascend. The Wady, which descends from the mountain +Zoueit, was at this time dry. Three hours and a quarter brought us to +three fine Doric columns lying on the ground. We met several Arabs, but +they did not venture to attack three men armed with musquets, and gave +us a friendly Salam Aleykum. We now ascended the mountain, which is +calcareous with flint, in following the windings of the Wady. Wild +pistachio trees abound; + +SOUF. + +[p.249]higher up oaks become more frequent, and the forest thickens; +near the top, which we reached in five hours and a quarter from Remtha, +are some remains of the foundations of ancient buildings. The Djebel +Kafkafa [Arabic], as this summit is called, commands a beautiful view +over the plain of Djerash and the neighbouring mountains of Zerka and +Belka. The ruins of Djerash, which were distinctly seen, and the highest +points of Djebel Belka behind them, bore S.S.W.; the highest points of +Djebel Zerka S. The district of Zoueit terminates at Djebel Kafkafa; and +the country called El Moerad [Arabic], lying S.W. and W. commences: to +the S. the Zoueit runs parallel with the Moerad as far as Wady Zerka. + +On gaining Djebel Kafkafa, our guide discovered that he had gone astray, +for it was not our intention, on setting out, to make directly for +Djerash, but to rest for the night in the village of Souf, and from +thence to visit the ruins on the following morning. We therefore turned +more to the westward on quitting the Djebel, and fell in with the road, +which continued through a thick wood, till we saw Souf, an hour and a +half distant before us, bearing W.S.W. At the end of seven hours and a +quarter from Remtha, we reached the spring of Souf, and allayed our +thirst, for we had been without water the whole day; there being very +few springs in the Djebel Zoueit; though it abounds in luxuriant +pasture, and is full of hares and partridges. In seven hours and a half +we reached the village of Souf [Arabic], where I alighted, at the house +of the Sheikh El Dendel, an honest and hospitable man. + +Souf is situated on the declivity of the mountain, on the western side +of a Wady called El Deir, the stream of which, called also El Kerouan +[Arabic], is supplied from three copious springs that issue from under a +rock near the village, at a short distance from each + +[p.250]other. They bear the names of Ain el Faouar [Arabic], Ain el +Meghaseb [Arabic], and Ain el Keykabe [Arabic], and with their united +waters the narrow plain of Djerash is irrigated. Souf is a village with +about forty families, whose principal riches are some olive plantations +on the sides of Wady Deir: it is the chief village in the country called +Moerad [Arabic], in which the following are also situated: Ettekitte +[Arabic], one hour distant from Djerash, and abandoned last year; Bourma +[Arabic]; Hamtha [Arabic]; Djezaze [Arabic]; and Debein [Arabic]. It is +customary in these mountains for every house to manufacture gunpowder as +well for its own consumption, as for sale to the neighbouring Arabs. In +every house which I entered I saw a large mortar, which was continually +in motion, even when a fire was kindled in the midst of the room: the +powder is formed of one part of sulphur, five and a half parts of +saltpetre, and one part of the charcoal of the poplar tree [Arabic]; it +is not very good, but serves very well the purposes of this people. + +I passed a most unpleasant night here. It is the custom, for the sake of +saving lamp-oil, to light every evening a large fire, for the supply of +which, there is plenty of dry wood in the neighbouring mountain. The +room where I lodged was thus soon filled with smoke, which had no other +issue than a small door, and even this was shut to keep out the cattle. +The peasants seemed to delight in the heat thus occasioned; they took +off all their clothes except the Abba, and sat smoaking and laughing +till midnight; I wished to imitate them, but did not dare to strip, for +fear of shewing the leathern girdle containing my money, which I wore +under my clothes. Towards the morning the fire went out, and the company +was asleep: I then opened the door to let the smoke out, and slept a few +hours under the influence of the morning breeze. + +[p.251]There is an ancient ruined square building at Souf, with several +broken columns. From one of them I copied the following inscription, +written in very small characters: + +[Greek]. + +Upon a pillar near it is a fine inscription, but now quite illegible. + +At the spring of Ayn Keykebe, which is covered by a small arched +building, I copied some characters from a broken stone lying in the +water; the following were the ending of the inscription: + +[Greek]. + +Near the sources are numerous caverns, in which the poor families of +Souf reside. + +May 2d.--Being impatient to reach Djerash, I left Souf early in the +morning, taking with me a guide, who was afterwards to have conducted me +towards Szalt, in the Djebel Belka. Our road lay along the mountain on +the west side of Wady Deir. On the E. side of the wady, half an hour +from Souf, is the ruined place called Kherbet Mekbela [Arabic]. Three +quarters of an hour from Souf, in our road, and just over the ruined +city of Djerash, are the ruins called Kherbet el Deir, with a Turkish +chapel named Mezar Abou Beker. Our road lay S.S.E. In one hour we +passed, n the declivity of the mountain, descending towards Djerash, a +place which I supposed to have been the burying place of + +DJERASH. + +[p.252]Djerash. I counted upwards of fifty sarcophagi, and there were +many more; they are formed of the calcareous stone with which the Zoueit +and Moerad mountains are composed. Some of them are sunk to a level with +the surface of the ground, which is very rocky; others appear to have +been removed from their original position. The largest was ten spans in +length, and three and a half in breadth; but the greater part are much +smaller, and are not even large enough to contain the corpse of a full +grown person. On the sides of a few of them are sculptured ornaments in +bas-relief, as festoons, genii, &c. but in a mutilated state, and not +remarkable for beauty of execution; I saw only one that was elegantly +wrought. The whole of these sarcophagi had flat covers, a few of which +still remain. Upon one of the largest of the sarcophagi, and which is +one of those first met with in going from Souf, is a long inscription, +but so mutilated as to be almost wholly illegible. In the neighbourhood +are several heaps of large square stones, the remains of some building. + +In an hour and a half from Souf we reached the city walls of Djerash, or +Kerash, [Arabic], the Dj being the Bedouin pronunciation of the letter +[Arabic], which in the language of the city corresponds with our K. +Djerash was built upon an elevated plain in the mountains of Moerad, on +uneven ground, on both sides of Wady Deir, which, besides the name of +Kerouan [Arabic], bears also that of Seil Djerash [Arabic], or the river +of Djerash. This river empties itself, at a short distance from the +town, into the Wady Zerka [Arabic], probably the Jabock of the ancients. +The principal part of the city stands on the right bank of the river, +where the surface is more level than on the opposite side, although the +right bank is steeper than the other. The present ruins prove the +magnitude and importance of the ancient city; and the modern name leads +to the belief that it was the ancient Gerasa, one of the principal + +DJERASH. + +[p.253]towns of the Decapolis, although this position does not at all +agree with that given to Gerasa from the ancient authorities by +D'Anville, who places it to the north-east of the lake of Tiberias, +forty miles to the north-westward of this place. The ruins are nearly an +hour and a quarter in circumference, following insulated fragments of +the walls, which were upwards of eight feet in thickness, and built of +square hewn stones of middling size; I could not judge of their original +heighth, as the upper parts were every where demolished. + +I shall now enumerate the principal curiosities of Djerash, agreeably to +the annexed plan, which may give a general idea of the whole; for its +accuracy in regard to distances I do not mean to vouch, as I had, at +most, only four hours to make my survey, and it was with great +difficulty that I could persuade my three companions to wait so long for +me. None of them would accompany me through the ruins, on account of +their fear of the Bedouins, who are in the habit of visiting this Wady, +they therefore concealed themselves beneath the trees that overshade the +river. The first object that strikes the attention in coming from Souf, +after passing the town-wall, is a temple (a). Its main body consists of +an oblong square, the interior of which is about twenty-five paces in +length, and eighteen in breadth. A double row, of six columns in each +row, adorned the front of the temple; of the first row five columns are +yet standing, of the second, four; and on each side of the temple there +remains one column belonging to the single row of pillars that +surrounded the temple on every side except the front. Of these eleven +columns nine are entire, and two are without capitals. Their style of +architecture is much superior to that of the great colonnade hereafter +to be mentioned, and seems to belong to the best period of the +Corinthian order, their capitals being beautifully ornamented with the +acanthus leaves. The shafts are composed of five or six pieces, and are +seven spans and a half in diameter, + +[p.254]and thirty-five to forty feet in heighth. I was unable to +ascertain the number of columns in the flanks of the peristyle. The +temple stands upon an artificial terrace elevated five or six feet above +the ground. The interior of the temple is choaked with the ruins of the +roof; a part of the front wall of the cella has fallen down; but the +three other sides are entire. The walls are wthout ornament; on the +interior of each of the two side walls, and about mid-way from the +floor, are six niches, of an oblong shape, and quite plain: in the back +wall, opposite to the door, is a vaulted recess, with a small dark +chamber on each side. The upper part of a niche is visible on the +exterior of the remains of the front wall, with some trifling but +elegantly sculptured ornaments. This ruin stands within a peribolus or +large area surrounded by a double row of columns. The whole edifice +seems to have been superior in taste and magnificence to every public +building of this kind in Syria, the temple of the Sun at Palmyra +excepted. On the two sides marked (x) of the colonnade of the peribolus +many bases and broken shafts of the inner row of columns are yet +standing; on the two other sides there are but few; these columns are +three spans and a half in diameter. On the long side (x) forty columns +may be traced to have stood, at only three paces distant from each +other; on the opposite long side one perfect column is yet standing; on +the short side (x) are three in the outer row without their capitals. +The corner columns of this peribolus were double, and in the shape of a +heart, as in the annexed figure. Of the outer row of the peribolus very +little remains; indeed it may be doubted whether any outer row ever +existed opposite to the back of the temple, where the ground is rocky +and uneven. The number of columns which originally adorned the temple +and its area was not less than two hundred or two hundred and fifty. + +Proceeding westwards from the above described ruin, through + +[p.255]the remains of private habitations, at about two hundred yards +distant from it are the remains of a small temple (b), with three +Corinthian pillars still standing. A street, still paved in some places, +leads from thence south-westwards, to a spot where several small broken +columns are lying. Turning from thence to the south-east, I entered a +street (c) adorned with a colonnade on either side; about thirty broken +shafts are yet standing, and two entire columns, but without their +capitals. On the other side of the street, opposite to them, are five +columns, with their capitals and entablatures. These columns are rather +small, without pedestals, of different sizes, the highest being about +fifteen feet, and in a bad taste. + +Originally there must have been about fifty pillars in this street; a +little farther on to the south-east this street crosses the principal +street of the town; and where the two streets meet, are four large +cubical masses of stone (d), each occupying one of the angles of the +intersection, similar to those which I saw at Shohba, and intended, +perhaps, to imitate the beautiful pedestals in the middle of the great +portico at Palmyra. These cubes are about seven feet high, and about +eighteen spans broad; on each side of them is a small niche; three are +entire, and the fourth is in ruins. They may have served as pedestals +for statues, or, like those at Palmyra, may have supported a small dome +upon columns, under which stood a statue. I endeavoured to examine the +tops of the cubes, but they are all thickly overgrown with shrubs, which +it was not in my power to clear away. There were no traces whatever of +statues having stood upon those which I saw at Shohba. + +Following the great street, marked (e), south-westwards, I came again to +the remains of columns on both sides: these were much larger than the +former, and the street, of which some parts of the pavement yet remain, +was much broader than that marked (c). On the right hand side of the +street stand seventeen Corinthian + +[p.256]columns, sixteen of which are united by their entablature; they +vary in size, and do not correspond in height either with those +opposite, to them or with those in the same line; a circumstance which, +added to the style of the capitals, seems to prove that the long street +is a patch-work, built at different periods, and of less ancient +construction than the temple. Some of the columns are as high as thirty +feet, others twenty-five; the shortest I estimated at twenty feet. Their +entablatures are slightly ornamented with sculptured bas-reliefs. Where +a high column stands near a shorter one the architrave over the latter +reposes upon a projecting bracket worked into the shaft of the higher +one. Next comes, following the street in the same S.W. direction, on the +right, one insulated column; and three large columns with their +entablature, joined to four shorter ones, in the way just described; +then two columns, and five, and two, all with their entablatures; +making, in the whole, on the right side of the street, counting from the +cubes, thirty-four columns, yet standing. On the left, opposite the +three large ones joined to the four smaller, are five columns of +middling size, with their entablatures, and a single large one; but the +greater number of the columns on this side have fallen, and are lying on +the ground. In some places behind the colonnade on the right, are low +apartments, some of which are vaulted, and appear to have been shops. +They are similar to those which I saw in the long street at Soueida, in +the mountain of the Druses.[See page 81.] + +The long street just described terminates in a large open space (f) +enclosed by a magnificent semicircle of columns in a single row; fifty- +seven columns are yet standing; originally there may have been about +eighty. To the right, on entering the forum, are four, and then twenty- +one, united by their entablatures. To the + +[p.257]left, five, seven, and twenty, also with entablatures; the latter +twenty are taller than the others, the lower ground on which they stand +having required an increased height of column in order to place the +whole entablature of the semicircle on the same level. The pillars near +the entrance are about fifteen feet in height, and one foot and a half +in diameter: they are all of the Ionic order, and thus they differ from +all the other columns remaining in the city. The radius of the +semicircle, in following the direction of the long street, was one +hundred and five paces. + +At the end of the semicircle, opposite to the long street, are several +basins, which seem to have been reservoirs of water, and remains of an +aqueduct are still visible, which probably supplied them. To the right +and left are some low arched chambers. From this spot the ground rises, +and on mounting a low but steep hill before me, I found on its top the +remains of a beautiful temple (g), commanding a view over the greater +part of the town. The front of the temple does not stand directly +opposite to the long street and the forum, but declines somewhat to the +northward. Like the temple first described, it was adorned with a +Corinthian peristyle, of which one column only remains, at the south +angle. In front was a double row of columns, with eight, as I +conjecture, in each row. They seem to have been thrown down by an +earthquake, and many of them are now lying on the declivity of the hill, +in the same order in which they originally stood. They are six spans and +a half in diameter, and their capitals appeared to me of a still finer +execution than those of the great temple. I am unable to judge of the +number of columns on the long sides of the peristyle: their broken +shafts lie about in immense heaps. On every side of the temple except +the front, there appears to have been a large ditch round the temple. Of +the cella the walls only remain, the roof, entrance, and back wall +having + +[p.258]fallen down. The interior of the cella is thirty paces in length, +and twenty-four in breadth; the walls within are in a better state than +those of the temple (a), which are much impaired. On the outside of each +of the two long walls, was a row of six niches, similar to those within +the temple (a). + +On entering the temple by the front door, I found on the right a side +door, leading towards a large theatre (h), on the side of the hill, and +at about sixty paces distant from the temple. It fronts the town, so +that the spectators seated upon the highest row of benches, enjoyed the +prospect of all its principal buildings and quarters. There are twenty- +eight rows of seats, upwards of two feet in breadth: between the +sixteenth and seventeenth rows, reckoning from the top, a tier of eight +boxes or small apartments intervenes, each separated from the other by a +thick wall. The uppermost row of benches is about one hundred and twenty +paces in circuit. In three different places are small narrow staircases +opening into the rows, to facilitate the ingress or egress of the +spectators. In front, the theatre is closed by a proscenium or wall, +about forty paces in length, embellished within by five richly decorated +niches, connected with each other by a line of middling sized columns; +of which two remain with their entablatures, and six without their +capitals. Within these was another parallel range of columns, of which +five are yet standing, with their entablatures. The entrance to the +theatre, was by steps between the two ends of the proscenium and the two +extremities of the semicircle. Near the proscenium the steps on both +sides are ruined, but in the other parts they are perfect. The town wall +runs very near the back of the theatre. + +On this side of the town there are no other ruins of any consequence, +excepting the south-west gate, which is about five minutes walk from the +semicircle of columns: it is a fine arch, and, apparently, + +[p.259] in perfect preservation, with a smaller one on each side adorned +with several pilasters. I did not examine it closely; meaning to return +to it in taking a review of what I had already seen, but my guides were +so tired with waiting, that they positively refused to expose their +persons longer to danger, and walked off, leaving me the alternative of +remaining alone in this desolate spot, or of abandoning the hope of +correcting my notes by a second examination of the ruins. + +Returning from the theatre, through the long street, towards the four +cubic pedestals, I continued from thence in a straight line along the +main street (l), the pavement of which is preserved in several places. +On the right hand, were first seven columns, having their entablatures; +and farther on, to the left, seven others, also with their entablatures; +then, on the right, three large columns without entablatures, but with +pedestals, which none of those already mentioned have; opposite to the +latter, on the left hand side of the street, are two insulated columns. +The three large columns are equal in size to those of the peristyle of +the temple (a); they stand in the same line with the colonnade of the +street, and belonged to a small building (m), of the body of which +nothing remains except the circular back wall, containing several +niches, almost in complete ruins. On a broken pedestal lying on the +ground between two of the columns of this building, is the following +inscription: + +[Greek]. + +There is another stone with an inscription upon it; but I could make +nothing of it. The street is here choaked up with fragments of columns. +Close to the three columns stands a single one, and + +[p.260] at a short distance further, to the left, is a large gateway +(n), leading up to the temple (a), which is situated on considerably +higher ground, and is not visible from the street. On either side of the +gateway are niches; and a wall, built of middling sized square stones, +which runs for some distance, parallel with the street. Among a heap of +stones lying under the gate I copied the following inscriptions: + +From a broken stone: + +[Greek]. + +The letters of the word OPNHA are five inches in length. + +Upon another broken stone near it was this: + +[Greek]. + +And close to the latter, upon the edge of a large stone, this: + +[Greek]. + +Continuing along the main street, I came at (q), to a single column, and +then to two with entablatures, on the right; opposite to them, on the +left, are three single columns. Beyond the latter, for one hundred +paces, all the columns have fallen; I then came to an open rotunda (r), +with four entrances; around the inside of its wall are projecting +pedestals for statues; the entraces on the right + +[p.261]and left, conduct into a street running at right angles to the +main street. I followed this cross street to my left, and found on the +right hand side of it three short Ionic pillars with their entablatures, +close to the rotunda. Proceeding in the same direction I soon reached a +quadrangle (s) of fine large Corinthian columns, the handsomest in the +town, next to those of the temple. To the right stand four with their +entablatures, and one single; formerly they were six in number, the +fifth is the deficient one: the first and sixth are heart-shaped, like +those in the area of the temple (a.) They are composed of more than a +dozen frusta, and what is remarkable in a place where stone is so +abundant, each frustum consists of two pieces; opposite to the two first +columns of the row just described are two columns with their +entablatures. + +This colonnade stands in front of a theatre (t), to which it evidently +formed an appendage. This theatre is not calculated to hold so many +spectators as the one already described though its area is considerably +larger, being from forty-five to fifty paces in diameter. It has sixteen +rows of benches, with a tier of six boxes intervening between the tenth +and eleventh rows, reckoning from the top. Between every two boxes is a +niche, forming a very elegant ornament. This theatre was evidently +destined for purposes different from the other, probably for combats of +wild beasts, &c.; The area below the benches is more extensive, and +there is a suite of dark arched chambers under the lowest row of seats, +opening into the area near the chief entrance of the theatre, which is +from the south-east, in the direction by which I entered the colonnade +in front of the theatre. There seems formerly to have been a wall across +the diameter of the semi-circle, and between this wall and the colonnade +there is on both sides a short wall, with a large niche or apartment in +it; the colonnade stands upon lower ground than the theatre. Having +returned from hence to the rotunda in + +[p.262]the long street, I followed it along the colonnade (v) and found +the greater number of the columns to have Ionic capitals. On the right +side are only two small columns, with their entablatures; to the left, +are eight, two, three, two, four, and again three, each set with their +entablatures; close to the ruined town-gate (w), near the bank of the +river, is a single column. + +I shall now describe the ancient buildings, which I observed on the +south-west side of the long street. The street which leads from the +theatre across the rotunda (r) is prolonged from thence towards the side +of the river: it was lined with columns, of which two only, with their +entablatures, remain, and it terminates at a vast edifice (u), situated +over the river, and extending along its banks forty or fifty paces; it +is divided into many apartments, the greater part of which have arched +roofs; some of them are very lofty. + +I now returned towards the gateway (n), and found, opposite to it, and +to the great temple (a), a second cross street running towards the +river; it had originally a colonnade, but none of the columns are now +standing; it terminates, at about thirty paces from the main street, in +a gate, through which I entered into a long quadrangle of columns, +where, on the right hand, four, and then three columns, with their +entablatures, are still standing. At the end of this place, are the +remains of a circular building fronting a bridge (p) across the river: +this bridge is of steep ascent, owing to the northern banks being +considerably higher than the southern, and it is no longer passable. + +Having returned to the four cubical pedestals (d), I followed to the +left the continuation of the street (c), by which I had first approached +those pedestals, and which having crossed the main street at the +pedestals, leads south-westward to the river, where it terminated at a +broad flight of steps, leading down to the bridge (k); of the colonnade +of this street (i), some broken shafts + +[p.263]only are standing. The bridge is fourteen feet wide, with a high +centre arch and two lower ones; it is built with great solidity, and its +pavement is exactly of the same construction as that which I observed in +the streets of Shohba;[See page 70.] its centre is broken down. An +aqueduct is traced from the side of the building (u), passing near the +two bridges, towards the southern gate of the town. Such weremy +observations of the ruins on the right bank of the Wady. + +On the left bank little else remains than heaps of ruins of private +habitations, and numerous fragments of columns. I must confess, however, +that I did not examine the part of the town towards the south gate; but +I have reason to believe, from the view which I had of it while on the +temple hill, that nothing of consequence, either as to buildings or +columns, is there to be met with. The only buildings which I observed to +the left of the river are near to it, upon a narrow plain which +stretches along its banks. Nearly opposite to the temple (m), are the +remains of a building (y) similar in construction to that marked (u), on +the right bank. I supposed it to be a bath; a stream of water descends +from a spring in the mountain, and after flowing through this division +of the town, passes this building, and empties itself into the river. +The arched rooms of the building (y) are loftier than those in (u). Near +the former stand four columns; two insulated, and two with entablatures; +also two broken shafts, the only fluted ones that I saw in the city. On +the left bank of the river, nearly opposite to the town-gate (w), is a +ruined building (x), which appears to have been a small temple; a single +column is standing amidst a heap of broken ones. + +Between this spot and the building (y) are the remains of an aqueduct. + +Besides the one hundred and ninety columns, or thereabouts, + +[p.264]which I have enumerated in the above description, there are +upwards of one hundred half columns also standing. I did not see any +marks of the frusta of the columns having been joined by iron hooks, as +at Palmyra. Of the private habitations of the city there is none in a +state of preservation, but the whole of the area within the walls is +covered with their ruins. + +The stone with which Djerash is built is calcareous, of considerable +hardness, and the same as the rock of the neighbouring mountains; I did +not observe any other stone to have been employed, and it is matter of +surprise that no granite columns should be found here, as they abound in +Syrian cities of much less note and magnificence than Djerash. + +It had been my intention to proceed from Djerash to the village of +Djezaze, in my way to the castle of Szalt in the mountains of Belka, +from whence I hoped to be able to visit Amman. After many fruitless +enquiries for a guide, a man of Souf at last offered to conduct me to +Szalt, and he had accompanied us as far as Djerash; but when, after +having surveyed the ruins, I rejoined my companions, he had changed his +mind, and insisted on returning immediately to Souf; this was occasioned +by his fear of the Arabs Beni Szakher, who had for sometime past been at +war with the Arabs of Djebel Belka and the government of Damascus, and +who were now extending their plundering incursions all over the +mountain. The name of the Beni Szakher is generally dreaded in these +parts; and the greater or less facility with which the traveller can +visit them, depends entirely upon the good or bad terms existing between +those Arabs and the Pasha; if they are friends, one of the tribe may +easily be found to serve as a guide; but when they are enemies, the +traveller is exposed to the danger of being stripped; and, if the +animosity of the two parties is very great, of even being murdered. The +Mutsellim of Damascus had given me letters to the chief of the + +AATYL. + +[p.265]Arabs El Belka, and to the commander of the Pasha's cavalry, who +had been sent to assist them against the Beni Szakher. The allies were +encamped in the neighbourhood of Kalaat el Zerka, while the Beni Szakher +had collected their forces at Amman itself, a place still famous for the +abundance of its waters. Under these circumstances, I determined to +proceed first to Szalt, hoping that I might from thence attain Amman +more easily, as the inhabitants of Szalt, who are always more or less +rebellious towards the government of Damascus, are generally on friendly +terms with the Bedouins. The fears of my guide, however, prevented me +from executing this plan, and I was most reluctantly obliged to return +to Souf, for it would have been madness to proceed alone. + +We returned to Souf, not by the road over the mountain, but in following +the course of the rivulet in the valley El Deir, which we reascended up +to the village; we found the greater part of the narrow plain in the +valley sown with wheat and barley by the people of Souf. Half an hour +from the town, in the Wady, are the remains of a large reservoir for +water, with some ruined buildings near it. This is a most romantic spot; +large oak and walnut trees overshade the stream, which higher up flows +over a rocky bed; nearer the village are some olive plantations in the +Wady. We reached Souf in two hours from Djerash. I enquired in vain for +a guide to Szalt; the return of the man who had engaged to conduct me +made the others equally cautious, and nobody would accept of the fifteen +piastres which I offered. I thought in unnecessary, therefore, to stop +any longer at Souf, and left it the same evening, in order to visit +Djebel Adjeloun. Our road lay W.N.W. up a mountain, through a thick +forest of oak trees. In three quarters of an hour from Souf we reached +the summit of the mountain, which forms the frontier between the +district of Moerad and the Djebel Adjeloun. This is the thickest forest +I had yet seen in + +RABBAD. + +[p.266]Syria, where the term forest ([Arabic] or [Arabic]) is often +applied to places in which the trees grow at twenty paces from each +other. In an hour and a half we came to the village Ain Djenne [Arabic], +in a fertile valley called Wady Djenne, at the extremity of which +several springs issue from under the rock. + +May 3d.--There are several christian families at Ain Djenne. In the +neighbouring mountain are numerous caverns; and distant half an hour, is +the ruined village of Mar Elias. When enquiring for ruins, which might +answer to those of Capitolias, I had been referred to this place, no +person in these mountains having knowledge of any other ruins. An olive +plantation furnishes the principal means of subsistence to the eighty +families who inhabit the village of Ain Djenne. + +We set out early in the morning, and descended the valley towards +Adjeloun [Arabic], which has given its name to the district: it is built +in a narrow passage on both sides of the rivulet of Djenne, and contains +nothing remarkable except a fine ancient mosque. I left my horse here, +and took a man of the village to accompany me to the castle of Rabbad +[Arabic], which stands on the top of a mountain three quarters of an +hour distant from Adjeloun. To the left of the road, at a short +distance, is the village Kefrandjy. From Ain Djenne Kalaat el Rabbad +bears W. by N.; it is the residence of the chief of the district of +Adjeloun. The house of Barekat, in whom this authority has for many +years resided, had lately been quarrelling about it among themselves; +the chief, Youssef el Barekat, had been besieged for several months in +the castle; he was now gone to the Aga of Tabaria, to engage him in his +interests; and his family were left in the castle with strict orders not +to let any unknown persons enter it, and to keep the gate secured. I had +letters of recommendation to Youssef from the Mutsellim of Damascus; +when I arrived at the castle-gate, all the inhabitants + +OBEID. + +[p.267]assembled upon the wall, to enquire who I was, and what I wanted. +I explained to them the nature of my visit, and shewed them the +Mutsellim's letter, upon which they opened the iron gate, but continued +to entertain great suspicions of me until a man who could read having +been sent for, my letter was read aloud; all the family then vied in +civilities towards me, especially when I told them that I intended to +proceed to Tabaria. + +Kalaat Er-Rabbad is very strong, and, as appears from several Arabic +inscriptions, was built by Sultan Szelah-eddyn [Arabic]; its date is, +therefore, that of the Crusades, and the same as that of many castles in +other parts of Syria, which owe their origin to the vigilance, and +prudence of that monarch; I saw nothing particularly worth notice in it; +its thick walls, arched passages, and small bastions, are common to all +the castles of the middle ages. It has several wells; but on the +outside, it is distinguished by the deep and broad ditch which surrounds +it, and which has been excavated at immense labour in the rock itself +upon which the castle stands. Rabbad is two hours distant from the Ghor, +or valley of the river Jordan, over which, as well as the neighbouring +mountains, it commands a fine prospect. It is now inhabited by about +forty persons, of the great family of El Barekat. + +I returned from Kalaat Rabbad to Adjeloun, where I rejoined my +companions, and after mid-day set out for El Hossn, the principal +village in the district of Beni Obeid. Our road lay up the mountain, in +the narrow Wady Teis. At half an hour from Adjeloun we passed the spring +called Ain Teis [Arabic]. At two hours the district of Djebel Adjeloun +terminates, and that of Obeid begins. The country is for the greater +part woody, and here the inhabitants collect considerable quantities of +galls. Our road lay N.E.; the summits of the mountain bear the name El +Meseidjed [Arabic]. At three hours and a half is a Birket of rain-water, +from whence the + +EL HOSSN. + +[p.268]road descends over barren hills towards El Hossn, distant five +hours and a quarter from Adjeloun. + +El Hossn is the principal village of the district called Beni Obeid; it +stands on the declivity of the mountain, and is inhabited by upwards of +one hundred families, of which about twenty-five are Greek Christians, +under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Jerusalem. I saw nothing +remarkable here but a number of wells cut out of the rock. I happened to +alight at the same house where M. Seetzen had been detained for eleven +days, by bad weather; his hospitable old landlord, Abdullah el Ghanem, +made many enquiries after him. + +May 4th.--I found very bad company at El Hossn. It is usual for the +Pasha of Damascus to send annually one of the principal officers of his +government to visit the southern provinces of the Pashalik, to exact the +arrears of the Miri, and to levy new extortions. The Aga of Tabaria, who +was invested this year with the office, had just arrived in the village +with a suite of one hundred and fifty horsemen, whom he had quartered +upon the peasants; my landlord had seven men and fifteen horses for his +share, and although he killed a sheep, and boiled about twenty pounds of +rice, for supper, yet the two officers of the party in his house were +continually asking for more, spoiled all his furniture, and, in fact, +acted worse than an enemy would have done. It is to avoid vexations of +this kind that the peasants abandon the villages most exposed to such +visits. + +We left Hossn late in the morning and proceeded to Erbad [Arabic], one +hour and a quarter N.N.E. from the former. Our road lay over the plain. +Erbad is the chief place in the district of that name, likewise called +the district of Beni Djohma [Arabic], or of Bottein [Arabic], from the +Sheikh's being of the family of Bottein. The names of Beni Obeid, and +Beni Djohma, are probably derived + +HEBRAS. + +[p.269]from Arab tribes which anciently settled here; but nobody could +tell me the origin of these appellations. The inhabitants do not pretend +to be descendants of those tribes, but say that these were their +dwelling places from time immemorial. + +The castle of Erbad stands upon a low hill, at the foot of which lies +the village. The calcareous rock which extends through Zoueit, Moerad, +Adjeloun, and Beni Obeid, begins here to give way to the black Haouran +stone, with which all the houses of Erbad are built, as well as the +miserable modern walls of the castle. A large ancient well built +reservoir is the only curiosity of this place; around it lay several +handsome sarcophagi, of the same kind of rock, with some sculptured bas- +reliefs upon them. Part of the suite of the Aga of Tabaria, consisting +of Moggrebyns, was quartered at Erbad. From hence I wished to visit the +ruins of Beit el Ras [Arabic], which are upon a hill at about one hour +and a half distant. I was told that the ruins were of large extent, that +there were no columns standing, but that large ones were lying upon the +ground. From Beit el Ras I intended again to cross the mountain in order +to see the ruins of Om Keis, and from thence to visit the Djolan. + +We were shewn the road from Erbad, but went astray, and did not reach +Beit el Ras. One hour and a half N. by W. of Erbad we passed the village +Merou [Arabic]; from thence we travelled W.N.W. to El Hereimy [Arabic], +two hours from Erbad; and from El Hereimy N.N.W. to Hebras [Arabic], +three hours from Erbad. Hebras is the principal village in the district +of Kefarat, and one of the largest in these countries. It is inhabited +by many Greek Christian families. One hour and a half to the N.E. of it +are the ruins of Abil [Arabic], the ancient Abila, one of the towns of +the Decapolis; neither buildings nor columns remain standing; but I was +told that there are fragments of columns of a very large size. + +OM KEIS. + +[p.270]May 5th.--I took a guide from hence to shew me to Om Keis, which, +I was told, was inhabited by several families. I there intended to pass +the night, and to proceed the next day to Feik, a village on the E. side +of the lake of Tabaria. In half an hour from Hebras we passed the spring +Ain el Terab [Arabic], in a Wady, which farther to the north-westward +joins the Wady Szamma, and still lower down unites with the Wady Sheriat +el Mandhour. At one hour and a quarter to our right was the village +Obder [Arabic], on the banks of Wady Szamma, which runs in a deep +ravine, and half an hour farther north-west, the village Szamma +[Arabic]. The inhabitants of the above villages cultivate gardens of +fruit trees and all kinds of vegetables on the side of the rivulet. The +villages belong to the district of Kefarat. To the left of our route +extends a country full of Wadys, called the district of Serou [Arabic], +to the southward of which begins that of Wostye [Arabic]. At one hour +and a half to our left, distant half an hour, we saw, in the Serou, the +village Faour [Arabic]. Between Hebras and Szamma begins the Wady el +Arab [Arabic], which continued to the left parallel with our route; it +is a fertile valley, in which the Arabs Kelab and others cultivate a few +fields. There are several mills on the water-side. Our route lay W. by +N. and W.N.W. across the Kefarat, which is uneven ground, rising towards +the west, and is intersected by many Wadys. At the end of three hours +and a quarter we reached Om Keis [Arabic]. + +Om Keis is the last village to the west, in the district of Kefarat; it +is situated near the crest of the chain of mountains, which bound the +valley of the lake of Tabaria and Jordan on the east. The S. end of the +lake bears N.W. To the N. of it, one hour, is the deep Wady called +Sheriat el Mandhour, which is, beyond a doubt, the Hieromax of the +Greeks and Jarmouk of the Israelites. + +To the south, at the same distance, flows the Wady el Arab, + +[p.271]which joins the Sheriat in the valley of El Ghor , not far from +the junction of the latter with the Jordan. I am doubtful to what +ancient city the ruins of Om Keis are to be ascribed.[It was probably +Gamala, which Josephus describes as standing upon a mountain bordered by +precipices. Gadara appears from the authorities of Pliny and Jerom to +have been at the warm baths, mentioned below, on the north side of the +Sheriat el Mandhour; Gadara Hieromiace praefluente. Plin. Nat. Hist. +l.i.c.18. Gadara, urbs trans Jordanem contra Scythopolin et Tiberiadem, +ad orientalem plagam, sita in monte, ad cujns radices aquae calidae +erumpunt, balneis super aedificatis,--Hieron. in Topicis.] + +At Om Keis the remains of antiquity are very mutilated. The ancient town +was situated round a hill, which is the highest point in the +neighbourhood. To the east of the hill are a great number of caverns in +the calcareous rock, some of which have been enlarged and rendered +habitable. Others have been used as sepulchral caves. Great numbers of +sarcophagi are lying about in this direction: they are all of black +stone, which must have been transported from the banks of the river +below: the dimensions of the largest are nine spans in length by three +in breadth; they are ornamented with bas-reliefs of genii, festoons, +wreaths of flowers, and some with busts, but very few of them are of +elegant wor[k]manship. I counted upwards of seventy on the declivity of +the hill. On the summit of the hill are heaps of wrought stones, but no +remains of any important building: on its west and north sides are the +remains of two large theatres, built entirely of black stone. That on +the W. side is in better preservation than the other, although more +ruined than the theatres at Djerash. The walls and the greater part of +the seats yet remain; a tier of boxes intervenes between the rows of +seats, as at Djerash, and there are deep vaulted apartments beneath the +seats. There are no remains of columns in front of either theatre. The +theatre on the north side of the hill, which is in a very dilapidated +state, is remarkable for its great depth, + +[p.272]caused by its being built on a part of the steepest declivity of +the hill; its uppermost row of seats is at least forty feet higher than +the lowest; the area below the seats is comparatively very small. From +these two theatres the principal part of the town appears to have +extended westwards, over an even piece of ground at the foot of the +hill; its length from the hill was at least half an hour. Nothing is at +present standing; but there are immense heaps of cut stones, columns, +&c. dispersed over the plain. A long street, running westward, of which +the ancient pavement still exists in most parts, seems to have been the +principal street of the town. On both sides there are vast quantities of +shafts of columns. At a spot where a heap of large Corinthian pillars +lay, a temple appears to have stood. I here saw the base of a large +column of gray granite. The town terminates in a narrow point, where a +large solid building with many columns seems to have stood. + +With the exception of the theatres, the buildings of the city were all +constructed of the calcareous stone which constitutes the rock of every +part of the country which I saw between Wady Zerka + +SHERIAT EL MANDHOUR. + +[p.273]and Wady Sheriat. In Djebel Adjeloun, Moerad, and Beni Obeid, +none of the basalt or black stone is met with; but in some parts of El +Kefarat, in our way from Hebras to Om Keis, I saw alternate layers of +calcareous and basaltic rock, with thin strata of flint. The habitations +of Om Keis are, for the greater part, caverns. There is no water but +what is collected in reservoirs during rains; these were quite dried up, +which was the occasion, perhaps, of the place having been abandoned, for +we found not a single inhabitant. + +My guide being ignorant of the road to Feik, wished to return to Hebras; +and I was hesitating what to do, when we were met by some peasants of +Remtha, in the Haouran, who were in their way to the Ghor, to purchase +new barley, of which grain the harvest had already begun in the hot +climate of that valley. I joined their little caravan. We continued, for +about half an hour from Om Keis, upon the high plain, and then descended +the mountains, the western declivity of which is entirely basaltic. At +the end of two hours from Om Keis, we reached the banks of the Sheriat +el Mandhour, or Sheriat el Menadhere (Arabic] or Arabic) which we passed +at a ford. This river takes the additional name of the Arabs who live +upon its banks, to distinguish it from the Sheriat el Kebir (Great +Sheriat), by which the Jordan is known. The Sheriat el Menadhere is +formed by the united streams of the Nahr Rokad [Arabic], which flows +from near Ain Shakhab, through the eastern parts of Djolan; of the +Hereir, whose source is in the swampy ground near Tel Dilly, on the Hadj +route, between Shemskein and El Szannamein: of the Budje, which comes +from Mezareib, and after its junction with the Hereir, is called Aweired +[Arabic], and of the Wady Hamy Sakkar, besides several other smaller +Wadys. The name of Sheriat, is first applied to the united streams near +Szamme. From thence it flows in a deep bed of tufwacke; and its banks +are cultivated by the Arabs Menadhere (sing. Mandhour), who live under + +VALLEY OF THE GHOR. + +[p.274]tents, and remove from place to place, but without quitting the +banks of the river. They sow wheat and barley, and cultivate +pomegranates, lemons, grapes, and many kinds of fruit and vegetables, +which they sell in the villages of the Haouran and Djolan. Further to +the west the Wady becomes so narrow as to leave no space between the +edge of the stream, and the precipices on both sides. It issues from the +mountain not far from the south end of the lake of Tabaria, and about +one hour lower down is joined by the Wady el Arab; it then empties +itself into the Jordan, called Sheriat el Kebir, at two hours distant +from the lake; D'Anville is therefore wrong in making it flow into the +lake itself. The river is full of fish, and in the Wady its course is +very rapid. The shrub called by the Arabs Defle [Arabic], grows on its +banks; it has a red flower, and according to the Arabs is poisonous to +cattle. The breadth of the stream, where it issues from the mountains, +is about thirty-five paces, its depth (in the month of May) between four +and five feet. + +We had now entered the valley of the Ghor [Arabic], which may be +compared to the valley of the Bekaa, between the Libanus and Anti- +Libanus, and the valley El Ghab of the Orontes. The mountains which +enclose it are not to be compared in magnitude with those of the Bekaa; +but the abundance of its waters renders its aspect more pleasing to the +eye, and may make its soil more productive. It is one of the lowest +levels in Syria; lower than the Haouran and Djolan, by nearly the whole +height of the eastern mountains; its temperature is hotter than I had +experienced in any other part of Syria: the rocky mountains +concentrating the heat, and preventing the air from being cooled by the +westerly winds in summer. In consequence of this higher degree of heat, +the productions of the Ghor ripen long before those of the Haouran. The +barley harvest, which does not begin in the upper plain till fifteen +days later + +SZAMMAGH. + +[p.275]we here found nearly finished. The Haouran, on the other hand, +was every where covered with the richest verdure of wild herbage, while +every plant in the Ghor was already dried up, and the whole country +appeared as if in the midst of summer. Volney has justly remarked that +there are few countries where the changes from one climate to another +are so sudden as in Syria; and I was never more convinced of it than in +this valley. To the north was the Djebel El Sheikh, covered with snow; +to the east the fertile plainsof Djolan clothed in the blossoms of +spring; while to the south, the withered vegetation of the Ghor seemed +the effect of a tropical sun. The breadth of the valley is about an hour +and a half, or two hours. + +From the ford over the Sheriat we proceeded across the plain in a N.W. +direction; it was covered with low shrubs and a tree bearing a fruit +like a small apple, very agreeable to the taste; Zaarour [Arabic] is the +name given to it by the inhabitants of Mount Libanus; those of Damascus +call it Zaaboub [Arabic]; and the Arabs have also another name for it, +which I forget. In an hour and upwards, from the ford, we reached the +village Szammagh [Arabic], situated on the most southern extremity of +the lake of Tabaria; it contains thirty or forty poor mud houses, and a +few built with black stone. The Jordan issues out of the lake about a +quarter of an hour to the westward of the village, where the lake ends +in a straight line, extending for about forty minutes in a direction +nearly east and west. From hence the highest point of Djebel el Sheikh +bears N.N.W.; the town of Szaffad N. by E. Between the lake and the +first bridge over the Jordan, called Djissr el Medjami, at about two +hours and a half from hence, are two fordable passages across the river. + +Excepting about one hundred Fedhans around Szammagh, no part of the +valley is cultivated in this neighbourhood. Somewhat + +HOT WELLS. + +[p.276]lower down begin the corn fields of the Arabs el Ghor, who are +the principal inhabitants of the valley: those living near Szammagh are +the Arabs el Sekhour, and the Beshaatoue. The only villages met with +from hence as far as Beysan (the ancient Scythopolis), are to the left +of the Jordan, Maad [Arabic], at the foot of Djebel Wostye, and El +Erbayn [Arabic]. From Szammagh to Beysan the valley is called Ghor +Tabaria. I swam to a considerable distance in the lake, without seeing a +single fish; I was told, however, that there were privileged fishermen +at Tabaria, who monopolize the entire fishery. The beach on this side is +a fine gravel of quartz, flint, and tufwacke. There is no shallow water, +the lake being of considerable depth close in shore. The only species of +shell which I saw on the beach was of the smallest kind, white and about +an inch and a half long. There are no kinds of rushes or reeds on the +shores in this neighbourhood. + +May 6th.--The quantities of mosquitos and other vermin which always by +preference attack the stranger accustomed to more northern climates, +made me pass a most uncomfortable night at Szammagh. We departed early +in the morning, in order to visit the hot wells at the foot of the +mountain of Om Keis, the situation of which had been pointed out to me +on the preceding day. Returning towards the place where the Sheriat +issues from the Wady, we followed up the river from thence and in one +hour and three quarters from Szammagh, we reached the first hot-well. +The river flows in a deep bed, being confined in some places on both +sides by precipices of upwards of one hundred feet in height, whose +black rocks present a most striking contrast with the verdure on their +summits. For several hundred yards before we arrived at the hot-well, I +perceived a strong sulphureous smell in the air. The spring is situated +in a very narrow plain, in the valley, between the river and the +northern + +HOT WELLS. + +[p.277]cliffs, which we descended. The plain had been covered with rich +herbage, but it was now dried up; a great variety of shrubs and some old +palm trees also grow here: the heat in the midst of the summer must be +suffocating. The spring bubbles up from a basin about forty feet in +circumference, and five feet in depth, which is enclosed by ruins of +walls and buildings, and forms below a small rivulet which falls at a +short distance into the river. The water is so hot, that I found it +difficult to keep my hand in it; it deposits upon the stones over which +it flows a thick yellow sulphureous crust, which the neighbouring Arabs +collect, to rub their camels with, when diseased. Just above the basin, +which has originally been paved, is an open arched building, with the +broken shaft of a column still standing; and behind it are several +others, also arched, which may have been apartments for the +accommodation of strangers; the large stones forming these structures +are much decayed, from the influence of the exhalations. This spring is +called Hammet el Sheikh [Arabic], and is the hottest of them all. At +five minutes distance, ascending the Wady, is a second of the same kind, +but considerably cooler; it issues out of a basin covered with weeds, +and surrounded with reeds, and has some remains of ancient buildings +about it; it is called Hammet Errih [Arabic], and joins the waters from +the first source. Following the course of the river, up the Wady, eight +more hot springs are met with; I shall here mention their names, though +I did not see them. 1. Hammet aand Ettowahein [Arabic], near some mills; +2. Hammet beit Seraye [Arabic]; 3. Hammet Essowanye [Arabic]; 4. Hammet +Dser Aryshe [Arabic]; 5. Hammet Zour Eddyk [Arabic]; 6. Hammet Erremlye +[Arabic]; 7. Hammet Messaoud [Arabic]; 8. Hammet Om Selym [Arabic]; this +last is distant from that of El Sheikh two hours and a half. These + +FEIK. + +[p.278]eight springs are on both sides of the Wady, and have remains of +ancient buildings near them. I conceive that a naturalist would find it +well worth his time to examine the productions of this Wady, hitherto +almost unknown. In the month of April the Hammet el Sheikh is visited by +great numbers both of sick and healthy people, from the neighbourhood of +Nablous and Nazaret, who prefer it to the bath of Tabaria; they usually +remain about a fortnight. + +We returned from the Hamme by the same road we came; on reaching the +plain of El Ghor we turned to our right up the mountain. We here met a +wild boar of great size; these animals are very numerous in the Ghor, +and my companions told me that the Arabs of the valley are unable to +cultivate the common barley, called here Shayr Araby [Arabic], on +account of the eagerness with which the wild swine feed upon it, they +are therefore obliged to grow a less esteemed sort, with six rows of +grains, called Shayr Kheshaby [Arabic], which the swine do not touch. At +three quarters of an hour from the spot where we began to ascend, we +came to a spring called Ain el Khan, near a Khan called El Akabe, where +caravans sometimes alight; this being the great road from the Djolan and +the northern parts of the Haouran to the Ghor. Akabe is a general term +for a steep descent. In one hour we passed a spring called Ain el Akabe, +more copious than the former. From thence we reached the summit of the +mountain, one hour and a quarter distant from its foot, where the plain +commences; and in one hour and three quarters more, entered the village +of Feik, distant about four hours and a half from Szammagh, by the road +we travelled. + +One hour to the E. of Szammagh, on the shore of the lake, lies the +village Kherbet Szammera [Arabic], with some ancient buildings: it is +the only inhabited village on the E. side of the lake, its + +[p.279]site seems to correspond with that of the ancient Hippos. Farther +north, near the shore, are the ruined places called Doeyrayan [Arabic], +and Telhoun [Arabic]. Three quarters of an hour to the N. of Khan el +Akabe, near the summit of the mountain, lies, the half ruined, but still +inhabited village of Kefer Hareb [Arabic]. + +The country to the north of the Sheriat, in the direction of Feik, is, +for a short distance, intersected by Wadys, a plain then commences, +extending northwards towards the Djebel Heish el Kanneytra, and +eastwards towards the Haouran. + +Feik is a considerable village, inhabited by more than two hundred +families. It is situated at the head of the Wady of the same name, on +the ridge of a part of the mountain which incloses the E. shore of the +lake of Tabaria, and it enjoys a fine view over the middle part of the +lake. The rivulet of Feik has three sources, issuing from beneath a +precipice, round the summit of which the village is built in the shape +of a crescent. Having descended the hill for three quarters of an hour, +a steep insulated hill is met with, having extensive ruins of buildings, +walls, and columns on its top; they are called El Hossn, and are, +perhaps, the remains of the ancient town of Regaba or Argob. + +Feik [Arabic], although situated in the plain of Djolan, does not + +[p.280]actually belong to that district, but constitutes a territory of +itself; it forms part of the government of Akka, and is, I believe, the +only place belonging to that Pashalik on the E. side of the Jordan; it +was separated from the Pashalik of Damascus by Djezzar Pasha. There +being a constant passage through Feik from the Haouran to Tabaria and +Akka, more than thirty houses in the town have open Menzels for the +entertainment of strangers of every description, and supply their +cattle, gratis. The landlords have an allowance from the government for +their expenses, which is made by a deduction from the customary taxes; +and if the Menzel is much frequented, as in the case of that of the +Sheikh, no Miri at all is collected from the landlord, and the Pasha +makes him also an yearly allowance in money, out of the Miri of the +village. The establishment of these public Menzels, which are general +over the whole country to the S. of Damascus, does great honour to the +hospitable spirit of the Turks; but it is, in fact, the only expense +that the government thinks itself obliged to incur for the benefit of +the people of the country. A peasant can travel for a whole month +without expending a para; but people of any distinction give a few paras +on the morning of their departure to the waiter or watchman [Arabic]. If +the traveller does not choose to alight at a public Menzel, he may go to +any private house, where he will find a hospitable landlord, and as good +a supper as the circumstances of his host can afford. + +I observed upon the terraces of all the houses of Feik, a small +apartment called Hersh [Arabic], formed of branches of trees, covered +with mats; to this cool abode the family retires during the mid-day +heats of summer. There are a few remains of ancient buildings at Feik; +amongst others, two small towers on the two extremities of the cliff. +The village has large olive plantations. + + +May 7th.--Our way over the plain was in the direction N.E. by E. + +DISTRICT OF DJOLAN. + +[p.281]Beyond the fields of Feik, the district of Djolan begins, the +southern limits of which are the Wady Hamy Sakker, and the Sheriat. +Djolan appears to be the same name as the Greek Gaulanitis; but its +present limits do not quite correspond with those of the ancient +province, which was confined to a narrow strip of land along the lake, +and the eastern shore of the Jordan. The territory of Feik must have +formed part of Hippene; the mountain in front of it was mount Hippos, +and the district of Argob appears to have been that part of the plain +(making part of Djolan), which extends from Feik northwards for three or +four hours, and which is enclosed on the east by the Djebel Heish, and +on the west by the descent leading down to the banks of the lake. + +Half an hour from Feik we passed, on our left, a heap of ruins called +Radjam el Abhar [Arabic]. To the S.E. at about one hour distant, is the +village Djeibein [Arabic]; to the left, at three quarters of an hour, is +the ruined village El Aal [Arabic], on the side of the Wady Semak +[Arabic], which descended from the Djebel Heish: there is a rivulet of +spring-water in the Wady, which empties itself into the lake near the +ruined city of Medjeifera [Arabic], in this part the Wady is full of +reeds, of which the people make mats. On the other side of the Wady, +about half an hour distant from it, upon a Tel, is the ruined city +called Kaszr Berdoweil [Arabic] (Castle of Baldwin). The plain here is +wholly uncultivated, and is overgrown with a wild herb called Khob +[Arabic], which camels and cows feed upon. At one hour and three +quarters is a Birket of rain water, called Nam [Arabic], with a spring +near it. At two hours and a quarter are the extensive ruins of a city, +called Khastein [Arabic], built with the black stone of the country, but +preserving no remains of any considerable building. Two hours and three +quarters, on our left, is Tel Zeky [Arabic], to the left of which, about +one hour and a half, is the southern extremity of the Djebel Heish, +where stands a Tel + +TSEIL. + +[p.282]called El Faras. The Djebel Heish is separated from the plain bya +stony district, of one hour in breadth, where the Arabs of the country +often take refuge from the extortions of the Pasha. In three hours we +passed Wady Moakkar [Arabic], flowing from the mountain into the +Sheriat. Here the direction of our road was E.S.E. The Arab who +accompanied me presented me with a fruit which grows wild in these +parts, and is unknown in the northern parts of Syria, and even at +Damascus; it is of the size of a small egg, of the colour of the Tomato +or love-apple, of a sweet agreeable taste, and full of juice. It grows +upon a shrub about six inches high, which I did not see, but was told +that its roots were three or four feet in length, and presented the +figure of a man in all its parts. The fruit is called by the Arabs +Djerabouh [Arabic]. + +At three hours and a quarter, at a short distance to our left, was the +ruined village Om el Kebour [Arabic]. In three hours and a half we +passed Wady Seide [Arabic]; and at the end of three hours and three +quarters reached the bridge of Wady Hamy Sakker We met all the way Arabs +and peasants going to the Ghor to purchase barley. + +The bridge of Hamy Sakker [Arabic] is situated near the commencement of +the Wady , where it is of very little depth; lower down it has a rapid +fall, and runs between precipices of perpendicular rocks of great +height, until it joins the Sheriat, about two hours and a half from the +bridge. The bridge is well built upon seven arches. At four hours we +reached a spring called Ain Keir [Arabic], and a little farther another +called Ain Deker [Arabic]. The rocky district at the foot of Djebel +Heish extends on this side as far as these springs. In five hours we +passed Wady Aallan [Arabic], a considerable torrent flowing towards the +Sheriat, with a ruined bridge; and in five hours and a half Tseil, +[Arabic], an inhabited village. Here the plain begins to be cultivated. +There + +[p.283]are no villages excepting Djeibein to the south of the road by +which we had travelled, as far as the banks of the Sheriat. The +inhabitants of the country are Bedouins, several of whose encampments we +passed. Tseil is one of the principal villages of Djolan, and contains +about eighty or one hundred families, who live in the ancient buildings +of the ruined town; there are three Birkets of rain water belonging to +it. The only building of any size is a ruined mosque, which seems to +have been a church. In coming from Feik the soil of the plain is black, +or gray; at Tseil it begins to be of the same red colour as the Haouran +earth. + +After dinner we continued our route. In half an hour from Tseil we +passed on our left Tel Djemoua [Arabic]. The greater part of the plain +was covered with a fine crop of wheat and barley. During the years 1810 +and 1811, the crops were very bad all over Syria; the rains of last +winter, however, having been very abundant, the peasants are every where +consoled with the hopes of a good harvest. It was expected that the +Haouran and Djolan would yield twenty-five times the quantity of the +seed sown, which is reckoned an excellent crop. Half an hour north of +Tel Djemoua lies Tel Djabye [Arabic], with a village. At one hour and +three quarters from Tseil is the village Nowa [Arabic], where we slept. +This is the principal village in the Djolan, and was formerly a town of +half an hour in circumference. Its situation corresponds with that in +D'Anville's map of Neve. There are a number of ruined private dwellings, +and the remains of some public edifices. A temple, of which one column +with its entablature remains, has been converted into a mosque. At the +S. end of the village is a small square solid building, probably a +mausoleum; it has no other opening than the door. Beyond the precincts +of the village, on the N. side, are the ruins of a large square +building, of which the sculptured entrance only remains, with heaps of +broken columns before it. The village + +EL KESSOUE. + +[p.284]has several springs, as well as cisterns. The Turks revere the +tomb of a Santon buried here, called Mehy eddyn el Nowawy [Arabic]. + +May 8th.--Our route lay N.E. At two hours from Nowa is the village Kasem +[Arabic], which forms the southern limits of the district of Djedour, +and the northern frontier of Djolan; some people, however, reckon Djolan +the limits of Nowa. One hour E.b.S. of Kasem stands the village Om el +Mezabel [Arabic]; one hour and a half E.N.E. of Kasem. the great village +Onhol [Arabic]. In two hours and a half from Nowa we passed, to the +left, distant about half an hour, the Tel el Hara [Arabic], with the +village of the same name at its foot; this is the highest Tel in the +plains of Haouran and Djolan. Three hours and a quarter is the village +Semnein [Arabic]; and three hours and three quarters, the village Djedye +[Arabic]. The plain was badly cultivated in these parts. From hence our +road turned N.N.E. At five hours is Kefer Shams [Arabic], with some +ancient buildings; all these villages have large Birkets. At five hours +and three quarters is Deir e Aades [Arabic], a ruined village in a stony +district, intersected by several Wadys. Six hours and a quarter, Tel +Moerad [Arabic]; eight hours Tel Shak-hab [Arabic], a village with a +small castle, and copious springs; it lies about an hour and a half to +the west of Soubbet Faraoun. The cattle of a large encampment of Naym wa +spread over the whole plain near Shak-hab. At eight hours and three +quarters, there was on our left a rocky country resembling the Ledja; it +is called War Ezzaky [Arabic], and has a ruined Khan called Ezzeiat +[Arabic]; the millstones for the supply of Damascus are hewn in this +War, which consists of the black Haouran stone. In ten hours we reached +Khan Denoun; and in ten hours and three quarters, long after sun-set, +the village El Kessoue. + +May 9th.--We arrived early in the morning at Damascus. + +[p.285] + +POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF THE COUNTRY TO THE + +SOUTHWARD OF DAMASCUS + +WITH + +REMARKS ON THE INHABITANTS OF THE HAOURAN. + + +Before I submit to the reader, a few general remarks upon the +inhabitants of the Haouran, I shall briefly recapitulate the political +divisions of the country which extends to the southward of Damascus, as +far as Wady Zerka. + +1. El Ghoutta [Arabic]. Under this name is comprehended the immediate +neighhourhood of Damascus, limited on the north by Djebel Szalehie, on +the west by the Djebel el Sheikh, on the south by Djebel Kessoue, and on +the east by the plain El Merdj. It is under the immediate government of +the Mutsellim of Damascus. All the gardens of Damascus are reckoned in +the Ghoutta, which contains upwards of eighty villages, and is one of +the most fertile districts in Syria. + +2. Belad Haouran [Arabic]. To the south of Djebel Kessoue and Djebel +Khiara begins the country of Haouran. It is bordered on the east by the +rocky district El Ledja, and by the Djebel Haouran, both of which are +sometimes comprised within the Haouran; and in this case the Djebel el +Drouz, or mountain of the Druses, whose chief resides at Soueida, may be +considered another subdivision of the Haouran. To the S.E. where Boszra +and El Remtha are the farthest inhahited villages, the Haouran borders +upon the desert. Its western limits are the chain of villages on the +Hadj road, from Ghebarib as far south as Remtha. The greater part of its +villages will he found enumerated in the two Journals. + +POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF THE COUNTRY + +[p.286]The Haouran comprises therefore part of Trachonitis and Ituraea, +the whole of Auranitis, and the northern districts of Batanaea. Edrei, +now Draa, was situated in Batanaea. + +3.Djedour [Arabic]. The flat country south of Djebel Kessoue, east of +Djebel el Sheikh, and west of the Hadj road, as far as Kasem or Nowa, is +called Djedour. It contains about twenty villages. + +The following are the names of the inhabited villages of the country +called Djedour; El Kenneya [Arabic], Sheriat el Ghoufa [Arabic], Sheriat +el Tahna [Arabic], Deir Maket, [Arabic], Um el Mezabel [Arabic], El +Nakhal [Arabic], El Szannamein, Teil Kefrein, Merkasem, Nawa, where are +considerable ruins; Heitt [Arabic], El Hara, Akrebbe eddjedour [Arabic], +Essbebhara, Djelein [Arabic], Namr [Arabic], Essalemie [Arabic], +[Arabic], El Nebhanie [Arabic], Deir el Ades, Deir el Bokht, [Arabic], +Kafershamy, Keitta [Arabic], Semlein, Djedeie, Thereya [Arabic], Um +Ezzeijtoun [Arabic]. + +The greater part of Ituraea appears to be comprised within the limits of +Djedour. The governor of Djolan usually commands also in Djedour. + +4. Djolan [Arabic], which comprises the plain to the south of Djedour, +and to the west of Haouran. Its southern frontier is the Nahr Aweired by +which it is separated from the district of Erbad, and the Sheriat el +Mandhour, which separates it from the district El Kefarat. On the west +it is limited by the territory of Feik, and on the northwest by the +southern extremity of Djebel Heish. Part of Batanaea, Argob, Hippene, +and perhaps Gaulanitis, is comprised within this district. The maps of +Syria are in general incorrect with regard to the mountains of Djolan. +The mountain El Heish, which is the southern extremity of Djebel el +Sheikh, terminates (as I have mentioned before) at Tel el Faras, which +is about three hours and a half to the north of the Sheriat or Hieromax; +and the mountains begin again at about the same distance to the south of +the same river, in + +TO THE SOUTH OF DAMASCUS + +[p.287]the district of Wostye; leaving an open country between them, +which extends towards the west as far as Akabe Feik, and Akabe Om Keis, +which are the steep descents forming the approaches to the lake of +Tabaria, and to the Ghor of Tabaria from the east. The maps, on the +contrary, make the Djebel Heish join the southern chain of Wostye, +instead of leaving an open country of near eight hours between them. The +principal villages of Djolan, beginning from the south, are the +following: Aabedein [Arabic], Moarrye [Arabic], Shedjara [Arabic], +Beiterren [Arabic], Sahhem [Arabic], Seisoun [Arabic], Kefr Essamer +[Arabic], Seiatein [Arabic], Beit Akkar [Arabic], Djomra [Arabic], +Sheikh Saad [Arabic], near Tel Sheikh Saad, Ayoub [Arabic], Deir Ellebou +[Arabic], Kefr Maszer [Arabic], Adouan [Arabic], Tel el Ashaara +[Arabic], Tseil, El Djabye [Arabic], Esszefeire [Arabic], Djernein +[Arabic], El Kebbash [Arabic], Nowa [Arabic]. The Aga of Haouran is +generally at the same time governor of Djolan. + +5. El Kanneytra [Arabic] comprises the mountain El Heish, from the +neighbourhood of Banias to its southern extremity. It is the Mount +Hermon of the ancients. Its chief place is Kanneytra (perhaps the +ancient Canatha), where the Aga el Kanneytra resides. + +6. Belad Erbad, or Belad Beni Djohma [Arabic], likewise called El +Bottein, which name it derives from the family of Bottein, who are the +principal men of the country. It is limited on the north by the Aweired, +which separates it from the Djolan, on the east by the Hadj route, on +the south by the territory of Beni Obeid, and on the west, by the rising +ground and the many Wadys which compose the territory of El Kefarat. The +greater part of Batanaea is comprised within its limits; and it is +remarkable that the name of Bottein has some affinity with that of +Batanaea. Its principal villages are: Erbad [Arabic] (the Sheikh's +residence), El Bareha [Arabic], Kefr Djayz [Arabic], Tokbol [Arabic], El +Aaal [Arabic] (by some reckoned in Djolan), Kefr Youba [Arabic], Djemha + +POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF THE COUNTRY + +[p.288][Arabic]. The ruined villages and cities of Belad Erbad are as +follows: Djerye [Arabic], Zebde [Arabic], Hanneine [Arabic], Beit el Ras +[Arabic], Ain ed Djemel [Arabic]. + +7. El Kefarat [Arabic], a narrow strip of land, running along the south +borders of the Wady Sheriat el Mandhour from the frontiers of Belad +Erbad to Om Keis. Its principal village is Hebras. + +8. Esserou [Arabic]. This district lies parallel to El Kefarat, and +extends from Belad Erbad to the Ghor. It is watered by Wady el Arab. Its +principal village is Fowar [Arabic]. + +The Kefarat as well as the Serou are situated between the Sheriat and +the mountains of Wostye. They may be called flat countries in comparison +with Wostye and Adjeloun; and they appear still more so from a distance; +but if examined near, they are found to be intersected by numerous deep +valleys. There seems, however, a gradual ascent of the ground towards +the west. The valleys are inhabited for the greater part by Bedouins. + +9. Belad Beni Obeid [Arabic] is on the eastern declivity of the +mountains of Adjeloun. It is bordered on the north by Erbad, on the west +by the mountain Adjeloun, on the east and south by the district +Ezzoueit. The southern parts of Batanaea are comprised within these +limits. Its principal village is El Hossn, where the Sheikh resides. Its +other villages are: Haoufa [Arabic], Szammad [Arabic], Natefa [Arabic], +El Mezar [Arabic], Ham [Arabic], Djehfye [Arabic], Erreikh [Arabic], +Habdje [Arabic], Edoun [Arabic]. In the mountain near the summit of +Djebel Adjeloun, in that part of the forest which is called El +Meseidjed, are the following ruined places: Nahra [Arabic], Kefr Khal +[Arabic], Hattein [Arabic], Aablein [Arabic], Keferye [Arabic], Kherbat +[Arabic], Esshaara [Arabic], Aabbein [Arabic], Sameta [Arabic], Aabeda +[Arabic], Aafne [Arabic], Deir Laouz [Arabic]. + +11. El Koura [Arabic] Is separated from Adjeloun on the S.W. + +COUNTRY TO THE SOUTH OF DAMASCUS + +[p.289]side by Wady Yabes [Arabic], which empties itself into the +Jordan, in the neighbourhood of Beysan. To the west and north-west it +borders on Wostye, to the east on Belad Beni Obeid. It is a mountainous +country which comprizes the northern parts of the ancient Galaaditis. +Its principal villages are, Tobne [Arabic], where resides the Sheikh or +el Hakem, who exercises his influence likewise over the villages of Omba +[Arabic], Szammoua, [Arabic], Deir Abou Seid [Arabic], Hannein [Arabic], +Zemmal [Arabic], Kefer Aabeid [Arabic], Kefer Awan [Arabic], Beit Edes +[Arabic], Khanzyre [Arabic], Kefer Radjeb [Arabic], Kefer Elma [Arabic]. + +12. El Wostye [Arabic]. To the south of Serou, and east of the Ghor +Beysan. + +13. Djebel Adjeloun [Arabic]. On the north-east and east, it borders on +Beni Obeid, on the south and south-east on the district of Moerad; on +the west on the Ghor, and on the north on the Koura. It is throughout a +mountainous country, and for the greater part woody. Part of the ancient +Galaaditis is comprised within its limits. Its principal place is Kalaat +Rabbad, where the Sheikh resides. It contains besides the following +villages: Ain Djenne [Arabic], Adjeloun [Arabic], Ain Horra [Arabic], +Ardjan [Arabic], Rasoun [Arabic], Baoun [Arabic], Ousera [Arabic], +Halawe [Arabic], Khara [Arabic], El Kherbe [Arabic], Kefrendjy [Arabic]. +The principal ruined places in this district are, Rostem [Arabic], +Seleim [Arabic], Kefer Eddorra [Arabic], Szoan [Arabic], Deir Adjeloun +[Arabic]. + +14. Moerad [Arabic], is limited on the north by Djebel Adjeloun, on the +east by Ezzoueit, on the south by Wady Zerka, on the west by the Ghor. +It forms part of Galaaditis, and is in every part mountainous. Its +principal village, where the Sheikh lives, is Souf; its other villages +are Borma [Arabic], Ettekitte [Arabic], at present + +POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF THE COUNTRY. + +[p.290]abandoned; Debein [Arabic], Djezaze [Arabic], Hamthe [Arabic]. +The summits of the mountain of Adjeloun, which mark the limits between +Adjeloun and Moerad, are called Oeraboun [Arabic]. Half of it belongs to +Adjeloun, the other to Moerad. It contains the following ruined places; +Szafszaf [Arabic], El Hezar [Arabic], Om Eddjeloud [Arabic], Om Djoze +[Arabic], El Haneik [Arabic], Eshkara, [Arabic], Oeraboun [Arabic], El +Ehsenye [Arabic], Serabeis [Arabic], Nedjde [Arabic]. + +15. Ezzoueit [Arabic] lies to the east of Beni Obeid and Moerad, being +separated from the latter by the Wady Deir and Seil Djerash; it is +situated to the north of Wady Zerka, and extends eastwards beyond the +Hadj route to the southward of the ruined city of Om Eddjemal, between +Remtha and El Fedhein. Part of it is mountainous, the remainder a flat +country. There are at present no inhabited villages in the Zoueit. Its +ruined places are Erhab, Eydoun, Dadjemye, Djebe, Kafkafa, Mytwarnol, +Boeidha, Khereysan, Kherbet, Szamara, Khenezein, Remeith, Abou Ayad, El +Matouye, Essaherye, Ain Aby, Eddhaleil, Ayoun. It forms the southern +parts of the Galaaditis. + +Beyond the Zerka the chain of mountains increases in breadth, and the +Belka begins; it is divided into different districts, of which I may be +able to give some account hereafter. + +The whole country, from Kanneytra (exclusive) to the Zerka, is at +present in the government of the Aga of Tabaria; but this can only +happen when the Pasha of Acre is at the same time Pasha of Damascus. + +REMARKS ON THE INHABITANTS OF THE HAOURAN. + +[p.291] + +Remarks on the Inhabitants of the Haouran. + +The Haouran is inhabited by Turks, Druses, Christians, and Arabs, and is +visited in spring and summer by several Arab tribes from the desert. The +whole country is under the government of the Pasha of Damascus, who +generally sends a governor to Mezareib, intituled Agat el Haouran. + +The Pasha appoints also the Sheikh of every village, who collects the +Miri from both Turks and Christians. The Druses are not under the +control of the Agat el Haouran, but correspond directly with the Pasha. +They have a head Sheikh, whose office, though subject to the +confirmation of the Pasha, has been hereditary from a remote period, in +the family of Hamdan. The head Sheikh of the Druses nominates the Sheikh +of each village, and of these upwards of eight are his own relations: +the others are members of the great Druse families. The Pasha constantly +maintains a force in the Haouran of between five and six hundred men; +three hundred and fifty or four hundred of whom are at Boszra, and the +remainder at Mezareib, or patrolling the country. The Moggrebyns are +generally employed in this service. I compute the population of the +Haouran, exclusive of the Arabs who frequent the plain, the mountain +(Djebel Haouran), and the Ledja, at about fifty or sixty thousand, of +whom six or seven thousand are Druses; and about three thousand +Christians. The Turks and Christians have exactly the same modes of +life; but the Druses are distinguished from them in many respects. The +two former very nearly resemble the Arabs in their customs and manners; +their ordinary dress is precisely that of the Arabs; a coarse white +cotton stuff forms their Kombaz or gown, the Keffie round the head is +tied with a rope of camel's hair, they wear the Abba over the shoulder, +and have the breast and feet naked; they have also adopted, for the +greater + +[p.292]part, the Bedouin dialect, gestures, and phraseology; according +to which most articles of housebold furniture have names different from +those in the towns; it requires little experience however to distinguish +the adults of the two nations from one another. The Arabs are generally +of short stature, with thin visage, scanty beard, and brilliant black +eyes; while the Fellahs are taller and stouter, with a strong beard, and +a less piercing look; but the difference seems chiefly to arise from +their mode of life; for the youth of both nations, to the age of +sixteen, have precisely the same appearance. The Turks and Christians of +the Haouran live and dress alike, and religion seems to occasion very +little difference in their respective conditions. When quarrels happen +the Christian fears not to strike the Turk, or to execrate his religion, +a liberty which in every town of Syria would expose the Christian to the +penalty of death, or to a very heavy pecuniary fine. Common sufferings +and dangers in the defence of their property may have given rise to the +toleration which the Christians enjoy from the Turks in the Haouran; and +which is further strengthened by the Druses, who shew equal respect to +both religions. Of the Christians four-fifths are Greeks; and the only +religious animosities which I witnessed during my tour, were between +them and the Catholics. + +Among the Fellahs of the Haouran, the richest lives like the poorest, +and displays his superior wealth only on the arrival of strangers. The +ancient buildings afford spacious and convenient dwellings to many of +the modern inhabitants, and those who occupy them may have three or four +rooms for each family; but in newly built villages, the whole family, +with all its household furniture, cooking utensils, and provision +chests, is commonly huddled together in one apartment. Here also they +keep their wheat and barley in reservoirs formed of clay, called Kawara +[Arabic], which are about five feet high and two feet in diameter. The +chief articles + +[p.293]of furniture are, a handmill, which is used in summer, when there +is no water in the Wadys to drive the mills; some copper kettles; and a +few mats; in the richer houses some woollen Lebaet are met with, which +are coarse woollen stuffs used for carpets, and in winter for horse- +cloths: real carpets or mattrasses are seldom seen, unless it be upon +the arrival of strangers of consequence. Their goat's hair sacks, and +horse and camel equipments, are of the same kind as those used by the +Bedouins, and are known by the same names. Each family has a large +earthen jar, of the manufacture of Rasheiat el Fukhar, which is filled +every morning by the females, from the Birket or spring, with water for +the day's consumption. In every house there is a room for the reception +of strangers, called from this circumstance Medhafe; it is usually that +in which the male part of the family sleeps; in the midst of it is a +fire place to boil coffee. + +The most common dishes of these people are Burgoul and Keshk; in summer +they supply the place of the latter by milk, Leben, and fresh butter. Of +the Burgoul I have spoken on other occasions; there are two kinds of +Keshk, Keshk-hammer and Keskh-leben; the first is prepared by putting +leaven into the Burgoul, and pouring water over it; it is then left +until almost putrid, and afterwards spread out in the sun, to dry; after +which it is pounded, and when called for, served up mixed with oil, or +butter. The Keskh-leben is prepared by putting Leben into the Burgoul, +instead of leaven; in other respects the process is the same. Keskh and +bread are the common breakfast, and towards sunset a plate of Burgoul, +or some Arab dish, forms the dinner; in honour of strangers, it is usual +to serve up at breakfast melted butter and bread, or fried eggs, and in +the evening a fowl boiled in Burgoul, or a kid or lamb; but this does +not very often happen. The women and children eat up whatever the men +have left on + +[p.294] their plates. The women dress in the Bedouin manner; they have a +veil over the head, but seldom veil their faces. + +Hospitality to strangers is another characteristic common to the Arabs, +and to the people of Haouran. A traveller may alight at any house he +pleases; a mat will be immediately spread for him, coffee made, and a +breakfast or dinner set before him. In entering a village it has often +happened to me, that several persons presented themselves, each begging +that I would lodge at his house; and this hospitality is not confined to +the traveller himself, his horse or his camel is also fed, the first +with half or three quarters of a Moud[The Moud is about nineteen pounds +English.] of barley, the second with straw; with this part of their +hospitality, however, I had often reason to be dissatisfied, less than a +Moud being insufficient upon a journey for a horse, which is fed only in +the evening, according to the custom of these countries. As it would be +considered an affront to buy any corn, the horse must remain ill-fed, +unless the traveller has the precaution to carry a little barley in his +saddle-bag, to make up the deficiency in the host's allowance. On +returning to Aaere to the house of the Sheikh, after my tour through the +desert, one of my Druse guides insisted upon taking my horse to his +stables, instead of the Sheikh's; when I was about to depart, the Druse +brought my horse to the door, and when I complained that he had fallen +off greatly in the few days I had remained in the village, the Sheikh +said to me in the presence of several persons, "You are ignorant of the +ways of this country [Arabic]; if you see that your host does not feed +your horse, insist upon his giving him a Moud of barley daily; he dares +not refuse it." It is a point of honour with the host never to accept of +the smallest return from a guest; I once only ventured to give a few +piastres to the child of a very poor family at Zahouet, by whom we had +been most hospitably treated, and rode off without + +[p.295] attending to the cries of the mother, who insisted upon my +taking back the money. + +Besides the private habitations, which offer to every traveller a secure +night's shelter, there is in every village the Medhafe of the Sheikh, +where all strangers of decent appearance are received and entertained. +It is the duty of the Sheikh to maintain this Medhafe, which is like a +tavern, with the difference that the host himself pays the bill: the +Sheikh has a public allowance to defray these expenses, &c. and hence a +man of the Haouran, intending to travel about for a fortnight, never +thinks of putting a single para in his pocket; he is sure of being every +where well received, and of living better perhaps than at his own home. +A man remarkable for his hospitality and generosity enjoys the highest +consideration among them. + +The inhabitant of the Haouran estimates his wealth by the number of +Fedhans,[The word Fedhan is applied both to the yoke of oxen and to the +quantity of land cultivated by them, which varies according to +circumstances. In some parts of Syria, chiefly about Homs, the Fedhan el +Roumy, or Greek Fedhan, is used, which means two pair of oxen.] or pairs +of cows or oxen which he employs in the cultivation of his fields. If it +is asked, whether such a one has piastres (Illou gheroush [ARABIC]), a +common mode of speaking, the answer is, "A great deal; he drives six +pair of oxen," (Kethiar bimashi sette fedhadhin [Arabic]); there are but +few, however, who have six pair of oxen; a man with two or three is +esteemed wealthy: and such a one has probably two camels, perhaps a +mare, or at least a Gedish (a gelding), or a couple of asses: and forty +or fifty sheep or goats. + +The fertility of the soil in the Haouran depends entirely upon the water +applied to it. In districts where there is plenty of water for +irrigation, the peasants sow winter and summer seeds; but where they +have to depend entirely upon the rainy season + +[p.296]for a supply, nothing can be cultivated in summer. The harvest in +the latter districts, therefore, is in proportion to the abundance of +the winter rains. The first harvest is that of horse-beans [Arabic] at +the end of April: of these there are vast tracts sown, the produce of +which serve as food for the cows and sheep. Camels are fed with the +flour made from these beans, mixed with barley meal, and made into a +paste. Next comes the barley harvest, and towards the end of May, the +wheat: in the interval between the two last, the peasants eat barley +bread. In abundant years, wheat sells at fifty piastres the +Gharara,[Three Rotola and a half make a Moud, and eighty Moud a Gharara. +A Rotola is equal to about five and a halfpounds English.] or about two +pounds ten shillings for fifteen cwt. English. In 1811, the Gharara rose +as high as to one hundred and ninety piastres. The wheat of the Haouran +is considered equal, if not superior to any other in Syria. Barley is +generally not more than half the price of wheat. When I was in the +Haouran, the price of an ox or cow was about seventy piastres, that of a +camel about one hundred and fifty piastres. + +The lands which are not capable of artificial irrigation are generally +suffered to lie fallow one year; a part of them is sometimes sown in +spring with sesamum, cucumbers, melons, and pulse. But a large part of +the fruit and vegetables consumed in the Haouran is brought from +Damascus, or from the Arabs Menadhere, who cultivate gardens on the +banks of the Sheriat el Mandhour. + +The peasants of Haouran are extremely shy in speaking of the produce of +their land, from an apprehension that the stranger's enquiries may lead +to new extortions. I have reason to believe, however, that in middling +years wheat yields twenty-five fold; in some parts of the Haouran, this +year, the barley has yielded fifty-fold, and even in some instances +eighty. A Sheikh, who formerly + +[p.297]inhabited the small village of Boreika, on the southern borders +of the Ledja, assured me that from twenty Mouds of wheat-seed he once +obtained thirty Ghararas, or one hundred and twenty fold. Fields watered +by rain (the Arabs call them Boal, [Arabic]), yield more in proportion to +the seed sown, than those which are artificially watered; this is owing +to the seed being sown thinner in the former. The Haouran crops are +sometimes destroyed by mice [Arabic], though not so frequently as in the +neighbourhood of Homs and Hamah. Where abundance of water may be +conducted into the fields from neighbouring springs, the soil is again +sown, after the grain harvests, with vegetables, lentils, peas, +sesamums, &c. + +The Fellahs who own Fedhans often cultivate one another's fields in +company: a Turk living in a Druse village often wishes to have a Druse +for his companion, to escape in some degree the vexations of the Druse +Sheikh. At the Druse Sheikhs, black slaves are frequently met with; but +the Turk and Christian proprietors cultivate their lands by hired native +labourers. Sometimes the labourer contracts with a townsman, and +receives from him oxen, ploughs, and seed. A labourer who has one Fedhan +or two oxen under his charge, usually receives at the time of sowing one +Gharara of corn. After the harvest he takes one-third of the produce of +the field; but among the Druses only a fourth. The master pays to the +government the tax called Miri, and the labourer pays ten piastres +annually. The rest of the agricultural population of the Haouran +consists of those who subsist by daily labour. They in general earn +their living very hardly. I once met with a young man who had served +eight years for his food only at the expiration of that period he +obtained in marriage the daughter of his master, for whom he would, +otherwise, have had to pay seven or eight hundred piastres. When I saw +him he had been married three years; + +[p.298]but he complained bitterly of his father-in-law, who continued to +require of him the performance of the most servile offices, without +paying him any thing; and thus prevented him from setting up for himself +and family. + +Daughters are paid for according to the respectability of their father, +sometimes as high as fifteen hundred piastres, and this custom prevails +amongst Druses, Turks, and Christians. If her family is rich the girl is +fitted out with clothes, and a string of zequins or of silver coin, to +tie round her head; after which she is delivered to her husband. I had +an opportunity of witnessing an espousal of two Christians at Aaere, in +the house of a Christian: the bride was brought with her female friends +and relations, from her native village, one day's journey distant, with +two camels decorated with tassels, bells, &c., and was lodged with her +relations in Aaere. They entered the village preceded by women beating +the tamborine, and by the village youths, firing off their musquets. +Soon afterwards the bridegroom retired to the spring, which was in a +field ten minutes from the village, where he washed, and dressed himself +in new clothes. He then entered the village mounted on a caparisoned +horse, surrounded by young men, two of whom beat tamborines, and the +others fired musquets. He alighted before the Sheikh's house, and was +carried for about a quarter of an hour by two men, on their arms, amidst +continued singing and huzzaing: the Sheikh then exclaimed, "Mebarek el +Aris" [Arabic], Blessed be the bridegroom! which was repeated by all +present, after which he was set down, and remained till sunset, exposed +to the jests of his friends; after this he was carried to the church, +where the Greek priest performed the marriage ceremony, and the young +couple retired to their dwelling. The bridegroom's father had +slaughtered several lambs and kids, a part of which was devoured by mid- +day; but the best pieces were brought in three + +[p.299]enormous dishes of Bourgul to the Sheikh's Medhafe; two being for +the mob, and the third for the Sheikh, and principal men of the village. +In the evening paras were collected by one of the bridegroom's friends, +who sung verses in praise of all his acquaintance, every one of whom, +when named, was expected to make a present. + +The oppressions of the government on one side, and those of the Bedouins +on the other, have reduced the Fellah of the Haouran to a state little +better than that of the wandering Arab. Few individuals either among the +Druses or Christians die in the same village in which they were born. +Families are continually moving from one place to another; in the first +year of their new settlement the Sheikh acts with moderation towards +them; but his vexations becoming in a few years insupportable, they fly +to some other place, where they have heard that their brethren are +better treated, but they soon find that the same system prevails over +the whole country. Sometimes it is not merely the pecuniary extortion, +but the personal enmity of the Sheikh, or of some of the head men of the +village, which drives a family from their home, for they are always +permitted to depart. This continued wandering is one of the principal +reasons why no village in the Haouran has either orchards, or fruit- +trees, or gardens for the growth of vegetables. "Shall we sow for +strangers?" was the answer of a Fellah, to whom I once spoke on the +subject, and who by the word strangers meant both the succeeding +inhabitants, and the Arabs who visit the Haouran in the spring and +summer. + +The taxes which all classes of Fellahs in the Haouran pay, may be +classed under four heads: the Miri; the expense of feeding soldiers on +the march; the tribute to the Arabs; and extraordinary contributions. +The Miri is levied upon the Fedhan; thus if a village pay twelve purses +to the Miri, and there are thirty pair of + +[p.300] oxen in it, the master of each pair pays a thirtieth. Every +village being rated for the Miri in the land-tax book of the Pasha, at a +fixed sum, that sum is levied as long as the village is at all +inhabited, however few may be its inhabitants. In the spring of every +year, or, if no strangers have arrived and settled, in every second or +third spring, the ground of the village is measured by long cords, when +every Fellah occupies as much of it as he pleases, there being always +more than sufficient; the amount of his tax is then fixed by the Sheikh, +at the ratio which his number of Fedhans bears to the whole number of +Fedhans cultivated that year. Whether the oxen be strong or weak, or +whether the quantity of seed sown or of land cultivated by the owner of +the oxen be more or less, is not taken into consideration; the Fellah is +supposed to keep strong cattle, and plough as much land as possible. +Some sow six Gharara of wheat or barley in the Fedhan, others five, and +others seven. The boundaries of the respective fields are marked by +large stones [Arabic]. The Miri is paid in kind, or in money, at the +will of the Pasha; the Fellahs prefer the latter, by which they are +always trifling gainers. + +From what has been said, it is evidently impossible for the Fellah to +foresee the amount of Miri which he shall have to pay in any year; and +in addition to this vexation, the Miri for each village, though it is +never diminished upon a loss of inhabitants, is sometimes raised upon a +supposed increase of population, or upon some other pretext. It may, +generally, be remarked, that the villages inhabited by the Druses +usually pay more Miri than those in the plain, because some allowance is +made to the latter, in consideration of the tribute which they are +obliged to pay to the Arabs, and from which the former are exempt. At +Aaere, the year before my first visit, the Fedhan had paid one hundred +and fifty piastres, at Ezra, one hundred and eighty, and at some +villages in the plain, + +[p.301]one hundred and twenty. In the year 1812, the Miri, including +some extra demands, amounted in general to five hundred piastres the +Fedhan. + +The second tax upon the Fellahs is the expense of feeding soldiers on +the march; if the number is small they go to the Sheikh's Medhafe; but +if they are numerous, they are quartered, or rather quarter themselves, +upon the Fellahs: in the former case, barley only for their horses is +supplied by the peasant, while the Sheikh furnishes provisions for the +men, but the peasant is not much benefited by this regulation, for the +soldiers are in general little disposed to be satisfied with the frugal +fare of the Sheikh, and demand fowls, or butcher's meat; which must be +supplied by the village. On their departure, they often steal some +article belonging to the house. The proportion of barley to be furnished +by each individual to the soldiers horses, depends of course upon the +number of horses to be fed, and of Fedhans in the village: at Aaere, in +the year 1809, it amounted to fifty piastres per Fedhan. The Sheikh of +Aaere has six pair of oxen, for which he pays no taxes, but the presence +of strangers and troops is so frequent at his Medhafe, that this +exemption had not been thought a sufficient remuneration, and he is +entitled to levy, in addition, every year, two or three Gharara of corn, +each Gharara being in common years, worth eighty or one hundred +piastres. Some Sheikhs levy as much as ten Gharara, besides being +exempted from taxation for eight, ten, or twelve pair of oxen. + +The third and most heavy contribution paid by the peasants, is the +tribute to the Arabs. The Fahely, Serdie, Beni Szakher, Serhhan, who are +constant residents in the Haouran, as well as most of the numerous +tribes of Aeneze, who visit the country only in the summer, are, from +remote times, entitled to certain tributes called Khone (brotherbood), +from every village in the Haouran. In return + +[p.302]for this Khone, the Arabs abstain from touching the harvest of +the village, and from driving off its cattle and camels, when they meet +them in their way. Each village pays Khone to one Sheikh in every tribe; +the village is then known as his Ukhta [Arabic] or Sister, as the Arabs +term it, and he protects the inhabitants against all the members of his +own tribe. It may easily be imagined, however, that depredations are +often committed, without the possibility of redress, the depredator +being unknown, or flying immediately towards the desert. The amount of +the Khone is continually increasing; for the Arab Sheikh is not always +contented with the quantity of corn he received in the preceding year, +but asks something additional, as a present, which soon becomes a part +of his accustomed dues. + +If the Pasha of Damascus were guided by sound policy, and a right view +of his own interests, he might soon put an end to the exactions of the +Arabs, by keeping a few thousand men, well paid, in garrison in the +principal places of the Haouran; but instead of this, his object is to +make the Khone an immediate source of income to himself; the chief +Sheikhs of the Fehely and Serdie receive yearly from the Pasha a present +of a pelisse, which entitles them to the tribute of the villages, out of +which the Fehely pays about twenty purses, and the Serdie twelve purses +into the Pasha's treasury. The Serdie generally regulate the amount of +the Khone which they levy, by that which the Fehely receive; and take +half as much; but the Khone paid to the Aeneze chiefs is quite +arbitrary, and the sum paid to a single Sheikh varies according to his +avidity; or the wealth of the Fellahs, from thirty and forty piastres up +to four hundred, which are generally paid in corn. + +These various oppressive taxes, under which the poor Fellah groans, are +looked upon as things of course, and just contributions; and he +considers himself fortunate, if they form the whole of his + +[p.303]sufferings: but it too often happens that the Pasha is a man who +sets no bounds to his rapacity, and extraordinary sums are levied upon +the village, by the simple command issued from the Hakim el Haouran to +the village Sheikh to levy three or four hundred piastres upon the +peasants of the place. On these occasions the women are sometimes +obliged to sell their ear-rings and bracelets, and the men their cattle, +to satisfy the demand, and have no other hope than that a rich harvest +in the following year shall make amends for their loss. The receipt of +the Miri of the whole Pashalik of Damascus is in the hands of the Jew +bankers, or Serafs of the Pasha, who have two and a half per cent. upon +his revenue, and as much upon his expenditure. They usually distribute +the villages amongst their creatures, who repair thither at the time of +harvest, to receive the Miri; and who generally extort, besides, +something for themselves. + +The Druses who inhabit the villages in the Loehf, and those on the sides +of the Djebel Haouran, are to be classed with the Fellahs of the plain +with regard to their mode of living and their relations with the +government. Their dress is the same as that of the Fellahs to the W. of +Damascus; they seldom wear the Keffie, and the grown up men do not go +barefoot like the other Fellahs of the Haouran. I have already mentioned +that their chief resides at Soueida, of which village he is also the +Sheikh. On the death of the chief, the individual in his family who is +in the highest estimation from wealth or personal character succeeds to +the title, and is confirmed by the Pasha. It is known that on the death +of Wehebi el Hamdan, the present chief, who is upwards of eighty, +Shybely el Hamdan, the Sheikh of Aaere, will succeed him. The chief has +no income as such, it being derived from the village of which he is +Sheikh; and his authority over the others goes no further than to +communicate to them the orders of the Pasha. In manners these Druses +very much resemble those of the mountains of Kesrouan. + +[p.304]The families form clans almost independent of each other; and +among whom there are frequent quarrels. Insults are studiously avenged +by the respective families, and the law of blood-revenge is in full +force among them, without being mitigated by the admission of any +pecuniary commutation. They all go armed, as do the Turks and Christians +of the Haouran in general. Few Druses have more than one wife; but she +may be divorced on very slight pretexts. + +With respect to their religion, the Druses of the Haouran, like those in +Mount Libanus, have the class of men called Akoul (sing. Aakel), who are +distinguished from the rest by a white turban, and the peculiarity of +the folds in which they wear it. The Akoul are not permitted to smoke +tobacco; they never swear, and are very reserved in their manners and +conversation. I was informed that these were their only obligations; and +it appears probable, for I observed Akoul boys of eight or ten years of +age, from whom nothing more difficult could well be expected, and to +whom it is not likely that any important secret would be imparted. I +have seen Akouls of that age, whose fathers were not of the order, +because, as they told me, they could not abstain from smoking and +swearing. The Sheikhs are for the greater part Akouls. The Druses pray +in their chapels, but not at stated periods; these chapels are called +Khalawe [Arabic], i.e. an insulated place, and none but Druses are +allowed to enter them. They affect to follow the doctrines of Mohammed, +but few of them pray according to the Turkish forms: they fast during +Ramadan in the presence of strangers, but eat at their own homes, and +even of the flesh of the wild boar, which is frequently met with in +these districts. It is a singular belief both among the western Druses, +and those of the Haouran, that there are a great number of Druses in +England; an opinion founded perhaps upon the fanatical opinions of the +Christians of Syria, who deny the English to be followers of Christ, +because they neither confess nor fast. When I first arrived at the Druse +village of Aaere + +[p.305]there was a large company in the Medhafe, and the Sheikh had no +opportunity of speaking to me in private; he therefore called for his +inkstand, and wrote upon a piece of paper the following questions, which +I answered as well as I could, and returned him the paper: "Where do the +five Wadys flow to, in your country?--Do you know the grain of the plant +Leiledj [Arabic]; and where is it sown?--What is the name of the Sultan +of China?--Are the towns of Hadjar and Nedjran in the Yemen known to +you?--Is Hadjar in ruins? and who will rebuild it?--Is the Moehdy (the +Saviour) yet come, or is he now upon the earth?". + +I have not been able to obtain any information concerning the period at +which the Druses first settled in these parts. Min Kadim [Arabic], a +long time ago, was the general answer of all those whom I questioned on +the subject. During my stay at Aaere news arrived there, that a body of +one hundred and twenty Druses had left the western mountains, and were +coming to settle in Haouran. + +The Pasha of Damascus has entrusted to the Druses of the Haouran, the +defence of the neighbouring villages against such of the Arabs as may be +at war with him; but the Druses perform this service very badly: they +are the secret friends of all the Arabs, to whom they abandon the +villages of the plain, on the condition that their own brethren are not +to be molested; and their Sheikhs receive from the Arabs presents in +horses, cattle, and butter. While at Aaere I witnessed an instance of +the good understanding between the Druses and the Arabs Serdie, whom I +have already mentioned as having been at war with the Pasha, at the time +of my visit to the Haouran: seeing in the evening some Arabs stealing +into the court-yard of the Sheikh's house, I enquired who they were, and +was told that they were Serdie, come in search of information, whether +any more troops were likely to be sent against them from Damascus. It is +for this kind of treachery that the Fellahs in the Haouran hate the +Druses. + +[p.306] The authority both of the Druse and Turkish village Sheikh is +very limited, in consequence of the facility with which the Fellahs can +transport themselves and families to another village. I was present +during a dispute between a Christian Fellah and a Druse chief, who +wished to make the former pay for the ensuing year at the rate of the +same number of Fedhans that he had paid for the preceding year, though +he had now one pair of oxen less. After much wrangling, and high words +on both sides, the Christian said, "Very well, I shall not sow a single +grain, but retire to another village;" and by the next morning he had +made preparation for his departure; when the Sheikh having called upon +him, the affair was amicably settled, and a large dish of rice was +dressed in token of reconciliation. When disputes happen between Druses, +they are generally settled by the interference of mutual friends, or by +the Sheikhs or their respective families, or by the great chiefs; or +failing these, the two families of the two parties come to blows rather +than bring their differences before the court of justice at Damascus. +Among the Turks litigations are, in the last extremity, decided by the +Kadhi of Damascus, or by the Pasha in person. The Christians often bring +their differences before the tribunal of priests or that of the +Patriarch of Damascus, and before the Kadhi in times when it is known +that Christians can obtain justice, which is not the case under every +governor. + +The Bedouins of the Haouran are of two classes; those who are resident, +and those who visit it in the spring and summer only. The resident Arabs +are the Fehily [Arabic], Serdie [Arabic], Beni Szakher [Arabic], Serhhan +[Arabic]; the Arabs of the mountain Haouran, or Ahl el Djebel [Arabic], +and those of the Ledja [Arabic]. By resident, I do not mean a fixed +residence in villages, but that their wanderings are confined to the +Haouran, or to some particular districts of it. Thus the four first +mentioned move through every part of the country from Zerka up to the +plains of Ard + +[p.307]Zeikal, according to their relations with other tribes, their own +affairs, and the state of pasturage in the different districts. The Beni +Szakher generally encamp at the foot of the western mountains of Belka +and the Heish, the Serhhan near them, and the Fehily and Serdie in the +midst of the cultivated districts, or at a short distance from them, +according to the terms they are upon with the Pasha.[When I was in the +Haouran the Fehliy were encamped near the Szaffa, the Beni Szakher near +Fedhein, the Serhhan at the foot of the Belka, and the Serdie near Om +Eddjemal.] The Ahl el Djebel move about in the mountain; those of the +Ledja seldom venture to encamp beyond their usual limits in that +district. But I have spoken more largely of these tribes and their +mutual interests in another place. The Fehily and Serdie are called Ahl +el Dyrel, or national Arabs, and pay tribute to the Pasha, who, however, +is often at war with them for withholding it, or for plundering his +troops or the Fellahs. + +If the Pasha happens to be at war with other tribes, they are bound to +join his troops; but in this they are guided entirely by the advantage +which they are likely to derive from the contest. They receive Khone +from all the villages of the Haouran, the Djolan, and many of those in +the Djebel Adjeloun. + +The Ahl el Djebel and the Arabs el Ledja are kept in more strict +dependence upon the Pasha than the other tribes; both are subject to an +annual tribute, which is levied on each tent according to the wealth of +its owner; this is collected from the Arabs el Ledja by the Sheikh of +the Fellahs, and ascends from ten to sixty piastres for each tent. It +seldom happens that the Arabs el Djebel prove rebels, but those of the +Ledja often with-hold the tribute, in the confidence that the recesses +of their abode cannot he forced; in this case nothing makes them yield +but want of + +[p.308]water, when their own springs failing, they are obliged to +approach the perennial sources of the Loehf. + +The Arabs of the Djebel Haouran are the shepherds of the people of the +plains, who entrust to them in summer and winter their flocks of goats +and sheep, which they pasture during the latter season amongst the rocks +of the mountains. In spring the Arabs return the flocks to their owners, +who sell a part of them at Damascus, or make butter from the milk during +the spring months. The Arabs receive for their trouble one-fourth of the +lambs and kids, and a like proportion of the butter. Casual losses in +the flocks are borne equally by both parties. + +The following are the different tribes of the Ahl el Djebel; +Esshenabele, El Hassan, El Haddie, Ghiath, Essherefat, Mezaid, El Kerad, +Beni Adhan, and Szammeral. Of those of the Ledja I have already spoken. +The Ahl el Djebel are always at peace with the other Arabs; but those of +the Ledja are often at war with the Fehily and Serdie. I come now to the +second class, or wandering Arabs. + +In May the whole Haouran is coverered with swarms of wanderers from the +desert, who remain there till after September; these are at present +almost exclusively of the tribe of Aeneze. Formerly the Haouran was +often visited by the Sherarat, from the Mekka road, at fifteen stations +from Damascus; by the Shammor, from Djebel Shammor, and by the Dhofir +from the Irak country. On the arrival of the Aeneze, the resident Arabs +who may happen to be at war with them, conceal themselves in the +neighbourhood of the western mountain or in the Szaffa, or they retire +towards Mezareib and Szannamein. The Aeneze come for a two-fold purpose, +water and pasturage for the summer, and a provision of corn for the +winter. If they are at peace with the Pasha they encamp quietly among +the villages, near the springs or wells if at + +[p.309]war with him, for their relations with the government of Damascus +are as uncertain as their own with each other, they keep in the district +to the S. of Boszra, towards Om Eddjemal and Fedhein, extending their +limits south as far as El Zerka. The Pasha generally permits them to +purchase corn from the Haouran, but in years when a scarcity is +apprehended, a restriction is put upon them. + +Till within a few years the Aeneze were the constant carriers of the +Hadj, and made yearly contracts with the Pasha for several thousand +camels, by which they were considerable gainers, as well as by the fixed +tribute which many of their Sheikhs had made themselves entitled to from +the pilgrim caravan; and by their nightly plunder of stragglers, and +loaded camels during the march. These advantages have made the Aeneze +inclined to preserve friendly terms with the Pashalik of Damascus, and +to break allegiance to the Wahabi chief, notwithstanding they have been +for twelve years converts to his religious doctrines. If, however, they +shall become convinced that the Hadj is no longer practicable, they will +soon turn their arms against their former friends, an event which is +justly dreaded by the people of the Haouran. + +The tribe of Aeneze which most usually visits the Haouran is the Would +Ali, under their chiefs Etteiar and Ibn Ismayr; the latter has at +present more interest than any other Arab Sheikh, with the Pasha, from +whom he occasionally receives considerable presents, as an +indemnification for his losses by the suspension of the Hadj, as well as +to induce him to keep his Arabs on good terms with the Turkish governors +of the Pashalik. + + +[p.311] + +DESCRIPTION OF A JOURNEY FROM DAMASCUS + +THROUGH THE MOUNTAINS OF ARABIA PETRAEA, + +AND THE DESERT EL TY, TO CAIRO; + +IN THE SUMMER OF 1812. + +WISHING to obtain a further knowledge of the mountains to the east of +the Jordan, and being still more desirous of visiting the almost unknown +districts to the east of the Dead sea, as well as of exploring the +country which lies between the latter and the Red sea, I resolved to +pursue that route from Damascus to Cairo, in preference to the direct +road through Jerusalem and Ghaza, where I could not expect to collect +much information important for its novelty. Knowing that my intended way +led through a diversity of Bedouin tribes, I thought it advisable to +equip myself in the simplest manner. I assumed the most common Bedouin +dress, took no baggage with me, and mounted a mare that was not likely +to excite the cupidity of the Arabs. After sun-set, on the 18th of June, +1812, I left Damascus, and slept that night at Kefer Souse, a +considerable village, at a short distance from the city-gate, in the +house of the guide whom I had hired to conduct me to Tabaria. + +Kefer Souse [Arabic] is noted for its olive plantations; and the oil +which they produce is esteemed the best in the vicinity of Damascus. + +June 19th.--In one hour we passed the village Dareya [Arabic]; + +OM EL SHERATYTT + +[p.312] where terminate the gardens and orchards which surround Damascus +on all sides to a distance of from six to ten miles. We found the +peasants occupied with the corn harvest, and with the irrigation of the +cotton fields, in which the plants had just made their appearance above +ground. The plain is every where cultivated. In two hours and three +quarters we passed Kokab [Arabic], a small village on the western +extremity of the chain of low hills known by the appellation of Djebel +Kessoue. To the left of the road from Dareya to Kokab are the villages +Moattamye [Arabic], Djedeide [Arabic] and Artous [Arabic]; and to the +right of it, El Ashrafe [Arabic], and Szahhnaya [Arabic]. The direction +of our route was W.S.W. Beyond Kokab, a small part only of the plain is +cultivated. At three hours and three quarters, to our left, was the +village Wadhye [Arabic], and a little farther the village Zaky [Arabic]. +Route S.W. b. W. Four hours and a half, Khan el Sheikh [Arabic], a house +for the accommodation of travellers, this being the great road from Akka +to Damascus. The Khan is inhabited by a few families, and stands near +the river Seybarany [Arabic], which flows towards the Ghoutta of +Damascus. We followed the banks of the river over a stony desert; on the +opposite bank extends the rocky district called War Ezzaky [Arabic], +mentioned in my former Journal.[See p. 284.] In five hours and three +quarters we passed a rocky tract called Om el Sheratytt [Arabic]. Several +heaps of stones indicate the graves of travellers murdered in this place +by the Druses, who, during their wars with Djezzar Pasha, were in the +habit of descending from the neighbouring mountain, Djebel el Sheikh, in +order to waylay the caravans. The Seybarany runs here in a deep bed of +the Haouran black stone. In six hours and a quarter we passed the river, +over a solid bridge. At six hours and + +KANNEYTRA + +[p.313] three quarters is the village Sasa [Arabic], at the foot of an +insulated hill; it is well built, and contains a large Khan, with a good +mosque. The former was full of travellers. We slept here till midnight, +and then joined a small caravan destined for Akka. + +June 20th.--Our road lay over a rocky plain, called Nakker Sasa +[Arabic], slightly ascending. In one hour we passed a bridge over the +river Meghannye [Arabic]. At the end of three hours we issued from the +rocks, and entered into a forest of low straggling oak-trees, called +Heish Shakkara [Arabic]. Three hours and a half, we passed to the right +of an insulated hill, called Tel Djobba. The whole country is +uncultivated. In four hours we saw, at about half an hour to our right, +the ruined Khan of Kereymbe [Arabic]; the road still ascending. Near +Kereymbe begins the mountain called Heish el Kanneytra, a lower ridge of +Djebel el Sheikh, (the Mount Hermon of the Scriptures), from which it +branches out southwards. At five hours Tel Hara [Arabic] was about one +hour and a half to the S. of the road, which from Sasa followed the +direction of S.W. and sometimes that of S.W. by W. At seven hours is the +village of Kanneytra [Arabic]; from Kereymbe to this place is an open +country, with a fertile soil, and several springs. + + +Kanneytra is now in ruins, having been deserted by its inhabitants since +the period of the passage of the Visier’s troops into Egypt. It is +enclosed by a strong wall, which contains within its circuit a good +Khan, a fine mosque with several short columns of gray granite, and a +copious spring; there are other springs also near it. On the north side +of the village are the remains of a small ancient city, perhaps Canatha; +these ruins consist of little more than the foundations of habitations. +The caravans coming from Akka generally halt for the night at Kanneytra. +We reposed here a few hours, and then continued our journey, over ground + +RESERVOIRS + +[p.314] which still continues to rise, until we reached the chain of +hills, which form the most conspicuous part of the mountain Heish. The +ground being here considerably elevated above the plain of Damascus and +the Djolan, these hills, when seen from afar, appear like mountains, +although, when viewed from their foot, they are of very moderate height. +They are insulated, and terminate, as I have already mentioned, at the +hill called Tel Faras, towards the plain of Djolan. The Bedouins who +pasture their cattle in these mountains retire in the hot season towards +the Djebel el Sheikh. The governor of the Heish el Kanneytra, who +receives his charge every year from the Pasha, used formerly to reside +at Kanneytra; but since that place has been deserted, he usually encamps +with the Turkmans of the Heish, and goes from one encampment to another, +to collect the Miri from these Arabs. + +At the end of seven hours and a half we passed Tel Abou Nedy [Arabic], +with the tomb of the Sheikh Abou Nedy. At eight hours is a reservoir of +water, a few hundred paces to the S. of the road, which the Bedouins +call Birket el Ram [Arabic], and the peasants Birket Abou Ermeil +[Arabic]; it lies near the foot of Tel Abou Nedy, is about one hundred +and twenty paces in circumference, and is supplied by two springs which +are never dry; one of them is in the bottom of a deep well in the midst +of the Birket. Just by this reservoir are the ruins of an ancient town, +about a quarter of an hour in circuit, of which nothing remains but +large heaps of stones. Five minutes farther is another Birket, which is +filled by rain water only. The neighbourhood of these reservoirs is +covered with a forest of short oak trees. The rock of the mountain +consists of sand-stone, and the basalt of Haouran. Beyond the Birkets +the road begins to descend gently, and at nine hours and a half, just by +the road, on the left, is a large pond called Birket Nefah or Tefah +[Arabic] (I am uncertain which), about two hundred paces in + +DJISSR BENI YAKOUB + +[p.315] circumference: there are remains of a stone channel +communicating with the Birket. Some of my companions asserted that the +pond contained a spring, while others denied it; from which I inferred +that the water never dries up completely. I take this to be the Lake +Phiala, laid down in the maps of Syria, as there is no other lake or +pond in the neighbourhood. From hence towards Feik, upon the mountains +to the E. of the lake of Tiberias, is an open country intersected by +many Wadys. At ten hours we passed a large hill to the left, called Tel +el Khanzyr [Arabic], the boar’s hill. The ground was here covered with +the finest pasturage; the dry grass was as high as a horse, and so +thick, that we passed through it with difficulty. At ten hours and a +half are several springs by the side of the road, called Ayoun Essemmam +[Arabic]. Eleven hours and a quarter, are the ruins of a city called +Noworan [Arabic], with a copious spring near it. Some walls yet remain, +and large hewn stones are lying about. At thirteen hours is the bridge +over the Jordan, called Djissr Beni Yakoub [Arabic]; the road continues +in an easy slope till a quarter of an hour above the bridge, where it +becomes a steep descent. The river flows in a narrow bed, and with a +rapid stream; for the lake Houle, whose southern extremity is about +three quarters of an hour north of the bridge, is upon a level +considerably higher than that of the lake of Tiberias. The bridge is of +a solid construction, with four arches: on its E. side is a Khan, much +frequented by travellers, in the middle of which are the ruins of an +ancient square building constructed with basalt, and having columns in +its four angles. The Khan contains also a spring. The Pasha of Damascus +here keeps a guard of a few men, principally for the purpose of +collecting the Ghaffer, or tax paid by all Christians who cross the +bridge. The ordinary Ghaffer is about nine-pence a head, but the +pilgrims who pass here about Easter, in their way to Jerusalem, pay +seven + +AIN FERAEIN + +[p.316] shillings. The bridge divides the Pashaliks of Damascus and +Akka. On the west of it is a guard-house belonging to the latter. Banias +(Caesarea Philippi) bears from a point above the bridge N. by E. + +The lake of Houle, or Samachonitis, is inhabited only on the eastern +borders; there we find the villages of Esseira [Arabic] and Eddeir +[Arabic]; and between them a ruined place called Kherbet Eddaherye +[Arabic] complete. The south-west shore bears the name of Melaha, from the +ground being covered with a saline crust. The fisheries of the lake are +rented of the Mutsellim of Szaffad by some fishermen of that town. The +narrow valley of the Jordan continues for about two hours S. of the +bridge, at which distance the river falls into the lake of Tiberias. +About an hour and a quarter from the bridge, on the E. side of the +river, is the village Battykha (Arabic); its inhabitants cultivate large +quantities of cucumbers and gourds, which they carry to the market of +Damascus, three weeks before the same fruits ripen there; the village is +also noted for its excellent honey. June 21st.--We ascended the western +banks of the valley of the Jordan, and then continued upon a plain, +called Ard Aaseifera (Arabic), a small part of which is cultivated by +the inhabitants of Szaffad. There are several springs in the plain. In +an hour and a quarter, we began to ascend the chain of mountains known +by the name of Djebel Szaffad, which begin on the N.W. side of the lake +of Houle, being a southern branch of the Djebel el Sheikh, or rather of +the Anti-Libanus. On the steep acclivity of this mountain we passed to +the left of the village Feraab (Arabic). The road ascends through a +narrow valley, called Akabet Feraein, and passes by the spring of +Feraein (Arabic). In two hours and three quarters from the bridge, we +reached the summit of the mountain, from whence the Djebel el Sheik +bears N.E. The whole is calcareous, + +SZAFFAD + +[p.317] with very little basalt or tufwacke. At the end of three hours +and a half, after a short descent, we reached Szaffad (Arabic), the +ancient Japhet; it is a neatly built town, situated round a hill, on the +top of which is a castle of Saracen structure. The castle appears to +have undergone a thorough repair in the course of the last century, it +has a good wall, and is surrounded by a broad ditch. It commands an +extensive view over the country towards Akka, and in clear weather the +sea is visible from it. There is another but smaller castle, of modern +date, with halfruined walls, at the foot of the hill. The town is built +upon several low hills, which divide it into different quarters; of +these the largest is inhabited exclusively by Jews, who esteem Szaffad +as a sacred place. The whole may contain six hundred houses, of which +one hundred and fifty belong to the Jews, and from eighty to one hundred +to the Christians. In 1799 the Jews quarter was completely sacked by the +Turks, after the retreat of the French from Akka; the French had +occupied Szaffad with a garrison of about four hundred men, whose +outposts were advanced as far as the bridge of Beni Yakoub. The town is +governed by a Mutsellim, whose district comprises about a dozen +villages. The garrison consists of Moggrebyns, the greater part of whom +have married here, and cultivate a part of the neighbouring lands. The +town is surrounded with large olive plantations and vineyards, but the +principal occupations of the inhabitants are indigo dyeing, and the +manufacture of cotton cloth. On every Friday a market is held, to which +all the peasants of the neighbourhood resort. Mount Tabor bears from +Szaffad S.S.W. + +June 22d.--As there is no Khan for travellers at Szaffad, and I had no +letters to any person in the town, I was obliged to lodge at the public +coffee house. We left the town early in the morning, and descended the +side of the mountain towards the lake; here the + +AIN TABEGHA + +[p.318] ground is for the greater part uncultivated and without trees. +At two hours and a quarter is Khan Djob Yousef (Arabic), or the Khan of +Joseph’s Well, situated in a narrow plain. The Khan is falling rapidly +into ruin; near it is a large Birket. Here is shewn the well into which +Joseph was let down by his brothers; it is in a small court-yard by the +side of the Khan, is about three feet in diameter, and at least thirty +feet deep. I was told that the bottom is hewn in the rock: its sides +were well lined with masonry as far as I could see into it, and the +water never dries up, a circumstance which makes it difficult to believe +that this was the well into which Joseph was thrown. The whole of the +mountain in the vicinity is covered with large pieces of black stone; +but the main body of the rock is calcareous. The country people relate +that the tears of Jacob dropping upon the ground while he was in search +of his son turned the white stones black, and they in consequence call +these stones Jacob’s tears (Arabic). Joseph’s well is held in veneration +by Turks as well as Christians; the former have a small chapel just by +it, and caravan travellers seldom pass here without saying a few prayers +in honour of Yousef. The Khan is on the great road from Akka to +Damascus. It is inhabited by a dozen Moggrebyn soldiers, with their +families, who cultivate the fields near it. + +We continued to descend from Djob Yousef; the district is here called +Koua el Kerd (Arabic), and a little lower down Redjel el Kaa (Arabic). +At one hour and a half from the Djob Yousef we came to the borders of +the lake of Tiberias. At a short distance to the E. of the spot where we +reached the plain, is a spring near the border of the lake, called Ain +Tabegha (Arabic), with a few houses and a mill; but the water is so +strongly impregnated with salt as not to be drinkable. The few +inhabitants of this miserable place live by fishing. To the N.E. of +Tabegha, + +HOTTEIN + +[p.319] between it and the Jordan, are the ruins called Tel Houm +(Arabic), which are generally supposed to be those of Capernaum. Here is +a well of salt water, called Tennour Ayoub (Arabic). The rivulet El Eshe +(Arabic) empties itself into the lake just by. Beyond Tabegha we came to +a ruined Khan, near the borders of the lake, called Mennye (Arabic), a +large and well constructed building. Here begins a plain of about twenty +minutes in breadth, to the north of which the mountain stretches down +close to the lake. That plain is covered with the tree called Doum +(Arabic) or Theder (Arabic), which bears a small yellow fruit like the +Zaarour. It was now about mid-day, and the sun intensely hot, we +therefore looked out for a shady spot, and reposed under a very large +fig-tree, at the foot of which a rivulet of sweet water gushes out from +beneath the rocks, and falls into the lake at a few hundred paces +distant. The tree has given its name to the spring, Ain-et-Tin (Arabic); +near it are several other springs, which occasion a very luxuriant +herbage along the borders of the lake. The pastures of Mennye are +proverbial for their richness among the inhabitants of the neighbouring +countries. High reeds grow along the shore, but I found none of the +aromatic reeds and rushes mentioned by Strabo.[Greek. l.16, p.755] The +N.W. and S. shores are generally sandy, without reeds, but large +quantities grow at the mouths of the Wadys on the E. side. + +In thirty-eight minutes from Khan Mennye we passed a small rivulet, +which waters Wady Lymoun. At about one hour’s distance from our road, up +in the mountain, we saw the village Sendjol (Arabic), about half an hour +to the west of which lies the village Hottein (Arabic). In forty-five +minutes we passed the large branch of the Wady Lymoun. The mountains +which border the lake here terminate + +TABARIA + +[p.320] in a perpendicular cliff, which is basaltish with an upper +stratum of calcareous rock; and the shore changes from the direction +S.W. by S. to that of S. by E. In the angle stands the miserable village +El Medjdel (Arabic), one hour distant from Ain-et-Tin, and agreeing both +in name and position with the ancient Magdala. The Wady Hammam, in which +stands the Kalaat ibn-Maan, branches off from Medjdel. Proceeding from +hence the shore of the lake is overgrown with Defle (Solanum furiosum), +and there are several springs close to the water’s side. At the end of +two hours and a quarter from Ain-et-Tin, we reached Tabaria (Arabic). + +June 23d.--There being no Khan for travellers at Tabaria I went to the +Catholic priest, and desired him to let me have the keys of the church, +that I might take up my quarters there; he gave them to me, but finding +the place swarming with vermin, I removed into the open churchyard. + +Tabaria, the ancient Tiberias,[Tel el Faras, the southern extremity of +Djebel Heish, bears from a point above Tabaria N.E. by E.] stands close +to the lake, upon a small plain, surrounded by mountains. Its situation +is extremely hot and unhealthy, as the mountain impedes the free course +of the westerly winds which prevail throughout Syria during the summer. +Hence intermittent fevers, especially those of the quartan form, are +very common in the town in that season. Little rain falls in winter, +snow is almost unknown on the borders of the lake, and the temperature, +on the whole, appears to be very nearly the same as that of the Dead +sea. The town is surrounded towards the land by a thick and well built +wall, about twenty feet in height, with a high parapet and loop-holes. +It surrounds the city on three sides, and touches the water at its two + +[p.321] extremities; but there are some remains on the shore of the +lake, which seem to indicate that the town was once inclosed on this +side also. I observed, likewise, some broken columns of granite in the +water close to the shore. The town wall is flanked by twenty round +towers standing at unequal distances. Both towers and walls are built +with black stones of moderate size, and seem to be the work of not very +remote times; the whole being in a good state of repair, the place may +be considered as almost impregnable to Syrian soldiers. + +[Map not included] a, The town gate; b, the Serai or palace of the +Mutsellim, a spacious building, which has lately been repaired; c, the +mosque, a fine building, but in bad condition; d, the Catholic church; +e, the gate of the Jews quarter; f, a mosque; g, a range of large +vaults; h, a small town-gate now walled up; i, a newly built Bazar. The +mosque (f) is a handsome arched building, and was anciently a church. +The range of vaults at g, which are close to the sea shore, communicate +with each other by cross alleys and have very low roofs, which terminate +at top in a point: they are well built with stones joined with a very +thick cement, and appear to have been destined for warehouses; in summer +they are almost the only cool places in the town. I could not find any +inscriptions, that might assist in determining their date. + +Tabaria, with its district of ten or twelve villages, forms a part of +the Pashalik of Akka. Being considered one of the principal points of +defence of the Pashalik, a garrison of two or three hundred + +[p.322] men is constantly kept here, the greater part of whom are +married, and settled. During the reign of Djezzar a colony of two +hundred Afghan soldiers were persuaded by the Pasha to establish +themselves at Tabaria; many of them were natives of Kashmir: and among +others their Aga, who was sent for expressly by Djezzar. After the +Pasha’s death they dispersed over Syria, but I found two Kashmirines +still remaining, who gave me the history of their colony in broken +Arabic. + +The Christian church is dedicated to St. Peter, and is said to have been +founded on the spot where St. Peter threw his net. It belongs to the +community of Terra Santa and is visited annually on St. Peter’s day by +the Frank missionaries of Nazaret, who celebrate mass in it on this +occasion. In the street, not far from the church, is a large stone, +formerly the architrave of some building; upon which are sculptured in +bas-relief two lions seizing two sheep. + +There are about four thousand inhabitants in Tabaria, one-fourth of whom +are Jews. The Christian community consists only of a few families, but +they enjoy great liberty, and are on a footing of equality with the +Turks. The difference of treatment which the Christians experience from +the Turks in different parts of Syria is very remarkable. In some places +a Christian would be deprived of his last farthing, if not of his life, +were he to curse the Mohammedan religion when quarrelling with a Turk; +while in others but a few hours distant, he retorts with impunity upon +the Mohammedan, every invective which he may utter against the Christian +religion. At Szaffad, where is a small Christian community, the Turks +are extremely intolerant; at Tiberias, on the contrary, I have seen +Christians beating Turks in the public Bazar. This difference seems +chiefly to depend upon the character of the local + +[p.323] government. That of Soleiman Pasha of Akka, the successor of +Djezzar, is distinguished for its religious tolerance; while Damascus +still continues to be the seat of fanatism, and will remain so as long +as there are no Frank establishments or European agents in that city. + +A Bazar has lately been built at Tabaria, in which I counted about a +dozen retail shops. The traffic of the inhabitants is principally with +the Bedouins of the Ghor, and of the district of Szaffad. The +shopkeepers repair every Monday to the Khan at the foot of Mount Tabor, +where a market, called Souk el Khan (Arabic) is held, and where the +merchandize of the town is bartered chiefly for cattle. The far greater +part of the inhabitants of Tabaria cultivate the soil; they sow the +narrow plain to the west of the town, and the declivity of the western +mountain, which they irrigate artificially by means of several springs. +The heat of the climate would enable them to grow almost any tropical +plant, but the only produce of their fields are wheat, barley, Dhourra, +tobacco, melons, grapes, and a few vegetables. The melons are of the +finest quality, and are in great demand at Akka and Damascus, where that +fruit is nearly a month later in ripening. Knowing how fond the Syrians +in general are of the early fruits, I sent to my friends at Damascus a +mule load of these melons, which, according to eastern fashion, is a +very acceptable and polite present. About three hundred and fifty pounds +weight English of melons sell at Tabaria for about eight shillings. I +was informed that the shrub which produces the balm of Mecca succeeds +very well here, and that several people have it in their gardens.[Strabo +mentions the [Greek], as growing on the lake, p. 755. Ed.] It was +described to me as a low shrub, with leaves resembling those of the +vine, the fruit about three inches long and in the form of a cucumber, +changing from green to a yellow colour when ripe; it is gathered in +June, oil is then poured over + +[p.324] it, and in this state it is exposed to the sun, after which the +juic[e] forming the balm is expressed from it. + +The Jews of Tiberias occupy a quarter on the shore of the lake in the +middle of the town, which has lately been considerably enlarged by the +purchase of several streets: it is separated from the rest of the town +by a high wall, and has only one gate of entrance, which is regularly +shut at sunset, after which no person is allowed to pass. There are one +hundred and sixty, or two hundred families, of which forty or fifty are +of Polish origin, the rest are Jews from Spain, Barbary, and different +parts of Syria. Tiberias is one of the four holy cities of the Talmud; +the other three being Szaffad, Jerusalem, and Hebron. It is esteemed +holy ground, because Jacob is supposed to have resided here, and because +it is situated on the lake Genasereth, from which, according to the most +generally received opinion of the Talmud, the Messiah is to rise. The +greater part of the Jews who reside in these holy places do not engage +in mercantile pursuits; but are a society of religious persons occupied +solely with their sacred duties. There are among them only two who are +merchants, and men of property, and these are styled Kafers or +unbelievers by the others, who do nothing but read and pray. Jewish +devotees from all parts of the globe flock to the four holy cities, in +order to pass their days in praying for their own salvation, and that of +their brethren, who remain occupied in worldly pursuits. But the +offering up of prayers by these devotees is rendered still more +indispensible by a dogma contained in the Talmud, that the world will +return to its primitive chaos, if prayers are not addressed to the God +of Israel at least twice a week in these four cities; this belief +produces considerable pecuniary advantage to the supplicants, as the +missionaries sent abroad to collect alms for the support of these +religious fraternities plead the danger of the threatened chaos, to +induce the rich Jews to send supplies of money, in + +[p.325] order that the prayers may be constantly offered up. Three or +four missionaries are sent out every year; one to the coasts of Africa +from Damietta to Mogadore, another to the coasts of Europe from Venice +to Gibraltar, a third to the Archipelago, Constantinople, and Anatolia; +and a fourth through Syria. The charity of the Jews of London is +appealed to from time to time; but the Jews of Gibraltar have the +reputation of being more liberal than any others, and, from four to five +thousand Spanish dollars are received annually from them. The Polish +Jews settled at Tabaria send several collectors regularly into Bohemia +and Poland, and the rich Jewish merchants in those countries have their +pensioners in the Holy Land, to whom they regularly transmit sums of +money. Great jealousy seems to prevail between the Syrian and Polish +Jews. The former being in possession of the place, oblige the foreighers +to pay excessively high for their lodgings; and compel them also to +contribute considerable sums towards the relief of the indigent Syrians, +while they themselves never give the smallest trifle to the poor from +Poland. + +The pilgrim Jews, who repair to Tiberias, are of all ages from twelve to +sixty. If they bring a little money with them the cunning of their +brethren here soon deprives them of it; for as they arrive with the most +extravagant ideas, of the holy cities, they are easily imposed upon +before their enthusiasm begins to cool. To rent a house in which some +learned Rabbin or saint died, to visit the tombs of the most renowned +devotees, to have the sacred books opened in their presence, and public +prayers read for the salvation of the new-comers, all these inestimable +advantages, together with various other minor religious tricks, soon +strip the stranger of his last farthing; he then becomes dependent upon +the charity of his nation, upon foreign subsidies, or upon the fervour +of some inexperienced pilgrim. Those who go abroad as + +[p.326] missionaries generally realise some property, as they are +allowed ten per cent. upon all alms collected, besides their travelling +expenses. The Jewish devotees pass the whole day in the schools or the +synagogue, reciting the Old Testament and the Talmud, both of which many +of them know entirely by heart. They all write Hebrew; but I did not see +any fine hand-writing amongst them; their learning, seems to be on the +same level as that of the Turks, among whom an Olema thinks he has +attained the pinnacle of knowledge if he can recite all the Koran +together with some thousand of Hadeath, or sentences of the Prophet, and +traditions concerning him; but neither Jews, nor Turks, nor Christians, +in these countries, have the slightest idea of that criticism, which +might guide them to a rational explanation or emendation of their sacred +books. It was in vain that I put questions to several of the first +Rabbins, concerning the desert in which the children of Israel sojourned +for forty years; I found that my own scanty knowledge of the geography +of Palestine, and of its partition amongst the twelve tribes, was +superior to theirs. + +There are some beautiful copies of the books of Moses in the Syrian +synagogue, written upon a long roll of leather, not parchment, but no +one could tell me when or where they were made; I suspect, however, that +they came from Bagdad, where the best Hebrew scribes live, and of whose +writings I had seen many fine specimens at Aleppo and Damascus. The +libraries of the two schools at Tiberias are moderately stocked with +Hebrew books, most of which have been printed at Vienna and Venice. +Except some copies of the Old Testament and the Talmud, they have no +manuscripts. + +They observe a singular custom here in praying; while the Rabbin recites +the Psalms of David, or the prayers extracted from them, the +congregation frequently imitate by their voice or gestures, + +[p.327] the meaning of some remarkable passages; for example, when the +Rabbin pronounces the words, “Praise the Lord with the sound of the +trumpet,” they imitate the sound of the trumpet through their closed +fists. When “a horrible tempest” occurs, they puff and blow to represent +a storm; or should he mention “the cries of the righteous in distress,” +they all set up a loud screaming; and it not unfrequently happens that +while some are still blowing the storm, others have already begun the +cries of the righteous, thus forming a concert which it is difficult for +any but a zealous Hebrew to hear with gravity. + +The Jews enjoy here perfect religious freedom, more particularly since +Soleiman, whose principal minister, Haym Farkhy, is a Jew, has succeeded +to the Pashalik of Akka. During the life of Djezzar Pasha they were +often obliged to pay heavy fines; at present they merely pay the +Kharadj. Their conduct, however, is not so prudent as it ought to be, in +a country where the Turks are always watching for a pretext to extort +money; they sell wine and brandy to the soldiers of the town, almost +publicly, and at their weddings they make a very dangerous display of +their wealth. On these occasions they traverse the city in pompous +procession, carrying before the bride the plate of almost the whole +community, consisting of large dishes, coffee pots, coffee cups, &c., +and they feast in the house of the bridegroom for seven successive days +and nights. The wedding feast of a man who has about fifty pounds a +year, and no Jew can live with his family on less, will often cost more +than sixty pounds. They marry at a very early age, it being not uncommon +to see mothers of eleven and fathers of thirteen years. The Rabbin of +Tiberias is under the great Rabbin of Szaffad, who pronounces final +judgment on all contested points of law and religion. + +I found amongst the Polish Jews, one from Bohemia, an honest + +[p.328] German, who was overjoyed on hearing me speak his own language, +and who carried me through the quarter, introducing me to all his +acquaintance. In every house I was offered brandy, and the women +appeared to be much less shy than they are in other parts of Syria. It +may easily be supposed that many of these Jews are discontented with +their lot. Led by the stories of the missionaries to conceive the most +exalted ideas of the land of promise, as they still call it, several of +them have absconded from their parents, to beg their way to Palestine, +but no sooner do they arrive in one or other of the four holy cities, +than they find by the aspect of all around them, that they have been +deceived. A few find their way back to their native country, but the +greater number remain, and look forward to the inestimable advantage of +having their bones laid in the holy land. The cemetery of the Jews of +Tiberias is on the declivity of the mountain, about half an hour from +the town; where the tombs of their most renowed persons are visited much +in the same manner as are the sepulchres of Mussulman saints. I was +informed that a great Rabbin lay buried there, with fourteen thousand of +his scholars around him. + +The ancient town of Tiberias does not seem to have occupied any part of +the present limits of Tabaria, but was probably situated at a short +distance farther to the south, near the borders of the lake. Its ruins +begin at about five minutes walk from the wall of the present town, on +the road to the hot-wells. The only remains of antiquity are a few +columns, heaps of stones, and some half ruined walls and foundations of +houses. On the sea-side, close to the water, are the ruins of a long +thick wall or mole, with a few columns of gray granite, lying in the +sea. About mid-way between the town and the hot-wells, in the midst of +the plain, I saw seven columns, of which two only are standing upright; +and there may probably be more lying on the ground, hid among the high + +[p.329] grass with which the plain is covered; they are of gray granite, +about twelve or fourteen feet long, and fifteen inches in diameter; at a +short distance from them is the fragment of a beautiful column of red +Egyptian granite, of more than two feet in diameter. These ruins stretch +along the sea-shore, as far as the hot springs, and extend to about +three hundred yards inland. The springs are at thirty-five minutes from +the modern town, and twenty paces from the water’s edge; they were +probably very near the gate of the ancient town. No vestiges of +buildings of any size are visible here; nothing being seen but the ruins +of small arched buildings, and heaps of stone. + +There are some other remains of ancient habitations on the north side of +the town, upon a hill close to the sea, which is connected with the +mountain; here are also some thick walls which indicate that this point, +which commands the town, was anciently fortified. None of the ruined +buildings in Tiberias or the neighbourhood are constructed with large +stones, denoting a remote age; all the walls, of which any fragments yet +remain, being of small black stones cemented together by a very thick +cement. Upon a low hill on the S.W. side of the town stands a well built +mosque, and the chapel of a female saint. + +The present hot-bath is built over the spring nearest the town, and +consists of two double rooms, the men’s apartment being separated from +that of the women. The former is a square vaulted chamber, with a large +stone basin in the centre, surrounded by broad stone benches; the spring +issues from the wall, and flows into the basin or bath. After remaining +in the water for about ten minutes, the bathers seat themselves naked +upon the stone benches, where they remain for an hour. With this chamber +a coffee room cummunicates, in which a waiter lives during the bathing +season, and where visitors from a distance may lodge. The spring + +[p.330] which has thus been appropriated to bathing, is the largest of +four hot sources; the volume of its water is very considerable, and +would be sufficient to turn a mill. Continuing along the shore for about +two hundred paces, the three other hot-springs are met with, or four, if +we count separately two small ones close together. The most southern +spring seems to be the hottest of all; the hand cannot be held in it. +The water deposits upon the stones over which it flows in its way +towards the sea, a thick crust, but the colour of the deposit is not the +same from all the springs; in some it is white, in the others it is of a +red yellowish hue, a circumstance which seems to indicate that the +nature of the water is not the same in all the sources. There are no +remains whatever of ancient buildings near the hottest spring. + +People from all parts of Syria resort to these baths, which are reckoned +most efficacious in July; they are recommended principally for rheumatic +complaints, and cases of premature debility. Two patients only were +present when I visited them. Some public women of Damascus, who were +kept by the garrison of Tabaria, had established themselves in the +ruined vaults and caverns near the baths. + +In the fourteenth century, according to the testimony of the Arabian +geographers, the tomb of Lokman the philosopher was shewn at Tiberias. +Not having been immediately able to find a guide to accompany me along +the valley of the Jordan, I visited a fortress in the mountain near +Medjdel,[See page 320.] of which I had heard much at Tabaria. It is +called Kalaat Ibn Maan (Arabic), the castle of the son of Maan, or +Kalaat Hamam (Arabic), the Pigeon’s castle, on account of the vast +quantity of wild pigeons that breed there. It is situated half + +KALAAT HAMAM + +[p.331] An hour to the west of Medjdel, on the cliff which borders the +Wady Hamam. In the calcareous mountain are many natural caverns, which +have been united together by passages cut in the rock, and enlarged, in +order to render them more commodious for habitation; walls have also +been built across the natural openings, so that no person could enter +them except through the narrow communicating passages; and wherever the +nature of the almost perpendicular cliff permitted it, small bastions +were built, to defend the entrance of the castle, which has been thus +rendered almost impregnable. The perpendicular cliff forms its +protection above, and the access from below is by a narrow path, so +steep as not to allow of a horse mounting it. In the midst of the +caverns several deep cisterns have been hewn. The whole might afford +refuge to about six hundred men; but the walls are now much damaged. The +place was probably the work of some powerful robber, about the time of +the Crusades; a few vaults of communication, with pointed arches, denote +Gothic architecture. Below in the valley runs a small rivulet, which +empties itself into the Wady Lymoun. Here the peasants of Medjdel +cultivate some gardens. + +In returning from the Kalaat Hamam I was several times reprimanded by my +guide, for not taking proper care of the lighted tobacco that fell from +my pipe. The whole of the mountain is thickly covered with dry grass, +which readily takes fire, and the slightest breath of air instantly +spreads the conflagration far over the country, to the great risk of the +peasant’s harvest. The Arabs who inhabit the valley of the Jordan +invariably put to death any person who is known to have been even the +innocent cause of firing the grass, and they have made it a public law +among themselves, that even in the height of intestine warfare, no one +shall attempt to set his enemy’s harvest on fire. One evening, while at +Tabaria, I saw a large fire on the opposite side of the lake, which + +LAKE OF TIBERIAS + +[p.332] spread with great velocity for two days, till its progress was +checked by the Wady Feik. + +The water of the lake of Tiberias along its shores from Medjdel to the +hot-wells, is of considerable depth, with no shallows. I was told that +the water rises during the rainy season, three or four feet above its +ordinary level, which seems not at all improbable, considering the great +number of winter torrents which empty themselves into the lake. The +northern part is full of fish, but I did not see a single one at +Szammagh at the southern extremity.[See p. 276] The most common species +are the Binni, or carp, and the Mesht (Arabic), which is about a foot +long, and five inches broad, with a flat body, like the sole. The +fishery of the lake is rented at seven hundred piastres per annum: but +the only boat that was employed on it by the fishermen fell to pieces +last year, and such is the indolence of these people, that they have not +yet supplied its loss. The lake furnishes the inhabitants of Tiberias +with water, there being no spring of sweet water near the town. Several +houses have salt wells. + +June 26th.—I took a guide to Mount Tabor. The whole of this country, +even to the gates of Damascus, is in a state of insecurity, which +renders it very imprudent to travel alone. Merchants go only in large +caravans. We ascended the mountain to the west of the town, and in +thirty-five minutes passed the ruined vil[lage] of Szermedein (Arabic), +on the declivity of the mountain, where is a fine spring, and the tomb +of a celebrated saint. The people of Tabaria here cultivate Dhourra, +melons, and tobacco. At the end of one hour we reached the top of the +steep mountain, from whence Mount Tabor, or Djebel Tor (Arabic), as the +natives call it, bears S.W. by S. From hence the road continues on a +gentle + +MOUNT TABOR + +[p.333] declivity, in the midst of well cultivated Dhourra fields, as +far as a low tract called Ardh el Hamma (Arabic). The whole district is +covered with the thorny shrub Merar (Arabic). On the west side of Ardh +el Hamma we again ascended, and reached the village of Kefer Sebt +(Arabic), distant two hours and a half from Tabaria, and situated on the +top of a range of hills which run parallel to those of Tabaria. About +half an hour to the N.E. is the spring Ain Dhamy (Arabic), in a deep +valley. From hence a wide plain extends to the foot of Djebel Tor; in +crossing it, we saw on our right, about three quarters of an hour from +the road, the village Louby (Arabic), and a little farther on, the +village Shedjare (Arabic). The plain was covered with the wild +artichoke, called Khob (Arabic); it bears a thorny violet coloured +flower, in the shape of an artichoke, upon a stem five feet in height. +In three hours and a quarter, we arrived at the Khan of Djebel Tor +(Arabic), a large ruinous building, inhabited by a few families. On the +opposite side of the road is a half ruined fort. A large fair is held +here every Monday. Though the Khan is at no great distance from the foot +of Mount Tabor, the people could not inform us whether or not the Mount +was inhabited at present; nor were they hospitable enough either to lend +or sell us the little provision we might want, should there be no +inhabitants. At a quarter of an hour from the Khan is a fine spring, +where we found an encampment of Bedouins of the tribe of Szefeyh +(Arabic), whose principal riches consist in cows. My guide went astray +in the valleys which surround the lower parts of Djebel Tor, and we were +nearly three hours, from our departure from the Khan, in reaching the +top of the Mount. + +Mount Tabor is almost insulated, and overtops all the neighbouring +summits. On its south and west sides extends a large + +[p.334] plain, known by the name of Merdj Ibn Aamer (Arabic), the Plain +of Esdrelon of the Scriptures. To the S. of the plain are the mountains +of Nablous, and to the N. of it, those of Nazareth, which reach to the +foot of Mount Tabor, terminating at the village of Daboury. The plain of +Esdrelon is about eight hours in length and four in breadth, it is very +fertile, but at present almost entirely deserted. The shape of Mount +Tabor is that of a truncated cone; its sides are covered to the top with +a forest of oak and wild pistachio trees; its top is about half an hour +in circuit. The mountain is entirely calcareous. We found on the top a +single family of Greek Christians, refugees from Ezra, a village in the +Haouran, where I had known them during my stay there in November, 1810. +They had retired to this remote spot, to avoid paying taxes to the +government, and expected to remain unnoticed; they rented the upper +plain at the rate of fifty piastres per annum from the Sheikh of +Daboury, to which village the mountain belongs; the harvest, which they +were now gathering in, was worth about twelve hundred piastres, and they +had had the good fortune not to be disturbed by any tax-gatherers, which +will certainly not be the case next year, should they remain here. + +On the top of Mount Tabor are found the remains of a large fortress. A +thick wall, constructed with large stones, may be traced quite round the +summit, close to the edge of the precipice; on several parts of it are +the remains of bastions. On the west side a high arched gate, called Bab +el Haoua (Arabic), or the gate of the winds, is shewn, which appears to +have been the principal entrance. The area is overspread with the ruins +of private dwellings, built of stone with great solidity. There are no +springs, but a great number of reservoirs have been cut in the rock, two +of which are still of service in supplying water. The Christians +consider + +[p.335] Mount Tabor a holy place, in honour of the Transfiguration, but +the exact spot at which it took place is not known; and the Latins and +Greeks are at variance upon the subject. The Latins celebrate the sacred +event in a small cavern, where they have formed a chapel; at about five +minutes walk from which, the Greeks have built a low circular wall, with +an altar before it, for the same purpose. The Latin missionaries of the +Frank convent of Nazareth send annually two fathers to celebrate a mass +in their chapel; they generally choose St. Peter’s day for making this +visit, and arrive here in the morning, in order that they may read the +evening mass in the church of St. Peter at Tabaria. The Greek priests of +Nazareth visit their chapel of Mount Tabor on the festival of the +Virgin, on which occasion several thousand pilgrims repair to the +mountain, where they pass the night under tents with their families, in +mirth and feasting. + +During the greater part of the summer Mount Tabor is covered in the +morning with thick clouds, which disperse towards mid-day. A strong wind +blows the whole of the day, and in the night dews fall, more copious +than any I had seen in Syria. In the wooded parts of the mountain are +wild boars and ounces. I lodged with my old acquaintance the Arab of +Ezra, who had taken up his quarters in one of the ruined habitations. + +June 27th.—After mid-day we returned to Tabaria by the same road. On +entering the church-yard of St. Peter’s, my old lodgings, I was not a +little surprised to find it full of strangers. Mr. Bruce, an English +traveller, had arrived from Nazareth, in company with several priests of +the Frank convent, who intended to celebrate mass at night, this being +St. Peter’s day. I was easily prevailed on by Mr. Bruce to accompany him +on his return to Nazareth the following morning, the more so, as I there +hoped to find a guide for the valley of the Jordan; for no person at +Tabaria + +NAZARETH + +[p.336] seemed to be inclined to undertake the journey, except in the +company of an armed caravan. + +June 28th.—We left Tabaria two hours before sun-rise. There are two +direct roads to Nazareth; one by Kefer Sebt and El Khan, the other by +Louby. We took a third, that we might visit some spots recorded in the +New Testament. In one hour from Tabaria we passed a spring called Ain el +Rahham (Arabic). At two hours and a half, the road leads over a high +uncultivated plain, to Hedjar el Noszara (Arabic), the Stones of the +Christians, four or five blocks of black stone, upon which Christ is +said to have reclined while addressing the people who flocked around +him. The priests of Nazareth stopped to read some prayers over the +stones. Below this place, towards the N.E. extends a small plain, called +Sahel Hottein (Arabic). The country is intersected by Wadys. About one +hour distant from the stones, upon the same level, stands a hill of an +oblong shape, with two projecting summits on one of its extremities; the +natives call it Keroun Hottein (Arabic), the Horns of Hottein. The +Christians have given it the appellation of Mons Beatitudinis, and +pretend that the five thousand were there fed. We travelled over an +uneven, uncultivated ground, until we arrived at Kefer Kenna (Arabic), +four hours and a quarter from Tabaria, a neat village with a copious +spring surrounded by plantations of olive and other fruit trees, and +chiefly inhabited by Catholic Christians. This is the Cana celebrated in +the New Testament for the miracle at the marriage feast; and the house +is shewn in which Our Saviour performed it. We rested under an immense +fig-tree, which afforded shelter from the sun to a dozen men and as many +horses and mules. From hence the road ascends, and continues across +chalky hills, overgrown with low shrubs, as far as Naszera (Arabic) or +Nazareth, eight hours from Tabaria, by the road we travelled. I alighted +at the convent + +[p.337] belonging to the missionaries of Terra Santa. Here Mr. Bruce +introduced me to Lady Hester Stanhope, who had arrived a few days before +from Jerusalem and Akka, and was preparing to visit the northern parts +of Syria, and among other places Palmyra. The manly spirit and +enlightened curiosity of this lady ought to make many modern travellers +ashamed of the indolent indifference with which they hurry over foreign +countries. She sees a great deal, and carefully examines what she sees; +but it is to be hoped that the polite and distinguished manner in which +she is every where received by the governors of the country, will not +impress her with too favourable an opinion of the Turks in general, and +of their disposition towards the nations of Europe. + +Naszera is one of the principal towns of the Pashalik of Akka; its +inhabitants are industrious, because they are treated with less severity +than those of the country towns in general; two-thirds of them are +Turks, and one-third Christians; there are about ninety Latin families; +together with a congregation of Greek Catholics and another of +Maronites. The house of Joseph is shewn to pilgrims and travellers; but +the principal curiosity of Nazareth is the convent of the Latin friars, +a very spacious and commodious building, which was thoroughly repaired, +and considerably enlarged in 1730. Within it is the church of the +Annunciation, in which the spot is shewn where the angel stood, when he +announced to the Virgin Mary the tidings of the Messiah; behind the +altar is a subterraneous cavern divided into small grottos, where the +Virgin is said to have lived: her kitchen, parlour, and bedroom, are +shewn, and a narrow hole in the rock, in which the child Jesus once hid +himself from his persecutors; for the Syrian Christians have a plentiful +stock of such traditions, unfounded upon any authority of Scripture. The +pilgrims who visit these holy spots are in the habit of knocking off +small pieces of stone from the + +[p.338] walls of the grottos, which are thus continually enlarging. In +the church a miracle is still exhibited to the faithful; a fine granite +column, the base and upper part of which remain, has lost the middle +part of its shaft. According to the tradition, it was destroyed by the +Saracens, ever since which time, the upper part has been miraculously +suspended from the roof, as if attracted by a load-stone. All the +Christians of Nazareth, with the friars of course at their head, affect +to believe in this miracle, although it is perfectly evident that the +upper part of the column is connected with the roof. The church is the +finest in Syria, next to that of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and +contains two tolerably good organs. Within the walls of the convent are +two gardens, and a small burying ground; the walls are very thick, and +serve occasionally as a fortress to all the Christians of the town. +There are at present eleven friars in the convent. + +The yearly expenses of the establishment amount to upwards of £900. +sterling, a small part of which is defrayed by the rent of a few houses +in the town, and by the produce of some acres of corn land; the rest is +remitted from Jerusalem. The whole annual expenses of the Terra Santa +convents are about £15,000. They have felt very sensibly the occupation +of Spain by the French, and little has been received from Europe for the +last four years; while the Turkish authorities exact the same yearly +tribute and extraordinary contributions, as formerly;[The Terra Santa +pays to the Pasha of Damascus about £12000. a year; the Greek convent of +Jerusalem pays much more, as well to maintain its own privileges, as +with a view to encroach upon those of the Latins.] so that if Spain be +not speedily liberated, it is to be feared that the whole establishment +of the Terra Santa must be abandoned. This would be a great calamity, +for it cannot be doubted that they have done honour to the European + +[p.339] name in the Levant, and have been very beneficial to the cause +of Christianity under the actual circumstances of the East. + +The friars are chiefly Spanjards; they are exasperated against France, +for pretending to protect them, without affording them the smallest +relief from the Pasha’s oppressions:[I understood from the Spanish +consul at Cairo, that when the news of the capture of Madrid, in August, +1812, reached Jerusalem, the Spanish priests celebrated a public +Te Deum, and took the oaths prescribed by the new constitution of the +Cortes.] but they are obliged to accept this protection, as the Spanish +ambassador at Constantinople is not yet acknowledged by the Porte. They +are well worth the attention of any ambassador at the Porte, whose +government is desirous of maintaining an influence in Syria, for they +command the consciences of upwards of eighty thousand souls. + +When the French invaded Syria, Nazareth was occupied by six or eight +hundred men, whose advanced posts were at Tabaria and Szaffad. Two hours +from hence, General Kleber sustained with a corps not exceeding fifteen +hundred men, the attack of the whole Syrian army, amounting to at least +twenty-five thousand. He was posted in the plain of Esdrelon, near the +village of Foule, where he formed his battalion into a square, which +continued fighting from sun-rise to mid-day, until they had expended +almost all their ammunition. Bonaparte, informed of Kleber’s perilous +situation, advanced to his support with six hundred men. No sooner had +he come in sight of the enemy and fired a shot over the plain, than the +Turks, supposing that a large force was advancing, took precipitately to +flight, during which several thousands were killed, and many drowned in +the river Daboury, which then inundated a part of the plain. Bonaparte +dined at Nazareth, the most northern point that he reached in Syria, and +returned the same day to Akka. + +[p.340] After the retreat of the French from Akka, Djezzar Pasha +resolved on causing all the Christians in his Pashalik to be massacred, +and had already sent orders to that effect to Jerusalem and Nazareth; +but Sir Sidney Smith being apprized of his intentions reproached him for +his cruelty in the severest terms, and threatened that if a single +Christian head should fall, he would bombard Akka and set it on fire. +Djezzar was thus obliged to send counter orders, but Sir Sidney’s +interference is still remembered with heartfelt gratitude by all the +Christians, who look upon him as their deliverer. “His word,” I have +often heard both Turks and Christians exclaim, “was like God’s word, it +never failed.” The same cannot be said of his antagonist at Akka, who +maliciously impressed the Christians, certainly much inclined in his +favour, with the idea of his speedy return from Egypt. On retreating +from Akka he sent word to his partizans at Szaffad and Nazareth, +exhorting them to bear up resolutely against the Turks but for three +months, when, he assured them upon his honour, and with many oaths, that +he would return with a much stronger force, and deliver them from their +oppressors. + +The inhabitants of Nazareth differ somewhat in features and colour from +the northern Syrians; their physiognomy approaches that of the +Egyptians, while their dialect and pronunciation differ widely from +those of Damascus. In western Palestine, especially on the coast, the +inhabitants, seem in general, to bear more resemblance to the natives of +Egypt, than to those of northern Syria. Towards the east of Palestine, +on the contrary, especially in the villages about Nablous, Jerusalem, +and Hebron, they are evidently of the true Syrian stock, in features, +though not in language. It would be an interesting subject for an artist +to pourtray accurately the different character of features of the Syrian +nations; the Aleppine, the Turkman, the native of Mount + +[p.341] Libanus, the Damascene, the inhabitant of the sea-coast from +Beirout to Akka, and the Bedouin, although all inhabiting the same +country, have distict national physiognomies, and a slight acquaintance +with them enables one to determine the native district of a Syrian, with +almost as much certainty as an Englishman may be distinguished at first +sight from an Italian or an inhabitant of the south of France. + +The Christians of Nazareth enjoy great liberty. The fathers go a +shooting alone in their monastic habits to several hours distance from +the convent, without ever being insulted by the Turks. I was told that +about thirty years ago the padre guardiano of the convent was also +Sheikh or chief justice of the town, an office for which he paid a +certain yearly sum to the Pasha of Akka; the police of the place was +consequently in his hands, and when any disturbance happened, the +reverend father used to take his stick, repair to the spot, and lay +about him freely, no matter whether upon Turks or Christians. The +guardian has still much influence in the town, because he is supposed, +as usual, to be on good terms with the Pasha, but at present the chief +man at Nazareth is M. Catafago, a merchant of Frank origin, born at +Aleppo. He has rented from the Pasha about twelve villages situated in +the neighbourhood of Nazareth and the plain of Esdrelon, for which he +pays yearly upwards of £3000.[The villages in the Pashalik of Akka are +all of the description which the Turkish law calls Melk. They are all +assessed at certain yearly sums, which each is obliged to pay, whatever +may be the number of its inhabitants. This is one of the chief causes of +the depopulation of many parts of Syria.] His profits are very +considerable, and as he meddles much in the politics and intrigues of +the country, he has become a person of great consequence. His influence +and recommendations may prove very useful to travellers in Palestine, +especially to those who visit the dangerous districts of Nablous. + +NABLOUS + +[p.342] It happened luckily during my stay at Nazareth, that two petty +merchants arrived there from Szalt, to take up some merchandize which +they sell at Szalt on account of their principals at this place. Szalt +was precisely the point I wished to reach, not having been able to visit +it during my late tour in the mountains of Moerad; on their return +therefore I gladly joined their little carayan, and we left Nazareth at +midnight, on the 1st of July. + +July 2d.—Our road lay over a mountainous country. In two hours from +Nazareth we passed a small rivulet. Two hours and a half, the village +Denouny (Arabic), and near it the ruins of Endor, where the witch’s +grotto is shewn. From hence the direction of our route was S.S.E. +Leaving Mount Tabor to the left we passed along the plain of Esdrelon: +meeting with several springs in our road; but the country is a complete +desert, although the soil is fertile. At five hours and a half is the +village of Om el Taybe (Arabic), belonging to the district of Djebel +Nablous, or as it is also called Belad Harthe (Arabic). The inhabitants +of Nablous are governed by their own chiefs, who are invested by the +Pasha. It is said that the villages belonging to the district can raise +an army of five thousand men. They are a restless people, continually in +dispute with each other, and frequently in insurrection against the +Pasha. Djezzar never succeeded in completely subduing them, and Junot, +with a corps of fifteen hundred French soldiers, was defeated by them. +The principal chief of Nablous at present is of the family of Shadely +(Arabic). In six hours and three quarters we passed the village of +Meraszrasz (Arabic), upon the summit of a chain of hills on the side of +Wady Oeshe (Arabic), which falls into the Jordan. At about half an hour +to the north of this Wady runs another, called Wady Byre (Arabic), +likewise falling into that river. Between these two valleys are situated +the villages of Denna (Arabic) and Kokab (Arabic). Beyond Meraszrasz + +BYSAN + +[p.343] we began to descend, and reached the bottom of the valley El +Ghor in seven hours and three quarters from our departure from Nazareth. +We now turned more southward, and followed the valley as far as Bysan, +distant eight hours and a quarter from Nazareth. + +The two merchants and myself had left the caravan at Meraszrasz, and +proceeded to Bysan, there to repose till the camels came up: but the +drivers missed the road, and we continued almost the whole day in search +of them. Bysan (Bethsan, Scythopolis) is situated upon rising ground, on +the west side of the Ghor, where the chain of mountains bordering the +valley declins considerably in height, and presents merely elevated +ground, quite open towards the west. At one hour distant, to the south, +the mountains begin again. The ancient town was watered by a river, now +called Moiet Bysan (Arabic), or the water of Bysan, which flows in +different branches towards the plain. The ruins of Scythopolis are of +considerable extent, and the town, built along the banks of the rivulet +and in the valleys formed by its several branches, must have been nearly +three miles in circuit. The only remains are large heaps of black hewn +stones, many foundations of houses, and the fragments of a few columns. +I saw only a single shaft of a column standing. In one of the valleys is +a large mound of earth, which appeared to me to be artificial; it was +the site perhaps of a castle for the defence of the town. On the left +bank of the stream is a large Khan, where the caravans repose which take +the shortest road from Jerusalem to Damascus. + +The present village of Bysan contains seventy or eighty houses; its +inhabitants are in a miserable condition, from being exposed to the +depredations of the Bedouins of the Ghor, to whom they also pay a heavy +tribute. After waiting here some time for the arrival of the caravan, we +rode across the valley, till we reached the + +VALLEY OF THE JORDAN + +[p.344] banks of the Jordan, about two hours distant from Bysan, which +bore N.N.W. from us. We here crossed the river at a ford, where our +companions arrived soon afterwards. + +The valley of the Jordan, or El Ghor (Arabic), which may be said to +begin at the northern extremity of the lake of Tiberias, has near Bysan +a direction of N. by E. and S. by W. Its breadth is about two hours. The +great number of rivulets which descend from the mountains on both sides, +and form numerous pools of stagnant water, produce in many places a +pleasing verdure, and a luxuriant growth of wild herbage and grass; but +the greater part of the ground is a parched desert, of which a few spots +only are cultivated by the Bedouins. In the neighbourhood of Bysan the +soil is entirely of marle; there are very few trees; but wherever there +is water high reeds are found. The river Jordan, on issuing from the +lake of Tiberias, flows for about three hours near the western hills, +and then turns towards the eastern, on which side it continues its +course for several hours. The river flows in a valley of about a quarter +of an hour in breadth, which is considerably lower than the rest of the +plain of Ghor; this lower valley is covered with high trees and a +luxuriant verdure, which affords a striking contrast with the sandy +slopes that border it on both sides. The trees most frequently met with +on the banks of the Jordan are of the species called by the Arabs Gharab +(Arabic) and Kottab (Arabic) [The following are the names or the rivulets +which descend from the western mountains into the Ghor, to the north or +Bysan. Beginning at the southern extremity of the lake of Tiberias are +Wady Fedjaz (Arabic), Ain el Szammera (Arabic), Wady Djaloud (Arabic), +Wady el Byre (Arabic), and Wady el Oeshe (Arabic). To the south of Bysan +are Wady el Maleh (Arabic), Wady Medjedda (Arabic), with a ruined town +so called, Wady el Beydhan (Arabic), coming from the neighbourhood of +Nablous, and Wady el Farah (Arabic). On the east side of the Jordan, +beginning at the Sheriat el Mandhour, and continuing to the place where +we crossed the river, the following Wadys empty themselves into it: Wady +el Arab (Arabic), Wady el Koszeir (Arabic), Wady el Taybe (Arabic), Wady +el Seklab (Arabic), which last falls into the Jordan near the village +Erbayn, about one hour’s distance north of the place where we crossed. +This Wady forms the boundary between the districts; called El Koura and +El Wostye. + +On the west side of the river, to the north of Bysan, are the following +ruined places in the Ghor: beginning at the lake, Faszayl (Arabic), El +Odja (Arabic), Ayn Sultan (Arabic). Near where we crossed, to the south, +are the ruins of Sukkot (Arabic). On the western banks of the river, +farther south than Ayn Sultan, which is about one hour distant from +Bysan, there are no ruins, as far as Rieha, or Jericho, the yalley in +that direction being full of rocks, and little susceptible of +cultivation.]. + +[p.345] The river, where we passed it, was about eighty paces broad, and +about three feet deep; this, it must be recollected, was in the midst of +summer. In the winter it inundates the plain in the bottom of the narrow +valley, but never rises to the level of the upper plain of the Ghor, +which is at least forty feet above the level of the river. The river is +fordable in many places during summer, but the few spots where it may be +crossed in the rainy season are known only to the Arabs. + +After passing the river we continued our route close to the foot of the +eastern mountain. In half an hour from the ford we crossed Wady Mous +(Arabic), coming from the mountains of Adjeloun. In one hour and a +quarter we passed Wady Yabes, and near it, the Mezar, or saint’s tomb +called Sherhabeib (Arabic). In two hours we came to a stony and hilly +district, intersected by several deep but dry Wadys, called Korn el +Hemar (Arabic), the Ass’s Horn. Our direction was alternately S. and S. +by W. Here the Jordan returns to the western side of the valley. The +Korn el Hemar + +ABOU OBEIDA + +[p.346] projects into the Ghor about four miles, so that when seen from +the north the valley seems to be completely shut up by these hills. From +thence a fertile tract commences, overgrown with many Bouttom (Arabic) +or wild pistachio trees. Large tracts of ground were burnt, owing +probably to the negligence of travellers who had set the dry grass on +fire. At the end of six hours, and late at night, we passed to the +right, the ruins of an ancient city standing on the declivity of the +mountain and still bearing its original name Amata (Arabic). My +companions told me that several columns remain standing, and also some +large buildings. A small rivulet here descends into the plain. In six +hours and a half we reached the Mezar Abou Obeida (Arabic), where we +rested for two hours. The tomb of the Sheikh is surrounded by a few +peasant’s houses; but there are no inhabitants at present, except the +keeper of the tomb and his wife, who live upon the charity of the +Bedouins. It appears from the account given by the great Barbary +traveller, Ibn Batouta, that in the sixteenth century this part of the +Ghor was well cultivated, and full of villages. + +The valley of the Jordan affords pasturage to numerous tribes of +Bedouins. Some of them remain here the whole year, considering it as +their patrimony; others visit it only in winter; of the latter +description are the Bedouins who belong to the districts of Naszera and +Nablous, as well as those of the eastern mountains. We met with several +encampments of stationary Bedouins, who cultivate a few fields of wheat, +barley, and Dhourra. They are at peace with the people of Szalt, to many +of whom the greater part of them are personally known; we therefore +passed unmolested; but a stranger who should venture to travel here +unaccompanied by a guide of the country would most certainly be +stripped.[For the names of the Bedouin tribes see the classification, in +the Appendix.] + +ELMEYSERA + +[p.347]July 3d.—We departed from Abou Obeida long before sun-rise, +proceeding from thence in a more western direction. In a quarter of an +hour we passed the northern branch of the river El Zerka, near a mill, +which was at work. In one hour we passed the principal stream, a small +river, which empties itself into the Jordan about one hour and a half to +the S.W. of the spot where it issues from the mountain. Its banks are +overgrown with Defle (Solanum furiosum). On the other side of the Zerka +we ascended the mountain by a steep acclivity, but the road, from being +much frequented, is tolerably good. The mountain consists of calcareous +rock, with layers of various coloured sand-stone, and large blocks of +the black Haouran stone, or basalt, which forms a principal feature in +the mineralogy of Eastern Syria. In two hours and three quarters we +arrived at the top of the mountain, from whence Abou Obeida bore N.N.W. +Here we had a fine view over the valley below. + +On the west side of the Jordan, between the river and the mountains of +Nablous, I remarked a chain of low calcareous rocky heights which begin +at about three hours north of Abou Obeida, and continue for several +hours distance to the S. of that place on the opposite side of the +river. The highest point of Djebel Nablous bore N.W.; the direction of +Nablous itself was pointed out to me as W.N.W. On the summit where we +stood are some large heaps of hewn stones, and several ruined walls, +with the fragments of three large columns. The Arabs call the spot El +Meysera (Arabic). The Zerka, or Jabock of the Scriptures, divides the +district of Moerad from the country called El Belka (Arabic). The +highest summit of the mountains of Moerad seems to be considerably +higher than any part of the mountains of Belka. From Meysera the road +continues over an uneven tract, along the summit of the lower ridge of +mountains which form the northern limits of + +MOUNT OSHA + +[p.348] the Belka. We had now entered a climate quite different from +that of the Ghor. During the whole of yesterday we had been much +oppressed by heat, which was never lessened by the slightest breeze; in +the Belka mountains, on the contrary, we were refreshed by cool winds, +and every where found a grateful shade of fine oak and wild pistachio +trees, with a scenery more like that of Europe than any I had yet seen +in Syria. In three quarters of an hour from Meysera we passed a spring. +I was told that in the valley of the Zerka, at about one hour above its +issue from the mountains into the plain, are several hills, called +Telloul el Dahab (Arabic) (the Hills of Gold), so called, as the Arabs +affirm, from their containing a gold mine. In one hour and a quarter we +passed the ruined place called El Herath (Arabic). The Arabs cultivate +here several fields of Dhourra and cucumbers. My companions seeing no +keepers in the neighbouring wood carried off more than a quintal of +cucumbers. About one hour to the S.E. of Herath are the ruined places +called Allan (Arabic), and Syhhan (Arabic). At the end of two hours we +reached the foot of the mountain called Djebel Djelaad and Djebel +Djelaoud (Arabic), the Gilead of the Scriptures, which runs from east to +west, and is about two hours and a half in length. Upon it are the +ruined towns of Djelaad and Djelaoud. We ascended the western extremity +of the mountain, and then reached the lofty mountain called Djebel Osha, +whose summit overtops the whole of the Belka. In three hours and a +quarter from Meysera we passed near the top of Mount Osha (Arabic), our +general direction being still S.S.E. The forest here grows thicker; it +consists of oak, Bouttom, and Balout (Arabic) trees. The Keykab is also +very common. In three hours and three quarters we descended the southern +side of the mountain, near the tomb of Osha, and reached Szalt (Arabic), +four hours and a half distant from Meysera. Near the tomb of Osha was an +encampment of about sixty tents + +SZALT + +[p.349] of the tribe of Abad (Arabic); they had lately been robbed of +almost all their cattle by the Beni Szakher, and were reduced to such +misery that they could not afford to give us a little sour milk which we +begged of them. They were still at war with the Beni Szakher, and were +in hopes of recovering a part of their property; but as they were too +weak to act openly, they had encamped, for protection, in the +neighbourhood of their friends the inhabitants of Szalt. They intended +to make from hence some plundering excursions against their enemies, for +they had now hardly any thing more to lose in continuing at war with +them. I alighted at Szalt at the house of one of my companions, where I +was hospitably entertained during the whole of my stay at this place. + +The town of Szalt is situated on the declivity of a hill, crowned by a +castle, and is surrounded on all sides by steep mountains. It is the +only inhabited place in the province of Belka, and its inhabitants are +quite independent. The Pashas of Damascus have several times endeavoured +in vain to subdue them. Abdulla Pasha, the late governor, besieged the +town for three months, without success. The population consists of about +four hundred Musulman and eighty Christian families of the Greek church, +who live in perfect amity and equality together: the Musulmans are +composed of three tribes, the Beni Kerad (Arabic), the Owamele (Arabic), +and the Kteyshat (Arabic), each of which has its separate quarter in the +town; the principal Sheikhs, at present two in number, live in the +castle; but they have no other authority over the rest than such as a +Bedouin Sheikh exercises over his tribe. The castle was almost wholly +rebuilt by the famous Dhaher el Omar,[See the history of Sheikh Dhaher, +the predecessor of Djezzar Pasha in the government of Akka, in Volney. +Voyage en Egypte et en Syrie, vol. ii. chap. 25. Ed.] who resided here +several years. He obtained possession by the assistance of the weakest +of the two parties into which the place + +AIN DJEDOUR + +[p.350] was divided, but he was finally driven out by the united efforts +of both parties. + +The castle is well built, has a few old guns, and is surrounded by a +wide ditch. In the midst of the town is a fine spring, to which there is +a secret subterraneous passage from the castle, still made use of in +times of siege. In a narrow valley about ten minutes walk from the town, +is another spring called Ain Djedour (Arabic), the waters of both serve +to irrigate the gardens and orchards which lie along the valley. +Opposite to Ain Djedour is a spacious sepulchral cave cut in the rock, +which the people affirm to have been a church. In the town, an old +mosque is the only object that presents itself to the antiquary. The +Christians have a small church, dedicated to the Virgin, where divine +service is performed by two priests, who each receive annually from +their community about £4. They are not very rigid observers either of +their prayers or fasts; and although it was now the time of Lent with +the Greeks, I daily saw the most respectable Christians eating flesh and +butter. + +The greater part of the population of Szalt is agricultural, a few are +weavers, and there are about twenty shops, which sell on commission for +the merchants of Nazareth, Damascus, Nablous, and Jerusalem, and furnish +the Bedouins with articles of dress and furniture. The prices are at +least fifty per cent. higher than at Damascus. The culture consists of +wheat and barley, the superfluous produce of which is sold to the +Bedouins; vast quantities of grapes are also grown, which are dried and +sold at Jerusalem. The arable fields are at least eight miles distant +from Szalt, in the low grounds of the neighbouring mountains, where they +take advantage of the winter torrents. In the time of harvest the +Szaltese transport their families thither, where they live for several +months under tents, like true Bedouins. The principal encampment + +SZALT + +[p.351] is at a place called Feheis, about one bour and a half to the +S.E. of Szalt. + +In addition to the means of subsistence just mentioned the inhabitants +of Szalt have several others: in July and August they collect, in the +mountains of the Belka the leaves of the Sumach, which they dry and +carry to the market at Jerusalem, for the use of the tanneries; upwards +of five hundred camel loads are yearly exported, at the rate of fifteen +to eighteen piastres the cwt. The merchants also buy up ostrich feathers +from the Bedouins, which they sell to great advantage at Damascus. + +The food and clothing of the Szaltese are inferior in quality to those +of the peasants of northern Syria. Their dress, especially the women’s +approaches to that of the Bedouins: their language is the true Bedouin +dialect. The only public expense incurred by them is that of +entertaining travellers: for this purpose there are four public taverns +(Menzel, or Medhafe), three belonging to the Turks and one to the +Christians; and whoever enters there is maintained as long as he +chooses, provided his stay be not prolonged to an unreasonable period, +without reasons being assigned for such delay. Breakfast, dinner, and +supper, with a proportionate number of cups of coffee, are served up to +the stranger, whoever he may be. For guests of respectability a goat or +lamb is slaughtered, and some of the inhabitants then partake of the +supper. The expenses incurred by these Menzels are shared among the +heads of families, according to their respective wealth, and every +tavern has a kind of landlord, who keeps the accounts, and provides the +kitchen out of the common stock. I was told that every respectable +family paid about fifty piastres per annum into the hands of the master +of the Menzels, which makes altogether a sum of about £1000. spent in +the entertainment of strangers. Were the place dependent on any Turkish +government, + +[p.352] more than triple that sum would be extorted from its inhabitants +for the support of passengers. Besides the Menzels every family is +always ready to receive any acquaintances who may prefer their house to +the public inn. It will readily be conceived, that upon these terms the +people of Szalt are friends of the neighbouring Bedouins; who moreover +fear them because they have a secure retreat, and can muster about four +hundred fire-locks, and from forty to fifty horses. The powerful tribe +of Beni Szakher alone is fearless of the people of Szalt; on the +contrary, they exact a small yearly tribute from the town, which is +willingly paid, in order to secure the harvest against the depredations +of these formidable neighbours; disputes nevertheless arise, and Szalt +is often at war with the Beni Szakher. + +While I remained at Szalt I was told of a traveller of whom I had also +heard in the Haouran; he was a Christian of Abyssinia, whose desire it +was to end his days at Jerusalem; he first sailed from Massoua to +Djidda, where he was seized by the Wahabi, and carried to their chief +Ibn Saoud at Deraye, where he remained two years. From Deraye he crossed +the desert with the encampments of wandering Bedouins, in the direction +of Damascus, and last year he reached Boszra in the Haouran, from whence +he was sent by the Christians to Szalt, where he remained a few days, +and then proceeded for Jerusalem. When he arrived at the Jordan, he +declared to his companions that he was a priest, a circumstance which he +had always kept secret; he continued two days on the banks of the river +fasting and praying, and from thence made his way alone to Jerusalem. He +never tasted animal food, and although he had experienced no sickness on +the road, he died soon after his arrival in the holy city. + +It was not my intention to tarry at Szalt; I wished to proceed by the +first opportunity to Kerek, a town on the eastern side of the + +MEZAR OSHA + +[p.353] Dead sea; but the communications in these deserted countries are +far from being regular, and the want of a proper guide obliged me to +delay my departure for ten days; during this delay I had the good +fortune to see the ruins of Amman, which I had not been able to visit in +the course of my late tour in the Decapolis. But before I describe Amman +I shall subjoin some notes on the neighbourhood of Szalt. + +A narrow valley leads up from Szalt towards the Mezar Osha, which I have +already mentioned. Half way up, the valley is planted with vines, which +are grown upon terraces as in Mount Libanus, to prevent their being +washed away by the winter torrents. The Mezar Osha is supposed to +contain the tomb of Neby Osha, or the prophet Hosea, equally revered by +Turks and Christians, and to whom the followers of both religions are in +the habit of offering prayers and sacrifices. The latter consist +generally of a sheep, to be slain in honour of the saint, or of some +perfumes to be burnt over his tomb. I was invited to partake of a sheep +presented by a suppliant, to whose prayers the saint had been +favourable. There was a large party, and we spent a very pleasant day +under a fine oak-tree just by the tomb. The wives and daughters of those +who were invited were present, and mixed freely in the conversation. The +tomb is covered by a vaulted building, one end of which serves as a +mosque; the tomb itself, in the form of a coffin, is thirty-six feet +long, three feet broad, and three feet and a half in height, being thus +constructed in conformity with the notion of the Turks, who suppose that +all our forefathers were giants, and especially the prophets before +Mohammed. The tomb of Noah in the valley of Coelo-Syria is still longer. +The coffin of Osha is covered with silk stuffs of different colours, +which have been presented to him as votive offerings. Visitors generally +throw a couple of paras upon the tomb. These are + +[p.354] collected by the guardian, and pay the expenses of illuminating +the apartment during the summer months; for in the winter season hardly +any body seeks favours at the shrine of the saint. In one corner stands +a small plate, upon which some of the most devout visitors place a piece +of incense. A wooden partition separates the tomb from the mosque, where +the Turks generally say a few prayers before they enter the inner +apartment. On the outside of the building is a very large and deep +cistern much frequented by the Bedouins. Here is a fine view over the +Ghor. Rieha, or Jericho, is visible at a great distance to the +southward. About half an hour to the N.W. of Osha, on the lower part of +the mountain, is the ruined place called Kafer Houda (Arabic). + +As pilgrimage in the east is generally coupled with mercantile +speculations, Osha’s tomb is much resorted to for commercial purposes, +and like Mekka and Jerusalem, is transformed into a fair at the time of +the visit of the pilgrims. The Arabs of the Belka, especially the Beni +Szakher, bring here Kelly or soap-ashes, which they burn during the +summer in large quantities: these are bought up by a merchant of +Nablous, who has for many years monopolized the trade in this article. +The soap-ashes obtained from the herb Shiman, of the Belka, are esteemed +the best in the country, to the S. of Damascus, as those of Palmyra are +reckoned the best in northern Syria. They are sold by the Arabs for +about half a crown the English cwt., but the purchaser is obliged to pay +heavy duties upon them. The chief of the Arabs of El Adouan, who is +looked upon as the lord of the Belka, although his tribe is at present +considerably weakened, exacts for himself five piastres from every camel +load, two piastres for his writer, and two piastres for his slave. The +town of Szalt takes one piastre for every load, the produce of which +duty is divided among the public taverns of the town. The quantity of +soap-ashes brought to + +[p.355] the Osha market amounts, one year with another, to about three +thousand camel loads. The Nablous merchant is obliged to come in person +to Szalt in autumn. According to old customs, he alights at a private +house, all the expenses of which he pays during his stay; he is bound +also to feed all strangers who arrive during the same period at Szalt; +in consequence of which the Menzels remain shut; and he makes +considerable presents on quitting the place. In order that all the +inhabitants may share in the advantages arising from his visits, he +alights at a different house every year. + +In descending the narrow valley to the south of Szalt, the ruins of a +considerable town are met with, consisting of foundations of buildings +and heaps of stones. The Arabs call the place Kherbet el Souk (Arabic). +Near it is a fine spring called Ain Hazeir (Arabic) (perhaps the ancient +Jazer), which turns several mills, and empties itself into the Wady +Shoeb (Arabic). The latter joins the Jordan near the ruined city of +Nymrein (Arabic). In a S.W. direction from Szalt, distant about two +hours and a half, are the ruined places called Kherbet Ayoub (Arabic), +Heremmela (Arabic), Ayra (Arabic), one of the towns built by the tribe +of Gad, and Yerka (Arabic). East of Szalt, about one hour, are the ruins +called El Deir (Arabic). + +I found it impossible at Szalt to procure a guide to Amman; the country +was in a state which rendered it very dangerous to travel through it: +the Beni Szakher were at war with the Arabs of Adouan, with the +government of Damascus, and with the Rowalla, a branch of the Aeneze; +and we heard daily of skirmishes taking place between the contending +parties, principally near the river Zerka. Amman being a noted spring, +was frequented by both the hostile parties; and although, the people of +Szalt were now at peace with the Beni Szakher, having concluded it on +the day of my arrival, yet they were upon very indifferent terms with +the + +FEHEIS + +[p.356] Adouan and Rowalla. I had once engaged four armed men to +accompany me on foot to the place, but when we were just setting out, +after sunset, their wives came crying to my lodging, and upbraided their +husbands with madness in exposing their lives for a couple of piastres. +Being equally unsuccessful in several other attempts, and tired of the +exaggerations of my land-lord, who pretended that I should be in danger +of being stripped, and even killed, I at length became impatient, and +quitting Szalt in the evening of the 6th, I rode over to Feheis, where +the greater part of the Szaltese were encamped, for the labours of the +harvest, and where it was more likely that I should meet with a guide. +On my way I passed the deep Wady Ezrak (Arabic), where is a rivulet and +several mills. + +El Feheis is a ruined city, with a spring near it; here are the remains +of an arched building, in which the Christians sometimes perform divine +service. Below Feheis, upon the top of a lower mountain, is the ruined +place called El Khandok (Arabic), which appears to have been a fort; it +is surrounded with a wall of large stones, and the remains of several +bastions are visible. From a point near Khandok, the Dead sea, which I +saw for the first time, bears S.W. b. W. + +At Feheis I was so fortunate as to find a guide who five years ago had +served in the same capacity to Mousa, the name assumed by M. Seetzen. As +he was well acquainted with all the Bedouins, and on friendly terms with +them, he engaged to take me to Amman, in company with another horseman. + +July 7th.—We set off before sunrise. On leaving Feheis we crossed a +mountainous country, passed through a thick forest of oak trees, and in +three quarters of an hour reached the Ardh el Hemar, which is the name +of a district extending north and south for about two hours. Here are a +number of springs, which have rendered it a + +AMMAN + +[p.357] favourite place of resort of the Bedouins: the valley was +covered with a fine coat of verdant pasture. From hence the road +ascended through oak woods and pleasant hills, over flinty ground, till +we reached, after a march of two hours and a half, an elevated plain, +from whence we had an extensive view towards the east. The plain, which +in this part is called El Ahma (Arabic), is a fertile tract, +interspersed with low hills; these are for the greater part crowned with +ruins, but they are of irregular forms, unlike the Tels or artificial +heights of the Haouran, and of northern Syria. Just by the road, at the +end of three hours, are the ruins called El Kholda (Arabic). To the left +are the ruins of Kherbet Karakagheish (Arabic); and to the right, at +half an hour’s distance, the ruins of Sar (Arabic), and Fokhara +(Arabic). At about one hour south of Sar begins the district called +Kattar (Arabic) or Marka (Arabic). The ruins which we passed here, as +well as all those before mentioned in the mountains of Belka, present no +objects of any interest. They consist of a few walls of dwelling houses, +heaps of stones, the foundations of some public edifices, and a few +cisterns now filled up; there is nothing entire, but it appears that the +mode of building was very solid, all the remains being formed of large +stones. It is evident also, that the whole of the country must have been +extremely well cultivated, in order to have afforded subsistence to the +inhabitants of so many towns. At the end of three hours and a half we +entered a broad valley, which brought us in half an hour to the ruins of +Amman, which lies about nineteen English miles to the S.E. by E. of +Szalt. The annexed plan [not included] will give an idea of the +situation and ruins of Amman, one of the most ancient of the cities +recorded in Jewish history. The town lies along the banks of a river +called Moiet Amman, which has its source in a pond (a), at a few hundred +paces from the south-western end of the town; I was informed that this +river is + +[p.358] lost in the earth one hour below the pond, that it issues again, +and takes the name of Ain Ghazale (Arabic); then disappears a second +time and rises again near a ruined place called Reszeyfa (Arabic); +beyond which it is said to be lost for a third time, till it reappears +about an hour to the west of Kalaat Zerka, otherwise called Kaszr +Shebeib (Arabic), near the river Zerka, into which it empties itself. +Ain Ghazale is about one hour and a half distant from Amman, Kalaat +Zerka is four hours distant. The river of Amman runs in a valley +bordered on both sides by barren hills of flint, which advance on the +south side close to the edge of the stream. + +The edifices which still remain to attest the former splendour of Amman +are the following: a spacious church (b), built with large stones, and +having a steeple of the shape of those which I saw in several ruined +towns in the Haouran. There are wide arches in the walls of the +church.—A small building (c), with niches, probably a temple.—A temple +(d), of which a part of the side walls, and a niche in the back wall are +remaining; there are no ornaments either on the walls, or about the +niche.——A curved wall (e) along the water side, with many niches: before +it was a row of large columns, of which four remain, but without +capitals, I conjecture this to have been a kind of stoa, or public walk; +it does not communicate with any other edifice.—A high arched bridge (f) +over the river; this appears to have been the only bridge in the town, +although the river is not fordable in the winter. The banks of the +river, as well as its bed, are paved, but the pavement has been in most +places carried away by the violence of the winter torrent. The stream is +full of small fish. On the south side of the river is a fine theatre, +the largest that I have seen in Syria. It has forty rows of seats; +between the tenth and eleventh from the bottom occurs a row of eight +boxes or small apartments, capable of holding about twelve spectators +each; fourteen rows higher, a similar row + +[p.359] of boxes occupies the place of the middle seats, and at the top +of all there is a third tier of boxes excavated in the rocky side of the +hill, upon the declivity of which the theatre is built. On both wings of +the theatre are vaults. In front was a colonnade, of which eight +Corinthian columns yet remain, besides four fragments of shafts; they +are about fifteen feet high, surmounted by an entablature still entire. +This colonnade must have had at least fifty columns; the workmanship is +not of the best Roman times. Near this theatre is a building (h), the +details of which I was not able to make out exactly; its front is built +irregularly, without columns, or ornaments of any kind. On entering I +found a semi-circular area, enclosed by a high wall in which narrow +steps were formed, running all round from bottom to top. The inside of +the front wall, as well as the round wall of the area, is richly +ornamented with sculptured ornaments. The roof, which once covered the +whole building, has fallen down, and choaks up the interior in such a +way as to render it difficult to determine whether the edifice has been +a palace, or destined for public amusements. Nearly opposite the +theatre, to the northward of the river, are the remains of a temple (k), +the posterior wall of which only remains, having an entablature, and +several niches highly adorned with sculpture. Before this building stand +the shafts of several columns three feet in diameter. Its date appears +to be anterior to that of all the other buildings of Amman, and its +style of architecture is much superior. At some distance farther down +the Wady, stand a few small columns (i), probably the remains of a +temple. The plain between the river and the northern hills is covered +with ruins of private buildings, extending from the church (c) down to +the columns (i); but nothing of them remains, except the foundations and +some of the door posts. On the top of the highest of the northern hills +stands the castle of Amman, a very extensive + +[p.360] building; it was an oblong square, filled with buildings, of +which, about as much remains as there does of the private dwellings in +the lower town. The castle walls are thick, and denote a remote +antiquity: large blocks of stone are piled up without cement, and still +hold together as well as if they had been recently placed; the greater +part of the wall is entire, it is placed a little below the crest of the +hill, and appears not to have risen much above the level of its summit. +Within the castle are several deep cisterns. At (m) is a square +building, in complete preservation, constructed in the same manner as +the castle wall; it is without ornaments, and the only opening into it +is a low door, over which was an inscription now defaced. Near this +building are the traces of a large temple (n); several of its broken +columns are lying on the ground; they are the largest I saw at Amman, +some of them being three feet and a half in diameter; their capitals are +of the Corinthian order. On the north side of the castle is a ditch cut +in the rock, for the better defence of this side of the hill, which is +less steep than the others. + +The ruins of Amman being, with the exception of a few walls of flint, of +calcareous stone of moderate hardness, have not resisted the ravages of +time so well as those of Djerash. The buildings exposed to the +atmosphere are all in decay, so that there is little hope of finding any +inscriptions here, which might illustrate the history of the place. The +construction shews that the edifices were of different ages, as in the +other cities of the Decapolis, which I have examined. + +I am sensible that the above description of Amman, though it notices all +the principal remains, is still very imperfect; but a traveller who is +not accompanied with an armed force can never hope to give very +satisfactory accounts of the antiquities of these deserted countries. My +guides had observed some fresh horse-dung near the water’s side, which +greatly alarmed them, as it was a proof that + +SZAFOUT + +[p.361] some Bedouins were hovering about. They insisted upon my +returning immediately, and refusing to wait for me a moment, rode off +while I was still occupied in writing a few notes upon the theatre. I +hastily mounted the castle hill, ran over its ruins, and galloping after +my guides, joined them at half an hour from the town. When I reproached +them for their cowardice, they replied that I certainly could not +suppose that, for the twelve piastres I had agreed to give them, they +should expose themselves to the danger of being stripped and of losing +their horses, from a mere foolish caprice of mine to write down the +stones. I have often been obliged to yield to similar reasoning. A true +Bedouin, however, never abandons his companion in this manner; whoever, +therefore, wishes to travel in these parts, and to make accurate +observations, will do well to take with him as many horsemen as may +secure him against any strolling party of robbers. + +About four or five bours S.S.W. from Amman are the ruins called El Kohf +(Arabic), with a large temple, and many columns. About eight hours +S.S.E. is the ruined city of Om el Reszasz (Arabic), i.e. the Mother of +Lead, which, according to all accounts, is of great extent, and contains +large buildings. In my present situation it was impossible for me to +visit these two places. I hope that some future traveller will be more +fortunate. + +We returned from Amman by a more northern route. At one hour and three +quarters, we passed the ruined place called Djebeyha (Arabic); in two +hours the ruins of Meraze (Arabic). The hills which rise over the plain +are covered to their tops with thick heath. At two hours and a half are +the ruins of Om Djouze (Arabic), with a spring. Sources of water are +seldom met with in this upper plain of the Belka, a circumstance that +greatly enhances the importance of the situation of Amman. At three +hours and a half is + +SZALT + +[p.362] Szafout (Arabic), where are ruins of some extent, with a spring; +the gate of a public edifice is still standing. To the north and north- +east of this place, at the foot of the mountain on which it stands, +extends a broad valley called El Bekka (Arabic); it is extremely +fertile, and is in part cultivated by the people of Szalt, and the Arabs +of the Belka. The Beni Szakher had burnt up the whole of the crops +before they concluded peace with Szalt. In the Bekka is a ruined place +called Ain el Basha (Arabic), with a spring. + +From Szafout we returned by Ardh el Hemar to Feheis, which we reached in +four hours and a half from Szafout. Near the springs of Hemar we found a +cow that had gone astray from some Bedouin encampment; my guides +immediately declared her to be a fair prize, and drove her off before +them to Feheis, where she was killed, to prevent the owner from claiming +her, and the encampment feasted upon the flesh for two days. N.E. from +Szafout, distant about two hours, is a ruined city, with several +edifices still standing, called Yadjoush (Arabic). N. of Amman, two +hours, is a ruined building called El Nowakys (Arabic), on the interior +wall of which are some busts in relief, according to the report of one +who had seen them, but whose veracity was rather doubtful. + +On my return to Szalt I was obliged to remain there several days longer, +for want of a guide; for the road to Kerek is a complete desert, and +much exposed to the inroads of the Arabs. At last I found a man who +engaged to serve me, but his demands were so exorbitant, that I was +several days in bargaining with him. Mousa, (M. Seetzen), he said, had +paid his guide twenty-five piastres for the trip from hence to Kerek, +and he would not, therefore, go the same road for less than twenty- +three; this was an enormous sum for a journey of two days, in a country +where an Arab will toil for a fortnight without obtaining so great a +sum. My principal + +MEKABBELY + +[p.363] objection to paying so much was, that it would become known at +Kerek, which, besides other difficulties it might bring me into, would +have obliged me to pay all my future guides in the same proportion. My +landlord, however, removed this objection by making the guide take a +solemn oath that he would never confess to having received more than six +piastres for his trouble. There was no other proper guide to be got, and +I began to be tired of Szalt, for I saw that my landlord was very +earnest in his endeavours to get me away; I resolved therefore to trust +to my good fortune, and to set out with no other company than that of an +armed horseman. In the evening I returned to Feheis, from whence we +departed early the next morning. + +July 13th.—We passed Ardh el Hemar, in the neighbourhood of which are +the ruined places El Ryhha (Arabic), Shakour (Arabic), Meghanny +(Arabic), and Mekabbely (Arabic); and at a short distance farther on in +the wood, we met two men quite naked. Whenever the Bedouins meet any +other Arabs in the desert, of inferior force, and who are unknown to +them, they level their lances, and stop their horses within about ten +yards of the strangers, to enquire whether they are friends or not. My +guide had seen the two men at a great distance among the trees; be +called to me to get my gun ready, and we galloped towards them; but they +no sooner saw us than they stopped, and cried out, “We are under your +protection!” They then told us that they were peasants of a village near +Rieha or Jericho; that they had been carried away from their own fields +by a party of Beni Szakher, with whom their village happened to be at +war, as far as Yadjoush, where the latter had encampments; that after +being required to pay the price of blood of one of the tribe slain by +the inhabitants of their village, they had been beaten, and stripped +naked; but that at last they had found means to escape. Their bruises +and sores bore testimony + +MERDJ EKKE + +[p.364] to the truth of their story; instances of such acts of violence +frequently occur in the desert. In one hour and three quarters we came +to the ruins of Kherbet Tabouk (Arabic), which seems to have been a +place of some importance. Many wild fig-trees grow here. The direction +of our road was S. b. E. Here the woody country terminates, and we found +ourselves again upon the high plain called El Ahma, which has fertile +ground, but no trees. At two hours and a quarter is a ruined Birket, or +reservoir of rain water, called Om Aamoud (Arabic), from some fragments +of columns, which are found here. In two hours and a half we passed, on +our right, the Wady Szyr (Arabic), which has its source near the road, +und falls below into the Jordan. Above the source, on the declivity of +the valley, are the ruins called Szyr. We continued to travel along a +well trodden road for the greater part of the day. At three hours were +the ruins of Szar, to our left. At three hours and a half, and about +half an hour west of the road, are the ruins of Fokhara, on the side of +the Wady Eshta (Arabic), which empties itself into the Jordan. Here are +a number of wild fig-trees. The whole of the country to the right of the +road is intersected with deep Wadys and precipices, and is overgrown in +many parts with fine woods. We had at intervals a view of the Ghor +below. To the left of the road is the great plain, with many insulated +hillocks. In three hours and a half we passed a hill called Dhaheret el +Hemar (Arabic), or the Ass’s Back. At three hours and three quarters, to +the right, are the ruins of Meraszas (Arabic), with a heap of stones +called Redjem Abd Reshyd (Arabic), where, according to Bedouin +tradition, a wonderful battle took place between a slave of an Arab +called Reshyd, and a whole party of his master’s enemies. Here +terminates the district El Ahma. To the left are the ruins called Merdj +Ekke (Arabic). The soil in this vicinity is chalky. Last year a battle +was fought here between the troops of the Pasha of Damascus, + +EL AAL + +[p.365] and the Beni Szakher, in which the former were routed. At four +hours and a half, and about three quarters of an hour to our right, we +saw the ruins of Naour (Arabic) on the side of a rivulet of that name, +which falls into the Jordan opposite Rieha, or Jericho, driving in its +course several mills, where the Bedouins of the Belka grind their corn. +On both sides of the road are many vestiges of ancient field-enclosures. +From Naour our road lay S. At five hours and three quarters are the +ruins of El Aal (Arabic), probably the Eleale of the Scriptures: it +stands upon the summit of a hill, and takes its name from its situation, +Aal meaning “the high.” It commands the whole plain; and the view from +the top of the hill is very extensive, comprehending the whole of the +southern Belka. From hence the mountain of Shyhhan (Arabic), behind +which lies Kerek, bears S. by W. El Aal was surrounded by a well built +wall, of which some parts yet remain. Among the ruins are a number of +large cisterns, fragments of walls, and the foundations of houses; but +nothing worth particular notice. The plain around is alternately chalk +and flint. At six hours and a quarter is Hesban (Arabic), upon a hill, +bearing S.W. from El Aal. Here are the ruins of a large ancient town, +together with the remains of some edifices built with small stones; a +few broken shafts of columns are still standing, a number of deep wells +cut in the rock, and a large reservoir of water for the summer supply of +the inhabitants. At about three quarters of an hour S.E. of Hesban are +the ruins of Myoun (Arabic), the ancient Baal Meon (Arabic), of the +tribe of Ruben. + +In order to see Medaba, I left the great road at Hesban, and proceeded +in a more eastern direction. At six hours and three quarters, about one +hour distant from the road, I saw the ruins of Djeloul (Arabic), at a +short distance to the east of which, are the ruined places called El +Samek (Arabic), El Mesouh (Arabic), and + +MADEBA + +[p.366] Om el Aamed (Arabic), situated close together upon low +elevations. At about four hours distant, to the east of our road, I +observed a chain of hills, which begins near Kalaat Zerka, passes to the +east of Amman, near the Kalaat el Belka, (a station of the Syrian Hadj, +called by the Bedouins Kalaat Remeydan [Arabic]), and continues as far as +Wady Modjeb. The mountains bear the name of El Zoble (Arabic); the Hadj +route to Mekka lies along their western side. At seven hours and a +quarter is El Kefeyrat (Arabic), a ruined town of some extent. In seven +hours and a half we came to the remains of a well paved ancient +causeway; my guide told me that this had been formerly the route of the +Hadj, and that the pavement was made by the Mohammedans; but it appeared +to me to be a Roman work. At the end of eight hours we reached Madeba, +built upon a round hill; this is the ancient Medaba, but there is no +river near it. It is at least half an hour in circumference; I observed +many remains of the walls of private houses, constructed with blocks of +silex; but not a single edifice is standing. There is a large Birket, +which, as there is no spring at Madeba might still be of use to the +Bedouins, were the surrounding ground cleared of the rubbish, to allow +the water to flow into it; but such an undertaking is far beyond the +views of the wandering Arab. On the west side of the town are the +foundations of a temple, built with large stones, and apparently of +great antiquity. The annexed is its form and dimensions. A part of its +eastern wall remains, constructed in the same style as the castle wall +at Amman. At the entrance of one of the courts stand two columns of the +Doric order, each of two pieces, without bases, and thicker in the +centre than at either extremity, a peculiarity of which this is the only +instance I have seen in Syria. More modern capitals have been added, one +of + +[p.367] which is Corinthian and the other Doric, and an equally coarse +architrave has been laid upon them. In the centre of one of the courts +is a large well. + +About half an hour west of Madeba (Arabic), are the ruins of El Teym +(Arabic), perhaps the Kerjathaim of the Scripture, where, according to +my guide, a very large Birket is cut entirely in the rock, and is still +filled in the winter with rain water. As there are no springs in this +part of the upper plain of the Belka, the inha[bi]tants were obliged to +provide by cisterns for their supply of water during the summer months. +We returned from Madeba towards the great road, where we fell in with a +large party of Bedouins, on foot, who were going to rob by night an +encampment of Beni Szakher, at least fourteen hours distant from hence. +Each of them had a small bag of flower on his back, some were armed with +guns and others with sticks. I was afterwards informed that they drove +off above a dozen camels belonging to the Beni Szakher. They pointed out +to us the place where their tribe was encamped, and as we were then +looking out for some place where we might get a supper, of which we +stood in great need, we followed the direction they gave us. In turning +a little westwards we entered the mountainous country which forms the +eastern border of the valley of the Jordan, and descending in a S.W. +direction along the windings of a Wady, we arrived at a large encampment +of Bedouins, at the end of ten hours and a half from our setting out in +the morning. The upper part of the mountains consists entirely of +siliceous rock. We passed on the road several spots where the Bedouins +cultivate Dhourra. + +We were well received by the Bedouins of the encampment; who are on good +terms with the people of Szalt: one of the principal Sheikhs of which +place is married to the daughter of the chief of this tribe. They belong +to the Ghanemat, whose Sheikh, called + +THE BELKA + +[p.368] Abd el Mohsen (Arabic), is one of the first men in the Belka. +The chief tribe in this province, for many years, was the Adouan, but +they are now reduced to the lowest condition by their inveterate enemies +the Beni Szakher. The latter, whose abode had for a long space of time +been on the Hadj road, near Oella (Arabic), were obliged, by the +increasing power of the Wahabi, to retire towards the north. They +approached the Belka, and obtained from the Adouan, who were then in +possession of the excellent pasturage of this country, permission to +feed their cattle here, on paying a small annual tribute. They soon +proved, however, to be dangerous neighbours; having detached the greater +part of the other tribes of the Belka from their alliance with the +Adouan, they have finally succeeded in driving the latter across the +Zerka, notwithstanding the assistance which they received from the Pasha +of Damascus. Peace had been made in 1810, and both tribes had encamped +together near Amman, when Hamoud el Szaleh, chief of the Adouan, made a +secret arrangement with the Pasha’s troops, and the tribe of Rowalla, +who were at war with the Beni Szakher to make a united attack upon them. +The plot was well laid, but the valour of the Beni Szakher proved a +match for the united forces of their enemies; they lost only about a +dozen of their horsemen, and about two thousand sheep, and since that +time an inveterate enmity has existed between the Beni Szakher and the +Adouan. The second chief of Adouan, an old man with thirteen sons, who +always accompany him to the field, joined the Beni Szakher, as did also +the greater part of the Arabs of the Belka. In 1812, the Adouan were +driven into the mountains of Adjeloun, and to all appearance will never +be able to re-enter the Belka.[For the enumeration of the Belka Arabs, +see the classification of Syrian Bedouins, in the Appendix.] + +The superiority of the pasturage of the Belka over that of all southern +Syria, is the cause of its possession being thus contested. + +ZERKA MAYN + +[p.369] The Bedouins have this saying, “Thou canst not find a country +like the Belka.”—Methel el Belka ma teltaka (Arabic); the beef and +mutton of this district are preferred to those of all others. The +Bedouins of the Belka are nominally subject to an annual tribute to the +Pasha of Damascus; but they are very frequently in rebellion, and pay +only when threatened by a superior force. For the last two years Abd el +Mohsen has not paid any thing. The contribution of the Adouan is one- +tenth of the produce of their camels, sheep, goats, and cows, besides +ten pounds of butter for every hundred sheep.[The hundred of any kind of +cattle is here called Shilleie (Arabic).] The Arabs of the Belka have +few camels; but their herds of cows, sheep, and goats are large; and +whenever they have a prospect of being able to secure the harvest +against the incursions of enemies, they cultivate patches of the best +soil in their territory. In summer they remain in the valleys on the +side of the Ghor, in the winter a part of them descend into the Ghor +itself, while the others encamp upon the upper plain of the Belka. + +July 14th.—We left the encampment of Abd el Mohsen early in the morning, +and at one hour from it, descending along a winding valley, we reached +the banks of the rivulet Zerka Mayn (Arabic), which is not to be +confounded with the northern Zerka. Its source is not far from hence; it +flows in a deep and barren valley through a wood of Defle trees, which +form a canopy over the rivulet impenetrable to the meridian sun. The red +flowers of these trees reflected in the river gave it the appearance of +a bed of roses, and presented a singular contrast with the whitish gray +rocks which border the wood on either side. All these mountains are +calcareous, mixed with some flint. The water of the Zerka Mayn is almost +warm, and has a disagreeable taste, occasioned probably by the quantity +of Defle flowers that fall into it. Having crossed the river we ascended +the steep side of the mountain Houma (Arabic), + +WADY WALE + +[p.370] at the top of which we saw the summit of Djebel Attarous +(Arabic), about half an hour distant to our right; this is the highest +point in the neighbourhood, and seems to be the Mount Nebo of the +Scripture. On its summit is a heap of stones overshaded by a very large +wild pistachio tree. At a short distance below, to the S.W. is the +ruined place called Kereyat (Arabic). The part of the mountain over +which we rode was completely barren, with an uneven plain on its top. In +two hours and a half we saw at about half an hour to our right, the +ruins of a place called Lob, which are of some extent. We passed an +encampment of Arabs Ghanamat. At the end of three hours and three +quarters, after an hour’s steep descent, we reached Wady Wale (Arabic); +the stream contains a little more water than the Zerka Mayn; it runs in +a rocky bed, in the holes of which innumerable fish were playing; I +killed several by merely throwing stones into the water. The banks of +the rivulet are overgrown with willows, Defle, and tamarisks (Arabic), +and I saw large petrifactions of shells in the valley. About one hour to +the west of the spot where we passed the Wale are the ruins of a small +castle, situated on the summit of a lower ridge of mountains; the Arabs +call it Keraoum Abou el Hossein (Arabic). + +In the valley of Wale a large party of Arabs Sherarat was encamped, +Bedouins of the Arabian desert, who resort hither in summer for +pasturage. They are a tribe of upwards of five thousand tents; but not +having been able to possess themselves of a district fertile in +pasturage, and being hemmed in by the northern Aeneze, the Aeneze of the +Nedjed, the Howeytat, and Beni Szakher, they wander about in misery, +have very few horses, and are not able to feed any flocks of sheep or +goats. They live principally on the Hadj route, towards Maan, and in +summer approach the Belka, pushing northward sometimes as far as +Haouran. They + +WADY MODJEB + +[p.371] are obliged to content themselves with encamping on spots where +the Beni Szakher and the Aeneze, with whom they always endeavour to live +at peace, do not choose to pasture their cattle. The only wealth of the +Sherarat consists in camels. Their tents are very miserable; both men +and women go almost naked, the former being only covered round the +waist, and the women wearing nothing but a loose shirt hanging in rags +about them. These Arabs are much leaner than the Aeneze, and of a +browner complexion. They have the reputation of being very sly and +enterprising thieves, a title by which they think themselves greatly +honoured. + +In four hours and a half, after having ascended the mountain on the S. +side of the Wale, we reached a fine plain on its summit. All the country +to the southward of the Wale, as far as the Wady Modjeb, is comprised +under the appellation of El Koura, a term often applied in Syria to +plains: El Koura is the “Plains of Moab” of the Scripture; the soil is +very sandy, and not fertile. The Haouran black stone, or basalt, if it +may be so called, is again met with here. The river El Wale rises at +about three hours distance to the E. of the spot where we passed it, +near which it takes a winding course to the south until it approaches +the Modjeb, where it again turns westwards. The lower part of the river +changes its name into that of Seyl Heydan (Arabic), which empties itself +into the Modjeb at about two hours distant from the Dead sea, near the +ruined place called Dar el Ryashe (Arabic). The Wale seems to be the +same called Nahaliel in D’Anville’s map, but this name is unknown to the +Arabs; its source is not so far northward as in the map. Between the +Wady Zerka Mayn and the Wale is another small rivulet called Wady el +Djebel (Arabic). At the end of six hours and a half we reached the banks +of the Wady Modjeb, the Arnon of the Scriptures, which divides the + +[p.372] province of Belka from that of Kerek, as it formerly divided the +small kingdoms of the Moabites and the Amorites. When at about one +hour’s distance short of the Modjeb I was shewn to the N.E. of us, the +ruins of Diban (Arabic), the ancient Dibon, situated in a low ground of +the Koura. + +On the spot where we reached the high banks of the Modjeb are the ruins +of a place called Akeb el Debs (Arabic). We followed, from thence, the +top of the precipice at the foot of which the river flows, in an eastern +direction, for a quarter of an hour, when we reached the ruins of Araayr +(Arabic), the Aroer of the Scriptures, standing on the edge of the +precipice; from hence a foot-path leads down to the river. In the Koura, +about one hour to the west of Araayr, are some hillocks called Keszour +el Besheir (Arabic). The view which the Modjeb presents is very +striking: from the bottom, where the river runs through a narrow stripe +of verdant level about forty yards across, the steep and barren banks +arise to a great height, covered with immense blocks of stone which have +rolled down from the upper strata, so that when viewed from above, the +valley looks like a deep chasm, formed by some tremendous convulsion of +the earth, into which there seems no possibility of descending to the +bottom; the distance from the edge of one precipice to that of the +opposite one, is about two miles in a straight line. + +We descended the northern bank of the Wady by a foot-path which winds +among the masses of rock, dismounting on account of the steepness of the +road, as we had been obliged to do in the two former valleys which we +had passed in this day’s march; this is a very dangerous pass, as +robbers often waylay travellers here, concealing themselves behind the +rocks, until their prey is close to them. Upon many large blocks by the +side of the path I saw heaps of small stones, placed there as a sort of +weapon for the traveller, + +[p.373] in case of need. No Arab passes without adding a few stones to +these heaps. There are three fords across the Modjeb, of which we took +that most frequented. I had never felt such suffocating heat as I +experienced in this valley, from the concentrated rays of the sun and +their reflection from the rocks. We were thirty-five minutes in reaching +the bottom. About twelve minutes above the river I saw on the road side +a heap of fragments of columns, which had been about eight feet in +height. A bridge has been thrown across the stream in this place, of one +high arch, and well built; but it is now no longer of any use, though +evidently of modern date. At a short distance from the bridge are the +ruins of a mill. The river, which flows in a rocky bed, was almost dried +up, having less water than the Zerka Mayn and Wale, but its bed bears +evident marks of its impetuosity during the rainy season, the shattered +fragments of large pieces of rock which had been broken from the banks +nearest the river, and carried along by the torrent, being deposited at +a considerable height above the present channel of the stream. A few +Defle and willow trees grow on its banks. + +The principal source of the Modjeb is at a short distance to the N.E. of +Katrane, a station of the Syrian Hadj; there the river is called Seyl +Sayde [Seyl means rivulet in this country.] (Arabic), lower down it +changes its name to Efm el Kereim (Arabic), or, as it is also called, +Szefye (Arabic). At about one hour east of the bridge it receives the +waters of the Ledjoum, which flow from the N.E. in a deep bed; the +Ledjoum receives a rivulet caled Seyl el Mekhreys (Arabic), and then the +Baloua (Arabic), after which it takes the name of Enkheyle (Arabic). +Near the source of the Ledjoum is the ruined place called Tedoun + +[p.374] (Arabic); and near the source of the Baloua is a small ruined +castle called Kalaat Baloua. The rivulet Salyhha (Arabic), coming from +the south, empties itself into the Modjeb below the bridge. + +Near the confluence of the Ledjoum and the Modjeb there seemed to be a +fine verdant pasture ground, in the midst of which stands a hill with +some ruins upon it, and by the side of the river are several ruined +mills. In mounting the southern ascent from the Modjeb, we passed, upon +a narrow level at about five minutes from the bridge, the ruins of a +small castle, of which nothing but the foundations remains: it is called +Mehatet el Hadj (Arabic), from the supposition that the pilgrim route to +Mekka formerly passed here, and that this was a station of the Hadj. +Near the ruin is a Birket, which was filled by a canal from the Ledjoum, +the remains of which are still visible. This may, perhaps, be the site +of Areopolis. My guide told me that M. Seetzen had been partly stripped +at this place, by some Arabs. We did not meet with any living being in +crossing the Wady. Near the ruins is another heap of broken columns, +like those on the opposite bank of the river; I conjecture that the +columns were Roman milliaria, because a causeway begins here, and runs +all the way up the mountain, and from thence as far as Rabba; it is +about fifteen feet broad, and was well paved, though at present in a bad +state, owing to a torrent which rushes along it from the mountain in +winter time. At twenty-eight minutes from the Mehatet el Hadj are three +similar columns, entire, but lying on the ground. We were an hour and +three quarters in ascending from the bridge to the top; on this side the +road might easily be made passable for horses. In several places the +rock has been cut through to form the path. The lower part of the +mountains is calcareous; I found great numbers of small petrified +shells, and small pieces of mica are likewise met with. Towards + +ARABS HAMAIDE + +[p.375] the upper part of the mountain the ground is covered with large +blocks of the black Haouran stone,[It is from this black and heavy +stone, (which M. Seetzen calls basalt, but which I rather conceive to +belong to the species called tufwacke by the Germans), that the ancient +opinion of there having been mountains of iron on the east side of the +Jordan appears to have arisen. Even now the Arabs believe that these +stones consist chiefly of iron, and I was often asked if I did not know +how to extract it.] which I found to be more porous than any specimens +of it which I had seen further northward. On the summit of this steep +southern ascent are the ruins of a large square building, of which the +foundations only remain, covered with heaps of stone; they are directly +opposite Araayr, and the ruins above mentioned are also called Mehatet +el Hadj. I believe them to be of modern date. + +We had now again reached a high plain. To our right, about three +quarters of an hour, was the Djebel Shyhhan, an insulated mountain, with +the ruined village of that name on its summit. To our left, on the E. +side of the Ledjoum, about two or three hours distant, is a chain of low +mountains, called El Ghoweythe (Arabic), running from N. to S. about +three or four hours. To the south of El Ghoweythe begins a chain of low +hills, called El Tarfouye (Arabic), which farther south takes the name +of Orokaraye (Arabic); it then turns westward, and terminates to the +south-west of Kerek. From the Mehatet el Hadj we followed the paved road +which leads in a straight line towards Rabba, in a S.W. direction; in +half an hour, we met some shepherds with a flock of sheep, who led us to +the tents of their people behind a hill near the side of the road. We +were much fatigued, but the kindness of our hosts soon made us forget +our laborious day’s march. We alighted under the tent of the Sheikh, who +was dying of a wound he had received a few days before from a thrust of +a lance; but such is the hospitality of these people, and their +attention to the comforts + +BEIT KERM + +[p.376] of the traveller, that we did not learn the Sheikh’s misfortune +till the following day. He was in the women’s apartment, and we did not +hear him utter any complaints. They supposed, with reason, that if we +were informed of his situation it would prevent us from enjoying our +supper. A lamb was killed, and a friend of the family did the honours of +the table: we should have enjoyed our repast had there not been an +absolute want of water, but there was none nearer than the Modjeb, and +the daily supply which, according to the custom of the Arabs, had been +brought in before sun-rise, was, as often happens, exhausted before +night; our own water skins too, which we had filled at the Modjeb, had +been emptied by the shepherds before we reached the encampment. This +loss was the more sensible to me, as in desert countries where water +seldom occurs, not feeling great thirst during the heat of the day, I +was seldom in the habit of drinking much at that time; but in the +evening, and the early part of the night, I always drank with great +eagerness. + +July 15th.—We left our kind hosts, who belonged to the Arabs Hamaide, +early in the morning, and continued our route along the ancient road. At +half an hour from the encampment we passed the ruined village El Ryhha +(Arabic), in one hour and a half we arrived at the ruins of an ancient +city called Beit Kerm (Arabic), belonging to which, on the side of the +road, are the remains of a temple of remote antiquity. Its shape is an +oblong square, one of the long sides forming the front, where was a +portica of eight columns in antis: the columns, three feet in diameter, +are lying on the ground. Within the temple, a great part of the walls of +which are fallen, there are fragments of smaller columns. The stones +used in the construction of the walls are about five feet long, and two +feet broad. At one hour and three quarters is the ruined village of +Hemeymat (Arabic). This district, which is an even plain, is + +KEREK + +[p.377] very fertile, and large tracts are here cultivated by the +inhabitants of Kerek, and the Arabs Hamaide. At two hours and a half is +Rabba (Arabic), probably the ancient Rabbath Moab, where the ancient +causeway terminates. The ruins of Rabba are about half an hour in +circuit, and are situated upon a low hill, which commands the whole +plain. I examined a part of them only, but the rest seemed to contain +nothing remarkable. On the west side is a temple, of which one wall and +several niches remain, by no means distinguished for elegance. Near them +is a gate belonging to another building, which stood on the edge of a +Birket. Distant from these ruins about thirty yards stand two Corinthian +columns of middling size, one higher than the other. In the plain, to +the west of the Birket, stands an insulated altar. In the town many +fragments are lying about; the walls of the larger edifices are built +like those of Heit Kerm. There are many remains of private habitations, +but none entire. There being no springs in this spot, the town had two +Birkets, the largest of which is cut entirely out of the rocky ground, +together with several cisterns. About three quarters of an hour to the +S.E. of Rabba, are two copious springs, called El Djebeyba (Arabic), and +El Yaroud (Arabic). From Rabba our road lay S. by E. At four hours are +the ruins of Kereythela (Arabic). At the end of five hours we entered a +mountainous district, full of Wadys; and after a march of six hours we +reached the town of Kerek. + +I hesitated where I should alight at Kerek, and whether I should +announce myself as a Turk or a Christian, for I knew that the success of +my progress southward depended upon the good will of the people of this +place. I had a letter of recommendation to the Sheikh of the town, given +to me by a Turkish gentleman of Damascus, whose wife was a native of +Kerek, and he had mentioned me in such terms as led me to anticipate a +good reception; but as I knew that I should be much harassed by +inquisitive visitors, were + +[p.378] I to take up my lodgings at the Sheikh’s house, I determined to +alight at some Christian’s, and then consult upon my future proceeding +with the Greek priest, whom I knew by report. I no sooner entered the +north gate of the town, where is the quarter of the Christians, than I +was surrounded by several of these hospitable people, who took hold of +the bridle of my horse, every one insisting upon my repairing to his +dwelling; I followed one, and the whole neighbourhood was soon +assembled, to partake of the sheep that was slaughtered in honour of my +arrival; still no one had asked me who I was, or whither I was going. +After some conversation with the priest, I thought it expedient to pay a +visit of ceremony to the Sheikh, in order to deliver my letter; I soon +however had reason to repent: he received me very politely; but when he +heard of my intention of proceeding southward, he told me that he could +not allow of my going forward with one guide only, and that as he was +preparing to visit the southern districts himself, in a few days, I +should wait for him or his people to conduct me. His secretary then +informed me, that it was expected I should make some present to the +Sheikh, and pay him, besides, the sum which I must have given for a +guide. The present I flatly refused to make, saying that it was rather +the Sheikh’s duty to make a present to the guest recommended to him by +such a person as my Damascene friend was. With respect to the second +demand, I answered that I had no more money with me than was absolutely +necessary for my journey. Our negotiations on this point lasted for +several days; when seeing that I could obtain no guide without an order +from the Sheikh, I at last agreed to pay fifteen piastres for his +company as far as Djebel Sherah. If I had shewn a disposition to pay +this sum immediately, every body would have thought that I had plenty of +money, and more considerable sums would have been extorted; in every +part of Turkey it is a prudent rule not + +[p.379] to grant the Turks their demands immediately, because they soon +return to the charge. Had I not shewn my letter to the Sheikh, I should +have procured a guide with little trouble, I should have had it in my +power to see the borders of the Dead sea, and should have been enabled +to depart sooner; but having once made my agreement with him, I was +obliged to wait for his departure, which was put off from day to day, +and thus I was prevented from going to any distance from the town, from +the fear of being left behind. I remained therefore at Kerek for twenty +successive days, changing my lodgings almost every day, in order to +comply with the pressing invitations of its hospitable inhabitants. + +The town of Kerek (Arabic), a common name in Syria, is built upon the +top of a steep hill, surrounded on all sides by a deep and narrow +valley, the mountains beyond which command the town. In the valley, on +the west and north sides, are several copious springs, on the borders of +which the inhabitants cultivate some vegetables, and considerable +plantations of olive trees. The principal of these sources are, Ain Sara +(Arabic), which issues from the rock in a very romantic spot, where a +mosque has been built, now in ruins; this rivulet turns three mills: the +other sources are Ain Szafszaf (Arabic), Ain Kobeyshe (Arabic), and Ain +Frandjy (Arabic), or the European spring, in the rock near which, as +some persons told me, is an inscription in Frank characters, but no one +ever would, or could, shew it me. + +The town is surrounded by a wall, which has fallen down in several +places; it is defended by six or seven large towers, of which the +northern is almost perfect, and has a long Arabic inscription on its +wall, but too high to be legible from the ground; on each side of the +inscription is a lion in bas-relief, similar to those seen on the walls +of Aleppo and Damascus. The town had originally only two entrances, one +to the south and the other to the north; they are + +[p.380] dark passages, forty paces in length, cut through the rock. An +inscription on the northern gate ascribes its formation to Sultan Seyf- +eddin (Arabic). Besides these two gates, two other entrances have been +formed, leading over the ruins of the town wall. At the west end of the +town stands a castle, on the edge of a deep precipice over the Wady +Kobeysha. It is built in the style of most of the Syrian castles, with +thick walls and parapets, large arched apartments, dark passages with +loop-holes, and subterraneous vaults; and it probably owes its origin, +like most of these castles, to the prudent system of defence adopted by +the Saracens against the Franks during the Crusades. In a large Gothic +hall are the remains of paintings in fresco, but so much defaced that +nothing can be clearly distinguished. Kerek having been for some time in +the hands of the Franks, this hall may have been built at that time for +a church, and decorated with paintings. Upon an uncouth figure of a man +bearing a large chain I read the letters IONI, painted in large +characters; the rest of the inscription was effaced. On the side towards +the town the castle is defended by a deep fosse cut in the rock; near +which are seen several remains of columns of gray and red granite. On +the south side the castle hill is faced with stone in the same manner as +at Aleppo, El Hossn, Szalkhat, &c. On the west side a wall has been +thrown across the Wady, to some high rocks, which project from the +opposite side; a kind of Birket has thus been formed, which formerly +supplied the garrison with water. In the castle is a deep well, and many +of the private houses also have wells, but their water is brackish; +others have cisterns, which save the inhabitants the trouble of fetching +their water from the Wady below. There are no antiquities in the town, +excepting a few fragments of granite columns. A good mosque, built by +Melek el Dhaher, is now in ruins. The Christians have a church, +dedicated to St. George, or El Khuder, which has been + +[p.381] lately repaired. On the declivity of the Wady to the south of +the town are some ancient sepulchral caves, of coarse workmanship, cut +in the chalky rock. + +Kerek is inhabited by about four hundred Turkish, and one hundred and +fifty Christian families; the former can furnish upwards of eight +hundred firelocks, the latter about two hundred and fifty. The Turks are +composed of settlers from all parts of southern Syria, but principally +from the mountains about Hebron and Nablous. The Christians are, for the +greater part, descendants of refugees from Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and +Beit Djade. They are free from all exactions, and enjoy the same rights +with the Turks. Thirty or forty years ago Kerek was in the hands of the +Bedouin tribe called Beni Ammer, who were accustomed to encamp around +the town and to torment the inhabitants with their extortions. It may be +remarked generally of the Bedouins, that wherever they are the masters +of the cultivators, the latter are soon reduced to beggary, by their +unceasing demands. The uncle of the present Sheikh of Kerek, who was +then head of the town, exasperated at their conduct, came to an +understanding with the Arabs Howeytat, and in junction with these, +falling suddenly upon the Beni Ammer, completely defeated them in two +encounters. The Ammer were obliged to take refuge in the Belka, where +they joined the Adouan, but were again driven from thence, and obliged +to fly towards Jerusalem. For many years afterwards they led a miserable +life, from not being sufficiently strong to secure to their cattle good +pasturing places. About six years ago they determined to return to +Kerek, whatever might be their fate; in their way round the southern +extremity of the Dead sea they lost two thirds of their cattle by the +attacks of their inveterate enemies, the Terabein. When, at last, they +arrived in the neighbourhood of Kerek, they threw themselves upon the +mercy of the present Sheikh + +[p.382] of the town, Youssef Medjaby, who granted them permission to +remain in his district, provided they would obey his commands. They were +now reduced, from upwards of one thousand tents, to about two hundred, +and they may at present be considered as the advanced guard of the +Sheikh of Kerek, who employs them against his own enemies, and makes +them encamp wherever he thinks proper. The inhabitants of Kerek have +thus become formidable to all the neighbouring Arabs; they are complete +masters of the district of Kerek, and have great influence over the +affairs of the Belka. + +The Christians of Kerek are renowned for their courage, and more +especially so, since an action which lately took place between them and +the Rowalla, a tribe of Aeneze; a party of the latter had on a Sunday, +when the men were absent, robbed the Christian encampment, which was at +about an hour from the town, of all its cattle. On the first alarm given +by the women, twenty-seven young men immediately pursued the enemy, whom +they overtook at a short distance, and had the courage to attack, though +upwards of four hundred men mounted on camels, and many of them armed +with firelocks. After a battle of two hours the Rowalla gave way, with +the loss of forty-three killed, a great many wounded, and one hundred +and twenty camels, together with the whole booty which they had carried +off. The Christians had only four men killed. To account for the success +of this heroic enterprise, I must mention that the people of Kerek are +excellent marksmen; there is not a boy among them who does not know how +to use a firelock by the time he is ten years of age. + +The Sheikh of Kerek has no greater authority over his people than a +Bedouin Sheikh has over his tribe. In every thing which regards the +Bedouins, he governs with the advice of the most respectable individuals +of the town; and his power is not absolute enough to deprive the meanest +of his subjects of the smallest part + +[p.383] that prevails prevents the increase of wealth, and the richest +man in the town is not worth more than about £1000. sterling. Their +custom of entertaining strangers is much the same as at Szalt; they have +eight Menzels, or Medhafe (Arabic), for the reception of guests, six of +which belong to the Turks, and two to the Christians; their expenses are +not defrayed by a common purse: but whenever a stranger takes up his +lodging at one of the Medhafes, one of the people present declares that +he intends to furnish that day’s entertainment, and it is then his duty +to provide a dinner or supper, which he sends to the Medhafe, and which +is always in sufficient quantity for a large company. A goat or a lamb +is generally killed on the occasion, and barley for the guest’s horse is +also furnished. When a stranger enters the town the people almost come +to blows with one another in their eagerness to have him for their +guest, and there are Turks who every other day kill a goat for this +hospitable purpose. Indeed it is a custom here, even with respect to +their own neighbours, that whenever a visitor enters a house, dinner or +supper is to be immediately set before him. Their love of entertaining +strangers is carried to such a length, that not long ago, when a +Christian silversmith, who came from Jerusalem to work for the ladies, +and who, being an industrious man, seldom stirred out of his shop, was +on the point of departure after a two months residence, each of the +principal families of the town sent him a lamb, saying that it was not +just that he should lose his due, though he did not choose to come and +dine with them. The more a man expends upon his guests, the greater is +his reputation and influence; and the few families who pursue an +opposite conduct are despised by all the others. + +Kerek is filled with guests every evening; for the Bedouins, knowing +that they are here sure of a good supper for themselves and their +horses, visit it as often as they can; they alight at one Medhafe, +[p.385] go the next morning to another, and often visit the whole before +they depart. The following remarkable custom furnishes another example +of their hospitable manners: it is considered at Kerek an unpardonable +meanness to sell butter or to exchange it for any necessary or +convenience of life; so that, as the property of the people chiefly +consists in cattle, and every family possesses large flocks of goats and +sheep, which produce great quantities of butter, they supply this +article very liberally to their guests. Besides other modes of consuming +butter in their cookery, the most common dish at breakfast or dinner, is +Fetyte, a sort of pudding made with sour milk, and a large quantity of +butter. There are families who thus consume in the course of a year, +upwards of ten quintals of butter. If a man is known to have sold or +exchanged this article, his daughters or sisters remain unmarried, for +no one would dare to connect himself with the family of a Baya el Samin +(Arabic), or seller of butter, the most insulting epithet that can be +applied to a man of Kerek. This custom is peculiar to the place, and +unknown to the Bedouins. + +The people of Kerek, intermarry with the Bedouins; and the Aeneze even +give the Kerekein their girls in marriage. The sum paid to the father of +the bride is generally between six and eighthundred piastres; young men +without property are obliged to serve the father five or six years, as +menial servants, in compensation for the price of the girl. The Kerekein +do not treat their wives so affectionately as the Bedouins; if one of +them falls sick, and her sickness is likely to prevent her for some time +from taking care of the family affairs, the husband sends her back to +her father’s house, with a message that “he must cure her;” for, as he +says, “I bought a healthy wife of you, and it is not just that I should +be at the trouble and expense of curing her.” This is a rule with both +Mohammedans and Christians. It is not the custom for the + +[p.386] husband to buy clothes or articles of dress for his wife; she +is, in consequence, obliged to apply to her own family, in order to +appear decently in public, or to rob her husband of his wheal and +barley, and sell it clandestinely in small quantities; nor does she +inherit the smallest trifle of her husband’s property. The Kerekein +never sleep under the same blanket with their wives; and to be accused +of doing so, is considered as great an insult as to be called a coward. + +The domestic manners of the Christians of Kerek are the same as those of +the Turks; their laws are also the same, excepting those relating to +marriage; and in cases of litigation, even amongst themselves, they +repair to the tribunal of the Kadhy, or judge of the town, instead of +submitting their differences to their own Sheikhs. The Kadhy is elected +by the Sheikhs. With respect to their religious duties, they observe +them much less than any other Greeks in Syria; few of them frequent the +church, alleging, not without reason, that it is of no use to them, +because they do not understand one word of the Greek forms of prayer. +Neither are they rigid observers of Lent, which is natural enough, as +they would be obliged to live almost entirely on dry bread, were they to +abstain wholly from animal food. Though so intimately united with the +Turks both by common interests and manners, as to be considered the same +tribe, yet there exists much jealousy among the adherents of the two +religions, which is farther increased by the Sheikh’s predilection for +the Christians. The Turks seeing that the latter prosper, have devised a +curious method of participating in the favours which Providence may +bestow on the Christians on account of their religion: many of them +baptise their male children in the church of St. George, and take +Christian godfathers for their sons. There is neither Mollah nor fanatic +Kadhy to prevent this practice, and the Greek priest, who + +[p.387] is handsomely paid for baptising, reconciles his conscientious +scruples by the hope that the boy so baptized may perhaps die a +Christian; added to this, he does not give the child entire baptism, but +dips the hands and feet only in the water, while the Christian child +receives total immersion, and this pious fraud sets all his doubts at +rest as to the legality of the act. The priests pretend nevertheless +that such is the efficacy of the baptism that these baptised Turks have +never been known to die otherwise than by old age. + +Kerek is the see of a Greek bishop, who generally resides at Jerusalem. +The diocese is called Battra (Arabic) in Arabic, and [Greek] in Greek; +and it is the general opinion among the clergy of Jerusalem, that Kerek +is the ancient Petra;[The Greek bishops belonging to the Patriarchal see +of Jerusalem are: 1. Kaisaryet Filistin; 2. Bysan: 3. Battra; 4. Akka; +5. Bethlehem; 6. Nazareth. The Greek bishops in partibus (Arabic) are; +1. Lyd; 2. Gaza; 3. Syna; 4. Yaffa; 5. Nablous; 6. Shabashye; 7. Tor +Thabour: 8. Djebel Adjeloun.] but it will be seen in the sequel of this +journal that there is good reason to think they are mistaken; Kerek +therefore is probably the Charax Omanorum of Pliny. The bishop’s revenue +is about six pounds sterling per annum; he visits his diocese every five +or six years. During my stay, a Greek priest arrived from Jerusalem, to +collect for his convent, which had been at a great expense in rebuilding +the church of the Holy Sepulchre. The Greeks delivered to him in sheep +to the value of about fifteen pounds sterling. + +The Kerekein cultivate the plains in the neighbouring mountains and feed +their cattle on the uncultivated parts. One-third of the people remain +encamped the whole year at two or three hours distant from the town, to +superintend the cattle; the rest encamp in the harvest time only. During +the latter period the Christians have two large camps or Douars, and the +Turks five. Here they + +[p.388] live like Bedouins, whom they exactly resemble, in dress, food, +and language. The produce of their fields is purchased by the Bedouins, +or exchanged for cattle. The only other commercial intercourse carried +on by them is with Jerusalem, for which place a caravan departs every +two months, travelling either by the route round the southern extremity +of the Dead sea, which takes three days and a half, or by crossing the +Jordan, a journey of three days. At Jerusalem they sell their sheep and +goats, a few mules, of which they have an excellent breed, hides, wool, +and a little Fowa or madder (Rubia tinctorum), which they cultivate in +small quantities; in return they take coffee, rice, tobacco, and all +kinds of articles of dress, and of household furniture. This journey, +however, is undertaken by few of the natives of Kerek, the trade being +almost wholly in the hands of a few merchants of Hebron, who keep shops +at Kerek, and thus derive large profits from the indolence or ignorance +of the Kerekein. I have seen the most common articles sold at two +hundred per cent. profit. The trade is carried on chiefly by barter: and +every thing is valued in measures of corn, this being the readiest +representative of exchange in the possession of the town’s-people; hence +the merchants, make their returns chiefly in corn and partly in wool. +The only artizans in Kerek who keep shops are a blacksmith, a shoemaker, +and a silversmith. When the Mekka caravan passes, the Kerekein sell +provisions of all kinds to the Hadj, which they meet at the castle of +Katrana. Many Turks, as well as Christians, in the town, have negro +slaves, whom they buy from the Bedouins, who bring them from Djidda and +Mekka: there are also several families of blacks in Kerek, who have +obtained their liberty, and have married free black women. + +The houses of Kerek have only one floor, and three or four are generally +built in the same court-yard. The roof of the apartment + +[p.389] is supported by two arches, much in the same way as in the +ancient buildings of the Haouran, which latter however have generally +but one arch. Over the arches thick branches of trees are laid, and over +the latter a thin layer of rushes. Along the wall at the extremity of +the room, opposite to the entrance, are large earthen reservoirs of +wheat (Kowari Arabic). There is generally no other aperture in these +rooms than the door, a circumstance that renders them excessively +disagreeable in the winter evenings, when the door is shut and a large +fire is kindled in the middle of the floor. + +Some of the Arab tribes in the territory of Kerek pay a small annual +tribute to the Sheikh of Kerek, as do likewise the peasants who +cultivate the shores of the Dead sea. In order, however, to secure their +harvests against any casualties, the Kerekein have deemed it expedient +to pay, on their, part, a tribute to the Southern Arabs called El +Howeytat, who are continually passing this way in their expeditions +against the Beni Szakher. The Christians pay to one of the Howeytat +Sheikhs one Spanish dollar per family, and the Turks send them annually +about fifteen mule loads of carpets which are manufacured at Kerek. +Whenever the Sheikhs of the Beni Szakher visit the town, they receive +considerable presents by way of a friendly tribute. + +The district of Kerek comprises three other villages, which are under +the orders of the Sheikh of Kerek: viz. Ketherabba (Arabic), Oerak +(Arabic), and Khanzyre (Arabic). There are besides a great number of +ruined places in the district, the principal of which are the following; +Addar (Arabic), Hedjfa (Arabic), Hadada (Arabic), Thenye (Arabic), three +quarters of an hour to the S. of the town; Meddyn (Arabic), Mouthe +(Arabic), Djeldjoun (Arabic), Djefeiras (Arabic), Datras (Arabic), about +an hour and a half S.E. of the town, where some walls of houses remain; +Medjdelein (Arabic), Yarouk (Arabic), Seraf + +[p.390] (Arabic), Meraa (Arabic), and Betra, where is a heap of stones +on the foot of a high hill, distant from Kerek to the southward and +westward about five hours. + +Several Wadys descend from the mountains of Kerek into the plain on the +shore of the Dead sea, and are there lost, either in the sands or in the +fields of the peasants who cultivate the plain, none of them reaching +the lake itself in the summer. To the S. of Modjeb is the Seyl Djerra +(Arabic), and farther south, Wady Beni Hammad (Arabic). In the valley of +this river, perhaps the Zared of Scripture, are hot-wells, with some +ruined buildings near them, about five hours from Kerek, in a northern +direction. Next follow Seyl el Kerek, Wady el Draah (Arabic), Seyl Assal +(Arabic), perhaps Assan, which rises nearer Ketherabba; El Nemeyra +(Arabic), coming from Oerak; Wady Khanzyre (Arabic), and El Ahhsa, a +river which divides the territory of Kerek from the district to the S. +of it, called El Djebel. + +Not having had an opportunity of descending to the borders of the Dead +sea, I shall subjoin here a few notes which I collected from the people +of Kerek. I have since been informed that M. Seetzen, the most +indefatigable traveller that ever visited Syria, has made the complete +tour of the Dead sea; I doubt not that he has made many interesting +discoveries in natural history. + +The mountains which inclose the Ghor, or valley of the Jordan, open +considerably at the northern extremity of the Dead sea, and encompassing +it on the W. and E. sides approach again at its S. extremity, leaving +only a narrow plain between them. The plain on the west side, between +the sea and the mountains, is covered with sand, and is unfit for +cultivation; but on the E. side, and especially towards the S. +extremity, where it continues to bear the appellation of El Ghor +(Arabic), the plain is in many places very fertile. Its breadth + +[p.391] varies from one to four and five miles; it is covered with +forests, in the midst of which the miserable peasants build their huts +of rushes, and cultivate their Dhourra and tobacco fields. These +peasants are called El Ghowárene (Arabic), and amount to about three +hundred families; they live very poorly, owing to the continual +exactions of the neighbouring Bedouins, who descend in winter from the +mountains of Belka and Kerek, and pasture their cattle amidst the +fields. The heat of the climate of this low valley, during the summer, +renders it almost uninhabitable; the people then go nearly naked; but +their low huts, instead of affording shelter from the mid-day heat +rather increase it. At this period violent intermittent fevers prevail, +to which, however, they are so much accustomed, that they labour in the +fields during the intervals of the paroxysms of the disease. + +The principal settlement of the Ghowárene is at the southern extremity +of the sea, near the embouchure of the Wady el Ahhsa; their village is +called Ghor Szafye (Arabic), and is the winter rendezvous of more than +ten large tribes of Bedouins. Its situation corresponds with that of +Zoar. The spots not cultivated being for the greater part sandy, there +is little pasturage, and the camels, in consequence, feed principally +upon the leaves of the trees. + +About eight hours to the N. of Szafye is the Ghor el Mezra (Arabic), a +village much frequented by the people of Kerek, who there buy the +tobacco which they smoak. About the middle of the lake on the same +eastern shore, are some ruins of an ancient city, called Towahein el +Sukkar (Arabic) i.e. the Sugar Mills. Farther north the mountains run +down to the lake, and a steep cliff overhangs the sea for about an hour, +shutting out all passage along the shore. Still farther to the north are +the ruined places called Kafreyn (Arabic), and Rama (Arabic), and in the +valley of the Jordan, south of Abou Obeida, are the ruins of Nemrin +(Arabic), probably + +PRODUCTIONS OF THE GHOR + +[p.392] the Bethnimra of the Scriptures. In the vegetable productions of +this plain the botanist would perhaps discover several unknown species +of trees and plants; the reports of the Arabs on this subject are so +vague and incoherent, that it is almost impossible to obtain any precise +information from them; they speak, for instance, of the spurious +pomegranate tree, producing a fruit exactly like that of the +pomegranate, but which, on being opened, is found to contain nothing but +a dusty powder; this, they pretend, is the Sodom apple-tree; other +persons however deny its existence. The tree Asheyr (Arabic), is very +common in the Ghor. It bears a fruit of a reddish yellow colour, about +three inches in diameter, which contains a white substance, resembling +the finest silk, and enveloping some seeds. The Arabs collect the silk, +and twist it into matches for their fire-locks, preferring it to the +common match, because it ignites more readily. More than twenty camel +loads might be annually procured, and it might perhaps be found useful +in the silk and cotton manufactories of Europe. At present the greater +part of the fruit rots on the trees. On making an incision into the +thick branches of the Asheyr a white juice exsudes, which is collected +by putting a hollow reed into the incision; the Arabs sell the juice to +the druggists at Jerusalem, who are said to use it in medicine as a +strong cathartic.[It is the same plant called Oshour by the people of +Upper Egypt and Nubia. Norden, who has given a drawing of it, as found +by him near the first cataract of the Nile, improperly denominates it +Oshar.] + +Indigo is a very common production of the Ghor; the Ghowárene sell it to +the merchants of Jerusalem and Hebron, where it is worth twenty per +cent. more than Egyptian indigo. One of the most interesting productions +of this valley is the Beyrouk honey, or as the Arabs call it, Assal +Beyrouk (Arabic). I suppose it to be the manna, but I never had an +opportunity of seeing it myself. It was described to me, as a juice +dropping from the + +[p.393] leaves and twigs of a tree called Gharrab (Arabic), of the size +of an olive tree, with leaves like those of the poplar, but somewhat +broader. The honey collects upon the leaves like dew, and is gathered +from them, or from the ground under the tree, which is often found +completely covered with it. According to some its colour is brownish; +others said it was of a grayish hue; it is very sweet when fresh, but +turns sour after being kept two days. The Arabs eat it like honey, with +butter, they also put it into their gruel, and use it in rubbing their +water skins, in order to exclude the air. I enquired whether it was a +laxative, but was answered in the negative. The Beyrouk honey is +collected only in the months of May and June. Some persons assured me +that the same substance was likewise produced by the thorny tree +Tereshresh (Arabic), and collected at the same time as that from the +Gharrab. + +In the mountains of Shera grows a tree called Arar (Arabic), from the +fruit of which the Bedouins extract a juice, which is extremely +nutritive. The tree Talh (Arabic), which produces the gum arabic +(Arabic), is very common in the Ghor; but the Arabs do not take the +trouble to collect the gum. Among other vegetable productions there is a +species of tobacco, called Merdiny (Arabic), which has a most +disagreeable taste; but, for want of a better kind, it is cultivated in +great quantity, and all the Bedouins on the borders of the Dead sea are +supplied with it. The coloquintida (Arabic or Arabic), grows wild every +where in great quantities. The tree Szadder (Arabic), which is a species +of the cochineal tree, is also very common. + +As to the mineral productions of the borders of the Dead sea, it appears +that the southern mountains are full of rock salt, which is washed off +by the winter rains, and carried down into the lake. In the northern +Ghor pieces of native sulphur are found at a small + +DEAD SEA + +[p.394] depth beneath the surface, and are used by the Arabs to cure +diseases in their camels. The asphaltum (Arabic), Hommar, which is +collected by the Arabs of the western shore, is said to come from a +mountain which blocks up the passage along the eastern Ghor, and which +is situated at about two hours south of wady Modjeb. The Arabs pretend +that it oozes from the fissures in the cliff, and collects in large +pieces on the rock below, where the mass gradually increases and +hardens, until it is rent asunder by the heat of the sun, with a loud +explosion, and falling into the sea, is carried by the waves in +considerable quantities to the opposite shores. At the northern +extremity of the sea the stink-stone is found; its combustible +properties are ascribed, by the Arabs, to the magic rod of Moses, whose +tomb is not far from thence. The stones are thrown into the fires made +of camel’s dung, to encrease the heat. + +Concerning the lake itself, I was informed that no visible increase of +its waters takes place in winter time, as the greater part of the +torrents which descend from the eastern mountains do not reach the lake, +but are lost in the sandy plain. About three hours north of Szaffye is a +ford, by which the lake is crossed in three hours and a half. Some Arabs +assured me that there are spots in this ford where the water is quite +hot, and where the bottom is of red earth. It is probable that there are +hot springs in the bottom of the lake, which near the ford is nowhere +deeper than three or four feet; and generally only two feet. The water +is so strongly impregnated with salt, that the skin of the legs of those +who wade across it soon afterwards peels entirely off. + +The mountains about Kerek are all calcareous, with flint; they abound +with petrified shells, and some of the rocks consist entirely of small +shells. Fine specimens of calcareous spath, called by the Arabs Hadjar +Ain el Shems (Arabic), the Sun’s eye, are found + +[p.395] here. Ancient coins of copper, silver, and even of gold are +found in the fields near Kerek; in general they are bought by the +silversmiths, and immediately melted. I procured a few of copper upon +which was the Greek legend of [Greek]. + +The direction of Jerusalem from Kerek, as pointed out to me several +times, is N. by W. The direction of Katrane, a station of the pilgrim +caravan to Mekka, is E.S.E. distant about eight hours. That of Szaffye, +or the S. point of the Dead sea, is W. by S. distant about twelve hours. +The Dead sea is here called Bahret Lout, the Sea of Lot. August +4th.—After having remained nearly three weeks at Kerek, waiting from day +to day for the departure of the Sheikh, he at last set out, accompanied +by about forty horsemen. The inhabitants of Kerek muster about one +hundred horsemen, and have excellent horses; the Sheikh himself +possessed the finest horse I had seen in Syria; it was a gray Saklawy, +famous all over the desert. + +We descended into the valley of Ain Frandjy, and ascended the mountain +on the other side, our road lying nearly S.S.W. In one hour and a half +from Kerek we reached the top of the mountain, from whence we had a fine +view of the southern extremity of the Dead sea, which presented the +appearance of a lake, with many islands or shoals covered with a white +saline crust. The water is very shallow for about three hours from its +south end. Where narrowest, it may be about six miles across. The +mountain which we had passed was a barren rock of flint and chalk. We +met with an encampment of Beni Hamyde, where we breakfasted. At the end +of two hours and a half we reached, on the descent of the mountain, Ain +Terayn (Arabic), a fine spring, with the ruins of a city near it. The +rivulet which takes its rise here joins that of Ketherabba, and descends +along a narrow valley into the Ghor, which it reaches near the ruined +place called Assal, from which it takes the name of Wady + +KHANZYRE + +[p.396] Assal. Near the rivulet are some olive plantations. At two hours +and three quarters is Ketherabba (Arabic), a village with about eighty +houses. Many of its inhabitants live under tents pitched in the square +open spaces left among the houses of the village. The gardens contain +great numbers of large fig trees. The mountains in the neighbourhood are +cultivated in some parts by the Beni Ammer. The village of Szaffye in +the Ghor bears from hence W. + +August 5th.—We left Ketherabba early in the morning. Our road lay +through a wild and entirely barren rocky country, ascending and +descending several Wadys. In one hour and a quarter we came to Oerak +(Arabic), a village of the same size as the former, very picturesquely +situated; it is built at the foot of a high perpendicular cliff, down +which a rivulet rushes into the Wady below. Many immense fragments have +separated from the cliff, and fallen down; and amongst these rocks the +houses of the village are built. Its inhabitants cultivate, besides +wheat, barley, and dhourra, olives, figs, and tobacco, which they sell +to advantage. We rested here the greater part of the day, under a large +Kharnoub tree. Our Sheikh had no pressing business, but like all Arabs, +fond of idleness, and of living well at other people’s expense, he by no +means hastened his journey, but easily found a pretext for stopping; +wherever we alighted a couple of sheep or goats were immediately killed, +and the best fruits, together with plenty of tobacco, were presented to +us. Our company increased at every village, as all those Arabs who had +horses followed us, in order to partake of our good fare, so that our +party amounted at last to eighty men. At two hours and a quarter is a +fine spring; two hours and a half, the village Khanzyre (Arabic), which +is larger than Oerak and Ketherabba. Here we stopped a whole day, our +Sheikh having a house in the village, and a wife, whom he dared not +carry to Kerek, having another family there. In the evening he held a +court + +[p.397] of justice, as he had done at Ketherabba, and decided a number +of disputes between the peasants; the greater part of these were +concerning money transactions between husbands and the families of their +wives; or related to the mixed property of the Arabs in mares, in +consequence of the Bedouin custom of selling only one-half, or one-third +of those animals. + +August 6th.———Khanzyre is built on the declivity of one of the highest +mountains on the eastern side of the Dead sea; in its neighbourhood are +a number of springs whose united waters form a rivulet which irrigates +the fields belonging to the village, and an extensive tract of gardens. +The villages of this country are each governed by its own Sheikh, and +the peasants are little better than Bedouins; their manners, dress, and +mode of living are exactly the same. In the harvest time they live in +the mountains under tents, and their cattle is entrusted during the +whole year to a small encampment of their own shepherds. In the +afternoon of this day we were alarmed by loud cries in the direction of +the opposite mountain. The whole of our party immediately mounted, and I +also followed. On reaching the spot from whence the cries came, we found +two shepherds of Khanzyre quite naked; they had been stripped by a party +of the Arabs Terabein, who live in the mountains of Hebron, and each of +the robbers had carried off a fat sheep upon his mare. They were now too +far off to be overtaken; and our people, not being able to engage the +enemy, amused themselves with a sham-fight in their return home. They +displayed superior strength and agility in handling the lance, and great +boldness in riding at full speed over rugged and rocky ground. In the +exercise with the lance the rider endeavours to put the point of it upon +the shoulder of his adversary, thus showing that his life is in his +power. When the parties become heated, they often bear off upon their +lances the turbands of their adversaries, and carry them + +[p.398] about with insolent vociferation. Our Sheikh of Kerek, a man of +sixty, far excelled all his people in these youthful, exercises; indeed +he seemed to be an accomplished Bedouin Sheikh; though he proved to be a +treacherous friend to me. As I thought that I had settled matters with +him, to his entire satisfaction, I was not a little astonished, when he +took me aside in the evening to announce to me, that unless he received +twenty piastres more, he would not take charge of me any farther. +Although I knew it was not in his power to hinder me from following him, +and that he could not proceed to violence without entirely losing his +reputation among the Arabs, for ill-treating his guest, yet I had +acquired sufficient knowledge of the Sheikh’s character to be persuaded +that if I did not acquiesce in his demand, he would devise some means to +get me into a situation which it would have perhaps cost me double the +sum to escape from; I therefore began to bargain with him; and brought +him down to fifteen piastres. I then endeavoured to bind him by the most +solemn oath used by the Bedouins; laying his hand upon the head of his +little boy, and on the fore feet of his mare, he swore that he would, +for that sum, conduct me himself, or cause me to be conducted, to the +Arabs Howeytat, from whence I might hope to find a mode of proceeding in +safety to Egypt. My precautions, however, were all in vain. Being +satisfied that my cash was reduced to a few piastres, he began his plans +for stripping me of every other part of my property which had excited +his wishes. The day after his oath, when we were about to depart from +Ayme, he addressed me in the presence of the whole company, saying that +his saddle would fit my horse better than my own did, and that he would +therefore change saddles with me. Mine was worth nearly forty piastres, +his was not worth more than ten. I objected to the exchange, pretending +that I was not accustomed to ride upon the low Bedouin saddle; he +replied, by assuring + +[p.399] me that I should soon find it much more agreeable than the town +saddle; moreover, said he, you may depend upon it that the Sheikh of the +Howeytat will take your saddle from you, if you do not give it to me. I +did not dare to put the Sheikh in mind of his oath, for had I betrayed +to the company his having extorted from me so much, merely for the sake +of his company, he would certainly have been severely reprimanded by the +Bedouins present, and I should thus have exposed myself to the effects +of his revenge. All the bye-standers at the same time pressed me to +comply with his request: “Is he not your brother?” said they. “Are not +the best morsels of his dish always for you? Does he not continually +fill your pipe with his own tobacco? Fie upon your stinginess.” But they +did not know that I had calculated upon paying part of the hire of a +guide to Egypt with the value of the saddle, nor that I had already +handsomely paid for my brotherhood. I at last reluctantly complied; but +the Sheikh was not yet satisfied: the stirrups he had given me, although +much inferior to those he had taken from me, were too good in his eyes, +to form part of my equipment. In the evening his son came to me to +propose an exchange of these stirrups against a pair of his own almost +unfit for use, and which I knew would wound my ankles, as I did not wear +boots; but it was in vain to resist. The pressing intreaties of all my +companions in favour of the Sheikh’s son lasted for two whole days; +until tired at length with their importunity, I yielded, and, as had +expected, my feet were soon wounded. I have entered into these details +in order to shew what Arab cupidity is: an article of dress, or of +equipment, which the poorest townsman would be ashamed to wear, is still +a covetable object with the Bedouins; they set no bounds to their +demands, delicacy is unknown amongst them, nor have they any word to +express it; if indeed one persists in refusing, they never take the +thing by force; but it is extremely + +WADY EL AHSA + +[p.400] difficult to resist their eternal supplications and compliments +without yielding at last. With regard to my behaviour towards the +Bedouins, I always endeavoured, by every possible means, to be upon good +terms with my companions, whoever they were, and I seldom failed in my +endeavours. I found, by experience, that putting on a grave face, and +talking wisely among them was little calculated to further the +traveller’s views. On the contrary, I aspired to the title of a merry +fellow; I joked with them whenever I could, and found that by a little +attention to their ways of thinking and reasoning, they are easily put +into good humour. This kind of behaviour, however, is to be observed +only in places where one makes a stay of several days, or towards fellow +travellers: in passing rapidly through Arab encampments, it is better +for the traveller not to be too talkative in the tents where he alights, +but to put on a stern countenance. + +We left Khanzyre late in the evening, that we might enjoy the coolness +of the night air. We ascended for a short time, and then began to +descend into the valley called Wady el Ahsa. It had now become dark, and +this was, without exception, the most dangerous route I ever travelled +in my life. The descent is steep, and there is no regular road over the +smooth rocks, where the foot slips at every step. We had missed our way, +and were obliged to alight from our horses, after many of us had +suffered severe falls. Our Sheikh was the only horseman who would not +alight from his mare, whose step, he declared, was as secure as his own. +After a march of two hours and a half, we halted upon a narrow plain, on +the declivity of the Wady, called El Derredje (Arabic), where we lighted +a fire, and remained till day-break. + +August 7th.—In three quarters of an hour from Derredje, we reached the +bottom of the valley. The Wady el Ahsa (Arabic), which takes its rise +near the castle El Ahsa, or El Hassa, on the + +EL KERR + +[p.401] Syrian Hadj road, runs here in a deep and narrow bed of rocks, +the banks of which are overgrown with Defle. There was more water in the +rivulet than in any of those I had passed south of Zerka; the water was +quite tepid, caused by a hot spring, which empties itself into the Ahsa +from a side valley higher up the Wady. This forms the third hot spring +on the east of the Dead sea, one being in the Wady Zerka Mayn, and +another in the Wady Hammad. The valley of El Ahsa divides the district +of Kerek from that of Djebal (plur. of Djebel), the ancient Gebalene. In +the Ghor the river changes its name into that of Kerahy (Arabic), and is +likewise called Szafye (Arabic). This name is found in all the maps of +Arabia Petræa, but the course of the river is not from the south, as +there laid down; Djebal also, instead of being laid down at the S.E. +extremity of the lake, is improperly placed as beginning on the S.W. of +it. The rock of the Wady el Ahsa is chiefly sand-stone, which is seldom +met with to the N. of this valley; but it is very common in the southern +mountains. + +We ascended the southern side of the valley, which is less steep and +rocky than the northern, and in an hour and a half reached a fine spring +called El Kaszrein (Arabic) surrounded by verdant ground and tall reeds. +The Bedouins of the tribe of Beni Naym, here cultivate some Dhourra +fields and there are some remains of ancient habitations. In two hours +and a quarter we arrived at the top of the mountain, when we entered +upon an extensive plain, and passed the ruins of an ancient city of +considerable extent called El Kerr (Arabic), perhaps the ancient Kara, a +bishopric belonging to the diocese of Rabba Moabitis;[See Reland. +Palæst. Vol. i. p. 226.] nothing remains but heaps of stones. The plain, +which we crossed in a S.W. by S. direction, consists of a fertile soil, +and contains the ruins of several villages. At the end of two hours and +three quarters we descended by a steep road, into a Wady, and in three +hours reached the village of + +AYME + +[p.402] Ayme (Arabic), situated upon a narrow plain at the foot of high +cliffs. In its neighbourhood are several springs, and wherever these are +met with, vegetation readily takes place, even among barren sandrocks. +Ayme is no longer in the district of Kerek, its Sheikh being now under +the command of the Sheikh of Djebal, whose residence is at Tafyle. One +half of the inhabitants live under tents, and every house has a tent +pitched upon its terrace, where the people pass the mornings and +evenings, and sleep. The climate of all these mountains, to the +southward of the Belka, is extremely agreeable; the air is pure, and +although the heat is very great in summer, and is still further +increased by the reflexion of the sun’s rays from the rocky sides of the +mountains, yet the temperature never becomes suffocating, owing to the +refreshing breeze which generally prevails. I have seen no part of Syria +in which there are so few invalids. The properties of the climate seem +to have been well known to the ancients, who gave this district the +appellation of Palæstina tertia, sive salutaris. The winter is very +cold; deep snow falls, and the frosts sometimes continue till the middle +of March. This severe weather is doubly felt by the inhabitants, as +their dress is little fitted to protect them from it. During my stay in +Gebalene, we had every morning a fog which did not disperse till mid- +day. I could perceive the vapours collecting in the Ghor below, which, +after sun-set, was completely enveloped in them. During the night they +ascend the sides of the mountains, and in general are not entirely +dissipated until near mid-day. From Khanzyre we had the Ghor all the way +on our right, about eight or ten hours distant; but, in a straight line, +not more than six hours. + +August 8th.—At one hour and a quarter from Ayme, route S. b. W. we +reached Tafyle (Arabic), built on the declivity of a mountain, at the +foot of which is Wady Tafyle. This name bears some resemblance to that +of Phanon or Phynon, which, according + +TAFYLE + +[p.403] to Eusebius, was situated between Petra and Zoara.[Euseb. de +nom. S.S.] Tafyle contains about six hundred houses; its Sheikh is the +nominal chief of Djebal, but in reality the Arabs Howeytat govern the +whole district, and their Sheikh has lately constructed a small castle +at Tafyle at his own expense. Numerous springs and rivulets (ninety-nine +according to the Arabs), the waters of which unite below and flow into +the Ghor, render the vicinity of this town very agreeable. It is +surrounded by large plantations of fruit trees: apples, apricots, figs, +pomegranates, and olive and peach trees of a large species are +cultivated in great numbers. The fruit is chiefly consumed by the +inhabitants and their guests, or exchanged with the Bedouin women for +butter; the figs are dried and pressed together in large lumps, and are +thus exported to Ghaza, two long days journey from hence. + +The inhabitants of Djebal are not so independent as the Kerekein, +because they have not been able to inspire the neighbouring Bedouins +with a dread of their name. They pay a regular tribute to the Beni +Hadjaya, to the Szaleyt, but chiefly to the Howeytat, who often exact +also extraordinary donations. Wars frequently happen between the people +of Djebal and of Kerek, principally on account of persons who having +committed some offence, fly from one town to seek an asylum in the +other. At the time of my visit a coolness had existed between the two +districts for several months, on account of a man of Tafyle, who having +eloped with the wife of another, had taken refuge at Kerek; and one of +the principal reasons which had induced our Sheikh to undertake this +journey, was the hope of being able to bring the affair to an amicable +termination. Hence we were obliged to remain three days at Tafyle, +tumultuous assemblies were held daily, upon the subject, and the meanest +Arab might give his opinion, though in direct + +[p.404] opposition to that of his Sheikh. The father of the young man +who had eloped had come with us from Kerek, for the whole family had +been obliged to fly, the Bedouin laws entitling an injured husband to +kill any of the offender’s relations, in retaliation for the loss of his +wife. The husband began by demanding from the young man’s father two +wives in return for the one carried off, and the greater part of the +property which the emigrant family possessed in Tafyle. The father of +the wife and her first cousin also made demands of compensation for the +insult which their family had received by her elopement. Our Sheikh, +however, by his eloquence and address, at last got the better of them +all: indeed it must in justice be said that Youssef Medjaly was not more +superior to the other mountaineers in the strength of his arm, and the +excellence of his horsemanship, than he was by his natural talents. The +affair was settled by the offender’s father placing his four infant +daughters, the youngest of whom was not yet weaned, at the disposal of +the husband and his father-in-law, who might betrothe them to whomsoever +they chose, and receive themselves the money which is usually paid for +girls. The four daughters were estimated at about three thousand +piastres, and both parties seemed to be content. In testimony of peace +being concluded between the two families, and of the price of blood +being paid, the young man’s father, who had not yet shewn himself +publickly, came to shake hands with the injured husband, a white flag +was suspended at the top of the tent in which we sat, a sheep was +killed, and we passed the whole night in feasting and conversation. + +The women of Tafyle are much more shy before strangers than those of +Kerek. The latter never, or at least very seldom, veil themselves, and +they discourse freely with all strangers; the former, on the contrary, +imitate the city ladies in their pride, and reserved manners. The +inhabitants of Tafyle, who are of the tribe + +[p.405] of Djowabere (Arabic), supply the Syrian Hadj with a great +quantity of provisions, which they sell to the caravan at the castle El +Ahsa; and the profits which they derive from this trade are sometimes +very great. It is much to be doubted whether the peasants of Djebal and +Shera will be able to continue their field-labour, if the Syrian pilgrim +caravan be not soon re-established. The produce of their soil hardly +enables them to pay their heavy tribute to the Bedouins, besides feeding +the strangers who alight at their Menzels: for all the villages in this +part of the country treat their guests in the manner, which has already +been described. The people of Djebal sell their wool, butter, and hides +at Ghaza, where they buy all the little luxuries which they stand in +need of; there are, besides, in every village, a few shopkeepers from El +Khalyl or Hebron, who make large profits. The people of Hebron have the +reputation of being enterprising merchants, and not so dishonest as +their neighbours of Palestine: their pedlars penetrate far into the +desert of Arabia, and a few of them remain the whole year round at +Khaibar in the Nedjed. + +The fields of Tafyle are frequented by immense numbers of crows; the +eagle Rakham is very common in the mountains, as are also wild boars. In +all the Wadys south of the Modjeb, and particularly in those of Modjeb +and El Ahsa, large herds of mountain goats, called by the Arabs Beden +(Arabic), are met with. This is the Steinbock, or Bouquetin of the Swiss +and Tyrol Alps they pasture in flocks of forty or fifty together; great +numbers of them are killed by the people of Kerek and Tafyle, who hold +their flesh in high estimation. They sell the large knotty horns to the +Hebron merchants, who carry them to Jerusalem, where they are worked +into handles for knives and daggers. I saw a pair of these horns at +Kerek three feet and a half in length. The Arabs told + +[p.406] me that it is very difficult to get a shot at them, and that the +hunters hide themselves among the reeds on the banks of streams where +the animals resort in the evening to drink; they also asserted, that +when pursued, they will throw themselves from a height of fifty feet and +more upon their heads without receiving any injury. The same thing is +asserted by the hunters in the Alps. In the mountains of Belka, Kerek, +Djebal, and Shera, the bird Katta [This bird is a species of partridge, +Tetrao Alkatta, and is found in large flocks in May and June in every +part of Syria. It has been particularly described in Russel’s Aleppo, +vol. ii. p. 194.] is met with in immense numbers; they fly in such large +flocks that the Arab boys often kill two and three at a time, merely by +throwing a stick amongst them. Their eggs, which they lay in the rocky +ground, are collected by the Arabs. It is not improbable that this bird +is the Seloua (Arabic), or quail, of the children of Israel. + +The peasants of Tafyle have but few camels; they till the ground with +oxen and cows, and use mules for the transport of their provisions. At +half an hour south of Tafyle is the valley of Szolfehe (Arabic). From a +point above Tafyle the mountains of Dhana (which I shall have occasion +to mention hereafter) bore S.S.W. + +August 11th.—During our stay at Tafyle we changed our lodgings twice +every day, dining at one public house and supping at another. We were +well treated, and had every evening a musical party, consisting of +Bedouins famous for their performance upon the Rababa, or guitar of the +desert, and who knew all the new Bedouin poetry by heart. I here met a +man from Aintab, near Aleppo, who hearing me talk of his native town, +took a great liking to me, and shewed me every civility. + +We left Tafyle on the morning of the 11th. In one hour we reached a +spring, where a party of Beni Szaleyt was encamped. At two hours was a +ruined village, with a fine spring, at the head of + +BESZEYRA + +[p.407] a Wady. Two hours and three quarters, the village Beszeyra +(Arabic). Our road lay S.W. along the western declivity of the +mountains, having the Ghor continually in view. The Wadys which descend +the mountains of Djebal south of Tafyle do not reach the lowest part of +the plain in the summer, but are lost in the gravelly soil of the +valley. Beszeyra is a village of about fifty houses. It stands upon an +elevation, on the summit of which a small castle has been built, where +the peasants place their provisions in times of hostile invasion. It is +a square building of stone, with strong walls. The villages of Beszeyra, +Szolfehe, and Dhana are inhabited by descendants of the Beni Hamyde, a +part of whom have thus become Fellahein, or cultivators, while the +greater number still remain in a nomadic state. Those of Beszeyra lived +formerly at Omteda, now a ruined village three or four hours to the +north of it. At that time the Arabs Howeytat were at war with the +Djowabere, whose Sheikh was an ally of the Hamyde. The Howeytat defeated +the Djowabere, and took Tafyle, where they constructed a castle, and +established a Sheikh of their own election; they also built, at the same +time, the tower of Beszeyra. The Hamyde of Omteda then emigrated to this +place, which appears to have been, in ancient times, a considerable +city, if we may judge from the ruins which surround the village. It was +probably the ancient Psora, a bishopric of Palaestina tertia.[See +Reland. Palæst. vol i. p. 218.] The women of Beszeyra were the first +whom I saw wearing the Berkoa (Arabic), or Egyptian veil, over their +faces. + +The Sheikh of Kerek had come thus far, in order to settle a dispute +concerning a colt which one of the Hamyde of Beszeyra demanded of him. +We found here a small encampment of Howeytat Arabs, to one of whom the +Sheikh recommended me: he professed to know the man well, and assured me +that he was a proper guide. We settled the price of his hire to Cairo, +at eighty piastres; and he was to provide me with a camel for myself and +baggage. This was + +AIN DJEDOLAT + +[p.408] the last friendly service of Sheikh Youssef towards me, but I +afterwards learnt, that he received for his interest in making the +bargain, fifteen piastres from the Arab, who, instead of eighty, would +have been content with forty piastres. After the Sheikh had departed on +his return, my new guide told me that his camels were at another +encampment, one day’s distance to the south, and that he had but one +with him, which was necessary for the transport of his tent. This avowal +was sufficient to make me understand the character of the man, but I +still relied on the Sheikh’s recommendation. In order to settle with the +guide I sold my mare for four goats and for thirty-five piastres worth +of corn, a part of which I delivered to him, and I had the remainder +ground into flour, for our provision during the journey; he took the +goats in payment of his services, and it was agreed that I should give +him twenty piastres more on reaching Cairo. I had still about eighty +piastres in gold, but kept them carefully concealed in case of some +great emergency; for I knew that if I were to shew a single sequin, the +Arabs would suppose that I possessed several hundreds, and would either +have robbed me of them, or prevented me from proceeding on my journey by +the most exorbitant demands. + +August 13th.—I remained two days at Beszeyra, and then set out with the +family of my guide, consisting of his wife, two children, and a servant +girl. We were on foot, and drove before us the loaded camel and a few +sheep and goats. Our road ascended; at three quarters of an hour, we +came to a spring in the mountain. The rock is here calcareous, with +basalt. At two hours and a half was Ain Djedolat (Arabic), a spring of +excellent water; here the mountain is overgrown with short Balout trees. +At the end of two hours and three quarters, direction S. we reached the +top of the mountain, which is covered with large blocks of basalt. Here +a fine view opened upon us; to our right we had the deep valley of Wady +Dhana, with the village of the + +EL GHOEYR + +[p.409] same name on its S. side; farther west, about four hours from +Dhana, we saw the great valley of the Ghor, and towards the E. and S. +extended the wide Arabian desert, which the Syrian pilgrims cross in +their way to Medina. In three hours and a quarter, after a slight +descent, we reached the plain, here consisting of arable ground covered +with flints. We passed the ruins of an ancient town or large village, +called El Dhahel (Arabic). The castle of Aaneiza (Arabic), with an +insulated hillock near it, a station of the pilgrims, bore S.S.E. +distant about five hours; the town of Maan, S. distant ten or twelve +hours; and the castle El Shobak, S.S.W. East of Aaneiza runs a chain of +hills called Teloul Djaafar (Arabic). Proceeding a little farther, we +came to the high borders of a broad valley, called El Ghoeyr (Arabic), +(diminutive of Arabic El Ghor) to the S. of Wady Dhana. Looking down +into this valley, we saw at a distance a troop of horsemen encamped near +a spring; they had espied us, and immediately mounted their horses in +pursuit of us. Although several people had joined our little caravan on +the road, there was only one armed man amongst us, except myself. The +general opinion was that the horsemen belonged to the Beni Szakher, the +enemies of the Howeytat, who often make inroads into this district; +there was therefore no time to lose; we drove the cattle hastily back, +about a quarter of an hour, and hid them, with the women and baggage, +behind some rocks near the road, and we then took to our heels towards +the village of Dhana (Arabic), which we reached in about three quarters +of an hour, extremely exhausted, for it was about two o’clock in the +afternoon and the heat was excessive. In order to run more nimbly over +the rocks, I took off my heavy Arab shoes, and thus I was the first to +reach the village; but the sharp flints of the mountain wounded my feet +so much, that after reposing a little I could hardly stand upon my legs. +This was the first time I had ever felt fear during my travels + +DHANA + +[p.410] in the desert; for I knew that if I fell in with the Beni +Szakher, without any body to protect me, they would certainly kill me, +as they did all persons whom they supposed to belong to their inveterate +enemy, the Pasha of Damascus, and my appearance was very much that of a +Damascene. Our fears however were unfounded; the party that pursued us +proved to be Howeytat, who were coming to pay a visit to the Sheikh at +Tafyle; the consequence was that two of our companions, who had staid +behind, because being inhabitants of Maan, and friends of the Beni +Szakher, they conceived themselves secure, were stripped by the +pursuers, whose tribe was at war with the people of Maan. Dhana, which I +suppose to be the ancient Thoana, is prettily situated, on the declivity +of Tor Dhana, the highest mountain of Djebal, and has fine gardens and +very extensive tobacco plantations. The Howeytat have built a tower in +the village. The inhabitants were now at war with those of Beszeyra, but +both parties respect the lives of their enemies, and their hostile +expeditions are directed against the cattle only. Having reposed at +Dhana we returned in the evening to the spot where we had left the women +and the baggage, and rested for the night at about a quarter of an hour +beyond it. + +August 14th.—We skirted, for about an hour, the eastern borders of Wady +Ghoeyr, when we descended into the valley, and reached its bottom at the +end of three hours and a half, travelling at a slow pace. This Wady +divides the district of Djebal from that of Djebal Shera (Arabic), or +the mountains of Shera, which continue southwards towards the Akaba. +These are the mountains called in the Scriptures Mount Seir, the +territory of the Edomites. The valley of Ghoeyr is a large rocky and +uneven basin, considerably lower than the eastern plain, upwards of +twelve miles across at its eastern extremity, but narrowing towards + +EL GHOEYR + +[p.411] the west. It is intersected by numerous Wadys of winter +torrents, and by three or four valleys watered by rivulets which unite +below and flow into the Ghor. The Ghoeyr is famous for the excellent +pasturage, produced by its numerous springs, and it has, in consequence, +become a favourite place of encampment for all the Bedouins of Djebal +and Shera. The borders of the rivulets are overgrown with Defle and the +shrub Rethem (Arabic). The rock is principally calcareous; and there are +detached pieces of basalt and large tracts of brescia formed of sand, +flint, and pieces of calcareous stone. In the bottom of the valley we +passed two rivulets, one of which is called Seil Megharye (Arabic), +where we arrived at the end of a four hours walk, and found some Bedouin +women washing their blue gowns, and the wide shirts of their husbands. I +had taken the lead of our party, accompanied by my guide’s little boy, +with whom I reached an encampment, on the southern side of the valley, +to which these women belonged. This was the encampment to which my guide +belonged, and where he assured me that I should find his camels. I was +astonished to see nobody but women in the tents, but was told that the +greater part of the men had gone to Ghaza to sell the soap-ashes which +these Arabs collect in the mountains of Shera. The ladies being thus +left to themselves, had no impediment to the satisfying of their +curiosity, which was very great at seeing a townsman, and what was still +more extraordinary, a man of Damascus (for so I was called), under their +tents. They crowded about me, and were incessant in their inquiries +respecting my affairs, the goods I had to sell, the dress of the town +ladies, &c. &c. When they found that I had nothing to sell, nor any +thing to present to them, they soon retired; they however informed me +that my guide had no other camels in his possession than the one we had +brought with us, which was already lame. He soon afterwards arrived, and +when I began to expostulate with him on his + +[p.412] conduct, he assured me that his camel would be able to carry us +all the way to Egypt, but begged me to wait a few days longer, until he +should be well enough to walk by its side; for, since we left Beszeyra +he had been constantly complaining of rheumatic pains in his legs. I saw +that all this was done to gain time, and to put me out of patience, in +order to cheat me of the wages he had already received; but, as we were +to proceed on the following day to another encampment at a few hours +distance, I did not choose to say any thing more to him on the subject +in a place where I had nobody but women to take my part; hoping to be +able to attack him more effectually in the presence of his own +tribe’smen. + +August 15th.—We remained this day at the women’s tents, and I amused +myself with visiting almost every tent in the encampment, these women +being accustomed to receive strangers in the absence of their husbands. +The Howeytat Arabs resemble the Egyptians in their features; they are +much leaner and taller than the northern Arabs; the skin of many of them +is almost black, and their features are much less regular than those of +the northern Bedouins, especially the Aeneze. The women are tall and +well made, but too lean; and even the handsomest among them are +disfigured by broad cheek bones. + +The Howeytat occupy the whole of the Shera, as far as Akaba, and south +of it to Moyeleh (Arabic), five days from Akaba, on the Egyptian Hadj +road. To the east they encamp as far as Akaba el Shamy, or the Akaba on +the Syrian pilgrim route; while the northern Howeytat take up their +winter quarters in the Ghor. The strength of their position in these +mountains renders them secure from the attacks of the numerous hordes of +Bedouins who encamp in the eastern Arabian desert; they are, however, in +continual warfare with them, and sometimes undertake expeditions of +twenty days journey, in order to surprise some encampment of their + +[p.413] enemies in the plains of the Nedjed. The Beni Szakher are most +dreaded by them, on account of their acquaintance with the country, and +peace seldom lasts long between the two tribes. The encampment where I +spent this day was robbed of all its camels last winter by the Beni +Szakher, who drove off, in one morning, upwards of twelve hundred +belonging to their enemies. The Howeytat receive considerable sums of +money as a tribute from the Egyptian pilgrim caravan; they also levy +certain contributions upon the castles on the Syrian Hadj route, +situated between Maan and Tebouk, which they consider as forming a part +of their territory. They have become the carriers of the Egyptian Hadj, +in the same manner, as the Aeneze transport with their camels the Syrian +pilgrims and their baggage. When at variance with the Pashas of Egypt, +the Howeytat have been known to plunder the caravan; a case of this kind +happened about ten years ago, when the Hadj was returning from Mekka; +the principal booty consisted of several thousand camel loads of Mocha +coffee, an article which the pilgrims are in the constant habit of +bringing for sale to Cairo; the Bedouins not knowing what to do with so +large a quantity, sold the greater part of it at Hebron, Tafyle, and +Kerek, and that year happening to be a year of dearth, they gave for +every measure of corn an equal measure of coffee. The Howeytat became +Wahabis; but they paid tribute only for one year, and have now joined +their forces with those of Mohammed Aly, against Ibn Saoud. + +August 16th.—We set out for the encampment of the Sheikh of the northern +Howeytat, with the tent and family of my guide: who was afraid of +leaving them in this place where be thought himself too much exposed to +the incursions of the Beni Szakher. We ascended on foot, through many +Wadys of winter torrents, up the southern + +[p.414] mountains of the Ghoeyr; we passed several springs, and the +ruined place called Szyhhan (Arabic), and at the end of three hours walk +arrived at a large encampment of the Howeytat, situated near the summit +of the basin of the Ghoeyr. It is usual, when an Arab with his tent +reaches an encampment placed in a Douar (Arabic), or circle, that some +of the families strike their tents, and pitch them again in such a way +as to widen the circle for the admission of the stranger’s tent; but the +character of my guide did not appear to be sufficiently respectable to +entitle him to this compliment, for not a tent was moved, and he was +obliged to encamp alone out of the circle, in the hope that they would +soon break up for some other spot where he might obtain a place in the +Douar. These Arabs are much poorer than the Aeneze, and consequently +live much worse. Had it not been for the supply of butter which I bought +at Beszeyra, I should have had nothing but dry bread to eat; there was +not a drop of milk to be got, for at this time of the year the ewes are +dry; of camels there was but about half a dozen in the whole encampment. + +I here came to an explanation with my guide, who, I saw, was determined +to cheat me out of the wages he had already received. I told him that I +was tired of his subterfuges, and was resolved to travel with him no +longer, and I insisted upon his returning me the goats, or hiring me +another guide in his stead. He offered me only one of the goats; after a +sharp dispute therefore I arose, took my gun, and swore that I would +never re-enter his tent, accompanying my oath with a malediction upon +him, and upon those who should receive him into their encampment, for I +had been previously informed that he was not a real Howeytat, but of the +tribe of Billy, the individuals of which are dispersed over the whole +desert. On quitting his tent, I was surrounded by the Bedouins + +[p.415] of the encampment, who told me that they had been silent till +now, because it was not their affair to interfere between a host and his +guest, but that they never would permit a stranger to depart in that +way; that I ought to declare myself to be under the Sheikh’s protection, +who would do me justice. This being what I had anticipated, I +immediately entered the tent of the Sheikh, who happened to be absent; +my guide now changed his tone, and began by offering me two goats to +settle our differences. In the evening the Sheikh arrived, and after a +long debate I got back my four goats, but the wheat which I had received +at Beszeyra, as the remaining part of the payment for my mare, was left +to the guide. In return for his good offices, the Sheikh begged me to +let him have my gun, which was worth about fifteen piastres; I presented +it to him, and he acknowledged the favour, by telling me that he knew an +honest man in a neighbouring encampment, who had a strong camel, and +would be ready to serve me as a guide. + +August 18th.—I took a boy to shew me the way to this person, and driving +my little flock before us, we reached the encampment, which was about +one hour to the westward. The boy told the Bedouin that I had become the +Sheikh’s brother, I was therefore well received, and soon formed a +favourable opinion of this Arab, who engaged to take me to Cairo for the +four goats, which I was to deliver to him now, and twenty piastres +(about one pound sterling) to be paid on my arrival in Egypt. This will +be considered a very small sum for a journey of nearly four hundred +miles; but a Bedouin puts very little value upon time, fatigue, and +labour; while I am writing this, many hundred loaded camels, belonging +to Bedouins, depart every week from Cairo for Akaba, a journey of ten +days, for which they receive twenty-five piastres per camel. Had I been +known to be an European, I certainly should not have been able to move +without promising at least a thousand piastres to my guide. The +excursion of M. Boutin, a French traveller, from + +SHOBAK + +[p.416] Cairo to the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon, a journey of twelve days, +undertaken in the summer of 1812, cost for guides only, four thousand +piastres. + +August 19th.—In the morning I went to the castle of Shobak, where I +wished to purchase some provisions. It was distant one hour and a +quarter from the encampment, in a S.E. direction. Shobak, also called +Kerek el Shobak (Arabic), perhaps the ancient Carcaria,[Euseb. de locis +S.S.] is the principal place in Djebel Shera; it is situated about one +hour to the south of the Ghoeyr, upon the top of a hill in the midst of +low mountains, which bears some resemblance to Kerek, but is better +adapted for a fortress, as it is not commanded by any higher mountains. +At the foot of the hill are two springs, surrounded by gardens and olive +plantations. The castle is of Saracen construction, and is one of the +largest to the south of Damascus; but it is not so solidly built as the +castle of Kerek. The greater part of the wall and several of the +bastions and towers are still entire. The ruins of a well built vaulted +church are now transformed into a public inn or Medhafe. Upon the +architraves of several gates I saw mystical symbols, belonging to the +ecclesiastical architecture of the lower empire. In several Arabic +inscriptions I distinguished the name of Melek el Dhaher. Where the hill +does not consist of precipitous rock, the surface of the slope is +covered with a pavement. Within the area of the castle a party of about +one hundred families of the Arabs Mellahein (Arabic) have built their +houses or pitched their tents. They cultivate the neighbouring grounds, +under the protection of the Howeytat, to whom they pay tribute. The +horsemen of the latter who happen to encamp near the castle, call +regularly every morning at one of the Medhafes of Shobak, in order to +have their mares fed; if the barley is refused, they next day kill one +of the sheep belonging to the town. + +At one hour and a half north of Shobak, on the side of the + +[p.417] Ghoeyr, lies the village of Shkerye (Arabic). From Shobak the +direction of Wady Mousa is S.S.W. Maan bears S.S.E. The mountain over +Dhana, N.N.E. To the east of the castle is an encampment of Bedouin +peasants, of the tribe of Hababene (Arabic), who cultivate the ground. +As I had no cash in silver, and did not wish to shew my sequins, I was +obliged to give in exchange for the provisions which I procured at +Shobak my only spare shirt, together with my red cap, and half my +turban. The provisions consisted of flour, butter, and dried Leben, or +sour milk mixed with flour and hardened in the sun, which makes a most +refreshing drink when dissolved in water. There are several Hebron +merchants at Shobak. + +August 20th.—I remained in the tent of my new guide, who delayed his +departure, in order to obtain from his friends some commissions for +Cairo, upon which he might gain a few piastres. In the afternoon of this +day we had a shower of rain, with so violent a gust of wind, that all +the tents of the encampment were thrown down at the same moment, for the +poles are fastened in the ground very carelessly during the summer +months. + +August 21st.—The whole encampment broke up in the morning, some Bedouins +having brought intelligence that a strong party of Beni Szakher had been +seen in the district of Djebal. The greater part of the males of the +Howeytat together with their principal Sheikh Ibn Rashyd (Arabic), were +gone to Egypt, in order to transport the Pasha’s army across the desert +to Akaba and Yambo; we had therefore no means of defence against these +formidable enemies, and were obliged to take refuge in the neighbourhood +of Shobak, where they would not dare to attack the encampment. When the +Bedouins encamp in small numbers, they choose a spot surrounded by high +ground, to prevent their tents from being + +WADY NEDJED + +[p.418] seen at a distance. The camp is, however, not unfrequently +betrayed by the camels which pasture in the vicinity. + +In the evening we took our final departure, crossing an uneven plain, +covered with flints and the ruins of several villages, and then +descended into the Wady Nedjed (Arabic); the rivulet, whose source is in +a large paved basin in the valley, joins that of Shobak. Upon the hills +which border this pleasant valley are the ruins of a large town of the +same name, of which nothing remains but broken walls and heaps of +stones. In one hour and a quarter from our encampment, and about as far +from Shobak, we reached the camp of another tribe of Fellahein Bedouins, +called Refaya (Arabic), where we slept. They are people of good +property, for which they are indebted to their courage in opposing the +extortions of the Howeytat. Here were about sixty tents and one hundred +firelocks. Their herds of cows, sheep, and goats are very numerous, but +they have few camels. Besides corn fields they have extensive vineyards, +and sell great quantities of dried grapes at Ghaza, and to the Syrian +pilgrims of the Hadj. They have the reputation of being very daring +thieves. + +August 22nd.—I was particularly desirous of visiting Wady Mousa, of the +antiquities of which I had heard the country people speak in terms of +great admiration; and from thence I had hoped to cross the desert in a +straight line to Cairo; but my guide was afraid of the hazards of a +journey through the desert, and insisted upon my taking the road by +Akaba, the ancient Eziongeber, at the extremity of the eastern branch of +the Red sea, where he said that we might join some caravans, and +continue our route towards Egypt. I wished, on the contrary, to avoid +Akaba, as I knew that the Pasha of Egypt kept there a numerous garrison +to watch the movements of the Wahabi and of his rival the Pasha of +Damascus; + +SAOUDYE + +[p.419] a person therefore like myself, coming from the latter place, +without any papers to shew who I was, or why I had taken that circuitous +route, would certainly have roused the suspicions of the officer +commanding at Akaba, and the consequences might have been dangerous to +me among the savage soldiery of that garrison. The road from Shobak to +Akaba, which is tolerably good, and might easily be rendered practicable +even to artillery, lies to the E. of Wady Mousa; and to have quitted it, +out of mere curiosity to see the Wady, would have looked very suspicious +in the eyes of the Arabs; I therefore pretended to have made a vow to +slaughter a goat in honour of Haroun (Aaron), whose tomb I knew was +situated at the extremity of the valley, and by this stratagem I thought +that I should have the means of seeing the valley in my way to the tomb. +To this my guide had nothing to oppose; the dread of drawing upon +himself, by resistance, the wrath of Haroun, completely silenced him. + +We left the Refaya early in the morning, and travelled over hilly +ground. At the end of two hours we reached an encampment of Arabs +Saoudye (Arabic), who are also Fellahein or cultivators, and the +strongest of the peasant tribes, though they pay tribute to the +Howeytat. Like the Refaya they dry large quantities of grapes. They lay +up the produce of their harvest in a kind of fortress called Oerak +(Arabic), not far from their camp, where are a few houses surrounded by +a stone wall. They have upwards of one hundred and twenty tents. We +breakfasted with the Saoudye, and then pursued the windings of a valley, +where I saw many vestiges of former cultivation, and here and there some +remains of walls and paved roads, all constructed of flints. The country +hereabouts is woody. In three hours and a half we passed a spring, from +whence we ascended a mountain, and travelled for some time along its +barren summit, in a S.W. direction, when we again descended, and reached +Ain + +ELDJY + +[p.420] Mousa, distant five hours and a half from where we had set out +in the morning. Upon the summit of the mountain near the spot where the +road to Wady Mousa diverges from the great road to Akaba, are a number +of small heaps of stones, indicating so many sacrifices to Haroun. The +Arabs who make vows to slaughter a victim to Haroun, think it sufficient +to proceed as far as this place, from whence the dome of the tomb is +visible in the distance; and after killing the animal they throw a heap +of stones over the blood which flows to the ground. Here my guide +pressed me to slaughter the goat which I had brought with me from +Shobak, for the purpose, but I pretended that I had vowed to immolate it +at the tomb itself. Upon a hill over the Ain Mousa the Arabs Lyathene +(Arabic) were encamped, who cultivate the valley of Mousa. We repaired +to their encampment, but were not so hospitably received as we had been +the night before. + +Ain Mousa is a copious spring, rushing from under a rock at the eastern +extremity of Wady Mousa. There are no ruins near the spring; a little +lower down in the valley is a mill, and above it is the village of +Badabde (Arabic), now abandoned. It was inhabited till within a few +years by about twenty families of Greek Christians, who subsequently +retired to Kerek. Proceeding from the spring along the rivulet for about +twenty minutes, the valley opens, and leads into a plain about a quarter +of an hour in length and ten minutes in breadth, in which the rivulet +joins with another descending from the mountain to the southward. Upon +the declivity of the mountain, in the angle formed by the junction of +the two rivulets, stands Eldjy (Arabic), the principal village of Wady +Mousa. This place contains between two and three hundred houses, and is +enclosed by a stone wall with three regular gates. It is most +picturesquely situated, and is inhabited by the + +WADY MOUSA + +[p.421] Lyathene abovementioned, a part of whom encamp during the whole +year in the neighbouring mountains. The slopes of the mountain near the +town are formed into artificial terraces, covered with corn fields and +plantations of fruit trees. They are irrigated by the waters of the two +rivulets and of many smaller springs which descend into the valley below +Eldjy, where the soil is also well cultivated. A few large hewn stones +dispersed over the present town indicate the former existence of an +ancient city in this spot, the happy situation of which must in all ages +have attracted inhabitants. I saw here some large pieces of beautiful +saline marble, but nobody could tell me from whence they had come, or +whether there were any rocks of this stone in the mountains of Shera. + +I hired a guide at Eldjy, to conduct me to Haroun’s tomb, and paid him +with a pair of old horse-shoes. He carried the goat, and gave me a skin +of water to carry, as he knew that there was no water in the Wady below. + +In following the rivulet of Eldjy westwards the valley soon narrows +again; and it is here that the antiquities of Wady Mousa begin. Of these +I regret that I am not able to give a very complete account: but I knew +well the character of the people around me; I was without protection in +the midst of a desert where no traveller had ever before been seen; and +a close examination of these works of the infidels, as they are called, +would have excited suspicions that I was a magician in search of +treasures; I should at least have been detained and prevented from +prosecuting my journey to Egypt, and in all probability should have been +stripped of the little money which I possessed, and what was infinitely +more valuable to me, of my journal book. Future travellers may visit the +spot under the protection of an armed force; the inhabitants will become +more accustomed to the researches of strangers; and the antiquities of + +[p.422] Wady Mousa will then be found to rank amongst the most curious +remains of ancient art. + +At the point where the valley becomes narrow is a large sepulchral +vault, with a handsome door hewn in the rock on the slope of the hill +which rises from the right bank of the torrent: on the same side of the +rivulet, a little farther on, I saw some other sepulchres with singular +ornaments. Here a mass of rock has been insulated from the mountain by +an excavation, which leaves a passage five or six paces in breadth +between it and the mountain. It forms nearly a cube of sixteen feet, the +top being a little narrower than the base; the lower part is hollowed +into a small sepulchral cave with a low door; but the upper part of the +mass is solid. There are three of these mausolea at a short distance +from each other. A few paces lower, on the left side of the stream, is a +larger mausoleum similarly formed, which appears from its decayed state, +and the style of its architecture, to be of more ancient date than the +others. Over its entrance are four obelisks, about ten feet in height, +cut out of the same piece of rock; below is a projecting ornament, but +so much defaced by time that I was unable to discover what it had +originally represented; it had, however, nothing of the Egyptian style. + +Continuing for about three hundred paces farther along the valley, which +is in this part about one hundred and fifty feet in breadth; several +small tombs are met with on both sides of the rivulet, excavated in the +rock, without any ornaments. Beyond these is a spot where the valley +seemed to be entirely closed by high rocks; but upon a nearer approach, +I perceived a chasm about fifteen or twenty feet in breadth, through +which the rivulet flows westwards in winter; in summer its waters are +lost in the sand and gravel before they reach the opening, which is +called El Syk (Arabic). The precipices on either side of the torrent are + +[p.423] about eighty-feet in height; in many places the opening between +them at top is less than at bottom, and the sky is not visible from +below. As the rivulet of Wady Mousa must have been of the greatest +importance to the inhabitants of the valley, and more particularly of +the city, which was entirely situated on the west side of the Syk, great +pains seem to have been taken by the ancients to regulate its course. +Its bed appears to have been covered with a stone pavement, of which +many vestiges yet remain, and in several places stone walls were +constructed on both sides, to give the water its proper direction, and +to check the violence of the torrent. A channel was likewise cut on each +side of the Syk, on a higher level than the river, to convey a constant +supply of water into the city in all seasons, and to prevent all the +water from being absorbed in summer by the broad torrent bed, or by the +irrigation of the fields in the valley above the Syk. + +About fifty paces below the entrance of the Syk a bridge of one arch +thrown over the top of the chasm is still entire; immediately below it, +on both sides, are large niches worked in the rock, with elegant +sculptures, destined probably for the reception of statues. Some remains +of antiquities might perhaps be found on the top of the rocks near the +bridge; but my guide assured me, that notwithstanding repeated +endeavours had been made, nobody had ever been able to climb up the +rocks to the bridge, which was therefore unanimously declared to be the +work of the Djan, or evil genii. In continuing along the winding passage +of the Syk, I saw in several places small niches cut in the rock, some +of which were single; in other places there were three or four together, +without any regularity; some are mere holes, others have short pilasters +on both sides; they vary in size from ten inches to four or five feet in +height; and in some of them the bases of statues are still visible. We +passed several collateral chasms between perpendicular + +[p.424] rocks, by which some tributary torrents from the south side of +the Syk empty themselves into the river. I did not enter any of them, +but I saw that they were thickly overgrown with Defle trees. My guide +told me that no antiquities existed in these valleys, but the testimony +of these people on such subjects is little to be relied on. The bottom +of the Syk itself is at present covered with large stones, brought down +by the torrent, and it appears to be several feet higher than its +ancient level, at least towards its western extremity. After proceeding +for twenty-five minutes between the rocks, we came to a place where the +passage opens, and where the bed of another stream coming from the south +joins the Syk. On the side of the perpendicular rock, directly opposite +to the issue of the main valley, an excavated mausoleum came in view, +the situation and beauty of which are calculated to make an +extraordinary impression upon the traveller, after having traversed for +nearly half an hour such a gloomy and almost subterraneous passage as I +have described. It is one of the most elegant remains of antiquity +existing in Syria; its state of preservation resembles that of a +building recently finished, and on a closer examination I found it to be +a work of immense labour. + +The principal part is a chamber sixteen paces square, and about twenty- +five feet high. There is not the smallest ornament on the walls, which +are quite smooth, as well as the roof, but the outside of the entrance +door is richly embellished with architectural decorations. Several broad +steps lead up to the entrance, and in front of all is a colonnade of +four columns, standing between two pilasters. On each of the three sides +of the great chamber is an apartment for the reception of the dead. A +similar excavation, but larger, opens into each end of the vestibule, +the length of which latter is not equal to + +[p.425] that of the colonnade as it appears in front, but terminates at +either end between the pilaster and the neighbouring column. The doors +of the two apartments opening into the vestibule are covered with +carvings richer and more beautiful than those on the door of the +principal chamber. The colonnade is about thirty-five feet high, and the +columns are about three feet in diameter with Corinthian capitals. The +pilasters at the two extremities of the colonnade, and the two columns +nearest to them, are formed out of the solid rock, like all the rest of +the monument, but the two centre columns, one of which has fallen, were +constructed separately, and were composed of three pieces each. The +colonnade is crowned with a pediment, above which are other ornaments, +which, if I distinguished them correctly, consisted of an insulated +cylinder crowned with a vase, standing between two other structures in +the shape of small temples, supported by short pillars. The entire +front, from the base of the columns to the top of the ornaments, may be +sixty or sixty-five feet. The architrave of the colonnade is adorned +with vases, connected together with festoons. The exterior wall of the +chamber at each end of the vestibule, which presents itself to the front +between the pilaster and the neighbouring column, was ornamented with +colossal figures in bas-relief; but I could not make out what they +represented. One of them appears to have been a female mounted upon an +animal, which, from the tail and hind leg, appears to have been a camel. +All the other ornaments sculptured on the monument are in perfect +preservation. + +The natives call this monument Kaszr Faraoun (Arabic), or Pharaoh’s +castle; and pretend that it was the residence of a prince. But it was +rather the sepulchre of a prince, and great must have been the opulence +of a city, which could dedicate such monuments to the memory of its +rulers. + +[p.426] From this place, as I before observed, the Syk widens, and the +road continues for a few hundred paces lower down through a spacious +passage between the two cliffs. Several very large sepulchres are +excavated in the rocks on both sides; they consist generally of a single +lofty apartment with a flat roof; some of them are larger than the +principal chamber in the Kaszr Faraoun. Of those which I entered, the +walls were quite plain and unornamented; in some of them are small side +rooms, with excavations and recesses in the rock for the reception of +the dead; in others I found the floor itself irregularly excavated for +the same purpose, in compartments six to eight feet deep, and of the +shape of a coffin; in the floor of one sepulchre I counted as many as +twelve cavities of this kind, besides a deep niche in the wall, where +the bodies of the principal members of the family, to whom the sepulchre +belonged, were probably deposited. + +On the outside of these sepulchres, the rock is cut away perpendicularly +above and on both sides of the door, so as to make the exterior facade +larger in general than the interior apartment. Their most common form is +that of a truncated pyramid, and as they are made to project one or two +feet from the body of the rock they have the appearance, when seen at a +distance, of insulated structures. On each side of the front is +generally a pilaster, and the door is seldom without some elegant +ornaments. + +These fronts resemble those of several of the tombs of Palmyra, + +[p.427] but the latter are not excavated in the rock, but constructed +with hewn stones. I do not think, however, that there are two sepulchres +in Wady Mousa perfectly alike; on the contrary, they vary greatly in +size, shape, and embellishments. In some places, three sepulchres are +excavated one over the other, and the side of the mountain is so +perpendicular that it seems impossible to approach the uppermost, no +path whatever being visible; some of the lower have a few steps before +their entrance. + +In continuing a little farther among the sepulchres, the valley widens +to about one hundred and fifty yards in breadth. Here to the left is a +theatre cut entirely out of the rock, with all its benches. It may be +capable of containing about three thousand spectators: its area is now +filled up with gravel, which the winter torrent brings down. The +entrance of many of the sepulchres is in like manner almost choked up. +There are no remains of columns near the theatre. Following the stream +about one hundred and fifty paces further, the rocks open still farther, +and I issued upon a plain two hundred and fifty or three hundred yards +across, bordered by heights of more gradual ascent than before. Here the +ground is covered with heaps of hewn stones, foundations of buildings, +fragments of columns, and vestiges of paved streets; all clearly +indicating that a large city once existed here; on the left side of the +river is a rising ground extending westwards for nearly a quarter of an +hour, entirely covered with similar remains. On the right bank, where +the ground is more elevated, ruins of the same description are also +seen. In the valley near the river, the buildings have probably been +swept away by the impetuosity of the winter torrent; but even here are +still seen the foundations of a temple, and a heap of broken columns; +close to which is a large Birket, or reservoir of water, still serving +for the supply of the inhabitants during the summer. The finest +sepulchres in Wady + +[p.428] Mousa are in the eastern cliff, in front of this open space, +where I counted upwards of fifty close to each other. High up in the +cliff I particularly observed one large sepulchre, adorned with +Corinthian pilasters. + +Farther to the west the valley is shut in by the rocks, which extend in +a northern direction; the river has worked a passage through them, and +runs underground, as I was told, for about a quarter of an hour. Near +the west end of Wady Mousa are the remains of a stately edifice, of +which part of the wall is still standing; the inhabitants call it Kaszr +Bent Faraoun (Arabic), or the palace of Pharaoh’s daughter. In my way I +had entered several sepulchres, to the surprise of my guide, but when he +saw me turn out of the footpath towards the Kaszr, he exclaimed: “I see +now clearly that you are an infidel, who have some particular business +amongst the ruins of the city of your forefathers; but depend upon it +that we shall not suffer you to take out a single para of all the +treasures hidden therein, for they are in our territory, and belong to +us.” I replied that it was mere curiosity, which prompted me to look at +the ancient works, and that I had no other view in coming here, than to +sacrifice to Haroun; but he was not easily persuaded, and I did not +think it prudent to irritate him by too close an inspection of the +palace, as it might have led him to declare, on our return, his belief +that I had found treasures, which might have led to a search of my +person and to the detection of my journal, which would most certainly +have been taken from me, as a book of magic. It is very unfortunate for +European travellers that the idea of treasures being hidden in ancient +edifices is so strongly rooted in the minds of the Arabs and Turks; nor +are they satisfied with watching all the stranger’s steps; they believe +that it is sufficient for a true magician to have seen and observed the +spot where treasures are hidden (of which he is supposed to be already +informed by the + +[p.429] old books of the infidels who lived on the spot) in order to be +able afterwards, at his ease, to command the guardian of the treasure to +set the whole before him. It was of no avail to tell them to follow me +and see whether I searched for money. Their reply was, “of course you +will not dare to take it out before us, but we know that if you are a +skilful magician you will order it to follow you through the air to +whatever place you please.” If the traveller takes the dimensions of a +building or a column, they are persuaded that it is a magical +proceeding. Even the most liberal minded Turks of Syria reason in the +same manner, and the more travellers they see, the stronger is their +conviction that their object is to search for treasures, “Maou delayl” +(Arabic), “he has indications of treasure with him,” is an expression I +have heard a hundred times. + +On the rising ground to the left of the rivulet, just opposite to the +Kaszr Bent Faraoun, are the ruins of a temple, with one column yet +standing to which the Arabs have given the name of Zob Faraoun (Arabic), +i.e. hasta virilis Pharaonis; it is about thirty feet high and composed +of more than a dozen pieces. From thence we descended amidst the ruins +of private habitations, into a narrow lateral valley, on the other side +of which we began to ascend the mountain, upon which stands the tomb of +Aaron. There are remains of an ancient road cut in the rock, on both +sides of which are a few tombs. After ascending the bed of a torrent for +about half an hour, I saw on each side of the road a large excavated +cube, or rather truncated pyramid, with the entrance of a tomb in the +bottom of each. Here the number of sepulchres increases, and there are +also excavations for the dead in several natural caverns. A little +farther on, we reached a high plain called Szetouh Haroun (Arabic), or +Aaron’s terrace, at the foot of the mountain upon which his tomb is +situated. There are several subterranean sepulchres + +[p.430] in the plain, with an avenue leading to them, which is cut out +of the rocky surface. + +The sun had already set when we arrived on the plain; it was too late to +reach the tomb, and I was excessively fatigued; I therefore hastened to +kill the goat, in sight of the tomb, at a spot where I found a number of +heaps of stones, placed there in token of as many sacrifices in honour +of the saint. While I was in the act of slaying the animal, my guide +exclaimed aloud, “O Haroun, look upon us! it is for you we slaughter +this victim. O Haroun, protect us and forgive us! O Haroun, be content +with our good intentions, for it is but a lean goat! O Haroun, smooth +our paths; and praise be to the Lord of all creatures!”[[Arabic].] This +he repeated several times, after which he covered the blood that had +fallen on the ground with a heap of stones; we then dressed the best +part of the flesh for our supper, as expeditiously as possible, for the +guide was afraid of the fire being seen, and of its attracting hither +some robbers. + +August 23d.—The plain of Haroun and the neighbouring mountlains have no +springs: but the rain water collects in low grounds, and in natural +hollows in the rocks, where it partly remains the whole year round, even +on the top of the mountain; but this year had been remarkable for its +drought. Juniper trees grow here in considerable numbers. I had no great +desire to see the tomb of Haroun, which stands on the summit of the +mountain that was opposite to us, for I had been informed by several +persons who had visited it, that it contained nothing worth seeing +except a large coffin, like that of Osha in the vicinity of Szalt. My +guide, moreover, insisted upon my speedy return, as he was to set out +the + +[p.431] same day with a small caravan for Maan; I therefore complied +with his wishes, and we returned by the same road we had come. I +regretted afterwards, that I had not visited Haroun’s tomb, as I was +told that there are several large and handsome sepulchres in the rock +near it. A traveller ought, if possible, to see every thing with his own +eyes, for the reports of the Arabs are little to be depended on, with +regard to what may be interesting, in point of antiquity: they often +extol things which upon examination, prove to be of no kind of interest, +and speak with indifference of those which are curious and important. In +a room adjoining the apartment, in which is the tomb of Haroun, there +are three copper vessels for the use of those who slaughter the victims +at the tomb: one is very large, and destined for the boiling of the +flesh of the slaughtered camel. Although there is at present no guardian +at the tomb, yet the Arabs venerate the Sheikh too highly, to rob him of +any of his kitchen utensils. The road from Maan and from Wady Mousa to +Ghaza, leads by the tomb, and is much frequented by the people of Maan +and the Bedouins; on the other side of Haroun the road descends into the +great valley. + +In comparing the testimonies of the authors cited in Reland’s +Palaestina, it appears very probable that the ruins in Wady Mousa are +those of the ancient Petra, and it is remarkable that Eusebius says the +tomb of Aaron was shewn near Petra. Of this at least I am persuaded, +from all the information I procured, that there is no other ruin between +the extremities of the Dead sea and Red sea, of sufficient importance to +answer to that city. Whether or not I have discovered the remains of the +capital of Arabia Petræa, I leave to the decision of Greek scholars, and +shall only subjoin a few notes on these ruins. + +The rocks, through which the river of Wady Mousa has worked its +extraordinary passage, and in which all the tombs and mausolea + +[p.432] of the city have been excavated, as high as the tomb of Haroun, +are sand-stone of a reddish colour. The rocks above Eldjy are +calcareous, and the sand-stone does not begin until the point where the +first tombs are excavated. To the southward the sandstone follows the +whole extent of the great valley, which is a continuation of the Ghor. +The forms of the summits of these rocks are so irregular and grotesque, +that when seen from afar, they have the appearance of volcanic +mountains. The softness of the stone afforded great facilities to those +who excavated the sides of the mountains; but, unfortunately, from the +same cause it is in vain to look for inscriptions: I saw several spots +where they had existed, but they are all now obliterated. The position +of this town was well-chosen, in point of security; as a few hundred men +might defend the entrance to it against a large army; but the +communication with the neighbourhood must have been subjected to great +inconveniences. I am not certain whether the passage of the Syk was made +use of as a road, or whether the road from the town towards Eldjy was +formed through one of the side valleys of the Syk. The road westwards +towards Haroun, and the valley below, is very difficult for beasts of +burthen. The summer heats must have been excessive, the situation being +surrounded on all sides by high barren cliffs, which concentrate the +reflection of the sun, while they prevent the westerly winds from +cooling the air. I saw nothing in the position that could have +compensated the inhabitants for these disadvantages, except the river, +the benefit of which might have been equally enjoyed had the town been +built below Eldjy. Security therefore was probably the only object which +induced the people to overlook such objections, and to select such a +singular position for a city. The architecture of the sepulchres, of +which there are at least two hundred and fifty in the vicinity of the +ruins, are of very different periods. + +[p.433] On our return I stopped a few hours at Eldjy. The town is +surrounded with fruit-trees of all kinds, the produce of which is of the +finest quality. Great quantities of the grapes are sold at Ghaza, and to +the Bedouins. The Lyathene cultivate the valley as far as the first +sepulchres of the ancient city; in their townhouses they work at the +loom. They pay tribute to the Howeytat and carry provisions to the +Syrian pilgrims at Maan, and to the Egyptian pilgrims at Akaba. They +have three encampments of about eighty tents each. Like the Bedouins and +other inhabitants of Shera they have become Wahabis, but do not at +present pay any tribute to the Wahabi chief. + +Wady Mousa is comprised within the territory of Damascus, as are the +entire districts of Shera and Djebal. The most southern frontiers of the +Pashalik are Tor Hesma, a high mountain so called at one day’s journey +north of Akaba; from thence northward to Kerek, the whole country +belongs to the same Pashalik, and consequently to Syria; but it may +easily be conceived that the Pasha has little authority in these parts. +In the time of Djezzar, the Arabs of Wady Mousa paid their annual land- +tax into his treasury, but no other Pasha has been able to exact it. + +I returned from Eldjy to the encampment above Ain Mousa, which is +considerably higher than the town, and set out from thence immediately, +for I very much disliked the people, who are less civil to strangers +than any other Arabs in Shera. We travelled in a southern direction +along the windings of a broad valley which ascends from Ain Mousa, and +reached its summit at the end of two hours and a quarter. The soil, +though flinty, is very capable of cultivation. + +This valley is comprised within the appellation of Wady Mousa, because +the rain water which collects here joins, in the winter, the torrent +below Eldjy. The water was anciently conducted through this valley in an +artificial channel, of which the + +AIN MEFRAK + +[p.434] stone walls remain in several places. At the extremity of the +Wady are the ruins of an ancient city, called Betahy (Arabic), +consisting of large heaps of hewn blocks of silicious stone; the trees +on this mountain are thinly scattered. At a quarter of an hour from +Betahy we reached an encampment, composed of Lyathene and Naymat, where +we alighted, and rested for the night. + +August 24th.—Our road lay S.S.W.; in one hour we came to Ain Mefrak +(Arabic), where are some ruins. From thence we ascended a mountain, and +continued along the upper ridge of Djebel Shera. To our right was a +tremendous precipice, on the other side of which runs the chain of sand- +rocks which begin near Wady Mousa. To the west of these rocks we saw the +great valley forming the continuation of the Ghor. At the end of three +hours, after having turned a little more southward, we arrived at a +small encampment of Djaylat (Arabic) where we stopped to breakfast. The +Bedouin tents which composed a great part of this encampment were the +smallest I had ever seen; they were about four feet high, and ten in +length. The inhabitants were very poor, and could not afford to give us +coffee; our breakfast or dinner therefore consisted of dry barley cakes, +which we dipped in melted goat’s grease. The intelligence which I learnt +here was extremely agreeable; our landlord told us that a caravan was to +set out in a few days for Cairo, from a neighbouring encampment of +Howeytat, and that they intended to proceed straight across the desert. +This was exactly what I wished, for I could not divest myself of +apprehensions of danger in being exposed to the undisciplined soldiers +of Akaba. It had been our intention to reach Akaba from hence in two +days, by way of the mountainous district of Reszeyfa (a part of Shera so +called) and Djebel Hesma; but we now gladly changed our route, and +departed for the encampment of the Howeytat. We turned to the S.E. and +in half an + +EL SZADEKE + +[p.435] hour from the Djeylat passed the fine spring called El Szadeke +(Arabic), near which is a hill with extensive ruins of an ancient town +consisting of heaps of hewn stones. From thence we descended by a slight +declivity into the eastern plain, and reached the encampment, distant +one hour and a half from Szadeke. The same immense plain which we had +entered in coming from Beszeyra, on the eastern borders of the Ghoeyr, +here presented itself to our view. We were about six hours S. of Maan, +whose two hills, upon which the two divisions of the town are situated, +were distinctly visible. The Syrian Hadj route passes at about one hour +to the east of the encampment. About eight hours S. of Maan, a branch of +the Shera extends for three or four hours in an eastern direction across +the plain; it is a low hilly chain. + +The mountains of Shera are considerably elevated above the level of the +Ghor, but they appear only as low hills, when seen from the eastern +plain, which is upon a much higher level than the Ghor. I have already +noticed the same peculiarity with regard to the upper plains of El Kerek +and the Belka: and it is observable also in the plain of Djolan +relatively to the level of the lake of Tiberias. The valley of the Ghor, +which has a rapid slope southward, from the lake of Tiberias to the Dead +sea, appears to continue descending from the southern extremity of the +latter as far as the Red sea, for the mountains on the E. of it appear +to increase in height the farther we proceed southward, while the upper +plain, apparently continues upon the same level. This plain terminates +to the S. near Akaba, on the Syrian Hadj route, by a steep rocky +descent, at the bottom of which begins the desert of Nedjed, covered, +for the greater part, with flints. The same descent, or cliff, continues +westward towards Akaba on the Egyptian Hadj road, where it joins the +Djebel Hesma (a prolongation of Shera), + +MAAN + +[p.436] about eight hours to the N. of the Red sea. We have thus a +natural division of the country, which appears to have been well known +to the ancients, for it is probably to a part of this upper plain, +together with the mountains of Shera, Djebal, Kerek, and Belka, that the +name of Arabia Petræa was applied, the western limits of which must have +been the great valley or Ghor. It might with truth be called Petræa, not +only on account of its rocky mountains, but also of the elevated plain +already described, which is so much covered with stones, especially +flints, that it may with great propriety be called a stony desert, +although susceptible of culture: in many places it is overgrown with +wild herbs, and must once have been thickly inhabited, for the traces of +many ruined towns and villages are met with on both sides of the Hadj +road between Maan and Akaba, as well as between Maan and the plains of +Haouran, in which direction are also many springs. At present all this +country is a desert, and Maan (Arabic) is the only inhabited place in +it. All the castles on the Syrian Hadj route from Fedhein to Medina are +deserted. At Maan are several springs, to which the town owes its +origin, and these, together with the circumstance of its being a station +of the Syrian Hadj, are the cause of its still existing. The inhabitants +have scarcely any other means of subsistence than the profits which they +gain from the pilgrims in their way to and from Mekka, by buying up all +kinds of provisions at Hebron and Ghaza, and selling them with great +profit to the weary pilgrims; to whom the gardens and vineyards of Maan +are no less agreeable, than the wild herbs collected by the people of +Maan are to their camels. The pomgranates, apricots, and peaches of Maan +are of the finest quality. In years when a very numerous caravan passes, +pomgranates are sold at one piastre each, and every thing in the same +proportion. During + +[p.437] the two days stay of the pilgrims, in going, and as many in +returning, the people of Maan earn as much as keeps them the whole year. + +Maan is situated in the midst of a rocky country, not capable of +cultivation; the inhabitants therefore depend upon their neighbours of +Djebal and Shera for their provision of wheat and barley. At present, +owing to the discontinuance of the Syrian Hadj, they are scarcely able +to obtain money to purchase it. Many of them have commenced pedlars +among the Bedouins, and fabricators of different articles for their use, +especially sheep-skin furs, while others have emigrated to Tafyle and +Kerek. The Barbary pilgrims who were permitted by the Wahabi chief to +perform their pilgrimage in 1810, and 1811, returned from Medina by the +way of Maan and Shobak to Hebron, Jerusalem, and Yaffa, where they +embarked for their own country, having taken this circuitous route on +account of the hostile demonstrations of Mohammed Ali Pasha on the +Egyptian road. Several thousands of them died of fatigue before they +reached Maan. The people of this town derived large profits from the +survivors, and for the transport of their effects; but it is probable +that if the Syrian Hadj is not soon reestablished, the place will in a +few years be abandoned. The inhabitants considering their town as an +advanced post to the sacred city of Medina, apply themselves with great +eagerness to the study of the Koran. The greater part of them read and +write, and many serve in the capacity of Imams or secretaries to the +great Bedouin Sheikhs. The two hills upon which the town is built, +divide the inhabitants into two parties, almost incessantly engaged in +quarrels which are often sanguinary; no individual of one party even +marries into a family belonging to the other. + +On arriving at the encampment of the Howeytat, we were informed that the +caravan was to set out on the second day; I had + +HOWEYTAT ENCAMPMENT + +[p.438] the advantage, therefore, of one day’s repose. I was now reduced +to that state which can alone ensure tranquillity to the traveller in +the desert; having nothing with me that could attract the notice or +excite the cupidity of the Bedouins; my clothes and linen were torn to +rags; a dirty Keffye, or yellow handkerchief, covered my head; my +leathern girdle and shoes had long been exchanged, by way of present, +against similar articles of an inferior kind, so that those I now wore +were of the very worst sort. The tube of my pipe was reduced from two +yards to a span, for I had been obliged to cut off from it as much as +would make two pipes for my friends at Kerek; and the last article of my +baggage, a pocket handkerchief, had fallen to the lot of the Sheikh of +Eldjy. Having thus nothing more to give, I expected to be freed from all +further demands: but I was mistaken: I had forgotten some rags torn from +my shirt, which were tied round my ancles, wounded by the stirrups which +I had received in exchange from the Sheikh of Kerek. These rags +happening to be of white linen, some of the ladies of the Howeytat +thought they might serve to make a Berkoa (Arabic), or face veil, and +whenever I stepped out of the tent I found myself surrounded by half a +dozen of them, begging for the rags. In vain I represented that they +were absolutely necessary to me in the wounded state of my ancles: their +answer was, “you will soon reach Cairo, where you may get as much linen +as you like.” By thus incessantly teazing me they at last obtained their +wishes; but in my anger I gave the rags to an ugly old woman, to the no +slight disappointment of the young ones. + +August 26th.—We broke up in the morning, our caravan consisting of nine +persons, including myself, and of about twenty camels, part of which +were for sale at Cairo; with the rest the Arabs expected to be able to +transport, on their return home, some provisions and army-baggage to +Akaba, where Mohammed Ali Pasha + +DEPARTURE FOR CAIRO + +[p.439] had established a depot for his Arabian expedition. The +provisions of my companions consisted only of flour; besides flour, I +carried some butter and dried Leben (sour milk), which when dissolved in +water, forms not only a refreshing beverage, but is much to be +recommended as a preservative of health when travelling in summer. These +were our only provisions. During the journey we did not sup till after +sunset, and we breakfasted in the morning upon a piece of dry bread, +which we had baked in the ashes the preceding evening, without either +salt or leven. The frugality of these Bedouins is indeed without +example; my companions, who walked at least five hours every day, +supported themselves for four and twenty hours with a piece of dry black +bread of about a pound and a half weight, without any other kind of +nourishment. I endeavoured, as much as possible to imitate their +abstemiousness, being already convinced from experience that it is the +best preservative against the effects of the fatigues of such a journey. +My companions proved to be very good natured people: and not a single +quarrel happened during our route, except between myself and my guide. +He too was an honest, good tempered man, but I suffered from his +negligence, and rather from his ignorance of my wants, as an European. +He had brought only one water-skin with him, which was to serve us both +for drinking and cooking; and as we had several intervals of three days +without meeting with water, I found myself on very short allowance, and +could not receive any assistance from my companions, who had scarcely +enough for themselves. But these people think nothing of hardships and +privations, and take it for granted, that other people’s constitutions +are hardened to the same aptitude of enduring thirst and fatigue, as +their own. + +We returned to Szadeke, where we filled our water-skins, and proceeded +from thence in a W.S.W. direction, ascending the eastern + +DJEBEL KOULA + +[p.440] hills of Djebel Shera. After two hours march we began to +descend, in following the course of a Wady. At the end of four hours is +a spring called Ibn Reszeysz (Arabic). The highest point of Djebel +Hesma, in the direction of Akaba, bears from hence S.W. Hesma is higher +than any part of Shera. In five hours we reached Ain Daleghe (Arabic), a +spring in a fertile valley, where the Howeytat have built a few huts, +and cultivate some Dhourra fields. We continued descending Wady Daleghe, +which in winter is an impetuous torrent. The mountains are quite barren +here; calcareous rock predominates, with some flint. At the end of seven +hours we left the Wady, which takes a more northern direction, and +ascended a steep mountain. At eight hours and a half we alighted on the +declivity of the mountain, which is called Djebel Koula (Arabic), and +which appears to be the highest summit of Djebel Shera. Our road was +tolerably good all the way. + +August 27th.—After one hour’s march we reached the summit of Djebel +Koula, which is covered with a chalky surface. The descent on the other +side is very wild, the road lying along the edges of almost +perpendicular precipices amidst large blocks of detached rocks, down a +mountain entirely destitute of vegetation, and composed of calcareous +rocks, sand-stone, and flint, lying over each other in horizontal +layers. At the end of three hours we came to a number of tombs on the +road side, where the Howeytat and other Bedouins who encamp in these +mountains bury their dead. In three hours and a half we reached the +bottom of the mountain, and entered the bed of a winter torrent, which +like Wady Mousa has worked its passage through the chain of sand-stone +rocks that form a continuation of the Syk. These rocks extend southwards +as far as Djebel Hesma. The narrow bed is enclosed by perpendicular +cliffs, which, at the entrance of the Wady, are about fifteen or twenty +yards distant from each other, but wider lower down. + +WADY GHARENDEL + +[p.441] We continued in a western direction for an hour and a half, in +this Wady, which is called Gharendel (Arabic). At five hours the valley +opens, and we found ourselves upon a sandy plain, interspersed with +rocks; the bed of the Wady was covered with white sand. A few trees of +the species called by the Arabs Talh, Tarfa, and Adha (Arabic), grow in +the midst of the sand, but their withered leaves cannot divert the +traveller’s eye from the dreary scene around him. At six hours the +valley again becomes narrower; here are some more tombs of Bedouins on +the side of the road. At the end of six hours and a half we came to the +mouth of the Wady, where it joins the great lower valley, issuing from +the mountainous country into the plain by a narrow passage, formed by +the approaching rocks. These rocks are of sand-stone and contain many +natural caverns. A few hundred paces above the issue of the Wady are +several springs, called Ayoun Gharendel, surrounded by a few date trees, +and some verdant pasture ground. The water has a sulphureous taste, but +these being the only springs on the borders of the great valley within +one day’s journey to the N. and S. the Bedouins are obliged to resort to +them. The wells are full of leeches, some of which fixed themselves to +the palates of several of our camels whilst drinking, and it was with +difficulty that we could remove them. The name of Arindela, an ancient +town of Palæstina Tertia, bears great resemblance to that of Gharendel. + +On issuing from this rocky country, which terminates the Djebel Shera, +on its western side, the Wady Gharendel empties itself into the valley +El Araba, in whose sands its waters are lost. This valley is a +continuation of the Ghor, which may be said to extend from the Red sea +to the sources of the Jordan. The valley of that river widens about +Jericho, and its inclosing hills are united to a chain of mountains +which open and enclose the Dead sea. At the southern + +WADY EL ARABA + +[p.442] extremity of the sea they again approach, and leave between them +a valley similar to the northern Ghor, in shape; but which the want of +water makes a desert, while the Jordan and its numerous tributary +streams render the other a fertile plain. In the southern Ghor the +rivulets which descend from the eastern mountains, to the S. of Wady +Szafye, or El Karahy, are lost amidst the gravel in their winter beds, +before they reach the valley below, and there are no springs whatever in +the western mountain; the lower plain, therefore, in summer is entirely +without water, which alone can produce verdure in the Arabian deserts, +and render them habitable. The general direction of the southern Ghor is +parallel to the road which I took in coming from Khanzyre to Wady Mousa. +At the point where we crossed it, near Gharendel, its direction was from +N.N.E. to S.S.W. From Gharendel it extends southwards for fifteen or +twenty hours, till it joins the sandy plain which separates the +mountains of Hesma from the eastern branch of the Red sea. It continues +to bear the appellation of El Ghor as far as the latitude of Beszeyra, +to the S. of which place, as the Arabs informed me, it is interrupted +for a short space by rocky ground and Wadys, and takes the name of Araba +(Arabic), which it retains till its termination near the Red sea. Near +Gharendel, where I saw it, the whole plain presented to the view an +expanse of shifting sands whose surface was broken by innumerable +undulations, and low hills. The sand appears to have been brought from +the shores of the Red sea by the southerly winds; and the Arabs told me +that the valley continued to present the same appearance beyond the +latitude of Wady Mousa. A few Talh trees (Arabic) (the acacia which +produces the gum arable), Tarfa (Arabic) (tamarisk), Adha (Arabic), and +Rethem (Arabic), grow among the sand hills; but the depth of sand +precludes all vegetation of herbage. Numerous Bedouin tribes encamp here +in the winter, when the torrents produce a copious supply of water, and +a few + +[p.443] shrubs spring up upon their banks, affording pasturage to the +sheep and goats; but the camels prefer the leaves of the trees, +especially the thorny Talh. + +The existence of the valley El Araba, the Kadesh Barnea, perhaps, of the +Scriptures, appears to have been unknown both to ancient and modern +geographers, although it forms a prominent feature in the topography of +Syria and Arabia Petræa. It deserves to be thoroughly investigated, and +travellers might proceed along it in winter time, accompanied by two or +three Bedouin guides of the tribes of Howeytat and Terabein, who could +be procured at Hebron. Akaba, or Eziongeber, might be reached in eight +days by the same road by which the communication was anciently kept up +between Jerusalem and her dependencies on the Red sea, for this is both +the nearest and the most commodious route, and it was by this valley +that the treasures of Ophir were probably transported to the warehouses +of Solomon. + +Of the towns which I find laid down in D’Anville’s maps, between Zoara +and Aelana, no traces remain, Thoana excepted, which is the present +Dhana. The name of Zoar is unknown to the Arabs, but the village of +Szafye is near that point; the river which is made by D’Anville to fall +into the Dead sea near Zoara, is the Wady El Ahhsa; but it will have +been seen in the above pages, [t]hat the course of that Wady is rather +from the east than south. I enquired in vain among the Arabs for the +names of those places where the Israelites had sojourned during their +progress through the desert; none of them are known to the present +inhabitants. The country, about Akaba, and to the W.N.W. of it, might, +perhaps, furnish some data for the illustration of the Jewish history. I +understand that M. Seetzen went in a straight line from Hebron to Akaba, +across the desert El Ty; he may perhaps, have collected some interesting +information on the subject. + +[p.444] The following ruined places are situated in Djebal Shera, to the +S. and S.S.W. of Wady Mousa; Kalaat Beni Madha (Arabic), Atrah (Arabic), +a ruined tower, with water near it, Djerba (Arabic), Basta (Arabic), Eyl +(Arabic), Ferdakh (Arabic), with a spring; Anyk (Arabic), Bir el Beytar +(Arabic), a number of wells upon a plain surrounded by high cliffs, in +the midst of Tor Hesma. The caravans from Wady Mousa to Akaba make these +wells their first station, and reach Akaba on the evening of the second +day; but they are two long days journeys of ten or twelve hours each. At +the foot of Hanoun are the ruins of Wayra (Arabic), and the two deserted +villages of Beydha (Arabic) and Heysha (Arabic). West of Hanoun is the +spring Dhahel (Arabic), with some ruins. In that neighbourhood are the +ruined places Shemakh (Arabic) and Syk (Arabic). + +We were one hour and a half in crossing the Araba, direction W. by N. In +some places the sand is very deep, but it is firm, and the camels walk +over it without sinking. The heat was suffocating, and it was increased +by a hot wind from the S.E. There is not the slightest appearance of a +road, or of any other work of human art in this part of the valley. On +the other side we ascended the western chain of mountains. The mountain +opposite to us appeared to be the highest point of the whole chain, as +far as I could see N. and S.; it is called Djebel Beyane (Arabic); the +height of this chain, however, is not half that of the eastern +mountains. It is intersected by numerous broad Wadys, in which the Talh +tree grows; the rock is entirely silicious, of the same species as that +of the desert which extends from hence to Suez. I saw some large pieces +of flint perfectly oval, three to four feet in length, and about a foot +and a half in breadth. + +After an hour and a half of gentle ascent we arrived at the summit of +the hills, and then descended by a short and very gradual declivity into +the western plain, the level of which although higher + +WADY EL LAHYANE + +[p.445] than that of the Araba, is perhaps one thousand feet lower than +the eastern desert. We had now before us an immense expanse of dreary +country entirely covered with black flints, with here and there some +hilly chains rising from the plain. About six hours distant, to our +right, were the hills near Wady Szays (Arabic). The horizon being very +clear near sunset, my companions pointed out to me the mountains of +Kerek, which bore N.E. by N. Djebel Dhana bore N.E. by F., and Djebel +Hesma S.S.E. I must here observe, that during all my journeys in the +deserts I never allowed the Arabs to get a sight of my compass, as it +would certainly have been considered by them as an instrument of magic. +When on horseback I took the bearings, unseen, beneath my wide Arab +cloak; under such circumstances it is an advantage to ride a mare, as +she may easily be taught to stand quite still. When mounted on, a camel, +which can never be stopped while its companions are moving on, I was +obliged to jump off when I wished to take a bearing, and to couch down +in the oriental manner, as if answering a call of nature. The Arabs are +highly pleased with a traveller who jumps off his beast and remounts +without stopping it, as the act of kneeling down is troublesome and +fatiguing to the loaded camel, and before it can rise again, the caravan +is considerably ahead. From Djebel Beyane we continued in the plain for +upwards of an hour; and stopped for the night in a Wady which contains +Talh trees, and extends across the plain for about half an hour. We had +this day marched eleven hours. + +August 28th.—In the morning we passed two broad Wadys full of tamarisks +and of Talh trees, which have given to them the name of Abou Talhha +(Arabic). At the end of four hours we reached Wady el Lahyane (Arabic). +In this desert the water collects in a number of low bottoms and Wadys, +where it produces verdure in winter time: and an abundance of trees with + +[p.446] green leaves are found throughout the year. In the winter some +of the Arabs of Ghaza, Khalyl, as well as those from the shores of the +Red sea, encamp here. The Wady Lahyane [The road from Akaba to Ghaza +passes here. It is a journey of eight long days. The watering places on +it are, El Themmed (Arabic), Mayeyu (Arabic), and Berein (Arabic). The +distance from Akaba to Hebron is nine days. The springs on the road are: +El Ghadyan (Arabic), El Ghammer (Arabic), and Weyba (Arabic).] is +several hours in extent; its bottom is full of gravel. We met with a few +families of Arabs Heywat (Arabic), who had chosen this place, that their +camels might feed upon the thorny branches of the gum arabic tree, of +which they are extremely fond. These poor people had no tents with them; +and their only shelter from the burning rays of the sun, and the heavy +dews of night, were the scanty branches of the Talh trees. The ground +was covered with the large thorns of these trees, which are a great +annoyance to the Bedouins and their cattle. Each Bedouin carries in his +girdle a pair of small pincers, to extract the thorns from his feet, for +they have no shoes, and use only a sort of sandal made of a piece of +camel’s skin, tied on with leathern thongs. In the summer they collect +the gum arabic (Arabic), which they sell at Cairo for thirty and forty +patacks the camel load, or about twelve or fifteen shillings per cwt. +English; but the gum is of a very inferior quality to that of Sennaar. +My companions eat up all the small pieces that had been left upon the +trees by the road side. I found it to be quite tasteless, but I was +assured that it was very nutritive. + +We breakfasted with the Arabs Heywat, and our people were extremely +angry, and even insolent, at not having been treated with a roasted +lamb, according to the promise of the Sheikh, who had invited us to +alight. His excuse was that he had found none at hand; but one of our +young men had overheard his wife scolding + +BIAR OMSHASH + +[p.447] him, and declaring that she would not permit a lamb to be +slaughtered for such miserable ill-looking strangers! The Bedouin women, +in general, are much less generous and hospitable than their husbands, +over whom they often use their influence, to curtail the allowance to +guests and strangers. + +At the end of five hours we issued from the head of Wady Lahyane again +into the plain. The hill on the top of this Wady is called Ras el Kaa +(Arabic), and is the termination of a chain of hills which stretch +across the plain in a northern direction for six or eight hours: it +projects like a promontory, and serves as a land-mark to travellers; its +rock is calcareous. The plain which we now entered was a perfect flat +covered with black pebbles. The high insulated mountain behind which +Ghaza is situated, bore from hence N. by W. distant three long days +journey. At the end of seven hours, there was an insulated hill to the +left of our road two hours distant, called Szoeyka (Arabic); we here +turned off to the left of the great road, in order to find water. In +eight hours, and late at night, we reached several wells, called Biar +Omshash (Arabic), is where we found an encampment of Heywat, with whom +we wished to take our supper after having filled our water skins; but +they assured us that they had nothing except dry bread to give us. On +hearing this my companions began to reproach them with want of +hospitality, and an altercation ensued, which I was afraid would lead to +blows; I therefore mounted my camel, and was soon followed by the rest. +We continued our route during the night, but lost our road in the dark, +and were obliged to alight in a Wady full of moving sands, about half an +hour from the wells. + +August 29th.—This day we passed several Wadys of Talh and tamarisk trees +intermixed with low shrubs. Direction W. by S. The plain is for the +greater part covered with flints; in some places + +DESERT EL TY + +[p.448] it is chalky. Wherever the rain collects in winter, vegetation +of trees and shrubs is produced. In the midst of this desert we met a +poor Bedouin woman, who begged some water of us; she was going to Akaba, +where the tents of her family were, but had neither provisions nor water +with her, relying entirely on the hospitality of the Arabs she might +meet on the road. We directed her to the Heywat at Omshash and in Wady +Lahyane. She seemed to be as unconcerned, as if she were merely taking a +walk for pleasure. After an uninterrupted march of nine hours and a +half, we reached a mountain called Dharf el Rokob (Arabic). It extends +for about eight hours in a direction from N.W. to S.E. At its foot we +crossed the Egyptian Hadj road; it passes along the mountain towards +Akaba, which is distant from hence fifteen or eighteen hours. We +ascended the northern extremity of the mountain by a broad road, and +after a march of eleven hours reached, on the other side, a well called +El Themmed (Arabic), whose waters are impregnated with sulphur. The +pilgrim caravan passes to the N. of the mountain and well, but the Arabs +who have the conduct of the caravan repair to the well to fill the water +skins for the supply of the Hadjis. The well is in a sandy soil, +surrounded by calcareous rocks, and notwithstanding its importance, +nothing has been done to secure it from being choaked up by the sand and +gravel which every gust of wind drives into it. Its sides are not lined, +and the Arabs take so little care in descending into it, that every +caravan which arrives renders it immediately turbid. + +The level plain over which we had travelled from Ras el Kaa terminates +at Dharf el Rokob. Westward of it the ground is more intersected by +hills and Wadys, and here begins the Desert El Ty (Arabic), in which, +according to tradition, both Jewish and Mohammedan, the Israelites +wandered for several years, and from which + +ODJME + +[p.449] belief the desert takes its name. We went this evening two hours +farther than the Themmed, and alighted in the Wady Ghoreyr (Arabic), +after a day’s march of thirteen hours and a half. The Bedouins, when +travelling in small numbers, seldom alight at a well or spring, in the +evening, for the purpose of there passing the night; they only fill +their water-skins as quickly as possible, and then proceed on their way, +for the neighbourhood of watering places is dangerous to travellers, +especially in deserts where there are few of them, because they then +become the rendezvous of all strolling parties. + +August 30th.—On issuing from the Wady Ghoreyr we passed a chain of hills +called Odjme (Arabic), running almost parallel with the Dharf el Rokob. +We had now re-entered the Hadj route, a broad well trodden road, strewn +with the whitened bones of animals that have died by the way. The soil +is chalky, and overspread with black pebbles. At the end of five hours +and a half we reached Wady Rouak (Arabic); here the term Wady is applied +to a narrow strip of ground, the bed of a winter torrent, not more than +one foot lower than the level of the plain, where the rain water from +the inequalities of the surface collects, and produces a vegetation of +low shrubs, and a few Talh trees. The greater part of the Wadys from +hence to Egypt are of this description. The coloquintida grows in great +abundance in all of them, it is used by the Arabs to make tinder, by the +following process: after roasting the root in the ashes, they wrap it in +a wetted rag of cotton cloth, they then beat it between two stones, by +which means the juice of the fruit is expressed and absorbed by the rag, +which is dyed by it of a dirty blue; the rag is then dried in the sun, +and ignites with the slightest spark of fire. The Arabs nearest to Egypt +use the coloquint in venereal complaints; they fill the fruit with +camel’s milk, roast it + +[p.450] over the fire, and then give to the patient the milk thus +impregnated with the essence of the fruit. + +In nine hours and a half we passed a chain of low chalky hills called +Ammayre (Arabic). On several parts of the road were holes, out of which +rock salt had been dug. At the end of ten hours and a half we arrived in +the vicinity of Nakhel (i.e. date-tree), a fortified station of the +Egyptian Hadj, situated about half an hour to the N. of the pilgrim’s +road. Our direction was still W. by N. Nakhel stands in a plain, which +extends to an immense distance southward, but which terminates to the N. +at about one hour’s distance from Nakhel, in a low chain of mountains. +The fortress is a large square building, with stone walls, without any +habitations round it. There is a well of brackish water, and a large +Birket, which is filled from the well, in the time of the Hadj. The +Pasha of Egypt keeps a garrison in Nakhel of about fifty soldiers, and +uses it as a magazine for the provisions of his army in his expedition +against the Wahabi. The appellation Nakhel was probably given to this +castle at a time when the adjacent country was covered with palm trees, +none of which are now to be seen here. At Akaba, on the contrary, are +large forests of them, belonging for the greater part to the Arabs +Heywat. The ground about Nakhel is chalky or sandy, and is covered with +loose pebbles. + +We passed along the road as quickly as we could, for my companions were +afraid lest their camels should be stopped by the Aga of Nakhel, to +transport provisions to Akaba. The Arabs Heywat and Sowadye, who encamp +in this district, style themselves masters of Akaba and Nakhel, and +exact yearly from the Pasha certain sums for permitting him to occupy +them; for though they are totally unable to oppose his troops, yet the +tribute is paid, in order to take from them all pretext for plundering +small caravans. + +NAKHEL + +[p.451] About six hours to the S.W. of Nakhel is a chain of mountains +called Szadder (Arabic), extending in a S. E. direction. + +Near Nakhel my Arab companions fell in with an acquaintance, who was +burning charcoal for the Cairo market. He informed us that a large party +of Arabs Sowaleha, with whom my Howeytats were at war, was encamped in +this vicinity; it was, in consequence, determined to travel by night, +until we should be out of their reach, and we stopped at sunset, about +one hour west of Nakhel, after a day’s march of eleven hours and a half, +merely for the purpose of allowing the camels to eat. Being ourselves +afraid to light a fire, lest it should be descried by the Sowaleha, we +were obliged to take a supper of dry flour mixed with a little salt. +During the whole of the journey the camels had no other provender than +the withered shrubs of the desert, my dromedary excepted, to which I +gave a few handfuls of barley every evening. Loaded camels are scarcely +able to perform such a journey without a daily allowance of beans and +barley. + +August 31st—We set out before midnight, and continued at a quick rate +the whole night. In these northern districts of Arabia the Bedouins, in +general, are not fond of proceeding by night; they seldom travel at that +time, even in the hottest season, if they are not in very large numbers, +because, as they say, during the night nobody can distinguish the face +of his friend, from that of his enemy. Another reason is, that camels on +the march never feed at their ease in the day time, and nature seems to +require that they should have their principal meal and a few hours rest +in the evening. The favourite mode of travelling in these parts is, to +set out about two hours before sun-rise, to stop two hours at noon, when +every one endeavours to sleep under his mantle, and to alight for the +evening at about one hour before sunset. We always sat round the fire, +in conversation, for two or three hours after supper. During this +night’s march my companions frequently alluded to + +EL THEGHAR + +[p.452] a superstitious belief among the Bedouins, that the desert is +inhabited by invisible female demons, who carry off travellers tarrying +in the rear of the caravans, in order to enjoy their embraces. They call +them Om Megheylan (Arabic), from Ghoul (Arabic). The frequent loss of +men who, exhausted by fatigue, loiter behind the great pilgrim caravans, +and are cut off, stripped, and abandoned, by Bedouin robbers, may have +given rise to this fable, which afforded my companions a subject of +numerous jokes against me. “You townsmen,” said they, “would be +exquisite morsels for these ladies, who are accustomed only to the food +of the desert.” + +We marched for four hours over uneven ground, and then reached a level +plain, consisting of rich red earth fit for culture, and similar to that +of the northern Syrian desert. We crossed several Wadys, in which we +started a number of hares. At every twenty yards lay heaps of bones of +camels, horses, and asses, by the side of the road. At six hours was a +chain of low hills to the S. of the road, and running parallel with it. +In seven hours we crossed Wady Nesyl (Arabic), overgrown with green +shrubs, but without trees. At the end of ten hours and a half we reached +the mountainous country called El Theghar (Arabic), or the mouths, which +forms a boundary of the Desert El Ty, and separates it from the +peninsula of Mount Sinai. We ascended for half an hour by a well formed +road, cut in several places in the rock, and then followed the windings +of a valley, in the bed of a winter torrent, gradually descending. On +both sides of the Hadj road we saw numerous heaps of stones, the tombs +of pilgrims who had died of fatigue; among others is shewn that of a +woman who here died in labour, and whose infant was carried the whole +way to Mekka, and back to Cairo in good health. At the end of fifteen +hours we alighted in a valley of the Theghar, where we found an +abundance of shrubs and trees. + +MABOUK + +[p.453] September 1st.—We continued descending among the windings of the +Wady, turning a little to the southward of the Hadj route. Among the +calcareous hills of the Wady deep sands have accumulated, which have +been blown thither from the shores of the Red sea; and in several parts +there are large insulated rocks of porous tufwacke. After a march of +four hours and a half we had a fine view of the sea, and gained the +plain which extends to its shores, and which is apparently much below +the level of the desert El Ty; it is covered with moving sands, among +which a few low shrubs grow. The direction of our route was W.S.W. In +seven hours we reached the wells of Mabouk (Arabic), to our great +satisfaction, as we had not a drop of water left in our skins. These +wells are in the open plain, at the foot of some rocks. Good water, but +in small quantities, is found every where on digging to the depth of ten +or twelve feet. There were about half a dozen holes, five or six feet in +circumference, with a foot of water in each; on drawing up the water the +holes fill again immediately. We here met some shepherds of the Maazye, +a tribe of Bedouins of the desert between Egypt and the Red sea, who +were busy in watering a large herd of camels. They were so kind as to +make room for us, in consideration of our being strangers and +travellers; and we were occupied several hours in drawing up water. +These wells were filled up last year by the Moggrebyn Hadj, on its +passage, to revenge themselves upon Mohammed Ali, with whose treatment +they were dissatisfied. The Egyptian pilgrims take a more northern +route, but the Arabs who accompany them fill the water skins for the use +of the caravan at these wells, and rejoin the Hadj by the route we +travelled this morning. Near the wells are the ruins of a small +building, with strong walls, which was probably constructed for the +defence of the water, when the Hadj was still in its ancient splendour. + +ADJEROUD + +[p.454] On quitting the wells we turned off in the direction of Suez, +our route lying W.N.W. There are no traces of a road here, for the track +of caravans is immediately filled up by the moving sands, which covered +the plain as far as I could discern, and in some places had collected +into hills thirty or forty feet in height. At ten hours from our setting +out in the morning we entered a plain covered with flints, and again +fell in with the Hadj road. Here we took a W. by N. direction. At the +end of eleven hours the plain was covered with a saline crust, and we +crossed a tract of ground, about five minutes in breadth, covered with +such a quantity of small white shells, that it appeared at a distance +like a strip of salt. Shells of the same species are found on the shores +of the lake of Tiberias. Once probably the sea covered the whole of this +ground. At twelve hours and a half Suez bore S. about an hour and an +half distant from us. To our right we saw marshy ground extending +northwards, which the people informed me was full of salt; it is called, +like all salt marshes, Szabegha (Arabic). At the end of thirteen hours +we crossed a low and narrow Wady, perhaps the remains of the canal of +Ptolemy; and at fourteen hours and a half, alighted in Wady Redjel +(Arabic), where there were many Talh trees, and plenty of food for our +camels. + +September 2d.—We continued to travel over the plain, route W. by N. In +two hours we reached Adjeroud (Arabic), an ancient castle, which has +lately been completely repaired by Mohammed Ali, who keeps a garrison +here. There are two separate buildings, the largest of which is occupied +by the soldiers, and the smaller contains a mosque with the tomb of a +saint; they are both defended by strong walls against any attack of the +Arabs. Here is also a copious well, but the water is very bitter, and +can be used only for watering camels. The garrison is supplied from the +wells of Mousa, opposite to Suez. Our road was full of the aromatic + +WADY MOUSA + +[p.455] herb Baytheran (Arabic), which is sold by the Arabs at Ghaza and +Hebron. + +Beyond Adjeroud many Wadys cross the plain. To the left we had the chain +of mountains called Attaka. At the end of five hours, and about one hour +to the right of the road, begins the chain of low mountains called +Oweybe (Arabic), running parallel with the Attaka. Our route lay W. by +N. At eight hours the Attaka terminated on our left, and was succeeded +by a ridge of low hills. The plain here is sandy, covered with black +flints. We again passed several Wadys, and met two large caravans, +transporting a corps of infantry to Suez. At the end of ten hours and a +half we stopped in Wady Djaafar (Arabic), which is full of low trees, +shrubs, and dry herbs. From hence a hilly chain extends north-eastwards. + +September 3d.—After a march of six hours along the plain, the ground +began to be overspread with Egyptian pebbles. Route W. We passed several +Wadys, similar to those mentioned above when describing Wady Rowak. At +nine hours, we descried the Nile, with its beautiful verdant shores; at +eleven hours began a hilly tract, the last undulations of Djebel +Makattam; and in thirteen hours and a half we reached the vicinity of +Cairo. Here my Arab companions left me, and proceeded to Belbeis, where, +they were informed, their principal men were encamped, waiting for +orders to proceed to Akaba. I discharged my honest guide, Hamd Ibn +Hamdan, who was not a little astonished to see me take some sequins out +of the skirts of my gown. As it was too late to enter the town, I went +to some Bedouin tents which I saw at a distance, and entered one of +them, in which, for the first time, I drank of the sweet water of the +Nile. Here I remained all night. A great number of Bedouins were at this +time collected near Cairo, to accompany the troops which were to be sent +into Arabia after the Ramadhan. + +CAIRO + +[p.456] September 4th.—I entered Cairo before sunrise; and thus +concluded my journey, by the blessing of God, without either loss of +health, or exposure to any imminent danger. + + +[p.457] + +JOURNAL OF A TOUR + +IN THE + +PENINSULA OF MOUNT SINAI, + +IN THE SPRING OF 1816. + +ABOUT the beginning of April 1816 Cairo was again visited by the plague. +The Franks and most of the Christians shut themselves up; but as I +neither wished to follow their example nor to expose myself +unnecessarily in the town, I determined to pass my time, during the +prevalence of the disease, among the Bedouins of Mount Sinai, to visit +the gulf of Akaba, and, if possible, the castle of Akaba, to which, as +far as I know, no traveller has ever penetrated. Intending to pass some +days at the convent of Mount Sinai, I procured a letter of introduction +to the monks from their brethren at Cairo; for without this passport no +stranger is ever permitted to enter the convent; I was also desirous of +having a letter from the Pasha of Egypt to the principal Sheikh of the +tribes of Tor, over whom, as I knew by former experience, he exercises +more than a nominal authority. With the assistance of this paper, I +hoped to be able to see a good deal of the Bedouins of the peninsula in +safety, and to travel in their company to Akaba. Such letters of +recommendation are in general easily procured in Syria and Egypt, though +they are often useless, as I found on several occasions during my first +journey into Nubia, as well as in my + +KAYT BEG + +[p.458] travels in Syria, where the orders of the Pasha of Damascus were +much slighted in several of the districts under his dominion. + +A fortnight before I set out for Mount Sinai I had applied to the Pasha +through his Dragoman, for a letter to the Bedouin Sheikh; but I was kept +waiting for it day after day, and after thus delaying my departure a +whole week, I was at last obliged to set off without it. The want of it +was the cause of some embarrassment to me, and prevented me from +reaching Akaba. It is not improbable that on being applied to for the +letter, the Pasha gave the same answer as he gave at Tayf, when I asked +him for a Firmahn, namely, that as I was sufficiently acquainted with +the language and manners of the Arabs, I needed no further +recommendation. + +The Arabs of Mount Sinai usually alight at Cairo in the quarter called +El Djemelye, where some of them are almost constantly to be found. +Having gone thither, I met with the same Bedouin with whom I had come +last year from Tor to Cairo; I hired two camels from him for myself and +servant, and laid in provisions for about six weeks consumption. We left +Cairo on the evening of the 20th of April, and slept that night among +the ruined tombs of the village called Kayt Beg, a mile from the city. +From this village, at which the Bedouins usually alight, the caravans +for Suez often depart; it is also the resort of smugglers from Suez and +Syria. + +April 21st.—We set out from Kayt Beg in the course of the morning, in +the company of a caravan bound for Suez, comprising about twenty camels, +some of which belonged to Moggrebyn pilgrims, who had come by sea from +Tunis to Alexandria; the others to a Hedjaz merchant, and to the +Bedouins of Mount Sinai, who had brought passengers from Suez to Cairo, +and were now returning with corn to their mountains. As I knew the +character of these Bedouins by former experience, and that the road was +perfectly + +DERB EL ANKABYE + +[p.459] safe, at least as far as the convent, I did not think it +necessary this time to travel in the disguise of a pauper. Some few +comforts may be enjoyed in the desert even by those who do not travel +with tents and servants; and whenever these comforts must be +relinquished, it becomes a very irksome task to cross a desert, as I +fully experienced during several of my preceding journeys. + +The Bedouins of Sinai, or, as they are more usually denominated, the +Towara, or Bedouins of Tor, formerly enjoyed the exclusive privilege of +transporting goods, provisions, and passengers, from Cairo to Suez, and +the route was wholly under their protection. Since the increased power +of the Pasha of Egypt, it has been thrown open to camel-drivers of all +descriptions, Egyptian peasants, as well as Syrian and Arabian Bedouins; +and as the Egyptian camels are much stronger, for a short journey, than +those of the desert, the Bedouins of Mount Sinai have lost the greater +part of their custom, and the transport trade in this route is now +almost wholly in the hands of the Egyptian carriers. The hire of a +strong camel, from Cairo to Suez, was at this time about six or eight +Patacks, from one and a half to two Spanish dollars. + +The desert from Cairo to Suez is crossed by different routes; we +followed that generally taken by the Towara, which lies mid-way between +the great Hadj route, and the more southern one close along the +mountains: the latter is pursued only by the Arabs Terabein, and other +Syrian Bedouins. The route we took is called Derb el Ankabye [Arabic]. + +We proceeded on a gentle ascent from Kayt Beg, and passed on the right +several low quarries in the horizontal layers of soft calcareous stone +of which the mountain of Mokattam, in the neighbourhood of Cairo, is +composed; it is with this stone that the splendid Mamelouk tombs of Kayt +Beg are built. At the end of + +EL MOGAWA + +[p.460] an hour, the limestone terminated, and the road was covered with +flints, petrosilex, and Egyptian pebbles; here are also found specimens +of petrified wood, the largest about a foot in length. We now travelled +eastward, and after a march of three hours halted upon a part of the +plain, called El Mogawa [Arabic], where we rested during the mid-day +heat. Beyond this spot, to the distance of five hours from Cairo, we met +with great quantities of petrified wood. Large pieces of the trunks of +trees, three or four feet in length, and eight or ten inches in +diameter, lay about the plain, and close to the road was an entire trunk +of a tree at least twenty feet in length, half buried in sand. These +petrifactions are generally found in low grounds, but I saw several also +on the top of the low hills of gravel and sand over which the road lies. +Several travellers have expressed doubts of their being really petrified +wood, and some have crossed the desert without meeting with any of them. +The latter circumstance is easily accounted for; the route we were +travelling is not that usually taken to Suez. I have crossed this desert +repeatedly in other directions, and never saw any of the petrifactions +except in this part of it. As to its really being petrified wood there +cannot be any reason to doubt it, after an inspection of the substance, +in which the texture and fibres of the wood are clearly distinguishable, +and perfectly resemble those of the date tree. I think it not +improbable, that before Nechos dug the canal between the Nile and the +Red sea, the communication between Arsinoe or Clysma and Memphis, may +have been carried on this way; and stations may have been established on +the spots now covered by these petrified trees; the water requisite to +produce and maintain vegetation might have been procured from deep +wells, or from reservoirs of rain water, as is done in the equally +barren desert between Djidda and Mekka. After the completion of the +canal, this route was perhaps neglected, the trees, left without a + +EL MOGRAH + +[p.461] regular supply of water, dried up and fell, and the sands, with +the winter rains and torrents, gradually effected the petrifaction. I +have seen specimens of the petrified wood of date trees found in the +Libyan desert, beyond the Bahr bala ma, where they were observed by +Horneman in 1798, and in 1812, by M. Boutin, a French officer, who +brought several of them to Cairo. They resemble precisely those which I +saw on the Suez road, in colour, substance, and texture. Some of them +are of silex, in others the substance seems to approach to hornblende. + +We continued our route E. by S. over an uneven and somewhat hilly +country covered with black petrosilex; and after a day’s march of eight +hours and a quarter, we halted in a valley of little depth, called Wady +Onszary [Arabic], where our camels found good pasture. Close by are some +low hills, where the sands are seen in the state of formation into sand- +rock, and presenting all the different gradations between their loose +state and the solid stone. I saw a great quantity of petrified wood upon +one of these hills, amongst which was the entire trunk of a date tree. + +April 22d.—From Onszary we travelled E. by S. for one hour, and then E. +At the end of three hours, the hilly country terminates, beyond which, +in this route, no petrified wood is met with; we then entered upon a +widely extended and entirely level plain, called by the Bedouins El +Mograh [Arabic], upon which we rested after a march of five hours and a +half. While we were preparing our dinner two ostriches approached near +enough to be distinctly seen. A shot fired by one of the Arabs +frightened them, and in an instant they were out of sight. These birds +come into this plain, from the eastward, from the desert of Tyh; but I +never heard that the Bedouins of this country take the trouble of +hunting them. The plain of Mograh is famous for the skirmishes which +have taken place there, for the caravans that have been plundered in + +DAR EL HAMRA + +[p.462] crossing it, and for the number of travellers that have been +murdered on it. In former times, when this desert was constantly over- +run by parties of robbers, the Mograh was always chosen by them as their +point of attack, because, in the event of success, no one could escape +them on a plain where objects can be distinguished in every direction to +the distance of several hours. Even at present, since the route has been +made more secure by the vigilance of the Pasha of Cairo, robberies +sometimes happen, and in the autumn of 1815 a rich caravan was plundered +by the Arabs Terabein.[These Arabs, under their Sheikh Abou Djehame +[Arabic], made an excursion about the same time over the mountains +towards Cosseir, and plundered a caravan of pilgrims and merchants who +were going to Kenne. The Sheikh was seized on his return by the Maazy +tribe and carried to Cairo, where he remained a year in close +confinement, and after having delivered part of his booty into the +treasury of the Pasha, was released a few days before I set out.] + +The desert of Suez is never inhabited by Bedouin encampments, though it +is full of rich pasture and pools of water during winter and spring. No +strong tribes frequent the eastern borders of Egypt, and a weak +insulated encampment would soon be stripped of its property by nightly +robbers. The ground itself is the patrimony of no tribe, but is common +to all, which is contrary to the general practice of the desert, where +every district has its acknowledged owners, with its limits of +separation from those of the neighbouring tribes, although it is not +always occupied by them. + +In the afternoon we proceeded over the plain, and in eight hours and +three quarters arrived opposite to the station of the Hadj, called Dar +el Hamra which we left about three miles to the north of us, and which +is distinguished by a large acacia tree, the only one in this plain. At +the end of nine hours and a half, and about half an hour from the road, +we saw a mound of earth, which, + +WADY EMSHASH + +[p.463] the Arabs told me, was thrown up about fifty years ago, by +workmen employed by Ali Beg, then governor of Egypt, in digging a well +there. The ground was dug to the depth of about eighty feet, when no +water appearing the work was abandoned. At eleven hours and a quarter, +our road joined the great Hadj route, which passes in a more northerly +direction from Dar el Hamra to the Birket el Hadj, or inundation to the +eastward of Heliopolis, four hours distant from Cairo, upon the banks of +which the pilgrims encamp, previous to their setting out for Mekka. +Between this road, and that by which we had travelled, lies another, +also terminating at Kayt Beg. The southernmost route, which, as I have +already mentioned, is frequented only by the Arabs Terabein, branches +off from this common route at about six hours distant from Suez, and is +called Harb bela ma (the road without water); it is very seldom +frequented by regular caravans, being hilly and longer than the others, +but I was told that notwithstanding its name, water is frequently met +with in the low grounds, even in summer. Just beyond where we fell in +with the Hadj route, we rested in the bed of a torrent called Wady +Hafeiry [Arabic], at the foot of a chain of hills which begin there, +and extend to the N. of the route, and parallel with it towards +Adjeroud. Our camels found abundance of pasture on the odoriferous herb +Obeitheran [Arabic], Santolina fragrantissima of Forskal, which grew +here in great plenty. + +April 23d.—Our road lay between the southern mountain and the +abovementioned chain of hills to the north, called Djebel Uweybe +[Arabic], direction E.S.E. In three hours we passed the bed of a torrent +called Seil Abou Zeid [Arabic], where some acacia trees grow. The road +is here encompassed on every side by hills. In four hours and a half we +reached, in the direction E. by S. Wady Emshash [Arabic], a torrent like +the former, which in winter is filled by a stream of several feet in +depth. + +BIR SUEZ + +[p.464] Rains are much more frequent in this desert than in the valley +of Egypt, and the same remark may be made in regard to all the mountains +to the southward, where a regular, though not uninterrupted rainy season +sets in, while in the valley of the Nile, as is well known, rain seldom +falls even in winter. The soil and hills are here entirely calcareous. + +We had been for the whole morning somewhat alarmed by the appearance of +some suspicious looking men on camels at a distance in our rear, and our +Bedouins had, in consequence, prepared their matchlocks. When we halted +during the mid-day hours, they also alighted upon a hill at a little +distance; but seeing us in good order, and with no heavy loads to excite +their cupidity, they did not approach us. They, however, this evening, +fell upon a small party of unarmed Egyptian peasants who were carrying +corn to Suez, stripped them, took away their camels and loads, and the +poor owners fled naked into Suez. It was afterwards learnt that they +belonged to the tribe of Omran, who live on the eastern shore of the +gulf of Akaba. Without establishing regular patrols of the Bedouins +themselves on this road, it will never be possible to keep it free from +robbers. + +At six hours and a half begins a hilly country, with a slight descent +through a narrow pass between hills, called El Montala [Arabic], a +favourite spot for robbers. At seven hours and a half we passed Adjeroud +[Arabic], about half an hour to our left; about two miles west of it is +a well in the Wady Emshash, called Bir Emshash, which yields a copious +supply of water in the winter, but dries up in the middle of summer if +rains have not been abundant; the garrison of Adjeroud, where is a well +so bitter that even camels will not drink the water, draws its supply of +drinking water from the Bir Emshash. From hence the road turns S.E. over +a slightly descending plain. At ten hours and a half is the well called +Bir Suez, a + +SUEZ + +[p.465] copious spring enclosed by a massive building, from whence the +water is drawn up by wheels turned by oxen, and emptied into a large +stone tank on the outside of the building. The men who take care of the +wheels and the oxen remain constantly shut up in the building for fear +of the Bedouins. The water is brackish, but it serves for drinking, and +the Arabs and Egyptian peasants travelling between Cairo and Suez, who +do not choose to pay a higher price for the sweet water of the latter +place, are in the habit of filling their water skins here, as do the +people of Suez for their cooking provision. From an inscription on the +building, it appears that it was erected in the year of the Hedjra 1018. +We reached Suez about sunset, at the end of eleven hours and a half. I +alighted with the Bedouins upon an open place between the western wall +of the town, and its houses. + +April 24th. In the time of Niebuhr Suez was not enclosed; there is now a +wall on the west and south-west, which is rapidly falling to decay. The +town is in a ruinous state; and neither merchants nor artisans live in +it. Its population consists only of about a dozen agents, who receive +goods from the ports of the Red sea, and forward them to their +correspondents at Cairo, together with some shop-keepers who deal +chiefly in provisions. The Pasha keeps a garrison here of about fifty +horsemen, with an officer who commands the town, the neighbouring Arabs, +and the shipping in the harbour. As Suez is one of the few harbours in +the Red sea where ships can be repaired, some vessels are constantly +seen at the wharf; the repairs are carried on by Greek shipwrights and +smiths, in the service of the Pasha, who are let out to the shipowners +by the commanding officer. Suez has of late become a harbour of +secondary importance, the supplies of provisions, &c. for the Hedjaz +being collected principally at Cosseir, and shipped from thence to Yembo +and Djidda: but the trade in coffee and + +[p.466] India goods still passes this way to Cairo. I saw numerous bales +of spices and coffee lying near the shore, and a large heap of iron, +together with packages of small wares, antimony, and Egyptian goods for +exportation to Djidda, and ultimately to Yemen and India. The merchants +complained of the want of camels to transport their goods to Cairo. The +Pasha, who owns a considerable part of the imports of coffee, has fixed +the carriage across the desert at a low price, and none of the agents +venture to offer more to the camel drivers; the consequence of which is, +that few are encouraged to come to Suez beyond the number required for +the Pasha’s merchandize. A caravan consisting of five or six hundred +camels leaves Suez for Cairo on the 10th of each lunar month, +accompanied by guards and two field-pieces; while smaller ones, composed +of twenty or thirty beasts, depart almost every four or five days; but +to these the merchants are shy of trusting their goods, because they can +never depend on the safety of the road; accidents however seldom happen +at present, so formidable is the name of Mohammed Ali. + +Before the power of this Pasha was established in Egypt, and during the +whole period of the Mamelouk government, the Bedouins might be called +complete masters of Suez. Every inhabitant was obliged t[o] have his +protector, Ghafyr [Arabic], among the Bedouins of Mount Sinai, to whom +he made annual presents of money, corn, and clothes, and who ensured to +him the safe passage of his goods and person through the desert, and the +recovery of whatever was plundered by the others. At that time the rate +of freight was fixed by the Bedouins, and camels were in plenty; but, +whenever the governors of Cairo quarrelled with the Bedouins, or ill- +treated any of them at Cairo, the road was immediately interrupted, and +the Bedouins placed guards over the well of Naba [Arabic], two hours +distant from Suez, in the hills on the eastern side of the gulf, to +prevent the people of the town from drawing from thence their + +[p.467] daily supply of sweet water. The difference was always settled +by presents to the Bedouins, who, however, as may readily be conceived, +often abused their power; and it not unfrequently happened that, even in +time of peace, a Bedouin girl would be found, in the morning, sitting on +the well, who refused permission to the water carriers of Suez to draw +water unless they paid her with a new shirt, which they were obliged to +do; for to strike her, or even to remove her by force, would have +brought on a war with her tribe. The authority of the Bedouins is now at +an end, though their Sheikhs receive from the Turkish governors of Suez +a yearly tribute, under the name of presents, in clothes and money; the +Pasha himself has become the Ghafyr of the people of Suez, and exacts +from every camel load that passes through the gates from two to four +dollars, for which he engages to ensure the passage through the desert; +when the caravan however was plundered in 1815, he never returned the +value of the goods to the owners. + +The Arabs Terabein are the conductors of the caravans to Ghaza, and +Khalyl (Hebron), the latter of which is eight days distant. At this time +the freight per camel’s load was eighteen Patacks, or four dollars and a +half. These caravans bring the manufactures of Damascus, soap, glass- +ware, tobacco, and dried fruits, which are shipped at Suez for the +Hedjaz and Yemen. + +The eastern part of the town of Suez is completely in ruins, but near +the shore are some well built Khans, and in the inhabited part of the +town are several good private houses. The aspect of Suez is that of an +Arabian, and not an Egyptian town, and even in the barren waste, which +surrounds it, it resembles Yembo and Djidda; the same motley crowds are +met with in the streets, and the greater part of the shop-keepers are +from Arabia or Syria. The air is bad, occasioned by the saline nature of +the earth, and the extensive low grounds on the north and north-east +sides, which are filled + +[p.468] with stagnant waters by the tides. The inhabitants endeavour to +counteract the influence of this bad atmosphere by drinking brandy +freely; the mortality is not diminished by such a remedy, and fevers of +a malignant kind prevail during the spring and summer. + +The water of the well of Naba, though called sweet, has a very +indifferent taste, and becomes putrid in a few days if kept in skins. +The government has made a sort of monopoly of it; but its distribution +is very irregular, and affrays often happen at the well, particularly +when ships are on the point of sailing. In general, however, they touch +at Tor, for a supply; those lying in the harbour might fill their casks +at the well of Abou Szoueyra [Arabic], about seven hours to the south of +Ayoun Mousa, and about half an hour from the sea shore, where the water +is good; but Arabs will seldom give themselves so much trouble for +water, and will rather drink what is at hand, though bad, than go to a +distance for good. + +Ships, after delivering their cargoes at Suez, frequently proceed to +Cosseir, to take in corn for the Hedjaz. They first touch at Tor for +water, and then stand over to the western coast, anchoring in the creeks +every evening till they reach their destination. The coast they sail +along is barren, and without water, and no Arabs are seen. At one or two +days sail from Suez is an ancient Coptic convent, now abandoned, called +Deir Zafaran or Deir El Araba [Arabic]; it stands on the declivity of +the mountain, at about one hour from the sea. Some wild date-trees grow +there. At the foot of the mountain are several wells three or four feet +deep, upon the surface of whose waters naphtha or petroleum is sometimes +found in the month of November, which is skimmed off by the hand; it is +of a deep brownish black colour, and of the same fluidity as turpentine, +which it resembles in smell. This substance, which is known + +[p.469] under the name of Zeit el Djebel [Arabic], mountain oil, is +collected principally by the Christians of Tor, and by the Arabs Heteim, +of the eastern shore of the Red sea; it is greatly esteemed in Egypt as +a cure for sores and rheumatism, and is sold at Suez and Tor, at from +one to two dollars per pound. + +Niebuhr, travelling in 1762, says that Suez derives its provisions in +great part from Mount Sinai and Ghaza: this is not the case now. From +Mount Sinai it obtains nothing but charcoal, and a few fruits and dates +in the autumn; dried fruits of the growth of Damascus are the only +import from Ghaza. The town is supplied with provisions from Cairo; +vegetables are found only at the time of the arrival of the caravan. +Every article is of the worst quality, and twenty-five per cent. dearer +than at Cairo. Syrian, Turkish, and Moggrebyn pilgrims are constantly +seen here, waiting for the departure of ships to the Hedjaz. I found +three vessels in the harbour, and it may be calculated that one sails to +the southward every fortnight. No Europeans are settled here; but an +English agent is expected next year, to meet the ships from Bombay, +according to a treaty made with the Pasha, by several English houses, +who wished to open a direct communication between India and Egypt.[In +May, 1817, a small fleet arrived at Suez direct from Bombay, which was +composed of English ships, and of others belonging to Mohammed Ali +Pasha: among the articles imported were two elephants destined by the +Pasha as presents to the Porte. This has been the first attempt within +the last forty years to open a direct trade between India and Egypt, and +will be as profitable to the Pasha as it must be ruinous to his +subjects. The cargoes of these ships and the coffee which he imports +from Yemen, are distributed by him among the merchants of Cairo, in +proportion to their supposed capital in trade, and they are obliged to +take the articles off his hands at the highest prices which they bear in +the Bazar. If this trade is encreased by the Pasha, it will entirely +prevent the merchants from importing goods on their own account from +Djidda, the quantity they are thus obliged to take from the Pasha being +fully sufficient for the consumption of Egypt.] + +April 15th.—As the small caravan with which I had come to + +EL AHTHA + +[p.470] Suez remained there, I set out accompanied only by my guide and +another Arab, whom he had engaged, and who afterwards proved through the +whole journey a most serviceable, courageous, and honest companion. We +left Suez early in the morning: the tide was then at flood, and we were +obliged to make the tour of the whole creek to the N. of the town, which +at low water can be forded. In winter time, and immediately after the +rainy season, this circuit is rendered still greater, because the low +grounds to the northward of the creek are then inundated, and become so +swampy that the camels cannot pass them. We rode one hour and three +quarters in a straight line northwards, after passing, close by the +town, several mounds of rubbish, which afford no object of curiosity +except a few large stones, supposed to be the ruins of Clysma or +Arsinoë. We then turned eastwards, just at the point where the remains +of the ancient canal are very distinctly visible: two swellings of the +ground, of which the eastern is about eight or ten feet high, and the +western somewhat less, run in a straight line northwards, parallel with +each other, at the distance of about twenty-five feet. They begin at a +few hundred paces to the N.W. of high-water mark, from whence northwards +the ground is covered by a saline crust. We turned the point of this +inlet, and halted for a short time at the wells of Ayoun Mousa, under +the date trees. The water of these wells is copious, but one only +affords sweet water, and this is so often rendered muddy by the passage +of Arabs, whose camels descend into the wells, that it is seldom fit to +supply a provision to the traveller, much less for shipping. We rested, +at two hours and three quarters from the wells, in the plain called El +Kordhye [Arabic]. + +April 26th.—We proceeded over a barren sandy and gravelly plain, called +El Ahtha [Arabic], direction S. by E. For about an hour the plain was +uneven; we then entered upon a widely-extended flat, in which we +continued S.S.E. Low mountains, the commencement + +WADY WARDAN + +[p.471] of the chain of Tyh, run parallel with the road, to the left, +about eight miles distant; they are inhabited by Terabein. At the end of +four hours and a half we halted for a few hours in Wady Seder which +takes its name of Wady only, from being overflown with water when the +rains are very copious, which, however, does not happen every year. Its +natural formation by no means entitles it to be called a valley, its +level being only a few feet lower than that of the desert on both sides. +Some thorny trees grow in it, but no herbs for pasture. We continued our +way S. b. E. over the plain, which was alternately gravelly, stony, and +sandy. At the end of seven hours and a half we reached Wady Wardan +[Arabic], a valley or bed of a torrent, similar in nature to the former, +but broader. Near its extremity, at the sea side, it is several miles in +breadth; and here is the well of Abou Szoueyra, which I have already +mentioned. The Arabs of Tor seldom encamp in this place, but the +Terabein Arabs are sometimes attracted by the well. During the war which +happened about eight years ago between the Towara and the Maazy +Bedouins, who live in the mountains between Cairo and Cosseir, a party +of the former happened to be stationed here with their families. They +were surprised one morning by a troop of their enemies, while assembled +in the Sheikh’s tent to drink coffee. Seven or eight of them were cut +down: the Sheikh himself, an old man, seeing escape impossible, sat down +by the fire, when the leader of the Maazy came up, and cried out to him +to throw down his turban and his life should be spared. The generous +Sheikh, rather than do what, according to Bedouin notions, would have +stained his reputation ever after, exclaimed, “I shall not uncover my +head before my enemies;” and was immediately killed with the thrust of a +lance. A low chain of sand-hills begins here to the west, near the sea; +and the eastern mountains approach the road. At nine hours and a half, + +HOWARA + +[p.472] S.S.E. the eastern mountains form a junction with the western +hills. At ten hours we entered a hilly country; at ten hours and three +quarters we rested for the night in a barren valley among the hills, +called Wady Amara [Arabic]. We met with nobody in this route except a +party of Yembo merchants, who had landed at Tor, and were travelling to +Cairo. The hills consist of chalk and silex in very irregular strata: +the silex is sometimes quite black; at other times it takes a lustre and +transparency much resembling agate. + +April 27th.—We travelled over uneven hilly ground, gravelly and flinty. +At one hour and three quarters we passed the well of Howara [Arabic], +round which a few date trees grow. Niebuhr travelled the same route, but +his guides probably did not lead him to this well, which lies among +hills about two hundred paces out of the road. He mentions a rock called +Hadj er Rakkabe, as one German mile short of Gharendel; I remember to +have halted under a large rock, close by the road side, a very short +distance before we reached Howara, but I did not learn its name. The +water of the well of Howara is so bitter, that men cannot drink it; and +even camels, if not very thirsty, refuse to taste it. + +From Ayoun Mousa to the well of Howara we had travelled fifteen hours +and a quarter. Referring to this distance, it appears probable that this +is the desert of three days mentioned in the Scriptures to have been +crossed by the Israelites immediately after their passing the Red sea, +and at the end of which they arrived at Marah. In moving with a whole +nation, the march may well be supposed to have occupied three days; and +the bitter well at Marah, which was sweetened by Moses, corresponds +exactly with that of Howara. This is the usual route to Mount Sinai, and +was probably therefore that which the Israelites took on their escape +from Egypt, provided it be admitted that they crossed the sea near Suez, +as Niebuhr, with good reason, conjectures. There is + +WADY GHARENDEL + +[p.473] no other road of three days march in the way from Suez towards +Sinai, nor is there any other well absolutely bitter on the whole of +this coast, as far as Ras Mohammed. The complaints of the bitterness of +the water by the children of Israel, who had been accustomed to the +sweet water of the Nile, are such as may daily be heard from the +Egyptian servants and peasants who travel in Arabia. Accustomed from +their youth to the excellent water of the Nile, there is nothing which +they so much regret in countries distant from Egypt; nor is there any +eastern people who feel so keenly the want of good water as the present +natives of Egypt. With respect to the means employed by Moses to render +the waters of the well sweet, I have frequently enquired among the +Bedouins in different parts of Arabia whether they possessed any means +of effecting such a change, by throwing wood into it, or by any other +process; but I never could learn that such an art was known. + +At the end of three hours we reached Wady Gharendel [Arabic] which +extends to the N.E. and is almost a mile in breadth, and full of trees. +The Arabs told me that it may be traced through the whole desert, and +that it begins at no great distance from El Arysh, on the Mediterranean, +but I had no means of ascertaining the truth of this statement. About +half an hour from the place where we halted, in a southern direction, is +a copious spring, with a small rivulet, which renders the valley the +principal station on this route. The water is disagreeable, and if kept +for a night in the water skins, it turns bitter and spoils, as I have +myself experienced, having passed this way three times. + +If we admit Bir Howara to be the Marah[Morra in Arabic means “bitter.” +Marah in Hebrew is “bitterness.”] of Exodus (xv. 23), then Wady +Gharendel is probably Elim, with its wells and date trees, an opinion +entertained by Niebuhr, who, however, did not + +[p.474] see the bitter well of Howara on the road to Gharendel. The +nonexistence, at present, of twelve wells at Gharendel must not be +considered as evidence against the just-stated conjecture; for Niebuhr +says that his companions obtained water here by digging to a very small +depth, and there was a great plenty of it, when I passed; water, in +fact, is readily found by digging, in every fertile valley in Arabia, +and wells are thus easily formed, which are quickly filled up again by +the sands. + +The Wady Gharendel contains date trees, tamarisks, acacias of different +species, and the thorny shrub Gharkad [Arabic], the Peganum retusum of +Forskal, which is extremely common in this peninsula, and is also met +with in the sands of the Delta on the coast of the Mediterranean. Its +small red berry, of the size of a grain of the pomegranate, is very +juicy and refreshing, much resembling a ripe gooseberry in taste, but +not so sweet. The Arabs are very fond of it, and I was told that in +years when the shrub produces large crops, they make a conserve of the +berries. The Gharkad, which from the colour of its fruit is also called +by the Arabs Homra delights in a sandy soil, and reaches its maturity in +the height of summer when the ground is parched up, exciting an +agreeable surprise in the traveller, at finding so juicy a berry +produced in the driest soil and season.[Might not the berry of this +shrub have been used by Moses to sweeten the waters of Marah? The words +in Exodus, xv. 25, are: “And the Lord shewed him a tree, which when he +had cast into the waters, the waters were made sweet.” The Arabic +translation of this passage gives a different, and, perhaps, more +correct reading: “And the Lord guided him to a tree, of which he threw +something into the water, which then became sweet.” I do not remember, +to have seen any Gharkad in the neighbourhood of Howara, but Wady +Gharendel is full of this shrub. As these conjectures did not occur to +me when I was on the spot, I did not enquire of the Bedouins whether +they ever sweetened the water with the juice of the berries, which would +probably effect this change in the same manner as the juice of +pomegranate grains expressed into it.] The bottom of the valley of +Gharendel swarms with ticks, which are extremely distressing both to men +and beasts, and on this account the caravans usually encamp on the sides +of the hills which border the valley. + +WADY SHEBEYKE + +[p.475] We continued in a S.E. 1/2 E. direction, passing over hills, and +at the end of four hours from our starting in the morning, we came to an +open, though hilly country, still slightly ascending, S.S.E. and then +reached by a similar descent, in five hours and a half, Wady Oszaita +[Arabic], enclosed by chalk hills. Here is another bitter well which +never yields a copious supply, and sometimes is completely dried up. A +few date trees stand near it. From hence we rode over a wide plain S.E. +b. S. and at the end of seven hours and three quarters came to Wady +Thale [Arabic]. Rock salt is found here as well as in Gharendel; date, +acacia, and tamarisks grow in the valley; but they were now all +withered. To our right was a chain of mountains, which extend towards +Gharendel. Proceeding from hence south, we turned the point of the +mountain, and then passed the rudely constructed tomb of a female saint, +called Arys Themman [Arabic], or the bridegroom of Themman, where the +Arabs are in the habit of saying a short prayer, and suspending some +rags of clothing upon some poles planted round the tomb. After having +doubled the mountain we entered the valley called Wady Taybe [Arabic], +which descends rapidly to the sea. At the end of eight hours and a half +we turned out of Wady Taybe into a branch of it, called Wady Shebeyke +[Arabic], in which we continued E.S.E. and halted for the night, after a +day’s march of nine hours and a quarter. This is a broad valley, with +steep though not high cliffs on both sides. The rock is calcareous, and +runs in even horizontal layers. Just over the road, a place was shewn to +me from whence, some years since, a Bedouin of the Arabs of Tor +precipitated his son, bound hands and feet, because he had stolen + +WADY HOMMAR + +[p.476] corn out of a magazine belonging to a friend of the family. In +the great eastern desert the Aeneze Bedouins are not so severe in such +instances; but they would punish a Bedouin who should pilfer any thing +from his guest’s baggage. + +April 28th.—We set out before dawn, and continued for three quarters of +an hour in the Wady, after which we ascended E. b. S. and came upon a +high plain, surrounded by rocks, with a towering mountain on the N. +side, called Sarbout el Djemel [Arabic]. We crossed the plain at sun +rise; and the fresh air of the morning was extremely agreeable. There is +nothing which so much compensates for the miseries of travelling in the +Arabian deserts, as the pleasure of enjoying every morning the sublime +spectacle of the break of day and of the rising of the sun, which is +always accompanied, even in the hottest season, with a refreshing +breeze. It was an invariable custom with me, at setting out early in the +morning, to walk on foot for a few hours in advance of the caravan; and +as enjoyments are comparative, I believe that I derived from this +practice greater pleasure than any which the arts of the most luxurious +capitals can afford. At two hours and a half the plain terminated; we +then turned the point of the above-mentioned mountain, and entered the +valley called Wady Hommar [Arabic], in which we continued E. b. N. This +valley, in which a few acacia trees grow, has no perceptible slope on +either side; its rocks are all calcareous, with flint upon some of them; +by the road side, I observed a few scratchings of the figures of camels, +done in the same style as those in Wady Mokatteb copied by M. Niebuhr +and M. Seetzen, but without any inscriptions. At four hours we issued +from this valley where the southern rocks which enclose it terminate, +and we travelled over a wide, slightly ascending plain of deep sand, +called El Debbe [Arabic], a name given by the Towara Bedouins to several +other sandy districts of the same kind. + +WADY EL NASZEB + +[p.477] The direction of our road across it was S. E. by S. At six hours +and a half we entered a mountainous country, much devastated by +torrents, which have given the mountains a very wild appearance. Here +sand-stone rocks begin. We followed the windings of a valley, and in +seven hours and a quarter reached the Wady el Naszeb [Arabic], where we +rested, under the shade of a large impending rock, which for ages, +probably, has afforded shelter to travellers; it is I believe the same +represented by Niebuhr in vol. i. pl. 48. He calls the valley Warsan, +which is, no doubt, its true name, but the Arabs comprise all the +contiguous valleys under the general name of Naszeb. Shady spots like +this are well known to the Arabs, and as the scanty foliage of the +acacia, the only tree in which these valleys abound, affords no shade, +they take advantage of such rocks, and regulate the day’s journey in +such a way, as to be able to reach them at noon, there to take the +siesta. + +The main branch of the Wady Naszeb continues farther up to the S.E. and +contains, at about half an hour from the place where we rested, a well +of excellent water; as I was fatigued, and the sun was very hot, I +neglected to go there, though I am sensible that travellers ought +particularly to visit wells in the desert, because it is at these +natural stations that traces of former inhabitants are more likely to be +found than any where else. The Wady Naszeb empties its waters in the +rainy season into the gulf of Suez, at a short distance from the Birket +Faraoun. + +While my guides and servant lay asleep under the rock, and one of the +Arabs had gone to the well to water the camels and fill the skins, I +walked round the rock, and was surprised to find inscriptions similar in +form to those which have been copied by travellers in Wady Mokatteb. +They are upon the surface of blocks which have fallen down from the +cliff, and some of them appear to have been engraved while the pieces +still formed a part of the main + +[p.478] rock. There is a great number of them, but few can be distinctly +made out. I copied the following from some rocks which are lying near +the resting-place, at about an hundred paces from the spot where +travellers usually alight. [not included] The fallen blocks must be +closely examined in order to discover + +[p.479] the inscriptions; in some places they are still to be seen on +the rock above. They have evidently been done in great haste, and very +rudely, sometimes with large letters, at others with small, and seldom +with straight lines. The characters appear to be written from right to +left, and although mere scratches, an instrument of metal must have been +required, for the rock, though of sandstone, is of considerable +hardness. Some of the letters are not higher than half an inch; but they +are generally about fifteen lines in height, and four lines in breadth; +the annexed figure, (as M. Seetzen has already observed in his +publication upon these inscriptions in the Mines de l’Orient) is seen at +the beginning of almost every line. Hence it appears that none of the +inscriptions are of any length, but that they consist merely of short +phrases, all similar to each other, in the beginning at least. They are +perhaps prayers, or the names of pilgrims, on their way to Mount Sinai, +who had rested under this rock. A few drawings of camels and goats, done +in the coarsest manner, are likewise seen. M. Niebuhr (vol. i. pl. 50) +has given some sketches of them. + +Some Syale trees, a species of the mimosa, grow in this valley. The pod +which they produce, together with the tenderest shoots of the branches, +serve as fodder to the camels; the bark of the tree is used by the Arabs +to tan leather. The rocks round the resting-place of Naszeb are much +shattered and broken, evidently by torrents; yet no torrents within the +memory of man have ever rushed down the valley. + +In the afternoon we entered a lateral branch of the Naszeb, more +northerly than the main branch which contains the well, and we gradually +ascended it. We had been joined at the Ayoun Mousa by an Egyptian +Bedouin, belonging to the Arabs of the province + +RAML EL MORAK + +[p.480] of Sherkyeh, who was married to a girl of the Towara Arabs; last +night, being in the vicinity of the place where he knew his wife to be, +he put spurs to the ass on which he was mounted, and thinking that he +knew the road, he quitted the Wady Shebeyke two hours before we did, and +without any provision of water. He missed his way on the sandy plain of +Debbe, and instead of reaching the spring of Naszeb, where he intended +to allay his thirst, he rode the whole of this morning and afternoon +about the mountain in different directions, in fruitless search after +the shady and conspicuous rock of Naszeb. Towards the evening we met +him, so much exhausted with thirst, that his eyes had become dim, and he +could scarcely recognise us; had he not fallen in with us he would +probably have perished. My companions laughed at the effeminate +Egyptian, as they called him, and his presumption in travelling alone in +districts with which he was unacquainted. At the end of eight hours and +three quarters, in a general direction of. E. by S. we passed a small +inlet in the northern chain, where, at a short distance from the road, +is said to be a well of tolerable water, called El Maleha [Arabic], or +the saltish. We then ascended with difficulty a steep mountain, composed +to the top of moving sands, with a very few rocks appearing above the +surface. We reached the summit after a day’s march of nine hours and +three quarters, and rested upon a high plain, called Raml el Morak +[Arabic]. From hence we had an extensive view to the north, bounded by +the chain of mountains called El Tyh [Arabic]; this range begins near +the abovementioned mountain of Sarbout el Djemel, and extends in a curve +eastwards twenty or twenty-five miles, from the termination of the Wady +Hommar. At the eastern extremity lies a high mountain called Djebel +Odjme [Arabic], to the north of which begins another chain, likewise +running eastwards towards the gulf of + +WADY KHAMYLE + +[p.481] Akaba. The name of El Tyh is applied to this ridge as well as to +the former, but it is specifically called El Dhelel [Arabic]. These +chains form the northern boundaries of the Sinai mountains, and are the +pasturing places of the Sinai Bedouins. They are the most regular ranges +of the peninsula, being almost throughout of equal height, without any +prominent peaks, and extending in an uninterrupted line eastwards. They +are inhabited by the tribes of Terabein and Tyaha, the latter of whom +are richer in camels and flocks than any other of the Towara tribes. The +valleys of these mountains are said to afford excellent pasturage, and +fine springs, though not in great numbers. The Terabein frequently visit +Cairo and Suez; but the Tyaha have more intercourse with Ghaza, and +Khalyl, and are a very bold, independent people, often at war with their +neighbours, and, even now, caring little for the authority of the Pasha +of Egypt. At the southern foot of the mountain Tyh extends a broad sandy +plain, called El Seyh, which begins at the Debbe, and continues for two +days journey eastwards. It affords good pasturage in spring, but has no +water, and is therefore little frequented by Bedouins. + +April 29th.—We crossed the plain of Raml Morak in a S. by E. direction. +From hence the high peak of Serbal bore S. In an hour and a quarter we +reached the upper chain of the mountains of Sinai, where grünstein +begins, mixed in places with layers of granite, and we entered the +valley called Wady Khamyle [Arabic]. At the end of two hours we passed +in the valley a projecting rock, like that of Naszeb, serving for a +resting-place to travellers: here I observed several inscriptions +similar to those of Naszeb, but much effaced, together with rude +drawings of mountain goats. As I did not wish to betray too much +curiosity, until I could ascertain what conduct I ought to pursue in +order to attain my chief object of penetrating to Akaba, I did not stop +to copy + +WADY BARAK + +[p.482] these monuments. At the end of two hours and a half in the Wady +Khamyle we came to the first Bedouin encampment which I had seen since +leaving Suez. It belonged to the tribe of Szowaleha [Arabic]. On the +approach of summer all the Bedouins leave the lower country, where the +herbage is dried up, and retire towards the higher parts of the +peninsula, where, owing to the comparatively cooler climate, the pasture +preserves its freshness much longer. Ascending gently through the +valley, we passed at three hours a place of burial called Mokbera +[Arabic], one of the places of interment of the tribe of Szowaleha. It +seems to be a custom prevalent with the Arabs in every part of the +desert, to have regular burial-grounds, whither they carry their dead, +sometimes from the distance of several days journey. The burying ground +seen by Niebuhr[Voyage, vol. i. p. 189] near Naszeb, which, as I have +already mentioned, I passed without visiting, and missed in my way back, +by taking a more southern road, appears to have been an ancient cemetery +of the same kind, formed at a time when hieroglyphical characters were +in use among all the nations under Egyptian influence. As there are no +countries where ancient manners are so permanent as in the desert, it is +probable that the same customs of sepulture then prevailed which still +exist, and that the burying ground described by Niebuhr by no means +proves the former existence of a city. Among the rude tombs of Mokbera, +which consist, for the most part, of mere heaps of earth covered with +loose stones, the tomb of Sheikh Hamyd, a Bedouin saint, is +distinguished; the Szowaleha keep it always carefully covered with fresh +herbs. + +At the end of three hours and a half we entered another valley, called +Wady Barak [Arabic], where the ascent becomes more steep. Here the rock +changes to porphyry, with strata of grünstein; the surface of the former +is in most places completely + +WADY GENNE + +[p.483] black. The mountains on both sides of the valley are much +shattered: detached blocks and loose stones covered their sides, and the +bottom of the valley was filled, in many places to the depth of ten +feet, with a layer of stones that had fallen down. The Wady becomes +narrower towards the upper end, and the camels ascended with difficulty. +At the end of six hours and a quarter we reached the extremity, to which +the Bedouins apply the name of Djebel Leboua [Arabic], the mountain of +the lioness, a name indicating, perhaps, that lions existed at one +period in the peninsula of Mount Sinai, though no longer to be found +here. In ascending Wady Barak, I saw upon several blocks lying by the +road side short inscriptions, generally of one line only, all of which +began with the remarkable character already represented. + +From the top of Djebel Leboua we descended a little, and entered the +Wady Genne [Arabic, a fine valley, several miles in breadth, and covered +with pasturage. It lay in a straight line before us, and presented much +of Alpine scenery. We here found several Bedouins occupied in collecting +brush-wood, which they burn into charcoal for the Cairo market; they +prefer for this purpose the thick roots of the shrub Rethem [Arabic], +Genista raetam of Forskal, which grows here in abundance. Of the herbs +which grow in this valley many were odoriferous, as the Obeytheran, +Sille [Arabic], perhaps the Zilla Myagrum of Forskal; and the Shyh +[Arabic], or Artemisia. The Bedouins collect also the herb Adjrem +[Arabic], which they dry, break in pieces and pound between stones, and +then use as a substitute for soap to wash their linen with. I was told +that very good water is found at about two miles to the E. of this +valley. + +We gained the upper extremity of Wady Genne at the end of nine hours. +The ranges of mountains in this country differ in their formation from +all the other Arabian chains which I have + +WADY OSH + +[p.484] seen, the valleys reaching to the very summits, where they form +a plain, and thence descend on the other side. A very pointed peak of +rocks, near the left of the summit of Wady Genne, is known by the +appellation of Zob el Bahry [Arabic]. After crossing a short plain, we +again descended S.E. by S. and entered the valley called Wady Berah +[Arabic], where I saw another block with inscriptions. Near it were many +others, but effaced. The following was more regularly and clearly +written than any I have seen: [not included] We descended slowly through +this valley, which is covered with sand, till, at the end of ten hours, +we entered a side valley called Wady Osh [Arabic], and at ten hours and +a half alighted at an encampment of Bedouins, pitched at no great +distance from a burial ground similar to that which we had passed in the +morning. + +This encampment belonged to the Oulad Said [Arabic], a branch of the +Szowaleha tribe, and one of their Sheikhs, Hassan [Arabic], had his tent +here; this we entered, though he was absent, and the Arabs had a long +and fierce dispute among themselves to decide who should have the honour +of furnishing us a supper, and a breakfast the next morning. He who +first sees the stranger from afar, and exclaims: “There comes my guest,” +has the right of entertaining him, whatever tent he may alight at. A +lamb was killed for me, which was an act of great hospitality; for these +Bedouins are poor, and a lamb was worth upwards of a Spanish dollar, a +sum that would afford a supply of butter and bread to the family for a +whole week. I found the same custom to prevail here, which I observed in +my journey through the northern parts of Arabia Petraea; when meat is +served up, it is the duty of one of the guests to demand a, portion for +the women, by calling out “ Lahm el + +[p.485] Ferash,” i.e. “the meat for the apartment of the women;” and a +part of it is then either set aside, or he is answered that this has +been already done. In the evening we joined in some of the popular +songs, of which a description will be found in my illustration of +Bedouin manners.[This will form part of a subsequent volume. Ed] + +I was naturally asked for what object I had come to these mountains. As +the passage of Greeks on their way to visit the convent of Sinai is +frequent, I might have answered that I was a Greek; but I thought it +better to adhere to what I had already told my guides, that I had left +Cairo, in order not to expose myself to the plague, that I wished to +pass my time among the Bedouins while the disease prevailed, and that I +intended to visit the convent. Other Moslems would have considered it +impious to fly from the infection; but I knew that all these Bedouins +entertain as great a dread of the plague as Europeans themselves. During +the spring, when the disease usually prevails in Egypt, no prospect of +gain can induce them to expose themselves to infection, by a journey to +the banks of the Nile; the Bedouins with whom I left Cairo were the last +who had remained there. Had the Pasha granted me a Firmahn to the great +Sheikh of the Towara Arabs, I should have gone directly to his tent, and +in virtue of it I should have taken guides to conduct me to Akaba; but +being without the Firmahn, I thought it more prudent to visit the +convent in the first instance, and to depart from thence for Akaba, in +order to take advantage of such influence as the Prior might possess +over the Bedouins, for though they pay little respect to the priests, +yet they have some fear of being excluded from the gains accruing from +the transport of visitors to the convent. As every white-skinned person, +who makes his appearance in the desert, is supposed by the Arabs to be +attached to the Turkish army, or the government of Cairo, my + +[p.486] going to Akaba without any recommendations would have given rise +to much suspicion, and I should probably have been supposed to be a +deserter from the Turkish army, attempting to escape by that circuitous +route to Syria; a practice which is sometimes resorted to by the +soldiers, to whom, without the Pasha’s passport, Egypt is closed both by +sea and land. + +In the Wady Osh there is a well of sweet water. From hence upwards, and +throughout the primitive chain of Mount Sinai, the water is generally +excellent, while in the lower chalky mountains all round the peninsula, +it is brackish, or bitter, except in one or two places. The Wady Osh and +Wady Berah empty their waters in the rainy season into Wady el Sheikh, +above Feiran. + +April 30th.—We did not leave our kind hosts till the afternoon, for they +insisted on my taking a dinner before I set out. I gave to their +children, who accompanied me a little way, some coffee beans to carry to +their mothers, and some Kammereddein, a sweetmeat made at Damascus from +apricots, of which I had laid in a large stock, and which is very +acceptable to all the Bedouins of Syria, Egypt, and the Hedjaz. The +offer of any reward to a Bedouin host is generally offensive to his +pride; but some little presents may be given to the women and children. +Trinkets and similar articles are little esteemed by the Bedouins; but +coffee is in great request all over the desert; and sweetmeats and sugar +are preferred to money, which, though it will sometimes be accepted, +always creates a sense of humiliation, and consequently of dislike +towards the giver. For my own part, being convinced that the hospitality +of the Bedouin is afforded with disinterested cordiality, I was in +general averse to making the slightest return. Few travellers perhaps +will agree with me on this head; but will treat the Bedouins in the same +manner as the Turks, and other inhabitants of the towns, who never +proffer their services or + +WADY EL SHEIKH + +[p.487] hospitality without expecting a reward; the feelings of +Bedouins, however, are very different from those of townsmen, and a +Bedouin will praise the guest who departs from him without making any +other remuneration than that of bestowing a blessing upon them and their +encampment, much more than him who thinks to redeem all obligations by +payment. + +We returned from Wady Osh towards Wady Berah; but leaving the latter, +which here takes a direction towards Wady Feiran, we ascended by a +narrow valley called Wady Akhdhar [Arabic]. Here I again saw some +inscriptions on blocks of stone lying by the road side. A few hours to +the N.E. of Wady Osh is a mountain called Sheyger, where native cinnabar +is collected; it is called Rasokht [Arabic] by the Arabs, and is usually +found in small pieces about the size of a pigeon’s egg. It is very +seldom crystallized; but there are sometimes nodules on the surface; it +stains the fingers of a dark colour, and its fracture is in +perpendicular fibres. I did not hear that the Arabs traded at all in +this metal. In Wady Osh are rocks of gneiss mixed with granite. Gneiss +is found in many parts of the peninsula. + +After one hour we came to a steep ascent, and descent, called El Szaleib +[Arabic], which occupied two hours. We then continued our descent into +the great valley called Wady el Sheikh [Arabic], one of the principal +valleys of the peninsula. The rocks of Szaleib consist throughout of +granite, on the upper strata of which run layers of red feldspath, some +of which has fallen down and covers the valley in broken fragments. The +Wady el Sheikh is broad, and has a very slight acclivity; it is much +frequented by Bedouins for its pasturage. Whenever rain falls in the +mountains, a stream of water flows through this Wady, and from thence +through Wady Feiran, into the sea. We rode in a S.E. direction along the +Wady el Sheikh for two hours, and then halted in it for the + +[p.488] night, after an afternoon’s march of four hours. Several Arabs +of the encampment where we slept the preceding night had joined our +party, to go to the convent, for no other reason, I believe, than to get +a good dinner and supper on the road. This evening eight persons kneeled +down round a dish of rice, cooked with milk which I had brought from +Wady Osh, and the coffee-pot being kept on the fire, we sat in +conversation till near midnight. + +May 1st.—We continued in a S.E. direction, ascending slightly: the +valley then becomes narrower. At two hours we came to a thick wood of +tamarisk or Tarfa, and found many camels feeding upon their thorny +shoots. It is from this evergreen tamarisk, which grows abundantly in no +other part of the peninsula, that the manna is collected. We now +approached the central summits of Mount Sinai, which we had had in view +for several days. Abrupt cliffs of granite from six to eight hundred +feet in height, whose surface is blackened by the sun, surround the +avenues leading to the elevated platform, to which the name of Sinai is +specifically applied. These cliffs enclose the holy mountain on three +sides, leaving the E. and N.E. sides only, towards the gulf of Akaba, +more open to the view. On both sides of the wood of Tarfa trees extends +a range of low hills of a substance called by the Arabs Tafal [Arabic], +which I believe to be principally a detritus of the feldspar of granite, +but which, at first sight, has all the appearance of pipe-clay; it is +brittle, crumbles easily between the fingers, and leaves upon them its +colour, which is a pale yellow. The Arabs sell it at Cairo, where it is +in request for taking stains out of cloth, and where it serves the poor +instead of soap, for washing their hands; but it is chiefly used to rub +the skins of asses during summer, being supposed to refresh them, and to +defend them against the heat of the sun. + +At the end of three hours we entered the above-mentioned cliffs + +SHEIKH SZALEH + +[p.489] by a narrow defile about forty feet in breadth, with +perpendicular granite rocks on both sides. The ground is covered with +sand and pebbles, brought down by the torrent which rushes from the +upper region in the winter time. In a broader part of the pass an +insulated rock, about five feet high, with a kind of naturally formed +seat, is shewn as a place upon which Moses once reposed, whence it has +the name of Mokad Seidna Mousa [Arabic]; the Bedouins keep it covered +with green or dry herbs, and some of them kiss it, or touch it with +their hands, in passing by. Beyond it the valley opens, the mountains on +both sides diverge from the road, and the Wady el Sheikh continues in a +S. direction with a slight ascent. A little to the east, from hence, is +the well called Bir Mohsen [Arabic]. After continuing in the Wady for an +hour beyond the defile, we entered a narrow inlet in the eastern chain, +and rested near a spring called Abou Szoueyr [Arabic]. At four hours and +a half was a small walled plantation of tobacco, with some fruit trees, +and onions, cultivated by some of the Bedouins Oulad Said. In the +afternoon we crossed the mountain by a by-path, fell again into the Wady +el Sheikh, and at the end of eight hours from our setting out in the +morning reached the tomb of Sheikh Szaleh [Arabic], from which the whole +valley takes its name. The coffin of the Sheikh is deposited in a small +rude stone building; and is surrounded by a thin partition of wood, hung +with green cloth, upon which several prayers are embroidered. On the +walls are suspended silk tassels, handkerchiefs, ostrich eggs, camel +halters, bridles, &c. the offerings of the Bedouins who visit this tomb. +I could not learn exactly the history of this Sheikh Szaleh: some said +that he was the forefather of the tribe of Szowaleha; others, the great +Moslem prophet Szaleh, sent to the tribe of Thamoud, and who is +mentioned in the Koran; and others, again, that he was a local saint, +which I believe to be the truth. Among + +CONVENT OF MOUNT SINAI + +[p.490] the Bedouins, this tomb is the most revered spot in the +peninsula, next to the mountain of Moses; they make frequent vows to +kill a sheep in honour of the Sheikh should a wished-for event take +place; and if this happens, the votary repairs to the tomb with his +family and friends, and there passes a day of conviviality. Once in +every year all the tribes of the Towara repair hither in pilgrimage, and +remain encamped in the valley round the tomb for three days. Many sheep +are then killed, camel races are run, and the whole night is passed in +dancing and singing. The men and women are dressed in their best attire. +The festival, which is the greatest among these people, usually takes +place in the latter part of June, when the Nile begins to rise in Egypt, +and the plague subsides; and a caravan leaves Sinai immediately +afterwards for Cairo. It is just at this period too that the dates ripen +in the valleys of the lower chain of Sinai, and the pilgrimage to Sheikh +Szaleh thus becomes the most remarkable period in the Bedouin year. + +In the western mountain opposite Sheikh Szaleh, and about one hour and a +half distant, is a fruitful pasturing place, upon a high mountain, with +many fields, and plantations of trees, called El Fereya [Arabic], where +once a convent stood. It is in possession of the Oulad Said. + +We continued from Sheikh Szaleh farther S. till at the end of six hours +and a half we turned to our right into a broad valley, at the +termination of which I was agreeably surprised by the beautiful verdure +of a garden of almond trees belonging to the convent. From thence, by +another short turn to the left, we reached the convent, in seven hours +and a half. We alighted under a window, by which the priests communicate +with the Arabs below. The letter of recommendation which I had with me +was drawn up by a cord, and when the prior had read it, a stick tied +across a rope was + +[p.491] let down, upon which I placed myself, and was hoisted up. Like +all travellers I received a cordial reception and was shewn into the +same neatly furnished room in which all preceding Europeans had taken up +their abode. + +I rested in the convent three days. When I told the monks that I +intended to go to Akaba, they gave me very little encouragement, +particularly when they learnt that I had no Firmahn from the Pasha; but +finding that I was firmly resolved, they sent for the chief Ghafyr, or +protector of the convent, and recommended me strongly to him. The monks +live in such constant dread of the Bedouins, who knowing very well their +timid disposition, take every opportunity to strengthen their fears, +that they believe a person is going to certain destruction who trusts +himself to the guidance of these Bedouins any where but on the great +road to Suez or to Tor. I had been particularly pleased with the +character and behaviour of Hamd Ibn Zoheyr, the Bedouin who had joined +us at Suez; and not being equally satisfied with the guide who had +brought me from Cairo, I discharged him, and engaged Hamd for the +journey to Akaba; he did not know the road himself, but one of his +uncles who had been there assured us that he was well acquainted with +the tribe of Heywat, which we should meet on the road, and with all the +passages of the country; I therefore engaged him together with Hamd. + +As no visitor of the convent is permitted to leave it without the +knowledge of one of the Ghafyrs, who has a right to share in the profits +of the escort, I was obliged to give a few piastres to him who is at +present the director of the affairs of the convent in the desert. The +Arabs have established here the same custom which I remarked in my +journey from Tor to Cairo. Every one who is present at the departure of +a stranger or of a loaded camel from the convent is entitled to a fee, +provided the traveller has not passed + +WADY SAL + +[p.492] a line, which is about one mile from the convent. To avoid this +unnecessary company and expense, I stole out of the convent by night, as +secretly as possible; but we were overtaken within the limits by a +Bedouin, and my guides were obliged to give him six piastres, to make +him desist from farther claims. I left my servant and unnecessary +baggage at the convent, and mounted a camel, for the hire of which I +gave five dollars, and I paid as much to each of my guides, who were +also mounted, and were to conduct me to Akaba and back again. + +May 4th.—I left the convent before day light, but travelled no farther +to day than to the well of Abou Szoueyr, where we had rested on the +first of May, and where a large company of Arabs assembled when they +heard of our arrival. They quarrelled long with my guides for having +taken me clandestinely from the convent, but were at last pacified by a +lamb which I bought, and partook of with them. In the evening we heard +from afar the songs of an encampment, to which my guides went, to join +in the dance. I remained with the baggage, in conversation with an Arab +who had lately come from Khalyl or Hebron, and who much dissuaded me +from going to Akaba. He assured me that the uncle of Hamd my guide knew +nothing of the Arabs of those parts, nor even the paths through the +country; but I slighted his advice, because I believed that it was +dictated by envy, and that he wished himself to be one of the party. The +result shewed, however, that he was right. + +May 5th.—At sunrise we left Abou Szoueyr, and ascended a hilly country +for half an hour. After a short descent, which on this side terminates +the district of Sinai, properly so called, we continued over a wide open +plain, with low hills, called Szoueyry [Arabic], direction N.E. b. E. In +an hour and a half we entered a narrow valley called Wady Sal [Arabic], +formed by the + +[p.493] lower ridges of the primitive mountains, in the windings of +which we descended slightly E. b. N. and E.N.E. On the top I found the +rock to be granite; somewhat lower down grünstein, and porphyry began to +appear; farther on granite and porphyry cease entirely, and the rock +consists solely of grünstein, which in many places takes the nature of +slate. Some of the layers of porphyry are very striking; they run +perpendicularly from the very summit of the mountain to the base, in a +band of about twelve feet in width, and projecting somewhat from the +other rocks on the mountain’s side. I had observed similar strata in +Wady Genne, but running horizontally along the whole chain of mountains, +and dividing it, as it were, into two equal parts. The porphyry I have +met with in Sinai is usually a red indurated argillaceous substance; in +some specimens it had the appearance of red feldspath. In the argil are +imbedded small crystals of hornblende, or of mica, and thin pieces of +quartz at most two lines square. I never saw any large fragments of +quartz in it. Its universal colour is red. The lower mountains of Sinai +are much more regularly shaped than the upper ones: they are less +rugged, have no insulated peaks, and their summits fall off in smooth +curves. + +The Wady Sal is extremely barren: we found no pasture for our camels, as +no rain had fallen during the two last years, in the whole of this +eastern part of the peninsula. A few acacia trees grew in different +places; we rested at noon under one of them while a cup of coffee was +prepared, and then pursued the Wady downwards until, at the end of seven +hours, we issued from it into a small plain, which we soon crossed, and +at seven hours and a half entered another valley, similar to the former, +where I again saw some granite, of the gray, small-grained species[.] +Our descent was here very rapid, and at the end of nine hours and a half +we reached a lower level, in a broad valley running southwards. + +HAYDAR + +[p.494] From hence the summit of Mount St. Catherine, behind the +convent, bore S.W. by W. Calcareous and sand rocks begin here, and the +bottom of the valley is deep sand. We rode in it in the direction N.E. +by N. and after a march of eleven hours alighted in a plain, at a spot +which afforded some shrubs for our camels to feed upon. The elder of my +two guides, by name Szaleh, soon proved himself to be ignorant of the +road. He might have passed this way in his youth, and have had a +recollection of the general direction of the valleys; but when we +arrived in the plain, he proceeded in various directions, in search of a +road from the east. We had now, about six or eight miles to our left, a +long and straight chain of mountains, the continuation, I believe, of +that of Tyh or Dhelel, mentioned above, and running almost parallel with +our route. The northern side of these mountains is inhabited by the +tribe of Tyaha. Here passes the road which leads straight from the +convent to Akaba, while the one we took descended to the sea, and had +been chosen by my guides for greater security. The upper road passes by +the watering places Zelka, El Ain (the Well), a place much frequented by +Bedouins, and where many date-trees grow, and lastly by El Hossey. It is +the common route from the convent to Khalyl and Jerusalem. + +May 6th.—We started early, and continued our way over the plain, which +is called Haydar [Arabic]. It appears to follow the mountain of Tyh as +far as its western extremity, and there to join the Seyh, of which I +have already spoken, thus forming the northern sandy boundary of the +lower Sinai chain. As we proceeded, we approached nearer to the +mountain, and at length fell in with the looked for road. The ground is +gravelly but covered with moving sands which are raised by the slightest +wind. To the east the country was open, with low hills, as far as I +could see. Our road lay N.E.1/2 N. At one hour and a half Mount St. +Catharine bore + +WADY RAHAB + +[p.495] S.W. by W. We now descended into a valley of deep sand covered +with blocks of chalk rock. At one hour and three quarters the valley is +contracted into a narrow pass, between low hills of sand-stone, bearing +traces of very violent torrents. At the end of two hours, route east by +north, we quitted the valley, and crossed a rough rocky plain, +intersected on every side by beds of torrents; and at two hours and +three quarters halted near a rock. One of the guides went with the +camels up a side valley, to bring water from the well Hadhra [Arabic], +(perhaps the Hazeroth [Hebrew] mentioned in Numbers xxxiii. 17), distant +about two miles from the halting place. Near the well are said to be +some date trees, and the remains of walls which formerly enclosed a few +plantations. + +We here met some Towara Bedouins on their way to Cairo with charcoal. +After employing a considerable time in collecting the wood and burning +it into coal they carry it to Cairo, a journey at least of ten days, and +there sell it for three or four dollars per load: so cheap do they hold +their labour, and so limited are their means of subsistence. In return, +they bring home corn and clothes to their women and children. + + +We started again as soon as the camels returned from the well, but +should probably have gone astray had not the Bedouins above mentioned +pointed out the road we ought to take; for Szaleh, the uncle of Hamd, +although he pretended to be quite at home in this district, gave evident +proofs of being but very slightly acquainted with it. We made many +windings between sand-stone rocks, which presented their smooth +perpendicular sides to the road; some of them are of a red, others of a +white colour; the ground was deeply covered with sand. The traces of +torrents were observable on the rocks as high as three and four feet +above the + +BOSZEYRA + +[p.496] present level of the plain. Our main direction was E.N.E. At +four hours and three quarters from the time we set out in the morning, +we entered Wady Rahab [Arabic], a fine valley with many Syale trees, +where the sands terminate. Route E. At five hours and a half we entered +another valley, broader than the former, where I again found an +alternation of sand-stone and granite. The barrenness of this district +was greater than I had yet witnessed in my travels, excepting perhaps +some parts of the desert El Tyh; the Nubian valleys might be called +pleasure grounds in comparison. Not the smallest green leaf could be +discovered; and the thorny mimosa, which retains its verdure in the +tropical deserts of Nubia, with very little supply of moisture, was here +entirely withered, and so dry that it caught fire from the lighted +cinders which fell from our pipes as we passed. We continued to descend +by a gentle slope, and at six hours and a half entered Wady Samghy +[Arabic], coming from the south, in which we descended N.E. At the end +of eight hours and a half we left this valley and turned E. into a side +one, called Boszeyra [Arabic]; where we halted for the night, at eight +hours and three quarters. + +We had met in Wady Samghy two old Bedouins of the Mezeine tribe, who +belong to the Towara nation: they were fishermen, on their way to the +sea to exercise their profession. One of them carried in a small sack a +measure of meal which was to serve for their food on shore, the other +had a skin of water upon his shoulder; they were both half naked, and +both approaching to seventy years of age. One of them was deaf, but so +intelligent that it was easy to talk with him by signs; he had +established a vocabulary of gestures with his companion, who had been +his fishing partner for ten years, and who was one of the shrewdest and +hardiest Bedouins I had ever seen; in his younger days he had been a +noted robber, + +[p.497] and in attempting to carry off the baggage of a French officer +in the Sherkyeh province in Egypt, he was seized, laid under the stick, +and so severely beaten, that his back had from that time become bent; +but notwithstanding this misfortune and his age, he had lost none of his +spirits, and his robust constitution still enabled him to cross these +mountains on foot, and to exert his activity whenever it was required. +These two men partook this evening of my supper; they of course asked me +where I was going, and shook their heads when I told them I was bound +for Akaba. None of my guides knew what business I had there, but they +supposed that I had some verbal message to deliver to the Turkish Aga, +who was at the head of the garrison. Ayd es Szaheny [Arabic], the old +robber, soon found out that my guide Szaleh knew little of the road, and +still less of the Arab tribes before us. He plainly told him that he +would not be able to ensure either my safety or his own, in passing +through their districts, and reproached him for having deluded me with +false assurances. There appeared to be so much good faith and sense in +all the old man said, and I found him so well informed respecting the +country, that I soon determined to engage him to join us; but as we were +to descend the next morning by the same road to the sea-shore, I +deferred making him any overtures till we should arrive there. + +The Wady Boszeyra is enclosed by gray granite rocks, out of which the +Towara Arabs sometimes hew stones for hand mills, which they dispose of +to the northern Arabs, and transport for sale as far as Khalyl. It is +very seldom that any Arabs pasture in the district we had traversed, +from Wady Sal. The Towara find better pasturage in the southern and +south-western parts of the peninsula, and as its whole population is +very small, the more barren parts of it are abandoned, and especially +this side, where very few wells are found. + +WASTA + +[p.498] May 7th.—From Boszeyra we crossed a short ridge of mountains, +and then entered a narrow valley, the bed of a torrent, called Saada +[Arabic], in the windings of which we descended by a steeper slope than +any of the former; our main direction E. The mountains on both sides +were of moderate height and with gentle slopes, till after an hour and a +half, when we reached a chain of high and perpendicular grünstein rocks, +which hemmed in the valley so closely as to leave in several places a +passage of only ten feet across. After proceeding for a mile in this +very striking and majestic defile, I caught the first glimpse of the +gulf of Akaba; the valley then widens and descends to the sea, and after +two hours and a quarter we alighted upon the sandy beach, which is here +several hundred paces in breadth; the grünstein and granite rocks reach +all the way down; but at the very foot of the mountain a thin layer of +chalk appeared just above the surface of the ground. The valley opens +directly upon the sea, into which it empties its torrent when heavy +rains fall. Some groves of date-trees stand close by the shore, among +which is a well of brackish but drinkable water; the place is called El +Noweyba [Arabic]. We now followed the coast in a direction N.N.E. and at +the end of three hours and a quarter halted at a grove of date-trees, +intermixed with a few tamarisks, called Wasta [Arabic], close by the +sea. Here is a small spring at a distance of fifty yards from the sea, +and not more than eight feet above the level of the water; it was choked +with sand, which we removed, and on digging a hole about three feet deep +and one foot in diameter, it filled in half an hour with very tolerable +water. The shore is covered with weeds brought hither by the tide[.] + +Here the two Bedouins intended to take up their quarters for fishing, +but I easily prevailed upon Ayd to accompany us farther on. He promised +to conduct us as far as Taba, a valley in sight of Akaba, but declared +that he should not be justified in + +[p.499] holding out to me promises of safety beyond that point. This was +all that I wished, for the present, thinking that when we arrived +thither, I should be able to prevail on him to continue farther. Szaleh +now gave me reason to suspect that, from the moment of our setting out, +he had had treacherous intentions. He secretly endeavoured to persuade +Hamd to return, and finding the latter resolved to fulfil his +engagements, he declared that he had now shown us enough of the way, +that we had only to follow the shore to reach Akaba, and that the +weakness of his camel would not allow it to proceed farther. I replied +that he was at liberty to take himself off, but that, on my return to +the convent, I should pay him only for the three days he had travelled +with me. This was not to his liking, and he therefore preferred going +on. Before we left this place Ayd told me that as I had treated him with +a supper last night, it was his duty to give me a breakfast this +morning. While he kneaded a loaf of flour, and baked it in the ashes, +his companion caught some fish, which we boiled, and made a soup of the +broth mixed with bread. The deaf man was made to understand by signs +that he was to wait for the return of Ayd, and we set out together +before mid-day. Before us lay a small bay, which we skirted; the sands +on the shore every where bore the impression of the passage of serpents, +crossing each other in many directions, and some of them appeared to be +made by animals whose bodies could not be less than two inches in +diameter. Ayd told me that serpents were very common in these parts; +that the fishermen were much afraid of them, and extinguished their +fires in the evening before they went to sleep, because the light was +known to attract them. As serpents are so numerous on this side, they +are probably not deficient towards the head of the gulf on its opposite +shore, where it appears that the Israelites passed, when they journeyed +from mount Hor, by the way of the Red sea, to compass the land of + +[p.500] Edom,” and when the “Lord sent fiery serpents among the +people.”[Numbers c. xxi, v. 4, 6. The following passage of Deuteronomy +(viii. 15) in giving a general description of this country, alludes to +the serpents: “Who led thee through that great and terrible wilderness +wherein were fiery serpents, and scorpions, and drought, where there was +no water; who brought thee forth water out of the rock of flint. Who fed +thee in the wilderness with manna,” &c. Scorpions are numerous in all +the adjacent parts of Palestine and the desert. The Author observes in a +note in another place, that the Arabic translation of the Pentateuch has +“serpents of burning bites,” instead of “fiery serpents.” Note of the +Editor.] + +On the opposite side of the gulf the mountains appeared to reach down to +the sea-side. In the direction S.S.E. and S.E. they are high; to the +northward the chain lowers, and from the point E.S.E. towards Akaba the +level is still lower. We saw at a distance several Gazelles, which, my +guides told me, descend at mid-day to the sea to bathe. At one hour from +Wasta we reached near the sea another collection of palm trees, larger +than the former, and having a well, which was completely choaked up. +These trees receive no other irrigation than the winter rains; each tree +has its acknowledged owner among some of the Towara tribes: those which +I have just noticed belong to some persons of the tribe of Aleygat. Not +the smallest attention is paid to the trees till the period of the date +harvest, when the owners encamp under them with their families for about +a week while the fruit is gathered. The shrub Gharkad also grows here in +large quantities. At one hour and three quarters we came to another +small bay, round which lay the road, the main direction of the shore +being N.E. by N. The mountains approach very near to the water, leaving +only a narrow sloping plain covered with loose stones, washed down from +above by the torrents. The road was profusely strewed with shells of +different species, all of which were empty. The fishermen collect the +shells, take out the animals, and + +WADY OM HASH + +[p.501] dry them in the sun, particularly that of the species called +Zorombat [Arabic], which I have also seen in plenty on the African coast +of the Red sea, north of Souakin, and at Djidda, where they are much +esteemed by the mariners, and are sold by the fishermen at Tor and Suez. +I here made a rough measurement of the breadth of the gulf: having +assumed a base of seven hundred paces along the beach, and then measured +with my compass the angles formed at either extremity of it, with a +prominent point of the opposite mountain, the result gave a breadth of +about twelve miles. The vegetation appeared to be much less impregnated +with saline particles than I had found it on other parts of the coast of +the Red sea. + +At two hours and three quarters we had to pass round the bottom of +another bay, of red and white sand-stone, where steep rocks advance so +close to the water as to leave only a narrow path. At three hours and +three quarters we passed an opening into the mountain, called Wady Om +Hash [Arabic], from whence a torrent descends, which, after its issue +from the mountain, spreads to a considerable distance along the shore, +and produces verdure. The shrub Doeyny [Arabic] grows here in abundance; +it is almost a foot in height, and continues green the whole year. The +Arabs collect and burn it, and sell the ashes at Khalyl, where they are +used in the glass manufactories. We passed on our left several similar +inlets into the mountain, the beds of torrents, but my guides could not, +or would not, tell their names. The Bedouins are generally averse to +satisfying the traveller’s curiosity on such subjects; not being able to +conceive what interest he has in informing himself of mere names, they +ascribe to repeated questions of this nature improper motives. Some +cunning is often required to get proper answers, and they frequently +give false names, for no other reason than to have the pleasure of +deluding the enquirer, and laughing at him among themselves behind his +back. + +RAS OM HAYE + +[p.502] At four hours and a quarter we passed Wady Mowaleh [Arabic]; and +at the end of five hours and three quarters reached the northern point +of the last mentioned bay, formed by a projecting part of the mountain, +or promontory, called Abou Burko [Arabic], which means “he who wears a +face veil,” because on the top of it is a white rock, which is thought +to resemble the white Berkoa, or face veil of the Arab women, and +renders it a conspicuous object from afar. Noweyba, where we had first +reached the shore, bore from hence S.S.W. We rested for the night in a +pasturing place near the mountain, on the south side of the promontory. +Old Ayd, who carried his net with him, brought us some fish. His dog eat +the raw fish, and his master told me that the dog sometimes passed +several months without any other food. + +May 8th.—We set out long before day-break. None of our party was ever +more ready to alight, or to take his supper, than Szaleh, and none more +averse to start. During the whole way he was continually grumbling, and +endeavouring to persuade the others to turn back. We were one hour in +doubling the Abou Burko, a chalky rock, whose base is washed by the +waves. On the other side we passed, at two hours, in the bottom of a +small bay, Wady Zoara [Arabic], where a few date trees grow, and a well +of saltish water is found, unfit to drink. The maritime plain was here +nearly two miles in breadth. Having made the tour of another bay from +Abou Burko, we reached, at three hours and a half, a promontory forming +its northern boundary, and called Ras Om Haye [Arabic], a name derived +from the great quantity of serpents found there, some of which, Ayd told +me, were venemous; we however saw none of any kind. The whole coast of +the AElanitic gulf, from Ras Abou Mohammed to Akaba, consists of a +succession of bays separated from such other by head lands. The Ras Om +Haye forms the western extremity of the mountain of Tyh, + +OM HAYE + +[p.503] whose straight and regular ridge runs quite across the +peninsula, and is easily distinguished from the surrounding mountains. +We halted at the end of five hours in a rocky valley at the foot of Ras +Om Haye, where acacia trees and some grass grow. Ayd assured us that in +the mountain, at some distance, was a reservoir of rain water, called Om +Hadjydjein [Arabic], but he could not answer for its containing water at +this time. He described to Hamd its situation, and the way to it, with a +view of persuading him to go and fetch some water for us; but his +description was so confused, and I thought contradictory in several +circumstances, and withal so pompous, that I concluded it to be all a +story, and told him he was a babbler. “A babbler!” he exclaimed; “min +Allah, no body in my whole life ever called me thus before. A babbler! +I shall presently shew you, which of us two deserves that name.” He then +seized one of the large water skins, and barefooted as he was, began +ascending the mountain, which was covered with loose and sharp stones. +We soon lost sight of him, but saw him again, farther on, climbing up an +almost perpendicular path. An hour and a half after, he returned by the +same path, carrying on his bent back the skin full of water, which could +not weigh less than one hundred pounds, and putting it down before us +said, “There! take it from the babbler!” I was so overcome with shame, +that I knew not how to apologize for my inconsiderate language; but when +he saw that I really felt myself in the wrong, he was easily pacified, +and said nothing more about it till night, when seeing me take a hearty +draught of the water, and hearing me praise its sweetness, compared with +the brackish water of the coast, he stopped me, and said, “Young man, +for the future never call an old Bedouin a babbler.” + +On the opposite side of the gulf the mountains recede somewhat from the +shore, leaving at their feet a sloping plain. A place on + +[p.504] the coast, called Hagol [Arabic], bore from hence E. b. S; it is +a fruitful valley by the water side, with large date plantations, which +were clearly discernible. It is in possession of the tribe of Arabs +called Akraba [Arabic]. Behind them, in the mountains, dwells the strong +and warlike tribe of Omran [Arabic]. Hagol is one long day’s journey +from Akaba; to the south of it about four hours is a similar cluster of +date trees, called El Hamyde [Arabic], which bore from us S.E. b. E. The +mountains on that coast are steep, with many peaks. + +No Arabs live on the western coast, owing to the scanty pasturage; it is +occasionally visited by fishermen and others, who come to collect the +herb from which the soda ashes are obtained, or to cut wood and burn it +into charcoal. The fishermen are very poor and visit the coast only +during the summer months; they cure their fish with the salt which they +collect on the southern part of the coast, and when they have thus +prepared a sufficient quantity of fish, they fetch a camel and transport +it to Tor or Suez. At Tor a camel’s load of the fish, or about four +hundred pounds, may be had for three dollars. The fishermen prepare also +a sort of lard by cutting out the fat adhering to the fish and melting +it, they then mix it with salt, preserve it in skins, and use it all the +year round instead of butter, both for cookery and for anointing their +bodies. Its taste is not disagreeable. As the Bedouins prefer the upper +road, this road along the coast is seldom visited, except by poor +pilgrims who have been cut off from the caravan, or robbed by Bedouins, +and who being ignorant of the road across the desert to Cairo, sometimes +make the tour of the whole peninsula by the sea side, as they are thus +sure not to lose their way, and in winter-time seldom fail in finding +pools of water. Ayd told me that he had frequently met with stragglers +of this description, worn out with fatigue and hunger. + +WADY MEZEIRYK + +[p.505] From hence northwards the shore runs N.E. 1/2 N. Having doubled +the point of Om Haye, we found on the other side, after again passing +round a small bay, at five hours and three quarters, a bank of sand +running into the sea to a considerable distance, and several miles in +breadth; it is called Wady Mokabelat [Arabic], and is the termination of +a narrow Wady in the mountains to our left, from whence issues a torrent +which spreads in time of rain over a wide extent of ground, partly rocky +and partly sandy, where it produces good pasturage, and irrigates many +acacia trees. The view up this Wady or inlet of the mountain is very +curious: at its mouth it is nearly two miles wide, and it narrows +gradually upwards with the most perfect regularity, so that the eye can +trace it for five or six miles, when it becomes so narrow as to present +only the appearance of a perpendicular black line. At six hours and a +half we came again to a mountain forming a promontory, called Djebel +Sherafe [Arabic]. The mountains from Om Haye northward decline +considerably in height. The highest point of the chain appears to be the +summit above Noweyba, where we had descended to the shore. + +Beyond Djebel Sherafe we found the road along the shore obstructed by +high cliffs, and were obliged to make a detour by entering a valley to +the west, called Wady Mezeiryk [Arabic]. We ascended through many +windings, entered several lateral valleys, and descended again to the +shore at the end of eight hours and a half, at a point not more than +half an hour distant from where we had turned out of the road. We found +the valley Mezeiryk full of excellent pasture; many sweet-scented herbs +were growing in it, and the acacia trees were all green. Upon enquiry I +learnt that to the north of Djebel Tyh copious rains had fallen during +the winter, while to the south of it there had been very little for the +last two years, and in the eastern parts none. + +[p.506] In the whole way from the convent I had not met with the +smallest trace of antiquity, either inscriptions upon the rocks by the +road-side or any other labour of man, until we reached the summit of +Wady Mezeiryk, where, close to the road, is a large sand-stone rock, +which seems, for a small space, to have received an artificial surface. +Upon it I found rude drawings of camels, and of mountain and other +goats, resembling those which I had before seen, and those which I saw +afterwards in the Wady Mokatteb. No inscriptions were visible, but the +annexed figures were drawn between the animals. These were the only +drawings or inscriptions that I met with in the mountains to the E. of +the convent, although I passed many flat rocks, well suited to them. I +am inclined to think that the inscriptions have been written by pilgrims +proceeding to Mount Sinai, and that the drawings of animals which are +executed in a ruder manner and with a less steady hand, are the work of +the shepherds of the peninsula. We find only those animals represented +which are natives of these mountains, such as camels, mountain and other +goats, and gazelles, but principally the two first,[It may be worthy of +mention in this place that among the innumerable paintings and +sculptures in the temples, and tombs of Egypt, I never met with a single +instance of the representation of a camel. At Thebes, in the highest of +the tombs on the side of the Djebel Habou, called Abd el Gorne, which +has not, I believe, been noticed by former travellers, or even by the +French in their great work, I found all the domestic animals of the +Egyptians represented together in one large painting upon a wall, +forming the most elaborate and interesting work of the kind, which I saw +in Egypt. A shepherd conducts the whole herd into the presence of his +master, who inspects them, while a slave is noting them down. Yet even +here I looked in vain for the camel.] and I had occasion to remark in +the course of my tour, that the present Bedouins of Sinai are in the +habit of carving the figures of goats upon rocks and in grottos. Niebuhr +observes, that in the hieroglyphic + +WADY TABA + +[p.507] inscriptions which he saw in the ancient burying ground not far +distant from Naszeb, he found figures of goats upon almost every +inscribed tomb-stone; this animal is not very frequent in the +hieroglyphic inscriptions of Egypt. + +From the point where we descended again to the shore, we followed a +range of black basaltic cliffs, into which the sea has worked several +creeks, appearing like so many small lakes, with very narrow openings +towards the sea; they are full of fish and shells. At the end of nine +hours and a half we had passed these cliffs, and reached the plain +beyond, upon which we continued our route near the shore, and rested for +the night at ten hours and a quarter, under a palm-tree, in the vicinity +of a deep brackish well, which we were obliged to excavate, in order to +procure some water for our camels, they having drank none since we +quitted Wasta. From hence the promontory of Om Haye bore S.W. b. S. This +plain, which is the extremity of a valley descending from the western +mountain, is called Wady Taba [Arabic]. Ayd had promised to conduct me +to this spot, but no farther; nor would the new offers which I now made +induce hire to advance. We had already passed beyond the limits of the +Arabs Towara, which terminate on this side of Wady Mokabelat, and we +were now in the territory of the Heywat, who have a very bad reputation. +We had met with nobody on the road, but in Wady Mezeiryk, as well as in +Wady Taba, we saw footsteps, which shewed that some persons must have +passed there a short time before. None of my guides were acquainted with +the tribe of Heywat; had we therefore met any strong party of them, they +would certainly have stripped us, although not at war with the Towara, +for it is a universal practice among Bedouins to plunder all passengers +who are unknown to them, and not attended by guides of their own tribe, +provided they possess + +AKABA + +[p.508] any thing worth seizing. Szaleh had completely deluded both +myself and his own nephew Hamd: he had confidently asserted that he knew +the Heywat well, and that the first individual of them whom we should +meet would easily be prevailed upon to join our party, and to serve as +an additional protector. About one hour before us was another +promontory, beyond which we knew that the country was well peopled by +two other tribes, the Alowein and Omran, who are the masters of the +district of Akaba, intrepid robbers, and allies of the Heywat, and who +are to this day quite independent of the government of Egypt. Through +them we must unavoidably pass to reach Akaba, and Ayd could not give me +the smallest hope of being able to cross their valleys without being +attacked. Had I been furnished with a Firmahn from Mohammed Ali Pasha, I +should have repaired at once to the great Sheikh of the Towara, and +obliged him to send for some Heywat or Omran guides, who might have +ensured my safety. But having been disappointed in this respect, I had +no alternative but to turn back. Hamd, it is true, bravely offered to +accompany me wherever I chose to go, though he knew nothing of the road +before us, or the Arabs upon it; but I saw little chance of success, and +knew, from what I had heard during my journey from Kerek to Cairo, that +the Omran not only rob but murder passengers. Ayd had seen on the shore +the footsteps of a man, which he knew to be those of a fisherman, a +friend of his who had probably passed in the course of this day. Had we +met with him he might have served as our guide, but not a soul was any +where to be seen. Under these circumstances I reluctantly determined to +retrace my steps the next day, but, instead of proceeding by the shore, +to turn off into the mountains, and return to the convent by a more +western route. + +[p.509] Akaba was not far distant from the spot from whence we returned. +Before sun-set I could distinguish a black line in the plain, where my +sharp-sighted guides clearly saw the date-trees surrounding the castle, +which bore N.E. 1 E.; it could not be more than five or six hours +distant. Before us was a promontory called Ras Koreye [Arabic], and +behind this, as I was told, there is another, beyond which begins the +plain of Akaba. The castle is situated at an hour and a half or two +hours from the western chain, down which the Hadj route leads, and about +the same distance from the eastern chain, or lower continuation of Tor +Hesma, a mountain which I have mentioned in my journey through the +northern parts of Arabia Petraea. The descent of the western mountain is +very steep, and has probably given to the place its name of Akaba, which +in Arabic means a cliff or a steep declivity; it is probably the Akabet +Aila of the Arabian geographers; Makrizi says that the village Besak +stands upon its summit. In Numbers, xxxiv. 4, the “ascent of Akrabbim” +is mentioned, which appears to correspond very accurately to this ascent +of the western mountain from the plain of Akaba. Into this plain, which +surrounds the castle on every side except the sea, issues the Wady el +Araba, the broad sandy valley which leads towards the Dead sea, and +which I crossed in 1812, at a day and a half, or two days journey from +Akaba. At about two hours to the south of the castle the eastern range +of mountains approaches the sea. The plain of Akaba, which is from three +to four hours in length, from west to east, and, I believe, not much +less in breadth northward, is very fertile in pasturage. To the distance +of about one hour from the sea it is strongly impregnated with salt, but +farther north sands prevail. The castle itself stands at a few hundred +paces from the sea, and is surrounded with large groves of date-trees. +It is a square building, with strong walls, erected, as it now + +[p.510] stands, by Sultan el Ghoury of Egypt, in the sixteenth century. +In its interior are many Arab huts; a market is held there, which is +frequented by Hedjaz and Syrian Arabs; and small caravans arrive +sometimes from Khalyl. The castle has tolerably good water in deep +wells. The Pasha of Egypt, keeps here a garrison of about thirty +soldiers, to guard the provisions deposited for the supply of the Hadj, +and for the use of the cavalry on their passage by this route to join +the army in the Hedjaz. Cut off from Cairo, the soldiers of the garrison +often turn rebellious; three years ago an Aga made himself independent, +and whenever a corps of troops passed he shut the gates of the castle, +and prepared to defend it. He had married a daughter of the chief of the +Omran, and thus secured the assistance of that tribe. Being at last +attacked by some troops sent against him from Cairo he fled to his +wife’s tribe, and escaped into Syria. + +It appears that the gulf extends very little farther east than the +castle, distant from which one hour, in a southern direction, and on the +eastern shore of the gulf, lies a smaller and half-ruined castle, +inhabited by Bedouins only, called Kaszer el Bedawy. At about three +quarters of an hour from Akaba, and the same distance from Kaszer el +Bedawy, are ruins in the sea, which are visible only at low water: they +are said to consist of walls, houses, and columns, but cannot easily be +approached, on account of the shallows. This information was not given +to me by my guides, but after my return to Cairo, by some French +Mamelouks, in the army of Mohammed Ali Pasha, who had formerly been for +several weeks in garrison at Akaba; they, however, had never seen the +ruins except from a distance. I enquired particularly whether the gulf +did not form two branches at this extremity, as it has always been laid +down in the maps, but I was assured that it had only a single ending, at +which the castle is situated. + +[p.511] To the north of Akaba, in the mountain leading up to Tor Hesma, +is a Wady known by the name of Wady Ithem [Arabic]. I was told that at a +certain spot this valley is shut up by an ancient wall, the construction +of which is ascribed by the Arabs to a king named Hadeid, whose +intention in erecting it was to prevent the tribe of Beni Helal of +Nedjed from making incursions into the plain. By this valley a road +leads eastwards towards Nedjed, following, probably, a branch of the +mountain which extends towards the Akaba of the Syrian Hadj route, where +the pilgrims coming from Damascus descend by a steep and difficult pass +into the lower plains of Arabia. I believe this chain of mountains +continues in a direct and uninterrupted line from the eastern shore of +the Dead sea to the eastern shore of the Red sea, and from thence to +Yemen. Makrizi, the Egyptian historian, says, in his chapter on Aila +(Akaba); “It is from hence that the Hedjaz begins; in former times it +was the frontier place of the Greeks; at one mile from it, is a +triumphal arch of the Caesars. In the time of the Islam it was a fine +town, inhabited by the Beni Omeya. Ibn Ahmed Ibn Touloun (a Sultan of +Egypt), made the road over the Akaba or steep mountain before Aila. +There were many mosques at Aila, and many Jews lived there; it was taken +by the Franks during the Crusades; but in 566, Salaheddyn transported +ships upon camels from Cairo to this place, and recovered it from them. +Near Aila was formerly situated a large and handsome town, called +Aszyoun [Arabic],” (Eziongeber.) + +My guides told me, that in the sea opposite to the above mentioned +promontory of Ras Koreye, there is a small island; they affirmed that +they saw it distinctly, but I could not, for it was already dusk when +they pointed it out, and the next morning a thick fog covered the gulf. +Upon this island, according to their statement, are ruins of infidels, +but as no vessels are kept in these parts, + +[p.512] Ayd, who had been here several times, had never been able to +take any close view of them; they are described as extensive, and built +of hard stone, and are called El Deir, “the convent,” a word often +applied by Arabs to any ruined building in which they suppose that the +priests of the infidels once resided. + +The Bedouins in the neighbourhood of Akaba, as I have already observed, +are the Alouein, Omran, and Heywat. They are all three entitled to a +passage duty from the Hadj caravan; the Alouein exact it as owners of +the district extending from the western mountain, across the plain to +Akaba; the Heywat, as the possessors of the country from the well of +Themmed, to the summit of the same mountain; and the Omran as masters of +the desert from Akaba southward as far as the vicinity of Moeleh. +Caravans of these tribes come occasionally to Cairo in search of corn, +but they are independent of the Pasha of Egypt, of which they give +proofs, by continually plundering the loads of the Hadj caravans, and of +all those who pass the great Hadj route through their districts. Their +intercourse with Syria, especially with Khalyl, is much more frequent +than with Cairo. + +We had had through the whole of this day a very intense Simoum, or hot- +wind, which continued also during the night. In the evening I bathed in +the sea, but found myself immediately afterwards as much heated as I had +been before. After retiring to sleep we were awakened by the barking of +Ayd’s dog, upon which Ayd springing up said he was sure that some people +were in the neighbourhood. We therefore got our guns ready, and sat by +the fire the whole night, for whatever may be the heat of the season, +the Bedouin must have his fire at night. Szaleh gave evident signs of +fear, but happily the morning came without realizing his apprehensions. + +May 9th.—Ayd still expressed his certainty that somebody had + +WADY MEZEIRYK + +[p.513] approached us last night, so much confidence did he place in the +barking of his dog; he therefore advised me to hasten my way back, as +some Arabs might see our footsteps in the sand, and pursue us in quest +of a booty. On departing, Ayd, who was barefooted, and whose feet had +become sore with walking, took from under the date-bush round which we +had passed the night, a pair of leathern sandals, which he knew belonged +to his Heywat friend, the fisherman, and which the latter had hidden +here till his return. In order to inform the owner that it was he who +had taken the sandals, he impressed his footstep in the sand just by, +which he knew the other would immediately recognise, and he turned the +toes towards the south, to indicate that he had proceeded with the +sandals in that direction. + +We now returned across the plain to the before mentioned basalt cliffs, +passed the different small bays, and turned up into Wady Mezeiryk. We +had descended from our camels, which Szaleh was driving before him, +about fifty paces in advance; I followed, and about the same distance +behind me walked Hamd and Ayd. As we had seen nobody during the whole +journey, and were now returning into the friendly districts of the +Towara, we had ceased to entertain any fears from enemies, and were +laughing at Ayd for recommending us to cross the valleys as quickly as +possible. My gun was upon my camel, and I had just turned leisurely +round an angle of the valley, when I heard Ayd cry out with all his +might, “Get your arms! Here they are!” I immediately ran up to the +camels, to take my gun, but the cowardly Szaleh, instead of stopping to +assist his companions, made the camels gallop off at full speed up the +valley. I, however, overtook them, and seized my gun, but before I could +return to Hamd, I heard two shots fired, and Ayd’s war-hoop, “Have at +him! are we not Towara?” Immediately afterwards I saw Hamd spring + +DJEBEL SHERAFE + +[p.514] round the angle, his eyes flashing with rage, his shirt +sprinkled with blood, his gun in one hand, and in the other his knife +covered with blood; his foot was bleeding, he had lost his turban, and +his long black hair hung down over his shoulders. “I have done for him!” +he exclaimed, as he wiped his knife; “but let us fly.” “Not without +Ayd,” said I: “No indeed,” he replied; “without him we should all be +lost.” We returned round the corner, and saw Ayd exerting his utmost +agility to come up with us. At forty paces distance an Arab lay on the +ground, and three others were standing over him. We took hold of Ayd’s +arm and hastened to our camels, though we knew not where to find them. +Szaleh had frightened them so greatly by striking them with his gun, +that they went off at full-gallop, and it was half an hour before we +reached them; one of them had burst its girths, and thrown off its +saddle and load. We replaced the load, mounted Ayd, and hastened to pass +the rocks of Djebel Sherafe. We then found ourselves in a more open +country, less liable to be waylaid amongst rocks, and better able to +defend ourselves. Hamd now told me that Ayd had first seen four Bedouins +running down upon us; they had evidently intended to waylay us from +behind the corner, but came a little too late. When he heard Ayd cry +out, he had just time to strike fire and to light the match of his gun, +when the boldest of the assailants approached within twenty paces of him +and fired; the ball passed through his shirt; he returned the fire but +missed his aim; while his opponent was coolly reloading his piece, +before his companions had joined him, Ayd cried out to Hamd, to attack +the robber with his knife, and advanced to his support with a short +spear which he carried; Haind drew his knife, rushed upon the adversary, +and after receiving a wound in the foot, brought him to the ground, but +left him immediately, on seeing his companions hastening to his relief. +Ayd now said that if the + +[p.515] man was killed, we should certainly be pursued, but that if he +was only wounded the others would remain with him, and give up the +pursuit. We travelled with all possible haste, not knowing whether more +enemies might not be behind, or whether the encampment of the wounded +man might not be in the vicinity, from whence his friends might collect +to revenge his blood. + +Ayd had certainly not been mistaken last night; these robbers had no +doubt seen our fire, and had approached us, but were frightened by the +barking of the dog. Uncertain whether we were proceeding northward or +southward, they had waited till they saw us set out, and then by a +circuitous route in the mountains had endeavoured, unseen, to get the +start of us in order to waylay us in the passes of the Wady Mezeiryk. If +they had reached the spot where we were attacked two or three minutes +sooner, and had been able to take aim at us from behind the rock, we +must all have inevitably perished. That they intended to murder us, +contrary to the usual practice of Bedouins, is easily accounted for they +knew from the situation of the place, where they discovered us, as well +as from the dress and appearance of my guides, that they were Towara +Bedouins; but though I was poorly dressed, they must have recognized me +to be a townsman, and a townsman is always supposed by Bedouins to carry +money with him. To rob us without resistance was impossible, their +number being too small; or supposing this had succeeded, and any of the +guides had escaped, they knew that they would sooner or later be obliged +to restore the property taken, and to pay the fine of blood and wounds, +because the Towara were then at peace with all their neighbours. For +these reasons they had no doubt resolved to kill the whole party, as the +only effectual mode of avoiding all disclosures as to the real +perpetrators of the murder. I do not believe that such atrocities often +occur in the eastern desert, + +NOWEYBA + +[p.516] among the great Aeneze tribe; at least I never heard of any; but +these Heywat Arabs are notorious for their bad faith, and never hesitate +to kill those who do not travel under the protection of their own +people, or their well known friends. Scarcely any other Bedouin robbers +would have fired till they had summoned us to give up our baggage, and +had received a shot for answer. + +I had at first intended to visit, on my return, the upper mountains, to +which there is a road leading through the Wady Mokabelat; but Ayd +dissuaded me. He said that if the party from which we had just escaped +meant to pursue us, they would probably lay in wait for us in some of +the passes in that direction; as he did not doubt that it would be their +belief, that we were bound for Tor or Suez, the nearest road to which +places lies through the Wady Mokabelat. I yielded to his opinion, and we +returned along the coast by the same road we had come. Hamd’s wound was +not dangerous; I dressed it as well as I could, and four days afterwards +it was nearly healed. We travelled a part of the night, and + +May 10th,—early the next morning we again reached Noweyba, the place +where we had first reached the coast. We here met Ayd’s deaf friend. +Szaleh had all the way, betrayed the most timorous disposition; in +excuse for running away when we were attacked, he said that he intended +to halt farther on in the Wady, in order to cover our retreat, and that +he had been obliged to run after the camels, which were frightened by +the firing; but the truth was, that his terrors deprived him of all +power of reflection, otherwise he must have known that the only course, +to be pursued in the desert, when suddenly attacked, is to fight for +life, as escape is almost impossible. + +Having been foiled in my hopes of visiting Akaba, I now wished to follow +the shore of the gulf to the southward; but Szaleh would not hear of any +farther progress in that direction, and insisted upon + +WADY DJEREIMELE + +[p.517] my going back to the convent. I told him that his company had +been of too little use to me, to make me desirous of keeping him any +longer; he therefore returned, no doubt in great haste, by the same +route we had come, accompanied by the deaf man; I engaged Ayd to conduct +us along the coast, Hamd being very ignorant of this part of the +peninsula, where his tribe, the Oulad Sayd, never encamp. + +The date trees of Noweyba belong to the tribe of Mezeine; here were +several huts built of stones and branches of the trees, in which the +owners live with their families during the date-harvest. The narrow +plain which rises here from the sea to the mountain, is covered with +sand and loose stones. Ayd told me that in summer, when the wind is +strong, a hollow sound is sometimes heard here, as if coming from the +upper country; the Arabs say that the spirit of Moses then descends from +Mount Sinai, and in flying across the sea bids a farewell to his beloved +mountains. + +We rode from Noweyba round a bay, the southern point of which bore from +thence S. by W. In two hours and three quarters from Noweyba we doubled +the point, and rested for the night in a valley just behind it, called +Wady Djereimele [Arabic], thickly overgrown with the shrub Gharkad, the +berries of which are gathered in great abundance. Red coral is very +common on this part of the coast. In the evening I saw a great number of +shellfish leave the water, and crawl to one hundred or two hundred paces +inland, where they passed the night, and at sun-rise returned to the +sea. + +During the last two days of our return from the northward I had found no +opportunity to take notes. I had never permitted my companions to see me +write, because I knew that if their suspicions were once raised, it +would at least render them much less open in their communications to me. +It has indeed been a constant + +[p.518] maxim with me never to write before Arabs on the road; at least +I have departed from it in a very few instances only, in Syria; and on +the Nile, in my first journey into Nubia; but never in the interior of +Nubia, or in the Hedjaz. Had I visited the convent of Mount Sinai in the +character of a Frank, with the Pasha’s Firmahn, and had returned, as +travellers usually do, from thence to Cairo, I should not have hesitated +to take notes openly, because the Towara Arabs dread the Pasha, and dare +not insult or molest any one under his protection. But wishing to +penetrate into a part of the country occupied by other tribes, it became +of importance to conceal my pursuits, lest I should be thought a +necromancer, or in search of treasures. In such cases many little +stratagems must be resorted to by the traveller, not to lose entirely +the advantage of making memoranda on the spot. I had accustomed myself +to write when mounted on my camel, and proceeding at an easy walk; +throwing the wide Arab mantle over my head, as if to protect myself from +the sun, as the Arabs do, I could write under it unobserved, even if +another person rode close by me; my journal books being about four +inches long and three broad, were easily carried in a waistcoat pocket, +and when taken out could be concealed in the palm of the hand; sometimes +I descended from my camel, and walking a little in front of my +companions, wrote down a few words without stopping. When halting I lay +down as if to sleep, threw my mantle over me, and could thus write +unseen under it. At other times I feigned to go aside to answer a call +of nature, and then couched down, in the Arab manner, hidden under my +cloak. This evening I had recourse to the last method; but having many +observations to note, I remained so long absent from my companions that +Ayd’s curiosity was roused. He came to look after me, and perceiving me +immoveable on the spot, approached on tip-toe, and came close behind + +[p.519] me without my perceiving him. I do not know how long he had +remained there, but suddenly lifting up my cloak, he detected me with +the book in my hand. “What is this?” he exclaimed. “What are you doing? +I shall not make you answerable for it at present, because I am your +companion; but I shall talk further to you about it when we are at the +convent.” I made no answer, till we returned to the halting-place, when +I requested him to tell me what further he had to say. “You write down +our country,” he replied, in a passionate tone, “our mountains, our +pasturing places, and the rain which falls from heaven; other people +have done this before you, but I at least will never become instrumental +to the ruin of my country.” I assured him that I had no bad intentions +towards the Bedouins, and told him he must be convinced that I liked +them too well for that; “on the contrary,” I added, “had I not +occasionally written down some prayers ever since we left Taba, we +should most certainly have been all killed; and it is very wrong in you +to accuse me of that, which if I had omitted, would have cost us our +lives.” He was startled at this reply, and seemed nearly satisfied. +“Perhaps you say the truth,” he observed; “but we all know that some +years since several men, God knows who they were, came to this country, +visited the mountains, wrote down every thing, stones, plants, animals, +even serpents and spiders, and since then little rain has fallen, and +the game has greatly decreased.” The same opinions prevail in these +mountains, which I have already mentioned to be current among the +Bedouins of Nubia; they believe that a sorcerer, by writing down certain +charms, can stop the rains and transfer them to his own country. The +travellers to whom Ayd alluded were M. Seetzen, who visited Mount Sinai +eight years since, and M. Agnelli, who ten years ago travelled for the +Emperor of Austria, collecting specimens + +[p.520] of natural history, and who made some stay at Tor, from whence +he sent Arabs to hunt for all kinds of animals. + +M. Seetzen traversed the peninsula in several directions, and followed a +part of the eastern gulf as far northward, I believe, as Noweyba. This +learned and indefatigable traveller made it a rule not to be intimidated +by the suspicions and prejudices of the Bedouins; beyond the Jordan, on +the shores of the Dead sea, in the desert of Tyh, in this peninsula, as +well as in Arabia, he openly followed his pursuits, never attempting to +hide his papers and pencils from the natives, but avowing his object to +be that of collecting precious herbs and curious stones, in the +character of a Christian physician in the Holy Land, and in that of a +Moslim physician in the Hedjaz. If the knowledge of the natural history +of Syria and Arabia was the principal object of M. Seetzen’s researches, +he was perfectly right in the course which he adopted, but if he +considered these countries only as intermediate steps towards the +exploring of others, he placed his ultimate success in the utmost peril; +and though he may have succeeded in elucidating the history of the brute +creation, he had little chance of obtaining much information on the +human character, which can only be done by gaining the confidence of the +inhabitants, and by accommodating our notions, views, and manners, to +their own. When M. Seetzen visited these mountains, the Towaras were +not yet reduced to subjection by Mohammed Ali; he was obliged, on +several occasions, to pay large sums for his passage through their +country, and the Mezeine would probably have executed a plot which they +had laid to kill him, had not his guides been informed of it, and +prevented him from passing through their territory. + +I had much difficulty in soothing Ayd; he remained quiet during the rest +of the journey, but after our return to the convent, the + +RAS METHNA + +[p.521] report spread among the Arabs that I was a writer like those who +had preceded me, and I thus completely lost their confidence. + +May 11th.—We continued along the coast S.S.W. and at four hours passed a +promontory, called Djebel Abou Ma [Arabic], consisting of granite. From +hence we proceeded S.W. by S. and at seven hours came to a sandy plain, +on the edge of a large sheltered bay. We found here some Bedouin girls, +in charge of a few goats; they told us that their parents lived not far +off in the valley Omyle [Arabic]. We went there, and found two small +tents, where three or four women and as many little children were +occupied in spinning, and in collecting herbs to feed the lambs and +kids, which were frisking about them. Ayd knew the women, who belonged +to his own tribe of Mezeine. Their husbands were fishermen, and were +then at the sea-shore. They brought us some milk, and I bought a kid of +them, which we intended to dress in the evening. The women were not at +all bashful; I freely talked and laughed with them, but they remained at +several yards distance from me. Ayd shook them by the hand, and kissed +the children; but Hamd, who did not know them, kept at the same distance +as myself. Higher up in the Wady is a well of good water, called Tereibe +[Arabic]. + +From hence we went S.W. by S. and at eight hours came to Ras Methna +[Arabic], a promontory whose cliffs continue for upwards of a mile close +by the water side. Granite and red porphyry here cross each other in +irregular layers, in some places horizontally, in others +perpendicularly. The granite of this peninsula presents the same +numberless varieties as that above the cataract of the Nile, and near +Assouan; and the same beautiful specimens of red, rose-coloured, and +almost purple may be collected here, as in that part of Egypt. The +transition from primitive to secondary rocks, partaking of the nature of +grünstein or grauwacke, + +WADY METHNA + +[p.522] or hornstein and trap, presents also an endless variety in every +part of the peninsula, so that were I even possessed of the requisite +knowledge accurately to describe them, it would tire the patience of the +reader. Masses of black trap, much resembling basalt, compose several +insulated peaks and rocks. On the shore the granite sand carried down +from the upper mountains has been formed into cement by the action of +the water, and mixed with fragments of the other rocks already +mentioned, has become a very beautiful breccia. + +At the end of eight hours and three quarters we rested for the night, to +the south of this promontory, in a valley still called Wady Methna. From +some fishermen whom we met I bought some excellent fish, of a species +resembling the turbot, and very common on this coast. These with our kid +furnished an abundant repast to ourselves as well as to the fishermen. +The love of good and plentiful fare was one of Ayd’s foibles; and he +often related with pride that in his younger days he had once eaten at a +meal, with three other Bedouins, the whole of a mountain goat; although +his companions, as he observed, were moderate eaters. Bedouins, in +general, have voracious appetites, and whoever travels with them cannot +adopt any better mode of attaching them to his interests than by feeding +them abundantly, and inviting all strangers met with on the road to +partake in the repast. Pounds given as presents in money have less +effect than shillings spent in victuals; and the reputation of +hospitality which the traveller thus gains facilitates his progress on +every occasion. My practice was to leave the provision sack open, and at +the disposal of my guides, not to eat but when they did, not to take the +choice morsels to myself, to share in the cooking, and not to give any +orders, but to ask for whatever I wanted, as a favour. By pursuing this +method I continued during the remainder of the journey to be on the best +terms with my companions, + +DAHAB + +[p.523] and had not the slightest altercation either with Hamd or Ayd. + +On the eastern shore of the gulf, opposite the place where we rested, +lies a valley called Mekna [Arabic], inhabited by the tribe of Omran. +Close to the shore are plantations of date and other fruittrees. The +inhabitants of Mekna cross the gulf in small boats, and bring to this +side sheep and goats for sale, of which they possess large flocks, and +which are thus more plentiful in this part of the peninsula than in any +other. The mountains behind Mekna recede from the sea, and further to +the south take a more eastern direction, so as to leave a chain of hills +between them and the shore, rising immediately from the water-side. The +appearance of this gulf, with the mountains enclosing it on both sides, +reminded me of the lake of Tiberias and of the Dead sea; and the general +resemblance was still further heightened by the hot season in which I +had visited all these places. + +May 12th.—Our road lay S.S.W. along a narrow sandy plain by the sea +side. In one hour and a half we reached Dahab [Arabic], a more extensive +cluster of date trees than I had before seen on this coast; it extends +into the sea upon a tongue of land, about two miles beyond the line of +the shore; to the north of it is a bay, which affords anchorage, but it +is without protection against northerly winds. Dahab is, probably, the +Dizahab mentioned in Deut. i. 1. There are some low hummocks covered +with sand close to the shore of the low promontory, probably occasioned +by the ruins of buildings. The plantations of date trees ar[e] here +enclosed by low walls, within many of which are wells of indifferent +water; but in one of them, about twenty-five feet deep, and fifty yards +from the sea, we found the best water I had met with on any part of this +coast in the immediate vicinity of the sea. About two miles to the south +of the date groves + +[p.524] are a number of shallow ponds into which the sea flows at +hightide; here the salt is made which supplies all the peninsula, as +well as the fishermen for curing their fish; the openings of the ponds +being closed with sand, the water is left to evaporate, when a thick +crust of salt is left, which is collected by the Bedouins. Dahab is a +favourite resort of the fishermen, who here catch the fish called Boury +[Arabic] in great quantities. + +The date trees of Dahab, which belong to the tribe of Mezeine and +Aleygat, presented a very different appearance to those of Egypt and the +Hedjaz, where the cultivators always take off the lower branches which +dry up annually; here they are suffered to remain, and hang down to the +ground, forming an almost impenetrable barrier round the tree, the top +of which only is crowned with green leaves. Very few trees had any fruit +upon them; indeed date trees, in general, yield a very uncertain +produce, and even in years, when every other kind of fruit is abundant, +they are sometimes quite barren. We met here several families of Arabs, +who had come to look after their trees, and to collect salt. In the +midst of the small peninsula of Dahab are about a dozen heaps of stones +irregularly piled together, but shewing traces of having once been +united; none of them is higher than five feet. The Arabs call them +Kobour el Noszara, or the tombs of the Christians, a name given by them +to all the nations which peopled their country before the introduction +of the Islam. + +We remained several hours under the refreshing shade of the palm trees, +and there continued our road. In crossing the tongue of land I observed +the remains of what I conceived to be a road or causeway, which began at +the mountain and ran out towards the point of the peninsula; the stones +which had formed it were now separated from each other, but lay in a +straight line, so as to afford sufficient proof of their having been +placed here by the + +WADY GHAYB + +[p.525] labour of man. To the south of Dahab the camel road along the +shore is shut up by cliffs which form a promontory called El Shedjeir +[Arabic]; we were therefore obliged to take a circuitous route through +the mountains, and directed our road by that way straight towards Sherm, +the most southern harbour on this coast. We ascended a broad sandy +valley in the direction S.W.; this is the same Wady Sal in which we had +already travelled in our way from the convent, and which empties itself +into the sea. In the rocky sides of this valley I observed several small +grottos, apparently receptacles for the dead, which were just large +enough to receive one corpse; I at first supposed them to have been +natural erosions of the sand-stone rock; but as there were at least a +dozen of them, and as I had not seen any thing similar in other sand- +rocks, I concluded that they had been originally formed by man, and that +time had worn them away to the appearance of natural cavities. + +We left the valley and continued to ascend slightly through windings of +the Wady Beney [Arabic] and Wady Ghayb [Arabic], two broad barren sandy +valleys, till, at the end of four hours, we reached the well of Moayen +el Kelab [Arabic], at the extremity of Wady Ghayb, where it is shut up +by a cliff. Here is a small pond of water under the shade of an +impending rock, and a large wild fig-tree. On the top of a neighbouring +part of the granite cliff, is a similar pond with reeds growing in it. +The water, which is never known to dry up, is excellent, and acquires +still greater value from being in the vicinity of a spacious cavern, +which affords shade to the traveller. This well is much visited by the +Mezeine tribe; on several trees in the valley leading to it, we found +suspended different articles of Bedouin tent furniture, and also entire +tent coverings. My guides told me that the owners left them here during +their absence, in order not to have the + +MOFASSEL EL KORFA + +[p.526] trouble of carrying them about; and such is the confidence which +these people have in one another, that no instance is known of any of +the articles so left having ever been stolen: the same practice prevails +in other parts of the peninsula. The cavern is formed by nature in a +beautiful granite rock; its interior is covered on all sides with +figures of mountain goats drawn with charcoal in the rudest manner; they +are done by the shepherd boys and girls of the Towaras. + +The heat being intense we reposed in the cavern till the evening, when, +after retracing our road for a short distance, we turned into the Wady +Kenney [Arabic], which we ascended; at its extremity we began to descend +in a Wady called Molahdje [Arabic], a narrow, steep, and rocky valley of +difficult passage. Ayd’s dog started a mountain goat, but was unable to +come up with it. We slept in this Wady, at one hour and a half from +Moayen el Kelab. + +May 13th.—Farther down the Wady widens and is enclosed by high granite +cliffs. Its direction is S. by W. Four hours continued descent brought +us into Wady Orta [Arabic]. The rocks here are granite, red porphyry, +and grünstein, similar to what I had observed towards Akaba, at nearly +the same elevation above the sea. At the end of six hours we left Wady +Orta, which descends towards the sea, and turning to the right, entered +a large plain called Mofassel el Korfa [Arabic], in which we rode S.S.W. +From the footsteps in the sand Ayd knew the individuals of the Mezeine, +who had passed this way in the morning. The view here opened upon a high +chain of mountains which extends from Sherm in the direction of the +convent, and which I had passed on my return from Arabia, in going from +Sherm to Tor. It is called Djebel Tarfa [Arabic], and is inhabited +principally by the Mezeine. At eight hours the plain widens; many beds +of torrents coming from the Tarfa cross it in their way to the sea. This + +SHERM + +[p.527] part is called El Ak-ha [Arabic], and excepting in the beds of +the torrents, where some verdure is produced, it is an entirely barren +tract. At nine hours we approached the Tarfa, between which and our road +were low hills called Hodeybat el Noszara [Arabic], i. e. the hump backs +of the Christians. The waters which collect here in the winter flow into +the sea at Wady Nabk. At ten hours the plain opens still wider, and +declines gently eastwards to the sea. To the left, where the mountains +terminate, a sandy plain extends to the water side. At eleven hours is +an insulated chain of low hills, forming here, with the lowest range of +the Tarfa, a valley, in which our road lay, and in which we halted, +after a fatigueing day’s journey of twelve hours. As there were only two +camels for three of us, we rode by turns; and Ayd regretted his younger +days, when, as he assured us, he had once walked from the convent to +Cairo in four days. The hills near which we halted are called Roweysat +Nimr [Arabic], or the little heads of the tiger. + +May 14th.—We descended among low hills, and after two hours reached the +harbour of Sherm [Arabic]. This is the only harbour on the western coast +of the gulf of Akaba, which affords safe anchorage for large ships, +though, by lying close in shore, small vessels might, I believe, find +shelter in several of the bays of this gulf. At Sherm there are two deep +bays little distant from each other, but separated by high land, in both +of which, ships may lie in perfect safety. On the shore of the southern +bay stands the tomb of a Sheikh, held in veneration by the Bedouins and +mariners: a small house has been built over it, the walls of which are +thickly hung with various offerings by the Bedouins; and a few lamps +suspended from the roof are sometimes lighted by sailors. Sherif Edrisi, +in his geography, mentions these two bays of Sherm, and calls the one +Sherm el Beit [Arabic], or of the house, and the other Sherm el Bir +[Arabic], or of the well, thus accurately describing both; + +[p.528] for near the shore of the northern bay are several copious wells +of brackish water, deep, and lined with stones, and apparently an +ancient work of considerable labour. The distance from Sherm to the Cape +of Ras Abou Mohammed is four or five hours; on the way a mountain is +passed, which comes down close to the sea, called Es-szafra [Arabic], +the point of which bears from Sherm S.W. by S. + +Bedouins are always found at Sherm, waiting with their camels for ships +coming from the Hedjaz, whose passengers often come on shore here, in +order to proceed by land to Tor and Suez. The Arab tribes of Mezeine and +Aleygat have the exclusive right of this transport. Shortly after we had +alighted at the well, more than twenty Mezeine came down from the +mountain with their camels; they claimed the right of conducting me from +hence, and of supplying me with a third camel; and as both my camels +belonged to Arabs of the tribe of Oulad Sayd, they insisted upon Hamd +taking my baggage from his camel, and placing it upon one of theirs, +that they might have the profits of hire. After breakfasting with them, +a loud quarrel began, which lasted at least two hours. I told them that +the moment any one laid his hands upon my baggage to remove it, I should +consider it as carried off by force, and no longer my property, and that +I should state to the governor of Suez that I had been robbed here. +Although they could not all expect to share in the profits arising from +my transport, every one of them was as vociferous as if it had been his +exclusive affair, and it soon became evident that a trifle in money for +each of them was all that was wanted to quiet them. They did not, +however, succeed; I talked very boldly; told them that they were +robbers, and that they should be punished for their conduct towards me. +At last their principal man, seeing that nothing was to be got, told us +that we might load and depart. He accompanied us to a short + +[p.529] distance, and received a handful of coffee-beans, as a reward +for his having been less clamorous than the others. + +These people believed that my visit to Sherm was for the mere purpose of +visiting the tomb of the saint. I had assigned this motive to Ayd, who +was himself a Mezeine, telling him that I had made a vow to thank the +saint for his protection in our encounter with the robbers; Ayd would +otherwise have been much astonished at my proceeding to this distance +without any plausible object. The nearest road from Sherm to the convent +is at first the same way by which we came, and it branches off northward +from Wady Orta; but as I was desirous of seeing as much as possible of +the coast, I suggested to my guides, that if we proceeded by that route +the Mezeine of Sherm might possibly ride after us, and excite another +quarrel in the mountain, where we should find it more difficult to +extricate ourselves. They consented therefore to take the circuitous +route along the shore. Such stratagems are often necessary, in +travelling with Bedouins, to make them yield to the traveller’s wishes; +for though they care little for fatigue in their own business, they are +extremely averse to go out of their way, to gratify what they consider +an absurd whim of their companion. + +From Sherm we rode an hour and a quarter among low hills near the shore. +Here I saw for the first and only time, in this peninsula, volcanic +rocks. For a distance of about two miles the hills presented +perpendicular cliffs, formed in half circles, and some of them nearly in +circles, none of them being more than sixty to eighty feet in height; in +other places there was an appearance of volcanic craters. The rock is +black, with sometimes a slight red appearance, full of cavities, and of +a rough surface; on the road lay a few stones which had separated +themselves from above. The cliffs were covered by deep layers of sand, +and the valleys at their feet + +WADY SZYGHA + +[p.530] were also overspread with it; it is possible that other rocks of +the same kind may be found towards Ras Abou Mohammed, and hence may have +arisen the term of black [Arabic], applied to these mountains by the +Greeks. It should be observed, however, that low sand hills intervene +between the volcanic rocks and the sea, and that above them, towards the +higher mountains, no traces of lava are found, which seems to shew that +the volcanic matter is confined to this spot. + +We issued from the low hills upon a wide plain, which extends as far as +Nabk, and is intersected in several places by beds of torrents. Our +direction was N.E. by N. The plain terminates three or four miles to the +east, in rocks which line the shore. At the end of three hours and a +half we halted under a rock, in the bed of one of the torrents. The +whole plain appears to be alluvial; many petrified shells are found +imbedded in the chalky and calcareous soil. In the afternoon we again +passed several low water-courses in the plain, and, at the end of five +hours Wady Szygha [Arabic]. At six hours and a half from Sherm we rested +in the plain, in a spot where some bushes grew, amongst which we found a +Bedouin woman and her daughter, living under a covering made of reeds +and brush-wood. Her husband and son were absent fishing, but Ayd being +well known to them, they gave us a hearty welcome, and milked a goat for +me. After sunset they joined our party, and sitting down behind the bush +where I had taken up my quarters, eat a dish of rice which I presented +to them. The daughter was a very handsome girl of eighteen or nineteen, +as graceful in her deportment and modest in her behaviour, as the best +educated European female could be; indeed I have often had occasion to +remark among the Bedouins, comparing them with the women of of the most +polished parts of Europe, that grace and modesty are not less than +beauty the gifts of nature. Among these Arabs the + +WADY NAKB + +[p.531] men consider it beneath them to take the flocks to pasture, and +leave it to the women. + +In front of our halting place lay an island called Djezyret Tyran +[Arabic]: its length from N. to S. is from six to eight miles, and it +lies about four miles from the shore. Half its length is a narrow +promontory of sand, and its main body to the south consists of a barren +mountain. It is not inhabited, but the Bedouins of Heteym sometimes come +here from the eastern coast, to fish for pearls, and remain several +weeks, bringing their provision of water from the spring of El Khereyde +[Arabic], on that coast, there being no sweet water in the island. +Edrisi mentions a place on the western coast, where pearls are procured, +a circumstance implied by the name of Maszdaf [Arabic], which he gives +to it. The name is now unknown here, but I think it probable that Edrisi +spoke of this part of the coast. The quantity of pearls obtained is very +small, but the Heteym pick up a good deal of mother-of-pearl, which they +sell to great advantage at Moeleh, to the ships which anchor there. + +May 15th.—We continued over the plain in a direction N. by E. and in two +hours reached Wady Nabk [Arabic], which, next to Dahab and Noweyba, is +the principal station on this coast. Large plantations of date trees +grow on the sea-shore, among which, as usual, is a well of brackish +water. The plain which reaches from near Sherm to Nabk is the only one +of any extent along the whole coast; at Nabk it contracts, the western +chain approaches to within two miles of the shore, and farther northward +this chain comes close to the sea. The promontory of Djebel Abou Ma bore +from Wady Nabk N.N.E 1/2 E. From hence to Dahab, as the Arabs told me, +is about six hours walk along the shore. The highest point of the +mountain upon the island of Tyran bore S.E. by S. + +[p.532] The opposite part of the eastern coast is low, and the mountains +are at a distance inland. Near Nabk are salt-pits, similar to those at +Dahab. Except during the date harvest, Nabk is inhabited only by +fishermen; they are the poorest individuals of their tribe, who have no +flocks or camels, and are obliged to resort to this occupation to +support themselves and families. We bought here for thirty-two paras, or +about four-pence halfpenny, thirty-two salted fish, each about two feet +in length, and a measure of the dried shell-fish, Zorombat, which in +this state the Arabs call Bussra. For the smaller kinds of fish the +fishermen use hand-nets, which they throw into the sea from the shore; +the larger species they kill with lances, one of which Ayd carried +constantly with him as a weapon; there is not a single boat nor even a +raft to be found on the whole of this coast, but the Bedouins of the +eastern coast have a few boats, which may sometimes be seen in the gulf. +We saw here a great number of porpoises playing in the water close to +the shore. I wished to shoot at one of them, but was prevented by my +companions, who said that it was unlawful to kill them, as they are the +friends of man, and never hurt any body. I saw parts of the skin of a +large fish, killed on the coast, which was an inch in thickness, and is +employed by these Arabs instead of leather for sandals. + +We now turned from Nabk upwards to the convent, and in half an hour +entered the chain of mountains along a broad valley called Wady Nabk, in +which we ascended slightly, and rested at two hours and a quarter from +Nabk under a large acacia tree. In the vicinity were three tents of +Aleygat Arabs, the women of which approached the place where we had +alighted, and told us that two men and a child were there ill of the +plague, which they had caught from a relative of theirs, who had lately +come from Egypt with the disease upon him, and who had died. At that +time they were + +WADY RAHAB + +[p.533] in a large encampment, but as soon as the infection shewed +itself, their companions compelled them to quit the camp, and they had +come to this place to await the termination of the disorder. My guides +were as much afraid of the infection as I was, and made the women remain +at a proper distance; they asked me for some rice, and sugar, which +latter article they believe to be a sovereign remedy against diseases. I +was glad to be able to gratify them, and I advised them to give the +patients whey which is almost the only cooling draught the Arabs know; +they conceive that almost all illnesses proceed from cold, and therefore +usually attempt to cure them by heat, keeping the patient thickly +covered with clothes, and feeding him upon the most nourishing food they +can afford. + +Not far from our halting place, on the ascent of the mountain, is a +reservoir of rain water, where we filled our skins. The acacia trees of +the valley were thickly covered with guin arabic. The Towara Arabs often +bring to Cairo loads of it, which they collect in these mountains; but +it is much less esteemed than that from Soudan. I found it of a somewhat +sweet and rather agreeable taste. The Bedouins pretend, that upon +journeys it is a preventive of thirst, and that the person who chews it +may pass a whole day without feeling any inconvenience from the want of +water. We set out in the afternoon, and at the end of three hours and a +half from Wady Nabk, passed the Mofassel el Korfa, which I have already +mentioned. At four hours and a quarter we crossed Wady el Orta, the +direction of our road N.W. by N., and at the end of five hours and a +quarter we halted in Wady Rahab [Arabic]. All these valleys resemble one +another; the only difference of appearance which they afford, is that in +some places the ground is parched up, while in others, where a torrent +passes during the winter, the shrubs still retain some green leaves. + +WADY ORTA + +[p.534] May 16th.—During the night we had a heavy shower of rain with +thunder and lightning, which completely drenched both ourselves and our +baggage. A beautiful morning succeeded, and the atmosphere, which during +the last three days had been extremely hot, especially on the low coast, +was now so much refreshed, that we seemed to have removed from a +tropical to an alpine climate. We passed through several valleys +emptying themselves into Wady Orta; the principal of these is called +Wady Ertama [Arabic]. Route N.N.W. Although the rain had been heavy, the +sands had so completely absorbed it, that we could scarcely find any +traces of it. We started several Gazelles, the only game I have seen in +the peninsula, except mountain-goats. Hares and wolves are found, but +are not common, and the Bedouins sometimes kill leopards, of one of +which I obtained a large skin at the convent. The Bedouins talk much of +a beast of prey called Wober [Arabic], which inhabits the most retired +parts only of the peninsula; they describe it as being of the size of a +large dog, with a pointed head like a hog; I heard also of another +voracious animal, called Shyb [Arabic], stated to be a breed between the +leopard and the wolf. Of its existence little doubt can be entertained, +though its pretended origin is probably fabulous, for the Arabs, and +especially the Bedouins, are in the common practice of assigning to +every animal that is seldom met with, parents of two different species +of known animals. On the coast, and in the lower valleys, a kind of +large lizard is seen, called Dhob [Arabic], which has a scaly skin of a +yellow colour; the largest are about eighteen inches in length, of which +the tail measures about one-half. The Dhob is very common in the Arabian +deserts, where the Arabs form tobacco purses of its skin. It lives in +holes in the sand, which have generally two openings; it runs fast, but +a dog easily catches it. Of birds I saw red-legged partridges in great +numbers, pigeons, the Katta, but not in such large flocks as I + +WADY KYD + +[p.535] have seen them in Syria, and the eagle Rakham. The Bedouins also +mentioned an eagle whose outspread wings measure six feet across, and +which carries off lambs. + +After four hours and a half we reached Wady Kyd [Arabic], and rested at +its entrance under two immense blocks of granite, which had fallen down +from the mountain; they form two spacious caverns, and serve as a place +of shelter for the shepherdesses; we saw in them several articles of +tent furniture and some cooking utensils. On the sides figures of goats +are drawn with charcoal; but I saw no inscriptions cut in the rock. The +blocks are split in several places as if by lightning. We followed the +Wady Kyd, continuing on a gentle ascent from the time of our setting out +in the morning. The windings of the valley led us, at the end of five +hours and a half, to a small rivulet, two feet across, and six inches in +depth, which is lost immediately below, in the sands of the Wady. It +drips down a granite rock, which blocks up the valley, there only twenty +paces in breadth, and forms at the foot of the rock a small pond, +overshadowed by trees, with fine verdure on its banks. The rocks which +overhang it on both sides almost meet, and give to the whole the +appearance of a grotto, most delighful to the traveller after passing +through these dreary valleys. It is in fact the most romantic spot I +have seen in these mountains, and worthy of being frequented by other +people than Arabs, upon whom the beauties of nature make a very faint +impression. The camels passed over the rocks with great difficulty; +beyond it we continued in the same narrow valley, along the rivulet, +amidst groves of date, Nebek, and some tamarisk trees, until, at six +hours, we reached the source of the rivulet, where we rested a little. +This is one of the most noted date valleys of the Sinai Arabs; the +contrast of its deep verdure with the glaring rocks by which it is +closely hemmed in, is very striking, and shews that wherever water +passes in these districts, however + +DJEBEL MORDAM + +[p.536] barren the ground, vegetation is invariably found. Within the +enclosures of the date-groves I saw a few patches of onions, and of +hemp; the latter is used for smoking; some of the small leaves which +surround the hemp-seed being laid upon the tobacco in the pipe, produces +a more intoxicating smoke. The same custom prevails in Egypt, where the +hemp leaves as well as the plant itself are called Hashysh. In the +branches of one of the date-trees several baskets and a gun were +deposited, and some camels were feeding upon the grass near the rivulet, +but not a soul was to be seen in the valley; these Bedouins being under +no fear of robbers, leave their goods and allow their beasts to pasture +without any one to watch them; when they want the camels they send to +the springs in search of them, and if not found there, they trace their +footsteps through the valleys, for every Bedouin knows the print of the +foot of his own camel. + +Notwithstanding its verdure, the Wady Kyd is an uncomfortable halting- +place, on account of the great number of gnats and ticks with which it +is infested. Beyond the source of the rivulet, which oozes out of the +ground, the vegetation ceases, and the valley widens. We rode on, and at +seven hours entered Wady Kheysy, a wild pass, in which the road is +covered with rocks, and the sides of the mountains are shattered by +torrents. We ascended through many windings, in the general direction of +W.N.W. until we found the valley shut up by a high mountain, called +Djebel Mordam [Arabic]. The rocks are granite and porphyry; in many +parts of the valley grow wild fig-trees, called by the Arabs Hamad; here +also grows the Aszef [Arabic], a tree which I had already seen in +several of the Wadys; it springs from the fissures in the rocks, and its +crooked stem creeps up the mountain’s side like a parasitic plant; it +produces, according to the Arabs, a fruit of the size of a walnut, of a +blackish colour, and very sweet to the taste. The bark of the tree + +MOUNTAIN OF MOHALA + +[p.537] is white, and the branches are thickly covered with small +thorns; the leaves are heart-shaped, and of the same shade of green as +those of the oak. This Wady, as well as the Kyd, is inhabited by +Mezeine; but they all return in summer to the highest mountains of the +peninsula, where the pasture is more abundant than in these lower +valleys. + +We ascended the Mordam with difficulty, and on the other side found a +narrow valley, which brought us, at the end of eleven hours, to a spring +called Tabakat [Arabic], situated under a rock, which shuts up the +valley. The spring is thickly overgrown with reeds and sometimes dries +up in summer. Above the rock extends a plain or rather a country +somewhat more open, intersected with hills, and bounded by high +mountains. The district is called Fera el Adlial [Arabic], and is a +favourite pasturing place of the Arabs, their sheep being peculiarly +fond of the little berries of the shrub Rethem [Arabic], with which the +whole plain is overspread. In order to take the nearest road to the +convent, we ascended in a N. direction, the high mountain of Mohala +[Arabic], the top of which we reached at the end of eleven hours and +three quarters; from hence the convent was pointed out to me N. b. E. On +the other side we descended N.E. into a narrow valley on the declivity +of the mountain, where we alighted, after a long day’s march of twelve +hours and a quarter. This mountain is entirely of granite; but at +Tabakat beautiful porphyry is seen with large slabs of feldspath, +traversed by layers of white and rose-coloured quartz. + +May 17th.—The night was so cold that we all lay down round the fire, and +kept it lighted the whole night. Early in the morning we continued to +descend the mountain, by a road called Nakb[A steep declivity is called +by the Bedouins Nakb, the plural of which (Ankaba [Arabic]) is often +used by them synonymously with Djebal [Arabic], mountains.] + +HASZFET EL RAS + +[p.538] Abou el Far [Arabic], and in half an hour reached the Wady Ahmar +[Arabic], which, below, joins the Wady Kyd. Ascending again in this +Wady, we came in an hour to the springs of Abou Tereyfa [Arabic], +oozing, like that of Tabakat, from below a rock which shuts up the +narrow valley. On the declivity of the mountains, farther on, I saw many +ruins of walls, and was informed by my guides, that fifty years ago this +was one of the most fertile valleys of their country, full of date and +other fruit trees; but that a violent flood tore up all the trees, and +laid it waste in a few days, and that since that period it has been +deserted. At the end of two hours and a half, we descended into a broad +valley, or rather plain, called Haszfet el Ras [Arabic], and perceived +at its extremity an encampment, which we reached at three hours and a +quarter, and alighted under the tent of the chief; he happened to be the +same Bedouin who had conducted me last year from Tor to Cairo, and who +had also brought the from Cairo to the convent. I knew that he was angry +with me for having discharged him on my arrival at the latter place, and +for having hired Hamd to conduct me to Akaba; he was already acquainted +with my return, and that I had gone to Sherm, but little expected to see +me here. He, however, gave me a good reception, killed a lamb for my +dinner, and would not let me depart in the afternoon, another Arab +having prepared a goat for our supper. We remained therefore the whole +day with him, and, in the evening, joined in the dance and songs of the +Mesámer, which were protracted till long after-midnight, and brought +several other young men from the neighbouring encampments. The stranger +not accustomed to Bedouin life can seldom hope to enjoy quiet sleep in +these encampments. After the songs and dances are ended he must lie down +in the tent of his host with a number of men, who think to honour him by +keeping him company; but who, if the tent is not very large, + +WADY SEBAYE + +[p.539] lie so close as to impart to him a share of the vermin with +which they are sure to be infested. To sleep in the open air before the +tent is difficult, on account of the fierce dogs of the encampment, who +have as great an aversion for townsmen as their masters have; the +Bedouins too dislike this practice, because a sight of the female +apartment may thus be obtained. I found the women here much more +reserved than among other Bedouins; I could not induce any of them to +converse with me, and soon perceived that both themselves and their +husbands disliked their being noticed; a fastidiousness of manners for +which they are no doubt indebted to the frequent visits of their +husbands to the capital of Egypt. + +We had another shower in the night; flying showers are frequent during +the summer, but they are never sufficiently copious in that season to +produce torrents. + +May 18th left the tent before dawn, and proceeded along a Wady and then +N.W. up an ascent, whose summit we reached in two hours. From thence a +fine view opened upon a broad Wady called Sebaye [Arabic], and towards +the mountain of Tyh. We crossed Wady Sebaye, and then ascended the +mountain which commands the convent on the south side, and descending +again, reached the convent at the end of three hours and a half. Our +march during the whole of this journey had been slow, except on the day +of our flight from the robbers; for our camels were weak and tired, and +one of us usually walked. There is a more northern road from Sherm to +the convent, which branches off from that by which we came, at Wady +Orta; it passes by the two watering places of Naszeb [Arabic], and Ara- +yne [Arabic]; the former, which is in a fruitful valley, where date- +trees grow, must not be confounded with the western Naszeb, already +mentioned. + +Hamd, afraid of being liable to pay the fine of blood, if it should +become known that the robber had fallen by his hand, had + +CONVENT OF MOUNT SINAI + +[p.540] made us all give him our solemn promise not to mention any thing +of the affair. When I discharged him and Ayd at the convent, I made them +both some presents, which they had well deserved, particularly Hamd; +this he was so imprudent as to mention to his uncle Szaleh, who was so +vexed at not receiving a present, that he immediately divulged all the +circumstances of our rencounter. Hamd in consequence was under the +greatest apprehensions from the relations of the robber, and having +accompanied me on my return to Cairo, he remained with me some time +there, in anxious expectation of hearing whether the robber’s blood was +likely to be revenged. Not hearing any thing, he then returned to his +mountain, four months after which a party of Omran, to whose tribe the +men had belonged, came to the tent of the Sheikh of the Towara to demand +the fine of blood. The man had died a few days after receiving the +wound, and although he was a robber and the first aggressor, the Bedouin +laws entitled his relations to the fine, if they waved the right of +retaliation; Hamd was therefore glad to come to a compromise, and paid +them two camels, (which the two principal Sheikhs of the Towara gave him +for the purpose), and twenty dollars, which I thought myself bound to +reimburse to him, when he afterwards called on me at Cairo. This was the +third man Hamd had killed in skirmish; but he had paid no fine for the +others, as it was never known who they were, nor to what tribe they +belonged. + +Had Hamd, whom every one knew to be the person who had stabbed the +robber, refused to pay the fine, the Omran would sooner or later have +retaliated upon himself or his relations, or perhaps upon some other +individual of his tribe, according to the custom of these Bedouins, who +have established among themselves the law of “striking sideways.”[See my +remarks on the customs of blood-revenge, in the description of Bedouin +manners.] + +[p.541] The convent of Mount Sinai is situated in a valley so narrow, +that one part of the building stands on the side of the western +mountain, while a space of twenty paces only is left between its walls +and the eastern mountain. The valley is open to the north, from whence +approaches the road from Cairo; to the south, close behind the convent, +it is shut up by a third mountain, less steep than the others, over +which passes the road to Sherm. The convent is an irregular quadrangle +of about one hundred and thirty paces, enclosed by high and solid walls +built with blocks of granite, and fortified by several small towers. +While the French were in Egypt, a part of the east wall which had fallen +down was completely rebuilt by order of General Kleber, who sent workmen +here for that purpose. The upper part of the walls in the interior is +built of a mixture of granite-sand and gravel, cemented together by mud, +which has acquired great hardness. + +The convent contains eight or ten small court-yards, some of which are +neatly laid out in beds of flowers and vegetables; a few date-trees and +cypresses also grow there, and great numbers of vines. The distribution +of the interior is very irregular, and could not be otherwise, +considering the slope upon which the building stands; but the whole is +very clean and neat. There are a great number of small rooms, in the +lower and upper stories, most of which are at present unoccupied. The +principal building in the interior is the great church, which, as well +as the convent, was built by the Emperor Justinian, but it has +subsequently undergone frequent repairs. The form of the church is an +oblong square, the roof is supported by a double row of fine granite +pillars, which have been covered with a coat of white plaster, perhaps +because the natural colour of the stone was not agreeeble to the monks, +who saw granite on every side of them. The capitals of the columns are +of different designs; several of them bear a resemblance to palm +branches, while others + +[p.542] are a close but coarse imitation of the latest period of +Egyptian sculpture, such as is seen at Philae, and in several temples in +Nubia. The dome over the altar still remains as it was constructed by +Justinian, whose portrait, together with that of his wife Theodora, may +yet be distinguished on the dome, together with a large picture of the +transfiguration, in honour of which event the convent was erected. An +abundance of silver lamps, paintings, and portraits of saints adorn the +walls round the altar; among the latter is a saint Christopher, with a +dog’s head. The floor of the church is finely paved with slabs of +marble. + +The church contains the coffin in which the bones of saint Catherine +were collected from the neighbouring mountain of St. Catherine, where +her corpse was transported after her death by the angels in the service +of the monks. The silver lid of a sarcophagus likewise attracts +attention; upon it is represented at full length the figure of the +empress Anne of Russia, who entertained the idea of being interred in +the sarcophagus, which she sent here; but the monks were disappointed of +this honour. In a small chapel adjoining the church is shewn the place +where the Lord is supposed to have appeared to Moses in the burning +bush; it is called Alyka [Arabic], and is considered as the most holy +spot in Mount Sinai. Besides the great church, there are twenty-seven +smaller churches or chapels dispersed over the convent, in many of which +daily masses are read, and in all of them at least one every Sunday. + +The convent formerly resembled in its establishment that of the Holy +Sepulchre at Jerusalem, which contains churches of various sects of +Christians. Every principal sect, except the Calvinists and Protestants, +had its churches in the convent of Sinai. I was shewn the chapels +belonging to the Syrians, Armenians, Copts, and Latins, but they have +long been abandoned by their owners; the church of the Latins fell into +ruins at the close of + +[p.543] the seventeenth century, and has not been rebuilt. But what is +more remarkable than the existence of so many churches, is that close by +the great church stands a Mahometan mosque, spacious enough to contain +two hundred people at prayers. The monks told me that it was built in +the sixteenth century, to prevent the destruction of the convent. Their +tradition is as follows: when Selim, the Othman Emperor, conquered +Egypt, he took a great fancy to a young Greek priest, who falling ill, +at the time that Selim was returning to Constantinople, was sent by him +to this convent to recover his health; the young man died, upon which +the Emperor, enraged at what he considered to be the work of the +priests, gave orders to the governor of Egypt to destroy all the +Christian establishments in the peninsula; of which there were several +at that period. The priests of the great convent of Mount Sinai being +informed of the preparations making in Egypt to carry these orders into +execution, began immediately to build a mosque within their walls, +hoping that for its sake their house would be spared; it is said that +their project was successful and that ever since the mosque has been +kept in repair. + +This tradition, however, is contradicted by some old Arabic records kept +by the prior, in which I read a circumstantial account how, in the year +of the Hedjra 783, some straggling Turkish Hadjis, who had been cut off +from the caravan, were brought by the Bedouins to the convent; and being +found to be well educated, and originally from upper Egypt, were +retained here, and a salary settled on them and their descendants, on +condition of their becoming the servants of the mosque. The conquest of +Egypt by Selim did not take place till A.H. 895. The mosque in the +convent of Sinai appears therefore to have existed long before the time + +[p.544] of Selim. The descendants of these Hadjis, now poor Bedouins, +are called Retheny [Arabic], they still continue to be the servants of +the mosque, which they clean on Thursday evenings, and light the lamps; +one of them is called the Imam. The mosque is sometimes visited by +Moslim pilgrims, but it is only upon the occasion of the presence of +some Mussulman of consequence that the call to prayers is made from the +Minaret. + +In the convent are two deep and copious wells of spring water; one of +them is called the well of Moses, because it is said that he first drank +of its water. Another was the work, as the monks say, of an English +Lord, it bears the date 1760. There is also a reservoir for the +reception of rain water. + +None of the churches or chapels have steeples. There is a bell, which, I +believe, is rung only on Sundays. The usual mode of calling the monks to +morning prayers is by striking with a stick upon a long piece of +granite, suspended from ropes, which produces a sound heard all over the +convent; close by it hangs a piece of dry wood, which emits a different +sound, and summons to vespers. A small tower is shewn which was built +forty or fifty years ago for the residence of a Greek patriarch of +Constantinople, who was exiled to this place by the orders of the +Sultan, and who remained here till he died. + +According to the credited tradition, the origin of the convent of Mount +Sinai dates from the fourth century. Helena, the mother of Constantine, +is said to have erected here a small church, in commemoration of the +place where the Lord appeared to Moses in the burning bush, and in the +garden of the convent a small tower is still shewn, the foundations of +which are said to have been laid by her. The church of Helena drawing +many visitors and monks to these mountains, several small convents were +erected in different + +[p.545] parts of the peninsula, in the course of the next century, but +the ill treatment which the monks and hermits suffered from the Bedouins +induced them at last to present a petition to the Emperor Justinian, +entreating him to build a fortified convent capable of affording them +protection against their oppressors. He granted the request, and sent +workmen from Constantinople and Egypt, with orders to erect a large +convent upon the top of the mountain of Moses; those however to whom the +work was entrusted, observing the entire want of water in that spot, +built it on the present site. They attempted in vain to cut away the +mountain on each side of the building, with a view to prevent the Arabs +from taking post there and throwing stones at the monks within. The +building being completed, Justinian sent from Constantinople some +slaves, natives of the shores of the Black sea, to officiate as servants +in the convent, who established themselves with their families in the +neighbouring valleys. The first prior was Doulas, whose name is still +recorded upon a stone built into the wall of one of the buildings in the +interior of the convent. The above history is taken from a document in +Arabic, preserved by the monks. An Arabic inscription over the gate, in +modern characters, says that Justinian built the convent in the +thirtieth year of his reign, as a memorial of himself and his wife +Theodora. It is curious to find a passage of the Koran introduced into +this inscription; it was probably done by a Moslem sculptor, without the +knowledge of the monks. A few years after the completion of the convent, +one of the monks is said to have been informed in his sleep, that the +corpse of St. Catherine, who suffered martyrdom at Alexandria, had been +transported by angels to the summit of the highest peak of the +surrounding mountains. The monks ascended the mountain in + +[p.546] procession, found the bones, and deposited them in their church, +which thus acquired an additional claim to the veneration of the Greeks. +Monastic establishments seem soon after to have considerably increased +throughout the peninsula. Small convents, chapels, and hermitages, the +remains of many of which are still visible, were built in various parts +of it. The prior told me that Justinian gave the whole peninsula in +property to the convent, and that at the time of the Mohammedan +conquest, six or seven thousand monks and hermits were dispersed over +the mountains, the establishments of the peninsula of Sinai thus +resembling those which still exist on the peninsula of Mount Athos. It +is a favourite belief of the monks of Mount Sinai, that Mohammed +himself, in one of his journeys, alighted under the walls of the +convent, and that impressed with due veneration for the mountain of +Moses, he presented to the convent a Firmahn, to secure to it the +respect of all his followers. Ali is said to have written it, and +Mohammed, who could not write, to have confirmed it by impressing his +extended hand, blackened with ink, upon the parchment. This Firmahn, it +is added, remained in the convent until Selim the First conquered Egypt, +when hearing of the precious relic, he sent for it, and added it to the +other relics of Mohammed in the imperial treasury at Constantinople; +giving to the convent, in return, a copy of the original certified with +his own cipher. I have seen the latter, which is kept in the Sinai +convent at Cairo, but I do not believe it to be an authentic document. +None of the historians of Mohammed, who have recorded the transactions +of almost every day of his life, mention his having been at Mount Sinai, +neither in his earlier youth, nor after he set up as a prophet, and it +is totally contrary to history that he should have granted to any + +[p.547] Christians such privileges as are mentioned in this Firmahn, one +of which is that the Moslems are bound to aid the Christian monks in +rebuilding their ruined churches. It is to be observed also that this +document states itself to have been written by Ali, not at the convent, +but in the mosque of the Prophet at Medina, in the second year of the +Hedjra, and is addressed, not to the convent of Mount Sinai in +particular, but to all the Christians and their priests. The names of +twenty-two witnesses, followers of Mohammed, are subscribed to it; and +in a note it is expressly stated that the original, written by Ali, was +lost, and that the present was copied from a fourth successive copy +taken from the original. Hence it appears that the relation of the +priests is at variance with the document to which they refer, and I have +little doubt therefore that the former is a fable and the latter a +forgery. Notwithstanding the difficulties to which the monks must have +been exposed from the warlike and fanatical followers of the new faith +in Syria, Arabia, Egypt, and the Desert, the convent continued +uninjured, and defended itself successfully against all the surrounding +tribes by the peculiar arms of its possessors, patience, meekness, and +money. According to the statement of the monks, their predecessors were +made responsible by the Sultans of Egypt for the protection of the +pilgrim caravans from Cairo to Mekka, on that part of the road which lay +along the northern frontiers of their territory from Suez to Akaba. For +this purpose they thought it necessary to invite several tribes, and +particularly the Szowaleha and the Aleygat to settle in the fertile +valleys of Sinai, in order to serve as protectors of this road. The +Bedouins came, but their power increasing, while that of the monks +declined, they in the course of time took possession of the whole +peninsula, and confined the monks to their convent. It appears from the +original copy of a compact between the monks and the + +[p.548] above Bedouins, made in the year of the Hedjra 800, when Sultan +Dhaher Bybars reigned in Egypt, that besides this convent, six others +were still existing in the peninsula, exclusive of a number of chapels +and hermitages; from a writing on parchment, dated in the A.H.1053, we +find that in that year all these minor establishments had been +abandoned, and that the great convent, holding property at Feiran, Tor, +and in other fruitful valleys, alone remained. The priests assured me, +that they had documents to prove that all the date valleys and other +fertile spots in the gulf of Akaba had been in their possession, and +were confirmed to them by the Sultans of Egypt; but they either could +not or would not shew me their archives in detail, without an order from +the prior at Cairo; indeed all their papers appeared to be in great +confusion. + +Whenever a new Sultan ascends the throne of Constantinople, the convent +is furnished with a new Firmahn, which is transmitted to the Pasha of +Egypt; but as the neighbouring Bedouins, till within a few years, were +completely independent of Egypt, the protection of the Pashas was of +very little use to the monks, and their only dependance was upon their +own resources, and their means of purchasing and conciliating the +friendship, or of appeasing the animosity of the Arabs. + +At present there are only twenty-three monks in the convent. They are +under the presidence of a Wakyl or prior, but the Ikonómos [Greek], whom +the Arabs call the Kolob, is the true head of the community, and manages +all its affairs. The order of Sinai monks dispersed over the east is +under the control of an Archbishop, in Arabic called the Reys. He is +chosen by a council of delegates from Mount Sinai and from the +affiliated convent at Cairo, and he is confirmed, pro forma, by the +Greek patriarch of Jerusalem. The Archbishop can do nothing as to the +appropriation of the funds without the unanimous vote of the council. +Formerly + +[p.549] he lived in the convent; but since its affairs have been on the +decline, it has been found more expedient that he should reside abroad, +his presence here entitling the Bedouins to great fees, particularly on +his entrance into the convent. I was told that ten thousand dollars +would be required, on such an occasion, to fulfil all the obligations to +which the community is bound in its treaties with the Arabs. Hence it +happens that no Archbishop has been here since the year 1760, when the +Reys Kyrillos resided, and I believe died, in the convent. I was +informed that the gate has remained walled up since the year 1709, but +that if an Archbishop were to come, it must be again opened to admit +him, and that all the Bedouin Sheiks then have a right to enter within +the walls. + +Besides the convent at Cairo, which contains a prior and about fifty +monks, Mount Sinai has establishments and landed property in many other +parts of the east, especially in the Archipelago, and at Candia: it has +also a small church at Calcutta, and another at Surat. + +The discipline of these monks, with regard to food and prayer, is very +severe. They are obliged to attend mass twice in the day and twice in +the night. The rule is that they shall taste no flesh whatever all the +year round; and in their great fast they not only abstain from butter, +and every kind of animal food and fish, but also from oil, and live four +days in the week on bread and boiled vegetables, of which one small dish +is all their dinner. They obtain their vegetables from a pleasant garden +adjoining the building, into which there is a subterraneous passage; the +soil is stony, but in this climate, wherever water is in plenty, the +very rocks will produce vegetation. The fruit is of the finest quality; +oranges, lemons, almonds, mulberries, apricots, peaches, pears, apples, +olives, Nebek trees, and a few cypresses overshade the beds in which +melons, beans, lettuces, onions, cucumbers, and all sorts of + +[p.550] culinary and sweet-scented herbs are sown. The garden, however, +is very seldom visited by the monks, except by the few whose business it +is to keep it in order; for although surrounded by high walls, it is not +inaccessible to the Bedouins, who for the three last years have been the +sole gatherers of the fruits, leaving the vegetables only for the monks, +who have thus been obliged to repurchase their own fruit from the +pilferers, or to buy it in other parts of the peninsula. + +The excellent air of the convent, and the simple fare of the +inhabitants, render diseases rare. Many of the monks are very old men, +in the full possession of their mental and bodily faculties. They have +all taken to some profession, a mode of rendering themselves independent +of Egypt, which was practised here even when the three hundred private +chambers were occupied, which are now empty, though still ready for the +accommodation of pious settlers. Among the twenty-three monks who now +remain, there is a cook, a distiller, a baker, a shoemaker, a tailor, a +carpenter, a smith, a mason, a gardener, a maker of candles, &c. &c. +each of these has his work-shop, in the worn-out and rusty utensils of +which are still to be seen the traces of the former riches and industry +of the establishment. The rooms in which the provisions are kept are +vaulted and built of granite with great solidity; each kind of provision +has its purveyor. The bake-house and distillery are still kept up upon a +large scale. The best bread is of the finest quality; but a second and +third sort is made for the Bedouins who are fed by the convent. In the +distillery they make brandy from dates, which is the only solace these +recluses enjoy, and in this they are permitted to indulge even during +the fasts. + +Most of the monks are natives of the Greek islands; in general they do +not remain more than four or five years, when they return to their own +country, proud of having been sufferers among + +[p.551] Bedouins; some, however, have been here forty years. A few of +them only understood Arabic; but none of them write or read it. Being of +the lower orders of society, and educated only in convents, they are +extremely ignorant. Few of them read even the modern Greek fluently, +excepting in their prayer-books, and I found but one who had any notion +of the ancient Greek. They have a good library, but it is always shut +up; it contains about fifteen hundred Greek volumes, and seven hundred +Arabic manuscripts; the latter, which I examined volume after volume, +consist entirely of books of prayer, copies of the Gospels, lives of +saints, liturgies, &c.; a thick folio volume of the works of Lokman, +edited, according to the Arab tradition, by Hormus, the ancient king of +Egypt, was the only one worth attention. Its title in Arabic is +[Arabic]. The prior would not permit it to be taken away, but he made me +a present of a fine copy of the Aldine Odyssey and an equally fine one +of the Anthology. In the room anciently the residence of the Archbishop, +which is very elegantly paved with marble, and extremely well furnished, +though at present unoccupied, is preserved a beautiful ancient +manuscript of the Gospels in Greek, which I was told, was given to the +convent by “an emperor called Theodosius.” It is written in letters of +gold upon vellum, and ornamented with portraits of the Apostles. + +Notwithstanding the ignorance of these monks, they are fond of seeing +strangers in their wilderness; and I met with a more cordial reception +among them than I did in the convents of Libanus, which are in +possession of all the luxuries of life. The monks of Sinai are even +generous; three years ago they furnished a Servian adventurer, who +styled himself a Knes, and pretended to be well known to the Russian +government, with sixty dollars, to pay his + +[p.552] journey back to Alexandria, on his informing them of his +destitute circumstances. + +At present the convent is seldom visited; a few Greeks from Cairo and +Suez, and the inhabitants of Tor who repair here every summer, and +encamp with their families in the garden, are the only persons who +venture to undertake the journey through the desert. So late as the last +century regular caravans of pilgrims used to come here from Cairo as +well as from Jerusalem; a document preserved by the monks states the +arrival in one day of eight hundred Armenians from Jerusalem; and at +another time of five hundred Copts from Cairo. I believe that from sixty +to eighty is the greatest number of visitors that can now be reckoned in +a year. In the small but neat room which I occupied, and which is +assigned to all strangers whom the prior receives with any marks of +distinction, were the names of some of the latest European travellers +who have visited the convent. The following inscriptions, written upon +pieces of paper stuck against the walls, I thought worth the trouble of +transcribing. + +“Le quintidi, 5 Frimaire, l’an 9 de la République Française, 1800 de +l’ère Chrétienne, et 3ème de la conquête de l’Egypte, les Citoyens +Rozières et Coutelle, Membres de la Commission des Sciences et Arts, +sont venus visiter les lieux saints, les ports de Tor, Ras Mohammed, et +Charms, la mer de Suez et l’Accaba, l’extrémité de la presqu’île, toutes +les chaines de montagnes, et toutes les tribus Arabes entre les deux +golfes.” (Seal of the French Republic.) + +M. Rozières made great mineralogical researches in these mountains, + +[p.553] but he and his companion did not succeed in visiting all the +chains of mountains or all the tribes of Arabs. They never reached +Akaba, nor traversed the northern ranges of the peninsula, nor visited +the tribes of Tyaha, Heywat and Terabein. The following is the memorial +left by M. Seetzen: + +“Le 9 d’Avril, 1807. U.J. Seetzen, nommé Mousa, voyageur Allemand, M.D. +et Assesseur de Collège de S. Majestè l’Empereur de toutes les Russies +dans la Seigneurie de Jever en Allemagne, est venu visiter le Couvent de +la Sainte Cathérine, les Monts d’Horeb, de Moise, et de la Sainte +Catherine, &c. après avoir parcouru toutes les provinces orientales +anciennes de la Palestine; savoir, Hauranitis, Trachonitis, Gaulonitis, +Paneas, Batanea, Decapolis, Gileaditis, Ammonitis, Amorrhitis et +Moabitis, jusqu’aux frontières de la Gebelene (Idumaea), et après avoir +fait deux fois l’entour de la mer morte, et traversé le désert de +l’Arabie Petrée, entre la ville d’Hebron et entre le Mont Sinai, par un +chemin jusqu’à ce tems-là inconnu. Après un séjour de dix jours, il +continuait son voyage pour la ville de Suez.” + +M. Seetzen has fallen into a mistake in calling the convent by the name +of saint Catherine. It is dedicated to the transfiguration, or as the +Greeks call it, the metamorphosis, and not to saint Catherine, whose +relics only are preserved here. M. Seetzen visited the convent a second +time, previous to his going to Arabia. He came then from Tor, and +stopped only one day. + +The visit of two English travellers, Messrs. Galley Knight and +Fazakerly, is also recorded in a few lines dated February 13, 1811. The +same room contained likewise several modern Arabic inscriptions, one of +which says: “To this holy place came one who does not deserve that his +name should be mentioned, so + +[p.554] manifold are his sins. He came here with his family. May whoever +reads this, beseech the Almighty to forgive him. June 28, 1796.” + +The only habitual visitors of the convent are the Bedouins. They have +established the custom that whoever amongst them, whether man, woman, or +child, comes here, is to receive bread for breakfast and supper, which +is lowered down to them from the window, as no Bedouins, except the +servants of the house, are ever admitted within the walls. Fortunately +for the monks, there are no good pasturing places in their immediate +neighbourhood; the Arab encampments are therefore always at some +distance, and visitors are thus not so frequent as might be supposed; +yet scarcely a day passes without their having to furnish bread to +thirty or forty persons. In the last century the Bedouins enjoyed still +greater privileges, and had a right to call for a dish of cooked meat at +breakfast, and for another at supper; the monks could not have given a +stronger proof of their address than by obtaining the abandonment of +this right from men, in whose power they are so completely placed. The +convent of Sinai at Cairo is subject to similar claims; all the Bedouins +of the peninsula who repair to that city on their private business +receive their daily meal, from the monks, who, not having the same +excuses as their brethren of Mount Sinai, are obliged to supply a dish +of cooked meat. The convent has its Ghafeirs, or protectors, twenty-four +in number, among the tribes inhabiting the desert between Syria and the +Red sea; but the more remote of them are entitled only to some annual +presents in clothes and money, while the Towara Ghafeirs are continually +hovering round the walls, to extort as much as they can. Of the Towara +Arabs the tribes of Szowaleha and Aleygat only are considered as +protectors; the Mezeine, who came in later times to the peninsula, have +no claims; and of the Szowaleha tribe, the + +[p.555] branches Oulad Said and Owareme are exclusively the protectors, +while the Koreysh and Rahamy are not only excluded from the right of +protection but also from the transport of passengers and loads. Of the +Oulad Said each individual receives an annual gift of a dollar, and the +Ghafeir of this branch of the Szowaleha is the convent’s chief man of +business in the desert. If a Sheikh or head man calls at the convent, he +receives, in addition to his bread, some coffee beans, sugar, soap, +sometimes a handkerchief, a little medicine, &c. &c. + +Under such circumstances it may easily be conceived that disputes +continually happen. If a Sheikh from the protecting tribes comes to the +convent to demand coffee, sugar, or clothing, and is not well satisfied +with what he receives, he immediately becomes the enemy of the monks, +lays waste some of their gardens, and must at last be gained over by a +present. The independent state of the Bedouins of Sinai had long +prevented the monks from endeavouring to obtain protection from the +government of Egypt, whose power in the peninsula being trifling, they +would only by complaining have exasperated the Bedouins against them; +their differences therefore had hitherto been accommodated by the +mediation of other Sheikhs. It was not till 1816 that they solicited the +protection of Mohammed Ali; this will secure them for the present +against their neighbours; but it will, probably, as I told the monks, be +detrimental to them in the end. Ten or twenty dollars were sufficient to +pacify the fiercest Bedouin, but a Turkish governor will demand a +thousand for any effectual protection. + +The Arabs, when discontented, have sometimes seized a monk in the +mountains and given him a severe beating, or have thrown stones or fired +their musquets into the convent from the neighbouring heights; about +twenty years ago a monk was killed by + +[p.556] them. The monks, in their turn, have fired occasionally upon the +Bedouins, for they have a well furnished armory, and two small cannon, +but they take great care never to kill any one. And though they dislike +such turbulent neighbours, and describe them to strangers as very +devils, yet they have sense enough to perceive the advantages which they +derive from the better traits in the Bedouin character, such as their +general good faith, and their placability. “If our convent,” as they +have observed to me, “had been subject to the revolutions and +oppressions of Egypt or Syria, it would long ago have been abandoned; +but Providence has preserved us by giving us Bedouins for neighbours.” + +Notwithstanding the greediness of the Bedouins, I have reason to believe +that the expenses of the convent are very moderate. Each monk is +supplied annually with two coarse woollen cloaks, and no splendour is +any where displayed except in the furniture of the great church, and +that of the Archbishop’s room. The supplies are drawn from Egypt; but +the communication by caravans with Cairo is far from being regular, and +the Ikonómos assured me that at the time I was there the house did not +contain more than one month’s provision. + +The yearly consumption of corn is about one hundred and sixty Erdebs, or +two thousand five hundred bushels, which is sufficient to cover all the +demands of the Bedouins, and I believe that £1000. sterling, or 4000 +dollars, is the utmost of the annual expenditure. The convent at Cairo +expends perhaps two or three times that sum. The monks complain greatly +of poverty; and the prior assured me that he sometimes has not a +farthing left to pay for the corn that is brought to him, and is obliged +to borrow money from the Bedouins at high interest; but an appearance of +poverty is one of their great protections; and considering + +[p.557] the possessions of this convent abroad, and the presents which +it receives from pilgrims, I am much inclined to doubt the prior’s +assertion. + +The Bedouins who occupy the peninsula of Mount Sinai are: + +I. The Szowaleha [Arabic]. They are the principal tribe, and they boast +of having been the first Bedouins who settled in these mountains, under +their founder Ayd, two of whose sons, they say, emigrated with their +families to the Hedjaz. The Szowaleha are divided into several branches: +1. The Oulad Said [Arabic], whose Sheikh is at present the second Sheikh +of the Towara Arabs. They are not so poor as the other tribes, and +possess the best valleys of the mountains. 2. Korashy [Arabic], or +Koreysh, whose Sheikh, Szaleh Ibn Zoheyr, is at present the great Sheikh +of the Towara, and transacts the public business with the government of +Egypt. The Korashy are descendants of a few families of Beni Koreysh, +who came here as fugitives from the Hedjaz, and settled with the +Szowaleha, with whom they are now intimately intermixed. 3. Owareme +[Arabic], a subdivision of whom are the Beni Mohsen [Arabic]; in one of +the families of which is the hereditary office of Agyd, or the commander +of the Towara in their hostile expeditions. 4. Rahamy [Arabic]. The +Szowaleha inhabit principally the country to the west of the convent, +and their date valleys are, for the greater part, situated on that side. +These valleys are the exclusive property of individuals, but the other +pasturing places of the tribe are common to all its branches, although +the latter usually remain somewhat separated from each other. + +II. Aleygat [Arabic]. They are much weaker in number than the Szowaleha, +and encamp usually with the Mezeine, and with them form a counterbalance +to the power of the Szowaleha. A tribe of Aleygat is found in Nubia on +the banks of the Nile about twenty miles north of Derr, where they +occupy the district called Wady + +BEDOUINS OF SINA + +[p.558] el Arab, of which Seboua makes a part.[See Journey towards +Dongola, p. 26.] The Aleygat of Sinai are acquainted with this +settlement of their brethren, and relate that in the time of the +Mamelouks, one of them who had embarked with a Beg at Tor for Cosseir +travelled afterwards towards Ibrim, and when he passed Seboua was +delighted there to find the people of his own tribe. They treated him +well, and presented him with a camel and a slave. I am ignorant by what +chance the Aleygat settled in Nubia. + +III. El Mezeine [Arabic], who live principally to the eastward of the +convent towards the gulf of Akaba. + +IV. Oulad Soleiman [Arabic], or Beni Selman [Arabic], at present reduced +to a few families only, who are settled at Tor, and in the neighbouring +villages. + +V. Beni Waszel [Arabic], about fifteen families, who live with the +Mezeine, and are usually found in the neighbourhood of Sherm. They are +said to have come originally from Barbary. Some of their brethren are +also settled in Upper Egypt. + +These five tribes are comprised under the appellation Towara, or the +Bedouins of Tor, and form a single body, whenever any foreign tribe of +the northern Bedouins attacks any one of them; but sometimes, though not +often, they have bloody quarrels among themselves. Their history, +according to the reports of the best informed among them, founded upon +tradition, is as follows: + + +At the period of the Mohammedan conquest, or soon after, the peninsula +of Mount Sinai was inhabited exclusively by the tribe of Oulad Soleiman, +or Beni Selman, together with the monks. The Szowaleha, and Aleygat, the +latter originally from the eastern Syrian desert, were then living on +the borders of Egypt, and in the Sherkieh or eastern district of the +Delta, from whence they were + +[p.559] accustomed to make frequent inroads into this territory, in +order to carry off the date-harvest, and other fruits.[Some encampments +of Szowaleha are still found in the Sherkieh.] Whenever the inundation +of the Nile failed, they repaired in great numbers to these mountains, +and pastured their herds in the fertile valleys, the vegetation of which +is much more nutritious for camels and sheep than the luxuriant but +insipid pastures on the banks of the Nile. After long wars the Szowaleha +and Aleygat succeeded in reducing the Oulad Soleiman; many of their +families were exterminated, others fled, and their feeble remains now +live near Tor, where they still pride themselves upon having been the +former lords of this peninsula. The Szowaleha and Aleygat, however, did +not agree, and had frequent disputes among themselves. At that period +there arrived at Sherm four families of the Mezeine, a very potent tribe +in the Hedjaz, east of Medina, where they are still found in large +numbers, forming part of the great tribe of Beni Harb. They were flying +from the effects of blood-revenge, and wishing to settle here, they +applied to the Szowaleha, begging to be permitted to join them in their +pastures. The Szowaleha consented, on condition of their paying a yearly +tribute in sheep, in the same manner as the despised tribe of Heteym, on +the opposite coast of the gulf of Akaba, does to all the surrounding +Arabs. [Arabic]. The high spirited Mezeine however rejected the offer, +as derogatory to their free born condition, and addressed themselves to +the Aleygat, who readily admitted them to their brotherhood and all +their pastures. Long and obstinate wars between the Szowaleha and +Aleygat were the consequence of this compact. The two tribes fought, it +is said, for forty years; and in the greatest and the last battle, which +took place in Wady Barak, the Mezeine decided the contest in favour of +the Aleygat. “So + +[p.560] great,” says the Bedouin tradition, “was the number of the +Szowaleha killed in this engagement, that the nails of the slain were +seen for many years after, the sport of the winds in the valleys around +the field of battle.”[No nation equals the Bedouins in numerical +exaggeration. Ask a Bedouin who belongs to a tribe of three hundred +tents, of the numbers of his brethren, and he will take a handful of +sand, and cast it up in the air, or point to the stars, and tell you +that they are as numberless. Much cross-questioning is therefore +necessary even to arrive at an approximation to the truth.] A compromise +now took place, the Szowaleha and Aleygat divided the fertile valleys of +the country equally, and the Mezeine received one-third of their share +from the latter. The Sheikh of the Szowaleha was, at the same time, +acknowledged as Sheikh of the whole peninsula. At present the Mezeine +are stronger than the Aleygat, and both together are about equal in +number to the Szowaleha. + +Besides the Towara tribes, three others inhabit the northern parts of +the peninsula; viz. The Heywat [Arabic], who live towards Akaba; the +Tyaha [Arabic], who extend from the chain of the mountain El Tyh +northwards towards Ghaza and Hebron; and the Terabein [Arabic], who +occupy the north-west part of the peninsula, and extend from thence +towards Ghaza and Hebron. These three tribes are together stronger than +the Towara, with whom they are sometimes at war, and being all derived +from one common stock, the ancient tribe of Beni Attye, they are always +firmly united during hostilities. They have no right to the pasturages +south of Djebel Tyh, but are permitted to encamp sometimes in that +direction, if pasture is abundant. The pastures in their own territory, +along the whole of the northern parts of Djebel Tyh, are said to be +excellent, and to extend from one side of the peninsula to the other. + +I believe that the population of the entire peninsula, south of a + +[p.561] line from Akaba to Suez, as far as cape Abou Mohammed, does not +exceed four thousand souls. In years of dearth, even this small number +is sometimes at a loss to find pasturage for their cattle. + +The Towara are some of the poorest of the Bedouin tribes, which is to be +attributed principally to the scarcity of rain and the consequent want +of pasturage. Their herds are scanty, and they have few camels; neither +of their two Sheikhs, the richest individuals amongst them, possesses +more than eight; few tents have more than two; it often happens that two +or three persons are partners in one camel, and great numbers are +without any. There are no horses even among the Sheikhs, who constantly +ride on camels; but asses are common. Their means of subsistence are +derived from their pastures, the transport trade between Suez and Cairo, +the sale at the latter place of the charcoal which they burn in their +mountains, of the gum arabic which they collect, and of their dates and +other fruits. The produce of this trade is laid out by them at Cairo in +purchasing clothing and provisions, particularly corn, for the supply of +their families; and if any thing remains in hand, they buy with it a few +sheep and goats at Tor or at Sherm, to which latter place they are +brought by the Bedouins of the opposite coast of Arabia. + +When Egypt was under the unsettled government of the Mamelouks the +Towara Bedouins, who were then independent, were very formidable, and +often at war with the Begs, as well as with the surrounding tribes. At +present they have lost much of the profits which they derived from their +traffic with Suez, and from the passage of caravans to Cairo; they are +kept in awe by Mohammed Ali, and have taken to more peaceful habits, +which, however, they are quite ready to abandon, on the first appearance +of any change in the government of Egypt. Even now, they pay no duty +whatever to + +[p.562] the Pasha, who, on the contrary, makes their chief some annual +presents; but they are obliged to submit to the rate of carriage which +the Pasha chooses to fix for the transport of his goods. They live, of +course, according to their means; the small sum of fifteen or twenty +dollars pays the yearly expenses of many, perhaps of most of their +families, and the daily and almost unvarying food of the greater part of +them is bread, with a little butter or milk, for which salt alone is +substituted when the dry season is set in, and their cattle no longer +yield milk. The Mezeine appeared to me much hardier than the other +tribes, owing probably to their being exposed to greater privations in +the more barren district which they inhabit. They hold more intercourse +with the neighbouring Bedouins to the north than the other Towaras, and +in their language and manners approach more to the great eastern tribes +than to the other Bedouins of the peninsula. + +All the tribes of the Towara complain of the sterility of their +wives;[They wish for children because their tribe is strengthened by it. +But Providence seems to have wisely proportioned the fertility of their +women to the barrenness of the country.] and though the Bedouin women in +general are less fruitful than the stationary Arabs, the Towara are even +below the other Bedouins in this respect, three children being a large +family among them. + +To the true Bedouin tribes above enumerated are to be added the advenae +called Djebalye [Arabic], or the mountaineers. I have stated that when +Justinian built the convent, he sent a party of slaves, originally from +the shores of the Black sea, as menial servants to the priests. These +people came here with their wives, and were settled by the convent as +guardians of the orchards and date plantations throughout the peninsula. +Subsequently, when the Bedouins deprived the convent of many of its +possessions, these slaves turned + +[p.563] Moslems, and adopted the habits of Bedouins. Their descendants +are the present Djebalye, who unanimously confess their descent from the +Christian slaves, whence they are often called by the other Bedouins +“the children of Christians.” They are not to be distinguished, however, +in features or manners, from other Bedouins, and they are now considered +a branch of the Towara, although the latter still maintain the +distinction, never giving their daughters in marriage to the Djebalye, +nor taking any of theirs; thus the Djebalye intermarry only among +themselves, and form a separate commmunity of about one hundred and +twenty armed men. They are a very robust and hardy race, and their girls +have the reputation of superior beauty over all others of the peninsula, +a circumstance which often gives rise to unhappy attachments, and +romantic love-tales, when their lovers happen to belong to other tribes. +The Djebalye still remain the servants of the convent; parties of three +attend in it by turns, and are the only Bedouins who are permitted to +enter within the walls; but they are never allowed to sleep in the +house, and pass the night in the garden. They provide fire-wood, collect +dried herbage for the mule which turns the mill, bring milk, eggs, &c. +and receive all the offals of the kitchen. Some of them encamp as +Bedouins in the mountains surrounding the peaks of Moses and St. +Catherine, but the greater part are settled in the gardens belonging to +the convent, in those mountains. They engage to deliver one-half the +fruit to the convent, but as these gardens produce the finest fruit in +the peninsula, they are so beset by Bedouin guests at the time of +gathering, that the convent’s share is usually consumed in hospitality. + +The Djebalye have formed a strict alliance with the Korashy, that branch +of the Szowaleha which has no claims of protectorship upon the convent, +and by these means they have maintained from + +[p.564] ancient times, a certain balance of power against the other +Szowaleha. They have no right to transport pilgrims to the convent, and +are, in general, considered as pseudo-Arabs, although they have become +Bedouins in every respect. They are divided into several smaller tribes, +some of whom have become settlers; thus the Tebna are settled in the +date valley of Feiran, in gardens nominally the property of the convent: +the Bezya in the convent’s gardens at Tor; and the Sattla in other +parts, forming a few families, whom the true Bedouins stigmatize with +the opprobrious name of Fellahs, or peasants. The monks told me that in +the last century there still remained several families of Christian +Bedouins who had not embraced Islamism; and that the last individual of +this description, an old woman, died in 1750, and was buried in the +garden of the convent. In this garden is the burial-ground of the monks, +and in several adjoining vaulted chambers their remains are collected +after the bodies have lain two years in the coffins underground. High +piles of hands, shin bones, and sculls are placed separately in the +different corners of these chambers, which the monks are with difficulty +persuaded to open to strangers. In a row of wooden chests are deposited +the bones of the Archbishops of the convent, which are regularly sent +hither, wherever the Archbishops may die. In another small chest are +shewn the sculls and some of the bones of two “Indian princes,” who are +said to have been shipwrecked on the coast of Tor, and having repaired +to the convent, to have lived for many years as hermits in two small +adjoining caves upon the mountain of Moses. In order to remain +inseparable in this world, they bound two of their legs together with an +iron chain, part of which, with a small piece of a coat of mail, which +they wore under their cloaks, is still preserved. No one could tell me +their names, nor the period at which they resided here. At the + +DJEBEL MOUSA + +[p.565] entrance of the charnel houses is the picture of the hoary St. +Onuphrius. He is said to have been an Egyptian prince, and subsequently +one of the first monks of Djebel Mousa, in which capacity he performed +many miracles. + +After two days repose in the convent and its delightful garden, I set +out for the holy places around it, a pilgrimage which I had deferred +making immediately on my first arrival, which is the usual practice, +that the Arabs might not confound me with the common run of visitors, to +whom they shew no great respect. The Djebalye enjoy the exclusive right +of being guides to the holy places; my suite therefore consisted of two +of them loaded with provisions, together with my servant and a young +Greek. The latter had been a sailor in the Red sea, and appeared to have +turned monk chiefly for the sake of getting his fill of brandy from the +convent’s cellar. + +May 20th.—We were in motion before sunrise for the Djebel Mousa or +Mountain of Moses, the road to which begins to ascend immediately behind +the walls of the convent. Regular steps were formerly cut all the way +up, but they are now either entirely destroyed, or so much damaged by +the winter torrents as to be of very little use. After ascending for +about twenty-five minutes, we breathed a short time under a large +impending rock, close by which is a small well of water as cold as ice; +at the end of three quarters of an hour’s steep ascent we came to a +small plain, the entrance to which from below is through a stone +gateway, which in former times was probably closed; a little beneath it +stands, amidst the rocks, a small church dedicated to the Virgin. On the +plain is a larger building of rude construction, which bears the name of +the convent of St. Elias; it was lately inhabited, but is now abandoned, +the monks repairing here only at certain times of the year to read mass. +Pilgrims usually halt on this spot, where a tall cypress tree grows by +the side of a stone tank, which receives the winter rains. + +[p.566] On a large rock in the plain are several Arabic inscriptions, +engraved by pilgrims three or four hundred years ago; I saw one also in +the Syriac language. + +According to the Koran and the Moslem traditions, it was in this part of +the mountain, which is called Djebel Oreb, or Horeb, that Moses +communicated with the Lord. From hence a still steeper ascent of half an +hour, the steps of which are also in ruins, leads to the summit of +Djebel Mousa, where stands the church which forms the principal object +of the pilgrimage; it is built on the very peak of the mountain, the +plane of which is at most sixty paces in circumference. The church, +though strongly built with granite, is now greatly dilapidated by the +unremitted attempts of the Arabs to destroy it; the door, roof, and +walls are greatly injured. Szaleh, the present Sheikh of the Towara, +with his tribe the Korashy, was the principal instrument in the work of +destruction, because, not being entitled to any tribute from the +convent, they are particularly hostile to the monks. Some ruins round +the church indicate that a much larger and more solid building once +stood here, and the rock appears to have been cut perpendicularly with +great labour, to prevent any other approach to it than by the southern +side. The view from this summit must be very grand, but a thick fog +prevented me from seeing even the nearest mountains. + +About thirty paces from the church, on a somewhat lower peak, stands a +poor mosque, without any ornaments, held in great veneration by the +Moslems, and the place of their pilgrimage. It is frequently visited by +the Bedouins, who slaughter sheep in honour of Moses; and who make vows +to him and intreat his intercession in heaven in their favour. There is +a feast-day on which the Bedouins come hither in a mass, and offer their +sacrifices. I was told that formerly they never approached the place +without being + +[p.567] dressed in the Ihram, or sacred mantle, with which the Moslems +cover their naked bodies on visiting Mekka, and which then consisted +only of a napkin tied round the middle; but this custom has been +abandoned for the last forty years. Foreign Moslem pilgrims often repair +to the spot, and even Mohammed Ali Pasha and his son Tousoun Pasha gave +notice that they intended to visit it, but they did not keep their +promise. Close by the footpath, in the ascent from St. Elias to this +summit, and at a small distance from it, a place is shown in the rock, +which somewhat resembles the print of the fore part of the foot; it is +stated to have been made by Mohammed’s foot when he visited the +mountain. We found the adjacent part of the rock sprinkled with blood in +consequence of an accident which happened a few days ago to a Turkish +lady of rank who was on her way from Cairo to Mekka, with her son, and +who had resided for some weeks in the convent, during which she made the +tour of the sacred places, bare footed, although she was old and +decrepid. In attempting to kiss the mark of Mohammed’s foot, she fell, +and wounded her head; but not so severely as to prevent her from +pursuing her pilgrimage. Somewhat below the mosque is a fine reservoir +cut very deep in the granite rock, for the reception of rain water. + +The Arabs believe that the tables of the commandments are buried beneath +the pavement of the church on Djebel Mousa, and they have made +excavations on every side in the hope of finding them. They more +particularly revere this spot from a belief that the rains which fall in +the peninsula are under the immediate control of Moses; and they are +persuaded that the priests of the convent are in possession of the +Taourat, a book sent down to Moses from heaven, upon the opening and +shutting of which depend the rains of the peninsula. The reputation, +which the monks have thus obtained of having the dispensation of the +rains + +[p.568] in their hands has become very troublesome to them, but they +have brought it on by their own measures for enhancing their credit with +the Bedouins. In times of dearth they were accustomed to proceed in a +body to Djebel Mousa, to pray for rain, and they encouraged the belief +that the rain was due to their intercessions. By a natural inference, +the Bedouins have concluded that if the monks could bring rain, they had +it likewise in their power to withhold it, and the consequence is, that +whenever a dearth happens they accuse the monks of malevolence, and +often tumultuously assemble and compel them to repair to the mountain to +pray. Some years since, soon after an occurrence of this kind, it +happened that a violent flood burst over the peninsula, and destroyed +many date trees; a Bedouin, whose camel and sheep had been swept away by +the torrent, went in a fury to the convent, and fired his gun at it, and +when asked the reason, exclaimed; “You have opened the book so much that +we are all drowned!” He was pacified by presents; but on departing he +begged that in future the monks would only half open the Taourat, in +order that the rains might be more moderate. + +The supposed influence of the monks is, however, sometimes attended with +more fortunate results: the Sheikh Szaleh had never been father of a +male child, and on being told that Providence had thus punished him for +his enmity to the convent, he two years ago brought a load of butter to +the monks, and entreated them to go to the mountain and pray that his +newly-married wife, who was then pregnant, might be delivered of a son. +The monks complied, and Szaleh soon after became the happy father of a +fine boy; since that period he has been the friend of the convent, and +has even partly repaired the church on Djebel Mousa. This summit was +formerly inhabited by the monks, but, at present they visit it only in +time of festivals. + +BIR SHONNAR + +[p.569] We returned to the convent of St. Elias, and then descended on +the western side of the mountain for half an hour by another decayed +flight of steps, into a valley where is a small convent called El +Erbayn, or the forty; it is in good repair, and is at present inhabited +by a family of Djebalye, who take care of the garden annexed to it, +which affords a pleasing place of rest to those who descend from the +barren mountains above. In its neighbourhood are extensive olive +plantations, but I was told that for the last five summers the locusts +had devoured both the fruit and foliage of these trees, upon which they +alight in preference to all others. This insect is not less dreaded here +than in Arabia, Syria, and Egypt, but the Bedouins of Mount Sinai, +unlike those of Arabia, instead of eating them, hold them in great +abhorrence. + +We passed the mid-day hours at St. Elias, and towards evening ascended +the mountain opposite to that of Mousa, which forms the western cliff of +this narrow valley. After proceeding about an hour we stopped near a +small well, where we found several huts of Djebalye, and cleared a place +among the rocks, where our party encamped for the night. The well is +called Bir Shonnar [Arabic], from the circumstance of a monk who was +wandering in these mountains, and nearly dying of thirst, having +miraculously discovered it by seeing the bird Shonnar fly up from the +spot; it is closely surrounded by rocks, and is not more than a foot in +diameter and as much in depth. The Bedouins say that it never dries up, +and that its water, even when exposed to the sun, is as cold as ice. +Several trees grow near it, amongst others the Zarour [Arabic], now +almost in full bloom. Its fruit, of the size of a small cherry, with +much of the flavour of a strawberry, is, I believe, not a native of +Egypt, but is very common in Syria. I bought a lamb of the Bedouins, +which we roasted among the rocks, and although there were only two women +and one girl present, and + +[p.570] the steep side of the mountain hardly permitted a person to +stand up with firmness, and still less to wheel about, yet the greater +part of the night was spent in the Mesámer, or national song and dance, +to which several other neighbouring Djebalye were attracted. The air was +delightfully cool and pure. While in the lower country, and particularly +on the sea shore, I found the thermometer often at 102°—105°, and once +even at 110°; in the convent it never stood higher than 75°. The Semoum +wind never reaches these upper regions. In winter the whole of the upper +Sinai is deeply covered with snow, which chokes up many of the passes, +and often renders the mountains of Moses and St. Catherine inaccessible. +The climate is so different from that of Egypt, that fruits are nearly +two months later in ripening here than at Cairo; apricots, which begin +to be in season there in the last days of April, are not fit to eat in +Sinai till the middle of June. + +May 21st.—We left our resting-place before sign-rise, and climbed up a +steep ascent, where there had formerly been steps, which are now +entirely destroyed. This side of Djebel Katerin or Mount St. Catherine, +is noted for its excellent pasturage; herbs sprout up every where +between the rocks, and as many of them are odoriferous, the scent early +in the morning, when the dew falls, is delicious. The Zattar [Arabic], +Ocimum Zatarhendi, was particularly conspicuous, and is esteemed here +the best possible food for sheep. In the month of June, when the herbs +are in blossom, the monks are in the habit of repairing to this and the +surrounding mountains, in order to collect various herbs, which they +dry, and send to the convent at Cairo, from whence they are dispatched +to the archbishop of Sinai at Constantinople, who distributes them to +his friends and dependents; they are supposed to possess many virtues +conducive to health. A botanist would find a rich harvest here, and it +is much to be regretted that two mountains so easy of access, + +[p.571] and so rich in vegetation, as Sinai and Libanus, should be still +unexplored by men of science. The pretty red flower of the Noman plant +[Arabic], Euphorbia retusa of Forskal, abounds in al[l] the valleys of +Sinai, and is seen also amongst the most barren granite rocks of the +mountains. + +As we approached the summit of the mountain we saw at a distance a small +flock of mountain goats feeding among the rocks. One of our Arabs left +us, and by a widely circuitous road endeavoured to get to leeward of +them, and near enough to fire at them; he enjoined us to remain in sight +of them, and to sit down in order not to alarm them. He had nearly +reached a favourable spot behind a rock, when the goats suddenly took to +flight. They could not have seen the Arab, but the wind changed, and +thus they smelt him. The chase of the Beden, as the wild goat is called, +resembles that of the chamois of the Alps, and requires as much +enterprise and patience. The Arabs make long circuits to surprise them, +and endeavour to come upon them early in the morning when they feed. The +goats have a leader, who keeps watch, and on any suspicious smell, +sound, or object, makes a noise which is a signal to the flock to make +their escape. They have much decreased of late, if we may believe the +Arabs, who say that, fifty years ago, if a stranger came to a tent and +the owner of it had no sheep to kill, he took his gun and went in search +of a Beden. They are however even now more common than in the Alps, or +in the mountains to the east of the Red sea. I had three or four of them +brought to me at the convent, which I bought at threefourths of a dollar +each. The flesh is excellent, and has nearly the same flavour as that of +the deer. The Bedouins make waterbags of their skins, and rings of their +horns, which they wear on their thumbs. When the Beden is met with in +the plains the + +[p.572] dogs of the hunters easily catch him; but they cannot come up +with him among the rocks, where he can make leaps of twenty feet. + +The stout Bedouin youths are all hunters, and excellent marksmen; they +hold it a great honour to bring game to their tents, in proof of their +being hardy mountain runners, and good shots; and the epithet Bowardy +yknos es-szeyd [Arabic], “a marksman who hunts the game,” is one of the +most flattering that can be bestowed upon them. It appears, from an +ancient picture preserved in the convent, which represents the arrival +of an archbishop from Egypt, as well as from one of the written +documents in the archives, that in the sixteenth century all the Arabs +were armed with bows and arrows as well as with matchlocks; at present +the former are no longer known, but almost every tent has its matchlock, +which the men use with great address, notwithstanding its bad condition. +I believe bows are no longer used as regular weapons by the Bedouins in +any part of Arabia. + +After a very slow ascent of two hours we reached the top of Mount St. +Catherine, which, like the mountain of Moses, terminates in a sharp +point; its highest part consists of a single immense block of granite, +whose surface is so smooth, that it is very difficult to ascend it. +Luxuriant vegetation reaches up to this rock, and the side of the +mountain presented a verdure which, had it been of turf instead of +shrubs and herbs, would have completed the resemblance between this +mountain and some of the Alpine summits. There is nothing on the summit +of the rock to attract attention, except a small church or chapel, +hardly high enough within to allow a person to stand upright, and badly +built of loose uncemented stones; the floor is the bare rock, in which, +solid as it is, the body of St. Catherine is believed to have been +miraculously buried by angels, after her martyrdom at Alexandria. I saw +inscribed here + +[p.573] the names of several European travellers, and among others that +of the unfortunate M. Boutin, a French officer of engineers, who passed +here in 1811.[M. Boutin came to Egypt from Zante; he first made a +journey to the cataracts of Assouan, and then went to Bosseir, where he +hired a ship for Mokha, but on reaching Yembo, Tousoun Pasha, the son of +Mohammed Ali, would not permit him to proceed, he therefore returned to +Suez, after visiting the convent of Sinai, and its neighbouring +mountains. After his return to Cairo, he went to Siwah, to examine the +remains of the temple of Jupiter Ammon, carrying with him a small boat +built at Cairo, for the purpose of exploring the lake and the island in +it, mentioned by Browne. He experienced great vexations from the +inhabitants of Siwah; and the boat was of no use to him, owing to the +shallowness of the lake, so that after a residence of three days at the +Oasis, where he seems to have made no discoveries, he returned to Cairo +in the company of some Augila merchants. On his way he passed the wood +of petrified date trees discovered by Horneman; his route, I believe, +was to the south of that of Horneman, and nearer the lesser Oasis. I had +the pleasure of seeing him upon his return from Siwah, when I first +arrived at Cairo. He remained two years in Egypt, and then continued his +travels towards Syria, where he met with his death in 1816, in the +mountainous district of the Nosayris, west of Hamah, having imprudently +exposed himself with a great deal of baggage, in company only of his +interpreter and servant, and without any native guide, to the robbers of +that infamous tribe. He was a lover of truth, and a man of observation +and enterprize; the public, therefore, and his own government, have to +regret his death no less than his friends.] From this elevated peak a +very extensive view opened before us, and the direction of the different +surroundings chains of mountains could be distinctly traced. The upper +nucleus of the Sinai, composed almost entirely of granite, forms a rocky +wilderness of all irregular circular shape, intersected by many narrow +valleys, and from thirty to forty miles in diameter. It contains the +highest mountains of the peninsula, whose shaggy and pointed peaks and +steep and shattered sides, render it clearly distinguishable from all +the rest of the country in view. It is upon this highest region of the +peninsula that the fertile valleys are found, which produce fruit trees; +they are principally to the west and south-west of the convent at three +or four hours distant. + +[p.574] Water too is always found in plenty in this district, on which +account it is the place of refuge of all the Bedouins when the low +country is parched up. I think it very probable that this upper country +or wilderness is, exclusively, the desert of Sinai so often mentioned in +the account of the wanderings of the Israelites. Mount St. Catherine +appears to stand nearly in the centre of it. To the northward of this +central region, and divided from it by the broad valley called Wady El +Sheikh, and by several minor Wadys, begins a lower range of mountains, +called Zebeir, which extends eastwards, having at one extremity the two +peaks called El Djoze [Arabic], above the plantations of Wady Feiran, +and losing itself to the east in the more open country towards Wady Sal. +Beyond the Zebeir northwards are sandy plains and valleys, which I +crossed, towards the west, at Raml el Moral, and towards the east, about +Hadhra.This part i[s] the most barren and destitute of water of the +whole country. At its eastern extremity it is called El Birka [Arabic]. +It borders to the north on the chain of El Tyh, which stretches in a +regular line eastwards, parallel with the Zebeir, beginning at Sarbout +el Djeinel. On reaching, in its eastern course, the somewhat higher +mountain called El Odjme [Arabic], it separates into two; one of its +branches turns off in a right angle northward, and after continuing for +about fifteen miles in that direction, again turns to the east, and +extends parallel with the second and southern branch all across the +peninsula, towards the eastern gulf. The northern branch, which is +called El Dhelel [Arabic], bounds the view from Mount St. Catherine. On +turning to the east, I found that the mountains in this direction, +beyond the high district of Sinai, run in a lower range towards the Wady +Sal, and that the slope of the upper mountains is much less abrupt than +on the opposite side. From Sal, east and north-east, the chains +intersect each other in many irregular masses + +[p.575] of inferior height, till they reach the gulf of Akaba, which I +clearly distinguished when the sun was just rising over the mountains of +the Arabian coast. Excepting the short extent from Noweyba to Dahab, the +mountains bordering on the gulf are all of secondary height, but they +rise to a considerable elevation between those two points. The country +between Sherm, Nabk, and the convent, is occupied also by mountains of +minor size, and the valleys, generally, are so narrow, that few of them +can be distinguished from the point where I stood, the whole country, in +that direction, appearing an uninterrupted wilderness of barren +mountains. The highest points on that side appear to be above Wady Kyd, +above the valley of Naszeb, and principally the peaks called Om Kheysyn +[Arabic] and Masaoud [Arabic]. + +The view to the south was bounded by the high mountain of Om Shomar +[Arabic], which forms a nucleus of itself, apparently unconnected with +the upper Sinai, although bordering close upon it. To the right of this +mountain I could distinguish the sea, in the neighbourhood of Tor, near +which begins a low calcareous chain of mountains, called Djebel Hemam +(i.e. death), not Hamam (or bath), extending along the gulf of Suez, and +separated from the upper Sinai by a broad gravelly plain called El Kaa +[Arabic], across which the road from Tor to Suez passes. This plain +terminates to the W.N.W. of Mount St. Catherine, and nearly in the +direction of Djebel Serbal. Towards the Kaa, the central Sinai mountains +are very abrupt, and leave no secondary intermediate chain between them +and the plain at their feet. The mountain of Serbal, which I afterwards +visited, is separated from the upper Sinai by some valleys, especially +Wady Hebran, and it forms, with several neighbouring mountains, a +separate cluster terminating in peaks, the highest of which appears to +be as high as Mount St. Catherine. It borders on the Wady Feiran and the +chain of Zebeir. + +[p.576] I took the following bearings, from the summit of Mount St. +Catherine. These, together with those which I took from the peak of Om +Shomar and from Serbal, and the distances and direction of my different +routes, will serve to construct a map of the peninsula more detailed and +accurate than any that has yet been published. + +El Djoze [Arabic], a rock distinguished by two peaks above that part of +Wady Feiran where the date groves are, N.W. b. N. + +Sarbout el Djemel [Arabic], the beginning of Djebel Tyh, N.W. 1/4 N. + +El Odjme, N. 1/2 E. + +El Fereya, a high mountain of the upper Sinai region, N.N.E. + +Zelka is in the same direction of N.N.E. It is a well, about one day’s +journey from the convent, on the upper route from the convent to Akaba, +which traverses the chain of Tyh. The stations in that road, beyond +Zelka, are, Ayn [Arabic], Hossey [Arabic], and Akaba. The bearing of Ayn +was pointed out to me N.E. b. N. + +The mountain over El Hadhra, a well which I passed on my road to Akaba, +N.E. 1/2 E. + +Senned, a secondary mountain between the upper Sinai and Hadhra, +bordering upon Wady Sal; extends from E.N.E. to N.E. + +Noweyba, E. We could not see the sea shore at Noweyba, but the high +mountains over it were very conspicuous. + +Wady Naszeb, on the northern road from Sherm to the convent, extended in +a direction S.E. to E.S.E. + + +Dahab, on the eastern gulf, E.S.E. + +Djebel Masaoud, a high mountain on the borders of the upper Sinai, S.E. +b. E. + +Wady Kyd, and the mountain over it, S.E. + +The Island of Tyran, S.S.E. 1/2 E. + +[p.577] Om Kheysyn [Arabic], a high mountain between Sherm and the +Sinai, S. 1/4 E. + +The direction of Sherm was pointed out to me, a little to the eastward +of south. + +Djebel Thomman [Arabic], a high peak, belonging to the mountains of Om +Shomar, a little distant from the Sinai, S. + +The peak of Om Shomar, S.S.W. + +El Koly [Arabic], a high peak of the upper Sinai, S.W. ½ S. At its foot +passes the road from the convent to Tor. + +The direction of Tor was pointed out to me S.W. The rocks of the upper +Sinai, which constitute the borders of it in that direction, are called +El Sheydek [Arabic]. + +El Nedhadhyh [Arabic], mountains likewise on the skirts of the upper +Sinai, W. 1/4 S. Madsous [Arabic], another peak of the upper Sinai, W. +1/4 N. + +Serbal, N.W. 1/2 W. The well El Morkha, lying near the Birket Faraoun, +in the common road from Tor to Suez, is in the same direction. + +Om Dhad [Arabic], N.W. This is the head of a Wady, called Wady Kebryt, +on the outside of the Sinai chain. + +Of the upper Sinai, the peaks of Djebel Mousa, of St. Catherine, of Om +Thoman, of Koly, and of Fereya are the highest. + +In making the preceding observations I was obliged to take out my +compass and pencil, which greatly surprised the Arabs, who, seeing me in +an Arab dress, and speaking their language, yet having the same pursuits +as the Frank travellers whom they had seen here, were quite at a loss +what to make of me. The suspicion was immediately excited, that I had +ascended this mountain to practise some enchantment, and it was much +increased by my further proceedings. The Bedouins supposed that I had +come to carry off the rain, and my return to Cairo was, in consequence, +much less agreeable than my journey from thence; indeed I might have +been subjected to + +EL LEDJA + +[p.578] some unpleasant occurrences had not the faithful Hamd been by my +side, who in the route back was of more service to me than all the +Firmahns of the Pasha could have been. + +We returned from Mount St. Catherine to the place where we had passed +the night, and breakfasted with the Djebalye, for which payment was +asked, and readily given. The conveying of pilgrims is one of the few +modes of subsistence which these poor people possess, and at a place +where strangers are continually passing, gratuitous hospitality is not +to be expected from them, though they might be ready to afford it to the +helpless traveller. The two days excursion to the holy places cost me +about forty piastres, or five dollars. + +Before mid-day we had again reached the convent El Erbayn, in the garden +of which I passed a most agreeable afternoon. The verdure was so +brilliant and the blossoms of the orange trees diffused so fine a +perfume that I was transported in imagination from the barren cliffs of +the wilderness to the luxurious groves of Antioch. It is surprising that +the Europeans resident at Cairo do not prefer spending the season of the +plague in these pleasant gardens, and this delightful climate, to +remaining close prisoners in the infected city. + +We returned in the evening to the convent, by following to the northward +the valley in which the Erbayn stands. This valley is very narrow, and +extremely stony, many large blocks having rolled from the mountains into +it; it is called El Ledja [Arabic], a name given to a similar rocky +district, described by me, in the Haouran. At twenty minutes walk from +the Erbayn we passed a block of granite, said to be the rock out of +which the water issued when struck by the rod of Moses. It lies quite +insulated by the side of the path, which is about ten feet higher than +the lowest bottom of the valley. The rock is about twelve feet in +height, of an irregular shape approaching to a cube. There are some +apertures upon its surface, through which the water is said to have +burst out; they are + +[p.579] about twenty in number, and lie nearly in a straight line round +the three sides of the stone. They are for the most part ten or twelve +inches long, two or three inches broad, and from one to two inches deep, +but a few of them are as deep as four inches. Every observer must be +convinced, on the slightest examination, that most of these fissures are +the work of art, but three or four perhaps are natural, and these may +have first drawn the attention of the monks to the stone, and have +induced them to call it the rock of the miraculous supply of water. +Besides the marks of art evident in the holes themselves, the spaces +between them have been chiselled, so as to make it appear as if the +stone had been worn in those parts by the action of the water; though it +cannot be doubted, that if water had flowed from the fissures it must +generally have taken quite a different direction. One traveller saw on +this stone twelve openings, answering to the number of the tribes of +Israel; [Breydenbach.] another [Sicard, Mémoires des Missions.] +describes the holes as a foot deep. They were probably told so by the +monks, and believed what they heard rather than what they saw. + +About one hundred and fifty paces farther on in the valley lies another +piece of rock, upon which it seems that the work of deception was first +begun, there being four or five apertures cut in it, similar to those on +the other block, but in a less finished state; as it is somewhat smaller +than the former, and lies in a less conspicuous part of the valley, +removed from the public path, the monks probably thought proper in +process of time to assign the miracle to the other. As the rock of Moses +has been described by travellers of the fifteenth century, the deception +must have originated among the monks of an earlier period. As to the +present inhabitants of the convent and of the peninsula, they must be +acquitted of any fraud respecting it, for they conscientiously believe +that it is the very rock from whence the water gushed forth. In this +part of + +[p.580] the peninsula the Israelites could not have suffered from +thirst: the upper Sinai is full of wells and springs, the greater part +of which are perennial; and on whichever side the pretended rock of +Moses is approached, copious sources are found within a quarter of an +hour of it. The rock is greatly venerated by the Bedouins, who put grass +into the fissures, as offerings to the memory of Moses, in the same +manner as they place grass upon the tombs of their saints, because grass +is to them the most precious gift of nature, and that upon which their +existence chiefly depends. They also bring hither their female camels, +for they believe that by making the animal couch down before the rock, +while they recite some prayers, and by putting fresh grass into the +fissures of the stone, the camels will become fertile, and yield an +abundance of milk. The superstition is encouraged by the monks, who +rejoice to see the infidel Bedouins venerating the same object with +themselves. + +Those who should attempt to weaken the faith of the monks and their +visitors respecting this rock, would be now almost as blameable as the +original authors of the imposture; for, such is the ignorance of the +oriental Christians, and the impossibility of their obtaining any +salutary instruction under the Turkish government, that were their faith +in such miracles completely shaken, their religion would soon be +entirely overthrown, and they would be left to wander in all the +darkness of Atheism. It is curious to observe the blindness with which +Christians as well as Turks believe in the pretended miracles of those +who are interested in deceiving them. There is hardly a town in Syria or +Egypt, where the Moslems have not a living saint, who works wonders, +which the whole population is ready to attest as eye-witnesses. When I +was at Damascus in 1812, some Christians returned thither from +Jerusalem, where they had been to celebrate Easter. Some striking +miracles said to have been performed by the Pope during his imprisonment +at Savona, and which had been industriously propagated by the + +[p.581] Latin priests in Syria, seem to have suggested to them the +design of imitating his Holiness: the returning pilgrims unanimously +declared, that when the Spanish priest of the convent of the Holy +Sepulchre read the mass on Easter Sunday or Monday, upon the Mount of +Olives, the whole assembled congregation saw him rise, while behind the +altar, two or three feet in the air, and support himself in that +position for several minutes, in giving the people his blessing. If any +Christian of Damascus had expressed his doubts of the truth of this +story, the monks of the convent there would have branded him with the +epithet of Framasoun (Freemason), which among the Syrian Christians is +synonymous with Atheist, and he would for ever have lost his character +among his brethren. + +A little farther down than the rock above described is shewn the seat of +Moses, where it is said that he often sat; it is a small and apparently +natural excavation in a granite rock, resembling a chair. Near this is +the “petrified pot or kettle of Moses” [Arabic], a name given to a +circular projecting knob in a rock, similar in size and shape to the lid +of a kettle. The Arabs have in vain endeavoured to break this rock, +which they suppose to contain great treasures. + +As we proceeded from the rock of the miraculous supply of water along +the valley El Ledja, I saw upon several blocks of granite, whose smooth +sides were turned towards the path, inscriptions similar to those at +Naszeb; the following were the most legible: + +1. Upon a small block: [not included] + +2. [not included] + +[p.582] + +3. [not included] There are many effaced lines on this block. + +4. Upon a rock near the stone of Moses: [not included] + +5. Upon a block close to the above: [not included] + +6. [not included] + +7. Upon the rock called the Pot: [not included] + +8. Upon a large insulated block of granite: [not included] + +EL BOSTAN + +[p.583] It is to be observed, that none of these inscriptions are found +higher up the valley than the water rock, being all upon blocks on the +way from thence to the convent, which seems to be a strong proof, that +they were inscribed by those persons only who came from the convent or +from Cairo, to visit the rock, and not by pilgrims in their way to the +mountain of Moses or of St. Catherine, who would undoubtedly have left +some record farther up the valley, and more particularly upon the sides +and summits of the mountains themselves: but I could there find no +inscriptions whatever, although I examined the ground closely, and saw +many smooth blocks by the road, very suitable to such inscriptions. + +At forty minutes walk from Erbayn, where the valley El Ledja opens into +the broad valley which leads eastwards to the convent, is a fine garden, +with the ruins of a small convent, called El Bostan; water is conducted +into it by a small channel from a spring in the Ledja. It was full of +apricot trees, and roses in full blossom. A few Djebalye live here and +take care of the garden. From hence to the convent is half an hour; in +the way is shewn the head of the golden calf, which the Israelites +worshipped, transmuted into stone. It is somewhat singular that both the +monks and the Bedouins call it the cow’s head (Ras el Bakar), and not +the calf’s, confounding it, perhaps, with the “red heifer,” of which the +Old Testament and the Koran speak. It is a stone half-buried in the +ground, and bears some resemblance to the forehead of a cow. Some +travellers have explained this stone to be the mould in which Aaron cast +the calf, though it is not hollow but projecting; the Arabs and monks +however gravely assured me that it was the “cow’s” head itself. Beyond +this object, towards the convent, a hill is pointed out to the left, +called Djebel Haroun, because it is believed to be the spot where Aaron +assembled the seventy elders of Israel. Both this and the cow’s head +have evidently received these denominations from + +CONVENT OF MOUNT SINAI + +[p.584] the monks and Bedouins, in order that they may multiply the +objects of veneration and curiosity within the pilgrim’s tour round the +convent. + +On my return to the convent I could not help expressing to several of +the monks my surprise at the metamorphosis of a calf into a cow, and of +an idol of gold into stone; but I found that they were too little read +in the books of Moses to understand even this simple question, and I +therefore did not press the subject. I believe there is not a single +individual amongst them, who has read the whole of the Old Testament; +nor do I think that among eastern Christians in general there is one in +a thousand, of those who can read, that has ever taken that trouble. +They content themselves, in general, with their prayer-books, liturgies, +and histories of saints; few of them read the gospels, though more do so +in Syria than in Egypt; the reading of the whole of the scripture is +discountenanced by the clergy; the wealthy seldom have the inclination +to prosecute the study of the Holy writings, and no others are able to +procure a manuscript copy of the Bible, or one printed in the two +establishments in Mount Libanus. The well meant endeavours of the Bible +Society in England to supply them with printed copies of the Scriptures +in Arabic, if not better directed than they have hitherto been, will +produce very little effect in these countries. The cost of such a copy, +trifling as it may seem in England, is a matter of importance to the +poor Christians of the east; the Society has, besides, chosen a version +which is not current in the east, where the Roman translation alone is +acknowledged by the Clergy, who easily make their flocks believe that +the Scriptures have been interpolated by the Protestants. It would, +perhaps, have been better if the Society, in the beginning at least, had +furnished the eastern Christians with cheap copies of the Gospels and +Psalms only, which being the books chiefly in use among them in +manuscript, + +[p.585] would have been not only useful to them, but more approved of by +the directors of their consciences, than the entire Scripture. Upon +Mohammedans, it is vain to expect that the reading of the present Arabic +version of the Bible should make the slightest impression. If any of +them were brought to conquer their inherent aversion to the book, they +could not read a page in it without being tired and disgusted with its +style. In the Koran they possess the purest and most elegant composition +in their language, the rhythmical prose of which, exclusive of the +sacred light in which they hold it, is alone sufficient to make a strong +impression upon them. The Arabic of the greater part of the Bible, on +the contrary, and especially that of the Gospels, is in the very worst +style; the books of Moses and the Psalms are somewhat better. +Grammatical rules, it is true, are observed, and chosen terms are +sometimes employed; but the phraseology and whole construction is +generally contrary to the spirit of the language, and so uncouth, harsh, +affected, and full of foreign idioms, that no Musselman scholar would be +tempted to prosecute the study of it, and a few only would thoroughly +understand it. In style and phraseology it differs from the Koran more +than the monkish Latin from the orations of Cicero. + +I will not take upon me to declare how far the Roman and the Society’s +Arabic translation of the Old Testament are defective, being unable to +read the original Hebrew text; but I can affirm that they both disagree, +in many instances, from the English translation. The Christians of the +East, who will seldom read any book written by a Moslem, and to whom an +accurate knowledge of Arabic and of the best writers in that language +are consequently unknown, are perfectly satisfied with the style of the +Roman version which is in use among them; it is for the sake of perusing +it that they undertake a grammatical study of the Arabic language, and +their priests and + +[p.586] learned men usually make it the model of their own style; they +would be unwilling therefore to admit any other translation; and there +is not, at present, either in Syria or in Egypt any Christian priest so +bold and so learned as Bishop Germanus Ferhat of Aleppo, who openly +expressed his dislike of this translation, and had declared his +intention of altering it himself, for which, and other reasons, he was +branded with the epithet of heretic. For Arab Christians, therefore, the +Roman translation will not easily be superseded, and if Mussulmans are +to be tempted to study the Scriptures, they must be clothed in more +agreeable language, than that which has lately been presented to them, +for they are the last people upon whom precepts conveyed in rude +language will have any effect. + +In the present state of western Asia, however, the conversion of +Mohammedans is very difficult; I have heard only of one instance during +the last century, and the convert was immediately shipped off to Europe. +On the other hand, should an European power ever obtain a firm footing +in Egypt, it is probable that many years would not elapse before +thousands of Moslems would profess Christianity; not from the dictates +of their conscience or judgment, but from views of worldly interest. + +I was cordially greeted on my return to the convent, by the monks and +the fatherly Ikonómos, one of the best-natured churchmen I have met with +in the East. The safe return of pilgrims from the holy mountains is +always a subject of gratulation, so great is their dread of the Arabs. I +rested the following day in the convent, where several Greeks from Tor +and Suez had arrived; being friends of the monks, they were invited in +the evening to the private apartments of the latter, where they were +plied so bountifully with brandy that they all retired tipsy to bed. + +Several Bedouins had acquainted me that a thundering noise, + +WADY OWASZ + +[p.587] like repeated discharges of heavy artillery, is heard at times +in these mountains; and they all affirmed that it came from Om Shomar. +The monks corroborated the story, and even positively asserted that they +had heard the sound about mid-day, five years ago, describing it in the +same manner as the Bedouins. The same noise had been heard in more +remote times, and the Ikonómos, who has lived here forty years, told me +that he remembered to have heard the noise at four or five separate +periods. I enquired whether any shock of an earthquake had ever been +felt on such occasions, but was answered in the negative. Wishing to +ascertain the truth, I prepared to visit the mountain of Om Shomar. + +As I had lost much of the confidence of the Bedouins by writing upon the +mountains, and could not intimidate them by shewing a passport from the +Pasha, I kept my intended journey secret, and concerting matters with +Hamd and two Djebalye, I was let down from the window of the convent a +little before midnight on the 23rd of May, and found my guides well +armed and in readiness below. We proceeded by Wady Sebaye, the same road +I had come from Sherm. In this Wady, tradition says, the Israelites +gained the victory over the Amalekites, which was obtained by the +holding up of the hands of Moses (Ex. xvii. 12.), but this battle was +fought in Raphidim, where the water gushed out from the rock, a +situation which appears to have been to the westward of the convent, on +the approach from the gulf of Suez. + +I was much disappointed at being able to trace so very few of the +ancient Hebrew names of the Old Testament in the modern names of the +peninsula; but it is evident that, with the exception of Sinai and a few +others, they are all of Arabic derivation. + +On a descent from the summit of Wady Sebaye, at an hour and a half from +the convent, we turned to the right from the road to Sherm, and entered +Wady Owasz [Arabic], in a direction + +WADY RAHABA + +[p.588] S. b. W. I found here a small chain of white and red sand-stone +hills in the midst of granite. The morning was so very cold that we were +obliged to stop and light a fire, round which we sat till sunrise; my +feet and hands were absolutely benumbed, for neither gloves or stockings +are in fashion among Bedouins. We continued in the valley, crossing +several hills, till at four hours and a half we reached Wady Rahaba +[Arabic], in the lower parts of which we had passed a very rainy night +on the 17th. Rahaba is one of the principal valleys on this side of the +peninsula; it is broad, and affords good pasturage. We halted under a +granite rock in the middle of it, close by about a dozen small +buildings, which are called by the Bedouins Makhsen (magazines), and +which serve them as a place of deposit for their provision, clothes, +money, &c. As Bedouins are continually moving about, they find it +inconvenient to carry with them what they do not constantly want; they +therefore leave whatever they have not immediate need of in these +magazines, to which they repair as occasion requires. Almost every +Bedouin in easy circumstances has one of them; I have met with them in +several parts of the mountains, always in clusters of ten or twenty +together. They are at most ten feet high, generally about ten or twelve +feet square, constructed with loose stones, covered with the trunks of +date trees, and closed with a wooden door and lock. These buildings are +altogether so slight, and the doors so insecure, that a stone would be +sufficient to break them open; no watchmen are left to guard them, and +they are in such solitary spots that they might easily be plundered in +the night, without the thief being ever discovered. But such is the good +faith of the Towara towards each other, that robberies of this kind are +almost unheard of; and their Sheikh Szaleh, whose magazine is well known +to contain fine dresses, shawls, and dollars, considers his property as +safe there as it would be in the best + +OM SHOMAR + +[p.589] secured building in a large town. The Towara are well entitled +to pride themselves on this trait in their character; for I found +nothing similar to it among other Bedouins. The only instance upon +record of a magazine having been plundered among them, is that mentioned +in page 475, for which the robber’s own father inflicted the punishment +of death. + +We continued our route in a side branch of the Rababa, till at the end +of five hours and a half, we ascended a mountain, and then descended +into a narrow valley, or rather cleft, between the rocks, called Bereika +[Arabic]. The camel which I rode not being able to proceed farther on +account of the rocky road, I left it here in charge of one of the +Djebalye. This part of Sinai was completely parched up, no rain having +fallen in it during the last winter. W.S.W. from hence, on entering a +narrow pass called Wady Zereigye [Arabic], we found the ground moist, +there being a small well, but almost dried up; it would have cost us +some time to dig it up to obtain water, which no longer rose above the +surface, though it still maintained some verdure around it. This defile +was thickly overgrown with fennel, three or four feet high; the Bedouins +eat the stalks raw, and pretend that it cools the blood. Farther down we +came to two copious springs, most picturesquely situated among the +rocks, being overshaded by large wild fig-trees, a great number of which +grow in other parts of this district. We descended the Zereigye by +windings, and at the end of eight hours reached its lowest extremity, +where it joins a narrow valley extending along the foot of Om Shomar, +the almost perpendicular cliffs of which now stood before us. The +country around is the wildest I had yet seen in these mountains; the +devastations of torrents are every where visible, the sides of the +mountains being rent by them in numberless directions; the surface of +the sharp rocks is blackened by the sun; all vegetation is dry and +withered; and the whole + +[p.590] scene presents nothing but utter desolation and hopeless +barrenness. + +We ascended S.E. in the valley of Shomar, winding round the foot of the +mountain for about an hour, till we reached the well of Romhan [Arabic], +at nine hours from the convent, where we rested. This is a fine spring; +high grass grows in the narrow pass near it, with several date-trees and +a gigantic fig-tree. Just above the well, on the side of the mountain, +are the ruins of a convent, called Deir Antous; it was inhabited in the +beginning of the last century, and according to the monks, it was the +last convent abandoned by them. I found it mentioned in records of the +fifteenth century in the convent; it was then one of the principal +settlements, and caravans of asses laden with corn and other provisions +passed by this place regularly from the convent to Tor, for this is the +nearest road to that harbour, though it is more difficult than the more +western route, which is now usually followed. The convent consisted of a +small solid building, constructed with blocks of granite. I was told +that date plantations are found higher up in the valley of Romhan, and +that the monks formerly had their gardens there, of which some of the +fruit trees still remain. + +May 24th.—Early this morning I took Hamd with me to climb the Om Shomar, +while the other man went with his gun in pursuit of some mountain-goats +which he had seen yesterday at sunset upon the summit of a neighbouring +mountain; he was accompanied by another Djebalye, whom we had met by +chance. I had promised them a good reward if they should kill a goat, +for I did not wish to have them near me, when examining the rocks upon +the mountain. It took me an hour and a half to reach the top of Shomar, +and I employed three hours in visiting separately all the surrounding +heights, but I could no where find the slightest traces of a volcano, or +of any volcanic productions, which I have not observed in any part of + +[p.591] the upper Sinai. Om Shomar consists of granite, the lower +stratum is red, that at the top is almost white, so as to appear from a +distance like chalk; this arises from the large proportion of white +feldspath in it, and the smallness of the particles of hornblende and +mica. In the middle of the mountain, between the granite rocks, I found +broad strata of brittle black slate, mixed with layers of quartz and +feldspath, and with micaceous schistus. The quartz includes thin strata +of mica of the most brilliant white colour, which is quite dazzling in +the sun, and forms a striking contrast with the blackened surface of the +slate and red granite. + +The mountain of Om Shomar rises to a sharp-pointed peak, the highest +summit of which, it is, I believe, impossible to reach; the sides being +almost perpendicular, and the rock so smooth, as to afford no hold to +the foot. I halted at about two hundred feet below it, where a beautiful +view opened upon the sea of Suez, and the neighbourhood of Tor, which +place was distinctly visible; at our feet extended the wide plain El +Kaa. The southern side of this mountain is very abrupt, and there is no +secondary chain, like those on the descent from Sinai to the sea, in +every other direction. I have already mentioned the low chain called +Hemam, which separates the Kaa from the gulf of Suez. In this chain, +about five hours from Tor, northward, is the Djebel Nakous, or mountain +of the Bell. On its side next the sea a mass of very fine sand, which +has collected there, rushes down at times, and occasions a hollow sound, +of which the Bedouins relate many stories; they compare it to the +ringing of bells, and a fable is repeated among them, that the bells +belong to a convent buried under the sands. The wind and weather are not +believed to have any effect upon the sound. + +Bearings from Om Shomar. + +Tor, W.1.S. The usual road to Tor from the upper Sinai lies through the +valley of El Ghor [Arabic], not far distant to the N.W. + +WADY RAHABA + +[p.592] of Shomar; to the south of El Ghor extends the chain of Djed el +Aali [Arabic]; and another valley called El Shedek [Arabic], entered +from the Ghor, leads towards the lower plain + +Djebel Serbal, N. 1/4 W. + +The Djoze, over Feiran, N. 1/2 W. + +Om Dhad, N.N.W. + +Fera Soweyd [Arabic], a high mountain between Om Shomar and Mount St. +Catherine, N. b. E. It forms one range with the peak of Koly, which +branches of from hence, N.E. b. N. + +Mountain of Masaoud, E. + +Mountain over Wady Kyd, E. 1/4 S. + + +We took a breakfast after our return to Romhan, and then descended by +the same way we had come. In re-ascending Wady Zereigye we heard the +report of a gun, and were soon after gratified by seeing our huntsman +arrive at the place where we had left our camel, with a fine mountain +goat. Immediately on killing it he had skinned it, taken out the +entrails, and then put the carcase again into the skin, carrying it on +his back, with the skin of the legs tied across his breast. No butcher +in Europe can surpass a Bedouin in skinning an animal quickly; I have +seen them strip a camel in less than a quarter of an hour; the entrails +are very seldom thrown away; if water is at hand, they are washed, if +not, they are roasted over the fire without washing; the liver and lungs +of all animals are usually eaten raw, and many of the hungry bystanders +are seen swallowing raw pieces of flesh. After a hearty dinner we +descended, by a different path from that we had ascended, into the upper +part of Wady Rahaba, in which we continued N.E. b. E. for two or three +hours, when we halted at a well called Merdoud [Arabic], at a little +distance from several plantations of fruittrees. + +My departure from the convent had roused the suspicions of the Bedouins; +they had learnt that I was going to Om Shomar, and + +WADY OWASZ + +[p.593] two of them set out this morning by different routes, in order +to intercept my return, intending no doubt to excite a quarrel with me +respecting my visits to their mountains, in the hope of extorting money +from me. We met one of them at this well, and he talked as loud and was +as boisterous as if I had killed some of his kindred, or robbed his +tent. After allowing him to vent his rage for half an hour, I began to +speak to him in a very lofty tone, of my own importance at Cairo, and of +my friendship with the Pasha; concluding by telling him, that the next +time he went to Cairo I would have his camel seized by the soldiers. +When he found that he could not intimidate me, he accepted of my +invitation to be our guest for the night, and went in search of a +neighbouring friend of his, who brought us an earthen pot, in which we +cooked the goat. + +May 25th.—At one hour below Merdoud we again fell in with Wady Owasz, +and returned by the former road to the convent. The monks were in the +greatest anxiety about me, for the Bedouins who had gone in search of +me, had sworn that they would shoot me; and had even refused a small +present offered to them by the Ikonómos to pacify them, expecting, no +doubt, to obtain much more from myself; but they now returned, and +obliged him to give them what he had offered them, pretending that it +was for his sake only that they had spared my life; nor would the monks +believe me when I assured them that I had been in no danger on this +occasion. + +I passed the following four days in the convent, and in several gardens +and settlements of Djebalye at a little distance from it. I took this +opportunity to look over some of the records of the convent which are +written in Arabic, and I extracted several interesting documents +relative to the state of the Bedouins in former times, and their affrays +with the monks. In one, of the last century, is a + +CONVENT OF MOUNT SINAI + +[p.594] list of the Ghafeyrs of the convent, not belonging to the +Towara. These are, + +El Rebabein [Arabic], a small tribe belonging to the great Djeheyne +tribe of the Hedjaz; a few families of the Rebabein have settled at +Moeleh on the Arabian coast, and in the small villages in the vicinity +of Tor. They serve as pilots in that part of the Red sea, and protect +the convent’s property about Tor. + +El Heywat [Arabic], El Syayhe [Arabic], are small tribes living east of +Akaba, among the dwelling-places of the Omran. El Reteymat [Arabic], a +tribe about Ghaza and Hebron. El Omarein, or Omran. El Hokouk [Arabic], +the principal tribe of he Tyaha. El Mesayd [Arabic], a small tribe of +the Sherkieh province of Egypt. El Alowein, a strong tribe north of +Akaba. El Sowareka [Arabic], in the desert between Sinai and Ghaza. El +Terabein. El Howeytat. Oulad el Fokora [Arabic], the principal branch of +the tribe of Wahydat near Ghaza. Individuals of all these tribes are +entitled to small yearly stipends and some clothing, and are bound to +recover the property of the monks, when seized by any persons of their +respective tribes. In one of the manuscripts I found the name of a +Ghafeyr called Shamoul (Samuel), a Hebrew name I had never before met +with among Arabs. + +On the 29th, I was visited by Hassan Ibn Amer [Arabic], the Sheikh of +the Oulad Said, who is also one of the two principal Sheiks of the +Towara, and in whose tent I had slept one night in my way to the +convent. He begged me to lend him twenty dollars, which he promised to +repay me at Cairo, as he wished to buy some sheep to be killed on the +following day in honour of the saint Sheikh Szaleh. I told him that I +never lent money to any body, but would willingly have made him a +present of the sum if I had possessed it. He then said in many words, +that if it had not been for his interference, the Bedouins would have +waylaid and + +[p.595] killed me in returning from Djebel Katerin. I told him that he +and his tribe would have been responsible to the Pasha of Egypt for such +an act; and in short that I never paid any tribute in the Pasha’s +dominions. It ended by my giving him a few pounds of coffeebeans, +wrapped up in a good handkerchief, a few squares of soap, and a loaf of +sugar, to present to his women, and thus we parted good friends. In the +evening his brother came and also received a few trifles. He had brought +a fat sheep to kill in honour of El Khoudher (St. George), a saint of +the first class among Bedouins, and to whose intercession he thought +himself indebted for the recovery of the health of his young wife. In +the convent, adjoining to the outer wall, is a chapel dedicated to St. +George; the Bedouins, who are not permitted to enter the convent, +address their vows and prayers to him on the outside, just below the +chapel. I was invited to partake of the repast prepared by the brother +of Sheikh Hassan, and much against the advice of the monks, I let myself +down the rope from the window, and sat below for several hours with the +Arabs. + +I was invited also to the great feast of Sheikh Szaleh, in Wady Szaleh, +which was to take place on the morrow, but as I knew that Szaleh, the +great chief of the Towara, was to be there, and would no doubt press me +hardly by his inquiries why I had come without the Pasha’s Firmahn; and +as the Arabs were greatly exasperated against me for my late excursion +to Om Shomar in addition to other causes of displeasure, I thought it +very probable that I might be insulted amongst them, and I therefore +determined to seize the opportunity of this general assembly in Wady +Szaleh to begin my journey to Cairo; by so doing, I should also escape +the disagreeable necessity of having Bedouin guides forced upon me. I +engaged Hamd and his brother with two camels, and left the convent +before dawn on the 30th, after having taken a farewell + +NAKB EL RAHA + +[p.596] of the monks, and especially of the worthy Ikonómos, who +presented me at parting with a leopard’s skin, which he had lately +bought of the Bedouins; together with several fine specimens of rock +crystals, and a few small pieces of native cinnabar [Arabic]. The +crystals are collected by the Arabs in one of the mountains not far +distant from the convent, but in which of them I did not learn; I have +seen some six inches in length, and one and a half in breadth; the +greater part are of a smoky colour, with pyramidal tops. The cinnabar is +said, by the Bedouins, to be found in great quantities upon Djebel +Sheyger [Arabic], a few hours to the N.E. of Wady Osh, the valley in +which I slept, at an Arab encampment, two nights before I arrived at the +convent from Suez. + +May 30th.—We issued from the narrow valley in which the convent stands, +into a broader one, or rather a plain, called El Raha, leaving on our +right the road by which I first reached the convent. We continued in El +Raha N.N.W. for an hour and an half, when we came to an ascent called +Nakb el Raha [Arabic], the top of which we reached in two hours from the +convent. I had chosen this route, which is the most southern from the +convent to Suez, in order to see Wady Feiran, and to ascend from thence +the mountain Serbal, which, with Mount Saint Catherine and Shomar, is +the highest peak in the peninsula. I had mentioned my intention to Hamd, +who it appears communicated it this morning to his brother, for the +latter left us abruptly at Nakb el Raha, saying that he had forgot his +gun, giving his camel in charge to Hamd, and promising to join us lower +down, as his tent was not far distant. Instead, however, of going home, +he ran straight to the Arabs assembled at Sheikh Szaleh, and acquainted +them with my designs. Their chiefs immediately dispatched a messenger to +Feiran to enjoin the people there to prevent me from ascending Serbal; +but, + +WADY SOLAF + +[p.597] fortunately, I was already on my way to the mountain when the +messenger reached Feiran, and on my return I had only to encounter the +clamorous and now fruitless expostulations of the Arabs at that place. + +We began to descend from the top of Nakb el Raha, by a narrow chasm, the +bed of a winter torrent; direction N.W. by N. At the end of two hours +and a quarter we halted near a spring called Kanaytar [Arabic]. Upon +several blocks near it I saw inscriptions in the same character as those +which I had before seen, but they were so much effaced as to be no +longer legible. I believe it was in these parts that Niebuhr copied the +inscriptions given in plate 49 of his Voyage. From the spring the +descent was steep; in many parts I found the road paved, which must have +been a work of considerable labour, and I was told that it had been done +in former times at the expense of the convent. This road is the only one +passable for camels, with the exception of the defile in which is the +seat of Moses, in the way from the upper Sinai towards Suez. At three +hours and three quarters from the convent we reached the foot of this +mountain, which is bordered by a broad, gravelly valley. This is the +boundary of the upper mountains of Sinai on this side; they extended in +an almost perpendicular range on our right towards Wady Szaleh, and on +our left in the direction W.N.W. We now entered Wady Solaf [Arabic], +“the valley of wine,” coming from the N. or N.E. which here separates +the upper Sinai range from the lower. At five hours we passed, to our +right, a Wady coming from the north, called Abou Taleb [Arabic], at the +upper extremity of which is the tomb of the saint Abou Taleb, which the +Bedouins often visit, and where there is an annual festival, like that +of Sheikh Szaleh, but less numerously attended. Our road continued +through slightly descending, sandy valleys; at the end of five hours and +a quarter, after having + +[p.598] passed several encampments without stopping, we turned N. by W. +where a lateral valley branches off towards the sea shore, and +communicates with the valley of Hebran, which divides the upper Sinai +from the Serbal chain. Wady Hebran contains considerable date- +plantations and gardens, and this valley and Wady Feiran are the most +abundant in water of all the Wadys of the lower country. A route from +the convent to Tor passes through Wady Hebran, which is longer than the +usual one, but easier for beasts of burthen. + +At six hours and three quarters we halted in Wady Solaf, as I found +myself somewhat feverish, and in want of repose. We saw great numbers of +red-legged partridges this day; they run with astonishing celerity along +the rocky sides of the mountains, and as the Bedouins do not like to +expend a cartridge upon so small a bird, they are very bold. When we +lighted our fire in the evening, I was startled by the cries of Hamd “to +take care of the venemous animal!” I then saw him kill a reptile like a +spider, to which the Bedouins give the name of Abou Hanakein [Arabic], +or the two-mouthed; hanak meaning, in their dialect, mouth. It was about +four inches and a half in length, of which the body was three inches; it +has five long legs on both sides, covered, like the body, with setae of +a light yellow colour; the head is long and pointed, with large black +eyes; the mouth is armed with two pairs of fangs one above the other, +recurved, and extremely sharp. Hamd told me that it never makes its +appearance but at night, and is principally attracted by fire; indeed I +saw three others during this journey, and always near the evening fire. +The Bedouins entertain the greatest dread of them; they say that their +bite, if not always mortal, produces a great swelling, almost instant +vomiting, and the most excruciating pains. I believe this to be the +Galeode phalangiste, + +WADY RYMM + +[p.599] at least it exactly resembles the drawing of that animal, given +by Olivier in his Travels, pl. 42-4. + +May 31st.—A good night’s rest completely removed my feverish symptoms. +Fatigue and a check of perspiration often produce slight fevers in the +desert, which I generally cured by lying down near the fire, and drawing +my mantle over my head, as the Bedouins always do at night. The +Bedouins, before they go to rest, usually undress themselves entirely, +and lie down quite naked upon a sheep’s skin, which they carry for the +purpose; they then cover themselves with every garment which they happen +to have with them. Even in the hottest season they always cover the head +and face when sleeping, not only at night but also during the mid-day +hours. + +We continued in Wady Solaf, which was entirely parched up, for an hour +and three quarters, and passed to the left a narrower valley called Wady +Keyfa [Arabic], coming from the Serbal mountains. At two hours we passed +Wady Rymm [Arabic], which also comes from the same chain, and joins the +Solaf; from thence we issued, at three hours, into the Wady el Sheik, +the great valley of the western Sinai, which collects the torrents of a +great number of smaller Wadys. There is not the smallest opening into +these mountains, nor the slightest projection from them, that has not +its name; but these names are known only to the Bedouins who are in the +habit of encamping in the neighbourhood, while the more distant Bedouins +are acquainted only with the names of the principal mountains and +valleys. I have already mentioned several times the Wady el Sheikh; I +found it here of the same noble breadth as it is above, and in many +parts it was thickly overgrown with the tamarisk or Tarfa; it is the +only valley in the peninsula where this tree grows, at present, in any +great quantity, though small bushes of it are here and there met with in +other parts. It is from the Tarfa that the manna is obtained, and it is +very strange that the fact should have remained unknown + +WADY EL SHEIKH + +[p.600] in Europe, till M. Seetzen mentioned it in a brief notice of his +tour to Sinai, published in the Mines de l’Orient. This substance is +called by the Bedouins, Mann [Arabic], and accurately resembles the +description of Manna given in the Scriptures. In the month of June it +drops from the thorns of the tamarisk upon the fallen twigs, leaves, and +thorns which always cover the ground beneath that tree in the natural +state; the manna is collected before sunrise, when it is coagulated, but +it dissolves as soon as the sun shines upon it. The Arabs clean away the +leaves, dirt, &c. which adhere to it, boil it, strain it through a +coarse piece of cloth, and put it into leathern skins; in this way they +preserve it till the following year, and use it as they do honey, to +pour over their unleavened bread, or to dip their bread into. I could +not learn that they ever make it into cakes or loaves. The manna is +found only in years when copious rains have fallen; sometimes it is not +produced at all, as will probably happen this year. I saw none of it +among the Arabs, but I obtained a small piece of last year’s produce, in +the convent; where having been kept in the cool shade and moderate +temperature of that place, it had become quite solid, and formed a small +cake; it became soft when kept sometime in the hand; if placed in the +sun for five minutes it dissolved; but when restored to a cool place it +became solid again in a quarter of an hour. In the season, at which the +Arabs gather it, it never acquires that state of hardness which will +allow of its being pounded, as the Israelites are said to have done in +Numbers, xi. 8. Its colour is a dirty yellow, and the piece which I saw +was still mixed with bits of tamarisk leaves: its taste is agreeable, +somewhat aromatic, and as sweet as honey. If eaten in any considerable +quantity it is said to be slightly purgative. + +The quantity of manna collected at present, even in seasons when the +most copious rains fall, is very trifling, perhaps not amounting to more +than five or six hundred pounds. It is entirely consumed + +[p.601] among the Bedouins, who consider it the greatest dainty which +their country affords. The harvest is usually in June, and lasts for +about six weeks; sometimes it begins in May. There are only particular +parts of the Wady Sheikh that produce the tamarisk; but it is also said +to grow in Wady Naszeb, the fertile valley to the S.E. of the convent, +on the road from thence to Sherm. + +In Nubia and in every part of Arabia the tamarisk is one of the most +common trees; on the Euphrates, on the Astaboras, in all the valleys of +the Hedjaz, and the Bedja, it grows in great plenty, but I never heard +of its producing manna except in Mount Sinai; it is true I made no +inquiries on the subject elsewhere, and should not, perhaps, have learnt +the fact here, had I not asked repeated questions respecting the manna, +with a view to an explanation of the Scriptures. The tamarisk abounds +more in juices than any other tree of the desert, for it retains its +vigour when every vegetable production around it is withered, and never +loses its verdure till it dies. It has been remarked by Niebuhr, (who, +with his accustomed candour and veracity says, that during his journey +to Sinai he forgot to enquire after the manna), that in Mesopotamia +manna is produced by several trees of the oak species; a similar fact +was confirmed to me by the son of the Turkish lady, mentioned in a +preceding page, who had passed the greater part of his youth at Erzerum +in Asia Minor; he told me that at Moush, a town three or four days +distant from Erzerum, a substance is collected from the tree which +produces the galls, exactly similar to the manna of the peninsula, in +taste and consistence, and that it is used by the inhabitants instead of +honey. We descended the Wady el Sheikh N.W. by W. Upon several +projecting rocks of the mountain I saw small stone huts, which Hamd told +me were the work of infidels in ancient times; they were + +WADY FEIRAN + +[p.602] probably the cells of the hermits of Sinai. Their construction +is similar to that of the magazines already mentioned, but the stones +although uncemented, are more carefully placed in the walls, and have +thus resisted the force of torrents. Upon the summits of three different +mountains to the right were small ruined towers, originally perhaps, +chapels, dependant on the episcopal see of Feiran. In descending the +valley the mountains on both sides approach so near, that a defile of +only fifteen or twenty feet across is left; beyond this they again +diverge, when a range of the same hills of Tafel, or yellow pipe-clay +are seen, which I observed in the higher parts of this Wady. At the end +of four hours we entered the plantations of Wady Feiran [Arabic], +through a wood of tamarisks, and halted at a small date-garden belonging +to my guide Hamd. Wady Feiran is a continuation of Wady el Sheikh, and +is considered the finest valley in the whole peninsula. From the upper +extremity, where we alighted, an uninterrupted row of gardens and date- +plantations extends downwards for four miles. In almost every garden is +a well, by means of which the grounds are irrigated the whole year +round, exactly in the same manner as those in the Hedjaz above Szafra +and Djedeyde. Among the date-trees are small huts where reside the Tebna +Arabs, a branch of the Djebalye, who serve as gardeners to the Towara +Bedouins, especially to the Szowaleha, who are the owners of the ground; +they take one-third of the fruit for their labour. The owners seldom +visit the place, except in the date harvest, when the valley is filled +with people for a month or six weeks; at that season they erect huts of +palm-branches, and pass their time in conviviality, receiving visits, +and treating their guests with dates. The best species of these is +called Djamya [Arabic], of which the monks send large boxes annually to +Constantinople as presents, after having taken out the stone of the +date, and put an almond in its place. The + +[p.603] Nebek (Rhamnus Lotus), the fruit of which is a favourite food of +the Bedouins, grows also in considerable quantity at Wady Feiran. They +grind the dried fruit together with the stone, and preserve the meal, +called by them Bsyse [Arabic], in leathern skins, in the same manner as +the Nubian Bedouins do. It is an excellent provision for journeying in +the desert, for it requires only the addition of butter-milk to make a +most nourishing, agreeable, and refreshing diet. + +The Tebna cultivators are very poor; they possess little or no landed +property, and are continually annoyed by visits from the Bedouins, whom +they are under the necessity of receiving with hospitality. Their only +profitable branch of culture is tobacco, of which they raise +considerable quantities; it is of the same species as that grown in the +mountains of Arabia Petraea, about Wady Mousa and Kerek, which retains +its green colour even when dry. It is very strong, and esteemed for this +quality by the Towara Bedouins, who are all great consumers of tobacco, +and who are chiefly supplied with it from Wady Feiran; they either smoke +it, or chew it mixed with natron or with salt. Tobacco has acquired here +such a currency in trade, that the Tebna buy and sell minor articles +among themselves by the Mud or measure of tobacco. The other vegetable +productions of the valley are cucumbers, gourds, melons, hemp for +smoking, onions, a few Badendjans, and a few carob trees. As for apple, +pear, or apricot trees, &c. they grow only in the elevated regions of +the upper Sinai, where in different spots are about thirty or forty +plantations of fruit trees; in a very few places wheat and barley are +sown, but the crops are so thin that they hardly repay the labour of +cultivation, although the cultivator has the full produce without any +deduction. The soil is every where so stony, that it is impossible to +make it produce corn sufficient for even the smallest Arab tribe. + +WADY ERTAMA + +[p.604] The narrowness of the valley of Feiran, which is not more than +an hundred paces across, the high mountains on each side, and the thick +woods of date-trees, render the heat extremely oppressive, and the +unhealthiness of the situation is increased by the badness of the water. +The Tebna are far from being as robust and healthy as their neighbours, +and in spring and summer dangerous fevers reign here. The few among them +who have cattle, live during those seasons under tents in the mountains, +leaving a few persons in care of the trees. + +As Mount Serbal forms a very prominent feature in the topography of the +peninsula, I was determined if possible to visit it, and Hamd having +never been at the top of it, I was under the necessity of inquiring for +a guide. None of the Tebna present knew the road, but I found a young +man who guided us to the tent of a Djebalye, which was pitched in the +lower heights of Serbal, and who being a great sportsman, was known to +have often ascended the mountain. Leaving the servant with the camels, I +set out in the evening on foot with Hamd and the guide, carrying nothing +with us but some butter-milk in a small skin, together with some meal, +and ground Nebek, enough to last us for two days. We ascended Wady el +Sheikh for about three quarters of an hour, and then turned to the +right, up a narrow valley called Wady Ertama [Arabic] in the higher part +of which a few date-trees grow. In crossing over a steep ascent at its +upper extremity, I met with several inscriptions on insulated blocks, +consisting only of one line in the usual ancient character; but I did +not copy them, being desirous to conceal from my new guide that I was a +writing man, as it might have induced him to dissuade the Arabs in the +mountains from accompanying me farther up. On the other side of this +ascent we fell in with Wady Rymm, which I have already mentioned, and +found here + +MOUNT SERBAL + +[p.605] the ruins of a small village, the houses of which were built +entirely with hewn stone, in a very solid manner. Some remains of the +foundations of a large edifice are traceable; a little lower down in the +valley are some date trees, with a well, which probably was the first +cause of building a village in this deserted spot, for the whole country +round is a wilderness of rocks, and the valley itself is not like those +below, flat and sandy, but covered with large stones which have been +washed down by torrents. From hence an ascent of half an hour brought us +to the Djebalye Arab, who was of the Sattala tribe: he had pitched here +two tents, in one of which lived his own, and in the other his son’s +family; he spent the whole day in hunting, while the women and younger +children took care of the cattle, which found good pasturage among the +rocks. It was near sunset when we arrived, and the man was rather +startled at our visit, though he received us kindly, and soon brought us +a plentiful supper. When I asked him if he would show me the way to the +summit of the Serbal, which was now directly before us, he expressed +great astonishment, and no doubt immediately conceived the notion that I +had come to search for treasures, which appears the more probable to +these Bedouins, as they know that the country was formerly inhabited by +rich monks. Prepossessed with this idea, and knowing that nobody then +present was acquainted with the road, except himself, he thought he +might demand a most exorbitant sum from me. He declined making any +immediate bargain, and said that he would settle it the next morning. + +June 1st.—We rose before daylight, when the Djebalye made coffee, and +then told me, that he could not think of accompanying me for less than +sixty piastres. As the whole journey was to last only till the evening, +and I knew that for one piastre any of these Bedouins will run about the +mountains on messages for a + +[p.606] whole day, I offered him three piastres, but he was inflexible, +and replied, that were it not for his friendship for Hamd, he would not +take less than a hundred piastres. I rose to eight piastres, but on his +smiling, and shrugging up his shoulders at this, I rose, and declared +that we would try our luck alone. + +We took our guns and our provision sack, filled our water skin at a +neighbouring well, called Ain Rymm [Arabic], and began ascending the +mountain straight before us. I soon began to wish that I had come to +some terms with the Djebalye; we walked over sharp rocks without any +path, till we came to the almost perpendicular side of the upper Serbal, +which we ascended in a narrow difficult cleft. The day grew excessively +hot, not a breath of wind was stirring, and it took us four hours to +climb up to the lower summit of the mountain, where I arrived completely +exhausted. Here is a small plain with some trees, and the ruins of a +small stone reservoir for water. On several blocks of granite are +inscriptions, but most of them are illegible; I copied the two +following: [not included]. + +After reposing a little, I ascended the eastern peak, which was to our +left hand, and reached its top in three quarters of an hour, after great +exertions, for the rock is so smooth and slippery, as well as steep, +that even barefooted as I was, I was obliged frequently to crawl + +[p.607] upon my belly, to avoid being precipitated below; and had I not +casually met with a few shrubs to grasp, I should probably have been +obliged to abandon my attempt, or have rolled down the cliff. The summit +of the eastern peak consists of one enormous mass of granite, the +smoothness of which is broken only by a few partial fissures, presenting +an appearance not unlike the ice-covered peaks of the Alps. The sides of +the peak, at a few paces below its top, are formed of large insulated +blocks twenty or thirty feet long, which appeared as if just suspended, +in the act of rushing down the steep. Near the top I found steps +regularly formed with large loose stones, which must have been brought +from below, and so judiciously arranged along the declivity, that they +have resisted the devastations of time, and may still serve for +ascending. I was told afterwards that these steps are the continuation +of a regular path from the bottom of the mountain; which is in several +parts cut through the rock with great labour. If we had had the guide, +we should have ascended by this road, which turns along the southern and +eastern side of Serbal. The mountain has in all five peaks; the two +highest are that to the east, which I ascended, and another immediately +west of it; these rise like cones, and are distinguishable from a great +distance, particularly on the road to Cairo. + +The eastern peak, which from below looks as sharp as a needle, has a +platform on its summit of about fifty paces in circumference. Here is a +heap of small loose stones, about two feet high, forming a circle about +twelve paces in diameter. Just below the top I found on every granite +block that presented a smooth surface, inscriptions, the far greater +part of which were illegible. I copied the three following, from +different blocks; the characters of the first are a foot long. Upon the +rock from which I copied the third there were a great many others; but +very few were legible. + +[p.608] 1. [not included] 2. [not included] 3. [not included] + +There are small caverns large enough to shelter a few persons, between +some of the masses of stone. On the sides of these caverns are numerous +inscriptions similar to those given above. + +As the eye is very apt to be deceived with regard to the relative +heights of mountains, I will not give any positive opinion as to that of +Mount Serbal; but it appeared to me to be higher than all the peaks, +including Mount St. Catherine, and very little lower than Djebel Mousa. + +The fact of so many inscriptions being found upon the rocks near the +summit of this mountain, and also in the valley which + +[p.609] leads from its foot to Feiran, as will presently be mentioned; +together with the existence of the road leading up to the peak, afford +strong reasons for presuming that the Serbal was an ancient place of +devotion. It will be recollected that no inscriptions are found either +on the mountain of Moses, or on Mount St. Catherine; and that those +which are found in the Ledja valley at the foot of Djebel Katerin, are +not to be traced above the rock, from which the water is said to have +issued, and appear only to be the work of pilgrims, who visited that +rock. From these circumstances, I am persuaded that Mount Serbal was at +one period the chief place of pilgrimage in the peninsula: and that it +was then considered the mountain where Moses received the tables of the +law; though I am equally convinced, from a perusal of the Scriptures, +that the Israelites encamped in the Upper Sinai, and that either Djebel +Mousa or Mount St. Catherine is the real Horeb. It is not at all +impossible that the proximity of Serbal to Egypt, may at one period have +caused that mountain to be the Horeb of the pilgrims, and that the +establishment of the convent in its present situation, which was +probably chosen from motives of security, may have led to the +transferring of that honour to Djebel Mousa. At present neither the +monks of Mount Sinai nor those of Cairo consider Mount Serbal as the +scene of any of the events of sacred history: nor have the Bedouins any +tradition among them respecting it; but it is possible that if the +Byzantine writers were thoroughly examined, some mention might be found +of this mountain, which I believe was never before visited by any +European traveller. + +The heat was so oppressive during the whole day, that I felt it even on +the summit of the mountain; the air was motionless, and a thin mist +pervaded the whole atmosphere, as always occurs in these climates, when +the air is very much heated. I took from the peak the following +bearings. + +[p.610] El Morkha, a well near Birket Faraoun on the road from Tor to +Suez, N.W. b. W. + +Wady Feiran, N.W.N. + +Sarbout el Djemal, N.N.W. + +El Djoze, just over Feiran, N. + +Mountain Dhellel, N. b. E.-N.E. b. N. + +Wady Akhdar, which I passed on my road from Suez to the convent, N.E. +1/2 E. + +Wady el Sheikh, where it appears broadest, and near the place where I +had entered it, in coming from Suez, E.N.E. + +Sheikh Abou Taleb, the tomb of a saint mentioned above, E. 1/2 S. + +Nakb el Raha, from whence the road from the convent to Feiran begins to +descend from the upper Sinai, E.S.E. + +Mount St. Catherine, S.E. 1/2 E. + +Om Shomar, S.S.E. + +Daghade, [Arabic], a fertile valley in the mountains, issuing into the +plain of Kaa, S.W. + +The direction of Deir Sigillye was pointed out to me S. b. E. or S.S.E. +This is a ruined convent on the S.E. side of Serbal, near the road which +leads up to the summit of the mountain. It is said to be well built and +spacious, and there is a copious well near it. It is four or five hours +distant by the shortest road from Feiran, and lies in a very rocky +district, at present uninhabited even by Bedouins. + +I found great difficulty in descending. If I had had a plentiful supply +of water, and any of us had known the road, we should have gone down by +the steps; but our water was nearly exhausted, and in this hot season, +even the hardy Bedouin is afraid to trust to the chance only of finding +a path or a spring. I was therefore obliged to return by the same way +which I had ascended + +WADY ALEYAT + +[p.611] and by crawling, rather than walking, we reached the lower +platform of Serbal just about noon, and reposed under the shade of a +rock. Here we finished our stock of milk and of water; and Hamd, who +remembered to have heard once that a well was in this neighbourhood, +went in search of it, but returned after an hour’s absence, with the +empty skin. I was afterwards informed, that in a cleft of the rock, not +far from the stone tank, which I have already mentioned, there is a +small source which never dries up. We had yet a long journey to make, +Hamd, therefore, volunteered to set out before me, to fill the skin in +the valley below, and to meet me with it at the foot of the cleft; by +which we had entered the mountain. He departed, leaping down the +mountain like a Gazelle, and after prolonging my siesta I leisurely +followed him, with the other Arab. When we arrived, at the end of two +hours and a half, at the point agreed upon, we found Hamd waiting for us +with the water, which he had brought from a well at least five miles +distant. A slight shower of rain which had fallen, instead of cooling +the air appeared only to have made it hotter. + +Instead of pursuing, from our second halting-place, the road by which we +had ascended in the morning from Ain Rymm, we took a more western +direction, to the left of the former, and reached by a less rapid +descent, the Wady Aleyat [Arabic], which leads to the lower parts of +Wady Feiran. After a descent of an hour, we came to a less rocky +country. + +At the end of an hour and a half from the foot of Serbal, where Hamd had +waited for us, we reached the well, situated among date-plantations, +where he had filled the skins; its water is very good, much better than +that of Feiran. The date-trees are not very thickly planted; amongst +them I saw several Doum trees, some of which I had already observed in +other parts of the peninsula. This valley is inhabited by Bedouins +during the date-harvest, + +WADY MAKTA + +[p.612] and here are many huts, built of stones, or of date-branches, +which they then occupy. + +In the evening we continued our route in the valley Aleyat, in the +direction N.W. To our right was a mountain, upon the top of which is the +tomb of a Sheikh, held in great veneration by the Bedouins, who +frequently visit it, and there sacrifice sheep. It is called El Monadja +[Arabic]. The custom among the Bedouins of burying their saints upon the +summits of mountains accords with a similar practice of the Israelites; +there are very few Bedouin tribes who have not one or more tombs of +protecting saints (Makam), in whose honour they offer sacrifices; the +custom probably originated in their ancient idolatrous worship, and was +in some measure retained by the sacrifices enjoined by Mohammed in the +great festivals of the Islam. + +In many parts of this valley stand small buildings, ten or twelve feet +square, and five feet high, with very narrow entrances. They are built +with loose stones, but so well put together, that the greater part of +them are yet entire, notwithstanding the annual rains. They are all +quite empty. I at first supposed them to be magazines belonging to the +Arabs, but my guides told me that their countrymen never entered them, +because they were Kobour el Kofar, or tombs of infidels; perhaps of the +early Christians of this peninsula. I did not, however, meet with any +similar structures in other parts of the peninsula, unless those already +mentioned in the upper part of Wady Feiran, are of the same class. At +half an hour from the spring and date-trees, we passed to our left a +valley coming from the southern mountains, called Wady Makta [Arabic], +and half an hour farther on, at sunset, we reached Wady Feiran, at the +place where the date plantations terminate, and an hour’s walk below the +spot from whence we set out yesterday upon this excursion. + +WADY ALEYAT + +[p.613] In the course of my descent from the cleft at the foot of Mount +Serbal, through the Wady Aleyat, I found numerous inscriptions on blocks +by the side of the road, those which I copied were in the following +order; some I did not copy, and many were effaced. + +1. Upon a flat stone in the upper extremity of the Wady, descending from +the foot of Serbal towards the well with date-trees: [not included] + +2. Upon a small block lower down: [not included] + +3. Upon a small rock still lower down: [not included] + +4. 5. Still descending: [not included] + +6. Near the spring: [not included] + +[p.614] + +7. Upon a large rock beyond the spring, and towards Wady Feiran: [not +included] + +8. Further down, upon a rock, being one of the clearest inscriptions +which I saw: [not included] On many stones were drawings of goats and +camels. This was once probably the main road to the top of Serbal, which +continued along its foot, and turned by Deir Sigillye round its eastern +side, thus passing the cleft and the road by which we had ascended, and +which nowhere bears traces of having ever been a regular and frequented +route. + +After my departure in the morning for Mount Serbal, the messenger +dispatched by the Arabs assembled in Sheikh Szaleh, arrived at Wady +Feiran, and forbad the people from guiding me to the top of Serbal; the +news of this order had spread along the whole valley, so that on our +reaching the first habitations under the date-trees, where I intended to +rest for the night, all the Arabs + +WADY FEIRAN + +[p.615] assembled, and became extremely clamorous as well against me, as +against Hamd for having accompanied me. I cared but little for their +insolent language, which I knew how to reply to, but I was under some +apprehensions for my servant and baggage, and therefore determined to +rejoin them immediately. We ascended the valley, by a gentle slope, and +reached Hamd’s garden late at night, greatly fatigued, for we had been +almost the whole day upon our legs. We here met the Bedouins and their +girls occupied in singing and dancing, which they kept up till near +midnight. + +June 2d.—When I awoke I found about thirty Arabs round me, ready to +begin a new quarrel about my pursuits in their mountains. When they saw +that I paid little attention to their remonstrances, and was packing up +my effects, in order to proceed on my journey, they then asked me for +some victuals and coffee. After having observed to them that I was more +easily prevailed upon by civility than harshness, I distributed among +the poorest such provisions as I should not want on my way back to Suez, +together with some coffee-beans and soap. This immediately put them into +good humour, and in return, they brought me some milk, cucumbers, and a +quantity of Bsyse, or ground Nebek. I purchased from them a skinful of +dates reduced to a paste, and one of them joined us for the sake of +travelling in our company to Suez, where he intended to sell a load of +charcoal; we then set out, leaving every body behind us well satisfied. + +We followed the same road by which we had ascended last night, and +halted again where the date trees terminate. Here the same Arabs whom we +had found yesterday evening, having been informed that I had made some +presents where I had slept, thought, no doubt, that by being vociferous +they would obtain something. In this, however, they were mistaken, for I +gave them nothing, telling them they might seize my baggage if they +chose, but this they + +[p.616] prudently declined to do. Ten years ago I should hardly have +been able to extricate myself in this manner. + +The valley of Feiran widens considerably where it is joined by the Wady +Aleyat, and is about a quarter of an hour in breadth. Upon the mountains +on both sides of the road stand the ruins of an ancient city. The houses +are small, but built entirely of stones, some of which are hewn and some +united with cement, but the greater part are piled up loosely. I counted +the ruins of about two hundred houses. There are no traces of any large +edifice on the north side; but on the southern mountain there is an +extensive building, the lower part of which is of stone, and the upper +part of earth. It is surrounded by private habitations, which are all in +complete ruins. At the foot of the southern mountain are the remains of +a small aqueduct. Upon several of the neighbouring hills are ruins of +towers, and as we proceeded down the valley for about three quarters of +an hour, I saw many small grottos in the rocks on both sides, hewn in +the rudest manner, and without any regularity or symmetry; the greater +part seemed to have been originally formed by nature, and afterwards +widened by human labour. Some of the largest which were near the ruined +city had, perhaps, once served as habitations, the others were evidently +sepulchres; but few of them were large enough to hold three corpses, and +they were not more than three or four feet high. I found no traces of +antiquity in any of them. + +At half an hour from the last date-trees of Feiran, I saw, to the right +of the road, upon the side of the mountain, the ruins of a small town or +village, the valley in the front of which is at present quite barren. It +had been better built than the town above described, and contained one +very good building of hewn stone, with two stories, each having five +oblong windows in front. The roof + +[p.617] has fallen in. The style of architecture of the whole strongly +resembles that seen in the ruins of St. Simon, to the north of Aleppo, +the mountains above which are also full of sepulchral grottos, like +those near Feiran. The roofs of the houses appear to have been entirely +of stone, like those in the ruined towns of the Haouran, but flat, and +not arched. There were here about a hundred ruined houses. + +Feiran was formerly the seat of a Bishopric. Theodosius was bishop +during the Monothelite controversy. From documents of the fifteenth +century, still existing in the convent of Mount Sinai, there appears at +that time to have been an inhabited convent at Feiran. Makrizi, the +excellent historian, and describer of Egypt; who wrote about the same +time, gives the following account of Feiran, which he calls Faran.[The +present Bedouins call it Fyran or Feiran [Arabic], and thus it is spelt +wherever it occurs in the Arabic documents in the convent. Niebuhr calls +it Faran, and I have heard some Bedouins pronounce it as if it were +written [Arabic, giving it nearly the sound of Fyran.]] + +“It is one of the towns of the Amalakites, situated near the borders of +the sea of Kolzoum, upon a hill between two mountains; on each of which +are numberless excavations, full of corpses. It is one day’s journey +distant [in a straight line] from the sea of Kolzoum, the shore of which +is there called “the shore of the sea of Faran;” there it was that +Pharaoh was drowned by the Almighty. Between the city of Faran and the +Tyh are two days journey. It is said that Faran is the name of the +mountains of Mekka, and that it is the name of other mountains in the +Hedjaz, and that it is the place mentioned in the books of Moses. But +the truth is, that Tor and Faran are two districts belonging to the +southern parts of Egypt, and that it is not the same as the Faran +(Paran) mentioned in the books of Moses. It is stated, that the +mountains + +[p.618] of Mekka derive their name from Faran Ibn Amr Ibn Amalyk. Some +call them the mountains of Faran others Fyran. The city of Faran was one +of the cities belonging to Midian, and remained so until the present +times. There are plenty of palmtrees there, of the dates of which I have +myself eaten. A large river flows by. The town is at present in ruins; +Bedouins only pass there.” + +Makrizi is certainly right in supposing that the Faran or Paran +mentioned in the Scriptures is not the same as Feiran; an opinion which +has been entertained also by Niebuhr, and other travellers. From the +passage in Numbers xiii. 26, it is evident that Paran was situated in +the desert of Kadesh, which was on the borders of the country of the +Edomites, and which the Israelites reached after their departure from +Mount Sinai, on their way towards the land of Edom. Paran must therefore +be looked for in the desert west of Wady Mousa, and the tomb of Aaron +which is shewn there. At present the people of Feiran bury their dead +higher up in the valley, than the ancient ruins in the neighbourhood of +Sheikh Abou Taleb. There is no rivulet, but in winter time the valley is +completely flooded, and a large stream of water collected from all the +lateral valleys of Wady el Sheikh empties itself through Wady Feiran +into the gulf of Suez near the Birket Faraoun. + +We rode for one hour from Feiran, and then stopped near some date trees +called Hosseye [Arabic], where are several Arab huts, and where good +water is found. Here I remained the rest of the day, as I felt very much +the effect of yesterday’s exertions. In the evening all the females +quitted the huts to join in the Mesámer, in which I also participated, +and we kept it up till long after midnight. My servant[This was the same +man who had accompanied me during my journey to Upper Egypt, as far as +Assouan. I again engaged him in my service after my return fro[m] the +Hedjaz.] attempted to join the party, but the proud + +WADY ROMMAN + +[p.619] Arabs told him that he was a Fellah, not of good breed, and +would not permit him to mix in the dance. He met with the same repulse +last night at Feiran. + +June 3d.—We followed the valley by a slight slope through its windings +W.N.W. and N.W. Many tamarisk trees grow here, and some manna is +collected. The fertility of these valleys is owing chiefly to the +alluvial soil brought down from the mountains by the torrents, and which +soon acquires consistence in the bottom of the Wady; but if a year +passes without rain these alluvia are reduced to dust, and dispersed by +the winds over the mountains from whence they came. The surface was +covered with a yellow clay in which a variety of herbs was growing. At +two hours the valley, for the length of about an hour, bears the name of +Wady el Beka [Arabic], or the valley of weeping, from the circumstance, +as it is related, of a Bedouin who wept because his dromedary fell here, +during the pursuit of an enemy, and he was thus unable to follow his +companions, who were galloping up the valley to wards Feiran. The rock +on the side of the road is mostly composed of gneiss. At three hours and +a half we passed to our right Wady Romman [Arabic]. I was told that in +the mountains from which it descends is a fine spring, and some date- +trees about four hours distant. The road now turned N.W. b. W.; the +granite finishes and sand-stone begins; among the latter rock-salt is +found. At five hours we halted under a large impending sandstone rock, +where the valley widens considerably, and continues in a W. direction +down to the sea-side. Leaving this valley to the left, we rode in the +afternoon N.W. b. W. ascending slightly over rocky ground, until we +reached an upper plain at the end of + +WADY MOKATTEB + +[p.620] six hours. The chain of granite mountains continued to our +right, parallel with the road, which was overspread with silex, and +farther on we met with a kind of basaltic tufa, forming low hills +covered with sand. We then descended, and at six hours and a half +entered the valley called Wady Mokatteb [Arabic]. The appellation of +Djebel Mokatteb, which several travellers have applied to the +neighbouring mountains, is not in use. To the north of the entrance of +this valley near the foot of the higher chain, is a cluster of magazines +of the Bedouins, at a spot called El Bedja [Arabic]. + +The Wady Mokatteb extends for three hours march in the direction N.W.; +in the upper part it is three miles across, having to the right high +mountains, and to the left a chain of lower sandrocks. Half way down, it +becomes narrower, and then takes the name of Seyh Szeder [Arabic]. In +most places the sand-rocks present abrupt cliffs, twenty or thirty feet +in height. Large masses have separated themselves from the cliffs and +lie at their feet in the valley. These cliffs and rocks are thickly +covered with inscriptions, which are continued with intervals of a few +hundred paces only, for at least two hours and a half; similar +inscriptions are found in the lower part of the Wady, where it narrows, +upon the sand-stone rocks of the opposite, or north-eastern side of the +valley. To copy all these inscriptions would occupy a skilful +draughtsman six or eight days; they are all of the same description as +those I have already mentioned, consisting of short lines, written from +right to left, and with the singular character represented in p. 479, +invariably at the beginning of each. Some of them are on rocks at a +height of twelve or fifteen feet, which must have required a ladder to +ascend to them. They are in general cut deeper than those on the granite +in the upper country, but in the same careless style. Amongst them are +many in Greek; containing, probably, like the others, the names of those +who + +WADY BADERA + +[p.621] passed here on their pilgrimage to the holy mountain. Some of +the latter contain Jewish names in Greek characters. There is a vast +number of drawings of mountain goats and of camels, the latter sometimes +represented as loaded, and with riders on their backs. Crosses are also +seen, indicating that the inscribers were Christians. It should be +observed that the Mokatteb lies in the principal route to Sinai, and +which is much easier and more frequented than the upper road by Naszeb, +which I took in my way to the convent; the cliffs also are so situated +as to afford a fine shade to travellers during the mid-day hours. To +these circumstances may undoubtedly in great measure be attributed the +numerous inscriptions found in this valley. + +We rested for the night, after a day’s march of nine hours and a +quarter, near the lower extremity of the Seyh Szeder, and just beyond +the last of the inscriptions. The bottom of the valley is here rocky, +and as flat as if the rock had been levelled by art. + +June 4th.—At a few hundred paces below the place where we had slept, the +valley becomes very narrow, the mountains to the right approach, and a +defile of granite rocks is entered in a direction W. by S. called Wady +Kenna [Arabic], where the tomb of a saint of the name of Wawa [Arabic] +stands. I was told afterwards at Cairo, by some Sinai Bedouins, that +lower down in Wady Kenna there is a very deep cavern in the rock. At +three quarters of an hour we passed to the right of the defile, and +turned N.W. into a valley called Badera [Arabic]. The valley of Badera +consists of sand rock, and the ground is deeply covered with sand. We +ascended gently in it, and in an hour and three quarters reached its +summit, from whence we descended by a narrow difficult path, down a +cliff called Nakb Badera [Arabic], into an open plain between the +mountains; we crossed the plain, and at two hours and a quarter entered +Wady Shellal [Arabic], so called from + +WADY SHELLAL + +[p.622] the number of cataracts which are formed in the rainy season, by +the torrents descending from the mountains. A great number of acacia +trees grow here, many of which were completely dried up; during the +whole of our morning’s journey not a green herb could be discovered. We +here met several Bedouins on foot, on their way from Suez to Feiran. +They had started from the well of Morkha early in the morning; and had +ventured on the journey without water, or the hope of finding any till +the following day in Wady Feiran. We gave them each a draught of water, +and they went off in good spirits, purposing to pass the afternoon under +some shady rock, and to continue their journey during the night. We +descended the valley slowly, W.N.W. and at the end of four hours and a +half reached its termination, opening upon a sandy plain on the sea- +shore. Many bones of camels were here lying about, as is generally the +case on the great roads through the desert; I have observed that these +skeletons are found in greatest numbers where the sands are deepest; +which arises from the loaded camels passing such places with difficulty, +and often breaking down in them. It is an erroneous opinion that the +camel delights in sandy ground; it is true that he crosses it with less +difficulty than any other animal, but wherever the sands are deep, the +weight of himself and his load makes his feet sink into the sand at +every step, and he groans, and often sinks under his burthen. It is the +hard gravelly ground of the desert which is most agreeable to this +animal. + +On the plain we fell in with the great road from Tor to Suez, but soon +quitted it to the right, and turned to the north in search of a natural +reservoir of rain, in which the Bedouins knew that some water was still +remaining. At the end of five hours and a half, we reached a narrow +cleft in the mountain, where we halted, and my guides went a mile up in +it to fill the skins. This is called Wady + +MORKHA + +[p.623] el Dhafary [Arabic]; it is sometimes frequented by the Arabs, +because it furnishes the only sweet water between Tor and Suez, though +it is out of the direct road, and the well of Morkha is at no great +distance. Some rain had fallen here in the winter, and water was +therefore met with in several ponds among the rocks. This is the lowest +part of the primitive chain of mountains, and, I believe, the only +place, on the road between Tor and Suez, where they approach the sea, +which is only three miles distant, with a stony plain ascending from it. +A slave of a Towara Bedouin here partook of our breakfast; he had been +sent to these mountains by his master several weeks ago, to collect wood +and burn charcoal, which he was doing quite alone, with no other +provision than a sack of meal. Charcoal, commonly called Fahm in Arabic, +is by these Bedouins called Habesh, a term which I never heard given to +it by any other Arabs; this word may perhaps be the origin of the name +of Abyssinia, which may have been called Habesh by the Arabs from the +colour of its inhabitants. Travellers will do well to enquire for the +Dhafary, in their way to Feiran, as the water of the Morkha is of the +very worst kind; this memorandum would be particularly useful to any +person intending to copy the inscriptions of Wady Mokatteb. + +We reached Morkha, [Arabic], which bears from Dhafary N.W. b. N. in half +an hour, the road leading over level but very rocky ground. Morkha is a +small pond in the sand-stone rock, close to the foot of the mountains. +Two date-trees grow near its margin. The bad taste of the water seems to +be owing partly to the weeds, moss, and dirt, with which the pond is +filled, but chiefly, no doubt, to the saline nature of the soil around +it. Next to Ayoun Mousa, in the vicinity of Suez, and Gharendel, it is +the principal station on this road. After watering our camels, which was +our only motive for coming to the Morkha, we returned to the + +BAY OF BIRKET FARAOUN + +[p.624] sea-shore, one hour distant N.W. We followed the shore for three +quarters of an hour in a N.W. b. N. direction, and then halted close by +the sea, where the maritime level is greatly contracted by a range of +chalk hills which in some places approaches close to the water. Before +us extended the large bay of Birket Faraoun, so called, from being, +according to Arab and Egyptian tradition, the place where the Israelites +crossed the sea, and where the returning waves overwhelmed Pharaoh and +his host. There is an almost continual motion of the waters in this bay, +which they say is occasioned by the spirits of the drowned still moving +in the bottom of the sea; but which may also be ascribed to its being +exposed on three sides to the sea, and to the sudden gusts of wind from +the openings of the valleys. These circumstances, together with its +shoals, render it very dangerous, and more ships have been wrecked in +the Bay of Birket Faraoun than in any other part of the gulf of Tor, +another proof, in the eyes of the Arabs, that spirits or demons dwell +here. + +This evening and night we had a violent Simoum. The air was so hot, that +when I faced the current, the sensation was like that of sitting close +to a large fire; the hot wind was accompanied, at intervals with gusts +of cooler air. I did not find my respiration impeded for a moment during +the continuance of the hot blast. The Simoum is frequent on this low +coast, but the advantage of sea bathing renders it the less distressing. + +June 5th.—We rode close by the shore, at the foot of sandy cliffs; but +as the road was passable only at low water, we were obliged, as the tide +set in, to take a circuitous route over the mountain. At the end of an +hour we again reached the sea, and then proceeded north over a wide +sandy plain. Towards the mountain is a tract of low grounds several +miles in breadth, in which the shrubs Gharkad and Aszef were growing in +great plenty. At the end of two hours and a half, having reached a very +conspicuous + +WADY WARDAN + +[p.625] promontory, of the mountain, over which lies the road to the +Hammam Mousa, or hot-wells of Moses, we turned, on its south side, into +a fine valley called Wady el Taybe [Arabic], inclosed by abrupt rocks, +and full of trees, among which were a few of the date, now completely +withered. Want of rain is much more frequent in the lower ranges of the +peninsula, than in the upper. At four hours and a half we passed Wady +Shebeyke, reached soon afterwards the top of Wady Taybe, and then fell +in with the road by which I had passed on my way to the convent from +Suez. We rested in Wady Thale, under a rock, in the shade of which, at 2 +P.M. the thermometer rose to 107°. After a march of eleven hours we +halted in Wady Gharendel. + +June 6th.—We continued in the road described at the beginning of this +journal, and at six hours and a half reached Wady Wardan. Here we turned +out of the great road to Suez, in a more western direction, towards the +sea, in order to take in water at the well of Szoueyra, which we came to +in three hours from Wardan. The lower parts of Wady Wardan, extending +six or eight miles in breadth, consist of deep sand, which a strong +north wind drove full in our faces, and caused such a mist that we +several times went astray. Upon small sandy mounds in this plain +tamarisk trees grow in great numbers, and in the midst of these lies the +well of Szoueyra, which it is extremely difficult to find without a +guide. It is about two miles from the sea. We here met many Terabein +women occupied in watering their camels; I enquired of them whether they +ever collected manna from the tamarisks; I understood from them that in +this barren plain, the trees never yield that substance. In the evening +we rode along a narrow path, parallel with the sea, for two hours and a +half. The wind still continued, and obliged us to seek for shelter +behind a + +DESERT OF SUEZ + +[p.626] hillock in the lower part of Wady Szeder, where we found +protection against the driving sands. + +June 7th.—In the morning we reached Ayoun Mousa. We found here, as we +had previously done, in many places near the shore, the tracks of wheel- +carriages, a very uncommon appearance in the east, and more particularly +in deserts. It was by this road that Mohammed Ali’s women passed last +year from Tor to Suez in their elegant vehicles. Towards evening we +entered Suez. + +June 8th.—A caravan was to leave Suez this day, but its departure was +delayed. As I knew that the plague had subsided at Cairo, and thought +that the road was tolerably safe, I asked Hamd whether he would venture +with me alone upon the journey; fear seemed to be quite unknown to this +excellent young man, and he readily acquiesced in my proposal. We left +Suez in the evening with some hopes of overtaking a caravan of Towaras, +which we were informed had this day passed to the north of Suez, in +their way to Cairo with charcoal. Towards sunset we came in sight of the +castle of Adjeroud, when Hamd having descried from afar some Bedouins on +foot, who, from the circumstance of their walking about in different +directions in a place where no road passed, and where Bedouins never +alight, appeared to him to be suspicious characters, we halted behind a +hill till it was dark, and took our supper. After sunset we saw several +fires at a distance, in the plain, which Hamd immediately concluded to +be those of the Towara caravan. Taking advantage of the darkness, to +avoid the observation of the suspected persons, we rode towards the +fires, which, instead of being those of the Towara, proved to belong to +a small party of Omran, encamped near the well in the Wady Emshash. Hamd +was much alarmed when he perceived his mistake, for he was well +acquainted with the bad character of the Omran, + +CASTLE OF ADJEROUD + +[p.627] and he dreaded them the more on account of the Arab of their +tribe whom he had killed near Akaba. They looked very greedily at my +travelling sack, but as I pretended to belong to the Pasha’s garrison at +Suez, they did not make any attempt upon it. They told us that in coming +here, they had found five Bedouins sitting near the well, who retired +when they approached it, and who were probably the men we saw. As we +thought it very likely that they would waylay us farther on, in the +narrow pass of Montala, we deemed it prudent to retire to Adjeroud, and +take shelter in the castle for the night. When we reached that place, it +was with great difficulty that I persuaded the officer to open the gates +and let us in; he was in no less fear of the robbers than ourselves; for +two days they had driven back his people from the well of Emshash, where +they were accustomed to fill their water skins, so that the garrison was +reduced to great distress, as they had no provision of sweet water, and +that of the castle well is scarcely drinkable. A Turkish officer, with +his wife and son, and eight peasants from the Sherkieh, formed the whole +garrison, and they trembled at the name and sight of the Bedouins as +much as the monks of the Sinai convent. + +June 9th.—This morning I proposed to the officer that we should go out +in force and drive the robbers from the well, which was only half an +hour distant; but this he refused to do, saying that he had no orders to +leave the castle; he found it more convenient to seize my skins, which I +had filled at Suez, and to make use of their contents for his family. +Towards noon we saw several of the Bedouins hovering round the castle, +no doubt expecting us to issue from it. In this difficulty, the Turkish +officer having refused to lend his horse, I mounted Hamd in the evening +upon the strongest of the camels, and told him to gallop to Suez, and +acquaint the commander there with our situation, or else to hire some of +his + +[p.628] countrymen, who were there waiting for the departure of the +caravan, and in their company to return to our relief, bringing with him +a supply of water. He set out, but had not proceeded a mile before he +saw the robbers running upon him from different quarters, and +endeavouring to cut him off from the road. They fired at him, upon which +he returned their fire, and gallopped back to the castle. The officer +and his valiant garrison were now thrown into the greatest +consternation, and could not devise any means of relief. I offered to +ride to Suez, provided the officer would lend me his horse; but he +appeared to be more afraid of losing the horse, than of dying from +thirst. Being thus unable to effect any thing, I was under the necessity +of waiting patiently till the great caravan from Suez should pass. + +June 10th.—There was now not a drop of sweet water in the castle, and +all that we could procure of the well-water of Adjeroud had been +standing in the tank since it was filled from the well at the time of +the last pilgrimage. The wheels of the well, which is two hundred and +fifty feet in depth, are put in motion only at that time; during the +rest of the year the building which encloses the well is shut up; and +the person who keeps the key was now at Cairo. The water we were thus +obliged to drink was saline, putrid, and of a yellow green colour, so +that boiling produced no improvement in it, and our stomachs could not +retain it. + +June 11th.—A slight shower of rain fell, which the Turk ascribed to his +prayers; but all the water we could collect in every vessel which the +castle could furnish, scarcely afforded to each of us a draught. Hamd +made a second attempt to night to go to Suez, but it being unfortunately +moonlight, he was seen and again driven back. + +June 12th.—After three days blockade, I had the pleasure of descrying +the Suez caravan at a distance, on its way towards + +WADY KHOUYFERA + +[p.629] Cairo; we immediately got every thing ready, and when the +caravan was opposite the castle, at about twenty minutes distance, Hamd +and I hastily joined it. What became of the officer and his garrison, I +never heard. I bought of the Bedouins of the caravan a supply of water, +sufficient to last me to Cairo. + +Although the passage of this desert is less dangerous than formerly, it +is impossible to protect it effectually, without establishing a small +body of horsemen or dromedaries at Adjeroud; and it is a discredit to +the government of Egypt, that this is not done. The well of Emshash +affords a seasonable supply of water to robbers, who lay in wait in the +rocky country of Montala, where one of them stationed on the top of a +hill gives notice of the approach of any enemy or object of plunder. The +castle was undoubtedly intended as a look-out post against the Arabs. +The French once had a garrison in it, and its walls have been repaired +by Mohammed Ali Pasha, but the interior is in a very ruinous state, and +few provisions are kept in the extensive store-houses within it. + +On proceeding to Cairo, the caravan took, for the first stage from +Adjeroud, a route somewhat to the southward of that by which I had gone +to Sinai, and joined the latter at Dar el Hamra. Six hours and a half +from Adjeroud we passed Wady Khoeyfera [Arabic], the bed of a torrent, +with trees growing in it, a very little below the level of the +surrounding plain. Here I saw the ruins of a small stone reservoir, and +to a considerable distance round it, ruins of walls, and several wells, +some built with brick and others with stone. They appear to have been +surrounded by a wall, which now forms a circular enclosure of mounds +almost wholly covered with sands. The existence of these ruins, which I +do not remember to have seen mentioned by any traveller, confirms my +belief, that in the most ancient times regular stations + +CAIRO + +[p.630] were established on this road, to which we must also attribute +the date trees now found in a petrified state. + +A road, called Derb el Ban [Arabic], leads from Adjeroud to Birket el +Hadj, by the north side of the mountain El Oweybe; it is the most +northern of all the routes to Suez, and is little frequented. + +On the 13th of June, early in the morning, I entered Cairo; the plague +had ceased, and had been less destructive, than it was last year. + +[p.631] APPENDIX. + +[p.633] APPENDIX. No. I. + +An Account of the Ryhanlu Turkmans. + +Aleppo, May 12, 1810. + +THE district inhabited by the Ryhanlu Turkmans begins at about seven +hours distance from Aleppo, to the north-westward. The intermediate +plain is stony and almost deserted, but it is in many parts susceptible +of culture, and contains a great number of villages in ruins. At five +hours march from Aleppo to the W.N.W. upon the ridge of a low hill are +some plantations of olive and fig trees; on the other side of the hill +lies a valley of an oval shape about eighteen miles in circuit, called +Khalaka [Arabic]; at the foot of the low hills which surround it, are +the following villages: Termine, Tellade, Hoesre, Tellekberoun, Bab, +Dana, and some others. The Fellahs or inhabitants of these villages live +in half ruined houses, which indicate the opulence of their ancient +possessors. The soil of the plain is a fine red mould, almost without a +stone. In March, when I visited the Ryhanlu, it was sown with wheat, but +it produces in another season the finest cotton. The whole plain is the +property of Abbas Effendi of Aleppo, the heir of Tshelebi Effendi, who +was in his time the first grandee of Aleppo[.] Having crossed the plain +of Khalaka, and the rocky calcareous hills which border it on the +western side, a very tedious passage for camels, the first Turkman tents +are met with at about six hours and a half or seven hours distance from +Aleppo. The Turkmans, who prfer living on the hills, erect their tents +on the declivities, and cultivate the valleys below them. These hills +extend in a N.W. direction, above forty miles, the mountain of St. Simon +[Arabic], is in the midst of them. Their average breadth, including the +numerous valleys which intersect them, may be estimated at fifteen or +twenty miles. They lose themselves in the plain of Antioch, which is +bounded on the opposite side by the chain of high mountains, extending +along the southern coast of the gulf of Scanderoun. The river Afrin +[Arabic] waters this plain; its course from the neighbourhood of Killis +to where it empties itself into the lake of Antioch, is fifteen or +twenty hours in length. At about seven hours above the lake, this river +is about the size of the Cam near Cambridge; it regularly but moderately +overflows in spring-time, and is full of carps and barbles; but the +Turkmans have no implements of fishing. Besides the Afrin there are +numerous smaller rivers and sources, which water the valleys. One of the +must considerable of these is the river of Goul, which takes its rise +near a Turkman encampment [p.634] of the same name, about six hours +distant from St. Simon, to the W. by N. in a small lake, about one mile +and a half in circumference, and joins the waters of the Afrin, eight +miles from its source. This beautiful little lake is so full of fish, +that the boys of Goul kill them by throwing stones at them. The river +turns several mills near Goul, and five or six more at six miles +distance, at a place called Tahoun Kash, near a spot where the chieftain +of the Ryhanlu, Mursal Oglu Hayder Aga, has built a house for his winter +residence, and has planted a garden. On the right bank of the Afrin, +about three quarters of an hour distant from it, and at three hours ride +to the N.-westward of the tent of Mohammed Ali, my Turkman host, are two +warm springs at half an hour's walk from each other. I only saw the +southernmost, which is strongly impregnated with sulphur, and made my +thermometer rise to 102°; it constantly bubbles from a bottom of coarse +gravel, in the middle of the bason, which is about twenty feet in +circumference, and four feet deep. The sulphureous smell begins to be +sensible at a distance of twenty-five yards from it, and I was told that +the northern spring was still more sulphureous. The Turkmans hold the +medicinal powers of these springs, as baths, in great estimation: women +as well as men use them for the cure of violent headaches, which are +very prevalent amongst them. The fields of the Turkmans are sown with +wheat, barley, and several kinds of pulse. Their wheat was sown only a +fortnight before my arrival, viz, about the twentieth of February. As it +is only a short time since they have become agriculturists, they have +not yet any plantations of fruit trees, although the olive, pomegranate, +and fig would certainly prosper in their valleys. Thirty years ago the +hills which they now inhabit were partly covered with wood; the trade of +firewood with Aleppo, however, has entirely consumed these forests. At +present they cut the wood for the Aleppo market, in the mountains of the +Kurds on the northern side of the Afrin, and when that shall fail, +Aleppo must depend for its fuel upon the coast of Caramania, from whence +Egypt is now supplied. The Turkman hills are inhabited by vast numbers +of jackals; wolves, and foxes are also numerous; and I saw flocks of +Gazelles, to the number of twenty or thirty in each flock; among a great +variety of birds is the Francoline, which the Syrian sportsmen esteem +the choicest of all game. In the mountains of Badjazze, which borders on +the Turkman plains, stags are sometimes killed. The Turkmans are +passionately fond of hawking; they course the game with grey-hounds, or +if in the plain, they run it down with their horses. + +The population of the Ryhanlu Turkmans may be roughly calculated from +the number of their tents, which amount to about three thousand; every +tent contains from two or three to fifteen inmates. They can raise a +military force of two or three thousand horsemen, and of as many +infantry. They are divided into thirteen minor tribes: 1. The +Serigialar, or tribe of the chief of the Ryhanlu Turkmans, Hayder Aga, +has five hundred horsemen. 2. Coudanlut, six hundred. 3. Cheuslu, two +hundred. 4. Leuklu, one hundred. 5. Kara Akhmetlu one hundred and fifty. +6. Kara Solimanlu, fifty. 7. Delikanlu, six hundred. 8. Toroun, sixty. +9. Bahaderlu, one hundred. 10. Hallalu, sixty. 11. Karken, twenty. 12. +Aoutshar, twenty. 13. Okugu, fifty. The Serigialar derive their origin +from Maaden, the Cheuslu from the [p.635] neighbourhood of Badjazze, the +Babaderli from the mountains of St. Simon, the Halalis from Barak. Each +tribe has its own chief, whose rank in the Divan is determined by the +strength his tribe; Hayder Aga presides amongst them whenever it is +found necessary to call together a common council. His authority over +the Ryhanlus seems to be almost absolute, as he sometimes carries his +motions in the Divan even against the opinion and will of the assembled +chiefs. He settles the disputes, which occur between these chiefs, and +which are often accompanied by hostile incursions into one another’s +territory. The chiefs decide all disputes among their own followers +according to the feeble knowledge which they possess of the Turkish +laws; but appeals from their tribunal may be made to that of the grand +chief. The whole Ryhanlu tribe is tributary to Tshapan Oglu, the +powerful governor of the eastern part of Anatolia, who resides at +Yuzgat. They pay him an annual tribute of six thousand two hundred and +fifteen piastres, in horses, cattle, &c. He claims also the right of +nominating to the vacant places of chieftains; but his influence over +the Turkman Ryhanlu having of late much diminished, this right is at +present merely nominal. The predecessors of Hayder Aga used to receive +their Firmahn of nomination, or rather of confirmation, from the Porte. +When the tribute for Tshapan Oglu is collected, Hayder Aga generally +gives in an account of disbursements incurred during the preceding year +for the public service, such as presents to officers of the Porte +passing through the camp, expenses of entertaining strangers of rank, +&c. &c. The tribute, as well as Hayder Aga’s demands, are levied from +the tribes according to the repartition of the minor Agas; and each +chief takes that opportunity of adding to the sum to which his tribe is +assessed, four or five hundred piastres, which make up his only income +as chief. The Turkmans do not pay any Miri, or general land tax to the +Grand Signor, for the ground they occupy. Families, if disgusted with +their chief, often pass from one tribe to another without any one daring +to prevent their departure. + +The Ryhanlu, like most of the larger Turkman nations, are a nomade +people. They appear in their winter quarters in the plain of Antioch at +the end of September, and depart from thence towards the middle of +April, when the flies of the plain begin to torment their horses and +cattle. They then direct their march towards Marash, and remain in the +neighbourhood of that place about one month; from thence they reach the +mountains of Gurun and Albostan. The mountains which they occupy are +called Keukduli, Sungulu, and Kara Dorouk, (upon Kara Dorouk, they say, +are some fine ruins). Here they pass the hottest summer months; in +autumn they repass the plains of Albostan, and return by the same route +towards Antioch. + +The winter habitations of the Turkmans in the hilly districts are, as I +have mentioned before, erected on the declivity of the hills, so as to +be by their position somewhat sheltered from the northerly winds. +Sometimes five or six families live together on one spot in as many +tents, but for the greater part tents of single families are met with at +one or two miles distance from each other. In proportion to the arable +land, which the hilly parts contain, these districts are better peopled +than the plain, where a thousand tents are scattered over an [p.636] +extent, of the most fertile country, of at least five hundred square +miles. The structure of the habitations of these nomades is of course +extremely simple: an oblong square wall of loose stones, about four feet +high, is covered over with a black cloth made of goats hair, which is +supported by a dozen or more posts, so that in the middle of the tent +the covering is elevated about nine feet from the ground. A stone +partition is built across the tent, near the entrance: I found in every +tent that the women had uniformly possession of the greater half to the +left of the door; the smaller half to the right hand side is +appropriated to the men, and there is also a partition at H [figure not +included], which generally serves as a stable for a favourite horse of +the master or of one of his sons. The rest of the horses and the cattle +are kept in caverns, which abound in these calcareous hills, or in +smaller huts built on purpose. Besides those who live in tents, many of +the Turkmans, especially in the plain, live in large huts fifteen feet +high, built and distributed like the tents, but having, instead of a +tent covering, a roof of rushes, which grow in great abundance on the +banks of the Afrin. The women’s room serves also as the kitchen; there +they work at their looms, and strangers never enter: unless, when, as I +was told, the Turkmans meaning to do great honour to a guest, allow him +a corner of the Harem to sleep in quiet among the women. The men’s +apartment is covered with carpets, which serve as beds to strangers and +to the unmarried members of the family; the married people retire into +the Harem. The Turkmans have also a kind of portable tent made of wood, +like a round bird cage, which they cover with large carpets of white +wool. The entrance may be shut up by a small door; it is the exclusive +habitation of the ladies, and is only met with in families who are +possessed of large property. The tent or hut of a Turkman is always +surrounded by three or four others, in which the Fellah families live +who cultivate his land. These Fellahs are the remaining peasants of +abandoned villages, or some poor straggling Kurds. The Turkmans find the +necessary seed, and receive in return half the produce, which is +collected by a few of them who remain for this purpose in the winter +quarters the whole year round. The Fellahs live wretchedly; whenever +they are able to scrape together a small pittance, their masters take it +from them under pretence of borrowing it; I was treated by several of +them at dinner with the best dish they could afford: bad oil, with +coarse bread; they never taste meat except when they kill a cow or an +ox, disabled by sickness or age; the greater part of them live literally +upon bread and water, neither fruits or vegetables being cultivated +here; they are nevertheless, a cheerful good-natured people; the young +men play, sing, and dance, every evening, and are infinitely better +tempered [p.637] than their haughty masters. My host, Mohammed Ali, +began a few years ago to plant a small garden of fruit trees near his +tents; his example will probably be generally followed, because the +Ryhanlu families, at every returning season, pitch their tents on the +same spot. It is only about ten years, that the Ryhanlu have cultivated +the land; like the other Turkman hordes they had always preferred the +wandering life of feeders of cattle. Agriculture was introduced among +them by the persuasion of Hayder Aga, whose daughter having married a +chief of the neighbouring Kurds, an alliance took place, which enabled +the Turkmans to perceive the advantages, derived by the Kurds from the +cultivation of the soil. The principal riches of the Turkmans however +still consist in cattle. Their horses are inferior to those of the Arabs +of the desert, but are well adapted for the mountains. Their necks are +shorter and thicker than those of the Arab horses, the head larger, the +whole frame more clumsy: the price of a good Turkman horse at Aleppo is +four or five hundred piastres, while twice that sum or more is paid for +an Arab horse of a generous breed. Contrary to the practice of the +Arabs, the Turkmans ride males exclusively. The family of my host +possessed four horses, three mares, about five hundred sheep, one +hundred and fifty goats, six cows, and eight camels; he is looked upon as +a man in easy circumstances; there are few families whose property does +not amount to half as much, and there are many who have three or four +times as many cattle. I have heard of some who are possessed of property +in cattle and cash to the amount of one hundred and fifty thousand +piastres. Such sums are gained by the trade with Aleppo and by usury +amongst themselves. + +At the time of their departure for Armenia the Ryhanlu buy up buffaloes +and Arab camels, which they exchange in Armenia for a better breed of +camels and for some other cattle, for the Aleppo market. The Armenian or +Caramanian camel is taller and stronger than the Arab, its neck is more +bent, and the neck and upper part of the thighs are covered with thick +hair; the Arab camel, on the contrary, has very little hair. The common +load of the latter is about six hundred weight, or one hundred and +twenty rotolos, but the Armenian camel will carry one hundred and sixty +rotolos, or eight hundred weight. The price of an Arabian camel is about +two hundred and fifty piastres, that of an Armenian at Aleppo is twice +as much. This breed of camels is produced by a he-dromedary and a she- +Arabian camel. The people of Anatolia keep these male dromedaries as +stallions for the purpose of covering the females of the smaller Arabian +breed, which the Turkmans, yearly bring to their market. If left to +breed among themselves the Caramanian camels produce a puny race of +little value. The Arabs use exclusively their smaller breed of camels, +because they endure heat, thirst, and fatigue, infinitely better than +the others, which are well suited to hilly districts. The camels of the +Turkmans feed upon a kind of low bramble called in Turkish Kufan, which +grows in abundance upon the hills; in the evening they descend the +mountains and come trotting towards the tents, where each camel receives +a ball of paste, made of barley meal and water, weighing about one +pound. The expense of feeding these useful animals is therefore reduced +to the cost of a handful of barley per day. The Turkmans do not milk +their camels, but use them exclusively as beasts of burthen. Through +[p.638] their means they carry on a very profitable trade with Aleppo. +They provide the town with firewood, which they cut in the mountains of +the Kurds, distant about four hours to the N.W. of Mohammed Aga’s tent; +the Kurds themselves who inhabit those mountains have no camels, and are +obliged to sell their wood and their labour in cutting it at a very +trifling price. Besides wood the Turkmans carry to town the produce of +their fields, together with sheep and lambs, wool, butter and cheese in +the spring, and a variety of home made carpets. They transport the +merchandize of the Frank merchants at Aleppo from Alexandretta to the +city. The profits arising from the trade with Aleppo are almost entirely +consumed by the demands of their families for cloth, coffee, sweetmeats, +and various articles of eastern luxury; they seldom take back any cash +to their tents. + +The manner of living of the Turkmans is luxurious for a nomade people. +Their tents are for the greater part clean, the floor in the men’s room +is furnished with a Divan or sophas, leaving only a space in the middle +where a large fire is continually kept up to cheer the company and to +make coffee, of which they consume a great quantity. Their coffee cups +are three times the size of those commonly used in the Levant, or as +large as an English coffee cup; whenever coffee is handed round, each +person’s cup is filled two or three times; when I was with them, I often +drank twenty or more cups in the course of the day. The servants roast +and pound the coffee immediately before it is drank. They pound it in +large wooden mortars, and handle the pestle with so much address, that +if two or three are pounding together they keep time, and made a kind of +music which seemed to be very pleasing to their masters. + +The Turkmans taste flesh only upon extraordinary occasions, such as a +marriage or a circumcision, a nightly feast during the Ramazan, or the +arrival of strangers. Their usual fare is Burgoul; this dish is made of +wheat boiled, and afterwards dried in the sun in sufficient quantity for +a year’s consumption: the grain is re-boiled with butter or oil, and +affords a very palateable nourishment; it is a favourite dish all over +Syria. Besides Burgoul they eat rice, eggs, honey, dried fruit, and sour +milk, called Leben. They have none but goats milk. Their bread is a thin +unleavened cake, which the women bake immediately before dinner upon a +hot iron plate, in less than a minute. Breakfast is served at eight +o’clock in the morning, the principal meal takes place immediately after +sunset. The Turkmans, are great coxcombs at table, in comparison with +other Levantines; instead of simply using his fingers, the Turkman +twists his thin bread very adroitly into a sort of spoon, which he +swallows, together with the morsel which he has taken out of the dish +with it. I remember sitting with a dozen of them round a bason of sour +milk, which we dispatched in a few minutes without any person, except +myself, having in the least soiled his fingers. + +The Turkman women do not hide themselves, even before strangers, but the +girls seldom enter the men’s room, although they are permitted freely to +talk with their father’s guests. I was much struck with the elegance of +their shapes and the regularity of their features. Their complexion is +as fair as that of European women; as they advance in age the sun browns +them a little. As to their morals, chastity becomes a necessary virtue +where [p.639] even a kiss, is punished with death by the father or +brother of the unhappy offender. I could mention several instances of +the extreme severity of the Turkmans upon this subject; but one may +suffice. Three brothers taking a ride end passing through an insulated +valley, met their sister receiving the innocent caresses of her lover. +By a common impulse they all three discharged their fire-arms upon her, +and left their fallen victim upon the ground, while the lover escaped +unhurt; my host Mohammed Ali, upon being informed of the murder, sent +his servant to bring the body to his tent, in order to prevent the +jackals from devouring it: the women were undressing and washing the +body to commit it to the grave, when a slight breathing convinced them +that the vital spark was not yet extinguished; in short the girl +recovered. She was no sooner out of immediate danger, than one of Ali’s +sons repaired to the tent of his friends, the three brothers, who sat +sullen and silent round the fire, grieving over the loss of their +sister. The young man entered, and saluted them, and said, “I come to +ask you, in the name of my father, for the body of your sister; my +family wishes to bury her.” He had no sooner finished than the brothers +rose, crying: “if she was dead you would not have asked for her, you +would have taken the body without our permission.” Then seizing their +arms, they were hurrying out of the tent, in search of the still living +victim; but Mohammed Ali’s son opposed the authority of his father and +his own reputation of courage to their brutal intentions; he swore that +he would kill the first who should leave the tent, told them that they +had already sufficiently revenged the received injury, and that if their +sister was not dead it was the visible protection of the prophet that +had saved her: and thus, he at last persuaded them to grant his request. +The girl was nursed for three months in Mohammed Ali’s family, and +married after her complete recovery to the young man who had been the +cause of her misfortune. Notwithstanding such severity the young +Turkmans boast of their intrigues, and delight in all the dangers of +secret courtship; and I have been assured, upon indisputable authority, +that there are few men among them who have not enjoyed the favours of +their mistresses before the consumnnation of their nuptials. If the +woman happens to become a mother, she destroys her illegitimate +offspring as the only means of saving her own life and that of the +father. + +The Turkman ladies dress in the common style of Syrian women; their +bonnet is adorned with strings of Venetian zequins, or other gold +pieces. The dress of the men is that of the Turks of Anatolia. The +horsemen wear wide riding pantaloons, or Sherwalls, of cloth; their +head-dress consists of a red cap round which they twist a turban of +cotton or silk stuff; the wealthy wear turbans of flowered stuffs, or +even Persian shawls. Twenty years ago the national head-dress was a tall +and narrow cap of white wool, in the shape of a sugar-loaf, since that +time the Ryhanlu have left off wearing it, but I remember to have seen a +headdress of this kind during my stay with the Turkmans near Tarsus. The +Turkman women are very laborious; besides the care of housekeeping, they +work the tent coverings of goats hair, and the woollen carpets, which +are inferior only to those of Persian manufacture. Their looms are of +primitive simplicity; they do not make use of the shuttle, but pass the +woof with their hands. They seem to have made great progress in the art +of dyeing; their colours [p.640] are beauitful. Indigo and cochineal, +which they purchase at Aleppo, give them their blue, and red dyes, but +the ingredients of all the others, especially of a brilliant green, are +herbs which they gather in the mountains of Armenia; the dyeing process +is kept by them as a national secret. The wool of their carpets, is of +the ordinary kind; the carpets are about seven feet long and three +broad, and sell from fifteen to one hundred piastres a piece. While the +females are employed in these labours the men pass their whole time in +indolence; except at sunset, when they feed their horses and camels, +they lounge about the whole day, without any useful employment, and +without even refreshing their leisure by some trifling occupation. To +smoke their pipes and drink coffee is to them the most agreeable +pastime; they frequently visit each other, and collecting round the +fire-place, they keep very late hours. I was told that there are some +men amongst them, who play the tamboura, a sort of guitar, but I never +heard any of them perform. If the young men would condescend to assist +in agriculture, the wealth of the families would rapidly increase, and +the whole of the plains of Antioch might in time be cultivated: at +present, as far as I could observe, there are few families growing rich; +most of them spend their whole income. + +A Turkman never leaves his tent to take a ride in the neighbourhood +without being armed with his gun, pistols, and sabre. I was astonished +to see that they do not take the smallest care of their fire arms: a +great number of them were shewn to me, to know whether they were of +English manufacture; I found them covered with rust, and they complained +of their often missing fire. They have no gunsmiths amongst them; nor +any artizans at all, except some farriers, and a few makers of bridles +and of horse accoutrements[.] + +There are no lawyers or Ulemas among the Ryhanlu. Some families of +consequence carry with them a Faqui or travelling Imam, to teach their +children to read and to pray, and who in case of need performs likewise +the duties of a menial servant, much like the young German baron’s +governor. These Faqui are for the greater part natives of Albostan, +educated there in mosques: they follow the Turkmans to participate in +the pious alms which the Koran prescribes. They are generally ignorant, +even of the Turkish law: they are often consulted however by the chiefs, +and their sentence is generally confirmed by the chief whenever there is +no precedent or customary law in point to the contrary. + +I did not see any books amongst the Turkmans, and I am certain that out +of fifty hardly one knows how to read or write. Even few of them know +the text of their prayers (which are throughout the Mohammedan countries +in the sacred language, the Arabic), and therefore perform the +prescribed prostrations silently and without the usual ejaculations. The +married people, men as well as women, are tolerably exact in the +performance of their devotions, but the young men never trouble +themselves about them. + +I did not stay long enough among the Turkmans to be able to judge +correctly of their character, especially as I was ignorant of their +language. I saw enough, however, to convince me that they possess most +of the vices of nomade nations, without their good qualities. The +Turkmans are, like the Arabs and Kurds, a people of robbers, that is to +say, [p.641] every thing which they can lay hold of in the open country +is their lawful prize, provided it does not belong to their acknowledged +friends. The Arabs make amends in some measure for their robberies by +the hospitality and liberality with which they receive friends and +strangers. In this respect I soon found that I had been led to form a +very erroneous opinion of the Turkman character. I was introduced at +Aleppo to Mohammed Ali Aga, a man of considerable influence amongst the +Ryhanlu, as a physician who was travelling in search of herbs, and I +succeeded in supporting my assumed character during near a fortnight’s +stay under his tent. Before my departure from Aleppo, I made him a +present of coffee and sweetmeats, to the amount of sixty piastres, and I +promised him another present, when he should have brought me back in +safety to Aleppo. Notwithstanding these precautions, my reception in his +tent was rather cool, and I soon found that I was among men who had no +other idea than that of getting as much out of me as they could. They +were not under the least restraint, but calculated in my presence how +much my visit was worth to them, as I sufficiently understood, from +their animated tone and gestures, added to the few Turkish words, which +I learnt. To spare my dinner my host took me out a visiting almost every +day, just before the dinner hour; and that he might know how far it +would be prudent to incur expence on my account, he permitted one of his +friends to search my pockets, and was cruelly disappointed when he found +that my purse did not contain more than four or five piastres. My horse, +for the maintenance of which I had agreed with my host, was fed with +straw, until I told them that I should take care of it myself, when they +were obliged to deliver its daily portion of barley into my own hands. +Such was the liberality which I experienced in return for the medical +advice and medicines which they received without hesitation from me upon +demanding them. Their minds seemed intent only upon money, except among +the lovers there was no other subject of conversation, and instead of +the Arab virtues, of honour, frankness, and hospitality, there appeared +to be no other motive of action among them than the pursuit of gain. The +person of a Frank may be safe among them, but his baggage will be +exposed to close search, and whatever strikes the fancy of a powerful +man, will be asked of him in such a manner, that it is adviseable to +give up the object at once. I had fortunately hidden my compass in my +girdle, but a thermometer which they found in my pocket, attracted +general notice; if I had explained to them the use I meant to make of +it, it would have confirmed the suspicion already hinted to me by one of +them, that I intended to poison their springs. I pretended that the +thermometer was a surgical instrument, which being put into the blood of +an open wound served to shew whether the wound was dangerous or not. It +is not more from the behaviour of the Turkmans towards myself, that I +formed my opinion of their character, than from their conduct towards +each other. They are constantly upon their guard against robbers and +thieves of their own tribe; they cheat each other in the most trifling +affairs, and like most of the Aleppo merchants, make use of the most +awful oaths and imprecations to conceal their falsehood. If they have +one good quality it is their tolerance in religious matters, which +proves, on the other hand, how little they care about them. + +[p.642] The men marry at fourteen or fifteen, the girls at thirteen. +Excepting Hayder Aga, and some of his brothers, there are very few who +have more than one wife. They celebrate their marriage feasts with great +pomp. The young men play upon those occasions at a running game much +resembling the “jeu de barre,” known on the continent of Europe. Their +music then consists in drums and trumpets, only, for the Turkmans, are +not so fond of music as the Aleppines and the Arabs, nor did I ever meet +among them with any of the story-tellers, who are so frequent amongst +the Arabs of the desert. Whenever a son reaches the marriageable age, +his father gives him, even before his marriage, a couple of camels and a +horse to defray, by the profits of trade, his private expenses. At the +death of the father, his property is divided amongst the family +according to the Turkish law. The Ryhanlu bury their dead in the burying +places which are found scattered among the ruins of deserted villages. + +My observations were confined to the Ryhanlu. But they will probably in +great measure apply to all the large Turkman tribes which inhabit the +western parts of Asia Minor, and concerning which I obtained a few +particulars. + +In the level country between Badjazze and Adena lives a tribe which is +tributary to the governors of these two places. They are called Jerid, +and are more numerous than the Ryhanlu; they likewise leave their plains +towards the approach of summer, and winter in the Armenian mountains, in +the neighbourhood of the Ryhanlu. Like the latter they have one head, +and several minor chiefs, and they are divided into six tribes: viz. +Jerid (chief Shahen Beg), Tegir (chief Oglu Kiaya), Karegialar (chief +Rustam Beg), Bozdagan (chief Kerem Oglu), Aoutshar (chief Hassan Beg), +Leck (chief Agri Bayouk). The Lecks speak, besides the Turkish, a +language of their own, which has no resemblance either to the Arabic, +Turkish, Persian or Kurdine; “it sounds like the whistling of birds,” +said the Turkman from whom I obtained this information, and the same +remark was confirmed by others. The name of the Leck, renders the +supposition probable that they are descendants of the Lazi, a people +inhabiting the coast of the Black sea, and who in the time of the great +Justinian opposed his forces with some success. Chardin mentions having +met descendants of the Lazi near Trebizond, whom he describes as a rude +sea-faring people, with a peculiar language. + +The Pehluvanlu are the most numerous tribe of the whole nation of +Turkmans. They are governed by a chief, (Mahmoud Beg), who is tributary +to Tshapan Oglu. A part of them have for a long period been cultivators, +others are shepherds. They inhabit the country from Bosurk to near +Constantinople, and pass the summer months at one day’s journey distance +from the Ryhanlu. They are in possession of a very profitable transport +trade, and their camels form almost exclusively the caravans of Smyrna +and of the interior of Anatolia. They drive their sheep for sale as far +as Constantinople. + +The Rishwans are more numerous than the Ryhanlu, but their tribe is not +held in esteem among the Turkmans. They were formerly tributary to +Rishwan Oglu, governor of Besna, which lies at one day’s journey from +Aintab; and they used then to winter in the neighbourhood [p.643] of +Djeboul, on the borders of a small salt lake, five hours to the S. E. of +Aleppo. They are at present dependent on Tshapan Oglu, and winter in the +plains near Haimani in Anatolia; they pass their summer months in the +neighbourhood of the Ryhanlu. Their principal tribes are Deleyanli +(chief Ali Beg Oglu), Omar Anli (chief Omar Beg), Mandolli (Omar Aga), +Gelikanli (Hassan Beg Mor Oglu). The Rishwans are noted, even among +robbers, for their want of faith. + + +The great tribes of the Turkmans are often at war with each other, as +well as with the Kurds, with whom they are in contact in many places. +These wars seldom cause the death of more than three or four +individuals, after which peace is concluded. In a late war between the +Ryhanlu and the Kurds, which lasted five or six months, and brought on +several battles, the whole list of deaths was only six Kurds and four +Turkmans. In the mountains, the Turkmans are accompanied in their +military expeditions by foot soldiers, armed with muskets; these are men +of the tribe who cannot afford to keep a horse. Neither the lance, nor +the bow is used among them. Some tribes of Kurds, on the contrary, have +never abandoned the use of the bow. + +The Tar, or blood-revenge, is observed among the Turkman nations, as +well among themselves, as with respect to foreigners. They have a +particular species of Tar which I have never heard of among the Arabs. +It attaches to their goods; the following incident will best explain it: +a caravan of Turkman camels laden with wood was seized last winter, just +before the gates of Aleppo, by a detachment of Karashukly (a mixt tribe +of Turkmans and Arabs, who inhabit the banks of the Euphrates, in the +vicinity of Bir). One of the Turkmans was wounded, the loads were thrown +down, and fifty camels driven away, worth about five hundred piastres +apiece. The Turkmans immediately dispatched an old Arab woman as +ambassadress to their enemies, to treat for the restoration of their +camels, and she succeeded in recovering them at the rate of one hundred +and sixty piastres apiece, or eight thousand piastres, for the whole. +“Thus,” I was told by a Turkman chief, “the Tar between us will not be +for the whole sum of twenty-five thousand piastres, the real value of +the camels, but only for the sum of eight thousand piastres, for which +we shall, on the first opportunity take our revenge.” + +There are no Sherif families, or families claiming a descent from the +prophet, amongst the Ryhanlu. But family pride is not unknown among +them. Descendants from ancient and renowned chiefs claim, though poor, +some deference from wealthy upstarts. In one of their late battles with +the Kurds, a young man of noble extraction, but poor, and without +authority, was crying out in the heat of action: “Comrades, let us +attack them on the left flank.” Hayder Aga, who heard it, exclaimed: +“Who are you? hold your tongue.” After the victory the young man, was +seen thoughtful and melancholy in the midst of the rejoicings of his +brethren; Hayder Aga, as proud a man as ever sat upon a throne, to whom +it was reported, sent for the young man, and when he entered the tent +rose, and kissed his beard, begging [p.644] him to forget whatever lie +might have said in the heat of action, when he was not always master of +himself. + +Their ideas of decency appear singular, when compared with our own. A +Turkman will talk before his wife, daughter, or sister upon subjects +which are banished from our discourse; at the same time that he would be +much offended if any friend should in the presence of his females speak +in raptures or poetical terms of the charms of a beloved mistress. + +Remains of Antiquity. + +One of the principal motives of my visit to the Turkmans was my desire +to visit some ruins near their encampments, particularly those of Deir +Samaan, which at Aleppo I had heard compared to the temples at Baalbec. +I therefore made it a condition with my Turkman host, that he should +take me to Deir Samaan as well as to several other ruins whose names I +had collected from different Aleppines. The day after my arrival under +his tent, he set out with me towards the Deir, and we reached it after a +ride of four hours over the rocky hills which encircle the mountain of +St. Simon, called Djebel Samaan, or Sheikh Barekat. The Deir Samaan +consists of the ruins of a church, monastery, or episcopal palace, built +upon the top of an insulated hill, bearing from the top of the mountain +of St. Simon, N. 20 E., about eight miles distant. It is now inhabited +by several families of Kurds, who have their black goat hair tents +pitched in the middle of the ruins. They received us with much +hospitality; a sheep was immediately killed, and all the delicacies of +the season were served up to us. After dinner and coffee, Tshay[FN#1] +was served round, which the Aleppines and all Syrians esteem as one of +the greatest dainties: it is a heating drink, made of ginger, cloves, +rosewater, sugar and similar ingredients, boiled together to a thick +syrup. Mursa Aga, the chief, a handsome young man, then took up his +Tamboura or guitar, and the rest of the evening passed in music and +singing. + +The whole summit of the hill, which is six hundred paces in length and +one hundred and seventy in breadth, was once covered with stately +buildings. A thick wall of square hewn stones, is traceable all round. +The principal ruins consist of two separate buildings, a palace, and a +church, or monastery, which were separated from each other by a court- +yard one hundred and ten paces in length. The palace, or perhaps the +high priest’s habitation, is not remarkable either for its size or +elegance. I could not enter it because it was occupied by the Harem of +Mursa Aga. A colonnade led from the palace to the church gate; the +broken fragments only of the columns remain. Of the church most of the +side walls are still standing, ornamented with pillars and arches worked +in the walls; it is divided into two circular apartments [p.645] of +which the inner may have been the sanctuary. On the eastern side of the +church is a dark vaulted room, which receives the daylight only from the +door, and which appears to have been a sepulchre. A number of niches (if +I recollect right, nine), not perpendicular like the Egyptian sepulchral +niches, but horizontal, have been built around the wall. Into this +chamber opens a subterraneous passage, which is said by the Kurds, to +continue a long way under ground, in the direction of Antakia. I could +not persuade any body to enter it with me. Adjacent to this sepulchre is +another vaulted, open hall, which has been changed by its present +proprietors into stables, and an apartment for receiving strangers in +the heat of summer. The softness of the calcareous stone from the +adjacent hills, with which the buildings are constructed, has caused all +the ornaments of the arches and columns and even the shafts themselves +to decay; enough remains however, of their clumsy and overcharged +ornaments, to shew that the edifices are of an advanced period of the +Greek empire. The columns are very small in proportion to the arches +which they support, and I did not see any above eighteen or twenty feet +high. The perishable nature of the stone has not left a single +inscription visible, if there ever were any, with the exception of some +names of Frenchmen from Aleppo, who visited the place eighty years ago. +The sign of the cross is visible in several places. If these buildings +were constructed in pious commemoration of the devout sufferings of St. +Simon Stylites, who passed thirty-five years of his life upon a column, +they are probably of the sixth century. St. Simon died towards the end +of the fifth century, and in the seventh century Syria was conquered and +converted to Islamism by the successors of Mohammed. The structures are +certainly not of the date of the Crusades. On the eastern side of the +building are the remains of an aqueduct, the continuation of which is +again met with on the opposite hill. The Kurdine inhabitants of these +ruins collect at present the rain water in cisterns. + +Descending from the top of the hill on the western side, the remains of +a broad paved causeway lead to an arch, which stands about ten minutes +walk from the castle, and faces the ruins of a city, built at the foot +of the hill, of which a number of buildings are still extant. These +ruins, called Bokatur, are uninhabited, their circumference may be +estimated at about one mile and a half. Amongst the many private houses +a palace may be distinguished, surrounded by a low portico, at which +terminates the causeway leading from the arch. At half an hour’s +distance to the S.W. of Bokatur, are ruins resembling the former in +extent and structure. I saw several houses of which the front was +supported by columns, of a smaller size than those of the palace at +Bokatur. This place is now called Immature, at three quarters of an hour +to the W. of it, are other similar ruins of a town called Filtire, which +I did not see. The two latter places are now inhabited by some poor +Kurdine families. The style of building which I observed in the houses +of these ruined cities approaches more to the European than the Asiatic +taste. The roofs are somewhat inclined, and the windows numerous, and +large, instead of being few and small, as in Turkish houses. The walls, +most of which are still remaining, are for the greatest part without +ornament, [p.646] from one foot to about one foot and a half thick, and +built of calcareous squared stones, like Deir Samaan. The pillars which +are still to be seen in some of the ruined buildings are none of them +more than fifteen feet high. Their capitals, like those of the columns +in the Deir Samaan, are rude and unfinished; if any order is discernible +it is a corrupted Corinthian. The neighbourbood of these towns, at least +for five miles round, presents nothing but an uneven plain, thickly +covered with barren rocks, which rise to the height of two or three feet +above the surface. A few herbs grow in the fissures of the rocks, which +are scarcely sufficient to keep from starving half a dozen horses, the +property of the present miserable inhabitants. There are several wells +of good water in the neighbourhood of the ruins. To the S.S.E. of the +Deir, at an hour and a half’s distance, stands a single pillar about +thirty-five feet high, the base and capital of which are like those of +the Deir. No inscriptions are visible. At a few yards from the column is +the entrance to a spacious subterraneous cavern. I passed this spot on +my way to the Deir, and purposed to examine the contents of the cave on +our return; I returned however by another route. + +We left our friendly Kurds on the following day at noon. At taking my +leave I told the chief that I should be happy to make him some +acknowledgments for the hospitality shewn to me, whenever he should +visit Aleppo. He excused himself for not having been able to treat us +according to his wishes, and begged me to send him from Aleppo a few +strings for his guitar; which I gladly promised. These Kurds have been +for some time past at war with the Janissaries at Aleppo, which prevents +them from going there. + +On our road back to Mohammed Ali’s tents, through Bokatur and Immature, +we met halfway a poor gypsy, or as they are called here, Kurpadh; these +Kurpadh are spread over the whole of Anatolia and Syria. + +The Kurds have spread themselves over some parts of the plain which the +Afrin waters, as well as some of the neighbouring mountains. They live +in tents and in villages, are stationary, and are all occupied in +agriculture and the rearing of cattle. They form four tribes, of which +the Shum, who live in the plain, are the most considerable. The Kurds +seem to be of a more lively disposition than the Turkmans; the Aleppines +say that their word is less to be depended upon than that of the +Turkmans. My hosts at Deir Samaan asked me many questions relative to +European politics. I found the opinion prevalent among them which +Buonaparte has taken such pains to impress upon the winds of the +continental nations, that Great Britain is and ought to be merely a +maritime power. This belief, however, proves very advantageous to +English travellers in these countries. A Frenchman will every where be +taken for a spy, as long as the French invasion of Egypt and Syria is in +the memory of man, but it seems never to enter into the suspicions of +these people that the English can have any wish to possess the countries +of the Levant. I was astonished to find that all the Kurds spoke Arabic +fluently, besides the Turkish and their own language, which latter is a +corrupted mixture of Persian, Armenian, and Turkish. On the other hand, +I only met three or four Turkmans who knew how to express themselves +[p.647] in Arabic, though both nations are alike in almost continual +intercourse with Arab peasants and Aleppines. + +Besides the ruins just described, there are many others dispersed over +the Turkman territories; which, to judge from the prevailing +architecture, are of the same date as those already mentioned. Tisin, +Sulfa, Kalaa el [B]ent, Jub Abiad, and Mayshat, all of them at two or +three hours distance from the tent of Mohammed Ali, are heaps of ruined +buildings, with a few remains of houses. Kalaa el Bent and Jub Abiad +contain each of them a square tower about sixty feet high. They have +only one small projecting window near the top; the roof is flat. +Tradition says that Kalaa el Bent or in Turkish Kislar Kalassi, (the +castle of girls), was formerly a convent; probably of nuns. At Mayshat, +a Turkman encampment on the top of a hill, at the foot of which is a +large deep well, with a solid wall, I was shewn a subterraneous chamber, +about twenty feet long and fifteen in breadth, hewn out of the rock, at +the entrance to which are two columns; there are two excavations in the +bottom of it, like the sepulchral niches which I saw in the Deir Samaan. +I have been told that near Telekberoun, a village situated at the foot +of the hills which encircle the plain of Khalaka, there are remains of +an ancient causeway elevated two or three feet from the ground, about +fifteen feet broad, running in the direction from Aleppo to Antioch; it +may be traced for the length of a quarter of an hour. In the plain of +the Afrin, about three miles from Mursal Oglu’s residence, and half an +hour from the Afrin, stands an insulated hillock in the plain with the +ruins of a Saracen castle, called Daoud Pasha; four miles to the N.E. of +it is situated another similar hillock, with ruins of a castle, called +Tshyie. The sight of these numerous ruins fills the minds of the +Turkmans and Kurds with ideas of hidden treasures, and they relate a +variety of traditionary tales of Moggrebyn Sheikhs, who have been once +on the point of getting out the treasure, when they have been +interrupted by the shrieks of a woman, &c. &c. Having provided myself at +Aleppo with a small hammer to break off spesimens of rocks, the Turkmans +could not be pursuaded that this instrument was not for the purpose of +searching for gold. Several Turkmans pressed me to do them the favour of +working for a day in their behalf. I endeavoured to persuade them that +the hammer was to assist me in procuring medicinal herbs. + +[FN#1] Tshay is the Chinese word for tea; and our word is corrupted from +it. The word Tshay is used all over Tartary and Turkey, where the dried +herb, which is brought over land from China, is also well known. In +Syria and Egypt, where the word is better known than the herb, real tea +is generally distinguished by the name of Tshay Hindy (tea of India). +Ed. + +APPENDIX. No. II. + +On the Political Division of Syria, and the recent Changes in the +Government of Aleppo. + +THE political division of Syria has not undergone any changes, since the +time of Volney. + +The Pashaliks are five in number. To the pashalik of Aleppo belongs the +government of Aintab, Badjazze, Alexandretta, and Antakia. Damascus +comprehends Hebron, Jerusalem, Nablous, Bostra, Hums, and Hama. The +Pashalik of Tripoli extends along the seacoast from Djebail to Latikia; +that of Seide or Akka, from Djebail nearly to Jaffa, including the +mountains inhabited by the Druses. The Pasha of Gaza governs in Jaffa +and Gaza, and in the adjacent plains. The present Pasha of Damascus is +at the same time Pasha of Tripoli, and therefore in possession of the +greater half of Syria. The Pashalik of Gaza is at present annexed to +that of Akka. + +Such is the nominal division of Syria. But the power of the Porte in +this country has been so much upon the decline, particularly since the +time of Djezzar Pasha of Akka, that a number of petty independent chiefs +have sprung up, who defy their sovereign. Badjazze, Alexandretta, and +Antakia have each an independent Aga. Aintab, to the north of Aleppo, +Edlip and Shogre, on the way from Aleppo to Latikia, have their own +chiefs, and it was but last year that the Pasha of Damascus succeeded in +subduing Berber, a formidable rebel, who had fixed his seat at Tripoli, +and had maintained himself there for the last six years. The Pashas +themselves follow the same practice; it is true that neither the Pasha +of Damascus nor that of Akka has yet dared openly to erect the standard +of rebellion; they enjoy all the benefits of the protection of the +supreme government, but depend much more upon their own strength, than +on the caprice of the Sultan, or on their intrigues in the seraglio for +the continuance of their power. The policy of the Porte is to flatter +and load with honours those whom she cannot ruin, and to wait for some +lucky accident by which she may regain her power; but, above all, to +avoid a formal rupture, which would only serve to expose her own +weakness and to familiarize the Pashas and their subjects with the ideas +of rebellion. The Pashas of Damascus and of Akka continue to be dutiful +subjects of the Grand Signior in appearance; and they even send +considerable sums of money to Constantinople, to ensure the yearly +renewal of their offices. (The Pashaliks all over the Turkish dominions +are given for the term of one year only, and at the beginning of the +Mohammedan year, the Pashas receive [p.649] their confirmation or +dismissal) The Agas of Aintab, Antakia, Alexandretta, Edlip, and Shogre, +pay also for the renewal of their offices. There are a few chiefs who +have completely thrown off the mask of subjection; Kutshuk Ali, the Lord +of Badjazze openly declares his contempt of all orders from the Porte, +plunders and insults the Sultan’s officers, as well as all strangers +passing through his mountains, and with a force of less than two hundred +men, and a territory confined to the half ruined town of Badjazze, in +the gulf of Alexandretta, and a few miles of the surrounding mountains, +his father and himself have for the last thirty years defied all the +attempts of the neighbouring Pashas to subdue them. + +The inhabitants of Aleppo have been for several years past divided into +two parties; the Sherifs (the real or pretended descendants of the +Prophet), and the Janissaries. The former distinguish themselves by +twisting a green turban round a small red cap, the latter wear high +Barbary caps, with a turban of shawl, or white muslin, and a Khandjar, +or long crooked knife in their girdles. There are few Turks in the city +who have been able to keep aloof from both parties. + + +The Sherifs first showed their strength about forty years ago, during a +tumult excited by their chiefs in consequence of a supposed insult +received by Mr. Clarke, the then British Consul. Aleppo was governed by +them in a disorderly manner for several years without a Pasha, until the +Bey of Alexandretta, being appointed to the Pashalik, surprised the town +and ordered all the chief Sherifs to be strangled[.] The Pasha however, +found his authority greatly limited by the influence which Tshelebi +Effendi, an independent Aleppine grandee, had gained over his +countrymen. The immense property of Tshelebi’s family added to his +personal qualities, rendered his influence and power so great that +during twenty years he obliged several Pashas who would not yield to his +counsels and designs to quit the town. He never would accept of the +repeated offers made by the Porte to raise him to the Pashalik. His +interests were in some measure supported by the corps of Janissaries; +who in Aleppo, as in other Turkish towns, constitute the regular +military force of the Porte; but until that period their chiefs had been +without the smallest weight in the management of public affairs. One of +Tshelebi’s household officers, Ibrahim Beg, had meanwhile been promoted, +through the friends of his patron at Constantinople, to the first +dignities in the town. He was made Mutsellim (vice governor), and +Mohassel (chief custom house officer), and after the death of Tshelebi, +his power devolved upon Ibrahim. This was in 1786. + +Kussa Pasha, a man of probity and talents, was sent at that time as +Pasha to Aleppo. Being naturally jealous of Ibrahim Beg’s influence, he +endeavoured to get possession of his person, by ordering him to be +detained during a visit, made by Ibrahim to compliment the Pasha [p.650] +upon his arrival, for a debt which Ibrahim owed to a foreign merchant, +who had preferred his complaints to the Pasha’s tribunal. Ibrahim paid +the debt, and was no sooner out of the Pasha’s immediate reach, than he +engaged Ahmed Aga (one of the present Janissary chiefs), to enter with +him into a formal league against Kussa. The Janissaries, together with +Ibrahim’s party, attacked the Pasha’s troops; who after several days +fighting, were driven out of the town, and Ibrahim was soon afterwards +named Pasha of three tails, and for the first time Pasha of Aleppo. From +that period (1788-89) may be dated the power of the Janissaries. Ibrahim +had been the cause of their rising into consideration, but he soon found +that their party was acquiring too much strength; he therefore deemed it +necessary to countenance the Sherifs, and being a man of great talents, +he governed and plundered the town, by artfully opposing the two parties +to each other. In the year 1789, Ibrahim was nominated to the Pashalik +of Damascus. Sherif Pasha, a man of ordinary capacity, being sent to +Aleppo, the Janissaries soon usurped the powers of government. + +At the time of the French invasion of Egypt, the intrigues of Djezzar +Pasha of Akka drove Ibrahim from his post at Damascus, and he was +obliged to follow the Grand Vizir’s army into Egypt. When after the +campaign of Egypt the Grand Vizir with the remains of his army, was +approaching Aleppo upon his return to Constantinople, Ibrahim conceived +hopes of regaining his lost seat at Aleppo. Through the means of his son +Mohammed Beg, then Mobassei, the Janissaries were persuaded that the +Vizir had evil intentions against them, forged letters were produced to +that effect, and the whole body of Janissaries left the town before the +Vizir’s arrival in its neighbourhood. Their flight gave Ibrahim the +sought for opportunity to represent the fugitives to the Vizir as rebels +afraid to meet their master’s presence; they were shortly afterwards, by +a Firmahn from the Porte, formally proscribed as rebels, and the killing +of any of them who should enter the territory of Aleppo was declared +lawful. They had retired to Damascus, Latikia, Tripoli, and the +mountains of the Druses, and they spared no money to get the edict of +their exile rescinded. After a tedious bargain for the price of their +pardon, they succeeded at last in obtaining it, on condition of paying +one hundred thousand piastres into the Sultan’s treasury. Ibrahim Pasha, +who had in the meanwhile regained the Pashalik of Aleppo, was to receive +that sum from them, and he had so well played his game, that the +Janissaries still thought him their secret friend. The principal chiefs, +trusting to Ibrahim’s assurances, came to the town for the purpose of +paying down the money; they were a few days afterwards arrested, and it +was generally believed that Ibrahim would order them the same night to +be strangled. In Turkey however, there are always hopes as long as the +purse is not exhausted. The prisoners engaged Mohammed, Ibrahim’s +beloved son, to intercede in their favour; they paid him for that +service one thousand zequins in advance, and promised as much more: and +he effectually extorted from his father a promise not to kill any of +them. It is said that Ibrahim foretold his son that the time would come +when he would repent of his intercession. A short time afterwards +Ibrahim was nominated a second time to the Pashalik of Damascus, which +[p.651] became vacant by Djezzar’s death, in 1804. His prisoners were +obliged to follow him to Damascus; from whence they found means to open +a correspondence with the Emir Beshir, the chief of the Druses, and to +prevail upon him to use all his interest with Ibrahim to effect their +deliverance. Ibrahim stood at that time in need of the Emir’s +friendship; he had received orders from the Porte to seize upon +Djezzar’s treasures at Akka, and to effect this the co-operation of the +Druse chief was absolutely necessary. Upon the Emir’s reiterated +applications, the prisoners were at last liberated. + +When Ibrahim Pasha removed to Damascus, he procured the Pashalik of +Aleppo for his son Mohammed Pasha, a man who possesses in a high degree +the qualification so necessary in a delegate of the Porte, of +understanding how to plunder his subjects. The chief of a Sherif family, +Ibn Hassan Aga Khalas (who has since entered into the corps of the +Janissaries, and is now one of their principal men), was the first who +resolved to oppose open force to his measures; he engaged at first only +seven or eight other families to join him, and it was with this feeble +force that the rebellion broke out which put an end to the Pasha’s +government. The confederates began by knocking down the Pasha’s men in +the streets wherever they met them, Janissaries soon assembled from all +quarters to join Hassan’s party; and between two or three hundred Deli +Bashi or regular troops of the Pasha were massacred in the night in +their own habitations, to which the rebels found access from the +neighbouring terraces or flat roofs. Still the Pasha’s troops would have +subdued the insurgents had it not been for the desperate bravery of +Hassan Aga. After several months daily fighting in the streets, in which +the Pasha’s troops had thrown up entrenchments, want of food began to be +sensibly felt in the part of the city which his adherents occupied near +the Serai, a very spacious building now in ruins. He came therefore to +the resolution of abandoning the city. At Mohammed’s request a Tartar +was sent, from Constantinople, with orders enjoining him to march +against Berber, governor of Tripoli, who had been declared a rebel. +Having thus covered the disgrace of his defeat, he marched out of Aleppo +in the end of 1804, but instead of proceeding to Tripoli, he established +his head quarters at Sheikh Abou Beker, a monastery of Derwishes +situated upon an elevation only at one mile’s distance from Aleppo, +where he recruited his troops and prepared himself to besiege the town. +His affairs, however, took a more favourable turn upon the arrival of a +Kapidgi Bashi or officer of the Porte from Constantinople, who carried +with him the most positive orders that Mohammed Pasha should remain +governor of Aleppo, and be acknowledged as such by the inhabitants, The +Kapidgi’s persuasions, as well as the Sultan’s commands, which the +Janissaries did not dare openly to disobey, brought on a compromise, in +consequence of which the Pasha re-entered the city. So far he had gained +his point, but he soon found himself in his palace without friends or +influence; the Janissaries were heard to declare that every body who +should visit him would be looked upon as a spy; on Fridays alone, the +great people paid him their visit in a body. The place meanwhile was +governed by the chiefs of the Janissaries and the Sherifs. At length the +Pasha succeeded, by a secret nightly correspondence, to detach the +latter from the Janissaries, who were gaining the ascendancy. The +Sherifs are the natural supporters [p.652] of government in this +country; most of the villages round Aleppo were then in their +possession, they command the landed interests, all the Aleppo grandees +of ancient families, and all the Ulemas and Effendis belong to their +body, and the generality of them have received some education, while out +of one hundred Janissaries, there are scarcely five who know how to read +or to write their own names. The civil war now broke out afresh, and +Mohammed had again the worst of it. After remaining three months in the +town, he returned to his former encampment at Sheikh Abou Beker, from +whence he assisted his party in the town who had taken possession of the +castle and several mosques. This warfare lasted nearly two years without +any considerable losses on either side. The Sherifs were driven out of +the mosques, but defended themselves in the castle. + +Generally, the people of Aleppo, Janissaries as well as Sherifs, are a +cowardly race. The former never ventured to meet the Pasha’s troops on +the outside of their walls, the latter did not once sally forth from the +castle, but contented themselves with firing into the town, and +principally against Bankousa, a quarter exclusively inhabited by +Janissaries. The Pasha on his side would have ordered his Arnaouts to +take the town by assault, had not his own party been jealous of his +military power, and apprehensive of the fury of an assaulting army, for +which reason they constantly endeavoured to prevent any vigorous attack, +promising that they would alone bring the enemy to terms. After nearly +two years fighting, during which time a considerable part of the town +was laid in ruins, the Pasha with the Sherifs were on the point of +succeeding, and compelling the Janissaries to surrender. The chiefs of +the Janissaries had applied to the European Consuls for their mediation +between them and the Pasha, the conditions of their surrender were +already drawn up, and in a few days more their power in Aleppo would +probably have been for ever annihilated by a treacherous infraction of +the capitulation, when, by a fortunate mistake, a Tartar, sent from +Constantinople to Mohammed, entered the town, instead of taking his +packet to Sheikh Abou Beker; the Janissaries opened the dispatches, and +found them to contain a Firmahn, by which Mohammed Pasha was recalled +from his Pashalik of Aleppo. This put an end to the war; Mohammed +dismissed the greater part of his troops and retired: the Janissaries +came to a compromise with the Sherifs in the castle, and have since that +time been absolute masters of the city. + +I cannot omit mentioning that during the whole of the civil war, the +persons and property of the Franks were rigidly respected. It sometimes +happened that parties of Sherifs and Janissaries skirmishing in the +Bazars, left off firing by common consent, when a Frank was seen +passing, and that the firing from the Minarets ceased, when Franks +passed over their flat roofs from one house to another. The Janissaries +have this virtue in the eyes of the Franks, that they are not in the +smallest degree fanatical; the character of a Sherif is quite the +contrary, and whenever religious disputes happen, they are always +excited and supported by some greenhead. + +Since the removal of Mohammed Pasha the Porte has continued to nominate +his successors; but the name of Pasha of Aleppo is now nothing more than +a vain title. His first successor was Alla eddin Pasha, a near relation +of Sultan Selim: then Waledin Pasha, Othman [p.653] Pasha Darukly, +Ibrahim Pasha, a third time, and the present governor Seruri Mohammed +Pasha. Except the last, who is now in the Grand Vizir’s camp near +Constantinople they have all resided at Aleppo, but they occupied the +Serai more like state prisoners than governors. They never were able to +carry the most trifling orders into effect, without feeing in some way +or other the chiefs of the Ja[n]issaries to grant their consent. + +The corps of Janissaries, or the Odjak of Aleppo, was formerly divided, +as in other Turkish towns, into companies or Ortas, but since the time +of their getting into power, they have ceased to submit to any regular +discipline: they form a disorderly body of from three to four thousand +men, and daily increase their strength and number by recruits from the +Sherifs. Those who possess the greatest riches, and whose family and +friends are the most numerous, are looked upon as their chiefs, though +they are unable to exercise any kind of discipline. Of these chiefs +there are at present six principal ones, who have succeeded in sharing +the most lucrative branches of the revenue, and what seems almost +incredible, they have for the last six years preserved harmony amongst +themselves; Hadji Ibrahim Ibn Herbely is at this moment the richest and +most potent of them all. + +The legal forms of Government have not been changed, and the Janissaries +outwardly profess to be the dutiful subjects of the Porte. The civil +administration is nominally in the hands of the Mutsellim, who is named +by the Pasha and confirmed by the Porte. the Kadhi presides in the court +of justice, and the Mohassel or chief custom house officer is [a]llowed +to perform his functions in the name of his master, but the Mutsellim +dares not enforce any orders from the Porte nor the Kadhi decide any law +suit of importance, without being previously sure of the consent of some +of the chief Janissaries. The revenue which the grand Signior receives +at this moment from Aleppo is limited to the Miri, or general landtax, +which the Janissaries themselves pay, the Kharatsh or tribute of the +Christians and Jews, and the income of the custom house, which is now +rented at the yearly rate of eighty thousand piastres. Besides these +there are several civil appointments in the town, which are sold every +year at Constantinople to the highest bidder: the Janissaries are in the +possession of the most lucrative of them, and remit regularly to the +Porte the purchase money. The outward decorum which the Janissaries have +never ceased to observe towards the Porte is owing to their fear of +offending public opinion, so as to endanger their own security. The +Porte, on the other hand, has not the means of subduing these rebels, +established as their power now is, without calling forth all her +resources and ordering an army to march against them, from +Constantinople. The expense of such an enterprize would hardly be +counterbalanced by the profits of its success; for the Janissaries, +pushed to extremities, would leave the town and find a secure retreat +for themselves and their treasures in the mountains of the Druses: both +parties therefore endeavour to avoid an open rupture; it is well known +that the chief Janissaries send considerable presents to Constantinople +to appease their master’s anger, and provided the latter draws supplies +for his pressing wants, no matter how or from whence, the insults +offered to his supreme authority are easily overlooked. + +The Janissaries chiefly exercise their power with a view to the filling +of their purses. [p.654] Every inhabitant of Aleppo, whether Turk or +Christian, provided he be not himself a Janissary, is obliged to have a +protector among them to whom he applies in case of need, to arrange his +litigations, to enforce payment from his creditors, and to protect him +from the vexations and exactions of other Janissaries. Each protector +receives from his client a sum proportionate to the circumstances of the +client’s affairs. It varies from twenty to two thousand piastres a year, +besides which, whenever the protector terminates an important business +to the client’s wishes, he expects some extraordinary reward. If two +protectors happen to be opposed to each other on account of their +clients, the more powerful of the two sometimes carries the point, or if +they are equal in influence, they endeavour to settle the business by +compromise, in such a way as to give to justice only half its due. Those +Janissaries, who have the greatest number of clients are of course the +richest, and command the greatest influence. But these are not the only +means which the Janissaries employ to extort money. They monopolize the +trade of most of the articles of consumption, (which have risen in +consequence, to nearly double the price which they bore six years ago), +as well as of several of the manufactures of Aleppo; upon others they +levy heavy taxes; in short their power is despotic and oppressive; yet +they have hitherto abstained from making, like the Pashas, avanies upon +individuals by open force, and it is for that reason that the greater +part of the Aleppines do not wish for the return of a Pasha. Though the +Janissaries extort from the public, by direct and indirect means, more +than the Pashas ever did by their avanies, each individual discharges +the burthen imposed upon him more readily, because he is confident that +it insures the remainder of his fortune; in the Pasha’s time, living was +cheaper, and regular taxes not oppressive; but the Pasha would upon the +most frivolous pretexts order a man of property to be thrown into prison +and demand the sacrifice of one fourth of his fortune to grant him his +deliverance. Notwithstanding the immense income of the chief +Janissaries, they live poorly, without indulging themselves in the usual +luxuries of Turks-women and horses. Their gains are hoarded in gold +coin, and it is easy to calculate, such is the publicity with which all +sort of business is conducted, that the yearly income of several of them +cannot amount to less than thirty or forty thousand pounds sterling. + +It is necessary to have lived for some time among the Turks, and to have +experienced the mildness and peacefulness of their character, and the +sobriety and regularity of their habits, to conceive it possible that +the inhabitants of a town like Aleppo, should continue to live for years +without any legal master, or administration of justice, protected only +by a miserable guard of police, and yet that the town should be a safe +and quiet residence. No disorders, or nightly tumults occur; and +instances of murder and robbery are extremely rare. If serious quarrels +sometimes happen, it is chiefly among the young Janissaries heated with +brandy and amorous passion, who after sunset fight their rivals at the +door of some prostitute. This precarious security is however enjoyed +only within the walls of the city; the whole neighbourhood of Aleppo is +infested by obscure tribes of Arab and Kurdine robbers, who through the +negligence of the Janissaries, acquire every day more insolence and more +confidence in the [p.655] success of their enterprises. Caravans of +forty or fifty camels have in the course of last winter been several +times attacked and plundered at five hundred yards from the city gate, +not a week passes without somebody being ill-treated and stripped in the +gardens near the town; and the robbers have even sometimes taken their +night’s rest in one of the suburbs of the city, and there sold their +cheaply acquired booty. In the time of Ibrahim Pasha, the neighbourhood +of Aleppo to the distance of four or five hours, was kept in perfect +security from all hostile inroads of the Arabs, by the Pasha’s cavalry +guard of Deli Bashi. But the Janissaries are very averse from exposing +themselves to danger; there is moreover no head among them to command, +no common purse to pay the necessary expences, nor any individual to +whose hands the public money might be trusted. + +[p.656] APPENDIX. No. III. The Hadj Route from Damascus to Mekka. + +IN later times the Hadj has been accustomed to leave Damascus on the +15th Shauwal. On the 26th or 27th it leaves Mezerib, and meets the new +moon at Remtha or Fedhein. + + +The Hadj route from Damascus to Mekka has changed three different times; +at first it passed on the eastern side of Djebel Haouran; the fear of +the Arabs made the Pashas prefer afterwards the route through the Ledja +and Boszra; about eighty years ago the present caravan route was +established. + +1st. day. The Emir el Hadj leaves the town about mid-day, and remains +the night at Kubbet el Hadj el Azeli [Arabic], an ancient mosque at a +quarter of an hour from Bab Ullah or the southern gate of Damascus. Near +the Kubbe lies the village of Kadem [Arabic]. + +2. At four hours is the village of Kessoue [Arabic], with a well +provided Bazar. One hour Khan Denoun [Arabic], situated on the river +Aawadj [Arabic], which comes from Hasbeia and empties itself into the +Ghouta of Damascus. The Khan is in ruins. At a quarter of an hour to the +S.E. from it lies the village of Khiara [Arabic]. + +3. Four hours from Denoun is the village Ghebaib [Arabic]; it has a +small Khan to the left of the Hadj route, to the right of it is a Birket +or reservoir of water, which is supplied by the river Shak-heb [Arabic], +whose source, Ain Shak-heb, with a village called Shak-heb, lies to the +N.W. of Ghebaib. In that source the barbers of Damascus collect leeches +[Arabic], The Shak-heb loses itself in the plain of the Haouran, after +having watered the gardens and Dhourra fields of Ghebaib. Three hours +farther the village Didy [Arabic]; one hour farther the ruins of a town +and castle called Es-szanamein [Arabic], where there are two towers +built of black stone, still remaining. The Fellahs have a few houses +there. An hour and a half farther a hill with a small Birket at its +foot, called El Fekia [Arabic], containing a source which loses itself +in the eastern plain. The Hadj passes the night sometimes here, and +sometimes at Szannamein. + +4. At four hours from Szannamein is a hill called the hill of Dilly +[Arabic], with a ruined village at the top. At its foot flows a river +whose source is at Tel Serraia [Arabic], a hill two hours W. of Dilly, +likewise with a ruined village. The river works a mill near Dilly. In +winter and spring time the district of Dilly is a deep bog; at four +hours farther is a village [p.657] called Shemskein [Arabic], of +considerable size, and in a prosperous state. Three hours farther is +Tafs [Arabic], a village, ruined by the Wahabis in June 1810. One hour +farther is El Mezareib [Arabic], with a castle of middling size, and the +principal place in the Haouran next to Boszra. + +5. At one hour from Mezareib is the Wady el Medan [Arabic], which comes +from the Djebel Haouran. In winter time the Hadjis were often +embarrassed by it. Djezzar Pasha ordered a bridge to be built over it. +The ground is a fine gravel; even in summer time, when the Wady is dry, +water is found every where underground by digging to the depth of two or +three ells. At three hours is the village El Remtha [Arabic], inhabited +by Fellahs, who have about ten cisterns of rain-water, and a small +Birket in the neighbourhood of the village. Most of them live in caverns +underground, which they arrange into habitations; the caverns are in a +white rock. The Sheikh of Remtha is generally a Santon, that dignity +being in the family of Ezzabi [Arabic], who possesses there a mosque of +the same name. On account of the sanctity of his family, the Pasha does +not take any Miri from the Sheikh Ezzabi. The Hadjis sometimes sleep at +Remtha, at other times they go as far as Fedhein [Arabic], also called +Mefrak [Arabic], a castle four hours from Remtha, where the Pasha keeps +a small garrison, under the orders of an Aga, or Odabashi. The Arabs of +the Belka are in the habit of depositing in the castle of Fedhein their +superfluous provisions of wheat and barley, which they retake the next +year, or sell to the Hadj, after having paid to the Aga a certain +retribution. From Fedhein runs a Wady E. which turns, after one day’s +journey towards the S. and is then called Wady Botun. The Djebel Heish, +which continues its southerly course to the W. of the Hadj route, +changes its name in the latitude of Fedhein into that of Djebel Belka +[Arabic]. To the east of Fedhein the Djebel Haouran terminates, not far +to the North of Boszra. At one day’s journey from where the mountain +finishes lies the village of Szalkhat [Arabic]. From Fedhein to the +south-east the plain is uncultivated, and without habitations. + +6. The castle of Zerka [Arabic] is at one day’s journey from Fedhein. +The Hadj rests here one day, during which the Hadjis amuse themselves +with hunting the wild boars which are found in great numbers on the +reedy banks of Wady Zerka. The castle is built in a low Wady which forms +in winter-time the bed of a river of considerable size, called Naher +Ezzerka [Arabic], whose waters collect to the south of Djebel Haouran. +In summer time the Wady to the E. of the castle has no water in it, but +to the west, where there are some sources, the river is never completely +dried up. It then enters the Djebel Belka and empties itself into the +Sheriat el Kebir. The Pasha of Damascus has an Aga in the castle, who is +always an Arab of the tribe of Ehteim [Arabic], part of whom live in +tents round the castle and sow the ground. They have plenty of grapes, +and sow Dhourra and wheat. + +7. One day’s journey is Kalaat el Belka [Arabic]. The name of Kalaat, or +castle, is given on the Hadj route, and over the greater part of the +desert, to any building walled in, and covered, and having, like a Khan, +a large court-yard in its enclosure. The walls are sometimes of stone, +but more commonly of earth, though even the latter are sufficient to +withstand an [p.658] attack of Arabs. The castle of Belka has a large +Birket of rain-water. Its commander or Odabashi is always chosen from +among the Janissaries of Damascus. It serves the Arabs of the Djebel +Belka as a depot for their provisions. To the west of the castle the +mountain of Belka terminates. The Arabs of Belka live in tents round the +castle, and are Felahein or cultivators of the ground. + +8. One day’s journey from the latter is the Kalaat el Katrane [Arabic], +whose Odabashi is likewise a Janissary from Damascus. It has a Birket of +rainwater. At one day’s journey to the N.W. of it is the Kalaat Kerek +[Arabic], from whence the Arabs of Kerek bring wheat and barley for sale +to the Odabashi of Katrane, who sells it again to advantage to the +Hadjis. + +9. One day’s journey Kalaat el Hassa, [Arabic], with a fine source, +whose water is drawn up by means of a large wheel. The castle is built +in the middle of a Wady running from E. to W.; in the winter a river +runs through the Wady, which is dry in summer; but at a quarter of an +hour W. from the castle, there are several springs of good water, which +are never dry. They collect into a river which empties itself into the +Jordan or Sheriat el Kebir at two days’ journey from El Hassa. The +Fellahs who live round the castle in the Wady, in several small +villages, sow Dhourra and barley, those that live towards the western +mountains, sow for their masters the El Hadjaia Arabs [Arabic], and +receive from them half of the harvest in return. To the S.E. of El +Hassa, on the northern side of the Wady, about five hours distance from +El Hassa, is a high hill, called Shehak [Arabic], which is visible from +Masn and Akaba. At the same distance due east from El Hassa is a +watering place called Meshash el Rekban [Arabic], where water is found +on digging to a small depth. To the S. of Wady el Hassa, in the Djebel +Shera, is the town of Tafyle. South of it the Shera spreads into four or +five branches, and embraces the whole country as far as Djebel Tor. At +two days journey from Wady el Hassa, is a road leading along the summit +of the mountain towards Gaza; this road is called Akaba, or more +frequently Eddhohel [Arabic]; it is much frequented by the people of +Tafyle and the Arabs Toueiha. + +10. Half a day’s journey is Kalaat Aeneze [Arabic], with a Birket of +rain-water. + +11. Another half day’s journey Kalaat Maan [Arabic], where the Hadjis +remain for two days. Maan has a large well of water. The town consists +of about one hundred houses on both sides the Hadj route, which divides +the town; the eastern part is called Shamie, the western Maan. The +inhabitants cultivate figs, pomegranates, and plums in large quantities, +but do not sow their fields. They purchase wheat from Kerek, which their +women grind; and at the passage of the Hadj they sell the flour as well +as their fruits to the pilgrims; which, is their means of subsistence. +They purchase articles of dress and luxury from Ghaza and El Khalil. + +12. A long day’s journey to the castle of Akaba Esshamie [Arabic], or +the Syrian Akaba, so called in opposition to the Akaba el Masri or the +Egyptian Akaba which is on the eastern branch of the Red-sea, at one +day’s journey from the Akaba Esshamie; here is a Birket of rain-water. +The Hadj road, as far as Akaba, is a complete desert on both sides, yet +not incapable [p.659] of culture. The mountain chain continues at about +ten hours to the west of the Hadj route. Akaba is in the hands of the +Arabs el Howeytat [Arabic], who are in communication with Cairo. From +the foot of the castle walls the Hadj descends a deep chasm, and it +takes half an hour to reach the plain below. The pilgrims fear that +passage, and repeat this prayer before they descend; “May the Almighty +God be merciful to them who descend into the belly of the dragon” +[Arabic]. The mountain consists of a red gray sand stone, which is used +at Damascus for whetstones. There are many places where the stones are +full of small holes. When the pilgrims reach the bottom of the descent +they fire off their pistols for the sake of the echo. The mountain sinks +gradually, and is lost at a great distance in the plain, which is very +sandy.[FN#1] + +13. Medawara [Arabic], one day’s journey, a castle with a Birket of +rainwater. + +14. Dzat Hadj [Arabic], a castle surrounded by a great number of wells, +which are easily found on digging two or three feet. It has likewise a +Birket of rainwater. At four hours from it is a descent, rendered +difficult by the deep sand. It is called El Araie [Arabic], or Halat +Ammar [Arabic]; it was here that in the time of Daher el Omar, Pasha of +Acre, and of Osman, Pasha of Damascus, the Arabs Beni Szakher plundered +the Hadj in the year 1170 of the Hedjra (1757), the only example of such +an event in the last century. From Halat Ammar the plain is no longer +sandy, but covered with a white earth as far as Tebouk. The vicinity of +Dzat Hadj is covered with palm trees: but the trees being male, they +bear no fruit, and remain very low. The inhabitants sell the wood to the +Hadj. + +15. One day from Dzat Hadj is Tebouk [Arabic], a castle, with a village +of Felahein, of the tribe of Arabs Hammeide. There is a copious source +of water, and gardens of fig and pomegranate trees, where Badintshaus +(egg plant), onions, and ether vegetables are also cultivated. The +Fellahs collect in the neighbouring desert the herb Beiteran (a species +of milfoil), which the Hadjis buy up, and bring to Damascus. The castle +is also surrounded by shrubs with long spines called Mehdab, which the +Fellahs sell to the Hadj as food for the camels, and likewise two other +herbs called Nassi and Muassal. They thus earn their livelihood. If the +Hadj arrives in the neighbourhood of Tebouk at night, the bones of dead +camels indicate the way to the castle. The Hadj rests here one day: and +on its return is met by the Djerde, or provision caravan, headed by the +Pasha of Tripoli, by which all the Syrian pilgrims, receive +refreshments, sent by their families. + +16. Akhdhar [Arabic], a castle with a Birket of rainwater, upon a small +ascent. Two or three hundred years ago, the Hadj went to the E. of the +present route, and it is even now called the eastern road. + +17. El Moadham [Arabic], a very long day’s march. + +[p.660]18. Dar el Hamra [Arabic]. + +19. Medayn Szaleh [Arabic], with a number of habitations hewn in the +rock; and many sculptured figures of men and animals. + +20. El Olla [Arabic], a village of about two hundred and fifty houses, +with a rivulet and agreeable gardens of fruit trees. Its inhabitants are +all of barbaresque origin. + +21. Biar el Ghanam [Arabic], with many wells of fresh water. + +22. Byr Zemerrod [Arabic], a large well. + +23. Byr Djedeyde [Arabic]. + +24. Hedye, where the Hadj remains two days. It is a Ghadeir, or low Wady +coming from Khaibar, which is four hours distant. The people of the +caravan often go thither to buy fresh provisions. + +25. El Fahletein [Arabic]; apes, and what the Arabs call tigers, are met +with here. An ancient building of black stones is near it; it is called +Stabel Antar. + +26. Biar Naszeif [Arabic], a number of wells in the sandy ground, which +are every year newly digged up, because the wind covers them immediately +after the caravan’s departure. El Fahletein is the last castle. At all +these stations small castles have been built, close to the basons in +which the rain water is collected. If there are any wells, they are +within the walls of the castle, and the water is drawn up by camels in +order to fill the basons, on the arrival of the Hadj. The pilgrims, in +order to lighten their loads, generally leave in every castle a small +parcel of provisions, which they take on their return. These castles are +garrisoned by four or five men of Damascus, who remain shut up there the +whole year until they are relieved by the passage of the caravan. It +often happens that only one man is left alive of the number; the others +having been either killed by the Arabs, or having died from the effects +of the confinement, for the fear of the Arabs seldom permits them to +issue out of the castle. Each of these castles has a Meghaffer [Arabic], +or protector, among the neighbouring Arab tribes, to whom the Pasha pays +a certain tribute. The office of these guardians, who are usually +inhabitants of the Meidhan or suburb of Damascus, is very lucrative, on +account of the presents and small contributions paid to them by the +pilgrims. One of them has been known to remain for twenty-three years at +Fahletein. Ibn Balousa, a man of the Meidhan of Damascus, is looked upon +as the chief of all these castles, and resides generally at El Hassa. + +27. El Medine, where the Hadj remains three days. There are two +different roads leading from Medine to Mekke, the eastern and western. +The principal men of the Arab tribes of both routes meet the Pasha at +Medine, to learn which road the Hadj intends to take, and to treat with +him about the passage duty. On the eastern route [Arabic], the first +station from Medine is: + +28. (1) El Khona [Arabic], a deep Wady with rain water. + +29. (2) El Dereybe [Arabic], a village with walls. + +30. (3) Sefyne [Arabic], a village. + +31. (4) El Kobab [Arabic], an assemblage of wells. + +[p.661] + +32. (5) Biar el Hedjar [Arabic], wells. + + +33. (6) Set Zebeyde [Arabic], a ruined village with a large Birket. + +34. (7) El Makhrouka [Arabic], wells. + +35. (8) Wady Leimoun [Arabic], a village with a rivulet. + +36 (9) Byr el Baghle [Arabic], wells. + +37.(10) Mekke [Arabic]. + +The western road, or as it is likewise called, the great road [Arabic] +is the more usual, but Djezzar always used to take the other. The first +station from Medine on this route is: + +28. (1) Biar Aly [Arabic], a village with wells and gardens. + +29. (2) El Shohada [Arabic], a spot in the plain, without any water. + +30. (3) Djedeyde [Arabic], and at a short distance before it the well +called Byr Dzat el Aalem [Arabic]. Djedeyde is a considerable village on +the sides of a rivulet. The Sheikh of the western route lives here +[Arabic]. The year before the last Hadj caravan effected its passage, +Abdullah Pasha of Damascus was attacked in a Wady near Djedeyde by the +armed population of that village, who were Wahabi. They routed his army, +and obliged him to pay forty thousand dollars for his passage. From +Djedeyde the route leads through the villages of Esszafra [Arabic], and +El Hamra [Arabic], to the second station, which is: + +31. (4) The famous Beder [Arabic], where Mohammed laid the foundation of +his power by his victory over his combined enemies. It contains upwards +of five hundred houses, with a rivulet. The Egyptian pilgrim caravan +generally meets here the Syrian. + +32. (5) El Kaa [Arabic], a spot in the desert without any water. From +thence a long march to + +33. (6) El Akdyd [Arabic], which is twenty-eight hours distant from +Beder. + +34. (7) Rabagh [Arabic], a village. Between Rabagh and Khalysz, the Red +sea is seen from the Hadj route. There are Wadys coming from the Red +sea, which in times of high flood are filled with the sea water; it +remains sometimes during the whole summer, at a distance of six and +seven hours from the sea. The water brings with it a large quantity of +fish. The camels and horses drink the water of these Wadys. + +35. (8) Khalysz [Arabic], a village with a rivulet. + +36. (9) El Szafan [Arabic], two wells. + +37.(10) Wady Fatme [Arabic], a rivulet, with a village and gardens. + +38. Mekke. + +[FN#1] To the southward of Kerek all the women on the Hadj route wear +the Egyptian face veil or Berkoa [Arabic], which is not a Syrian +fashion. + +[p.662] APPENDIX. No. IV. + +Description of the Route from Boszra in the Haouran, to the Djebel +Shammor. + +ON the western side of the Djebel Haouran, at a small distance from its +southern extremity, lies Boszra. On the eastern foot and declivity of +Djebel Haouran, are upwards of two hundred villages built of black stone +in ruins, at a quarter or half an hour’s distance from each other. The +country beyond them is completely level and is called El Hammad +[Arabic]. About five hours to the S. of the Djebel, lies the half ruined +town of Szalkhat [Arabic]; it has a large castle, with strong walls, +several cisterns and Birkets of rainwater. From that place begins the +Wady Serhhan [Arabic], which runs to the E.S.E. It is a low ground, with +sloping sides; at every three or four hours a well is met with in the +Wady, with a little grass round it, but even in winter there is no +running stream; though water is found in many places at a small depth +below the surface of the earth. The traveller frequently passes in that +Wady small hills (Tels), which consist of thin layers of salt (about six +inches thick), alternating with layers of earth of the same thickness. +The Arabs sell the salt in the villages of the Haouran. Following the +course of that Wady, which at length takes a more southerly direction, +you arrive, after ten or eleven days journey (with camels about eight +days), in the country called Djof [Arabic]. The Tels about Djof are +called Kara [Arabic]. The Djof is a collection of seven or eight +villages, built at a distance of ten minutes or a quarter of an hour +from each other, in an easterly line. The ground is pure sand. These +villages are called Souk (or markets), the principal of them are: Souk +Ain Um Salim [Arabic], Souk Eddourra [Arabic], Souk Esseideiin [Arabic], +Souk Douma [Arabic], Souk Mared [Arabic]. These villages are all built +alike: the houses are built round the inside of a large square mud wall, +which has but one entrance. This wall therefore serves as a common back +wall to all the houses, which amount in some of the Souks to one hundred +and twenty, in others from eighty to one hundred. The middle part of the +enclosed square is empty. The roofs of the houses are made of palm wood, +and their walls of bricks, called Leben, dried in the sun, which are +about two feet square, and one foot thick. When strangers arrive, their +camels remain in the middle of the Souk, and they themselves lodge at +the different houses. Round the Souk are gardens of palm trees, which +the inhabitants call Houta [Arabic]: in several of these are deep +[p.663] wells, the water from some of which is conducted by small canals +[Arabic] into the gardens of those, who not having any wells are obliged +to purchase water from their neighbours. She camels are employed to draw +the water out of the wells; this is done by tying a rope round the +camel, which walks away from the well till the bucket, which is fastened +to the other end of the rope, is drawn up, and empties its contents into +the canals. These she camels are called Sanie [Arabic]. Most of the +inhabitants of the Djof are either petty merchants or artificers; they +work in leather, wood, iron, and make boots, sword hilts, horse shoes, +lance heads, &c. which they sell to the Arabs, together with the produce +of their palm trees; in return they, take camels. They sow very little +wheat; the small extent of ground which they cultivate is worked with +the hand; for they have no ploughs. They eat very little bread, living +upon dates, butter, and flesh meat. Besides the game which they hunt in +the neighbourhood, they eat camels flesh almost daily, and they even +devour the ostriches and wild dogs, the former of which are sold to them +by the Arabs Sherarat. They preserve their dates in large earthen jars +for the use of the great Arab tribes which often pass here; of these the +Rowalla come almost every year: before the time of the Wahabi, the El +Hessene and Beni Szakher likewise visited the Djof. + +The Felahein of the Djof are called Karaune [Arabic], a name which in +the neighbourhood of Damascus is given to all Syrians or those who are +presumed to be of Syrian origin. Although Fellahs, the people of the +Djof intermarry with Arab girls, whence it happens that many Arabs of +Shammor and Serhan have settled here and become Fellahs; and they +continue notwithstanding, to be looked upon in their respective tribes +by the heads of families, as proper husbands for their daughters. The +workmen or artificers [Arabic], on the contrary, never can marry Arab +girls, nor even the daughters of the Fellahs, their immediate +neighbours; they intermarry exclusively amongst themselves, or amongst +the workmen who have settled in the Bedouin encampments. + +Every Souk has a Sheikh or chief; the name of the present grand Sheikh +is Ibn Deraa [Arabic]. It is about twenty years since they were +converted to the Wahabi creed. Their grand Sheikh collects the tribute +or Zika [Arabic], for Ibn Saoud, and lodges it in a particular house; +after taking from it the necessary expense for entertaining strangers, +or for provisions for Wahabi corps which pass by, he sends the remainder +to Saoud. The people of the Djof are all armed with firelocks; they have +no horses. + +At Souk Mared is an ancient tower of remarkable structure. Its height, I +was told, is greater than the Minaret near my lodgings at Damascus, +which I should compute at about forty-five feet. Its basis is square, it +rises in steps and ends in a point; I had already heard at Aleppo from +some travelling Turks, that there were in the desert, towards Deraye, +pyramids like those of Cairo; by which they probably meant the Souk +Mared. The door of the tower is about ten feet high and eight broad; but +it is half filled up. The Kasr gate of Salamia,[FN#2] which is of wood +with iron bars, has been transported here by the Arabs to serve as a +gate for the tower. [p.664] The inside is not paved. There are three +floors, and staircases leading from one to the other. There are very +small windows in the sides of the tower, which seem rather to have been +destined for loop holes for musquetty. The walls of the tower are built +of large square white stones, and are in good preservation. The two +floors one over the other are not vaulted. On the top of the tower a +watchman constantly resides, to give notice of the arrival of strangers. +To the E. and somewhat to the S. from Djof, three hours, begins the +plain called Eddhahi or Taous [Arabic], a sandy desert full of small +hills or Tels, from which it derives the name of [Arabic]. Although +there is no water in the plain, a tree is very abundant which the Arabs +call Ghada [Arabic], about eight feet high; the people of Djof burn it +as fire wood. Near the trees grows in spring a kind of grass, which in +summer soon dries up, it is called Nassy [Arabic], and resembles wheat. +Wild cows [Arabic] are found here. My man told me that they resemble in +every particular the domestic cow. The Arabs Sherarat kill them, eat +them, and make of the leather targets, which are much esteemed [Arabic]. +Of their horns the people of Djof make knife handles. Wild dogs, Derboun +[Arabic], of a black colour, are likewise met with here; the Arabs kill +and eat them. It is principally in the Dhahy that ostriches breed, and +great quantities of them are killed there. This desert is moreover +inhabited by a large lizard called Dhab [Arabic], of one foot and a half +in length with a tail of half a foot, exactly resembling in shape the +common lizard, but larger. The Arabs eat them in defiance of the laws of +their prophet; the scaly skin serves them instead of a goat skin to +preserve their butter in. These Arabs likewise eat all the eagles +[Arabic] and crows which they can kill. The plain of Eddhahi continues +for three days camel’s march (with a caravan it would take six days), +without any water, extending as far as the chain of mountains called +Djebel Shammor [Arabic] which runs in an easterly direction five or six +days journey. From where it ends to Deraye, the seat of Ibn Saoud, are +ten days more. The Djebel Shammor is inhabited by the Arabs Shammor, +many of whom have become Fellahs, and live in villages in these +mountains. They are true and faithful Wahabis. + +[FN#2] Salamia is a ruin eight or ten hours S.E. of Hamah. + + +[p.665] APPENDIX. No. V. + +A Route to the eastward of the Castle El Hassa. + +FROM Kalaat el Hassa, towards E.S.E. continues the already mentioned +Wady el Hassa. Passing the Tel Esshehak, two days journey from it, you +meet with a great number of Tels, in the midst of which there is a well +of good spring water called Byr Bair [Arabic]; near it is a tombstone, +said to be the burial place of the son of Sultan Hassan. From Bair +eastwards the Wady and its vicinity are called the district of Hudrush +[Arabic]; it is without water, with the exception of the rain water +which collects in the low grounds. The Hudrush extends for two days, as +far as the country called Ettebig [Arabic]. From the beginning of +Hudrush the Wady makes a bend to the N. and describing a half circle, +again returns in the Tebig to its original direction. To the N. from +Hudrush and Tebig the plain takes the name of Szauan [Arabic], (i.e. +flint) and extends for two days till it borders upon the Wady Serhhan. +The plain Szauan is covered so thickly with small black flints, that the +Arabs, whenever they are about to light a fire there, cover the ground +with earth, which they carry with them, in order to prevent the +splinters of the flint heated by the fire, from flying about and hurting +them. There is but one spring in the Szauan: it is about two hours from +Wady Serhhan, and at the same distance from Hudrush and Tebig, and is +called Byr Naam el aatta Allah [Arabic], in honour of a Christian +travelling merchant, who about sixty years ago lying upon the flint, +heard the noise of the water under his head, and thus discovered the +spring. On the western side of the Szauan, nearer to the Wady Serhhan +than to the Hudrush, is a castle called Kaszr Amera [Arabic], and at a +quarter of an hour from it, on the foot of a hill, the ruins of a +village. Between the Kaszr and the village is a low ground where the +rain water collects, and forms a small lake in winter half an hour in +length. Before the castle is a well more than thirty feet deep, walled +in by large stones, but without water. Over the well are four white +marble columns, which support a vaulted roof or Kubbe, such as are often +seen at wells in these countries. The castle is built of white square +stones, which seem not to have been cemented together. Its dimensions +are thirty-six or forty feet from W. to E. and twenty-five from S. to N. +The entrance door, which is only about three feet high, is on the S. +side, and leads into an apartment half the size of the whole building. +In the middle of the western wall of this apartment is another door, as +low as the former, leading to a second apartment of the [p.666] same +size as the former, except that one corner is partitioned off to form a +third chamber. Each of the two latter have a window in the western wall. +The roof of the apartments are vaulted below, and flat above. The walls +which divide the apartments are two yards in thickness; in the two first +rooms there is a stone pavement, in the small room the Arabs have taken +up the pavement to dig for treasures; but they found nothing underneath, +except small pieces of planks and some rusty iron. The ceiling of all +the three apartments is chalked over, and looks quite new. In the small +room it is painted all over with serpents, hares, gazelles, mares, and +birds; there are neither human figures nor trees amongst the paintings. +The colour of the paintings is red, green, and yellow, and they look as +bright and well preserved, as if they had been done a short time ago. +There are no kinds of niches, bas-reliefs, or inscriptions in the walls. + +From Hudrush branches out a Wady towards Wady Serhhan, called Chadef +[Arabic]. Four days beyond Tebig you arrive at a Byr called El Sheben or +Szefan [Arabic], situated upon a small ascent. According to my informant +the Byr is two hundred yards in depth. To the north of that well the +desert is called Beseita [Arabic]. For two days farther the earth is +covered to the depth of six inches with small black gray stones, looking +like flints. The plant Samah [Arabic] grows there, which is collected by +the people of Djof. From the end of the Beseita to the Djof is one day’s +journey farther, and the Beseita ends in the Dhahi. + +All the Arabs along this road from El Hassa, are Sherarat, the Aeneze do +not come this way. + +Between Tebig, Szauan, Hudrush, and to the S. of these places, are a +quantity of wild asses, which the Arabs Sherarat hunt, and eat +(secretly). Their skins and hoofs are sold to the wandering Christian +pedlars, and in the towns of Syria. Of the hoofs rings are made, which +the Fellahs of eastern Syria wear on the thumb, or tied with a thread +round the arm-pit, to prevent, or to heal rheumatic complaints. I may +here make a general remark that there is an infinity of names of places +in the desert. Every Tel, every declivity, or, elevation in a Wady, +every extent of plain ground, where a particular herb grows, has its +name, well known to the Arabs. The Khabera [Arabic], or places where the +rain-water collects, winter-time, are generally distinguished by the +name of some well known Sheikh who once pitched his tent near them; as +Khabera Ibn Ghebein [Arabic], the watering places of Ibn Ghebein. + +The side of a Wady where the Arab descends is called by him Hadhera +[Arabic], the opposite side, where he re-ascends Sende [Arabic]. + +A Ghadir [Arabic] is distinguished from a Wady, the two sides of the +latter are hills which rise above the surface of the adjacent plain; the +Ghadir on the contrary is only a hollow in the plain. The Wady is seen +from afar, the Ghadir only on arriving near the descent. + +[p.667]APPENDIX. No. VI. + +Description of the Desert from the Neighbourhood of Damascus towards the +Euphrates. + +From the Wady Serhhan northward and north-eastward, the whole desert is +called El Hammad [Arabic], till it reaches the neighbourhood of the +Euphrates, where the broad valley of the river is by the Arabs called +Oerak (Irak). That name therefore is not exclusively applied to the +Djezire or island between the Tigris and the Euphrates, but (in the +Bedouin acceptation of the word at least), to the fertile country also +between the desert and the river’s right bank. + +At the end of the Ghouta or Merdj of Damascus, begins the Djebel +Haouran,[FN#3] which takes a south direction; to the north runs the +Djebel Ruak (towards Tedmor). The intermediate plain, which is about a +day and a half in breadth, is called Ard Esseikal [Arabic], having +journied for two days in this plain, the mountains to the S. are no more +visible, and a waterless plain lies before the traveller, which +according to the camels strength may be crossed in seven, eight, or ten +days. Water is met with on the road, only in winter, when rainwater +collects in the low grounds, and Ghadirs. There are no hills or Wadys. +Small pipe heads, in the eastern fashion, and made of stone, are +frequently found in the plain. The Arabs say that an ancient tribe +called Beni Tamour [Arabic] fabricated them. At the end of the number of +days above-mentioned, a high insulated hill is met with, which is +visible all round to the distance of two days journey. The Arabs call it +[p.668] Djebel Laha [Arabic]. It consists of sandy earth: there are no +springs near it. From the Djebel Laha run two Wadys towards the +Euphrates, the one called Wady Haouran [Arabic], begins on the hill’s +western side; the other Wady Tebbel [Arabic], on its northern side. They +run in a parallel direction, till they unite in the vicinity of the +Euphrates. To the N.W. of the Laha, at one day’s march, is another Wady, +called Souan [Arabic], which takes the same direction with the other +two, and joins them, near their termination. In the middle of the Wady +Tebbel is spring water. To the E. of Laha, about three days from it, is +a low ground called Kaar [Arabic] (the general name given to such +places), which is four or five days in circuit. It extends towards the +Euphrates. The descent into it is two hundred or two hundred and fifty +yards. There are two watering places in it, at a good day’s march from +each other; Rahh [Arabic], with a number of springs, and Molassa +[Arabic]. There is always some verdure in the Kaar, and when the Aeneze +pass that way, the whole tribe encamps there. From Molass it is one +day’s journey to Gebesse, a poor village in a N.E. direction, from +thence to Hit one. Hit, or Ith, is a well known station and village on +the banks of the Euphrates. + +The Djebel Ruak and the Djebel Abiad (which comes from the west) are +united behind Tedmor with the Djebel Belaes [Arabic] which continues its +course in a northerly direction, (somewhat to the E.) for two days. +There is water in the Belaes but no villages. This mountain at the end +of two days changes its name to Djebel Bishr [Arabic], and terminates +after one day’s journey in the Zor [Arabic], which is the name of the +broad valley of the Euphrates, on its right bank, from Byr down to Aene +and Hit. There are sources in the Bishr, and ruins of villages. It +produces also a tree which is about eight feet high, and whose root has +so little hold, that the smallest effort will throw it down. + +London: Printed by W. Bulmer and W. Nicol, Cleveland-row, St. James’s. + +[FN#3] This northern part of the Djebel Haouran is called Es-Szaffa +[Arabic]. On the eastern side of it is a pass called Bab es-Szaffa, +where the mountain is entered by a deep clet in the perpendicular rock, +about two yards broad. The passage is about one hundred yards long, it +leads to a plain in the middle of the mountain, also called Szaffa, +which has no other known entrance, and is two days in circuit. This pass +and plain are famed among the Arabs, who often retire there, before the +troops of the Pasha of Damascus. There is no water in the Szaffa, except +the ponds formed by the winter-rains. The earth is fertile and is +occasionally sown by he Arabs when they remain there a sufficient time. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Travels in Syria and the Holy Land +by John Burckhardt + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS IN SYRIA AND THE HOLY LAND *** + +This file should be named 8884-8.txt or 8884-8.zip + +Produced by William Thierens + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we usually do not +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +We are now trying to release all our eBooks one year in advance +of the official release dates, leaving time for better editing. +Please be encouraged to tell us about any error or corrections, +even years after the official publication date. + +Please note neither this listing nor its contents are final til +midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement. +The official release date of all Project Gutenberg eBooks is at +Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month. A +preliminary version may often be posted for suggestion, comment +and editing by those who wish to do so. + +Most people start at our Web sites at: +https://gutenberg.org or +http://promo.net/pg + +These Web sites include award-winning information about Project +Gutenberg, including how to donate, how to help produce our new +eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter (free!). + + +Those of you who want to download any eBook before announcement +can get to them as follows, and just download by date. This is +also a good way to get them instantly upon announcement, as the +indexes our cataloguers produce obviously take a while after an +announcement goes out in the Project Gutenberg Newsletter. + +http://www.ibiblio.org/gutenberg/etext03 or +ftp://ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext03 + +Or /etext02, 01, 00, 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90 + +Just search by the first five letters of the filename you want, +as it appears in our Newsletters. + + +Information about Project Gutenberg (one page) + +We produce about two million dollars for each hour we work. The +time it takes us, a rather conservative estimate, is fifty hours +to get any eBook selected, entered, proofread, edited, copyright +searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc. Our +projected audience is one hundred million readers. If the value +per text is nominally estimated at one dollar then we produce $2 +million dollars per hour in 2002 as we release over 100 new text +files per month: 1240 more eBooks in 2001 for a total of 4000+ +We are already on our way to trying for 2000 more eBooks in 2002 +If they reach just 1-2% of the world's population then the total +will reach over half a trillion eBooks given away by year's end. + +The Goal of Project Gutenberg is to Give Away 1 Trillion eBooks! +This is ten thousand titles each to one hundred million readers, +which is only about 4% of the present number of computer users. + +Here is the briefest record of our progress (* means estimated): + +eBooks Year Month + + 1 1971 July + 10 1991 January + 100 1994 January + 1000 1997 August + 1500 1998 October + 2000 1999 December + 2500 2000 December + 3000 2001 November + 4000 2001 October/November + 6000 2002 December* + 9000 2003 November* +10000 2004 January* + + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation has been created +to secure a future for Project Gutenberg into the next millennium. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +As of February, 2002, contributions are being solicited from people +and organizations in: Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Connecticut, +Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, +Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, +Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New +Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, +Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South +Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West +Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. + +We have filed in all 50 states now, but these are the only ones +that have responded. + +As the requirements for other states are met, additions to this list +will be made and fund raising will begin in the additional states. +Please feel free to ask to check the status of your state. + +In answer to various questions we have received on this: + +We are constantly working on finishing the paperwork to legally +request donations in all 50 states. If your state is not listed and +you would like to know if we have added it since the list you have, +just ask. + +While we cannot solicit donations from people in states where we are +not yet registered, we know of no prohibition against accepting +donations from donors in these states who approach us with an offer to +donate. + +International donations are accepted, but we don't know ANYTHING about +how to make them tax-deductible, or even if they CAN be made +deductible, and don't have the staff to handle it even if there are +ways. + +Donations by check or money order may be sent to: + +Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +PMB 113 +1739 University Ave. +Oxford, MS 38655-4109 + +Contact us if you want to arrange for a wire transfer or payment +method other than by check or money order. + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation has been approved by +the US Internal Revenue Service as a 501(c)(3) organization with EIN +[Employee Identification Number] 64-622154. Donations are +tax-deductible to the maximum extent permitted by law. As fund-raising +requirements for other states are met, additions to this list will be +made and fund-raising will begin in the additional states. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +You can get up to date donation information online at: + +https://www.gutenberg.org/donation.html + + +*** + +If you can't reach Project Gutenberg, +you can always email directly to: + +Michael S. Hart <hart@pobox.com> + +Prof. Hart will answer or forward your message. + +We would prefer to send you information by email. + + +**The Legal Small Print** + + +(Three Pages) + +***START**THE SMALL PRINT!**FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS**START*** +Why is this "Small Print!" statement here? You know: lawyers. +They tell us you might sue us if there is something wrong with +your copy of this eBook, even if you got it for free from +someone other than us, and even if what's wrong is not our +fault. So, among other things, this "Small Print!" statement +disclaims most of our liability to you. It also tells you how +you may distribute copies of this eBook if you want to. + +*BEFORE!* YOU USE OR READ THIS EBOOK +By using or reading any part of this PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +eBook, you indicate that you understand, agree to and accept +this "Small Print!" statement. If you do not, you can receive +a refund of the money (if any) you paid for this eBook by +sending a request within 30 days of receiving it to the person +you got it from. If you received this eBook on a physical +medium (such as a disk), you must return it with your request. + +ABOUT PROJECT GUTENBERG-TM EBOOKS +This PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBook, like most PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBooks, +is a "public domain" work distributed by Professor Michael S. Hart +through the Project Gutenberg Association (the "Project"). +Among other things, this means that no one owns a United States copyright +on or for this work, so the Project (and you!) can copy and +distribute it in the United States without permission and +without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth +below, apply if you wish to copy and distribute this eBook +under the "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark. + +Please do not use the "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark to market +any commercial products without permission. + +To create these eBooks, the Project expends considerable +efforts to identify, transcribe and proofread public domain +works. Despite these efforts, the Project's eBooks and any +medium they may be on may contain "Defects". Among other +things, Defects may take the form of incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged +disk or other eBook medium, a computer virus, or computer +codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. + +LIMITED WARRANTY; DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES +But for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described below, +[1] Michael Hart and the Foundation (and any other party you may +receive this eBook from as a PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBook) disclaims +all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including +legal fees, and [2] YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE OR +UNDER STRICT LIABILITY, OR FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, +INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE +OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE +POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. + +If you discover a Defect in this eBook within 90 days of +receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) +you paid for it by sending an explanatory note within that +time to the person you received it from. If you received it +on a physical medium, you must return it with your note, and +such person may choose to alternatively give you a replacement +copy. If you received it electronically, such person may +choose to alternatively give you a second opportunity to +receive it electronically. + +THIS EBOOK IS OTHERWISE PROVIDED TO YOU "AS-IS". NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, ARE MADE TO YOU AS +TO THE EBOOK OR ANY MEDIUM IT MAY BE ON, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + +Some states do not allow disclaimers of implied warranties or +the exclusion or limitation of consequential damages, so the +above disclaimers and exclusions may not apply to you, and you +may have other legal rights. + +INDEMNITY +You will indemnify and hold Michael Hart, the Foundation, +and its trustees and agents, and any volunteers associated +with the production and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm +texts harmless, from all liability, cost and expense, including +legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the +following that you do or cause: [1] distribution of this eBook, +[2] alteration, modification, or addition to the eBook, +or [3] any Defect. + +DISTRIBUTION UNDER "PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm" +You may distribute copies of this eBook electronically, or by +disk, book or any other medium if you either delete this +"Small Print!" and all other references to Project Gutenberg, +or: + +[1] Only give exact copies of it. Among other things, this + requires that you do not remove, alter or modify the + eBook or this "small print!" statement. You may however, + if you wish, distribute this eBook in machine readable + binary, compressed, mark-up, or proprietary form, + including any form resulting from conversion by word + processing or hypertext software, but only so long as + *EITHER*: + + [*] The eBook, when displayed, is clearly readable, and + does *not* contain characters other than those + intended by the author of the work, although tilde + (~), asterisk (*) and underline (_) characters may + be used to convey punctuation intended by the + author, and additional characters may be used to + indicate hypertext links; OR + + [*] The eBook may be readily converted by the reader at + no expense into plain ASCII, EBCDIC or equivalent + form by the program that displays the eBook (as is + the case, for instance, with most word processors); + OR + + [*] You provide, or agree to also provide on request at + no additional cost, fee or expense, a copy of the + eBook in its original plain ASCII form (or in EBCDIC + or other equivalent proprietary form). + +[2] Honor the eBook refund and replacement provisions of this + "Small Print!" statement. + +[3] Pay a trademark license fee to the Foundation of 20% of the + gross profits you derive calculated using the method you + already use to calculate your applicable taxes. If you + don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are + payable to "Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation" + the 60 days following each date you prepare (or were + legally required to prepare) your annual (or equivalent + periodic) tax return. Please contact us beforehand to + let us know your plans and to work out the details. + +WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? +Project Gutenberg is dedicated to increasing the number of +public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed +in machine readable form. + +The Project gratefully accepts contributions of money, time, +public domain materials, or royalty free copyright licenses. +Money should be paid to the: +"Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +If you are interested in contributing scanning equipment or +software or other items, please contact Michael Hart at: +hart@pobox.com + +[Portions of this eBook's header and trailer may be reprinted only +when distributed free of all fees. Copyright (C) 2001, 2002 by +Michael S. Hart. Project Gutenberg is a TradeMark and may not be +used in any sales of Project Gutenberg eBooks or other materials be +they hardware or software or any other related product without +express permission.] + +*END THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS*Ver.02/11/02*END* + |